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You may copy it, + give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project + Gutenberg License <a href="#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this + eBook</a> or online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class="tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p></div><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">Title: Lectures on The Science of Language + +Author: Max Müller + +Release Date: June 17, 2010 [Ebook #32856] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LECTURES ON THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE*** +</pre></div> + </div> + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + + </div> + + <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Lectures on</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">The Science of Language</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Delivered At The</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Royal Institution of Great Britain</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">In</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">April, May, and June, 1861.</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style="font-size: 144%">By Max Müller, M. A.</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford; Correspondence Member of the Imperial Institute of France.</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">From the Second London Edition, Revised.</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">New York:</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">Charles Scribner, 124 Grand Street.</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">1862</p> + </div> + <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1> + <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"><li><a href="#toc1">Dedication</a></li><li><a href="#toc3">Preface.</a></li><li><a href="#toc5">Lecture I. The Science Of Language One Of The Physical +Sciences.</a></li><li><a href="#toc7">Lecture II. The Growth Of Language In Contradistinction To +The History Of Language.</a></li><li><a href="#toc9">Lecture III. The Empirical Stage.</a></li><li><a href="#toc11">Lecture IV. The Classificatory Stage.</a></li><li><a href="#toc13">Lecture V. Genealogical Classification Of Languages.</a></li><li><a href="#toc15">Lecture VI. Comparative Grammar.</a></li><li><a href="#toc17">Lecture VII. The Constituent Elements Of Language.</a></li><li><a href="#toc19">Lecture VIII. Morphological Classification.</a></li><li><a href="#toc21">Lecture IX. The Theoretical Stage, And The Origin Of +Language.</a></li><li><a href="#toc23">Appendix.</a></li><li><a href="#toc25">Index.</a></li><li><a href="#toc27">Footnotes</a></li></ul> + </div> + + </div> +<div class="tei tei-body" style="margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagev">[pg v]</span><a name="Pgv" id="Pgv" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a> +<a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Dedication</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Dedicated +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Members Of The University Of Oxford, +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Both Resident And Non-Resident, +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To Whom I Am Indebted +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +For Numerous Proofs Of Sympathy And Kindness +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +During The Last Twelve Years, +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Grateful Acknowledgment Of Their Generous Support +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On The +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +7th Of December, 1860. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pagevii">[pg vii]</span><a name="Pgvii" id="Pgvii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a> +<a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Preface.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +My Lectures on the Science of Language are here +printed as I had prepared them in manuscript for the +Royal Institution. When I came to deliver them, a +considerable portion of what I had written had to be +omitted; and, in now placing them before the public in +a more complete form, I have gladly complied with a +wish expressed by many of my hearers. As they are, +they only form a short abstract of several Courses +delivered from time to time in Oxford, and they do not +pretend to be more than an introduction to a science +far too comprehensive to be treated successfully in so +small a compass. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +My object, however, will have been attained, if I +should succeed in attracting the attention, not only +of the scholar, but of the philosopher, the historian, +and the theologian, to a science which concerns them +all, and which, though it professes to treat of words +only, teaches us that there is more in words than is +dreamt of in our philosophy. I quote from Bacon: +<span class="tei tei-q">“Men believe that their reason is lord over their +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="pageviii">[pg viii]</span><a name="Pgviii" id="Pgviii" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +words, but it happens, too, that words exercise a +reciprocal and reactionary power over our intellect. +Words, as a Tartar's bow, shoot back upon the understanding +of the wisest, and mightily entangle and pervert +the judgment.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +MAX MÜLLER. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oxford</span></span>, June 11, 1861. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page011">[pg 011]</span><a name="Pg011" id="Pg011" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a> +<a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Lecture I. The Science Of Language One Of The Physical +Sciences.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When I was asked some time ago to deliver a +course of lectures on Comparative Philology in this +Institution, I at once expressed my readiness to do so. +I had lived long enough in England to know that the +peculiar difficulties arising from my imperfect knowledge +of the language would be more than balanced by +the forbearance of an English audience, and I had +such perfect faith in my subject that I thought it might +be trusted even in the hands of a less skilful expositor. +I felt convinced that the researches into the history of +languages and into the nature of human speech which +have been carried on for the last fifty years in England, +France, and Germany, deserved a larger share +of public sympathy than they had hitherto received; +and it seemed to me, as far as I could judge, that +the discoveries in this newly-opened mine of scientific +inquiry were not inferior, whether in novelty or +importance, to the most brilliant discoveries of our +age. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was not till I began to write my lectures that I +became aware of the difficulties of the task I had +undertaken. The dimensions of the science of language +are so vast that it is impossible in a course of +nine lectures to give more than a very general survey +of it; and as one of the greatest charms of this science +consists in the minuteness of the analysis by which +each language, each dialect, each word, each grammatical +form is tested, I felt that it was almost impossible +to do full justice to my subject, or to place the achievements +of those who founded and fostered the science +of language in their true light. Another difficulty +arises from the dryness of many of the problems which +I shall have to discuss. Declensions and conjugations +cannot be made amusing, nor can I avail myself of +the advantages possessed by most lecturers, who enliven +their discussions by experiments and diagrams. +If, with all these difficulties and drawbacks, I do not +shrink from opening to-day this course of lectures on +mere words, on nouns and verbs and particles,—if I +venture to address an audience accustomed to listen, in +this place, to the wonderful tales of the natural historian, +the chemist, and geologist, and wont to see the +novel results of inductive reasoning invested by native +eloquence, with all the charms of poetry and romance,—it +is because, though mistrusting myself, I cannot +mistrust my subject. The study of words may be +tedious to the school-boy, as breaking of stones is to +the wayside laborer; but to the thoughtful eye of the +geologist these stones are full of interest;—he sees +miracles on the high-road, and reads chronicles in every +ditch. Language, too, has marvels of her own, which +she unveils to the inquiring glance of the patient +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name="Pg013" id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +student. There are chronicles below her surface; +there are sermons in every word. Language has +been called sacred ground, because it is the deposit +of thought. We cannot tell as yet what language is. +It may be a production of nature, a work of human +art, or a divine gift. But to whatever sphere it belongs, +it would seem to stand unsurpassed—nay, +unequalled in it—by anything else. If it be a production +of nature, it is her last and crowning production +which she reserved for man alone. If it be a +work of human art, it would seem to lift the human +artist almost to the level of a divine creator. If it be +the gift of God, it is God's greatest gift; for through +it God spake to man and man speaks to God in worship, +prayer, and meditation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Although the way which is before us may be long +and tedious, the point to which it tends would seem to +be full of interest; and I believe I may promise that +the view opened before our eyes from the summit of +our science, will fully repay the patient travellers, and +perhaps secure a free pardon to their venturous guide. +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Science of Language is a science of very modern +date. We cannot trace its lineage much beyond +the beginning of our century, and it is scarcely received +as yet on a footing of equality by the elder +branches of learning. Its very name is still unsettled, +and the various titles that have been given to it in +England, France, and Germany are so vague and varying +that they have led to the most confused ideas +among the public at large as to the real objects of this +new science. We hear it spoken of as Comparative +Philology, Scientific Etymology, Phonology, and Glossology. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +In France it has received the convenient, but +somewhat barbarous, name of <span lang="fr" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="fr"><span style="font-style: italic">Linguistique</span></span>. If we +must have a Greek title for our science, we might +derive it either from <span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style="font-style: italic">mythos</span></span>, +word, or from <span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style="font-style: italic">logos</span></span>, +speech. But the title of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Mythology</span></em> is already occupied, +and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Logology</span></span> would jar too much on classical +ears. We need not waste our time in criticising these +names, as none of them has as yet received that universal +sanction which belongs to the titles of other +modern sciences, such as Geology or Comparative +Anatomy; nor will there be much difficulty in christening +our young science after we have once ascertained +its birth, its parentage, and its character. I +myself prefer the simple designation of the Science +of Language, though in these days of high-sounding +titles, this plain name will hardly meet with general +acceptance. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From the name we now turn to the meaning of our +science. But before we enter upon a definition of its +subject-matter, and determine the method which ought +to be followed in our researches, it will be useful to cast +a glance at the history of the other sciences, among +which the science of language now, for the first time, +claims her place; and examine their origin, their +gradual progress, and definite settlement. The history +of a science is, as it were, its biography, and as +we buy experience cheapest in studying the lives of +others, we may, perhaps, guard our young science +from some of the follies and extravagances inherent +in youth by learning a lesson for which other +branches of human knowledge have had to pay more +dearly. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is a certain uniformity in the history of most +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg 015]</span><a name="Pg015" id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sciences. If we read such works as Whewell's History +of the Inductive Sciences or Humboldt's Cosmos, +we find that the origin, the progress, the causes +of failure and success have been the same for almost +every branch of human knowledge. There are three +marked periods or stages in the history of every one +of them, which we may call the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Empirical</span></em>, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Classificatory</span></em>, +and the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Theoretical</span></em>. However humiliating +it may sound, every one of our sciences, however +grand their present titles, can be traced back to the +most humble and homely occupations of half-savage +tribes. It was not the true, the good, and the beautiful +which spurred the early philosophers to deep +researches and bold discoveries. The foundation-stone +of the most glorious structures of human ingenuity +in ages to come was supplied by the pressing +wants of a patriarchal and semi-barbarous society. +The names of some of the most ancient departments +of human knowledge tell their own tale. Geometry, +which at present declares itself free from all sensuous +impressions, and treats of its points and lines and +planes as purely ideal conceptions, not to be confounded +with those coarse and imperfect representations +as they appear on paper to the human eye; +geometry, as its very name declares, began with +measuring a garden or a field. It is derived from +the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gē</span></em>, +land, ground, earth, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">metron</span></em>, measure. +Botany, the science of plants, was originally +the science of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">botanē</span></em>, which in Greek does not +mean a plant in general, but fodder, from +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">boskein</span></em>, to feed. +The science of plants would have been called Phytology, +from the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">phyton</span></em>, +a plant.<a id="noteref_1" name="noteref_1" href="#note_1"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a> The founders +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page016">[pg 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of Astronomy were not the poet or the philosopher, +but the sailor and the farmer. The early poet may +have admired <span class="tei tei-q">“the mazy dance of planets,”</span> and the +philosopher may have speculated on the heavenly harmonies; +but it was to the sailor alone that a knowledge +of the glittering guides of heaven became a +question of life and death. It was he who calculated +their risings and settings with the accuracy of a merchant +and the shrewdness of an adventurer; and the +names that were given to single stars or constellations +clearly show that they were invented by the ploughers +of the sea and of the land. The moon, for instance, +the golden hand on the dark dial of heaven, was +called by them the Measurer,—the measurer of time; +for time was measured by nights, and moons, and +winters, long before it was reckoned by days, and +suns, and years. Moon<a id="noteref_2" name="noteref_2" href="#note_2"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> is a very old word. It was +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">môna</span></em> in Anglo-Saxon, and was used there, not as a +feminine, but as a masculine; for the moon was a masculine +in all Teutonic languages, and it is only through +the influence of classical models that in English moon +has been changed into a feminine, and sun into a masculine. +It was a most unlucky assertion which Mr. Harris +made in his <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hermes</span></span>, that all nations ascribe to the +sun a masculine, and to the moon a feminine gender.<a id="noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href="#note_3"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a> +In Gothic moon is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mena</span></em>, which is a masculine. For +month we have in A.-S. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mónâdh</span></em>, in Gothic +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">menoth</span></em>, +both masculine. In Greek we find <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mēn</span></em>, a +masculine, for month, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mēnē</span></em>, +a feminine, for moon. In Latin +we have the derivative <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mensis</span></em>, month, and in +Sanskrit we find <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mâs</span></em> for moon, and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mâsa</span></em> for month, both +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg 017]</span><a name="Pg017" id="Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +masculine.<a id="noteref_4" name="noteref_4" href="#note_4"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a> Now this <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mâs</span></em> in Sanskrit is clearly derived +from a root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mâ</span></em>, to measure, to mete. In Sanskrit, I +measure is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mâ-mi</span></em>; thou measurest, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mâ-si</span></em>; he measures, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mâ-ti</span></em> (or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mimî-te</span></em>). An +instrument of measuring is called in Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mâ-tram</span></em>, +the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">metron</span></em>, our +metre. Now if the moon was originally called by the +farmer the measurer, the ruler of days, and weeks, and +seasons, the regulator of the tides, the lord of their +festivals, and the herald of their public assemblies, it +is but natural that he should have been conceived as a +man, and not as the love-sick maiden which our modern +sentimental poetry has put in his place. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was the sailor who, before intrusting his life and +goods to the winds and the waves of the ocean, watched +for the rising of those stars which he called the Sailing-stars +or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pleiades</span></span>, from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">plein</span></em>, to sail. +Navigation in the Greek waters was considered safe after the return of +the Pleiades; and it closed when they disappeared. +The Latin name for the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Pleiades</span></span> is +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Vergiliæ</span></em>, from +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">virga</span></em>, a sprout or twig. This name was given to +them by the Italian husbandman, because in Italy, +where they became visible about May, they marked +the return of summer.<a id="noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href="#note_5"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a> Another constellation, the +seven stars in the head of Taurus, received the name +of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hyades</span></span> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Pluviæ</span></em> +in Latin, because at the time +when they rose with the sun they were supposed to +announce rain. The astronomer retains these and +many other names; he still speaks of the pole of +heaven, of wandering and fixed stars,<a id="noteref_6" name="noteref_6" href="#note_6"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a> but he is apt +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to forget that these terms were not the result of scientific +observation and classification, but were borrowed +from the language of those who themselves were wanderers +on the sea or in the desert, and to whom the +fixed stars were in full reality what their name implies, +stars driven in and fixed, by which they might hold +fast on the deep, as by heavenly anchors. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But although historically we are justified in saying +that the first geometrician was a ploughman, the first +botanist a gardener, the first mineralogist a miner, it +may reasonably be objected that in this early stage a +science is hardly a science yet: that measuring a field +is not geometry, that growing cabbages is very far +from botany, and that a butcher has no claim to the +title of comparative anatomist. This is perfectly true, +yet it is but right that each science should be reminded +of these its more humble beginnings, and of the practical +requirements which it was originally intended to +answer. A science, as Bacon says, should be a rich +storehouse for the glory of God, and the relief of +man's estate. Now, although it may seem as if in +the present high state of our society students were +enabled to devote their time to the investigation of +the facts and laws of nature, or to the contemplation +of the mysteries of the world of thought, without any +side-glance at the practical result of their labors, no +science and no art have long prospered and flourished +among us, unless they were in some way subservient +to the practical interests of society. It is true that a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019" id="Pg019" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Lyell collects and arranges, a Faraday weighs and +analyzes, an Owen dissects and compares, a Herschel +observes and calculates, without any thought of the +immediate marketable results of their labors. But +there is a general interest which supports and enlivens +their researches, and that interest depends on the practical +advantages which society at large derives from +their scientific studies. Let it be known that the successive +strata of the geologist are a deception to the +miner, that the astronomical tables are useless to the +navigator, that chemistry is nothing but an expensive +amusement, of no use to the manufacturer and the farmer—and +astronomy, chemistry, and geology would +soon share the fate of alchemy and astrology. As long +as the Egyptian science excited the hopes of the invalid +by mysterious prescriptions (I may observe by the way +that the hieroglyphic signs of our modern prescriptions +have been traced back by Champollion to the real +hieroglyphics of Egypt<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" href="#note_7"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a>)—and as long as it instigated +the avarice of its patrons by the promise of the +discovery of gold, it enjoyed a liberal support at the +courts of princes, and under the roofs of monasteries. +Though alchemy did not lead to the discovery of gold, +it prepared the way to discoveries more valuable. The +same with astrology. Astrology was not such mere +imposition as it is generally supposed to have been. It +is counted as a science by so sound and sober a scholar +as Melancthon, and even Bacon allows it a place among +the sciences, though admitting that <span class="tei tei-q">“it had better intelligence +and confederacy with the imagination of man +than with his reason.”</span> In spite of the strong condemnation +which Luther pronounced against astrology, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page020">[pg 020]</span><a name="Pg020" id="Pg020" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +astrology continued to sway the destinies of Europe; +and a hundred years after Luther, the astrologer was the +counsellor of princes and generals, while the founder +of modern astronomy died in poverty and despair. In +our time the very rudiments of astrology are lost and +forgotten.<a id="noteref_8" name="noteref_8" href="#note_8"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a> Even real and useful arts, as soon as they +cease to be useful, die away, and their secrets are +sometimes lost beyond the hope of recovery. When +after the Reformation our churches and chapels were +divested of their artistic ornaments, in order to restore, +in outward appearance also, the simplicity and purity +of the Christian church, the colors of the painted windows +began to fade away, and have never regained +their former depth and harmony. The invention of +printing gave the death-blow to the art of ornamental +writing and of miniature-painting employed in the illumination +of manuscripts; and the best artists of the +present day despair of rivalling the minuteness, softness, +and brilliancy combined by the humble manufacturer +of the mediæval missal. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I speak somewhat feelingly on the necessity that +every science should answer some practical purpose, +because I am aware that the science of language has +but little to offer to the utilitarian spirit of our age. +It does not profess to help us in learning languages +more expeditiously, nor does it hold out any hope of +ever realizing the dream of one universal language. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg 021]</span><a name="Pg021" id="Pg021" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +It simply professes to teach what language is, and this +would hardly seem sufficient to secure for a new science +the sympathy and support of the public at large. There +are problems, however, which, though apparently of an +abstruse and merely speculative character, have exercised +a powerful influence for good or evil in the history of +mankind. Men before now have fought for an idea, +and have laid down their lives for a word; and many +of these problems which have agitated the world from +the earliest to our own times, belong properly to the +science of language. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Mythology, which was the bane of the ancient world, +is in truth a disease of language. A myth means a +word, but a word which, from being a name or an attribute, +has been allowed to assume a more substantial +existence. Most of the Greek, the Roman, the Indian, +and other heathen gods are nothing but poetical names, +which were gradually allowed to assume a divine personality +never contemplated by their original inventors. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Eos</span></em> was a name of the dawn before she became a goddess, +the wife of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Tithonos</span></em>, or the dying day. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Fatum</span></em>, +or fate, meant originally what had been spoken; and +before Fate became a power, even greater than Jupiter, +it meant that which had once been spoken by +Jupiter, and could never be changed,—not even by +Jupiter himself. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Zeus</span></em> originally meant the bright +heaven, in Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Dyaus</span></em>; and many of the stories +told of him as the supreme god, had a meaning only +as told originally of the bright heaven, whose rays, +like golden rain, descend on the lap of the earth, the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Danae</span></em> of old, kept by her father in the dark prison of +winter. No one doubts that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Luna</span></em> was simply a name +of the moon; but so was likewise <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Lucina</span></em>, both derived +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page022">[pg 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lucere</span></em>, to shine. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hecate</span></em>, too, was an old name of +the moon, the feminine of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hekatos</span></em> and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hekatebolos</span></em>, the +far-darting sun; and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Pyrrha</span></em>, the Eve of the Greeks, +was nothing but a name of the red earth, and in +particular of Thessaly. This mythological disease, +though less virulent in modern languages, is by no +means extinct. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +During the Middle Ages the controversy between +Nominalism and Realism, which agitated the church +for centuries, and finally prepared the way for the +Reformation, was again, as its very name shows, a +controversy on names, on the nature of language, and +on the relation of words to our conceptions on one +side, and to the realities of the outer world on the +other. Men were called heretics for believing that +words such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">justice</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">truth</span></em> expressed only conceptions +of our mind, not real things walking about in +broad daylight. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In modern times the science of language has been +called in to settle some of the most perplexing political +and social questions. <span class="tei tei-q">“Nations and languages against +dynasties and treaties,”</span> this is what has remodelled, +and will remodel still more, the map of Europe; and +in America comparative philologists have been encouraged +to prove the impossibility of a common origin of +languages and races, in order to justify, by scientific +arguments, the unhallowed theory of slavery. Never +do I remember to have seen science more degraded +than on the title-page of an American publication in +which, among the profiles of the different races of +man, the profile of the ape was made to look more +human than that of the negro. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Lastly, the problem of the position of man on the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id="Pg023" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +threshold between the worlds of matter and spirit has +of late assumed a very marked prominence among +the problems of the physical and mental sciences. It +has absorbed the thoughts of men who, after a long +life spent in collecting, observing, and analyzing, have +brought to its solution qualifications unrivalled in any +previous age; and if we may judge from the greater +warmth displayed in discussions ordinarily conducted +with the calmness of judges and not with the passion +of pleaders, it might seem, after all, as if the great +problems of our being, of the true nobility of our +blood, of our descent from heaven or earth, though +unconnected with anything that is commonly called +practical, have still retained a charm of their own—a +charm that will never lose its power on the mind, +and on the heart of man. Now, however much the +frontiers of the animal kingdom have been pushed forward, +so that at one time the line of demarcation between +animal and man seemed to depend on a mere +fold in the brain, there is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">one</span></em> barrier which no one +has yet ventured to touch—the barrier of language. +Even those philosophers with whom +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">penser c'est sentir</span></em>,<a id="noteref_9" name="noteref_9" href="#note_9"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a> +who reduce all thought to feeling, and maintain that +we share the faculties which are the productive causes +of thought in common with beasts, are bound to confess +that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as yet</span></em> no race of animals has produced a language. +Lord Monboddo, for instance, admits that as yet no +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +animal has been discovered in the possession of language, +<span class="tei tei-q">“not even the beaver, who of all the animals +we know, that are not, like the orang-outangs, of our +own species, comes nearest to us in sagacity.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Locke, who is generally classed together with these +materialistic philosophers, and who certainly vindicated +a large share of what had been claimed for the intellect +as the property of the senses, recognized most fully +the barrier which language, as such, placed between +man and brutes. <span class="tei tei-q">“This I may be positive in,”</span> he +writes, <span class="tei tei-q">“that the power of abstracting is not at all +in brutes, and that the having of general ideas is +that which puts a perfect distinction between man +and brutes. For it is evident we observe no footsteps +in these of making use of general signs for universal +ideas; from which we have reason to imagine that +they have not the faculty of abstracting or making +general ideas, since they have no use of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">words</span></em> or any +other general signs.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If, therefore, the science of language gives us an +insight into that which, by common consent, distinguishes +man from all other living beings; if it establishes +a frontier between man and the brute, which +can never be removed, it would seem to possess at +the present moment peculiar claims on the attention +of all who, while watching with sincere admiration +the progress of comparative physiology, yet consider +it their duty to enter their manly protest against a +revival of the shallow theories of Lord Monboddo. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But to return to our survey of the history of the +physical sciences. We had examined the empirical +stage through which every science has to pass. We +saw that, for instance, in botany, a man who has +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg 025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +travelled through distant countries, who has collected +a vast number of plants, who knows their names, +their peculiarities, and their medicinal qualities, is +not yet a botanist, but only a herbalist, a lover of +plants, or what the Italians call a +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dilettante</span></em>, from +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dilettare</span></em>, +to delight. The real science of plants, like +every other science, begins with the work of classification. +An empirical acquaintance with facts rises +to a scientific knowledge of facts as soon as the mind +discovers beneath the multiplicity of single productions +the unity of an organic system. This discovery is +made by means of comparison and classification. We +cease to study each flower for its own sake; and by +continually enlarging the sphere of our observation, +we try to discover what is common to many and +offers those essential points on which groups or natural +classes may be established. These classes again, +in their more general features, are mutually compared; +new points of difference, or of similarity of a +more general and higher character, spring to view, and +enable us to discover classes of classes, or families. +And when the whole kingdom of plants has thus +been surveyed, and a simple tissue of names been +thrown over the garden of nature; when we can +lift it up, as it were, and view it in our mind as a +whole, as a system well defined and complete, we then +speak of the science of plants, or botany. We have +entered into altogether a new sphere of knowledge +where the individual is subject to the general, fact to +law; we discover thought, order, and purpose pervading +the whole realm of nature, and we perceive +the dark chaos of matter lighted up by the reflection +of a divine mind. Such views may be right or wrong. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026" id="Pg026" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Too hasty comparisons, or too narrow distinctions, may +have prevented the eye of the observer from discovering +the broad outlines of nature's plan. Yet every system, +however insufficient it may prove hereafter, is a step in +advance. If the mind of man is once impressed with +the conviction that there must be order and law everywhere, +it never rests again until all that seems irregular +has been eliminated, until the full beauty and harmony +of nature has been perceived, and the eye of man has +caught the eye of God beaming out from the midst of +all His works. The failures of the past prepare the +triumphs of the future. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thus, to recur to our former illustration, the systematic +arrangement of plants which bears the name +of Linnæus, and which is founded on the number +and character of the reproductive organs, failed to +bring out the natural order which pervades all that +grows and blossoms. Broad lines of demarcation +which unite or divide large tribes and families of +plants were invisible from his point of view. But in +spite of this, his work was not in vain. The fact that +plants in every part of the world belonged to one great +system was established once for all; and even in later +systems most of his classes and divisions have been preserved, +because the conformation of the reproductive +organs of plants happened to run parallel with other +more characteristic marks of true affinity.<a id="noteref_10" name="noteref_10" href="#note_10"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a> It is the +same in the history of astronomy. Although the Ptolemæan +system was a wrong one, yet even from its eccentric +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg 027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +point of view, laws were discovered determining +the true movements of the heavenly bodies. The +conviction that there remains something unexplained is +sure to lead to the discovery of our error. There can +be no error in nature; the error must be with us. +This conviction lived in the heart of Aristotle when, +in spite of his imperfect knowledge of nature, he declared +<span class="tei tei-q">“that there is in nature nothing interpolated or +without connection, as in a bad tragedy;”</span> and from +his time forward every new fact and every new system +have confirmed his faith. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The object of classification is clear. We understand +things if we can comprehend them; that is to say, if +we can grasp and hold together single facts, connect +isolated impressions, distinguish between what is essential +and what is merely accidental, and thus predicate +the general of the individual, and class the individual +under the general. This is the secret of all scientific +knowledge. Many sciences, while passing through this +second or classificatory stage, assume the title of comparative. +When the anatomist has finished the dissection +of numerous bodies, when he has given names to +each organ, and discovered the distinctive functions of +each, he is led to perceive similarity where at first he +saw dissimilarity only. He discovers in the lower animals +rudimentary indications of the more perfect organization +of the higher; and he becomes impressed with +the conviction that there is in the animal kingdom the +same order and purpose which pervades the endless +variety of plants or any other realm of nature. He +learns, if he did not know it before, that things were +not created at random or in a lump, but that there is +a scale which leads, by imperceptible degrees, from the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +lowest infusoria to the crowning work of nature,—man; +that all is the manifestation of one and the same +unbroken chain of creative thought, the work of one +and the same all-wise Creator. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In this way the second or classificatory leads us +naturally to the third or final stage—the theoretical, +or metaphysical. If the work of classification is properly +carried out, it teaches us that nothing exists in +nature by accident; that each individual belongs to +a species, each species to a genus; and that there are +laws which underlie the apparent freedom and variety +of all created things. These laws indicate to us the +presence of a purpose in the mind of the Creator; and +whereas the material world was looked upon by ancient +philosophers as a mere illusion, as an agglomerate of +atoms, or as the work of an evil principle, we now read +and interpret its pages as the revelation of a divine +power, and wisdom, and love. This has given to the +study of nature a new character. After the observer +has collected his facts, and after the classifier has placed +them in order, the student asks what is the origin and +what is the meaning of all this? and he tries to soar, +by means of induction, or sometimes even of divination, +into regions not accessible to the mere collector. +In this attempt the mind of man no doubt has frequently +met with the fate of Phaeton; but, undismayed +by failure, he asks again and again for his +father's steeds. It has been said that this so-called +philosophy of nature has never achieved anything; +that it has done nothing but prove that things must +be exactly as they had been found to be by the observer +and collector. Physical science, however, would +never have been what it is without the impulses which +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page029">[pg 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +it received from the philosopher, nay even from the +poet. <span class="tei tei-q">“At the limits of exact knowledge”</span> (I quote +the words of Humboldt), <span class="tei tei-q">“as from a lofty island-shore, +the eye loves to glance towards distant regions. The +images which it sees may be illusive; but, like the +illusive images which people imagined they had seen +from the Canaries or the Azores, long before the time +of Columbus, they may lead to the discovery of a new +world.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Copernicus, in the dedication of his work to Pope +Paul III. (it was commenced in 1517, finished 1530, +published 1543), confesses that he was brought to the +discovery of the sun's central position, and of the diurnal +motion of the earth, not by observation or analysis, +but by what he calls the feeling of a want of symmetry +in the Ptolemaic system. But who had told him that +there <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">must</span></em> be symmetry in all the movements of the +celestial bodies, or that complication was not more +sublime than simplicity? Symmetry and simplicity, +before they were discovered by the observer, were +postulated by the philosopher. The first idea of revolutionizing +the heavens was suggested to Copernicus, +as he tells us himself, by an ancient Greek philosopher, +by Philolaus, the Pythagorean. No doubt with +Philolaus the motion of the earth was only a guess, or, +if you like, a happy intuition. Nevertheless, if we +may trust the words of Copernicus, it is quite possible +that without that guess we should never have heard of +the Copernican system. Truth is not found by addition +and multiplication only. When speaking of Kepler, +whose method of reasoning has been considered as +unsafe and fantastic by his contemporaries as well as by +later astronomers, Sir David Brewster remarks very +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030" id="Pg030" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +truly, <span class="tei tei-q">“that, as an instrument of research, the influence +of imagination has been much overlooked by those +who have ventured to give laws to philosophy.”</span> The +torch of imagination is as necessary to him who looks +for truth, as the lamp of study. Kepler held both, and +more than that, he had the star of faith to guide him +in all things from darkness to light. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the history of the physical sciences, the three +stages which we have just described as the empirical, +the classificatory, and the theoretical, appear +generally in chronological order. I say, generally, +for there have been instances, as in the case just +quoted of Philolaus, where the results properly belonging +to the third have been anticipated in the +first stage. To the quick eye of genius one case may +be like a thousand, and one experiment, well chosen, +may lead to the discovery of an absolute law. Besides, +there are great chasms in the history of science. +The tradition of generations is broken by political or +ethnic earthquakes, and the work that was nearly finished +has frequently had to be done again from the +beginning, when a new surface had been formed for +the growth of a new civilization. The succession, +however, of these three stages is no doubt the natural +one, and it is very properly observed in the study of +every science. The student of botany begins as a +collector of plants. Taking each plant by itself, he +observes its peculiar character, its habitat, its proper +season, its popular or unscientific name. He learns to +distinguish between the roots, the stem, the leaves, the +flower, the calyx, the stamina, and pistils. He learns, +so to say, the practical grammar of the plant before +he can begin to compare, to arrange, and classify. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031" id="Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Again, no one can enter with advantage on the +third stage of any physical science without having +passed through the second. No one can study <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the</span></em> +plant, no one can understand the bearing of such a +work as, for instance, Professor Schleiden's <span class="tei tei-q">“Life of +the Plant,”</span><a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href="#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a> who has not studied the life of plants in +the wonderful variety, and in the still more wonderful +order, of nature. These last and highest achievements +of inductive philosophy are possible only after the +way has been cleared by previous classification. The +philosopher must command his classes like regiments +which obey the order of their general. Thus alone +can the battle be fought and truth be conquered. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After this rapid glance at the history of the other +physical sciences, we now return to our own, the science +of language, in order to see whether it really is +a science, and whether it can be brought back to the +standard of the inductive sciences. We want to know +whether it has passed, or is still passing, through the +three phases of physical research; whether its progress +has been systematic or desultory, whether its method +has been appropriate or not. But before we do this, we +shall, I think, have to do something else. You may +have observed that I always took it for granted that +the science of language, which is best known in this +country by the name of comparative philology, is one +of the physical sciences, and that therefore its method +ought to be the same as that which has been followed +with so much success in botany, geology, anatomy, +and other branches of the study of nature. In the +history of the physical sciences, however, we look in +vain for a place assigned to comparative philology, and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" id="Pg032" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +its very name would seem to show that it belongs to +quite a different sphere of human knowledge. There +are two great divisions of human knowledge, which, +according to their subject-matter, are called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">physical</span></em> +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">historical</span></em>. Physical science deals with the works +of God, historical science with the works of man. +Now if we were to judge by its name, comparative +philology, like classical philology, would seem to take +rank, not as a physical, but as an historical science, +and the proper method to be applied to it would be +that which is followed in the history of art, of law, +of politics, and religion. However, the title of comparative +philology must not be allowed to mislead us. +It is difficult to say by whom that title was invented; +but all that can be said in defence of it is, that the +founders of the science of language were chiefly scholars +or philologists, and that they based their inquiries +into the nature and laws of language on a comparison +of as many facts as they could collect within their own +special spheres of study. Neither in Germany, which +may well be called the birthplace of this science, nor +in France, where it has been cultivated with brilliant +success, has that title been adopted. It will not be +difficult to show that, although the science of language +owes much to the classical scholar, and though in return +it has proved of great use to him, yet comparative +philology has really nothing whatever in common +with philology in the usual meaning of the word. +Philology, whether classical or oriental, whether treating +of ancient or modern, of cultivated or barbarous +languages, is an historical science. Language is here +treated simply as a means. The classical scholar uses +Greek or Latin, the oriental scholar Hebrew or Sanskrit, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +or any other language, as a key to an understanding +of the literary monuments which by-gone ages have +bequeathed to us, as a spell to raise from the tomb of +time the thoughts of great men in different ages and +different countries, and as a means ultimately to trace +the social, moral, intellectual, and religious progress of +the human race. In the same manner, if we study +living languages, it is not for their own sake that we +acquire grammars and vocabularies. We do so on +account of their practical usefulness. We use them +as letters of introduction to the best society or to the +best literature of the leading nations of Europe. In +comparative philology the case is totally different. In +the science of language, languages are not treated as +a means; language itself becomes the sole object of +scientific inquiry. Dialects which have never produced +any literature at all, the jargons of savage tribes, +the clicks of the Hottentots, and the vocal modulations +of the Indo-Chinese are as important, nay, for the solution +of some of our problems, more important, than +the poetry of Homer, or the prose of Cicero. We do +not want to know languages, we want to know language; +what language is, how it can form a vehicle +or an organ of thought; we want to know its origin, +its nature, its laws; and it is only in order to arrive +at that knowledge that we collect, arrange, and classify +all the facts of language that are within our reach. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And here I must protest, at the very outset of these +lectures, against the supposition that the student of +language must necessarily be a great linguist. I shall +have to speak to you in the course of these lectures of +hundreds of languages, some of which, perhaps, you +may never have heard mentioned even by name. Do +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +not suppose that I know these languages as you know +Greek or Latin, French or German. In that sense I +know indeed very few languages, and I never aspired +to the fame of a Mithridates or a Mezzofanti. It is +impossible for a student of language to acquire a practical +knowledge of all tongues with which he has to +deal. He does not wish to speak the Kachikal language, +of which a professorship was lately founded in +the University of Guatemala,<a id="noteref_12" name="noteref_12" href="#note_12"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a> or to acquire the elegancies +of the idiom of the Tcheremissians; nor is it his +ambition to explore the literature of the Samoyedes, or +the New-Zealanders. It is the grammar and the dictionary +which form the subject of his inquiries. These +he consults and subjects to a careful analysis, but he +does not encumber his memory with paradigms of +nouns and verbs, or with long lists of words which +have never been used in any work of literature. It is +true, no doubt, that no language will unveil the whole +of its wonderful structure except to the scholar who +has studied it thoroughly and critically in a number +of literary works representing the various periods of +its growth. Nevertheless, short lists of vocables, and +imperfect sketches of a grammar, are in many instances +all that the student can expect to obtain, or +can hope to master and to use for the purposes he has +in view. He must learn to make the best of this fragmentary +information, like the comparative anatomist, +who frequently learns his lessons from the smallest +fragments of fossil bones, or the vague pictures of +animals brought home by unscientific travellers. If it +were necessary for the comparative philologist to acquire +a critical or practical acquaintance with all the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page035">[pg 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +languages which form the subject of his inquiries, the +science of language would simply be an impossibility. +But we do not expect the botanist to be an experienced +gardener, or the geologist a miner, or the ichthyologist +a practical fisherman. Nor would it be reasonable to +object in the science of language to the same division +of labor which is necessary for the successful cultivation +of subjects much less comprehensive. Though +much of what we might call the realm of language is +lost to us forever, though whole periods in the history +of language are by necessity withdrawn from our +observation, yet the mass of human speech that lies +before us, whether in the petrified strata of ancient +literature or in the countless variety of living languages +and dialects, offers a field as large, if not larger, +than any other branch of physical research. It is +impossible to fix the exact number of known languages, +but their number can hardly be less than nine hundred. +That this vast field should never have excited +the curiosity of the natural philosopher before the +beginning of our century may seem surprising, more +surprising even than the indifference with which former +generations treated the lessons which even the +stones seemed to teach of the life still throbbing in the +veins and on the very surface of the earth. The saying +that "familiarity breeds contempt" would seem +applicable to the subjects of both these sciences. The +gravel of our walks hardly seemed to deserve a scientific +treatment, and the language which every plough-boy +can speak could not be raised without an effort to +the dignity of a scientific problem. Man had studied +every part of nature, the mineral treasures in the +bowels of the earth, the flowers of each season, the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg 036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +animals of every continent, the laws of storms, and +the movements of the heavenly bodies; he had analyzed +every substance, dissected every organism, he +knew every bone and muscle, every nerve and fibre of +his own body to the ultimate elements which compose +his flesh and blood; he had meditated on the nature of +his soul, on the laws of his mind, and tried to penetrate +into the last causes of all being—and yet language, +without the aid of which not even the first step +in this glorious career could have been made, remained +unnoticed. Like a veil that hung too close over the +eye of the human mind, it was hardly perceived. In +an age when the study of antiquity attracted the most +energetic minds, when the ashes of Pompeii were +sifted for the playthings of Roman life; when parchments +were made to disclose, by chemical means, the +erased thoughts of Grecian thinkers; when the tombs +of Egypt were ransacked for their sacred contents, and +the palaces of Babylon and Nineveh forced to surrender +the clay diaries of Nebuchadnezzar; when everything, +in fact, that seemed to contain a vestige of the +early life of man was anxiously searched for and carefully +preserved in our libraries and museums,—language, +which in itself carries us back far beyond the +cuneiform literature of Assyria and Babylonia, and the +hieroglyphic documents of Egypt; which connects ourselves, +through an unbroken chain of speech, with the +very ancestors of our race, and still draws its life from +the first utterances of the human mind,—language, +the living and speaking witness of the whole history +of our race, was never cross-examined by the student +of history, was never made to disclose its secrets until +questioned and, so to say, brought back to itself within +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the last fifty years, by the genius of a Humboldt, +Bopp, Grimm, Bunsen, and others. If you consider +that, whatever view we take of the origin and dispersion +of language, nothing new has ever been added to +the substance of language, that all its changes have +been changes of form, that no new root or radical has +ever been invented by later generations, as little as one +single element has ever been added to the material +world in which we live; if you bear in mind that in +one sense, and in a very just sense, we may be said to +handle the very words which issued from the mouth of +the son of God, when he gave names to <span class="tei tei-q">“all cattle, +and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the +field,”</span> you will see, I believe, that the science of language +has claims on your attention, such as few +sciences can rival or excel. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Having thus explained the manner in which I intend +to treat the science of language, I hope in my +next lecture to examine the objections of those philosophers +who see in language nothing but a contrivance +devised by human skill for the more expeditious +communication of our thoughts, and who would wish +to see it treated, not as a production of nature, but +as a work of human art. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg 038]</span><a name="Pg038" id="Pg038" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a> +<a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Lecture II. The Growth Of Language In Contradistinction To +The History Of Language.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In claiming for the science of language a place +among the physical sciences, I was prepared to meet +with many objections. The circle of the physical +sciences seemed closed, and it was not likely that a +new claimant should at once be welcomed among the +established branches and scions of the ancient aristocracy +of learning.<a id="noteref_13" name="noteref_13" href="#note_13"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The first objection which was sure to be raised on +the part of such sciences as botany, geology, or physiology +is this:—Language is the work of man; it +was invented by man as a means of communicating +his thoughts, when mere looks and gestures proved +inefficient; and it was gradually, by the combined +efforts of succeeding generations, brought to that perfection +which we admire in the idiom of the Bible, the +Vedas, the Koran, and in the poetry of Homer, Virgil, +Dante, and Shakespeare. Now it is perfectly true that +if language be the work of man, in the same sense in +which a statue, or a temple, or a poem, or a law are +properly called the works of man, the science of language +would have to be classed as an historical science. +We should have a history of language as we have a +history of art, of poetry, and of jurisprudence, but we +could not claim for it a place side by side with the +various branches of Natural History. It is true, also, +that if you consult the works of the most distinguished +modern philosophers you will find that whenever they +speak of language, they take it for granted that language +is a human invention, that words are artificial +signs, and that the varieties of human speech arose +from different nations agreeing on different sounds as +the most appropriate signs of their different ideas. +This view of the origin of language was so powerfully +advocated by the leading philosophers of the last +century, that it has retained an undisputed currency +even among those who, on almost every other point, +are strongly opposed to the teaching of that school. +A few voices, indeed, have been raised to protest +against the theory of language being originally invented +by man. But they, in their zeal to vindicate +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg 040]</span><a name="Pg040" id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the divine origin of language, seem to have been carried +away so far as to run counter to the express +statements of the Bible. For in the Bible it is not +the Creator who gives names to all things, but +Adam. <span class="tei tei-q">“Out of the ground,”</span> we read, <span class="tei tei-q">“the Lord +God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl +of the air; and brought them unto Adam to see +what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam +called every living creature, that was the name +thereof.”</span><a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href="#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a> +But with the exception of this small class of +philosophers, more orthodox even than the Bible,<a id="noteref_15" name="noteref_15" href="#note_15"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a> +the generally received opinion on the origin of language +is that which was held by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Locke</span></span>, which was +powerfully advocated by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adam Smith</span></span> in his Essay on +the Origin of Language, appended to his Treatise on +Moral Sentiments, and which was adopted with slight +modifications by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dugald Stewart</span></span>. According to them, +man must have lived for a time in a state of mutism, +his only means of communication consisting in gestures +of the body, and in the changes of countenance, +till at last, when ideas multiplied that could no longer +be pointed at with the fingers, <span class="tei tei-q">“they found it necessary +to invent artificial signs of which the meaning was +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg 041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +fixed by mutual agreement.”</span> We need not dwell on +minor differences of opinion as to the exact process +by which this artificial language is supposed to have +been formed. Adam Smith would wish us to believe +that the first artificial words were <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">verbs</span></em>. Nouns, he +thinks, were of less urgent necessity because things +could be pointed at or imitated, whereas mere actions, +such as are expressed by verbs, could not. He therefore +supposes that when people saw a wolf coming, +they pointed at him, and simply cried out, <span class="tei tei-q">“He +comes.”</span> Dugald Stewart, on the contrary, thinks +that the first artificial words were nouns, and that +the verbs were supplied by gesture; that, therefore, +when people saw a wolf coming, they did not cry +<span class="tei tei-q">“He comes,”</span> but <span class="tei tei-q">“Wolf, Wolf,”</span> leaving the rest to +be imagined.<a id="noteref_16" name="noteref_16" href="#note_16"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But whether the verb or the noun was the first to +be invented is of little importance; nor is it possible +for us, at the very beginning of our inquiry into the +nature of language, to enter upon a minute examination +of a theory which represents language as a work +of human art, and as established by mutual agreement +as a medium of communication. While fully +admitting that if this theory were true, the science +of language would not come within the pale of the +physical sciences, I must content myself for the present +with pointing out that no one has yet explained +how, without language, a discussion on the merits of +each word, such as must necessarily have preceded a +mutual agreement, could have been carried on. But +as it is the object of these lectures to prove that language +is not a work of human art, in the same sense +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg 042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +as painting, or building, or writing, or printing, I must +ask to be allowed, in this preliminary stage, simply to +enter my protest against a theory, which, though still +taught in the schools, is, nevertheless, I believe, without +a single fact to support its truth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But there are other objections besides this which +would seem to bar the admission of the science of +language to the circle of the physical sciences. Whatever +the origin of language may have been, it has +been remarked with a strong appearance of truth, +that language has a history of its own, like art, like +law, like religion; and that, therefore, the science of +language belongs to the circle of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">historical</span></em>, or, as +they used to be called, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">moral</span></em>, in contradistinction +to the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">physical</span></em> sciences. It is a well-known fact, +which recent researches have not shaken, that nature +is incapable of progress or improvement. The flower +which the botanist observes to-day was as perfect +from the beginning. Animals, which are endowed +with what is called an artistic instinct, have never +brought that instinct to a higher degree of perfection. +The hexagonal cells of the bee are not more regular +in the nineteenth century than at any earlier period, +and the gift of song has never, as far as we know, +been brought to a higher perfection by our nightingale +than by the Philomelo of the Greeks. <span class="tei tei-q">“Natural +History,”</span> to quote Dr. Whewell's words,<a id="noteref_17" name="noteref_17" href="#note_17"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">17</span></span></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“when systematically +treated, excludes all that is historical, for it +classes objects by their permanent and universal properties, +and has nothing to do with the narration of +particular or casual facts.”</span> Now, if we consider the +large number of tongues spoken in different parts of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page043">[pg 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the world with all their dialectic and provincial varieties, +if we observe the great changes which each +of these tongues has undergone in the course of centuries, +how Latin was changed into Italian, Spanish, +Portuguese, Provençal, French, Wallachian, and Roumansch; +how Latin again, together with Greek, and +the Celtic, the Teutonic, and Slavonic languages, together +likewise with the ancient dialects of India and +Persia, must have sprung from an earlier language, the +mother of the whole Indo-European or Aryan family +of speech; if we see how Hebrew, Arabic, and Syriac, +with several minor dialects, are but different impressions +of one and the same common type, and must all +have flowed from the same source, the original language +of the Semitic race; and if we add to these two, +the Aryan and Semitic, at least one more well-established +class of languages, the Turanian, comprising the +dialects of the nomad races scattered over Central and +Northern Asia, the Tungusic, Mongolic, Turkic,<a id="noteref_18" name="noteref_18" href="#note_18"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">18</span></span></a> Samoyedic, +and Finnic, all radii from one common centre +of speech:—if we watch this stream of language rolling +on through centuries in these three mighty arms, +which, before they disappear from our sight in the far +distance, clearly show a convergence towards one common +source: it would seem, indeed, as if there were an +historical life inherent in language, and as if both the +will of man and the power of time could tell, if not on +its substance, at least on its form. And even if the +mere local varieties of speech were not considered sufficient +ground for excluding language from the domain +of natural science, there would still remain the greater +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +difficulty of reconciling with the recognized principles +of physical science the historical changes affecting +every one of these varieties. Every part of nature, +whether mineral, plant, or animal, is the same in kind +from the beginning to the end of its existence, whereas +few languages could be recognized as the same after +the lapse of but a thousand years. The language of +Alfred is so different from the English of the present +day that we have to study it in the same manner as +we study Greek and Latin. We can read Milton and +Bacon, Shakespeare and Hooker; we can make out +Wycliffe and Chaucer; but, when we come to the +English of the thirteenth century, we can but guess +its meaning, and we fail even in this with works previous +to the Ormulum and Layamon. The historical +changes of language may be more or less rapid, but +they take place at all times and in all countries. They +have reduced the rich and powerful idiom of the poets +of the Veda to the meagre and impure jargon of the +modern Sepoy. They have transformed the language +of the Zend-Avesta and of the mountain records of +Behistún into that of Firdusi and the modern Persians; +the language of Virgil into that of Dante, the language +of Ulfilas into that of Charlemagne, the language of +Charlemagne into that of Goethe. We have reason +to believe that the same changes take place with even +greater violence and rapidity in the dialects of savage +tribes, although, in the absence of a written literature, it +is extremely difficult to obtain trustworthy information. +But in the few instances where careful observations +have been made on this interesting subject, it has been +found that among the wild and illiterate tribes of Siberia, +Africa, and Siam, two or three generations are +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg 045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sufficient to change the whole aspect of their dialects. +The languages of highly civilized nations, on the +contrary, become more and more stationary, and seem +sometimes almost to lose their power of change. Where +there is a classical literature, and where its language is +spread to every town and village, it seems almost impossible +that any further changes should take place. +Nevertheless, the language of Rome, for so many centuries +the queen of the whole civilized world, was deposed +by the modern Romance dialects, and the ancient +Greek was supplanted in the end by the modern Romaic. +And though the art of printing and the wide +diffusion of Bibles, and Prayer-books, and newspapers +have acted as still more powerful barriers to arrest the +constant flow of human speech, we may see that the +language of the authorized version of the Bible, though +perfectly intelligible, is no longer the spoken language +of England. In Booker's Scripture and Prayer-book +Glossary<a id="noteref_19" name="noteref_19" href="#note_19"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">19</span></span></a> the number of words or senses of words +which have become obsolete since 1611, amount to 388, +or nearly one fifteenth part of the whole number of +words used in the Bible. Smaller changes, changes +of accent and meaning, the reception of new, and the +dropping of old words, we may watch as taking place +under our own eyes. Rogers<a id="noteref_20" name="noteref_20" href="#note_20"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">20</span></span></a> said that <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cóntemplate</span></em> +is bad enough, but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bálcony</span></em> makes me sick,”</span> whereas at present +no one is startled by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cóntemplate</span></em> instead of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">contémplate</span></em>, +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bálcony</span></em> has become more usual than <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">balcóny</span></em>. +Thus <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Roome</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">chaney</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">layloc</span></em> and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">goold</span></em>, have but lately been driven from the stage by +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Rome</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">china</span></em>, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name="Pg046" id="Pg046" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lilac</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gold</span></em>, and some courteous gentlemen of the +old school still continue to be <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">obleeged</span></em> instead of being +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">obliged</span></em>. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Force</span></em>,<a id="noteref_21" name="noteref_21" href="#note_21"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">21</span></span></a> in the sense of a waterfall, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gill</span></em>, in +the sense of a rocky ravine, were not used in classical +English before Wordsworth. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Handbook</span></em>,<a id="noteref_22" name="noteref_22" href="#note_22"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">22</span></span></a> though an old +Anglo-Saxon word, has but lately taken the place of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">manual</span></em>, and a number of words such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cab</span></em> for cabriolet, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">buss</span></em> for omnibus, and even a verb such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to shunt</span></em> +tremble still on the boundary line between the vulgar +and the literary idioms. Though the grammatical +changes that have taken place since the publication +of the authorized version are yet fewer in number, +still we may point out some. The termination of the +third person singular in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">th</span></em> is now entirely replaced by +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em>. No one now says <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">he liveth</span></em>, but only <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">he lives</span></em>. +Several of the irregular imperfects and participles have assumed +a new form. No one now uses <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">he spake</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">he +drave</span></em>, instead of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">he spoke</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">he drove</span></em>; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">holpen</span></em> is replaced +by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">helped</span></em>; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">holden</span></em> by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">held</span></em>; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">shapen</span></em> +by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">shaped</span></em>. +The distinction between <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ye</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">you</span></em>, the former being +reserved for the nominative, the latter for all the other +cases, is given up in modern English; and what is apparently +a new grammatical form, the possessive pronoun +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">its</span></em>, has sprung into life since the beginning of the +seventeenth century. It never occurs in the Bible; +and though it is used three or four times by Shakespeare, +Ben Jonson does not recognize it as yet in his +English Grammar.<a id="noteref_23" name="noteref_23" href="#note_23"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">23</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is argued, therefore, that as language, differing +thereby from all other productions of nature, is liable +to historical alterations, it is not fit to be treated in the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page047">[pg 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +same manner as the subject-matter of all the other +physical sciences. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is something very plausible in this objection, +but if we examine it more carefully, we shall find +that it rests entirely on a confusion of terms. We +must distinguish between historical change and natural +growth. Art, science, philosophy, and religion all have +a history; language, or any other production of nature, +admits only of growth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us consider, first, that although there is a continuous +change in language, it is not in the power of +man either to produce or to prevent it. We might +think as well of changing the laws which control the +circulation of our blood, or of adding an inch to our +height, as of altering the laws of speech, or inventing +new words according to our own pleasure. As man is +the lord of nature only if he knows her laws and submits +to them, the poet and the philosopher become the lords +of language only if they know its laws and obey them. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When the Emperor Tiberius had made a mistake, +and was reproved for it by Marcellus, another grammarian +of the name of Capito, who happened to be present, +remarked that what the emperor said was good +Latin, or, if it were not, it would soon be so. Marcellus, +more of a grammarian than a courtier, replied, +<span class="tei tei-q">“Capito is a liar; for, Cæsar, thou canst give the +Roman citizenship to men, but not to words.”</span> A similar +anecdote is told of the German Emperor Sigismund. +When presiding at the Council of Costnitz, +he addressed the assembly in a Latin speech, exhorting +them to eradicate the schism of the Hussites. +<span class="tei tei-q">“Videte Patres,”</span> he said, <span class="tei tei-q">“ut eradicetis schismam +Hussitarum.”</span> He was very unceremoniously called +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to order by a monk, who called out, <span class="tei tei-q">“Serenissime Rex, +schisma est generis neutri.”</span><a id="noteref_24" name="noteref_24" href="#note_24"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">24</span></span></a> The emperor, however, +without losing his presence of mind, asked the impertinent +monk, <span class="tei tei-q">“How do you know it?”</span> The old +Bohemian school-master replied, <span class="tei tei-q">“Alexander Gallus +says so.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“And who is Alexander Gallus?”</span> the emperor +rejoined. The monk replied, <span class="tei tei-q">“He was a monk.”</span> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Well,”</span> said the emperor, <span class="tei tei-q">“and I am Emperor of +Rome; and my word, I trust, will be as good as the +word of any monk.”</span> No doubt the laughers were +with the emperor; but for all that, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">schisma</span></em> remained +a neuter, and not even an emperor could change its +gender or termination. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The idea that language can be changed and improved +by man is by no means a new one. We know +that Protagoras, an ancient Greek philosopher, after +laying down some laws on gender, actually began to find +fault with the text of Homer, because it did not agree +with his rules. But here, as in every other instance, +the attempt proved unavailing. Try to alter the smallest +rule of English, and you will find that it is physically +impossible. There is apparently a very small +difference between <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">much</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">very</span></em>, but you can hardly +ever put one in the place of the other. You can say, +<span class="tei tei-q">“I am very happy,”</span> but not <span class="tei tei-q">“I am much happy,”</span> +though you may say <span class="tei tei-q">“I am most happy.”</span> On the +contrary, you can say <span class="tei tei-q">“I am much misunderstood,”</span> +but not <span class="tei tei-q">“I am very misunderstood.”</span> Thus the western +Romance dialects, Spanish and Portuguese, together +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg 049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with Wallachian, can only employ the Latin +word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">magis</span></em> for forming +comparatives:—Sp. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mas +dulce</span></em>; Port. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mais doce</span></em>; +Wall, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mai dulce</span></em>; while +French, Provençal, and Italian only allow <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">of plus</span></em> for +the same purpose: Ital. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">più dolce</span></em>; +Prov. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">plus dous</span></em>; +Fr. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">plus doux</span></em>. +It is by no means impossible, however, +that this distinction between <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">very</span></em>, which is now used +with adjectives only, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">much</span></em>, which precedes participles, +should disappear in time. In fact, <span class="tei tei-q">“very pleased”</span> +and <span class="tei tei-q">“very delighted”</span> are Americanisms which may +be heard even in this country. But if that change +take place, it will not be by the will of any individual, +nor by the mutual agreement of any large number of +men, but rather in spite of the exertions of grammarians +and academies. And here you perceive the first +difference between history and growth. An emperor +may change the laws of society, the forms of religion, +the rules of art: it is in the power of one generation, +or even of one individual, to raise an art to the highest +pitch of perfection, while the next may allow it to +lapse, till a new genius takes it up again with renewed +ardor. In all this we have to deal with the conscious +acts of individuals, and we therefore move on historical +ground. If we compare the creations of Michael Angelo +or Raphael with the statues and frescoes of ancient +Rome, we can speak of a history of art. We can +connect two periods separated by thousands of years +through the works of those who handed on the traditions +of art from century to century; but we shall +never meet with that continuous and unconscious +growth which connects the language of Plautus with +that of Dante. The process through which language +is settled and unsettled combines in one the two opposite +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg 050]</span><a name="Pg050" id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +elements of necessity and free will. Though the +individual seems to be the prime agent in producing +new words and new grammatical forms, he is so only +after his individuality has been merged in the common +action of the family, tribe, or nation to which he belongs. +He can do nothing by himself, and the first +impulse to a new formation in language, though given +by an individual, is mostly, if not always, given without +premeditation, nay, unconsciously. The individual, +as such, is powerless, and the results apparently +produced by him depend on laws beyond his control, +and on the co-operation of all those who form together +with him one class, one body, or one organic whole. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But, though it is easy to show, as we have just done, +that language cannot be changed or moulded by the +taste, the fancy, or genius of man, it is very difficult to +explain what causes the growth of language. Ever +since Horace it has been usual to compare the growth of +languages with the growth of trees. But comparisons +are treacherous things. What do we know of the real +causes of the growth of a tree, and what can we gain +by comparing things which we do not quite understand +with things which we understand even less? Many +people speak, for instance, of the terminations of the +verb, as if they sprouted out from the root as from +their parent stock.<a id="noteref_25" name="noteref_25" href="#note_25"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">25</span></span></a> But what ideas can they connect +with such expressions? If we must compare language +with a tree, there is one point which may be illustrated +by this comparison, and this is that neither language +nor the tree can exist or grow by itself. Without the +soil, without air and light, the tree could not live; it +could not even be conceived to live. It is the same +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page051">[pg 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with language. Language cannot exist by itself; it +requires a soil on which to grow, and that soil is the +human soul. To speak of language as a thing by itself, +as living a life of its own, as growing to maturity, +producing offspring, and dying away, is sheer mythology; +and though we cannot help using metaphorical +expressions, we should always be on our guard, when +engaged in inquiries like the present, against being +carried away by the very words which we are using. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now, what we call the growth of language comprises +two processes which should be carefully distinguished, +though they may be at work simultaneously. These +two processes I call, +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +1. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dialectical Regeneration.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +2. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Phonetic Decay.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I begin with the second, as the more obvious, though +in reality its operations are mostly subsequent to the +operations of dialectical regeneration. I must ask you +at present to take it for granted that everything in +language had originally a meaning. As language can +have no other object but to express our meaning, it +might seem to follow almost by necessity that language +should contain neither more nor less than what is required +for that purpose. It would also seem to follow +that if language contains no more than what is necessary +for conveying a certain meaning, it would be +impossible to modify any part of it without defeating +its very purpose. This is really the case in some languages. +In Chinese, for instance, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ten</span></em> is expressed by +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">shĭ</span></em>. It would be impossible to change +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">shĭ</span></em> in the slightest +way without making it unfit to express <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ten</span></em>. If +instead of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">shĭ</span></em> +we pronounced <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">t'sĭ</span></em>, this would mean +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">seven</span></em>, but not <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ten</span></em>. But now, suppose we wished to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg 052]</span><a name="Pg052" id="Pg052" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +express double the quantity of ten, twice ten, or twenty. +We should in Chinese take <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eúl</span></em>, which is two, +put it before <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">shĭ</span></em>, and say +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eúl-shĭ</span></em>, twenty. The same caution +which applied to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">shĭ</span></em>, applies again to +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eúl-shĭ</span></em>. As soon +as you change it, by adding or dropping a single letter, +it is no longer twenty, but either something else or +nothing. We find exactly the same in other languages +which, like Chinese, are called monosyllabic. In +Tibetan, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">chu</span></em> is ten, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nyi</span></em> two; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nyi-chu</span></em>, twenty. In +Burmese <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">she</span></em> is ten, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nhit</span></em> two; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nhit-she</span></em>, twenty. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But how is it in English, or in Gothic, or in Greek +and Latin, or in Sanskrit? We do not say <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">two-ten</span></em> in +English, nor <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">duo-decem</span></em> +in Latin, nor <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dvi-da'sa</span></em> in Sanskrit. +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">We find<a id="noteref_26" name="noteref_26" href="#note_26"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">26</span></span></a> in Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">vin'sati</span></em>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">in Greek <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">eikati</span></em>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">in Latin <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">viginti</span></em>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">in English <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">twenty</span></em>.</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now here we see, first, that the Sanskrit, Greek, and +Latin, are only local modifications of one and the same +original word; whereas the English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">twenty</span></em> is a new +compound, the Gothic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tvai tigjus</span></em> (two decads), the +Anglo-Saxon <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tuêntig</span></em>, framed from Teutonic materials; +a product, as we shall see, of Dialectical Regeneration. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We next observe that the first part of the Latin +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">viginti</span></em> and of the Sanskrit +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vin'sati</span></em> contains the same +number, which from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dvi</span></em> has been +reduced to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vi</span></em>. This +is not very extraordinary; for the Latin +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bis</span></em>, twice, +which you still hear at our concerts, likewise stands +for an original <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dvis</span></em>, the English +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">twice</span></em>, the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dis</span></em>. +This <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dis</span></em> +appears again as a Latin preposition, meaning +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a-two</span></em>; so that, for instance, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">discussion</span></em> means, originally, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg 053]</span><a name="Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +striking a-two, different from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">percussion</span></em>, which +means striking through and through. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Discussion</span></em> is, +in fact, the cracking of a nut in order to get at its +kernel. Well, the same word, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dvi</span></em> or +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vi</span></em>, we have in +the Latin word for twenty, which is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vi-ginti</span></em>, +the Sanskrit +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vin-'sati</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It can likewise be proved that the second part of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">viginti</span></em> +is a corruption of the old word for ten. Ten, +in Sanskrit, is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">da'san</span></em>; +from it is derived <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">da'sati</span></em>, a decad; +and this <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">da'sati</span></em> was again reduced +to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">'sati</span></em>; thus +giving us with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vi</span></em> for +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dvi</span></em>, two, the Sanskrit +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vi'sati</span></em> or +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vin'sati</span></em>, twenty. +The Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">viginti</span></em>, the +Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eikati</span></em>, +owe their origin to the same process. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now consider the immense difference—I do not +mean in sound, but in character—between two such +words as the Chinese <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eúl-shĭ</span></em>, +two-ten, or twenty, and +those mere cripples of words which we meet with +in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. In Chinese there is +neither too much, nor too little. The word speaks +for itself, and requires no commentary. In Sanskrit, +on the contrary, the most essential parts of the two +component elements are gone, and what remains is a +kind of metamorphic agglomerate which cannot be +understood without a most minute microscopic analysis. +Here, then, you have an instance of what is +meant by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">phonetic corruption</span></em>; and you will perceive +how, not only the form, but the whole nature of language +is destroyed by it. As soon as phonetic corruption +shows itself in a language, that language has lost +what we considered to be the most essential character +of all human speech, namely, that every part of it +should have a meaning. The people who spoke Sanskrit +were as little aware that +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vin'sati</span></em> meant <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">twice ten</span></em> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg 054]</span><a name="Pg054" id="Pg054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +as a Frenchman is that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vingt</span></em> +contains the remains of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">deux</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dix</span></em>. +Language, therefore, has entered into a +new stage as soon as it submits to the attacks of phonetic +change. The life of language has become benumbed +and extinct in those words or portions of +words which show the first traces of this phonetic +mould. Henceforth those words or portions of words +can be kept up only artificially or by tradition; and, +what is important, a distinction is henceforth established +between what is substantial or radical, and +what is merely formal or grammatical in words. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +For let us now take another instance, which will +make it clearer, how phonetic corruption leads to the +first appearance of so-called grammatical forms. We +are not in the habit of looking on <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">twenty</span></em> as the plural +or dual of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ten</span></em>. But how was a plural originally +formed? In Chinese, which from the first has guarded +most carefully against the taint of phonetic corruption, +the plural is formed in the most sensible manner. Thus, +man in Chinese is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ģin</span></em>; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kiai</span></em> means the whole or totality. +This added to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ģin</span></em> gives +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ģin-kiai</span></em>, which is the +plural of man. There are other words which are +used for the same purpose in Chinese; for instance, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">péi</span></em>, which means a class. Hence, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ĭ</span></em>, a stranger, followed +by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">péi</span></em>, class, gives +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ĭ-péi</span></em>, strangers. We have +similar plurals in English, but we do not reckon them +as grammatical forms. Thus, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">man-kind</span></em> is formed exactly +like <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ĭ-péi</span></em>, stranger-kind; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Christendom</span></em> is the same +as all Christians, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">clergy</span></em> is synonymous +with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">clerici</span></em>. +The same process is followed in other cognate languages. +In Tibetan the plural is formed by the addition +of such words as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kun</span></em>, all, and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">t'sogs</span></em>, +multitude.<a id="noteref_27" name="noteref_27" href="#note_27"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">27</span></span></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg 055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Even the numerals, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nine</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hundred</span></em>, are used for the +same purpose. And here again, as long as these words +are fully understood and kept alive, they resist phonetic +corruption; but the moment they lose, so to say, their +presence of mind, phonetic corruption sets in, and as +soon as phonetic corruption has commenced its ravages, +those portions of a word which it affects retain +a merely artificial or conventional existence, and dwindle +down to grammatical terminations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I am afraid I should tax your patience too much +were I to enter here on an analysis of the grammatical +terminations in Sanskrit, Greek, or Latin, in order to +show how these terminations arose out of independent +words, which were slowly reduced to mere dust by the +constant wear and tear of speech. But in order to +explain how the principle of phonetic decay leads to +the formation of grammatical terminations, let us look +to languages with which we are more familiar. Let us +take the French adverb. We are told by French grammarians<a id="noteref_28" name="noteref_28" href="#note_28"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">28</span></span></a> +that in order to form adverbs we have to add +the termination <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ment</span></em>. Thus +from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bon</span></em>, good, we form +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bonnement</span></em>, from +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vrai</span></em>, true, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vraiment</span></em>. This termination +does not exist in Latin. But we meet in Latin<a id="noteref_29" name="noteref_29" href="#note_29"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">29</span></span></a> with +expressions such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bonâ mente</span></em>, in good faith. +We read in Ovid, <span class="tei tei-q">“Insistam forti mente,”</span> I shall insist +with a strong mind or will, I shall insist strongly; in +French, <span class="tei tei-q">“J'insisterai fortement.”</span> Therefore, what +has happened in the growth of Latin, or in the change +of Latin into French, is simply this: in phrases such +as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">forti mente</span></em>, +the last word was no longer felt as a distinct +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg 056]</span><a name="Pg056" id="Pg056" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +word, and it lost at the same time its distinct pronunciation. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Mente</span></em>, the ablative of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mens</span></em>, was changed +into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ment</span></em>, +and was preserved as a merely formal element, +as the termination of adverbs, even in cases +where a recollection of the original meaning of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mente</span></em> +(with a mind), would have rendered its employment +perfectly impossible. If we say in French that a hammer +falls <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lourdement</span></em>, we little suspect that we +ascribe to a piece of iron a heavy mind. In Italian, though +the adverbial termination <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mente</span></em> in +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">claramente</span></em> is no +longer felt as a distinct word, it has not as yet been +affected by phonetic corruption; and in Spanish it is +sometimes used as a distinct word, though even then it +cannot be said to have retained its distinct meaning. +Thus, instead of saying, <span class="tei tei-q">“claramente, concisamente y +elegantemente,”</span> it is more elegant to say in Spanish, +<span class="tei tei-q">“clara, concisa y elegante mente.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is difficult to form any conception of the extent +to which the whole surface of a language may be altered +by what we have just described as phonetic +change. Think that in the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vingt</span></em> you have +the same elements as in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">deux</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dix</span></em>; that the second +part of the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">douze</span></em>, twelve, represents the +Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">decim</span></em> in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">duodecim</span></em>; +that the final <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">te</span></em> of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">trente</span></em> +was originally the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ginta</span></em> in +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">triginta</span></em>, which <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ginta</span></em> +was again a derivation and abbreviation of the Sanskrit +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">da'sa</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">da'sati</span></em>, ten. Then consider how early this +phonetic disease must have broken out. For in the +same manner as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vingt</span></em> in French, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">veinte</span></em> in Spanish, and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">venti</span></em> in Italian presuppose the more primitive <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">viginti</span></em> +which we find in Latin, so this Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">viginti</span></em>, together +with the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eikati</span></em>, and the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vin'sati</span></em> presuppose +an earlier language from which they are in turn +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg 057]</span><a name="Pg057" id="Pg057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +derived, and in which, previous to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">viginti</span></em>, there must +have been a more primitive form <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dvi-ginti</span></em>, and previous +to this again, another compound as clear and intelligible +as the Chinese <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eúl-shĭ</span></em>, consisting of the ancient +Aryan names for two, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dvi</span></em>, and ten, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">da'sati</span></em>. Such is +the virulence of this phonetic change, that it will sometimes +eat away the whole body of a word, and leave +nothing behind but decayed fragments. Thus, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sister</span></em>, +which in Sanskrit is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">svasar</span></em>,<a id="noteref_30" name="noteref_30" href="#note_30"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">30</span></span></a> appears in Pehlvi and in +Ossetian as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cho</span></em>. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Daughter</span></em>, +which in Sanskrit is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">duhitar</span></em>, +has dwindled down in Bohemian to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dci</span></em> (pronounced +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tsi</span></em>).<a id="noteref_31" name="noteref_31" href="#note_31"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">31</span></span></a> +Who would believe that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tear</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">larme</span></em> are derived +from the same source; that the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">même</span></em> +contains the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">semetipsissimus</span></em>; that in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">aujourd'hui</span></em> +we have the Latin word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dies</span></em> twice!<a id="noteref_32" name="noteref_32" href="#note_32"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">32</span></span></a> Who would +recognize the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pater</span></em> in the Armenian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hayr</span></em>? Yet +we make no difficulty about identifying <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">père</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pater</span></em>; +and as several initial h's in Armenian correspond to an +original <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">p</span></em> (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">het</span></em> = <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pes</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pedis</span></em>; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hing</span></em> = πέντε; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hour</span></em> = πῦρ), +it follows that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hayr</span></em> is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pater</span></em>.<a id="noteref_33" name="noteref_33" href="#note_33"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">33</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We are accustomed to call these changes the growth +of language, but it would be more appropriate to call +this process of phonetic change decay, and thus to distinguish +it from the second or dialectical process which +we must now examine, and which involves, as you will +see, a more real principle of growth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In order to understand the meaning of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dialectical +</span><span class="tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg 058]</span><a name="Pg058" id="Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><span style="font-style: italic"> +regeneration</span></em> we must first see clearly what we mean by +dialect. We saw before that language has no independent +substantial existence. Language exists in +man, it lives in being spoken, it dies with each word +that is pronounced, and is no longer heard. It is a +mere accident that language should ever have been +reduced to writing, and have been made the vehicle +of a written literature. Even now the largest number +of languages have produced no literature. Among +the numerous tribes of Central Asia, Africa, America, +and Polynesia, language still lives in its natural state, +in a state of continual combustion; and it is there that +we must go if we wish to gain an insight into the +growth of human speech previous to its being arrested +by any literary interference. What we are accustomed +to call languages, the literary idioms of Greece, and +Rome, and India, of Italy, France, and Spain, must +be considered as artificial, rather than as natural forms +of speech. The real and natural life of language is in +its dialects, and in spite of the tyranny exercised by +the classical or literary idioms, the day is still very far +off which is to see the dialects, even of such classical +languages as Italian and French, entirely eradicated. +About twenty of the Italian dialects have been reduced +to writing, and made known by the press.<a id="noteref_34" name="noteref_34" href="#note_34"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">34</span></span></a> Champollion-Figeac +reckons the most distinguishable dialects of +France at fourteen.<a id="noteref_35" name="noteref_35" href="#note_35"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">35</span></span></a> +The number of modern Greek dialects<a id="noteref_36" name="noteref_36" href="#note_36"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">36</span></span></a> +is carried by some as high as seventy, and +though many of these are hardly more than local varieties, +yet some, like the Tzaconic, differ from the literary +language as much as Doric differed from Attic. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +In the island of Lesbos, villages distant from each other +not more than two or three hours have frequently peculiar +words of their own, and their own peculiar pronunciation.<a id="noteref_37" name="noteref_37" href="#note_37"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">37</span></span></a> +But let us take a language which, though not +without a literature, has been less under the influence +of classical writers than Italian or French, and we shall +then see at once how abundant the growth of dialects! +The Friesian, which is spoken on a small area on the +north-western coast of Germany, between the Scheldt +and Jutland, and on the islands near the shore, which +has been spoken there for at least two thousand years,<a id="noteref_38" name="noteref_38" href="#note_38"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">38</span></span></a> +and which possesses literary documents as old as the +twelfth century, is broken up into endless local dialects. +I quote from Kohl's Travels. <span class="tei tei-q">“The commonest +things,”</span> he writes, <span class="tei tei-q">“which are named almost alike +all over Europe, receive quite different names in the +different Friesian Islands. Thus, in Amrum, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">father</span></em> is +called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">aatj</span></em>; on the Halligs, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">baba</span></em> +or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">babe</span></em>; in Sylt, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">foder</span></em> +or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vaar</span></em>; in many districts on the main-land, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">täte</span></em>; in +the eastern part of Föhr, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">oti</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ohitj</span></em>. Although these +people live within a couple of German miles from each +other, these words differ more than the Italian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">padre</span></em> +and the English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">father</span></em>. Even the names of their districts +and islands are totally different in different dialects. +The island of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sylt</span></em> is called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Söl</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sol</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sal</span></em>.”</span> +Each of these dialects, though it might be made out by +a Friesian scholar, is unintelligible except to the peasants +of each narrow district in which it prevails. What +is therefore generally called the Friesian language, and +described as such in Friesian grammars, is in reality +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg 060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +but one out of many dialects, though, no doubt, the +most important; and the same holds good with regard +to all so-called literary languages. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is a mistake to imagine that dialects are everywhere +corruptions of the literary language. Even in +England,<a id="noteref_39" name="noteref_39" href="#note_39"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">39</span></span></a> the local patois have many forms which are +more primitive than the language of Shakespeare, and +the richness of their vocabulary surpasses, on many +points, that of the classical writers of any period. +Dialects have always been the feeders rather than +the channels of a literary language; anyhow, they +are parallel streams which existed long before one +of them was raised to that temporary eminence which +is the result of literary cultivation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What Grimm says of the origin of dialects in general +applies only to such as are produced by phonetic corruption. +<span class="tei tei-q">“Dialects,”</span> he writes,<a id="noteref_40" name="noteref_40" href="#note_40"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">40</span></span></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“develop themselves +progressively, and the more we look backward in the +history of language the smaller is their number, and the +less definite their features. All multiplicity arises gradually +from an original unity.”</span> So it seems, indeed, +if we build our theories of language exclusively on the +materials supplied by literary idioms, such as Sanskrit, +Greek, Latin, and Gothic. No doubt these are the +royal heads in the history of language. But as political +history ought to be more than a chronicle of royal +dynasties, so the historian of language ought never to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg 061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +lose sight of those lower and popular strata of speech +from which these dynasties originally sprang, and by +which alone they are supported. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Here, however, lies the difficulty. How are we to +trace the history of dialects? In the ancient history +of language, literary dialects alone supply us with materials, +whereas the very existence of spoken dialects is +hardly noticed by ancient writers. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We are told, indeed, by Pliny,<a id="noteref_41" name="noteref_41" href="#note_41"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">41</span></span></a> that in Colchis there +were more than three hundred tribes speaking different +dialects; and that the Romans, in order to carry on +any intercourse with the natives, had to employ a +hundred and thirty interpreters. This is probably an +exaggeration; but we have no reason to doubt the +statement of Strabo,<a id="noteref_42" name="noteref_42" href="#note_42"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">42</span></span></a> who speaks of seventy tribes living +together in that country, which, even now, is +called <span class="tei tei-q">“the mountain of languages.”</span> In modern times, +again, when missionaries have devoted themselves to +the study of the languages of savage and illiterate +tribes, they have seldom been able to do more than to +acquire one out of many dialects; and, when their exertions +have been at all successful, that dialect which +they had reduced to writing, and made the medium of +their civilizing influence, soon assumed a kind of literary +supremacy, so as to leave the rest behind as barbarous +jargons. Yet, whatever is known of the dialects +of savage tribes is chiefly or entirely due to missionaries; +and it is much to be desired that their attention +should again and again be directed to this interesting +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg 062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +problem of the dialectical life of language which they +alone have the means of elucidating. Gabriel Sagard, +who was sent as a missionary to the Hurons in 1626, +and published his <span class="tei tei-q">“Grand Voyage du pays des Hurons,”</span> +at Paris, in 1631, states that among these North +American tribes hardly one village speaks the same +language as another; nay, that two families of the +same village do not speak exactly the same language. +And he adds what is important, that their language +is changing every day, and is already so much changed +that the ancient Huron language is almost entirely different +from the present. During the last two hundred +years, on the contrary, the languages of the Hurons +and Iroquois are said not to have changed at +all.<a id="noteref_43" name="noteref_43" href="#note_43"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">43</span></span></a> We +read of missionaries<a id="noteref_44" name="noteref_44" href="#note_44"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">44</span></span></a> in Central America who attempted +to write down the language of savage tribes, and who +compiled with great care a dictionary of all the words +they could lay hold of. Returning to the same tribe +after the lapse of only ten years, they found that this +dictionary had become antiquated and useless. Old +words had sunk to the ground, and new ones had risen +to the surface; and to all outward appearance the +language was completely changed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Nothing surprised the Jesuit missionaries so much +as the immense number of languages spoken by the +natives of America. But this, far from being a proof +of a high state of civilization, rather showed that the +various races of America had never submitted, for any +length of time, to a powerful political concentration, +and that they had never succeeded in founding great +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +national empires. Hervas reduces, indeed, all the +dialects of America to eleven families<a id="noteref_45" name="noteref_45" href="#note_45"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">45</span></span></a>—four for +the south, and seven for the north; but this could +be done only by the same careful and minute comparison +which enables us to class the idioms spoken +in Iceland and Ceylon as cognate dialects. For practical +purposes the dialects of America are distinct +dialects, and the people who speak them are mutually +unintelligible. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We hear the same observations everywhere where +the rank growth of dialects has been watched by intelligent +observers. If we turn our eyes to Burmah, we +find that there the Burmese has produced a considerable +literature, and is the recognized medium of communication +not only in Burmah, but likewise in Pegu +and Arakan. But the intricate mountain ranges of the +peninsula of the Irawaddy<a id="noteref_46" name="noteref_46" href="#note_46"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">46</span></span></a> afford a safe refuge to many +independent tribes, speaking their own independent dialects; +and in the neighborhood of Manipura alone +Captain Gordon collected no less than twelve dialects. +<span class="tei tei-q">“Some of them,”</span> he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“are spoken by no more +than thirty or forty families, yet so different from the +rest as to be unintelligible to the nearest neighborhood.”</span> +Brown, the excellent American missionary, +who has spent his whole life in preaching the Gospel +in that part of the world, tells us that some tribes who +left their native village to settle in another valley, became +unintelligible to their forefathers in two or three +generations.<a id="noteref_47" name="noteref_47" href="#note_47"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">47</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the north of Asia the Ostiakes, as Messerschmidt +informs us, though really speaking the same language +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name="Pg064" id="Pg064" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +everywhere, have produced so many words and forms +peculiar to each tribe, that even within the limits of +twelve or twenty German miles, communication among +them becomes extremely difficult. Castren, the heroic +explorer of the languages of northern and central +Asia,<a id="noteref_48" name="noteref_48" href="#note_48"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">48</span></span></a> +assures us that some of the Mongolian dialects are actually +entering into a new phase of grammatical life; +and that while the literary language of the Mongolians +has no terminations for the persons of the verb, that +characteristic feature of Turanian speech had lately +broken out in the spoken dialects of the Buriates +and in the Tungusic idioms near Njertschinsk in +Siberia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +One more observation of the same character from +the pen of Robert Moffat, in his <span class="tei tei-q">“Missionary Scenes +and Labors in Southern Africa.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“The purity and +harmony of language,”</span> he writes, <span class="tei tei-q">“is kept up by their +pitches, or public meetings, by their festivals and ceremonies, +as well as by their songs and their constant +intercourse. With the isolated villagers of the desert +it is far otherwise; they have no such meetings; they +are compelled to traverse the wilds, often to a great +distance from their native village. On such occasions +fathers and mothers, and all who can bear a burden, +often set out for weeks at a time, and leave their children +to the care of two or three infirm old people. +The infant progeny, some of whom are beginning to +lisp, while others can just master a whole sentence, and +those still further advanced, romping and playing together, +the children of nature, through their livelong +day, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">become habituated to a language of their own</span></em>. The +more voluble condescend to the less precocious; and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page065">[pg 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +thus, from this infant Babel, proceeds a dialect of a +host of mongrel words and phrases, joined together +without rule, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">in the course of one generation the entire +character of the language is changed</span></em>.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Such is the life of language in a state of nature; and +in a similar manner, we have a right to conclude, languages +grew up which we only know after the bit and +bridle of literature were thrown over their necks. It +need not be a written or classical literature to give an +ascendency to one out of many dialects, and to impart +to its peculiarities an undisputed legitimacy. Speeches +at pitches or public meetings, popular ballads, national +laws, religious oracles, exercise, though to a smaller +extent, the same influence. They will arrest the natural +flow of language in the countless rivulets of its +dialects, and give a permanency to certain formations +of speech which, without these external influences, +could have enjoyed but an ephemeral existence. +Though we cannot fully enter, at present, on the problem +of the origin of language, yet this we can clearly +see, that, whatever the origin of language was, its first +tendency must have been towards an unbounded variety. +To this there was, however, a natural check, +which prepared from the very beginning the growth +of national and literary languages. The language of +the father became the language of a family; the language +of a family that of a clan. In one and the +same clan different families would preserve among +themselves their own familiar forms and expressions. +They would add new words, some so fanciful and +quaint as to be hardly intelligible to other members of +the same clan. Such expressions would naturally be +suppressed, as we suppress provincial peculiarities and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg 066]</span><a name="Pg066" id="Pg066" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +pet words of our own, at large assemblies where all +clansmen meet and are expected to take part in general +discussions. But they would be cherished all the more +round the fire of each tent, in proportion as the general +dialect of the clan assumed a more formal character. +Class dialects, too, would spring up; the dialects of +servants, grooms, shepherds, and soldiers. Women +would have their own household words; and the rising +generation would not be long without a more racy +phraseology of their own. Even we, in this literary +age, and at a distance of thousands of years from those +early fathers of language, do not speak at home as we +speak in public. The same circumstances which give +rise to the formal language of a clan, as distinguished +from the dialects of families, produce, on a larger scale, +the languages of a confederation of clans, of nascent +colonies, of rising nationalities. Before there is a national +language, there have always been hundreds of +dialects in districts, towns, villages, clans, and families; +and though the progress of civilization and centralization +tends to reduce their number and to soften their +features, it has not as yet annihilated them, even in +our own time. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now look again at what is commonly called +the history, but what ought to be called, the natural +growth, of language, and we shall easily see that it +consists chiefly in the play of the two principles which +we have just examined, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">phonetic decay</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dialectical +regeneration</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">growth</span></em>. Let us take the six Romance +languages. It is usual to call these the daughters of +Latin. I do not object to the names of parent and +daughter as applied to languages; only we must not +allow such apparently clear and simple terms to cover +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg 067]</span><a name="Pg067" id="Pg067" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +obscure and vague conceptions. Now if we call Italian +the daughter of Latin, we do not mean to ascribe +to Italian a new vital principle. Not a single radical +element was newly created for the formation of Italian. +Italian is Latin in a new form. Italian is modern +Latin, or Latin ancient Italian. The names <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mother</span></em> +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">daughter</span></em> only mark different periods in the growth +of a language substantially the same. To speak of +Latin dying in giving birth to her offspring is again +pure mythology, and it would be easy to prove that +Latin was a living language long after Italian had +learnt to run alone. Only let us clearly see what +we mean by Latin. The classical Latin is one out of +many dialects spoken by the Aryan inhabitants of +Italy. It was the dialect of Latium, in Latium the +dialect of Rome, at Rome the dialect of the patricians. +It was fixed by Livius Andronicus, Ennius, Nævius, +Cato, and Lucretius, polished by the Scipios, Hortensius, +and Cicero. It was the language of a restricted +class, of a political party, of a literary set. Before +their time, the language of Rome must have changed +and fluctuated considerably. Polybius tells us (iii. +22), that the best-informed Romans could not make +out without difficulty the language of the ancient +treaties between Rome and Carthage. Horace admits +(Ep. ii. 1, 86), that he could not understand the +old Salian poems, and he hints that no one else could. +Quintilian (i. 6, 40) says that the Salian priests could +hardly understand their sacred hymns. If the plebeians +had obtained the upperhand over the patricians, +Latin would have been very different from what it is +in Cicero, and we know that even Cicero, having been +brought up at Arpinum, had to give up some of his +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page068">[pg 068]</span><a name="Pg068" id="Pg068" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +provincial peculiarities, such as the dropping of the +final <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em>, when he began to mix in fashionable society, +and had to write for his new patrician friends.<a id="noteref_49" name="noteref_49" href="#note_49"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">49</span></span></a> After +having been established as the language of legislation, +religion, literature, and general civilization, the classical +Latin dialect became stationary and stagnant. It +could not grow, because it was not allowed to change +or to deviate from its classical correctness. It was +haunted by its own ghost. Literary dialects, or what +are commonly called classical languages, pay for their +temporary greatness by inevitable decay. They are +like stagnant lakes at the side of great rivers. They +form reservoirs of what was once living and running +speech, but they are no longer carried on by the main +current. At times it may seem as if the whole stream +of language was absorbed by these lakes, and we can +hardly trace the small rivulets which run on in the +main bed. But if lower down, that is to say, later in +history, we meet again with a new body of stationary +language, forming or formed, we may be sure that its +tributaries were those very rivulets which for a time +were almost lost from our sight. Or it may be more +accurate to compare a classical or literary idiom with +the frozen surface of a river, brilliant and smooth, but +stiff and cold. It is mostly by political commotions +that this surface of the more polite and cultivated +speech is broken and carried away by the waters rising +underneath. It is during times when the higher classes +are either crushed in religious and social struggles, or +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page069">[pg 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +mix again with the lower classes to repel foreign invasion; +when literary occupations are discouraged, palaces +burnt, monasteries pillaged, and seats of learning +destroyed,—it is then that the popular, or, as they are +called, the vulgar dialects, which had formed a kind +of undercurrent, rise beneath the crystal surface of +the literary language, and sweep away, like the waters +in spring, the cumbrous formations of a by-gone age. +In more peaceful times, a new and popular literature +springs up in a language which <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">seems</span></em> to have been +formed by conquests or revolutions, but which, in +reality, had been growing up long before, and was +only brought out, ready made, by historical events. +From this point of view we can see that no literary +language can ever be said to have been the mother of +another language. As soon as a language loses its +unbounded capability of change, its carelessness about +what it throws away, and its readiness in always supplying +instantaneously the wants of mind and heart, its +natural life is changed into a merely artificial existence. +It may still live on for a long time, but while it seems +to be the leading shoot, it is in reality but a broken and +withering branch, slowly falling from the stock from +which it sprang. The sources of Italian are not to be +found in the classical literature of Rome, but in the +popular dialects of Italy. English did not spring from +the Anglo-Saxon of Wessex only, but from the dialects +spoken in every part of Great Britain, distinguished +by local peculiarities, and modified at different +times by the influence of Latin, Danish, Norman, +French, and other foreign elements. Some of the +local dialects of English, as spoken at the present day, +are of great importance for a critical study of English, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070" id="Pg070" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and a French prince, now living in this country, deserves +great credit for collecting what can still be saved +of English dialects. Hindustani is not the daughter +of Sanskrit, as we find it in the Vedas, or in the later +literature of the Brahmans: it is a branch of the living +speech of India, springing from the same stem +from which Sanskrit sprang, when it first assumed its +literary independence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +While thus endeavoring to place the character of +dialects, as the feeders of language, in a clear light, I +may appear to some of my hearers to have exaggerated +their importance. No doubt, if my object had been +different, I might easily have shown that, without +literary cultivation, language would never have acquired +that settled character which is essential for the communication +of thought; that it would never have fulfilled +its highest purpose, but have remained the mere jargon +of shy troglodytes. But as the importance of literary +languages is not likely to be overlooked, whereas the +importance of dialects, as far as they sustain the growth +of language, had never been pointed out, I thought it +better to dwell on the advantages which literary languages +derive from dialects, rather than on the benefits +which dialects owe to literary languages. Besides, our +chief object to-day was to explain the growth of language, +and for that purpose it is impossible to exaggerate +the importance of the constant undergrowth of +dialects. Remove a language from its native soil, tear +it away from the dialects which are its feeders, and you +arrest at once its natural growth. There will still be +the progress of phonetic corruption, but no longer the +restoring influence of dialectic regeneration. The +language which the Norwegian refugees brought to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Iceland has remained almost the same for seven centuries, +whereas on its native soil, and surrounded by +local dialects, it has grown into two distinct languages, +the Swedish and Danish. In the eleventh century, +the languages of Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland are +supposed<a id="noteref_50" name="noteref_50" href="#note_50"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">50</span></span></a> +to have been identical, nor can we appeal +to foreign conquest, or to the admixture of foreign with +native blood, in order to account for the changes which +the language underwent in Sweden and Denmark, but +not in Iceland.<a id="noteref_51" name="noteref_51" href="#note_51"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">51</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We can hardly form an idea of the unbounded resources +of dialects. When literary languages have +stereotyped one general term, their dialects will supply +fifty, though each with its own special shade of meaning. +If new combinations of thought are evolved in +the progress of society, dialects will readily supply the +required names from the store of their so-called superfluous +words. There are not only local and provincial, +but also class dialects. There is a dialect of shepherds, +of sportsmen, of soldiers, of farmers. I suppose there +are few persons here present who could tell the exact +meaning of a horse's poll, crest, withers, dock, hamstring, +cannon, pastern, coronet, arm, jowl, and muzzle. +Where the literary language speaks of the young +of all sorts of animals, farmers, shepherds, and sportsmen +would be ashamed to use so general a term. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The idiom of nomads,”</span> as Grimm says, <span class="tei tei-q">“contains +an abundant wealth of manifold expressions for sword +and weapons, and for the different stages in the life of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg 072]</span><a name="Pg072" id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +their cattle. In a more highly cultivated language +these expressions become burthensome and superfluous. +But, in a peasant's mouth, the bearing, calving, falling, +and killing of almost every animal has its own peculiar +term, as the sportsman delights in calling the gait and +members of game by different names. The eye of +these shepherds, who live in the free air, sees further, +their ear hears more sharply,—why should their speech +not have gained that living truth and variety?”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thus Juliana Berners, lady prioress of the nunnery +of Sopwell in the fifteenth century, the reputed author of +the book of St. Albans, informs us that we must not +use names of multitudes promiscuously, but we are to +say, <span class="tei tei-q">“a congregacyon of people, a hoost of men, a felyshyppynge +of yomen, and a bevy of ladies; we must +speak of a herde of dere, swannys, cranys, or wrenys, +a sege of herons or bytourys, a muster of pecockes, a +watche of nyghtyngales, a flyghte of doves, a claterynge +of choughes, a pryde of lyons, a slewthe of +beeres, a gagle of geys, a skulke of foxes, a sculle of +frerys, a pontificality of prestys, a bomynable syght of +monkes, and a superfluyte of nonnes,”</span> and so of other +human and brute assemblages. In like manner, in +dividing game for the table, the animals were not +carved, but <span class="tei tei-q">“a dere was broken, a gose reryd, chekyn +frusshed, a cony unlaced, a crane dysplayed, a curlewe +unioynted, a quayle wynggyd, a swanne lyfte, a lambe +sholdered, a heron dysmembryd, a pecocke dysfygured, +a samon chynyd, a hadoke sydyd, a sole loynyd, and a +breme splayed.”</span><a id="noteref_52" name="noteref_52" href="#note_52"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">52</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What, however, I wanted particularly to point out +in this lecture is this, that neither of the causes which +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg 073]</span><a name="Pg073" id="Pg073" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +produce the growth, or, according to others, constitute +the history of language, is under the control of man. +The phonetic decay of language is not the result of +mere accident; it is governed by definite laws, as we +shall see when we come to consider the principles of +comparative grammar. But these laws were not made +by man; on the contrary, man had to obey them without +knowing of their existence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the growth of the modern Romance languages +out of Latin, we can perceive not only a general tendency +to simplification, not only a natural disposition +to avoid the exertion which the pronunciation of certain +consonants, and still more, of groups of consonants, +entails on the speaker: but we can see distinct +laws for each of the Romance dialects, which enable +us to say, that in French the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">patrem</span></em> would +naturally grow into the modern <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">père</span></em>. The final <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">m</span></em> +is always dropped in the Romance dialects, and it was +dropped even in Latin. Thus we get <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">patre</span></em> instead of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">patrem</span></em>. Now, a Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">t</span></em> between two vowels in such +words as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pater</span></em> is invariably suppressed in French. +This is a law, and by means of it we can discover at +once that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">catena</span></em> must become <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">chaine</span></em>; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fata</span></em>, a later feminine +representation of the old neuter <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fatum</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fée</span></em>; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pratum</span></em> +a meadow, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pré</span></em>. From <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pratum</span></em> we derive <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">prataria</span></em>, +which in French becomes <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">prairie</span></em>; from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fatum</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fataria</span></em>, +the English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fairy</span></em>. Thus every Latin participle in +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">atus</span></em>, like <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">amatus</span></em>, loved, must end in French in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">é</span></em>. +The same law then changed <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">patre</span></em>(pronounced <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pa-tere</span></em>) +into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">paere</span></em>, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">père</span></em>; it changed +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">matrem</span></em> into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mère</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fratrem</span></em> into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">frère</span></em>. These changes take place gradually +but irresistibly, and, what is most important, they +are completely beyond the reach or control of the free +will of man. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Dialectical growth again is still more beyond the control +of individuals. For although a poet may knowingly +and intentionally invent a new word, its acceptance +depends on circumstances which defy individual +interference. There are some changes in the +grammar which at first sight might seem to be mainly +attributable to the caprice of the speaker. Granted, +for instance, that the loss of the Latin terminations +was the natural result of a more careless pronunciation; +granted that the modern sign of the French +genitive <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">du</span></em> is a natural corruption of the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">de +illo</span></em>,—yet the choice of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">de</span></em>, instead of any other word, +to express the genitive, the choice of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">illo</span></em>, instead of +any other pronoun, to express the article, might seem +to prove that man acted as a free agent in the formation +of language. But it is not so. No single individual +could deliberately have set to work in order +to abolish the old Latin genitive, and to replace it by +the periphrastic compound <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">de illo</span></em>. It was necessary +that the inconvenience of having no distinct or distinguishable +sign of the genitive should have been felt by +the people who spoke a vulgar Latin dialect. It was +necessary that the same people should have used the +preposition <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">de</span></em> in such a manner as to lose sight of its +original local meaning altogether (for instance, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">una de +multis</span></em>, in Horace, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, one out of many). It was +necessary, again, that the same people should have +felt the want of an article, and should have used <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">illo</span></em> +in numerous expressions, where it seemed to have +lost its original pronominal power. It was necessary +that all these conditions should be given, before +one individual and after him another, and after +him hundreds and thousands and millions, could use +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name="Pg075" id="Pg075" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">de illo</span></em> as the exponent of the genitive; and change +it into the Italian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dello</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">del</span></em>, and the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">du</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The attempts of single grammarians and purists to +improve language are perfectly bootless; and we shall +probably hear no more of schemes to prune languages +of their irregularities. It is very likely, however, that +the gradual disappearance of irregular declensions and +conjugations is due, in literary as well as in illiterate +languages, to the dialect of children. The language +of children is more regular than our own. I have +heard children say <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">badder</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">baddest</span></em>, instead of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">worse</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">worst</span></em>. Children will +say, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I gaed</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I coomd</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I catched</span></em>; and it is this sense of grammatical justice, +this generous feeling of what ought to be, which in +the course of centuries has eliminated many so-called +irregular forms. Thus the auxiliary verb in Latin was +very irregular. If <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sumus</span></em> is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">we are</span></em>, and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sunt</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">they are</span></em>, +the second person, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">you are</span></em>, ought to have been, at least +according to the strict logic of children, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sutis</span></em>. This, +no doubt, sounds very barbarous to a classical ear accustomed +to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">estis</span></em>. And we see how French, for instance, +has strictly preserved the Latin forms in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nous +sommes</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vous êtes</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ils sont</span></em>. But in Spanish we find +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">somos</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sois</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">son</span></em>; +and this <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sois</span></em> stands for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sutis</span></em>. We +find similar traces of grammatical levelling in the +Italian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">siamo</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">siete</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sono</span></em>, +formed in analogy of regular verbs such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">crediamo</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">credete</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">credono</span></em>. The second +person, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sei</span></em>, instead of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">es</span></em>, is likewise infantine grammar. +So are the Wallachian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">súntemu</span></em>, we are, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">súnteti</span></em>, you are, +which owe their origin to the third person plural <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">súnt</span></em>, +they are. And what shall we say of such monsters as +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">essendo</span></em>, a gerund derived on principles of strict justice +from an infinitive <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">essere</span></em>, like <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">credendo</span></em> +from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">credere</span></em>! +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg 076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +However, we need not be surprised, for we find similar +barbarisms in English. Even in Anglo-Saxon, the +third person plural, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sind</span></em>, has by a false analogy been +transferred to the first and second persons; and instead +of the modern English, +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="4"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">in Old Norse.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">in Gothic.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">we are</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">ër-um</td><td class="tei tei-cell">sijum<a id="noteref_53" name="noteref_53" href="#note_53"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">53</span></span></a></td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">you are</td><td class="tei tei-cell">we find</td><td class="tei tei-cell">ër-udh</td><td class="tei tei-cell">sijuth</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">they are</td><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">ër-u.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">sind.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Dialectically we hear <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I be</span></em>, instead of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I am</span></em>; and if +Chartism should ever gain the upper hand, we must be +prepared for newspapers adopting such forms as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I says</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I knows</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These various influences and conditions under which +language grows and changes, are like the waves and +winds which carry deposits to the bottom of the sea, +where they accumulate, and rise, and grow, and at last +appear on the surface of the earth as a stratum, perfectly +intelligible in all its component parts, not produced +by an inward principle of growth, nor regulated +by invariable laws of nature; yet, on the other hand, +by no means the result of mere accident, or the production +of lawless and uncontrolled agencies. We +cannot be careful enough in the use of our words. +Strictly speaking, neither <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">history</span></em> nor <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">growth</span></em> is applicable +to the changes of the shifting surface of the earth. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">History</span></em> applies to the actions of free agents; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">growth</span></em> to +the natural unfolding of organic beings. We speak, +however, of the growth of the crust of the earth, and +we know what we mean by it; and it is in this sense, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg 077]</span><a name="Pg077" id="Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +but not in the sense of growth as applied to a tree, that +we have a right to speak of the growth of language. +If that modification which takes place in time by continually +new combinations of given elements, which +withdraws itself from the control of free agents, and +can in the end be recognized as the result of natural +agencies, may be called growth; and if so defined, we +may apply it to the growth of the crust of the earth; +the same word, in the same sense, will be applicable to +language, and will justify us in removing the science +of language from the pale of the historical to that of +the physical sciences. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is another objection which we have to consider, +and the consideration of which will again help +us to understand more clearly the real character of +language. The great periods in the growth of the +earth which have been established by geological research +are brought to their close, or very nearly so, +when we discover the first vestiges of human life, and +when the history of man, in the widest sense of the +word, begins. The periods in the growth of language, +on the contrary, begin and run parallel with the history +of man. It has been said, therefore, that although +language may not be merely a work of art, it would, +nevertheless, be impossible to understand the life and +growth of any language without an historical knowledge +of the times in which that language grew up. +We ought to know, it is said, whether a language +which is to be analyzed under the microscope of comparative +grammar, has been growing up wild, among +wild tribes, without a literature, oral or written, in +poetry or in prose; or whether it has received the cultivation +of poets, priests, and orators, and retained the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078" id="Pg078" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +impress of a classical age. Again, it is only from the +annals of political history that we can learn whether +one language has come in contact with another, how +long this contact has lasted, which of the two nations +stood higher in civilization, which was the conquering +and which the conquered, which of the two established +the laws, the religion, and the arts of the country, +and which produced the greatest number of national +teachers, popular poets, and successful demagogues. +All these questions are of a purely historical character, +and the science which has to borrow so much from +historical sources, might well be considered an anomaly +in the sphere of the physical sciences. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now, in answer to this, it cannot be denied that +among the physical sciences none is so intimately connected +with the history of man as the science of language. +But a similar connection, though in a less +degree, can be shown to exist between other branches +of physical research and the history of man. In +zoölogy, for instance, it is of some importance to know +at what particular period of history, in what country, +and for what purposes certain animals were tamed and +domesticated. In ethnology, a science, we may remark +in passing, quite distinct from the science of +language, it would be difficult to account for the Caucasian +stamp impressed on the Mongolian race in +Hungary, or on the Tatar race in Turkey, unless we +knew from written documents the migrations and settlements +of the Mongolic and Tataric tribes in Europe. +A botanist, again, comparing several specimens of rye, +would find it difficult to account for their respective +peculiarities, unless he knew that in some parts of the +world this plant has been cultivated for centuries, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name="Pg079" id="Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +whereas in other regions, as, for instance, in Mount +Caucasus, it is still allowed to grow wild. Plants +have their own countries, like races, and the presence +of the cucumber in Greece, the orange and cherry in +Italy, the potatoe in England, and the vine at the Cape, +can be fully explained by the historian only. The +more intimate relation, therefore, between the history +of language and the history of man is not sufficient to +exclude the science of language from the circle of the +physical sciences. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Nay, it might be shown, that, if strictly defined, the +science of language can declare itself completely independent +of history. If we speak of the language of +England, we ought, no doubt, to know something of +the political history of the British Isles, in order to +understand the present state of that language. Its history +begins with the early Britons, who spoke a Celtic +dialect; it carries us on to the Saxon conquest, to the +Danish invasions, to the Norman conquest: and we +see how each of these political events contributed to +the formation of the character of the language. The +language of England may be said to have been in succession +Celtic, Saxon, Norman, and English. But if +we speak of the history of the English language, we +enter on totally different ground. The English language +was never Celtic, the Celtic never grew into +Saxon, nor the Saxon into Norman, nor the Norman +into English. The history of the Celtic language runs +on to the present day. It matters not whether it be +spoken by all the inhabitants of the British Isles, or +only by a small minority in Wales, Ireland, and Scotland. +A language, as long as it is spoken by anybody, +lives and has its substantive existence. The last +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +old woman that spoke Cornish, and to whose memory +it is now intended to raise a monument, represented by +herself alone the ancient language of Cornwall. A +Celt may become an Englishman, Celtic and English +blood may be mixed; and who could tell at the present +day the exact proportion of Celtic and Saxon +blood in the population of England? But languages +are never mixed. It is indifferent by what name +the language spoken in the British Islands be called, +whether English or British or Saxon; to the student +of language English is Teutonic, and nothing but +Teutonic. The physiologist may protest, and point +out that in many instances the skull, or the bodily +habitat of the English language, is of a Celtic type; +the genealogist may protest and prove that the arms +of many an English family are of Norman origin; the +student of language must follow his own way. Historical +information as to an early substratum of Celtic +inhabitants in Britain, as to Saxon, Danish, and Norman +invasions may be useful to him. But though +every record were burned, and every skull mouldered, +the English language, as spoken by any ploughboy, +would reveal its own history, if analyzed according to +the rules of comparative grammar. Without the help +of history, we should see that English is Teutonic, +that like Dutch and Friesian it belongs to the Low-German +branch; that this branch, together with the +High-German, Gothic, and Scandinavian branches, +constitute the Teutonic class; that this Teutonic class, +together with the Celtic, Slavonic, the Hellenic, Italic, +Iranic, and Indic classes constitute the great Indo-European +or Aryan family of speech. In the English +dictionary the student of the science of language +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg 081]</span><a name="Pg081" id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +can detect, by his own tests, Celtic, Norman, Greek, +and Latin ingredients, but not a single drop of foreign +blood has entered into the organic system of the English +language. The grammar, the blood and soul of +the language, is as pure and unmixed in English as +spoken in the British Isles, as it was when spoken on +the shores of the German Ocean by the Angles, Saxons, +and Juts of the continent. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In thus considering and refuting the objections which +have been, or might be, made against the admission of +the science of language into the circle of the physical +sciences, we have arrived at some results which it may +be useful to recapitulate before we proceed further. +We saw that whereas philology treats language only as +a means, comparative philology chooses language as the +object of scientific inquiry. It is not the study of one +language, but of many, and in the end of all, which +forms the aim of this new science. Nor is the language +of Homer of greater interest, in the scientific +treatment of human speech, than the dialect of the +Hottentots. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We saw, secondly, that after the first practical acquisition +and careful analysis of the facts and forms of +any language, the next and most important step is the +classification of all the varieties of human speech, and +that only after this has been accomplished would it be +safe to venture on the great questions which underlie +all physical research, the questions as to the what, the +whence, and the why of language. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We saw, thirdly, that there is a distinction between +what is called history and growth. We determined the +true meaning of growth, as applied to language, and +perceived how it was independent of the caprice of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page082">[pg 082]</span><a name="Pg082" id="Pg082" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +man, and governed by laws that could be discovered +by careful observation, and be traced back in the end +to higher laws, which govern the organs both of human +thought, and of the human voice. Though admitting +that the science of language was more intimately connected +than any other physical science with what is +called the political history of man, we found that, +strictly speaking, our science might well dispense with +this auxiliary, and that languages can be analyzed and +classified on their own evidence particularly on the +strength of their grammatical articulation, without +any reference to the individuals, families, clans, tribes, +nations, or races by whom they are or have been +spoken. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the course of these considerations, we had to lay +down two axioms, to which we shall frequently have to +appeal in the progress of our investigations. The first +declares grammar to be the most essential element, and +therefore the ground of classification in all languages +which have produced a definite grammatical articulation; +the second denies the possibility of a mixed +language. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These two axioms are, in reality, but one, as we +shall see when we examine them more closely. +There is hardly a language which in one sense may +not be called a mixed language. No nation or tribe +was ever so completely isolated as not to admit the +importation of a certain number of foreign words. +In some instances these imported words have changed +the whole native aspect of the language, and have +even acquired a majority over the native element. +Turkish is a Turanian dialect; its grammar is purely +Tataric or Turanian. The Turks, however, possessed +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083" id="Pg083" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +but a small literature and narrow civilization +before they were converted to Mohammedanism. Now, +the language of Mohammed was Arabic, a branch of +the Semitic family, closely allied to Hebrew and Syriac. +Together with the Koran, and their law and religion, +the Turks learned from the Arabs, their conquerors, +many of the arts and sciences connected with a more +advanced stage of civilization. Arabic became to the +Turks what Latin was to the Germans during the +Middle Ages; and there is hardly a word in the higher +intellectual terminology of Arabic, that might not be +used, more or less naturally, by a writer in Turkish. +But the Arabs, again, at the very outset of their career +of conquest and conversion, had been, in science, art, +literature, and polite manners, the pupils of the Persians, +whom they had conquered; they stood to them in +the same relation as the Romans stood to the Greeks. +Now, the Persians speak a language which is neither +Semitic, like Arabic, nor Turanian, like Turkish; it is +a branch of the Indo-European or Aryan family of +speech. A large infusion of Persian words thus found +its way into Arabic, and through Arabic into Turkish; +and the result is that at the present moment the Turkish +language, as spoken by the higher ranks at Constantinople, +is so entirely overgrown with Persian and Arabic +words, that a common clod from the country understands +but little of the so-called Osmanli, though its +grammar is exactly the same as the grammar which he +uses in his Tataric utterance. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is, perhaps, no language so full of words evidently +derived from the most distant sources as English. +Every country of the globe seems to have brought some +of its verbal manufactures to the intellectual market of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +England. Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Celtic, Saxon, Danish, +French, Spanish, Italian, German—nay, even Hindustani, +Malay, and Chinese words, lie mixed together +in the English dictionary. On the evidence of words +alone it would be impossible to classify English with +any other of the established stocks and stems of human +speech. Leaving out of consideration the smaller ingredients, +we find, on comparing the Teutonic with +the Latin, or Neo-Latin or Norman elements in English, +that the latter have a decided majority over the +home-grown Saxon terms. This may seem incredible; +and if we simply took a page of any English book, and +counted therein the words of purely Saxon and Latin +origin, the majority would be no doubt on the Saxon +side. The articles, pronouns, prepositions, and auxiliary +verbs, all of which are of Saxon growth, occur +over and over again in one and the same page. Thus, +Hickes maintained that nine tenths of the English dictionary +were Saxon, because there were only three +words of Latin origin in the Lord's prayer. Sharon +Turner, who extended his observations over a larger +field, came to the conclusion that the relation of Norman +to Saxon was as four to six. Another writer, +who estimates the whole number of English words at +38,000, assigns 23,000 to a Saxon, and 15,000 to a +classical source. On taking, however, a more accurate +inventory, and counting every word in the dictionaries +of Robertson and Webster, M. Thommerel +has established the fact that of the sum total of 43,566 +words, 29,853 came from classical, 13,230 from Teutonic, +and the rest from miscellaneous sources.<a id="noteref_54" name="noteref_54" href="#note_54"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">54</span></span></a> On the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page085">[pg 085]</span><a name="Pg085" id="Pg085" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +evidence of its dictionary, therefore, and treating English +as a mixed language, it would have to be classified +together with French, Italian, and Spanish, as one of +the Romance or Neo-Latin dialects. Languages, however, +though mixed in their dictionary, can never be +mixed in their grammar. Hervas was told by missionaries +that in the middle of the eighteenth century the +Araucans used hardly a single word which was not Spanish, +though they preserved both the grammar and the +syntax of their own native speech.<a id="noteref_55" name="noteref_55" href="#note_55"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">55</span></span></a> +This is the reason +why grammar is made the criterion of the relationship +and the base of the classification in almost all languages; +and it follows, therefore, as a matter of course, +that in the classification and in the science of language, +it is impossible to admit the existence of a mixed idiom. +We may form whole sentences in English consisting entirely +of Latin or Romance words; yet whatever there +is left of grammar in English bears unmistakable traces +of Teutonic workmanship. What may now be called +grammar in English is little more than the terminations +of the genitive singular, and nominative plural +of nouns, the degrees of comparison, and a few of the +persons and tenses of the verb. Yet the single <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em>, used +as the exponent of the third person singular of the indicative +present, is irrefragable evidence that in a scientific +classification of languages, English, though it did +not retain a single word of Saxon origin, would have +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page086">[pg 086]</span><a name="Pg086" id="Pg086" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to be classed as Saxon, and as a branch of the great +Teutonic stem of the Aryan family of speech. In ancient +and less matured languages, grammar, or the +formal part of human speech, is far more abundantly +developed than in English; and it is, therefore, a much +safer guide for discovering a family likeness in scattered +members of the same family. There are languages in +which there is no trace of what we are accustomed to +call grammar; for instance, ancient Chinese; there are +others in which we can still watch the growth of grammar, +or, more correctly, the gradual lapse of material +into merely formal elements. In these languages new +principles of classification will have to be applied, such +as are suggested by the study of natural history; and +we shall have to be satisfied with the criteria of a morphological +affinity, instead of those of a genealogical +relationship. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I have thus answered, I hope, some of the objections +which threatened to deprive the science of language of +that place which she claims in the circle of the physical +sciences. We shall see in our next lecture what the +history of our science has been from its beginning to +the present day, and how far it may be said to have +passed through the three stages, the empirical, the classificatory, +and the theoretical, which mark the childhood, +the youth, and the manhood of every one of the +natural sciences. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087" id="Pg087" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a> +<a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Lecture III. The Empirical Stage.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We begin to-day to trace the historical progress of +the science of language in its three stages, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Empirical</span></em>, +the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Classificatory</span></em>, and the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Theoretical</span></em>. As a general +rule each physical science begins with analysis, proceeds +to classification, and ends with theory; but, as I +pointed out in my first lecture, there are frequent exceptions +to this rule, and it is by no means uncommon to find +that philosophical speculations, which properly belong +to the last or theoretical stage, were attempted in physical +sciences long before the necessary evidence had +been collected or arranged. Thus, we find that the +science of language, in the only two countries where +we can watch its origin and history—in India and +Greece—rushes at once into theories about the mysterious +nature of speech, and cares as little for facts +as the man who wrote an account of the camel without +ever having seen the animal or the desert. The +Brahmans, in the hymns of the Veda, raised language +to the rank of a deity, as they did with all things of +which they knew not what they were. They addressed +hymns to her in which she is said to have +been with the gods from the beginning, achieving +wondrous things, and never revealed to man except +in part. In the Bráhmaņas, language is called the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +cow, breath the bull, and their young is said to be +the mind of man.<a id="noteref_56" name="noteref_56" href="#note_56"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">56</span></span></a> Brahman, the highest being, is +said to be known through speech, nay, speech herself +is called the Supreme Brahman. At a very early +period, however, the Brahmans recovered from their +raptures about language, and set to work with wonderful +skill dissecting her sacred body. Their achievements +in grammatical analysis, which date from the +sixth century, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>, are still unsurpassed in the grammatical +literature of any nation. The idea of reducing +a whole language to a small number of roots, +which in Europe was not attempted before the sixteenth +century by Henry Estienne,<a id="noteref_57" name="noteref_57" href="#note_57"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">57</span></span></a> was perfectly +familiar to the Brahmans, at least 500 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Greeks, though they did not raise language to +the rank of a deity, paid her, nevertheless, the greatest +honors in their ancient schools of philosophy. There +is hardly one of their representative philosophers who +has not left some saying on the nature of language. +The world without, or nature, and the world within, +or mind, did not excite more wonder and elicit deeper +oracles of wisdom from the ancient sages of Greece +than language, the image of both, of nature and of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg 089]</span><a name="Pg089" id="Pg089" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +mind. <span class="tei tei-q">“What is language?”</span> was a question asked +quite as early as <span class="tei tei-q">“What am I?”</span> and, <span class="tei tei-q">“What is all this +world around me?”</span> The problem of language was +in fact a recognized battle-field for the different schools +of ancient Greek philosophy, and we shall have to +glance at their early guesses on the nature of human +speech, when we come to consider the third or theoretical +stage in the science of language. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At present, we have to look for the early traces of +the first or empirical stage. And here it might seem +doubtful what was the real work to be assigned to +this stage. What can be meant by the empirical treatment +of language? Who were the men that did for +language what the sailor did for his stars, the miner for +his minerals, the gardener for his flowers? Who was +the first to give any thought to language?—to distinguish +between its component parts, between nouns and +verbs, between articles and pronouns, between the nominative +and accusative, the active and passive? Who +invented these terms, and for what purpose were they +invented? +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We must be careful in answering these questions, +for, as I said before, the merely empirical analysis of +language was preceded in Greece by more general inquiries +into the nature of thought and language; and +the result has been that many of the technical terms +which form the nomenclature of empirical grammar, +existed in the schools of philosophy long before they +were handed over, ready made, to the grammarian. +The distinction of noun and verb, or more correctly, +of subject and predicate, was the work of philosophers. +Even the technical terms of case, of number, and gender, +were coined at a very early time for the purpose +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of entering into the nature of thought; not for the +practical purpose of analyzing the forms of language. +This, their practical application to the spoken language +of Greece, was the work of a later generation. It was +the teacher of languages who first compared the categories +of thought with the realities of the Greek language. +It was he who transferred the terminology of +Aristotle and the Stoics from thought to speech, from +logic to grammar; and thus opened the first roads +into the impervious wilderness of spoken speech. In +doing this, the grammarian had to alter the strict acceptation +of many of the terms which he borrowed +from the philosopher, and he had to coin others before +he could lay hold of all the facts of language even in the +roughest manner. For, indeed, the distinction between +noun and verb, between active and passive, between +nominative and accusative, does not help us much towards +a scientific analysis of language. It is no more +than a first grasp, and it can only be compared with +the most elementary terminology in other branches of +human knowledge. Nevertheless, it was a beginning, +a very important beginning; and if we preserve in our +histories of the world the names of those who are said +to have discovered the four physical elements, the +names of a Thales and Anaximenes, we ought not +to forget the names of the discoverers of the elements +of language—the founders of one of the most useful +and most successful branches of philosophy—the first +Grammarians. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Grammar then, in the usual sense of the word, or +the merely formal and empirical analysis of language, +owes its origin, like all other sciences, to a very natural +and practical want. The first practical grammarian +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" id="Pg091" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was the first practical teacher of languages, and if +we want to know the beginnings of the science of +language, we must try to find out at what time in +the history of the world, and under what circumstances, +people first thought of learning any language +besides their own. At <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">that</span></em> time we shall find the +first practical grammar, and not till then. Much +may have been ready at hand through the less interested +researches of philosophers, and likewise through +the critical studies of the scholars of Alexandria on +the ancient forms of their language as preserved in +the Homeric poems. But rules of declension and +conjugation, paradigms of regular and irregular nouns +and verbs, observations on syntax, and the like, these +are the work of the teachers of languages, and of no +one else. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now, the teaching of languages, though at present +so large a profession, is comparatively a very modern +invention. No ancient Greek ever thought of learning +a foreign language. Why should he? He divided the +whole world into Greeks and Barbarians, and he would +have felt himself degraded by adopting either the dress +or the manners or the language of his barbarian neighbors. +He considered it a privilege to speak Greek, and +even dialects closely related to his own, were treated +by him as mere jargons. It takes time before people +conceive the idea that it is possible to express oneself +in any but one's own language. The Poles called +their neighbors, the Germans, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Niemiec</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">niemy</span></em> meaning +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dumb</span></em>;<a id="noteref_58" name="noteref_58" href="#note_58"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">58</span></span></a> just as the Greeks called the Barbarians +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page092">[pg 092]</span><a name="Pg092" id="Pg092" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Aglossoi</span></em>, or speechless. The name which the Germans +gave to their neighbors, the Celts, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Walh</span></em> in old +High German, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vealh</span></em> in Anglo-Saxon, the modern +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Welsh</span></em>, is supposed to be the same as the Sanskrit +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mlechha</span></em>, and means a person who talks +indistinctly.<a id="noteref_59" name="noteref_59" href="#note_59"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">59</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Even when the Greeks began to feel the necessity +of communicating with foreign nations, when they +felt a desire of learning their idioms, the problem was +by no means solved. For how was a foreign language +to be learnt as long as either party could only speak +their own? The problem was almost as difficult as +when, as we are told by some persons, the first men, +as yet speechless, came together in order to invent +speech, and to discuss the most appropriate names +that should be given to the perceptions of the senses +and the abstractions of the mind. At first, it must +be supposed that the Greek learned foreign languages +very much as children learn their own. The interpreters +mentioned by ancient historians were probably +children of parents speaking different languages. The +son of a Scythian and a Greek would naturally learn +the utterances both of his father and mother, and the +lucrative nature of his services would not fail to increase +the supply. We are told, though on rather +mythical authority, that the Greeks were astonished +at the multiplicity of languages which they encountered +during the Argonautic expedition, and that they +were much inconvenienced by the want of skilful +interpreters.<a id="noteref_60" name="noteref_60" href="#note_60"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">60</span></span></a> +We need not wonder at this, for the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name="Pg093" id="Pg093" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +English army was hardly better off than the army +of Jason; and such is the variety of dialects spoken +in the Caucasian Isthmus, that it is still called by the +inhabitants <span class="tei tei-q">“the Mountain of Languages.”</span> If we turn +our eyes from these mythical ages to the historical times +of Greece, we find that trade gave the first encouragement +to the profession of interpreters. Herodotus tells +us (iv. 24), that caravans of Greek merchants, following +the course of the Volga upwards to the Oural +mountains, were accompanied by seven interpreters, +speaking seven different languages. These must have +comprised Slavonic, Tataric, and Finnic dialects, spoken +in those countries in the time of Herodotus, as they are +at the present day. The wars with Persia first familiarized +the Greeks with the idea that other nations also +possessed real languages. Themistocles studied Persian, +and is said to have spoken it fluently. The expedition +of Alexander contributed still more powerfully +to a knowledge of other nations and languages. But +when Alexander went to converse with the Brahmans, +who were even then considered by the Greeks as the +guardians of a most ancient and mysterious wisdom, +their answers had to be translated by so many interpreters +that one of the Brahmans remarked, they must +become like water that had passed through many impure +channels.<a id="noteref_61" name="noteref_61" href="#note_61"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">61</span></span></a> We hear, indeed, of more ancient +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg 094]</span><a name="Pg094" id="Pg094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Greek travellers, and it is difficult to understand how, +in those early times, anybody could have travelled without +a certain knowledge of the language of the people +through whose camps and villages and towns he +had to pass. Many of these travels, however, particularly +those which are said to have extended as +far as India, are mere inventions of later writers.<a id="noteref_62" name="noteref_62" href="#note_62"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">62</span></span></a> +Lycurgus may have travelled to Spain and Africa, +he certainly did not proceed to India, nor is there +any mention of his intercourse with the Indian Gymnosophists +before Aristocrates, who lived about 100 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span> +The travels of Pythagoras are equally mythical; they +are inventions of Alexandrian writers, who believed +that all wisdom must have flowed from the East. +There is better authority for believing that Democritus +went to Egypt and Babylon, but his more distant +travels to India are likewise legendary. Herodotus, +though he travelled in Egypt and Persia, never +gives us to understand that he was able to converse +in any but his own language. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As far as we can tell, the barbarians seem to have +possessed a greater facility for acquiring languages than +either Greeks or Romans. Soon after the Macedonian +conquest, we find<a id="noteref_63" name="noteref_63" href="#note_63"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">63</span></span></a> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Berosus</span></span> in Babylon, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Menander</span></span> in Tyre, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Manetho</span></span> +in Egypt, compiling, from original sources, the annals of their +countries.<a id="noteref_64" name="noteref_64" href="#note_64"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">64</span></span></a> Their works +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg 095]</span><a name="Pg095" id="Pg095" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +were written in Greek, and for the Greeks. The native +language of Berosus was Babylonian, of Menander +Phenician, of Manetho Egyptian. Berosus was able +to read the cuneiform documents of Babylonia with +the same ease with which Manetho read the papyri of +Egypt. The almost contemporaneous appearance of +three such men, barbarians by birth and language, who +were anxious to save the histories of their countries +from total oblivion, by entrusting them to the keeping +of their conquerors, the Greeks, is highly significant. +But what is likewise significant, and by no means +creditable to the Greek or Macedonian conquerors, is +the small value which they seem to have set on these +works. They have all been lost, and are known to us +by fragments only, though there can be little doubt +that the work of Berosus would have been an invaluable +guide to the student of the cuneiform inscriptions +and of Babylonian history, and that Manetho, if preserved +complete, would have saved us volumes of controversy +on Egyptian chronology. We learn, however, +from the almost simultaneous appearance of these +works, that soon after the epoch marked by Alexander's +conquests in the East, the Greek language was +studied and cultivated by literary men of barbarian +origin, though we should look in vain for any Greek +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page096">[pg 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id="Pg096" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +learning or employing any but his own tongue for literary +purposes. We hear of no intellectual intercourse +between Greeks and barbarians before the days of +Alexander and Alexandria. At Alexandria, various +nations, speaking different languages, and believing in +different gods, were brought together. Though primarily +engaged in mercantile speculations, it was but natural +that in their moments of leisure they should hold +discourse on their native countries, their gods, their +kings, their law-givers, and poets. Besides, there were +Greeks at Alexandria who were engaged in the study +of antiquity, and who knew how to ask questions from +men coming from any country of the world. The +pretension of the Egyptians to a fabulous antiquity, the +belief of the Jews in the sacred character of their laws, +the faith of the Persians in the writings of Zoroaster, +all these were fit subjects for discussion in the halls and +libraries of Alexandria. We probably owe the translation +of the Old Testament, the Septuagint, to this +spirit of literary inquiry which was patronized at Alexandria +by the Ptolemies.<a id="noteref_65" name="noteref_65" href="#note_65"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">65</span></span></a> The writings of Zoroaster +also, the Zend-Avesta, would seem to have been rendered +into Greek about the same time. For Hermippus, +who is said by Pliny to have translated the +writings of Zoroaster, was in all probability +Hermippus,<a id="noteref_66" name="noteref_66" href="#note_66"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">66</span></span></a> +the Peripatetic philosopher, the pupil of Callimachus, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg 097]</span><a name="Pg097" id="Pg097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +one of the most learned scholars at Alexandria. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But although we find at Alexandria these and similar +traces of a general interest having been excited by +the literatures of other nations, there is no evidence +which would lead us to suppose that their languages +also had become the subject of scientific inquiry. It +was not through the study of other languages, but +through the study of the ancient dialects of their own +language, that the Greeks at Alexandria were first led +to what we should call critical and philological studies. +The critical study of Greek took its origin at Alexandria, +and it was chiefly based on the text of Homer. +The general outline of grammar existed, as I remarked +before, at an earlier period. It grew up in the schools +of Greek philosophers.<a id="noteref_67" name="noteref_67" href="#note_67"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">67</span></span></a> Plato knew of noun and +verb as the two component parts of speech. Aristotle +added conjunctions and articles. He likewise observed +the distinctions of number and case. But neither Plato +nor Aristotle paid much attention to the forms of language +which corresponded to these forms of thought, +nor had they any inducement to reduce them to any +practical rules. With Aristotle the verb or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rhēmha</span></em> is +hardly more than predicate, and in sentences such as +<span class="tei tei-q">“the snow is white,”</span> he would have called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">white</span></em> a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page098">[pg 098]</span><a name="Pg098" id="Pg098" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +verb. The first who reduced the actual forms of language +to something like order were the scholars of +Alexandria. Their chief occupation was to publish +correct texts of the Greek classics, and particularly of +Homer. They were forced, therefore, to pay attention +to the exact forms of Greek grammar. The MSS. +sent to Alexandria and Pergamus from different parts +of Greece varied considerably, and it could only be +determined by careful observation which forms were to +be tolerated in Homer and which were not. Their +editions of Homer were not only <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ekdoseis</span></em>, a Greek +word literally rendered in Latin by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">editio</span></em>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> issues +of books, but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">diorthōseis</span></em>, that is to say, critical editions. +There were different schools, opposed to each other in +their views of the language of Homer. Each reading +that was adopted by Zenodotus or Aristarchus had to +be defended, and this could only be done by establishing +general rules on the grammar of the Homeric +poems. Did Homer use the article? Did he use it +before proper names? These and similar questions +had to be settled, and as one or the other view was +adopted by the editors, the text of these ancient poems +was changed by more or less violent emendations. New +technical terms were required for distinguishing, for instance, +the article, if once recognized, from the demonstrative +pronoun. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Article</span></em> is a literal translation of the Greek +word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arthron</span></em>. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Arthron</span></em> (Lat. artus) means the socket +of a joint. The word was first used by Aristotle, and +with him it could only mean words which formed, as it +were, the sockets in which the members of a sentence +moved. In such a sentence as: <span class="tei tei-q">“Whoever did it, he +shall suffer for it,”</span> Greek grammarians would have +called the demonstrative pronoun <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">he</span></em> the first socket, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name="Pg099" id="Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and the relative pronoun <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">who</span></em>, the second +socket;<a id="noteref_68" name="noteref_68" href="#note_68"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">68</span></span></a> and +before Zenodotus, the first librarian of Alexandria, +250 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>, all pronouns were simply classed as sockets +or articles of speech. He was the first to introduce a +distinction between personal pronouns or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">antonymiai</span></em>, +and the mere articles or articulations of speech, which +henceforth retained the name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arthra</span></em>. This distinction +was very necessary, and it was, no doubt, suggested +to him by his emendations of the text of Homer, +Zenodotus being the first who restored the article before +proper names in the Iliad and Odyssey. Who, +in speaking now of the definite or indefinite article, +thinks of the origin and original meaning of the word, +and of the time which it took before it could become +what it is now, a technical term familiar to every +school-boy? +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Again, to take another illustration of the influence +which the critical study of Homer at Alexandria exercised +on the development of grammatical terminology,—we +see that the first idea of numbers, of a +singular and a plural, was fixed and defined by the +philosopher. But Aristotle had no such technical +terms as singular and plural; and he does not even allude +to the dual. He only speaks of the cases which +express one or many, though with him <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">case</span></em>, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ptōsis</span></em>, had +a very different meaning from what it has in our grammars. +The terms singular and plural were not invented +till they were wanted, and they were first wanted +by the grammarians. Zenodotus, the editor of Homer, +was the first to observe the use of the dual in the Homeric +poems, and, with the usual zeal of discoverers, +he has altered many a plural into a dual when there +was no necessity for it. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg 100]</span><a name="Pg100" id="Pg100" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The scholars of Alexandria, therefore, and of the +rival academy of Pergamus, were the first who studied +the Greek language critically, that is to say, who analyzed +the language, arranged it under general categories, +distinguished the various parts of speech, invented +proper technical terms for the various functions of +words, observed the more or less correct usage of +certain poets, marked the difference between obsolete +and classical forms, and published long and learned +treatises on all these subjects. Their works mark a +great era in the history of the science of language. +But there was still a step to be made before we can +expect to meet with a real practical or elementary +grammar of the Greek language. Now the first real +Greek grammar was that of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Dionysius Thrax</span></span>. It is +still in existence, and though its genuineness has been +doubted, these doubts have been completely disposed of. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But who was Dionysius Thrax? His father, as we +learn from his name, was a Thracian; but Dionysius +himself lived at Alexandria, and was a pupil of the +famous critic and editor of Homer, Aristarchus.<a id="noteref_69" name="noteref_69" href="#note_69"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">69</span></span></a> Dionysius +afterwards went to Rome, where he taught +about the time of Pompey. Now here we see a new +feature in the history of mankind. A Greek, a pupil +of Aristarchus, settles at Rome, and writes a practical +grammar of the Greek language—of course, for the +benefit of his young Roman pupils. He was not the +inventor of grammatical science. Nearly all the framework +of grammar, as we saw, was supplied to him +through the labors of his predecessors from Plato to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg 101]</span><a name="Pg101" id="Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Aristarchus. But he was the first who applied the results +of former philosophers and critics to the practical +purpose of teaching Greek; and, what is most important, +of teaching Greek not to Greeks, who knew +Greek and only wanted the theory of their language, +but to Romans who had to be taught the declensions +and conjugations, regular and irregular. His work +thus became one of the principal channels through +which the grammatical terminology, which had been +carried from Athens to Alexandria, flowed back to +Rome, to spread from thence over the whole civilized +world. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Dionysius, however, though the author of the first +practical grammar, was by no means the first <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">professeur +de langue</span></em>”</span> who settled at Rome. At his +time Greek was more generally spoken at Rome than +French is now spoken in London. The children of +gentlemen learnt Greek before they learnt Latin, and +though Quintilian in his work on education does not +approve of a boy learning nothing but Greek for any +length of time, <span class="tei tei-q">“as is now the fashion,”</span> he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“with +most people,”</span> yet he too recommends that a boy should +be taught Greek first, and Latin +afterwards.<a id="noteref_70" name="noteref_70" href="#note_70"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">70</span></span></a> This +may seem strange, but the fact is that as long as we +know anything of Italy, the Greek language was as +much at home there as Latin. Italy owed almost +everything to Greece, not only in later days when the +setting sun of Greek civilization mingled its rays with +the dawn of Roman greatness; but ever since the first +Greek colonists started Westward Ho! in search of +new homes. It was from the Greeks that the Italians +received their alphabet and were taught to read and to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +write.<a id="noteref_71" name="noteref_71" href="#note_71"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">71</span></span></a> The names for balance, for measuring-rod, for +engines in general, for coined money,<a id="noteref_72" name="noteref_72" href="#note_72"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">72</span></span></a> many terms +connected with seafaring,<a id="noteref_73" name="noteref_73" href="#note_73"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">73</span></span></a> not excepting <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nausea</span></em> or +sea-sickness, are all borrowed from Greek, and show +the extent to which the Italians were indebted to the +Greeks for the very rudiments of civilization. The +Italians, no doubt, had their own national gods, but +they soon became converts to the mythology of the +Greeks. Some of the Greek gods they identified with +their own; others they admitted as new deities. Thus +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Saturnus</span></em>, originally an Italian harvest god, was identified +with the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Kronos</span></em>, and as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Kronos</span></em> was the +son of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Uranos</span></em>, a new deity was invented, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Saturnus</span></em> +was fabled to be the son of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Cœlus</span></em>. Thus the Italian +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Herculus</span></em>, the god of hurdles, enclosures, and walls, was +merged in the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Heracles</span></em>.<a id="noteref_74" name="noteref_74" href="#note_74"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">74</span></span></a> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Castor</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Pollux</span></em>, +both of purely Greek origin, were readily believed in +as nautical deities by the Italian sailors, and they were +the first Greek gods to whom, after the battle on the +Lake Regillus (485), a temple was erected at Rome.<a id="noteref_75" name="noteref_75" href="#note_75"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">75</span></span></a> +In 431 another temple was erected at Rome to Apollo, +whose oracle at Delphi had been consulted by Italians +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg 103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +ever since Greek colonists had settled on their soil. +The oracles of the famous Sibylla of Cumæ were +written in Greek,<a id="noteref_76" name="noteref_76" href="#note_76"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">76</span></span></a> +and the priests (duoviri sacris +faciundis) were allowed to keep two Greek slaves +for the purpose of translating these oracles.<a id="noteref_77" name="noteref_77" href="#note_77"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">77</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When the Romans, in 454 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>, wanted to establish +a code of laws, the first thing they did was to send +commissioners to Greece to report on the laws of +Solon at Athens and the laws of other Greek +towns.<a id="noteref_78" name="noteref_78" href="#note_78"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">78</span></span></a> +As Rome rose in political power, Greek manners, +Greek art, Greek language and literature found ready +admittance.<a id="noteref_79" name="noteref_79" href="#note_79"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">79</span></span></a> +Before the beginning of the Punic wars, +many of the Roman statesmen were able to understand, +and even to speak Greek. Boys were not +only taught the Roman letters by their masters, the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">literatores</span></em>, but they had to learn at the same time +the Greek alphabet. Those who taught Greek at +Rome were then called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">grammatici</span></em>, and they were +mostly Greek slaves or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">liberti</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Among the young men whom Cato saw growing +up at Rome, to know Greek was the same as to be a +gentleman. They read Greek books, they conversed +in Greek, they even wrote in Greek. Tiberius Gracchus, +consul in 177, made a speech in Greek at +Rhodes, which he afterwards published.<a id="noteref_80" name="noteref_80" href="#note_80"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">80</span></span></a> Flaminius, +when addressed by the Greeks in Latin, returned the +compliment by writing Greek verses in honor of their +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +gods. The first history of Rome was written at Rome +in Greek, by Fabius Pictor,<a id="noteref_81" name="noteref_81" href="#note_81"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">81</span></span></a> about 200 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>; and it +was probably in opposition to this work, and to those +of Lucius Cincius Alimentus, and Publius Scipio, that +Cato wrote his own history of Rome in Latin. The +example of the higher classes was eagerly followed by +the lowest. The plays of Plautus are the best proof; +for the affectation of using Greek words is as evident +in some of his characters as the foolish display of +French in the German writers of the eighteenth century. +There was both loss and gain in the inheritance +which Rome received from Greece; but what would +Rome have been without her Greek masters? The +very fathers of Roman literature were Greeks, private +teachers, men who made a living by translating +school-books and plays. Livius Andronicus, sent as +prisoner of war from Tarentum (272 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>), established +himself at Rome as professor of Greek. His +translation of the Odyssey into Latin verse, which +marks the beginning of Roman literature, was evidently +written by him for the use of his private +classes. His style, though clumsy and wooden in the +extreme, was looked upon as a model of perfection by +the rising poets of the capital. Nævius and Plautus +were his cotemporaries and immediate successors. +All the plays of Plautus were translations and adaptations +of Greek originals; and Plautus was not even +allowed to transfer the scene from Greece to Rome. +The Roman public wanted to see Greek life and +Greek depravity; it would have stoned the poet who +had ventured to bring on the stage a Roman patrician +or a Roman matron. Greek tragedies, also, were +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +translated into Latin. Ennius, the cotemporary of +Nævius and Plautus, though somewhat younger (239-169), +was the first to translate Euripides. Ennius, +like Andronicus, was an Italian Greek, who settled +at Rome as a teacher of languages and translator of +Greek. He was patronized by the liberal party, by +Publius Scipio, Titus Flaminius, and Marcus Fulvius +Nobilior.<a id="noteref_82" name="noteref_82" href="#note_82"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">82</span></span></a> He became a Roman citizen. But Ennius +was more than a poet, more than a teacher of languages. +He has been called a neologian, and to a +certain extent he deserved that name. Two works +written in the most hostile spirit against the religion +of Greece, and against the very existence of the Greek +gods, were translated by him into Latin.<a id="noteref_83" name="noteref_83" href="#note_83"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">83</span></span></a> One was the philosophy of +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Epicharmus</span></span> (470 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>, in Megara), +who taught that Zeus was nothing but the air, and +other gods but names of the powers of nature; the +other the work of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Euhemerus</span></span>, +of Messene (300 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>), +who proved, in the form of a novel, that the Greek +gods had never existed, and that those who were believed +in as gods had been men. These two works +were not translated without a purpose; and though +themselves shallow in the extreme, they proved destructive +to the still shallower systems of Roman +theology. Greek became synonymous with infidel; +and Ennius would hardly have escaped the punishment +inflicted on Nævius for his political satires, had +he not enjoyed the patronage and esteem of the most +influential statesmen at Rome. Even Cato, the stubborn +enemy of Greek philosophy<a id="noteref_84" name="noteref_84" href="#note_84"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">84</span></span></a> and rhetoric, was a +friend of the dangerous Ennius; and such was the +growing influence of Greek at Rome, that Cato himself +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page106">[pg 106]</span><a name="Pg106" id="Pg106" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +had to learn it in his old age, in order to teach his +boy what he considered, if not useful, at least harmless +in Greek literature. It has been the custom to laugh +at Cato for his dogged opposition to everything Greek; +but there was much truth in his denunciations. We +have heard much of young Bengál—young Hindus +who read Byron and Voltaire, play at billiards, drive +tandems, laugh at their priests, patronize missionaries, +and believe nothing. The description which Cato +gives of the young idlers at Rome reminds us very +much of young Bengál. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When Rome took the torch of knowledge from the +dying hands of Greece, that torch was not burning +with its brightest light. Plato and Aristotle had been +succeeded by Chrysippus and Carneades; Euripides +and Menander had taken the place of Æschylus and +Sophocles. In becoming the guardian of the Promethean +spark first lighted in Greece, and intended hereafter +to illuminate not only Italy, but every country +of Europe, Rome lost much of that native virtue to +which she owed her greatness. Roman frugality and +gravity, Roman citizenship and patriotism, Roman +purity and piety, were driven away by Greek luxury +and levity, Greek intriguing and self-seeking, Greek +vice and infidelity. Restrictions and anathemas were +of no avail; and Greek ideas were never so attractive +as when they had been reprobated by Cato and his +friends. Every new generation became more and more +impregnated with Greek. In 131<a id="noteref_85" name="noteref_85" href="#note_85"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">85</span></span></a> we hear of a +consul (Publius Crassus) who, like another Mezzofanti, was +able to converse in the various dialects of Greek. +Sulla allowed foreign ambassadors to speak Greek +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg 107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +before the Roman senate.<a id="noteref_86" name="noteref_86" href="#note_86"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">86</span></span></a> The Stoic philosopher +Panætius<a id="noteref_87" name="noteref_87" href="#note_87"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">87</span></span></a> lived in the house of the Scipios, which +was for a long time the rendezvous of all the literary +celebrities at Rome. Here the Greek historian Polybius, +and the philosopher Cleitomachus, Lucilius the +satirist, Terence the African poet (196-159), and the +improvisatore Archias (102 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>), were welcome +guests.<a id="noteref_88" name="noteref_88" href="#note_88"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">88</span></span></a> In this select circle the master-works of Greek +literature were read and criticised; the problems of +Greek philosophy were discussed; and the highest interests +of human life became the subject of thoughtful +conversation. Though no poet of original genius +arose from this society, it exercised a most powerful +influence on the progress of Roman literature. It +formed a tribunal of good taste; and much of the +correctness, simplicity, and manliness of the classical +Latin is due to that <span class="tei tei-q">“Cosmopolitan Club,”</span> which +met under the hospitable roof of the Scipios. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The religious life of Roman society at the close of +the Punic wars was more Greek than Roman. All +who had learnt to think seriously on religious questions +were either Stoics or followers of Epicurus; or +they embraced the doctrines of the New Academy, +denying the possibility of any knowledge of the Infinite, +and putting opinion in the place of +truth.<a id="noteref_89" name="noteref_89" href="#note_89"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">89</span></span></a> +Though the doctrines of Epicurus and the New Academy +were always considered dangerous and heretical, +the philosophy of the Stoics was tolerated, and a kind +of compromise effected between philosophy and religion. +There was a state-philosophy as well as a state-religion. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page108">[pg 108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +The Roman priesthood, though they had +succeeded, in 161, in getting all Greek rhetors and +philosophers expelled from Rome, perceived that a +compromise was necessary. It was openly avowed +that in the enlightened classes<a id="noteref_90" name="noteref_90" href="#note_90"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">90</span></span></a> philosophy must take +the place of religion, but that a belief in miracles and +oracles was necessary for keeping the large masses +in order. Even Cato,<a id="noteref_91" name="noteref_91" href="#note_91"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">91</span></span></a> the leader of the orthodox, +national, and conservative party, expressed his surprise +that a haruspex, when meeting a colleague, did not +burst out laughing. Men like Scipio Æmilianus and +Lælius professed to believe in the popular gods; but +with them Jupiter was the soul of the universe, the +statues of the gods mere works of art.<a id="noteref_92" name="noteref_92" href="#note_92"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">92</span></span></a> Their +gods, as the people complained, had neither body, parts, +nor passions. Peace, however, was preserved between +the Stoic philosopher and the orthodox priest. Both +parties professed to believe in the same gods, but they +claimed the liberty to believe in them in their own +way. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I have dwelt at some length on the changes in the +intellectual atmosphere of Rome at the end of the +Punic wars, and I have endeavored to show how +completely it was impregnated with Greek ideas in +order to explain, what otherwise would seem almost +inexplicable, the zeal and earnestness with which the +study of Greek grammar was taken up at Rome, not +only by a few scholars and philosophers, but by the +leading statesmen of the time. To our minds, discussions +on nouns and verbs, on cases and gender, on +regular and irregular conjugation, retain always something +of the tedious character which these subjects +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109" id="Pg109" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +had at school, and we can hardly understand how at +Rome, grammar—pure and simple grammar—should +have formed a subject of general interest, and a topic of +fashionable conversation. When one of the first grammarians +of the day, Crates of Pergamus, was sent to +Rome as ambassador of King Attalus, he was received +with the greatest distinction by all the literary statesmen +of the capital. It so happened that when walking +one day on the Palatian hill, Crates caught his foot in +the grating of a sewer, fell and broke his leg. Being +thereby detained at Rome longer than he intended, he +was persuaded to give some public lectures, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">akroaseis</span></em>, +on grammar; and from these lectures, says Suetonius, +dates the study of grammar at Rome. This took place +about 159 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>, between the second and third Punic +wars, shortly after the death of Ennius, and two years +after the famous expulsion of the Greek rhetors and +philosophers (161). Four years later Carneades, likewise +sent to Rome as ambassador, was prohibited from +lecturing by Cato. After these lectures of Crates, +grammatical and philological studies became extremely +popular at Rome. We hear of Lucius Ælius Stilo,<a id="noteref_93" name="noteref_93" href="#note_93"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">93</span></span></a> +who lectured on Latin as Crates had lectured on Greek. +Among his pupils were Varro, Lucilius, and Cicero. +Varro composed twenty-four books on the Latin language, +four of which were dedicated to Cicero. Cicero, +himself, is quoted as an authority on grammatical questions, +though we know of no special work of his on +grammar. Lucilius devoted the ninth book of his +satires to the reform of spelling.<a id="noteref_94" name="noteref_94" href="#note_94"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">94</span></span></a> But nothing shows +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +more clearly the wide interest which grammatical studies +had then excited in the foremost ranks of Roman +society than Cæsar's work on Latin grammar. It was +composed by him during the Gallic war, and dedicated +to Cicero, who might well be proud of the compliment +thus paid him by the great general and statesman. +Most of these works are lost to us, and we can judge +of them only by means of casual quotations. Thus we +learn from a fragment of Cæsar's work, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">De analogia</span></span>, +that he was the inventor of the term <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ablative</span></em> in Latin. +The word never occurs before, and, of course, could +not be borrowed, like the names of the other cases, +from Greek grammarians, as they admitted no ablative +in Greek. To think of Cæsar fighting the barbarians +of Gaul and Germany, and watching from a distance +the political complications at Rome, ready to grasp the +sceptre of the world, and at the same time carrying on +his philological and grammatical studies together with +his secretary, the Greek Didymus,<a id="noteref_95" name="noteref_95" href="#note_95"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">95</span></span></a> gives us a +new view both of that extraordinary man, and of the time in +which he lived. After Cæsar had triumphed, one of +his favorite plans was to found a Greek and Latin library +at Rome, and he offered the librarianship to the +best scholar of the day, to Varro, though Varro had +fought against him on the side of Pompey.<a id="noteref_96" name="noteref_96" href="#note_96"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">96</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have thus arrived at the time when, as we saw +in an earlier part of this lecture, Dionysius Thrax published +the first elementary grammar of Greek at Rome. +Empirical grammar had thus been transplanted to Rome, +the Greek grammatical terminology was translated into +Latin, and in this new Latin garb it has travelled now for +nearly two thousand years over the whole civilized world. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111" id="Pg111" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Even in India, where a different terminology had grown +up in the grammatical schools of the Brahmans, a terminology +in some respects more perfect than that of +Alexandria and Rome, we may now hear such words +as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">case</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gender</span></em>, +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">active</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">passive</span></em>, explained by +European teachers to their native pupils. The fates of +words are curious indeed, and when I looked the other +day at some of the examination papers of the government +schools in India, such questions as—<span class="tei tei-q">“Write the +genitive case of Siva,”</span> seemed to reduce whole volumes +of history into a single sentence. How did these words, +genitive case, come to India? They came from England, +they had come to England from Rome, to Rome +from Alexandria, to Alexandria from Athens. At +Athens, the term <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">case</span></em>, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ptōsis</span></em>, had a philosophical +meaning; at Rome, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">casus</span></em> was merely a literal translation; +the original meaning of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fall</span></em> was lost, and the +word dwindled down to a mere technical term. At +Athens, the philosophy of language was a counterpart +of the philosophy of the mind. The terminology of +formal logic and formal grammar was the same. The +logic of the Stoics was divided into two +parts,<a id="noteref_97" name="noteref_97" href="#note_97"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">97</span></span></a> called +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rhetoric</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dialectic</span></em>, and the latter treated, first, <span class="tei tei-q">“On +that which signifies, or language;”</span> secondly, <span class="tei tei-q">“On that +which is signified, or things.”</span> In their philosophical +language <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ptōsis</span></em>, which the Romans translated by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">casus</span></em>, +really meant fall; that is to say, the inclination or relation +of one idea to another, the falling or resting of +one word on another. Long and angry discussions were +carried on as to whether the name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ptōsis</span></em>, or fall, was +applicable to the nominative; and every true Stoic +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page112">[pg 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +would have scouted the expression of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">casus rectus</span></em>, because +the subject or the nominative, as they argued, did +not fall or rest on anything else, but stood erect, the +other words of a sentence leaning or depending on it. +All this is lost to us when we speak of cases. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And how are the dark scholars in the government +schools of India to guess the meaning of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">genitive</span></em>? The +Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">genitivus</span></em> is a mere blunder, for the Greek word +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">genikē</span></em> could never mean <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">genitivus</span></em>. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Genitivus</span></em>, if +it is meant to express the case of origin or birth, would in +Greek have been called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gennētikē</span></em>, not <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">genikē</span></em>. Nor does +the genitive express the relation of son to father. For +though we may say, <span class="tei tei-q">“the son of the father,”</span> we may +likewise say, <span class="tei tei-q">“the father of the son.”</span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Genikē</span></em>, in Greek, +had a much wider, a much more philosophical meaning.<a id="noteref_98" name="noteref_98" href="#note_98"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">98</span></span></a> +It meant <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">casus generalis</span></em>, the general case, or +rather the case which expresses the gentus or kind. +This is the real power of the genitive. If I say, <span class="tei tei-q">“a +bird of the water,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“of the water”</span> defines the genus +to which a certain bird belongs; it refers it to the genus +of water-birds. <span class="tei tei-q">“Man of the mountains,”</span> means a +mountaineer. In phrases such as <span class="tei tei-q">“son of the father,”</span> +or <span class="tei tei-q">“father of the son,”</span> the genitives have the same +effect. They predicate something of the son or of the +father; and if we distinguished between the sons of +the father, and the sons of the mother, the genitives +would mark the class or genus to which the sons respectively +belonged. They would answer the same purpose +as the adjectives, paternal and maternal. It can +be proved etymologically that the termination of the +genitive is, in most cases, identical with those derivative +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg 113]</span><a name="Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +suffixes by which substantives are changed into adjectives.<a id="noteref_99" name="noteref_99" href="#note_99"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">99</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is hardly necessary to trace the history of what I +call the empirical study, or the grammatical analysis of +language, beyond Rome. With Dionysius Thrax the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page114">[pg 114]</span><a name="Pg114" id="Pg114" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +framework of grammar was finished. Later writers +have improved and completed it, but they have added +nothing really new and original. We can follow the +stream of grammatical science from Dionysius Thrax to +our own time in an almost uninterrupted chain of +Greek and Roman writers. We find Quintilian in the +first century; Scaurus, Apollonius Dyscolus, and his son, +Herodianus, in the second; Probus and Donatus in the +fourth. After Constantine had moved the seat of government +from Rome, grammatical science received a new +home in the academy of Constantinople. There were no +less than twenty Greek and Latin grammarians who +held professorships at Constantinople. Under Justinian, +in the sixth century, the name of Priscianus gave +a new lustre to grammatical studies, and his work remained +an authority during the Middle Ages to nearly +our own times. We ourselves have been taught grammar +according to the plan which was followed by +Dionysius at Rome, by Priscianus at Constantinople, +by Alcuin at York; and whatever may be said of the +improvements introduced into our system of education, +the Greek and Latin grammars used at our public +schools are mainly founded on the first empirical analysis +of language, prepared by the philosophers of Athens, +applied by the scholars of Alexandria, and transferred +to the practical purpose of teaching a foreign tongue by +the Greek professors at Rome. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name="Pg115" id="Pg115" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a> +<a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Lecture IV. The Classificatory Stage.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We traced, in our last lecture, the origin and progress +of the empirical study of languages from the time +of Plato and Aristotle to our own school-boy days. +We saw at what time, and under what circumstances, +the first grammatical analysis of language took place; +how its component parts, the parts of speech, were +named, and how, with the aid of a terminology, half +philosophical and half empirical, a system of teaching +languages was established, which, whatever we may +think of its intrinsic value, has certainly answered that +purpose for which it was chiefly intended. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Considering the process by which this system of +grammatical science was elaborated, it could not be +expected to give us an insight into the nature of language. +The division into nouns and verbs, articles +and conjunctions, the schemes of declension and conjugation, +were a merely artificial network thrown over +the living body of language. We must not look in the +grammar of Dionysius Thrax for a correct and well-articulated +skeleton of human speech. It is curious, +however, to observe the striking coincidences between +the grammatical terminology of the Greeks and the +Hindús, which would seem to prove that there must +be some true and natural foundation for the much-abused +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page116">[pg 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +grammatical system of the schools. The Hindús +are the only nation that cultivated the science of +grammar without having received any impulse, directly +or indirectly, from the Greeks. Yet we find in Sanskrit +too the same system of cases, called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vibhakti</span></span>, or +inflections, the active, passive, and middle voices, the +tenses, moods, and persons, divided not exactly, but +very nearly, in the same manner as in Greek.<a id="noteref_100" name="noteref_100" href="#note_100"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">100</span></span></a> In +Sanskrit, grammar is called <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vyâkaraņa</span></span>, which means +analysis or taking to pieces. As Greek grammar owed +its origin to the critical study of Homer, Sanskrit +grammar arose from the study of the Vedas, the most +ancient poetry of the Brahmans. The differences between +the dialect of these sacred hymns and the literary +Sanskrit of later ages were noted and preserved +with a religious care. We still possess the first essays +in the grammatical science of the Brahmans, the so-called +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">prâtiśâkhyas</span></span>. These works, though they merely +profess to give rules on the proper pronunciation of the +ancient dialect of the Vedas, furnish us at the same +time with observations of a grammatical character, and +particularly with those valuable lists of words, irregular +or in any other way remarkable, the Gaņas. These +supplied that solid basis on which successive generations +of scholars erected the astounding structure +that reached its perfection in the grammar of Pâņini. +There is no form, regular or irregular, in the whole +Sanskrit language, which is not provided for in the +grammar of Pâņini and his commentators. It is the +perfection of a merely empirical analysis of language, +unsurpassed, nay even unapproached, by anything in +the grammatical literature of other nations. Yet of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page117">[pg 117]</span><a name="Pg117" id="Pg117" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the real nature, and natural growth of language, it +teaches us nothing. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What then do we know of language after we have +learnt the grammar of Greek or Sanskrit, or after we +have transferred the network of classical grammar to +our own tongue? +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We know certain forms of language which correspond +to certain forms of thought. We know that +the subject must assume the form of the nominative, +the object that of the accusative. We know that the +more remote object may be put in the dative, and that +the predicate, in its most general form, may be rendered +by the genitive. We are taught that whereas in English +the genitive is marked by a final <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em>, or by the preposition +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">of</span></em>, it is in Greek expressed by a final ος, in +Latin by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">is</span></em>. But what this ος and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">is</span></em> represent, why +they should have the power of changing a nominative +into a genitive, a subject into a predicate, remains a +riddle. It is self-evident that each language, in order +to be a language, must be able to distinguish the subject +from the object, the nominative from the accusative. +But how a mere change of termination should +suffice to convey so material a distinction would seem +almost incomprehensible. If we look for a moment +beyond Greek and Latin, we see that there are in +reality but few languages which have distinct forms +for these two categories of thought. Even in Greek +and Latin there is no outward distinction between the +nominative and accusative of neuters. The Chinese +language, it is commonly said, has no grammar at all, +that is to say, it has no inflections, no declension and +conjugation, in our sense of these words; it makes no +formal distinction of the various parts of speech, noun, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page118">[pg 118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +verb, adjective, adverb, &c. Yet there is no shade of +thought that cannot be rendered in Chinese. The +Chinese have no more difficulty in distinguishing between +<span class="tei tei-q">“James beats John,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“John beats James,”</span> +than the Greeks and Romans or we ourselves. They +have no termination for the accusative, but they attain +the same by always placing the subject before, and the +object after the verb, or by employing words, before or +after the noun, which clearly indicate that it is to be +taken as the object of the verb.<a id="noteref_101" name="noteref_101" href="#note_101"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">101</span></span></a> There are other languages +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg 119]</span><a name="Pg119" id="Pg119" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which have more terminations even than Greek +and Latin. In Finnish there are fifteen cases, expressive +of every possible relation between the subject and +the object; but there is no accusative, no purely objective +case. In English and French the distinctive +terminations of the nominative and accusative have +been worn off by phonetic corruption, and these languages +are obliged, like Chinese, to mark the subject +and object by the collocation of words. What we +learn therefore at school in being taught that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rex</span></em> in the +nominative becomes <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">regem</span></em> in the accusative, is simply +a practical rule. We know when to say <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rex</span></em>, and when +to say <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">regem</span></em>. But why the king as a subject should +be called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rex</span></em>, and as an object <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">regem</span></em>, remains entirely +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page120">[pg 120]</span><a name="Pg120" id="Pg120" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +unexplained. In the same manner we learn that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">amo</span></em> +means I love, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">amavi</span></em> I loved; but why that tragical +change from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">love</span></em> to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">no love</span></em> should be represented by +the simple change of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">o</span></em> to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">avi</span></em>, or, in English, by the +addition of a mere <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></em>, is neither asked nor answered. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now if there is a science of language, these are the +questions which it will have to answer. If they cannot +be answered, if we must be content with paradigms +and rules, if the terminations of nouns and verbs must +be looked upon either as conventional contrivances or +as mysterious excrescences, there is no such thing as a +science of language, and we must be satisfied with +what has been called the art (τέχνη) of language, or +grammar. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before we either accept or decline the solution of +any problem, it is right to determine what means there +are for solving it. Beginning with English we should +ask, what means have we for finding out why <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I love</span></em> +should mean I am actually loving, whereas <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I loved</span></em> indicates +that that feeling is past and gone? Or, if we +look to languages richer in inflections than English, +by what process can we discover under what circumstances +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">amo</span></em>, I love, was changed, through the mere addition +of an <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">r</span></em>, into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">amor</span></em>, expressing no longer <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I love</span></em>, +but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I am loved</span></em>? Did declensions and conjugations bud +forth like the blossoms of a tree? Were they imparted +to man ready made by some mysterious power? Or +did some wise people invent them, assigning certain +letters to certain phases of thought, as mathematicians +express unknown quantities by freely chosen algebraic +exponents? We are here brought at once face to face +with the highest and most difficult problem of our +science, the origin of language. But it will be well +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page121">[pg 121]</span><a name="Pg121" id="Pg121" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +for the present to turn our eyes away from theories, +and fix our attention at first entirely on facts. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us keep to the English perfect, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I loved</span></em>, as compared +with the present, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I love</span></em>. We cannot embrace at +once the whole English grammar, but if we can track +one form to its true lair, we shall probably have no +difficulty in digging out the rest of the brood. Now, +if we ask how the addition of a final <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></em> could express +the momentous transition from being in love to being +indifferent, the first thing we have to do, before attempting +any explanation, would be to establish the +earliest and most original form of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I loved</span></em>. This is a +rule which even Plato recognized in his philosophy of +language, though, we must confess, he seldom obeyed +it. We know what havoc phonetic corruption may +make both in the dictionary and the grammar of a +language, and it would be a pity to waste our conjectures +on formations which a mere reference to the history +of language would suffice to explain. Now a very +slight acquaintance with the history of the English +language teaches us that the grammar of modern English +is not the same as the grammar of Wycliffe. +Wycliffe's English again may be traced back to what, +with Sir Frederick Madden, we may call Middle +English, from 1500 to 1330; Middle English to Early +English, from 1330 to 1230; Early English to Semi-Saxon +from 1230 to 1100; and Semi-Saxon to Anglo-Saxon.<a id="noteref_102" name="noteref_102" href="#note_102"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">102</span></span></a> +It is evident that if we are to discover the +original intention of the syllable which changes <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I love</span></em> +into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I loved</span></em>, we must consult the original form of that +syllable wherever we can find it. We should never +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page122">[pg 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +have known that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">priest</span></em> meant originally <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">an elder</span></em>, unless +we had traced it back to its original form <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">presbyter</span></em>, +in which a Greek scholar at once recognizes the comparative +of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">presbys</span></em>, old. If left to modern English +alone, we might attempt to connect <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">priest</span></em> with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">praying</span></em> +or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">preaching</span></em>, but we should not thus arrive at its true +derivation. The modern word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Gospel</span></em> conveys no +meaning at all. As soon as we trace it back to the +original <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Goddspell</span></em>, we see that it is a literal translation +of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Evangelium</span></em>, or good news, good tidings.<a id="noteref_103" name="noteref_103" href="#note_103"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">103</span></span></a> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Lord</span></em> +would be nothing but an empty title in English, unless +we could discover its original form and meaning in the +Anglo-Saxon <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hlafford</span></em>, meaning a giver of bread, from +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hlaf</span></em>, a loaf, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ford</span></em>, to give. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But even after this is done, after we have traced a +modern English word back to Anglo-Saxon, it follows +by no means that we should there find it in its original +form, or that we should succeed in forcing it to disclose +its original intention. Anglo-Saxon is not an original +or aboriginal language. It points by its very name +to the Saxons and Angles of the continent. We +have, therefore, to follow our word from Anglo-Saxon +through the various Saxon and Low-German dialects, +till we arrive at last at the earliest stage of German +which is within our reach, the Gothic of the fourth +century after Christ. Even here we cannot rest. For, +although we cannot trace Gothic back to any earlier +Teutonic language, we see at once that Gothic, too, +is a modern language, and that it must have passed +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg 123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +through numerous phases of growth before it became +what it is in the mouth of Bishop Ulfilas. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What then are we to do?—We must try to do +what is done when we have to deal with the modern +Romance languages. If we could not trace a French +word back to Latin, we should look for its corresponding +form in Italian, and endeavor to trace the Italian +to its Latin source. If, for instance, we were doubtful +about the origin of the French word for fire, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">feu</span></em>, we +have but to look to the Italian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fuoco</span></em>, in order to see at +once that both <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fuoco</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">feu</span></em> are derived from the Latin +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">focus</span></em>. We can do this, because we know that French +and Italian are cognate dialects, and because we have +ascertained beforehand the exact degree of relationship +in which they stand to each other. Had we, instead +of looking to Italian, looked to German for an explanation +of the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">feu</span></em>, we should have missed the +right track; for the German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">feuer</span></em>, though more like +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">feu</span></em> than the Italian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fuoco</span></em>, could never have assumed +in French the form <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">feu</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Again, in the case of the preposition <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hors</span></em>, which in +French means <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">without</span></em>, we can more easily determine +its origin after we have found that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hors</span></em> corresponds +with the Italian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fuora</span></em>, the Spanish <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fuera</span></em>. The French +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fromage</span></em>, cheese, derives no light from Latin. But as +soon as we compare the Italian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">formaggio</span></em>,<a id="noteref_104" name="noteref_104" href="#note_104"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">104</span></span></a> we see that +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">formaggio</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fromage</span></em> are derived from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">forma</span></em>; +cheese being made in Italy by keeping the milk in small baskets +or forms. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Feeble</span></em>, the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">faible</span></em>, is clearly +derived from Latin; but it is not till we see the +Italian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fievole</span></em> that we are reminded of the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">flebilis</span></em>, +tearful. We should never have found the etymology, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124" id="Pg124" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +that is to say the origin, of the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">payer</span></em>, the +English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to pay</span></em>, if we did not consult the dictionary +of the cognate dialects, such as Italian and Spanish. +Here we find that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to pay</span></em> is expressed in Italian by +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pagare</span></em>, in Spanish by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pagar</span></em>, whereas in Provençal +we actually find the two forms <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pagar</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">payar</span></em>. Now +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pagar</span></em> clearly points back to Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pacare</span></em>, which means +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to pacify</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to appease</span></em>. To appease a creditor meant to +pay him; in the same manner as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">une quittance</span></em>, a quittance +or receipt, was originally <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">quietantia</span></em>, a quieting, +from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">quietus</span></em>, quiet. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If, therefore, we wish to follow up our researches,—if, +not satisfied with having traced an English word +back to Gothic, we want to know what it was at a still +earlier period of its growth,—we must determine +whether there are any languages that stand to Gothic +in the same relation in which Italian and Spanish stand +to French;—we must restore, as far as possible, the +genealogical tree of the various families of human +speech. In doing this we enter on the second or +classificatory stage of our science; for genealogy, +where it is applicable, is the most perfect form of +classification. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before we proceed to examine the results which +have been obtained by the recent labors of Schlegel, +Humboldt, Bopp, Burnouf, Pott, Benfey, Prichard, +Grimm, Kuhn, Curtius, and others in this branch of +the science of language, it will be well to glance at +what had been achieved before their time in the classification +of the numberless dialects of mankind. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Greeks never thought of applying the principle +of classification to the varieties of human speech. +They only distinguished between Greek on one side, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg 125]</span><a name="Pg125" id="Pg125" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and all other languages on the other, comprehended +under the convenient name of <span class="tei tei-q">“Barbarous.”</span> They +succeeded, indeed, in classifying four of their own +dialects with tolerable correctness,<a id="noteref_105" name="noteref_105" href="#note_105"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">105</span></span></a> but they applied +the term <span class="tei tei-q">“barbarous”</span> so promiscuously to the other +more distant relatives of Greek, (the dialects of the +Pelasgians, Carians, Macedonians, Thracians, and Illyrians,) +that, for the purposes of scientific classification, +it is almost impossible to make any use of the statements +of ancient writers about these so-called barbarous +idioms.<a id="noteref_106" name="noteref_106" href="#note_106"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">106</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126" id="Pg126" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Plato, indeed, in his Cratylus (c. 36), throws out a +hint that the Greeks might have received their own +words from the barbarians, the barbarians being older +than the Greeks. But he was not able to see the full +bearing of this remark. He only points out that some +words, such as the names of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fire</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">water</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dog</span></em>, were +the same in Phrygian and Greek; and he supposes that +the Greeks borrowed them from the Phrygians (c. 26). +The idea that the Greek language and that of the barbarians +could have had a common source never entered +his mind. It is strange that even so comprehensive a +mind as that of Aristotle should have failed to perceive +in languages some of that law and order which he +tried to discover in every realm of nature. As Aristotle, +however, did not attempt this, we need not wonder +that it was not attempted by any one else for the +next two thousand years. The Romans, in all scientific +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name="Pg127" id="Pg127" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +matters, were merely the parrots of the Greeks. +Having themselves been called barbarians, they soon +learnt to apply the same name to all other nations, +except, of course, to their masters, the Greeks. Now +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">barbarian</span></em> is one of those lazy expressions which seem +to say everything but in reality say nothing. It was +applied as recklessly as the word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">heretic</span></em> during the +Middle Ages. If the Romans had not received this +convenient name of barbarian ready made for them, +they would have treated their neighbors, the Celts +and Germans, with more respect and sympathy: they +would, at all events, have looked at them with a more +discriminating eye. And, if they had done so, they +would have discovered, in spite of outward differences, +that these barbarians were, after all, not very +distant cousins. There was as much similarity between +the language of Cæsar and the barbarians +against whom he fought in Gaul and Germany as +there was between his language and that of Homer. +A man of Cæsar's sagacity would have seen this, if he +had not been blinded by traditional phraseology. I +am not exaggerating. For let us look at one instance +only. If we take a verb of such constant occurrence +as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to have</span></em>, we shall find the paradigms almost identical +in Latin and Gothic:— +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I have in Latin is habeo, in Gothic haba.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Thou hast in Latin is habes, in Gothic habais.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">He has in Latin is habet, in Gothic habaiþ.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">We have in Latin is habemus, in Gothic habam.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">You have in Latin is habetis, in Gothic habaiþ.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">They have in Latin is habent, in Gothic habant.</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It surely required a certain amount of blindness, or +rather of deafness, not to perceive such similarity, and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page128">[pg 128]</span><a name="Pg128" id="Pg128" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +that blindness or deafness arose, I believe, entirely from +the single word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">barbarian</span></em>. Not till that word barbarian +was struck out of the dictionary of mankind, and +replaced by brother, not till the right of all nations of +the world to be classed as members of one genus or +kind was recognized, can we look even for the first +beginnings of our science. This change was effected +by Christianity. To the Hindú, every man not twice-born +was a Mlechha; to the Greek, every man not +speaking Greek was a barbarian; to the Jew, every +person not circumcised was a Gentile; to the Mohammedan, +every man not believing in the prophet is a +Giaur or Kaffir. It was Christianity which first broke +down the barriers between Jew and Gentile, between +Greek and barbarian, between the white and the black. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Humanity</span></em> is a word which you look for in vain in Plato +or Aristotle; the idea of mankind as one family, as the +children of one God, is an idea of Christian growth; +and the science of mankind, and of the languages of +mankind, is a science which, without Christianity, +would never have sprung into life. When people +had been taught to look upon all men as brethren, +then, and then only, did the variety of human speech +present itself as a problem that called for a solution in +the eyes of thoughtful observers; and I, therefore, date +the real beginning of the science of language from the +first day of Pentecost. After that day of cloven +tongues a new light is spreading over the world, and +objects rise into view which had been hidden from the +eyes of the nations of antiquity. Old words assume a +new meaning, old problems a new interest, old sciences +a new purpose. The common origin of mankind, the +differences of race and language, the susceptibility of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg 129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +all nations of the highest mental culture, these become, +in the new world in which we live, problems of scientific, +because of more than scientific, interest. It is no +valid objection that so many centuries should have +elapsed before the spirit which Christianity infused into +every branch of scientific inquiry produced visible results. +We see in the oaken fleet which rides the ocean +the small acorn which was buried in the ground hundreds +of years ago, and we recognize in the philosophy +of Albertus Magnus,<a id="noteref_107" name="noteref_107" href="#note_107"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">107</span></span></a> +though nearly 1200 years after the death of Christ, in the aspirations +of Kepler,<a id="noteref_108" name="noteref_108" href="#note_108"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">108</span></span></a> and +in the researches of the greatest philosophers of our +own age, the sound of that key-note of thought which +had been struck for the first time by the apostle of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page130">[pg 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Gentiles:<a id="noteref_109" name="noteref_109" href="#note_109"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">109</span></span></a> +<span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">For the invisible things of Him from the +creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood +by the things that are made, even His eternal power and +Godhead</span></em>.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But we shall see that the science of language owes +more than its first impulse to Christianity. The pioneers +of our science were those very apostles who were +commanded <span class="tei tei-q">“to go into all the world, and preach the +Gospel to every creature,”</span> and their true successors, the +missionaries of the whole Christian Church. Translations +of the Lord's Prayer or of the Bible into every +dialect of the world, form even now the most valuable +materials for the comparative philologist. As long as +the number of known languages was small, the idea of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page131">[pg 131]</span><a name="Pg131" id="Pg131" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +classification hardly suggested itself. The mind must +be bewildered by the multiplicity of facts before it has recourse +to division. As long as the only languages studied +were Greek, Latin, and Hebrew, the simple division +into sacred and profane, or classical and oriental, sufficed. +But when theologians extended their studies to Arabic, +Chaldee, and Syriac, a step, and a very important step, +was made towards the establishment of a class or family +of languages.<a id="noteref_110" name="noteref_110" href="#note_110"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">110</span></span></a> +No one could help seeing that these languages +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page132">[pg 132]</span><a name="Pg132" id="Pg132" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +were most intimately related to each other, and +that they differed from Greek and Latin on all points +on which they agreed among themselves. As early as +1606 we find <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Guichard</span></span>,<a id="noteref_111" name="noteref_111" href="#note_111"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">111</span></span></a> +in his <span class="tei tei-q">“Harmonie Etymologique,”</span> +placing Hebrew, Chaldee, and Syriac as a class +of languages by themselves, and distinguishing besides +between the Romance and Teutonic dialects. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What prevented, however, for a long time the progress +of the science of language was the idea that Hebrew +was the primitive language of mankind, and that, +therefore, all languages must be derived from Hebrew. +The fathers of the Church never expressed any doubt on +this point. St. Jerome, in one of his epistles to Damasus,<a id="noteref_112" name="noteref_112" href="#note_112"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">112</span></span></a> +writes: <span class="tei tei-q">“the whole of antiquity (universa antiquitas) +affirms that Hebrew, in which the Old Testament +is written, was the beginning of all human speech.”</span> +Origen, in his eleventh Homily on the book of Numbers, +expresses his belief that the Hebrew language, originally +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg 133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +given through Adam, remained in that part of the +world which was the chosen portion of God, not left like +the rest to one of His angels.<a id="noteref_113" name="noteref_113" href="#note_113"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">113</span></span></a> When, therefore, the +first attempts at a classification of languages were made, +the problem, as it presented itself to scholars such as +Guichard and Thomassin, was this: <span class="tei tei-q">“As Hebrew is +undoubtedly the mother of all languages, how are we to +explain the process by which Hebrew became split into +so many dialects, and how can these numerous dialects, +such as Greek, and Latin, Coptic, Persian, Turkish, be +traced back to their common source, the Hebrew?”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is astonishing what an amount of real learning and +ingenuity was wasted on this question during the seventeenth +and eighteenth centuries. It finds, perhaps, but +one parallel in the laborious calculations and constructions +of early astronomers, who had to account for the +movements of the heavenly bodies, always taking it for +granted that the earth must be the fixed centre of our +planetary system. But, although we know now that +the labors of such scholars as Thomassin were, and +could not be otherwise than fruitless, it would be a most +discouraging view to take of the progress of the human +race, were we to look upon the exertions of eminent +men in former ages, though they may have been in a +wrong direction, as mere vanity and vexation of spirit. +We must not forget that the very fact of the failure of +such men contributed powerfully to a general conviction +that there must be something wrong in the problem itself, +till at last a bolder genius inverted the problem and +thereby solved it. When books after books had been +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page134">[pg 134]</span><a name="Pg134" id="Pg134" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +written to show how Greek and Latin and all other +languages were derived from Hebrew,<a id="noteref_114" name="noteref_114" href="#note_114"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">114</span></span></a> and when not +one single system proved satisfactory, people asked at +last—<span class="tei tei-q">“Why then <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">should</span></em> all languages be derived from +Hebrew?”</span>—and this very question solved the problem. +It might have been natural for theologians in the fourth +and fifth centuries, many of whom knew neither Hebrew +nor any language except their own, to take it for granted +that Hebrew was the source of all languages, but there +is neither in the Old nor the New Testament a single +word to necessitate this view. Of the language of +Adam we know nothing; but if Hebrew, as we know +it, was one of the languages that sprang from the confusion +of tongues at Babel, it could not well have been +the language of Adam or of the whole earth, <span class="tei tei-q">“when +the whole earth was still of one speech.”</span><a id="noteref_115" name="noteref_115" href="#note_115"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">115</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Although, therefore, a certain advance was made +towards a classification of languages by the Semitic +scholars of the seventeenth century, yet this partial +advance became in other respects an impediment. +The purely scientific interest in arranging languages +according to their characteristic features was lost sight +of, and erroneous ideas were propagated, the influence +of which has even now not quite subsided. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The first who really conquered the prejudice that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg 135]</span><a name="Pg135" id="Pg135" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Hebrew was the source of all language was Leibniz, +the cotemporary and rival of Newton. <span class="tei tei-q">“There is as +much reason,”</span> he said, <span class="tei tei-q">“for supposing Hebrew to have +been the primitive language of mankind, as there is for +adopting the view of Goropius, who published a work +at Antwerp, in 1580, to prove that Dutch was the +language spoken in Paradise.”</span><a id="noteref_116" name="noteref_116" href="#note_116"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">116</span></span></a> In a +letter to Tenzel, Leibniz writes: <span class="tei tei-q">“To call Hebrew the primitive language, +is like calling branches of a tree primitive +branches, or like imagining that in some country hewn +trunks could grow instead of trees. Such ideas may +be conceived, but they do not agree with the laws of +nature, and with the harmony of the universe, that is +to say with the Divine Wisdom.”</span><a id="noteref_117" name="noteref_117" href="#note_117"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">117</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But Leibniz did more than remove this one great +stumbling-block from the threshold of the science of +language. He was the first to apply the principle of +sound inductive reasoning to a subject which before +him had only been treated at random. He pointed +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page136">[pg 136]</span><a name="Pg136" id="Pg136" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +out the necessity of collecting, first of all, as large a +number of facts as possible.<a id="noteref_118" name="noteref_118" href="#note_118"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">118</span></span></a> +He appealed to missionaries, travellers, ambassadors, princes, and emperors, to +help him in a work which he had so much at heart. +The Jesuits in China had to work for him. +Witsen,<a id="noteref_119" name="noteref_119" href="#note_119"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">119</span></span></a> +the traveller, sent him a most precious present, a translation +of the Lord's Prayer into the jargon of the Hottentots. +<span class="tei tei-q">“My friend,”</span> writes Leibniz in thanking him, +<span class="tei tei-q">“remember, I implore you, and remind your Muscovite +friends, to make researches in order to procure +specimens of the Scythian languages, the Samoyedes, +Siberians, Bashkirs, Kalmuks, Tungusians, and others.”</span> +Having made the acquaintance of Peter the Great, +Leibniz wrote to him the following letter, dated Vienna, +October the 26th, 1713:— +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“I have suggested that the numerous languages, +hitherto almost entirely unknown and unstudied, which +are current in the empire of your Majesty and on its +frontiers, should be reduced to writing; also that dictionaries, +or at least small vocabularies, should be collected, +and translations be procured in such languages +of the Ten Commandments, the Lord's Prayer, the +Apostolic Symbolum, and other parts of the Catechism, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page137">[pg 137]</span><a name="Pg137" id="Pg137" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ut omnis lingua laudet Dominum</span></em>. This would increase +the glory of your Majesty, who reigns over so many +nations, and is so anxious to improve them; and it +would, likewise, by means of a comparison of languages, +enable us to discover the origin of those nations +who from Scythia, which is subject to your +Majesty, advanced into other countries. But principally +it would help to plant Christianity among the +nations speaking those dialects, and I have, therefore, +addressed the Most Rev. Metropolitan on the same +subject.”</span><a id="noteref_120" name="noteref_120" href="#note_120"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">120</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Leibniz drew up a list of the most simple and necessary +terms which should be selected for comparison in +various languages. At home, while engaged in historical +researches, he collected whatever could throw light +on the origin of the German language, and he encouraged +others, such as Eccard, to do the same. He +pointed out the importance of dialects, and even of provincial +and local terms, for elucidating the etymological +structure of languages.<a id="noteref_121" name="noteref_121" href="#note_121"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">121</span></span></a> +Leibniz never undertook a systematic classification of the whole realm of language, +nor was he successful in classing the dialects with +which he had become acquainted. He distinguished +between a Japhetic and Aramaic class, the former +occupying the north, the latter the south, of the continent +of Asia and Europe. He believed in a common +origin of languages, and in a migration of the human +race from east to west. But he failed to distinguish +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page138">[pg 138]</span><a name="Pg138" id="Pg138" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the exact degrees of relationship in which languages +stood to each other, and he mixed up some of the +Turanian dialects, such as Finnish and Tataric, with +the Japhetic family of speech. If Leibniz had found +time to work out all the plans which his fertile and +comprehensive genius conceived, or if he had been +understood and supported by cotemporary scholars, the +science of language, as one of the inductive sciences, +might have been established a century earlier. But a +man like Leibniz, who was equally distinguished as a +scholar, a theologian, a lawyer, an historian, and a mathematician, +could only throw out hints as to how language +ought to be studied. Leibniz was not only the +discoverer of the differential calculus. He was one +of the first to watch the geological stratification of +the earth. He was engaged in constructing a calculating +machine, the idea of which he first conceived +as a boy. He drew up an elaborate plan of an expedition +to Egypt, which he submitted to Louis XIV. in +order to avert his attention from the frontiers of Germany. +The same man was engaged in a long correspondence +with Bossuet to bring about a reconciliation +between Protestants and Romanists, and he endeavored, +in his Theodicée and other works, to defend the +cause of truth and religion against the inroads of the +materialistic philosophy of England and France. It +has been said, indeed, that the discoveries of Leibniz +produced but little effect, and that most of them had +to be made again. This is not the case, however, with +regard to the science of language. The new interest +in languages, which Leibniz had called into life, did +not die again. After it had once been recognized as +a desideratum to bring together a complete <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Herbarium</span></span> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg 139]</span><a name="Pg139" id="Pg139" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the languages of mankind, missionaries and travellers +felt it their duty to collect lists of words, and draw +up grammars wherever they came in contact with a +new race. The two great works in which, at the beginning +of our century, the results of these researches +were summed up, I mean the Catalogue of Languages +by Hervas, and the Mithridates of Adelung, can both +be traced back directly to the influence of Leibniz. +As to Hervas, he had read Leibniz carefully, and +though he differs from him on some points, he fully +acknowledges his merits in promoting a truly philosophical +study of languages. Of Adelung's Mithridates +and his obligations to Leibniz we shall have to +speak presently. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hervas lived from 1735 to 1809. He was a Spaniard +by birth, and a Jesuit by profession. While working +as a missionary among the Polyglottous tribes of +America, his attention was drawn to a systematic study +of languages. After his return, he lived chiefly at +Rome in the midst of the numerous Jesuit missionaries +who had been recalled from all parts of the world, and +who, by their communications on the dialects of the +tribes among whom they had been laboring, assisted +him greatly in his researches. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Most of his works were written in Italian, and were +afterwards translated into Spanish. We cannot enter +into the general scope of his literary labors, which are +of the most comprehensive character. They were intended +to form a kind of Kosmos, for which he chose +the title of <span class="tei tei-q">“<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Idea del Universo</span></span>.”</span> What is of interest +to us is that portion which treats of man and language +as part of the universe; and here, again, chiefly his +Catalogue of Languages, in six volumes, published in +Spanish in the year 1800. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page140">[pg 140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If we compare the work of Hervas with a similar +work which excited much attention towards the end +of the last century, and is even now more widely +known than Hervas, I mean Court de Gebelin's +<span class="tei tei-q">“Monde Primitif,”</span><a id="noteref_122" name="noteref_122" href="#note_122"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">122</span></span></a> we shall see at once how far +superior the Spanish Jesuit is to the French philosopher. +Gebelin treats Persian, Armenian, Malay, and +Coptic as dialects of Hebrew; he speaks of Bask as +a dialect of Celtic, and he tries to discover Hebrew, +Greek, English, and French words in the idioms of +America. Hervas, on the contrary, though embracing +in his catalogue five times the number of languages +that were known to Gebelin, is most careful not to +allow himself to be carried away by theories not +warranted by the evidence before him. It is easy +now to point out mistakes and inaccuracies in Hervas, +but I think that those who have blamed him most are +those who ought most to have acknowledged their +obligations to him. To have collected specimens and +notices of more than 300 languages is no small matter. +But Hervas did more. He himself composed grammars +of more than forty languages.<a id="noteref_123" name="noteref_123" href="#note_123"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">123</span></span></a> He was the first +to point out that the true affinities of languages must +be determined chiefly by grammatical evidence, not by +mere similarity of words.<a id="noteref_124" name="noteref_124" href="#note_124"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">124</span></span></a> +He proved, by a comparative +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg 141]</span><a name="Pg141" id="Pg141" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +list of declensions and conjugations, that Hebrew, +Chaldee, Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic, and Amharic are +all but dialects of one original language, and constitute +one family of speech, the Semitic.<a id="noteref_125" name="noteref_125" href="#note_125"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">125</span></span></a> He scouted +the idea of deriving all the languages of mankind from +Hebrew. He had perceived clear traces of affinity in +Hungarian, Lapponian, and Finnish, three dialects +now classed as members of the Turanian family.<a id="noteref_126" name="noteref_126" href="#note_126"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">126</span></span></a> He +had proved that Bask was not, as was commonly supposed, +a Celtic dialect, but an independent language, +spoken by the earliest inhabitants of Spain, as proved +by the names of the Spanish mountains and rivers.<a id="noteref_127" name="noteref_127" href="#note_127"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">127</span></span></a> +Nay, one of the most brilliant discoveries in the history +of the science of language, the establishment of +the Malay and Polynesian family of speech, extending +from the island of Madagascar east of Africa, over 208 +degrees of longitude, to the Easter Islands west of +America,<a id="noteref_128" name="noteref_128" href="#note_128"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">128</span></span></a> was made by Hervas long before it was +announced to the world by Humboldt. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page142">[pg 142]</span><a name="Pg142" id="Pg142" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hervas was likewise aware of the great grammatical +similarity between Sanskrit and Greek, but the imperfect +information which he received from his friend, the +Carmelite missionary, Fra Paolino de San Bartolomeo, +the author of the first Sanskrit grammar, published at +Rome in 1790, prevented him from seeing the full +meaning of this grammatical similarity. How near +Hervas was to the discovery of the truth may be seen +from his comparing such words as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">theos</span></em>, God, in Greek, +with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Deva</span></em>, God, in Sanskrit. He identified the Greek +auxiliary verb <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eimi</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eis</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">esti</span></em>, I am, thou art, he +is, with the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">asmi</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">asi</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">asti</span></em>. He even +pointed out that the terminations of the three genders<a id="noteref_129" name="noteref_129" href="#note_129"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">129</span></span></a> in Greek, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">os</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ē</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">on</span></em>, are the same as the Sanskrit, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">â</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">am</span></em>. But believing, +as he did, that the Greeks derived their philosophy +and mythology from India,<a id="noteref_130" name="noteref_130" href="#note_130"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">130</span></span></a> he supposed that +they had likewise borrowed from the Hindus some of +their words, and even the art of distinguishing the +gender of words. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The second work which represents the science of +language at the beginning of this century, and which +is, to a still greater extent, the result of the impulse +which Leibniz had given, is the Mithridates of Adelung.<a id="noteref_131" name="noteref_131" href="#note_131"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">131</span></span></a> +Adelung's work depends partly on Hervas, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page143">[pg 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id="Pg143" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +partly on the collections of words which had been made +under the auspices of the Russian government. Now +these collections are clearly due to Leibniz. Although +Peter the Great had no time or taste for philological +studies, the government kept the idea of collecting all +the languages of the Russian empire steadily in view.<a id="noteref_132" name="noteref_132" href="#note_132"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">132</span></span></a> +Still greater luck was in store for the science of language. +Having been patronized by Cæsar at Rome, it +found a still more devoted patroness in the great Cesarina +of the North, Catherine the Great (1762-1796). +Even as Grand-duchess Catherine was engrossed with +the idea of a Universal Dictionary, on the plan suggested +by Leibniz. She encouraged the chaplain of +the British Factory at St. Petersburg, the Rev. Daniel +Dumaresq, to undertake the work, and he is said to +have published, at her desire, a <span class="tei tei-q">“Comparative Vocabulary +of Eastern Languages,”</span> in quarto; a work, +however, which, if ever published, is now completely +lost. The reputed author died in London in 1805, at +the advanced age of eighty-four. When Catherine +came to the throne, her plans of conquest hardly absorbed +more of her time than her philological studies; +and she once shut herself up nearly a year, devoting +all her time to the compilation of her Comparative +Dictionary. A letter of hers to Zimmermann, dated the +9th of May, 1785, may interest some of my hearers:— +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Your letter,”</span> she writes, <span class="tei tei-q">“has drawn me from the +solitude in which I had shut myself up for nearly nine +months, and from which I found it hard to stir. You +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg 144]</span><a name="Pg144" id="Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +will not guess what I have been about. I will tell you, +for such things do not happen every day. I have been +making a list of from two to three hundred radical +words of the Russian language, and I have had them +translated into as many languages and jargons as I +could find. Their number exceeds already the second +hundred. Every day I took one of these words and +wrote it out in all the languages which I could collect. +This has taught me that the Celtic is like the Ostiakian: +that what means sky in one language means +cloud, fog, vault, in others; that the word God in certain +dialects means Good, the Highest, in others, sun +or fire. (Up to here her letter is written in French; +then follows a line of German.) I became tired of +my hobby, after I had read your book on Solitude. +(Then again in French.) But as I should have been +sorry to throw such a mass of paper in the fire;—besides, +the room, six fathoms in length, which I use +as a boudoir in my hermitage, was pretty well warmed—I +asked Professor Pallas to come to me, and after +making an honest confession of my sin, we agreed to +publish these collections, and thus make them useful +to those who like to occupy themselves with the forsaken +toys of others. We are only waiting for some +more dialects of Eastern Siberia. Whether the world +at large will or will not see in this work bright ideas +of different kinds, must depend on the disposition of +their minds, and does not concern me in the least.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If an empress rides a hobby, there are many ready +to help her. Not only were all Russian ambassadors +instructed to collect materials; not only did German +professors<a id="noteref_133" name="noteref_133" href="#note_133"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">133</span></span></a> supply grammars and dictionaries, but +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg 145]</span><a name="Pg145" id="Pg145" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Washington himself, in order to please the empress, +sent her list of words to all governors and generals +of the United States, enjoining them to supply the +equivalents from the American dialects. The first +volume of the Imperial Dictionary<a id="noteref_134" name="noteref_134" href="#note_134"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">134</span></span></a> appeared in 1787, +containing a list of 285 words translated into fifty-one +European, and 149 Asiatic languages. Though full +credit should be given to the empress for this remarkable +undertaking, it is but fair to remember that it was +the philosopher who, nearly a hundred years before, +sowed the seed that fell into good ground. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As collections, the works of Hervas, of the Empress +Catherine, and of Adelung, are highly important, +though, such is the progress made in the classification +of languages during the last fifty years, that few people +would now consult them. Besides, the principle +of classification which is followed in these works can +hardly claim to be called scientific. Languages are arranged +geographically, as the languages of Europe, Asia, +Africa, America, and Polynesia, though, at the same +time, natural affinities are admitted which would unite +dialects spoken at a distance of 208 degrees. Languages +seemed to float about like islands on the ocean +of human speech; they did not shoot together to form +themselves into larger continents. This is a most critical +period in the history of every science, and if it +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg 146]</span><a name="Pg146" id="Pg146" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +had not been for a happy accident, which, like an electric +spark, caused the floating elements to crystallize +into regular forms, it is more than doubtful whether +the long list of languages and dialects, enumerated and +described in the works of Hervas and Adelung, could +long have sustained the interest of the student of languages. +This electric spark was the discovery of Sanskrit. +Sanskrit is the ancient language of the Hindus. +It had ceased to be a spoken language at least 300 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span> +At that time the people of India spoke dialects standing +to the ancient Vedic Sanskrit in the relation of +Italian to Latin. We know some of these dialects, +for there were more than one in various parts of India, +from the inscriptions which the famous King Aśoka +had engraved on the rocks of Dhauli, Girnar, and +Kapurdigiri, and which have been deciphered by Prinsep, +Norris, Wilson, and Burnouf. We can watch +the further growth of these local dialects in the so-called +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Pâli</span></em>, the sacred language of Buddhism in Ceylon, +and once the popular dialect of the country where +Buddhism took its origin, the modern Behár, the ancient +Magadha.<a id="noteref_135" name="noteref_135" href="#note_135"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">135</span></span></a> We meet the same local dialects +again in what are called the Prâkrit idioms, used in +the later plays, in the sacred literature of the Jainas, +and in a few poetical compositions; and we see at last +how, through a mixture with the languages of the +various conquerors of India, the Arabic, Persian, +Mongolic, and Turkish, and through a concomitant +corruption of their grammatical system, they were +changed into the modern Hindí, Hindustání, Mahrattí, +and Bengálí. During all this time, however, +Sanskrit continued as the literary language of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg 147]</span><a name="Pg147" id="Pg147" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Brahmans. Like Latin, it did not die in giving birth +to its numerous offspring; and even at the present day, +an educated Brahman would write with greater fluency +in Sanskrit than in Bengálí. Sanskrit was what Greek +was at Alexandria, what Latin was during the Middle +Ages. It was the classical and at the same time the +sacred language of the Brahmans, and in it were written +their sacred hymns, the Vedas, and the later works, +such as the laws of Manu and the Purâņas. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The existence of such a language as the ancient +idiom of the country, and the vehicle of a large literature, +was known at all times; and if there are still any +doubts, like those expressed by Dugald Stewart in his +<span class="tei tei-q">“Conjectures concerning the Origin of the +Sanskrit,”</span><a id="noteref_136" name="noteref_136" href="#note_136"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">136</span></span></a> +as to its age and authenticity, they will be best removed +by a glance at the history of India, and at the +accounts given by the writers of different nations that +became successively acquainted with the language and +literature of that country. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The argument that nearly all the names of persons +and places in India mentioned by Greek and Roman +writers are pure Sanskrit, has been handled so fully +and ably by others, that nothing more remains to be +said. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The next nation after the Greeks that became acquainted +with the language and literature of India was +the Chinese. Though Buddhism was not recognized +as a third state-religion before the year 65 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a. d.</span></span>, under +the Emperor Ming-ti,<a id="noteref_137" name="noteref_137" href="#note_137"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">137</span></span></a> Buddhist missionaries reached +China from India as early as the third century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span> +One Buddhist missionary is mentioned in the Chinese +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148" id="Pg148" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +annals in the year 217; and about the year 120 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>, +a Chinese general, after defeating the barbarous tribes +north of the desert of Gobi, brought back as a trophy +a golden statue, the statue of Buddha. The very name +of Buddha, changed in Chinese into Fo-t'o and +Fo,<a id="noteref_138" name="noteref_138" href="#note_138"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">138</span></span></a> is +pure Sanskrit, and so is every word and every thought +of that religion. The language which the Chinese pilgrims +went to India to study, as the key to the sacred +literature of Buddhism, was Sanskrit. They call it +Fan; but Fan, as M. Stanislas Julien has shown, is an +abbreviation of Fan-lan-mo, and this is the only way +in which the Sanskrit Brahman could be rendered in +Chinese.<a id="noteref_139" name="noteref_139" href="#note_139"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">139</span></span></a> We read of the Emperor +Ming-ti, of the dynasty of Han, sending Tsaï-in and other high officials +to India, in order to study there the doctrine of +Buddha. They engaged the services of two learned +Buddhists, Matânga and Tchou-fa-lan, and some of +the most important Buddhist works were translated by +them into Chinese. The intellectual intercourse between +the Indian peninsula and the northern continent +of Asia continued uninterrupted for several centuries. +Missions were sent from China to India to report on +the religious, political, social, and geographical state +of the country; and the chief object of interest, which +attracted public embassies and private pilgrims across +the Himalayan mountains, was the religion of Buddha. +About 300 years after the public recognition of Buddhism +by the Emperor Ming-ti, the great stream of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page149">[pg 149]</span><a name="Pg149" id="Pg149" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Buddhist pilgrims began to flow from China to India. +The first account which we possess of these pilgrimages +refers to the travels of Fa-hian, who visited India +towards the end of the fourth century. His travels +were translated into French by A. Remusat. After +Fa-hian, we have the travels of Hoei-seng and Song-yun, +who were sent to India, in 518, by command of +the empress, with the view of collecting sacred books +and relics. Then followed Hiouen-thsang, whose life +and travels, from 629-645, have been rendered so +popular by the excellent translation of M. Stanislas +Julien. After Hiouen-thsang the principal works of +Chinese pilgrims are the Itineraries of the Fifty-six +Monks, published in 730, and the travels of Khi-nie, +who visited India in 964, at the head of 300 pilgrims. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +That the language employed for literary purposes in +India during all this time was Sanskrit, we learn, not +only from the numerous names and religious and philosophical +terms mentioned in the travels of the Chinese +pilgrims, but from a short paradigm of declension and +conjugation in Sanskrit which one of them (Hiouen-thsang) +has inserted in his diary. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As soon as the Muhammedans entered India, we +hear of translations of Sanskrit works into Persian and +Arabic.<a id="noteref_140" name="noteref_140" href="#note_140"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">140</span></span></a> Harun-al-Rashid (786-809) had two Indians, +Manka and Saleh, at his court as physicians. +Manka translated the classical work on medicine, Suśruta, +and a treatise on poisons, ascribed to Châņakya, +from Sanskrit into Persian.<a id="noteref_141" name="noteref_141" href="#note_141"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">141</span></span></a> During the Chalifate of +Al Mámúm, a famous treatise on Algebra was translated +by Muhammed ben Musa from Sanskrit into +Arabic (edited by F. Rosen). +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" id="Pg150" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +About 1000 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a. d.</span></span>, Abu Rihan al Birúni (born 970, +died 1038) spent forty years in India, and composed +his excellent work, the Taríkhu-l-Hind, which gives a +complete account of the literature and sciences of the +Hindus at that time. Al Birúni had been appointed +by the Sultan of Khawarazm to accompany an embassy +which he sent to Mahmud of Ghazni and Masud of +Lahore. The learned Avicenna had been invited to +join the same embassy, but had declined. Al Birúni +must have acquired a complete knowledge of Sanskrit, +for he not only translated one work on the Sânkhya, +and another on the Yoga philosophy, from Sanskrit +into Arabic, but likewise two works from Arabic into +Sanskrit.<a id="noteref_142" name="noteref_142" href="#note_142"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">142</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +About 1150 we hear of Abu Saleh translating a +work on the education of kings from Sanskrit into +Arabic.<a id="noteref_143" name="noteref_143" href="#note_143"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">143</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Two hundred years later, we are told that Firoz +Shah, after the capture of Nagarcote, ordered several +Sanskrit works on philosophy to be translated from +Sanskrit by Maulána Izzu-d-din Khalid Khani. A +work on veterinary medicine ascribed to Sálotar,<a id="noteref_144" name="noteref_144" href="#note_144"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">144</span></span></a> said +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page151">[pg 151]</span><a name="Pg151" id="Pg151" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to have been the tutor of Suśruta, was likewise translated +from Sanskrit in the year 1381. A copy of it +was preserved in the Royal Library of Lucknow. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Two hundred years more bring us to the reign +of Akbar (1556-1605). A more extraordinary man +never sat on the throne of India. Brought up as a +Muhammedan, he discarded the religion of the Prophet +as superstitious,<a id="noteref_145" name="noteref_145" href="#note_145"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">145</span></span></a> and then devoted himself to a search +after the true religion. He called Brahmans and fire-worshippers +to his court, and ordered them to discuss +in his presence the merits of their religions with the +Muhammedan doctors. When he heard of the Jesuits +at Goa, he invited them to his capital, and he was for +many years looked upon as a secret convert to Christianity. +He was, however, a rationalist and deist, and +never believed anything, as he declared himself, that +he could not understand. The religion which he founded, +the so-called Ilahi religion, was pure Deism mixed +up with the worship of the sun<a id="noteref_146" name="noteref_146" href="#note_146"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">146</span></span></a> as the purest and +highest emblem of the Deity. Though Akbar himself +could neither read nor write,<a id="noteref_147" name="noteref_147" href="#note_147"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">147</span></span></a> his court was the home +of literary men of all persuasions. Whatever book, in +any language, promised to throw light on the problems +nearest to the emperor's heart, he ordered to be translated +into Persian. The New Testament<a id="noteref_148" name="noteref_148" href="#note_148"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">148</span></span></a> was thus +translated at his command; so were the Mahâbhârata, +the Râmâyaņa, the Amarakosha,<a id="noteref_149" name="noteref_149" href="#note_149"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">149</span></span></a> and other classical +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg 152]</span><a name="Pg152" id="Pg152" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +works of Sanskrit literature. But though the emperor +set the greatest value on the sacred writings of different +nations, he does not seem to have succeeded in extorting +from the Brahmans a translation of the Veda. +A translation of the Atharva-veda<a id="noteref_150" name="noteref_150" href="#note_150"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">150</span></span></a> was made for him +by Haji Ibrahim Sirhindi; but that Veda never enjoyed +the same authority as the other three Vedas; +and it is doubtful even whether by Atharva-veda is +meant more than the Upanishads, some of which may +have been composed for the special benefit of Akbar. +There is a story which, though evidently of a legendary +character, shows how the study of Sanskrit was +kept up by the Brahmans during the reign of the Mogul +emperors. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Neither the authority (it is said) nor promises of +Akbar could prevail upon the Brahmans to disclose +the tenets of their religion: he was therefore obliged to +have recourse to artifice. The stratagem he made use +of was to cause an infant, of the name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Feizi</span></em>, to be +committed to the care of these priests, as a poor orphan +of the sacerdotal line, who alone could be initiated into +the sacred rites of their theology. Feizi, having received +the proper instructions for the part he was to +act, was conveyed privately to Benares, the seat of +knowledge in Hindostan; he was received into the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page153">[pg 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +house of a learned Brahman, who educated him with +the same care as if he had been his son. After the +youth had spent ten years in study, Akbar was desirous +of recalling him; but he was struck with the charms +of the daughter of his preceptor. The old Brahman +laid no restraint on the growing passion of the two +lovers. He was fond of Feizi, and offered him his +daughter in marriage. The young man, divided between +love and gratitude, resolved to conceal the fraud +no longer, and, falling at the feet of the Brahman, +discovered the imposture, and asked pardon for his offences. +The priest, without reproaching him, seized a +poniard which hung at his girdle, and was going to +plunge it in his heart, if Feizi had not prevented him +by taking hold of his arm. The young man used every +means to pacify him, and declared himself ready to do +anything to expiate his treachery. The Brahman, +bursting into tears, promised to pardon him on condition +that he should swear never to translate the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Vedas</span></em>, +or sacred volumes, or disclose to any person whatever +the symbol of the Brahman creed. Feizi readily promised +him: how far he kept his word is not known; +but the sacred books of the Indians have never been +translated.”</span><a id="noteref_151" name="noteref_151" href="#note_151"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">151</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have thus traced the existence of Sanskrit, as the +language of literature and religion of India, from the +time of Alexander to the reign of Akbar. A hundred +years after Akbar, the eldest son of Shah Jehan, the +unfortunate Dárá, manifested the same interest in religious +speculations which had distinguished his great +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page154">[pg 154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +grandsire. He became a student of Sanskrit, and +translated the Upanishads, philosophical treatises appended +to the Vedas, into Persian. This was in the +year 1657, a year before he was put to death by +his younger brother, the bigoted Aurengzebe. This +prince's translation was translated into French by Anquetil +Duperron, in the year 1795, the fourth year of +the French Republic; and was for a long time the +principal source from which European scholars derived +their knowledge of the sacred literature of the +Brahmans. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the time at which we have now arrived, the +reign of Aurengzebe (1658-1707), the cotemporary +and rival of Louis XIV., the existence of Sanskrit and +Sanskrit literature was known, if not in Europe generally, +at least to Europeans in India, particularly to +missionaries. Who was the first European, that knew +of Sanskrit, or that acquired a knowledge of Sanskrit, +is difficult to say. When Vasco de Gama landed at +Calicut, on the 9th of May, 1498, Padre Pedro began +at once to preach to the natives, and had suffered a +martyr's death before the discoverer of India returned +to Lisbon. Every new ship that reached India brought +new missionaries; but for a long time we look in vain +in their letters and reports for any mention of Sanskrit +or Sanskrit literature. Francis, now St. Francis Xavier, +was the first to organize the great work of preaching +the Gospel in India (1542); and such were his zeal +and devotion, such his success in winning the hearts of +high and low, that his friends ascribed to him, among +other miraculous gifts, the gift of tongues<a id="noteref_152" name="noteref_152" href="#note_152"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">152</span></span></a>—a gift +never claimed by St. Francis himself. It is not, however, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page155">[pg 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id="Pg155" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +till the year 1559 that we first hear of the missionaries +at Goa studying, with the help of a converted +Brahman,<a id="noteref_153" name="noteref_153" href="#note_153"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">153</span></span></a> +the theological and philosophical literature +of the country, and challenging the Brahmans to public +disputations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The first certain instance of a European missionary +having mastered the difficulties of the Sanskrit language, +belongs to a still later period,—to what may +be called the period of Roberto de Nobili, as distinguished +from the first period, which is under the presiding +spirit of Francis Xavier. Roberto de Nobili +went to India in 1606. He was himself a man of +high family, of a refined and cultivated mind, and he +perceived the more quickly the difficulties which kept +the higher castes, and particularly the Brahmans, from +joining the Christian communities formed at Madura +and other places. These communities consisted chiefly +of men of low rank, of no education, and no refinement. +He conceived the bold plan of presenting himself as a +Brahman, and thus obtaining access to the high and +noble, the wise and learned, in the land. He shut himself +up for years, acquiring in secret a knowledge, not +only of Tamil and Telugu, but of Sanskrit. When, after +a patient study of the language and literature of the +Brahmans, he felt himself strong enough to grapple with +his antagonists, he showed himself in public, dressed in +the proper garb of the Brahmans, wearing their cord +and their frontal mark, observing their diet, and submitting +even to the complicated rules of caste. He +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page156">[pg 156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was successful, in spite of the persecutions both of the +Brahmans, who were afraid of him, and of his own +fellow-laborers, who could not understand his policy. +His life in India, where he died as an old blind man, +is full of interest to the missionary. I can only speak +of him here as the first European Sanskrit scholar. A +man who could quote from Manu, from the Purâņas, +and even from works such as the Âpastamba-sûtras, +which are known even at present to only those few +Sanskrit scholars who can read Sanskrit MSS., must +have been far advanced in a knowledge of the sacred +language and literature of the Brahmans; and the +very idea that he came, as he said, to preach a new +or a fourth Veda,<a id="noteref_154" name="noteref_154" href="#note_154"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">154</span></span></a> which had been lost, shows how +well he knew the strong and weak points of the theological +system which he came to conquer. It is surprising +that the reports which he sent to Rome, in +order to defend himself against the charge of idolatry, +and in which he drew a faithful picture of the religion, +the customs, and literature of the Brahmans, should +not have attracted the attention of scholars. The +<span class="tei tei-q">“Accommodation Question,”</span> as it was called, occupied +cardinals and popes for many years; but not one +of them seems to have perceived the extraordinary +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page157">[pg 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +interest attaching to the existence of an ancient civilization +so perfect and so firmly rooted as to require +accommodation even from the missionaries of Rome. +At a time when the discovery of one Greek MS. would +have been hailed by all the scholars of Europe, the +discovery of a complete literature was allowed to pass +unnoticed. The day of Sanskrit had not yet come. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The first missionaries who succeeded in rousing the +attention of European scholars to the extraordinary +discovery that had been made were the French Jesuit +missionaries, whom Louis XIV. had sent out to India +after the treaty of Ryswick, in 1697.<a id="noteref_155" name="noteref_155" href="#note_155"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">155</span></span></a> Father Pons +drew up a comprehensive account of the literary treasures +of the Brahmans; and his report, dated Karikal +(dans le Maduré), November 23, 1740, and addressed +to Father Duhalde, was published in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Lettres +édifiantes.”</span><a id="noteref_156" name="noteref_156" href="#note_156"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">156</span></span></a> +Father Pons gives in it a most interesting +and, in general, a very accurate description of the +various branches of Sanskrit literature,—of the four +Vedas, the grammatical treatises, the six systems of +philosophy, and the astronomy of the Hindus. He +anticipated, on several points, the researches of Sir +William Jones. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But, although the letter of Father Pons excited a +deep interest, that interest remained necessarily barren, +as long as there were no grammars, dictionaries, and +Sanskrit texts to enable scholars in Europe to study +Sanskrit in the same spirit in which they studied Greek +and Latin. The first who endeavored to supply this +want was a Carmelite friar, a German of the name +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg 158]</span><a name="Pg158" id="Pg158" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of Johann Philip Wesdin, better known as Paulinus +a Santo Bartholomeo. He was in India from 1776 to +1789; and he published the first grammar of Sanskrit +at Rome, in 1790. Although this grammar has been +severely criticised, and is now hardly ever consulted, it +is but fair to bear in mind that the first grammar of +any language is a work of infinitely greater difficulty +than any later grammar.<a id="noteref_157" name="noteref_157" href="#note_157"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">157</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have thus seen how the existence of the Sanskrit +language and literature was known ever since India +had first been discovered by Alexander and his companions. +But what was not known was, that this language, +as it was spoken at the time of Alexander, and +at the time of Solomon, and for centuries before his +time, was intimately related to Greek and Latin, in +fact, stood to them in the same relation as French +to Italian and Spanish. The history of what may be +called European Sanskrit philology dates from the +foundation of the Asiatic Society at Calcutta, in 1784.<a id="noteref_158" name="noteref_158" href="#note_158"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">158</span></span></a> +It was through the labors of Sir William Jones, Carey, +Wilkins, Forster, Colebrooke, and other members of +that illustrious Society, that the language and literature +of the Brahmans became first accessible to European +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page159">[pg 159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +scholars; and it would be difficult to say which of +the two, the language or the literature, excited the +deepest and most lasting interest. It was impossible to +look, even in the most cursory manner, at the declensions +and conjugations, without being struck by the +extraordinary similarity, or, in some cases, by the absolute +identity of the grammatical forms in Sanskrit, +Greek, and Latin. As early as 1778, Halhed remarked, +in the preface to his Grammar of Bengalí,<a id="noteref_159" name="noteref_159" href="#note_159"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">159</span></span></a> +<span class="tei tei-q">“I have been astonished to find this similitude of Sanskrit +words with those of Persian and Arabic, and even +of Latin and Greek; and these not in technical and +metaphorical terms, which the mutuation of refined arts +and improved manners might have occasionally introduced; +but in the main groundwork of language, in +monosyllables, in the names of numbers, and the appellations +of such things as could be first discriminated +on the immediate dawn of civilization.”</span> Sir William +Jones (died 1794), after the first glance at Sanskrit, +declared that whatever its antiquity, it was a language +of most wonderful structure, more perfect than the +Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely +refined than either, yet bearing to both of them +a strong affinity. <span class="tei tei-q">“No philologer,”</span> he writes, <span class="tei tei-q">“could +examine the Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, without believing +them to have sprung from some common source, +which, perhaps, no longer exists. There is a similar reason, +though not quite so forcible, for supposing that both +the Gothic and Celtic had the same origin with the Sanskrit. +The old Persian may be added to the same family.”</span> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page160">[pg 160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But how was that affinity to be explained? People +were completely taken by surprise. Theologians shook +their heads; classical scholars looked sceptical; philosophers +indulged in the wildest conjectures in order to +escape from the only possible conclusion which could +be drawn from the facts placed before them, but which +threatened to upset their little systems of the history of +the world. Lord Monboddo had just finished his great +work<a id="noteref_160" name="noteref_160" href="#note_160"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">160</span></span></a> in which he derives all mankind from a couple +of apes, and all the dialects of the world from a language +originally framed by some Egyptian gods,<a id="noteref_161" name="noteref_161" href="#note_161"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">161</span></span></a> when +the discovery of Sanskrit came on him like a thunder-bolt. +It must be said, however, to his credit, that he +at once perceived the immense importance of the discovery. +He could not be expected to sacrifice his primæval +monkeys or his Egyptian idols; but, with that +reservation, the conclusions which he drew from the +new evidence placed before him by his friend Mr. Wilkins, +the author of one of our first Sanskrit grammars, +are highly creditable to the acuteness of the Scotch judge. +<span class="tei tei-q">“There is a language,”</span> he writes<a id="noteref_162" name="noteref_162" href="#note_162"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">162</span></span></a> (in 1792), <span class="tei tei-q">“still +existing, and preserved among the Bramins of India, +which is a richer and in every respect a finer language +than even the Greek of Homer. All the other languages +of India have a great resemblance to this language, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which is called the Shanscrit. But those languages +are dialects of it, and formed from it, not the +Shanscrit from them. Of this, and other particulars +concerning this language, I have got such certain information +from India, that if I live to finish my history +of man, which I have begun in my third volume of +<span class="tei tei-q">‘Antient Metaphysics,’</span> I shall be able clearly to prove +that the Greek is derived from the Shanscrit, which +was the antient language of Egypt, and was carried by +the Egyptians into India, with their other arts, and into +Greece by the colonies which they settled there.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A few years later (1795) he had arrived at more +definite views on the relation of Sanskrit to Greek; +and he writes,<a id="noteref_163" name="noteref_163" href="#note_163"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">163</span></span></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“Mr. Wilkins has proved to my conviction +such a resemblance betwixt the Greek and the +Shanscrit, that the one must be a dialect of the other, +or both of some original language. Now the Greek +is certainly not a dialect of the Shanscrit, any more +than the Shanscrit is of the Greek. They must, +therefore, be both dialects of the same language; and +that language could be no other than the language +of Egypt, brought into India by Osiris, of which, undoubtedly, +the Greek was a dialect, as I think I have +proved.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Into these theories of Lord Monboddo's on Egypt +and Osiris, we need not inquire at present. But it +may be of interest to give one other extract, in +order to show how well, apart from his men with, +and his monkeys without, tails, Lord Monboddo could +sift and handle the evidence that was placed before +him:— +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“To apply these observations to the similarities which +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page162">[pg 162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Mr. Wilkins has discovered betwixt the Shanscrit and +the Greek;—I will begin with these words, which must +have been original words in all languages, as the things +denoted by them must have been known in the first +ages of civility, and have got names; so that it is impossible +that one language could have borrowed them +from another, unless it was a derivative or dialect of +that language. Of this kind are the names of numbers, +of the members of the human body, and of relations, +such as that of father, mother, and brother. And first, +as to numbers, the use of which must have been coeval +with civil society. The words in the Shanscrit for the +numbers from one to ten are, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ek</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dwee</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tree</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">chatoor</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">panch</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">shat</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sapt</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">aght</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nava</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">das</span></em>, which certainly have +an affinity to the Greek or Latin names for those numbers. +Then they proceed towards twenty, saying ten +and one, ten and two, and so forth, till they come to +twenty; for their arithmetic is decimal as well as ours. +Twenty they express by the word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">veensatee</span></em>. Then +they go on till they come to thirty, which they express +by the word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">treensat</span></em>, of which the word expressing +three is part of the composition, as well as it is of the +Greek and Latin names for those numbers. And in +like manner they go on expressing forty, fifty, &c., by +a like composition with the words expressing simple +numerals, namely, four, five, &c., till they come to the +number one hundred, which they express by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sat</span></em>, a +word different from either the Greek or Latin name for +that number. But, in this numeration, there is a very +remarkable conformity betwixt the word in Shanscrit +expressing twenty or twice ten, and the words in Greek +and Latin expressing the same number; for in none of +the three languages has the word any relation to the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg 163]</span><a name="Pg163" id="Pg163" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +number two, which, by multiplying ten, makes twenty; +such as the words expressing the numbers thirty, forty, +&c., have to the words expressing three or four; for in +Greek the word is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eikosi</span></em>, which expresses no relation +to the number two; nor does the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">viginti</span></em>, but +which appears to have more resemblance to the Shanscrit +word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">veensatee</span></em>. And thus it appears that in the +anomalies of the two languages of Greek and Latin, +there appears to be some conformity with the Shanscrit.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Lord Monboddo compares the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pada</span></em> with +the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pous</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">podos</span></em>; the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nâsa</span></em> with the +Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nasus</span></em>; the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">deva</span></em>, god, with the Greek +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Theos</span></em> and Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">deus</span></em>; the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ap</span></em>, water, with +the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">aqua</span></em>; the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vidhavâ</span></em> with the Latin +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vidua</span></em>, widow. Sanskrit words such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gonia</span></em>, for +angle, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kentra</span></em>, for centre, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hora</span></em>, for hour, he points out +as clearly of Greek origin, and imported into Sanskrit. +He then proceeds to show the grammatical +coincidences between Sanskrit and the classical languages. +He dwells on compounds such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tripada</span></em>, +from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tri</span></em>, three, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pada</span></em>, foot—a tripod; he remarks +on the extraordinary fact that Sanskrit, like Greek, +changes a positive into a negative adjective by the addition +of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></em> privative; and he then produces what +he seems to consider as the most valuable present that +Mr. Wilkins could have given him, namely, the Sanskrit +forms, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">asmi</span></em>, I am; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">asi</span></em>, thou art; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">asti</span></em>, he is; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">santi</span></em>, they are; forms clearly of the same origin as +the corresponding forms, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">esmi</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eis</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">esti</span></em>, in +Greek, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sunt</span></em> in Latin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another Scotch philosopher, Dugald Stewart, was +much less inclined to yield such ready submission. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page164">[pg 164]</span><a name="Pg164" id="Pg164" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +No doubt it must have required a considerable effort +for a man brought up in the belief that Greek and +Latin were either aboriginal languages, or modifications +of Hebrew, to bring himself to acquiesce in the +revolutionary doctrine that the classical languages were +intimately related to a jargon of mere savages; for +such all the subjects of the Great Mogul were then +supposed to be. However, if the facts about Sanskrit +were true, Dugald Stewart was too wise not to see +that the conclusions drawn from them were inevitable. +He therefore denied the reality of such a language +as Sanskrit altogether, and wrote his famous essay to +prove that Sanskrit had been put together, after the +model of Greek and Latin, by those arch-forgers and +liars the Brahmans, and that the whole of Sanskrit +literature was an imposition. I mention this fact, because +it shows, better than anything else, how violent +a shock was given by the discovery of Sanskrit to prejudices +most deeply ingrained in the mind of every +educated man. The most absurd arguments found +favor for a time, if they could only furnish a loophole +by which to escape from the unpleasant conclusion that +Greek and Latin were of the same kith and kin as the +language of the black inhabitants of India. The first +who dared boldly to face both the facts and the conclusions +of Sanskrit scholarship was the German poet, +Frederick Schlegel. He had been in England during +the peace of Amiens (1801-1802), and had learned +a smattering of Sanskrit from Mr. Alexander Hamilton. +After carrying on his studies for some time at +Paris, he published, in 1808, his work, <span class="tei tei-q">“On the +Language and Wisdom of the Indians.”</span> This work +became the foundation of the science of language. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page165">[pg 165]</span><a name="Pg165" id="Pg165" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Though published only two years after the first volume +of Adelung's <span class="tei tei-q">“Mithridates,”</span> it is separated from +that work by the same distance which separates the +Copernican from the Ptolemæan system. Schlegel +was not a great scholar. Many of his statements +have proved erroneous; and nothing would be easier +than to dissect his essay and hold it up to ridicule. +But Schlegel was a man of genius; and when a new +science is to be created, the imagination of the poet is +wanted, even more than the accuracy of the scholar. +It surely required somewhat of poetic vision to embrace +with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">one</span></em> glance the languages of India, Persia, +Greece, Italy, and Germany, and to rivet them together +by the simple name of Indo-Germanic. This +was Schlegel's work; and in the history of the intellect, +it has truly been called <span class="tei tei-q">“the discovery of a new +world.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We shall see, in our next lecture, how Schlegel's +idea was taken up in Germany, and how it led almost +immediately to a genealogical classification of the principal +languages of mankind. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page166">[pg 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a> +<a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Lecture V. Genealogical Classification Of Languages.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We traced, in our last Lecture, the history of the +various attempts at a classification of languages to the +year 1808, the year in which Frederick Schlegel published +his little work on <span class="tei tei-q">“The Language and Wisdom +of the Indians.”</span> This work was like the wand of a +magician. It pointed out the place where a mine +should be opened; and it was not long before some +of the most distinguished scholars of the day began to +sink their shafts, and raise the ore. For a time, everybody +who wished to learn Sanskrit had to come to +England. Bopp, Schlegel, Lassen, Rosen, Burnouf, +all spent some time in this country, copying manuscripts +at the East-India House, and receiving assistance +from Wilkins, Colebrooke, Wilson, and other distinguished +members of the old Indian Civil Service. +The first minute and scholar-like comparison of the +grammar of Sanskrit with that of Greek and Latin, +Persian, and German, was made by Francis Bopp, in +1816.<a id="noteref_164" name="noteref_164" href="#note_164"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">164</span></span></a> Other essays of his followed; and in 1833 +appeared the first volume of his <span class="tei tei-q">“Comparative Grammar +of Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, +Slavonic, Gothic, and German.”</span> This work was not +finished till nearly twenty years later, in +1852;<a id="noteref_165" name="noteref_165" href="#note_165"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">165</span></span></a> but it +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg 167]</span><a name="Pg167" id="Pg167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +will form forever the safe and solid foundation of comparative +philology. August Wilhelm von Schlegel, +the brother of Frederick Schlegel, used the influence +which he had acquired as a German poet, to popularize +the study of Sanskrit in Germany. His <span class="tei tei-q">“Indische +Bibliothek”</span> was published from 1819 to 1830, and +though chiefly intended for Sanskrit literature, it likewise +contained several articles on Comparative Philology. +This new science soon found a still more +powerful patron in William von Humboldt, the worthy +brother of Alexander von Humboldt, and at that time +one of the leading statesmen in Prussia. His essays, +chiefly on the philosophy of language, attracted general +attention during his lifetime; and he left a lasting +monument of his studies in his great work on the +Kawi language, which was published after his death, +in 1836. Another scholar who must be reckoned +among the founders of Comparative Philology is Professor +Pott, whose <span class="tei tei-q">“Etymological Researches”</span> appeared +first in 1833 and 1836.<a id="noteref_166" name="noteref_166" href="#note_166"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">166</span></span></a> More special in its +purpose, but based on the same general principles, was +Grimm's <span class="tei tei-q">“Teutonic Grammar,”</span> a work which has +truly been called colossal. Its publication occupied +nearly twenty years, from 1819 to 1837. We ought, +likewise, to mention here the name of an eminent Dane, +Erasmus Rask, who devoted himself to the study of the +northern languages of Europe. He started, in 1816, for +Persia and India, and was the first to acquire a knowledge +of Zend, the language of the Zend-Avesta; but he +died before he had time to publish all the results of his +learned researches. He had proved, however, that the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page168">[pg 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sacred language of the Parsis was closely connected +with the sacred language of the Brahmans, and that, +like Sanskrit, it had preserved some of the earliest formations +of Indo-European speech. These researches +into the ancient Persian language were taken up again +by one of the greatest scholars that France ever produced, +by Eugène Burnouf. Though the works of +Zoroaster had been translated before by Anquetil Duperron, +his was only a translation of a modern Persian +translation of the original. It was Burnouf who, by +means of his knowledge of Sanskrit and Comparative +Grammar, deciphered for the first time the very words +of the founder of the ancient religion of light. He +was, likewise, the first to apply the same key with +real success to the cuneiform inscriptions of Darius +and Xerxes; and his premature death will long be +mourned, not only by those who, like myself, had the +privilege of knowing him personally and attending his +lectures, but by all who have the interest of oriental +literature and of real oriental scholarship at heart. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I cannot give here a list of all the scholars who +followed in the track of Bopp, Schlegel, Humboldt, +Grimm, and Burnouf. How the science of language +has flourished and abounded may best be seen in the +library of any comparative philologist. There has been +for the last ten years a special journal of Comparative +Philology in Germany. The Philological Society in +London publishes every year a valuable volume of its +transactions; and in almost every continental university +there is a professor of Sanskrit who lectures +likewise on Comparative Grammar and the science +of language. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But why, it may naturally be asked, why should the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg 169]</span><a name="Pg169" id="Pg169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +discovery of Sanskrit have wrought so complete a +change in the classificatory study of languages? If +Sanskrit had been the primitive language of mankind, +or at least the parent of Greek, Latin, and German, +we might understand that it should have led to quite a +new classification of these tongues. But Sanskrit does +not stand to Greek, Latin, the Teutonic, Celtic, and +Slavonic languages in the relation of Latin to French, +Italian, and Spanish. Sanskrit, as we saw before, +could not be called their parent, but only their elder +sister. It occupies with regard to the classical languages +a position analogous to that which Provençal +occupies with regard to the modern Romance dialects. +This is perfectly true; but it was exactly this necessity +of determining distinctly and accurately the mutual +relation of Sanskrit and the other members of the same +family of speech, which led to such important results, +and particularly to the establishment of the laws of phonetic +change as the only safe means for measuring the +various degrees of relationship of cognate dialects, and +thus restoring the genealogical tree of human speech. +When Sanskrit had once assumed its right position, +when people had once become familiarized with the +idea that there must have existed a language more +primitive than Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit, and forming +the common background of these three, as well as +of the Teutonic, Celtic, and Slavonic branches of +speech, all languages seemed to fall by themselves into +their right position. The key of the puzzle was found, +and all the rest was merely a work of patience. The +same arguments by which Sanskrit and Greek had +been proved to hold co-ordinate rank were perceived to +apply with equal strength to Latin and Greek; and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page170">[pg 170]</span><a name="Pg170" id="Pg170" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +after Latin had once been shown to be more primitive +on many points than Greek, it was easy to see that the +Teutonic, the Celtic, and the Slavonic languages also, +contained each a number of formations which it was +impossible to derive from Sanskrit, Greek, or Latin. +It was perceived that all had to be treated as co-ordinate +members of one and the same class. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The first great step in advance, therefore, which was +made in the classification of languages, chiefly through +the discovery of Sanskrit, was this, that scholars were +no longer satisfied with the idea of a general relationship, +but began to inquire for the different degrees of +relationship in which each member of a class stood to +another. Instead of mere <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">classes</span></em>, we hear now for the +first time of well regulated <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">families</span></em> of language. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A second step in advance followed naturally from +the first. Whereas, for establishing in a general way +the common origin of certain languages, a comparison +of numerals, pronouns, prepositions, adverbs, and the +most essential nouns and verbs, had been sufficient, it +was soon found that a more accurate standard was +required for measuring the more minute degrees of +relationship. Such a standard was supplied by Comparative +Grammar; that is to say, by an intercomparison +of the grammatical forms of languages supposed to +be related to each other; such intercomparison being +carried out according to certain laws which regulate +the phonetic changes of letters. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A glance at the modern history of language will +make this clearer. There could never be any doubt +that the so-called Romance languages, Italian, Wallachian, +Provençal, French, Spanish, and Portuguese, +were closely related to each other. Everybody could +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page171">[pg 171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +see that they were all derived from Latin. But +one of the most distinguished French scholars, Raynouard, +who has done more for the history of the Romance +languages and literature than any one else, +maintained that Provençal only was the daughter of +Latin; whereas French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese +were the daughters of Provençal. He maintained +that Latin passed, from the seventh to the ninth +century, through an intermediate stage, which he called +Langue Romane, and which he endeavored to prove +was the same as the Provençal of Southern France, +the language of the Troubadours. According to him, +it was only after Latin had passed through this uniform +metamorphosis, represented by the Langue Romane or +Provençal, that it became broken up into the various +Romance dialects of Italy, France, Spain, and Portugal. +This theory, which was vigorously attacked by +August Wilhelm von Schlegel, and afterwards minutely +criticised by Sir Cornewall Lewis, can only be refuted +by a comparison of the Provençal grammar with that +of the other Romance dialects. And here, if you take +the auxiliary verb <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to be</span></em>, and compare its forms in Provençal +and French, you will see at once that, on several +points, French has preserved the original Latin +forms in a more primitive state than Provençal, and +that, therefore, it is impossible to classify French as the +daughter of Provençal, and as the granddaughter of +Latin. We have in Provençal:— +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">sem</span></em>, corresponding to the French <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">nous sommes</span></em>,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">etz</span></em>, corresponding to the French <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">vous êtes</span></em>,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">son</span></em>, corresponding to the French <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">ils sont</span></em>,</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +and it would be a grammatical miracle if crippled +forms, such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sem</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">etz</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">son</span></em>, had been changed +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page172">[pg 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +back again into the more healthy, more primitive, +more Latin, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sommes</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">êtes</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sont</span></em>; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sumus</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">estis</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sunt</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us apply the same test to Sanskrit, Greek, and +Latin; and we shall see how their mutual genealogical +position is equally determined by a comparison of +their grammatical forms. It is as impossible to derive +Latin from Greek, or Greek from Sanskrit, as it is to +treat French as a modification of Provençal. Keeping +to the auxiliary verb <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to be</span></em>, we find that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I am</span></em> +is in +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="3"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Sanskrit</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Greek</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Lithuanian</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">asmi</span></em></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">esmi</span></em></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">esmi</span></em>.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The root is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as</span></em>, the termination <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mi</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now, the termination of the second person is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">si</span></em>, +which, together with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as</span></em>, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">es</span></em>, would make, +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="3"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as-si</span></em></td><td class="tei tei-cell"><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">es-si</span></em></td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">es-si</span></em>.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But here Sanskrit, as far back as its history can be +traced, has reduced <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">assi</span></em> to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">asi</span></em>; and it would be impossible +to suppose that the perfect, or, as they are +sometimes called, organic, forms in Greek and Lithuanian, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">es-si</span></em>, could first have passed through the mutilated +state of the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">asi</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The third person is the same in Sanskrit, Greek, +and Lithuanian, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as-ti</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">es-ti</span></em>; and, with the loss of +the final <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">i</span></em>, we recognize the Latin +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">est</span></em>, Gothic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ist</span></em>, and +Russian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">est'</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The same auxiliary verb can be made to furnish +sufficient proof that Latin never could have passed +through the Greek, or what used to be called the +Pelasgic stage, but that both are independent modifications +of the same original language. In the singular, +Latin is less primitive than Greek; for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sum</span></em> +stands for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">es-um</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">es</span></em> for +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">es-is</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">est</span></em> for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">es-ti</span></em>. In the first +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page173">[pg 173]</span><a name="Pg173" id="Pg173" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +person plural, too, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sumus</span></em> stands for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">es-umus</span></em>, the Greek +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">es-mes</span></em>, the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">'smas</span></em>. +The second person <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">es-tis</span></em>, +is equal to Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">es-te</span></em>, and more primitive than Sanskrit +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">stha</span></em>. But in the third person plural Latin is +more primitive than Greek. The regular form would +be <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as-anti</span></em>; this, in Sanskrit, is changed into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">santi</span></em>. In +Greek, the initial <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em> is dropped, and the Æolic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">enti</span></em>, is +finally reduced to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eisi</span></em>. The Latin, on the contrary, +has kept the radical <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em>, and it would be perfectly +impossible to derive the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sunt</span></em> from the Greek +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eisi</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I need hardly say that the modern English, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I am</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thou art</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">he is</span></em>, are only secondary modifications of the +same primitive verb. We find in Gothic— +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">im</span></em> for <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">ism</span></em></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">is</span></em> for <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">iss</span></em></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">ist</span></em>.</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Anglo-Saxon changes the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em> into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">r</span></em>, thus giving— +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">eom</span></em> for <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">eorm</span></em>, plural <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">sind</span></em> for <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">isind</span></em>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">eart</span></em> for <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">ears</span></em>, plural <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">sind</span></em></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">is</span></em> for <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">ist</span></em>, plural <em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">sind</span></em></div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +By applying this test to all languages, the founders +of comparative philology soon reduced the principal +dialects of Europe and Asia to certain families, and +they were able in each family to distinguish different +branches, each consisting again of numerous dialects, +both ancient and modern. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There are many languages, however, which as yet +have not been reduced to families, and though there +is no reason to doubt that some of them will hereafter +be comprehended in a system of genealogical +classification, it is right to guard from the beginning +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page174">[pg 174]</span><a name="Pg174" id="Pg174" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +against the common, but altogether gratuitous supposition, +that the principle of genealogical classification +must be applicable to all. Genealogical classification +is no doubt the most perfect of all classifications, but +there are but few branches of physical science in +which it can be carried out, except very partially. +In the science of language, genealogical classification +must rest chiefly on the formal or grammatical elements, +which, after they have been affected by phonetic +change, can be kept up only by a continuous +tradition. We know that French, Italian, Spanish, +and Portuguese must be derived from a common +source, because they share grammatical forms in common, +which none of these dialects could have supplied +from their own resources, and which have no meaning, +or, so to say, no life, in any one of them. The termination +of the imperfect <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ba</span></em> in Spanish, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">va</span></em> in Italian, by +which <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">canto</span></em>, I sing, is changed into +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cantaba</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cantava</span></em>, +has no separate existence, and no independent +meaning in either of these modern dialects. It could +not have been formed with the materials supplied by +Spanish and Italian. It must have been handed +down from an earlier generation in which this <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ba</span></em> +had a meaning. We trace it back to Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bam</span></em>, in +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cantabam</span></em>, and here it can be proved that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bam</span></em> was originally +an independent auxiliary verb, the same which +exists in Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bhavâmi</span></em>, and in the Anglo-Saxon +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">beom</span></em>, I am. Genealogical classification, therefore, +applies properly only to decaying languages, to languages +in which grammatical growth has been arrested, +through the influence of literary cultivation; in +which little new is added, everything old is retained +as long as possible, and where what we call growth +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page175">[pg 175]</span><a name="Pg175" id="Pg175" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +or history is nothing but the progress of phonetic corruption. +But before languages decay, they have passed +through a period of growth; and it seems to have been +completely overlooked, that dialects which diverged +during that early period, would naturally resist every +attempt at genealogical classification. If you remember +the manner in which, for instance, the plural was +formed in Chinese and other languages examined by +us in a former Lecture, you will see that where each +dialect may choose its own term expressive of plurality, +such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">heap</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">class</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kind</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">flock</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cloud</span></em>, &c., it would be +unreasonable to expect similarity in grammatical terminations, +after these terms have been ground down +by phonetic corruption to mere exponents of plurality. +But, on the other hand, it would by no means follow +that therefore these languages had no common origin. +Languages may have a common origin, and yet the +words which they originally employed for marking +case, number, person, tense, and mood, having been +totally different, the grammatical terminations to which +these words would gradually dwindle down could not +possibly yield any results if submitted to the analysis +of comparative grammar. A genealogical classification +of such languages is, therefore, from the nature of the +case, simply impossible, at least, if such classification +is chiefly to be based on grammatical or formal +evidence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It might be supposed, however, that such languages, +though differing in their grammatical articulation, would +yet evince their common origin by the identity of their +radicals or roots. No doubt, they will in many instances. +They will probably have retained their numerals +in common, some of their pronouns, and some of the +commonest words of every-day life. But even here we +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page176">[pg 176]</span><a name="Pg176" id="Pg176" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +must not expect too much, nor be surprised if we find +even less than we expected. You remember how the +names for father varied in the numerous Friesian dialects. +Instead of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">frater</span></em>, the Latin word for brother, +you find <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hermano</span></em> in Spanish. Instead of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ignis</span></em>, the +Latin word for fire, you have in French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">feu</span></em>, in Italian, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fuoco</span></em>. Nobody would doubt the common origin of +German and English; yet the English numeral <span class="tei tei-q">“the +first,”</span> though preserved in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Fürst</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">prïnceps</span></em>, prince, +is quite different from the German <span class="tei tei-q">“Der Erste;”</span> +<span class="tei tei-q">“the second”</span> is quite different from <span class="tei tei-q">“Der Zweite;”</span> +and there is no connection between the possessive pronoun +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">its</span></em>, and the German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sein</span></em>. This dialectical freedom +works on a much larger scale in ancient and illiterate +languages; and those who have most carefully +watched the natural growth of dialects will be the least +surprised that dialects which had the same origin should +differ, not only in their grammatical framework, but +likewise in many of those test-words which are very +properly used for discovering the relationship of literary +languages. How it is possible to say anything +about the relationship of such dialects we shall see +hereafter. For the present, it is sufficient if I have +made it clear why the principle of genealogical classification +is not of necessity applicable to all languages; +and secondly, why languages, though they cannot be +classified genealogically, need not therefore be supposed +to have been different from the beginning. The assertion +so frequently repeated that the impossibility of +classing all languages genealogically proves the impossibility +of a common origin of language, is nothing +but a kind of scientific dogmatism, which, more +than anything else, has impeded the free progress of +independent research. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page177">[pg 177]</span><a name="Pg177" id="Pg177" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But let us see now how far the genealogical classification +of languages has advanced, how many families +of human speech have been satisfactorily established. +Let us remember what suggested to us the necessity of +a genealogical classification. We wished to know the +original intention of certain words and grammatical +forms in English, and we saw that before we could +attempt to fathom the origin of such words as <span class="tei tei-q">“I +love,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“I loved,”</span> we should have to trace them +back to their most primitive state. We likewise found, +by a reference to the history of the Romance dialects, +that words existing in one dialect had frequently been +preserved in a more primitive form in another, and that, +therefore, it was of the highest importance to bring ancient +languages into the same genealogical connection +by which French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese are +held together as the members of one family. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Beginning, therefore, with the living language of +England, we traced it, without difficulty, to Anglo-Saxon. +This carries us back to the seventh century +after Christ, for it is to that date that Kemble and +Thorpe refer the ancient English epic, the Beowulf. +Beyond this we cannot go on English soil. But we +know that the Saxons, the Angles, and Jutes came +from the continent, and there their descendants, along +the northern coast of Germany, still speak <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Low-German</span></em>, +or Nieder-Deutsch, which in the harbors of Antwerp, +Bremen, and Hamburg, has been mistaken by +many an English sailor for a corrupt English dialect. +The Low-German comprehends many dialects in the +north or the lowlands of Germany; but in Germany +proper they are hardly ever used for literary purposes. +The Friesian dialects are Low-German, so are the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page178">[pg 178]</span><a name="Pg178" id="Pg178" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Dutch and Flemish. The Friesian had a literature +of its own as early at least as the twelfth century, +if not earlier.<a id="noteref_167" name="noteref_167" href="#note_167"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">167</span></span></a> The Dutch, which is still a national +and literary language, though confined to a small area, +can be traced back to literary documents of the sixteenth +century. The Flemish, too, was at that time +the language of the court of Flanders and Brabant, +but has since been considerably encroached upon, +though not yet extinguished, by the official languages +of the kingdoms of Holland and Belgium. The oldest +literary document of Low-German on the Continent is +the Christian epic, the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Heljand</span></span> (Heljand = Heiland, +the Healer or Saviour), which is preserved to us in +two MSS. of the ninth century, and was written at +that time for the benefit of the newly converted Saxons. +We have traces of a certain amount of literature +in Saxon or Low-German from that time onward +through the Middle Ages up to the seventeenth century. +But little only of that literature has been +preserved; and, after the translation of the Bible by +Luther into High-German, the fate of Low-German +literature was sealed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The literary language of Germany is, and has been +ever since the days of Charlemagne, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">High-German</span></em>. +It is spoken in various dialects all over Germany.<a id="noteref_168" name="noteref_168" href="#note_168"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">168</span></span></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page179">[pg 179]</span><a name="Pg179" id="Pg179" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Its history may be traced through three periods. +The present, or New High-German period dates from +Luther; the Middle High-German period extends +from Luther backwards to the twelfth century; the +Old High-German period extends from thence to the +seventh century. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thus we see that we can follow the High-German, +as well as the Low-German branch of Teutonic speech, +back to about the seventh century after Christ. We +must not suppose that before that time there was <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">one</span></em> +common Teutonic language spoken by all German +tribes, and that it afterwards diverged into two streams,—the +High and Low. There never was a common, +uniform, Teutonic language; nor is there any evidence +to show that there existed at any time a uniform High-German +or Low-German language, from which all +High-German and Low-German dialects are respectively +derived. We cannot derive Anglo-Saxon, Friesian, +Flemish, Dutch, and Platt-Deutsch from the ancient +Low-German, which is preserved in the continental +Saxon of the ninth century. All we can say is this, +that these various Low-German dialects in England, +Holland, Friesia, and Lower Germany, passed at different +times through the same stages, or, so to say, the +same latitudes of grammatical growth. We may add +that, with every century that we go back, the convergence +of these dialects becomes more and more decided; +but there is no evidence to justify us in admitting the +historical reality of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">one</span></em> primitive and uniform Low-German +language from which they were all derived. This +is a mere creation of grammarians who cannot understand +a multiplicity of dialects without a common type. +They would likewise demand the admission of a primitive +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page180">[pg 180]</span><a name="Pg180" id="Pg180" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +High-German language, as the source, not only of +the literary Old, Middle, and Modern High-German, +but likewise of all the local dialects of Austria, Bavaria, +Swabia, and Franconia. And they would wish us +to believe that, previous to the separation into High +and Low German, there existed one complete Teutonic +language, as yet neither High nor Low, but containing +the germs of both. Such a system may be convenient +for the purposes of grammatical analysis, but it becomes +mischievous as soon as these grammatical abstractions +are invested with an historical reality. As there +were families, clans, confederacies, and tribes, before +there was a nation; so there were dialects before there +was a language. The grammarian who postulates an +historical reality for the one primitive type of Teutonic +speech, is no better than the historian who believes in +a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Francus</span></em>, the grandson of Hector, and the supposed +ancestor of all the Franks, or in a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Brutus</span></em>, the mythical +father of all the Britons. When the German races +descended, one after the other, from the Danube and +from the Baltic, to take possession of Italy and the +Roman provinces,—when the Goths, the Lombards, +the Vandals, the Franks, the Burgundians, each under +their own kings, and with their own laws and customs, +settled in Italy, Gaul, and Spain, to act their +several parts in the last scene of the Roman tragedy,—we +have no reason to suppose that they all spoke +one and the same dialect. If we possessed any literary +documents of those ancient German races, we +should find them all dialects again, some with the +peculiarities of High, others with those of Low, German. +Nor is this mere conjecture: for it so happens +that, by some fortunate accident, the dialect of one +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page181">[pg 181]</span><a name="Pg181" id="Pg181" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +at least of those ancient German races has been preserved +to us in the Gothic translation of the Bible by +Bishop Ulfilas. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I must say a few words on this remarkable man. +The accounts of ecclesiastical historians with regard +to the date and the principal events in the life of +Ulfilas are very contradictory. This is partly owing +to the fact that Ulfilas was an Arian bishop, and that +the accounts which we possess of him come from two +opposite sides, from Arian and Athanasian writers. +Although in forming an estimate of his character it +would be necessary to sift this contradictory evidence, +it is but fair to suppose that, when dates and simple +facts in the life of the Bishop have to be settled, his +own friends had better means of information than the +orthodox historians. It is, therefore, from the writings +of his own co-religionists that the chronology and the +historical outline of the Bishop's life should be determined. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The principal writers to be consulted are Philostorgius, +as preserved by Photius, and Auxentius, as +preserved by Maximinus in a MS. lately discovered +by Professor Waitz<a id="noteref_169" name="noteref_169" href="#note_169"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">169</span></span></a> +in the Library at Paris. (Supplement. +Latin. No. 594.) This MS. contains some +writings of Hilarius, the two first books of Ambrosius +De fide, and the acts of the Council of Aquileja (381). +On the margin of this MS. Maximinus repeated the +beginning of the acts of the Council of Aquileja, adding +remarks of his own in order to show how unfairly +Palladius had been treated in that council by Ambrose. +He jotted down his own views on the Arian +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page182">[pg 182]</span><a name="Pg182" id="Pg182" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +controversy, and on fol. 282, seq., he copied an account +of Ulfilas written by Auxentius, the bishop of +Dorostorum (Silistria on the Danube), a pupil of +Ulfilas. This is followed again by some dissertations +of Maximinus, and on foll. 314-327, a treatise addressed +to Ambrose by a Semi-arian, a follower of +Eusebius, possibly by Prudentius himself, was copied +and slightly abbreviated for his own purposes by +Maximinus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is from Auxentius, as copied by Maximinus, that +we learn that Ulfilas died at Constantinople, where he +had been invited by the emperor to a disputation. +This could not have been later than the year 381, +because, according to the same Auxentius, Ulfilas had +been bishop for forty years, and, according to Philostorgius, +he had been consecrated by Eusebius. Now +Eusebius of Nicomedia died 341, and as Philostorgius +says that Ulfilas was consecrated by <span class="tei tei-q">“Eusebius and +the bishops who were with him,”</span> the consecration has +been referred with great plausibility to the beginning +of the year 341, when Eusebius presided at the Synod +of Antioch. As Ulfilas was thirty years old at the +time of his consecration, he must have been born in +311, and as he was seventy years of age when he died +at Constantinople, his death must have taken place in +381. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Professor Waitz fixed the death of Ulfilas in 388, +because it is stated by Auxentius that other Arian +bishops had come with Ulfilas on his last journey to +Constantinople, and had actually obtained the promise +of a new council from the emperors, but that the +heretical party, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, the Athanasians, succeeded in +getting a law published, prohibiting all disputation on +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page183">[pg 183]</span><a name="Pg183" id="Pg183" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the faith, whether in public or private. Maximinus, +to whom we owe this notice, has added two laws from +the Codex Theodosianus, which he supposed to have +reference to this controversy, dated respectively 388 +and 386. This shows that Maximinus himself was +doubtful as to the exact date. Neither of these laws, +however, is applicable to the case, as has been fully +shown by Dr. Bessell. They are quotations from the +Codex Theodosianus made by Maximinus at his own +risk, and made in error. If the death of Ulfilas were +fixed in 388, the important notice of Philostorgius, +that Ulfilas was consecrated by Eusebius, would have +to be surrendered, and we should have to suppose that +as late as 388 Theodosius had been in treaty with the +Arians, whereas after the year 383, when the last +attempt at a reconciliation bad been made by Theodosius, +and had failed, no mercy was any longer shown +to the party of Ulfilas and his friends. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If, on the contrary, Ulfilas died at Constantinople +in 381, he might well have been called there by the +Emperor Theodosius, not to a council, but to a disputation +(ad disputationem), as Dr. Bessell ingeniously +maintains, against the Psathyropolistæ,<a id="noteref_170" name="noteref_170" href="#note_170"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">170</span></span></a> a new sect of +Arians at Constantinople. About the same time, in +380, Sozomen<a id="noteref_171" name="noteref_171" href="#note_171"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">171</span></span></a> refers to efforts made by the Arians to +gain influence with Theodosius. He mentions, like +Auxentius, that these efforts were defeated, and a law +published to forbid disputations on the nature of God. +This law exists in the Codex Theodosianus, and is +dated January 10, 381. But what is most important +is, that this law actually revokes a rescript that had +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page184">[pg 184]</span><a name="Pg184" id="Pg184" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +been obtained fraudulently by the Arian heretics, thus +confirming the statement of Auxentius that the emperor +had held out to him and his party a promise of +a new council. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We now return to Ulfilas. He was born in 311. +His parents, as Philostorgius tells us, were of Cappadocian +origin, and had been carried away by the Goths +as captives from a place called Sadagolthina, near the +town of Parnassus. It was under Valerian and Gallienus +(about 267) that the Goths made this raid from +Europe to Asia, Galatia, and Cappadocia, and the +Christian captives whom they carried back to the +Danube were the first to spread the light of the Gospel +among the Goths. Philostorgius was himself a +Cappadocian, and there is no reason to doubt this +statement of his on the parentage of Ulfilas. Ulfilas +was born among the Goths; Gothic was his native +language, though he was able in after-life to speak and +write both in Latin and Greek. Philostorgius, after +speaking of the death of Crispus (326), and before +proceeding to the last years of Constantine, says, that +<span class="tei tei-q">“about that time”</span> Ulfilas led his Goths from beyond +the Danube into the Roman empire. They had to +leave their country, being persecuted on account of +their Christianity. Ulfilas was the leader of the faithful +flock, and came to Constantine, (not Constantius,) +as ambassador. This must have been before 337, the +year of Constantine's death. It may have been in +328, when Constantine had gained a victory over the +Goths; and though Ulfilas was then only seventeen +years of age, this would be no reason for rejecting the +testimony of Philostorgius, who says that Constantine +treated Ulfilas with great respect, and called him the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page185">[pg 185]</span><a name="Pg185" id="Pg185" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Moses of his time. Having led his faithful flock +across the Danube into Mœsia, he might well have +been compared by the emperor to Moses leading the +Israelites from Egypt through the Red Sea. It is true +that Auxentius institutes the same comparison between +Ulfilas and Moses, after stating that Ulfilas had been +received with great honors by Constantius. But this +refers to what took place after Ulfilas had been for +seven years bishop among the Goths, in 348, and does +not invalidate the statement of Philostorgius as to the +earlier intercourse between Ulfilas and Constantine. +Sozomen (H. E. vi. 3, 7) clearly distinguishes between +the first crossing of the Danube by the Goths, +with Ulfilas as their ambassador, and the later attacks +of Athanarich on Fridigern or Fritiger, which led to +the settlement of the Goths in the Roman empire. We +must suppose that after having crossed the Danube, +Ulfilas remained for some time with his Goths, or at +Constantinople. Auxentius says that he officiated as +Lector, and it was only when he had reached the +requisite age of thirty, that he was made bishop by +Eusebius in 341. He passed the first seven years of +his episcopate among the Goths, and the remaining +thirty-three of his life <span class="tei tei-q">“in solo Romaniæ,”</span> where he +had migrated together with Fritiger and the Thervingi. +There is some confusion as to the exact date +of the Gothic Exodus, but it is not at all unlikely +that Ulfilas acted as their leader on more than one +occasion. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is little more to be learnt about Ulfilas from +other sources. What is said by ecclesiastical historians +about the motives of his adopting the doctrines of +Arius, and his changing from one side to the other, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page186">[pg 186]</span><a name="Pg186" id="Pg186" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +deserves no credit. Ulfilas, according to his own confession, +was always an Arian (semper sic credidi). +Socrates says that Ulfilas was present at the Synod +of Constantinople in 360, which may be true, though +neither Auxentius nor Philostorgius mentions it. The +author of the Acts of Nicetas speaks of Ulfilas as +present at the Council of Nicæa, in company with +Theophilus. Theophilus, it is true, signed his name +as a Gothic bishop at that council, but there is nothing +to confirm the statement that Ulfilas, then fourteen +years of age, was with Theophilus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ulfilas translated the whole Bible, except the Books +of Kings. For the Old Testament he used the Septuagint; +for the New, the Greek text; but not exactly +in that form in which we have it. Unfortunately, the +greater part of his work has been lost, and we have +only considerable portions of the Gospels, all the genuine +Epistles of St. Paul, though again not complete; +fragments of a Psalm, of Ezra, and Nehemiah.<a id="noteref_172" name="noteref_172" href="#note_172"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">172</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page187">[pg 187]</span><a name="Pg187" id="Pg187" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Though Ulfilas belonged to the western Goths, his +translation was used by all Gothic tribes, when they +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page188">[pg 188]</span><a name="Pg188" id="Pg188" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +advanced into Spain and Italy. The Gothic language +died out in the ninth century, and after the extinction +of the great Gothic empires, the translation of Ulfilas +was lost and forgotten. But a MS. of the fifth century +had been preserved in the Abbey of Werden, and +towards the end of the sixteenth century, a man of the +name of Arnold Mercator, who was in the service of +William IV., the Landgrave of Hessia, drew attention +to this old parchment containing large fragments of the +translation of Ulfilas. The MS., known as the Codex +Argenteus, was afterwards transferred to Prague, and +when Prague was taken in 1648 by Count Königsmark, +he carried this Codex to Upsala in Sweden, where it is +still preserved as one of the greatest treasures. The +parchment is purple, the letters in silver, and the MS. +bound in solid silver. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In 1818, Cardinal Mai and Count Castiglione discovered +some more fragments in the Monastery of +Bobbio, where they had probably been preserved ever +since the Gothic empire of Theodoric the Great in Italy +had been destroyed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ulfilas must have been a man of extraordinary power +to conceive, for the first time, the idea of translating the +Bible into the vulgar language of his people. At his +time, there existed in Europe but two languages which +a Christian bishop would have thought himself justified +in employing, Greek and Latin. All other languages +were still considered as barbarous. It required a prophetic +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page189">[pg 189]</span><a name="Pg189" id="Pg189" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sight, and a faith in the destinies of these half-savage +tribes, and a conviction also of the utter effeteness +of the Roman and Byzantine empires, before a bishop +could have brought himself to translate the Bible into +the vulgar dialect of his barbarous countrymen. Soon +after the death of Ulfilas, the number of Christian +Goths at Constantinople had so much increased as to +induce Chrysostom, the bishop of Constantinople (397-405), +to establish a church in the capital, where the +service was to be read in Gothic.<a id="noteref_173" name="noteref_173" href="#note_173"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">173</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The language of Ulfilas, the Gothic, belongs, through +its phonetic structure, to the Low-German class, but in +its grammar it is, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">with few exceptions</span></em>, far more primitive +than the Anglo-Saxon of the Beowulf, or the Old High-German +of Charlemagne. These few exceptions, however, +are very important, for they show that it would +be grammatically, and therefore historically, impossible +to derive either Anglo-Saxon or High-German, or both,<a id="noteref_174" name="noteref_174" href="#note_174"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">174</span></span></a> +from Gothic. It would be impossible, for instance, to +treat the first person plural of the indicative present, the +Old High-German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nerjamês</span></em>, as a corruption of the +Gothic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nasjam</span></em>; for we know, from the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">masi</span></em>, +the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mes</span></em>, the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mus</span></em>, that this was the original +termination of the first person plural. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Gothic is but one of the numerous dialects of the +German race; some of which became the feeders of the +literary languages of the British Isles, of Holland, +Friesia, and of Low and High Germany, while others +became extinct, and others rolled on from century to +century unheeded, and without ever producing any +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page190">[pg 190]</span><a name="Pg190" id="Pg190" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +literature at all. It is because Gothic is the only one +of these parallel dialects that can be traced back to the +fourth century, whereas the others disappear from our +sight in the seventh, that it has been mistaken by some +for the original source of all Teutonic speech. The +same arguments, however, which we used against Raynouard, +to show that Provençal could not be considered +as the parent of the Six Romance dialects, would tell +with equal force against the pretensions of Gothic to be +considered as more than the eldest sister of the Teutonic +branch of speech. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is, in fact, a third stream of Teutonic speech, +which asserts its independence as much as High-German +and Low-German, and which it would be impossible +to place in any but a co-ordinate position with +regard to Gothic, Low and High German. This is the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Scandinavian</span></em> branch. It consists at present of three +literary dialects, those of Sweden, Denmark, and Iceland, +and of various local dialects, particularly in secluded +valleys and fiords of Norway,<a id="noteref_175" name="noteref_175" href="#note_175"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">175</span></span></a> where, however, +the literary language is Danish. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is commonly supposed<a id="noteref_176" name="noteref_176" href="#note_176"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">176</span></span></a> +that, as late as the eleventh +century, identically the same language was spoken in +Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, and that this language +was preserved almost intact in Iceland, while in Sweden +and Denmark it grew into two new national dialects. +Nor is there any doubt that the Icelandic skald recited +his poems in Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, nay, +even among his countrymen in England and Gardariki, +without fear of not being understood, till, as it is said, +William introduced Welsh, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> French, into England, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page191">[pg 191]</span><a name="Pg191" id="Pg191" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and Slavonic tongues grew up in the east.<a id="noteref_177" name="noteref_177" href="#note_177"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">177</span></span></a> But though +one and the same language (then called Danish or Norrænish) +was understood, I doubt whether one and the +same language was spoken by all Northmen, and whether +the first germs of Swedish and Danish did not exist long +before the eleventh century, in the dialects of the numerous +clans and tribes of the Scandinavian race. That +race is clearly divided into two branches, called by +Swedish scholars the East and West Scandinavian. +The former would be represented by the old language +of Norway and Iceland, the latter by Swedish and +Danish. This division of the Scandinavian race had +taken place before the Northmen settled in Sweden and +Norway. The western division migrated westward from +Russia, and crossed over from the continent to the +Aland Islands, and from thence to the southern coast of +the peninsula. The eastern division travelled along +the Bothnian Gulf, passing the country occupied by the +Finns and Lapps, and settled in the northern highlands, +spreading toward the south and west. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The earliest fragments of Scandinavian speech are +preserved in the two <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Eddas</span></span>, the elder or poetical Edda, +containing old mythic poems, the younger or Snorri's +Edda giving an account of the ancient mythology in +prose. Both Eddas were composed, not in Norway, +but in Iceland, an island about as large as Ireland, and +which became first known through some Irish monks +who settled there in the eighth century.<a id="noteref_178" name="noteref_178" href="#note_178"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">178</span></span></a> In the ninth +century voyages of discovery were made to Iceland by +Naddodd, Gardar, and Flokki, 860-870, and soon after +the distant island, distant about 750 English miles from +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page192">[pg 192]</span><a name="Pg192" id="Pg192" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Norway, became a kind of America to the Puritans and +Republicans of the Scandinavian peninsula. Harald +Haarfagr (850-933) had conquered most of the Norwegian +kings, and his despotic sway tended to reduce the +northern freemen to a state of vassalage. Those who +could not resist, and could not bring themselves to yield +to the sceptre of Harald, left their country and migrated +to France, to England, and to Iceland (874). They +were mostly nobles and freemen, and they soon established +in Iceland an aristocratic republic, such as they +had had in Norway before the days of Harald. This +northern republic flourished; it adopted Christianity in +the year 1000. Schools were founded, two bishoprics +were established, and classical literature was studied +with the same zeal with which their own national poems +and laws had been collected and interpreted by native +scholars and historians. The Icelanders were famous +travellers, and the names of Icelandic students are found +not only in the chief cities of Europe, but in the holy +places of the East. At the beginning of the twelfth +century Iceland counted 50,000 inhabitants. Their intellectual +and literary activity lasted to the beginning +of the thirteenth century, when the island was conquered +by Hakon VI., king of Norway. In 1380, Norway, +together with Iceland, was united with Denmark; +and when, in 1814, Norway was ceded to Sweden, Iceland +remained, as it is still, under Danish sway. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The old poetry which flourished in Norway in the +eighth century, and which was cultivated by the skalds +in the ninth, would have been lost in Norway itself had +it not been for the jealous care with which it was preserved +by the emigrants of Iceland. The most important +branch of their traditional poetry were short +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page193">[pg 193]</span><a name="Pg193" id="Pg193" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +songs (hliod or Quida), relating the deeds of their gods +and heroes. It is impossible to determine their age, +but they existed at least previous to the migration of +the Northmen to Iceland, and probably as early as the +seventh century, the same century which yields the +oldest remnants of Anglo-Saxon, Low-German, and +High-German. They were collected in the middle +of the twelfth century by <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Saemund Sigfusson</span></span> (died +1133). In 1643 a similar collection was discovered +in MSS. of the thirteenth century, and published under +the title of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Edda</span></span>, or Great-Grandmother. This +collection is called the old or poetic Edda, in order +to distinguish it from a later work ascribed to Snorri +Sturluson (died 1241). This, the younger or prose +Edda, consists of three parts: the mocking of Gylfi, +the speeches of Bragi, and the Skalda, or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ars poetica</span></span>. +Snorri Sturluson has been called the Herodotus of +Iceland; and his chief work is the <span class="tei tei-q">“Heimskringla,”</span> +the world-ring, which contains the northern history +from the mythic times to the time of King Magnus +Erlingsson (died 1177). It was probably in preparing +his history that, like Cassiodorus, Saxo Grammaticus, +Paulus Diaconus, and other historians of the same +class, Snorri collected the old songs of the people; for +his <span class="tei tei-q">“Edda,”</span> and particularly his <span class="tei tei-q">“Skalda,”</span> are full +of ancient poetic fragments. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The <span class="tei tei-q">“Skalda,”</span> and the rules which it contains, +represent the state of poetry in the thirteenth century; +and nothing can be more artificial, nothing +more different from the genuine poetry of the old +<span class="tei tei-q">“Edda”</span> than this <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ars poetica</span></span> of Snorri Sturluson. +One of the chief features of this artificial or skaldic +poetry was this, that nothing should be called by its +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page194">[pg 194]</span><a name="Pg194" id="Pg194" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +proper name. A ship was not to be called a ship, +but the beast of the sea; blood, not blood, but the +dew of pain, or the water of the sword. A warrior +was not spoken of as a warrior, but as an armed tree, +the tree of battle. A sword was the flame of wounds. +In this poetical language, which every skald was bound +to speak, there were no less than 115 names for Odin; +an island could be called by 120 synonymous titles. +The specimens of ancient poetry which Snorri quotes +are taken from the skalds, whose names are well +known in history, and who lived from the tenth to +the thirteenth century. But he never quotes from +any song contained in the old <span class="tei tei-q">“Edda,”</span><a id="noteref_179" name="noteref_179" href="#note_179"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">179</span></span></a> whether it +be that those songs were considered by himself as +belonging to a different and much more ancient period +of literature, or that they could not be used in illustration +of the scholastic rules of skaldic poets, these +very rules being put to shame by the simple style of +the national poetry, which expressed what it had to +express without effort and circumlocution. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have thus traced the modern Teutonic dialects +back to four principal channels,—the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">High-German</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Low-German</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Gothic</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Scandinavian</span></em>; and we have +seen that these four, together with several minor dialects, +must be placed in a co-ordinate position from +the beginning, as so many varieties of Teutonic speech. +This Teutonic speech may, for convenience' sake, be +spoken of as one,—as one branch of that great family +of language to which, as we shall see, it belongs; but +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page195">[pg 195]</span><a name="Pg195" id="Pg195" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +it should always be borne in mind that this primitive +and uniform language never had any real historical +existence, and that, like all other languages, that of +the Germans began with dialects which gradually +formed themselves into several distinct national deposits. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We must now advance more rapidly, and, instead +of the minuteness of an Ordnance-map, we must be +satisfied with the broad outlines of Wyld's Great Globe +in our survey of the languages which, together with the +Teutonic, form the Indo-European or Aryan family of +speech. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And first the Romance, or modern Latin languages. +Leaving mere local dialects out of sight, we have at +present six literary modifications of Latin, or more +correctly, of ancient Italian,—the languages of Portugal, +of Spain, of France, of Italy, of Wallachia,<a id="noteref_180" name="noteref_180" href="#note_180"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">180</span></span></a> and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page196">[pg 196]</span><a name="Pg196" id="Pg196" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the Grisons of Switzerland, called the Roumansch +or Romanese.<a id="noteref_181" name="noteref_181" href="#note_181"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">181</span></span></a> The Provençal, which, in the poetry +of the Troubadours, attained at a very early time to a +high literary excellence, has now sunk down to a mere +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">patois</span></span>. The earliest Provençal poem, the Song of +Boëthius, is generally referred to the tenth century: +Le Bœuf referred it to the eleventh. But in the lately +discovered Song of Eulalia, we have now a specimen +of the Langue d'Oil, or the ancient Northern French, +anterior in date to the earliest poetic specimen of the +Langue d'Oc, or the ancient Provençal. Nothing +can be a better preparation for the study of the comparative +grammar of the ancient Aryan languages than +a careful perusal of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Comparative Grammar of the +Six Romance Languages”</span> by Professor Diez. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Though in a general way we trace these six Romance +languages back to Latin, yet it has been pointed out before +that the classical Latin would fail to supply a complete +explanation of their origin. Many of the ingredients +of the Neo-Latin dialects must be sought for in +the ancient dialects of Italy and her provinces. More +than one dialect of Latin was spoken there before the +rise of Rome, and some important fragments have been +preserved to us, in inscriptions, of the Umbrian spoken +in the north, and of the Oscan spoken to the south of +Rome. The Oscan language, spoken by the Samnites, +now rendered intelligible by the labors of Mommsen, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page197">[pg 197]</span><a name="Pg197" id="Pg197" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +had produced a literature before the time of Livius +Andronicus; and the tables of Iguvio, so elaborately +treated by Aufrecht and Kirchhoff, bear witness to a +priestly literature among the Umbrians at a very early +period. Oscan was still spoken under the Roman emperors, +and so were minor local dialects in the south +and the north. As soon as the literary language of +Rome became classical and unchangeable, the first +start was made in the future career of those dialects +which, even at the time of Dante, are still called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vulgar</span></em> +or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">popular</span></em>.<a id="noteref_182" name="noteref_182" href="#note_182"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">182</span></span></a> A great deal, no doubt, of the corruption +of these modern dialects is due to the fact that, +in the form in which we know them after the eighth +century, they are really Neo-Latin dialects as adopted +by the Teutonic barbarians; full, not only of Teutonic +words, but of Teutonic idioms, phrases, and constructions. +French is provincial Latin as spoken by the +Franks, a Teutonic race; and, to a smaller extent, the +same <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">barbarizing</span></em> has affected all other Roman dialects. +But from the very beginning, the stock with which the +Neo-Latin dialects started was not the classical Latin, but +the vulgar, local, provincial dialects of the middle, the +lower, and the lowest classes of the Roman Empire. +Many of the words which give to French and Italian +their classical appearance, are really of much later +date, and were imported into them by mediæval scholars, +lawyers, and divines; thus escaping the rough +treatment to which the original vulgar dialects were +subjected by the Teutonic conquerors. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The next branch of the Indo-European family of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page198">[pg 198]</span><a name="Pg198" id="Pg198" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +speech is the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hellenic</span></em>. Its history is well known from +the time of Homer to the present day. The only remark +which the comparative philologist has to make is +that the idea of making Greek the parent of Latin, is +more preposterous than deriving English from German; +the fact being that there are many forms in Latin more +primitive than their corresponding forms in Greek. +The idea of Pelasgians as the common ancestors of +Greeks and Romans is another of those grammatical +mythes, but hardly requires at present any serious refutation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fourth branch of our family is the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Celtic</span></em>. The +Celts seem to have been the first of the Aryans to arrive +in Europe; but the pressure of subsequent migrations, +particularly of Teutonic tribes, has driven them +towards the westernmost parts, and latterly from Ireland +across the Atlantic. At present the only remaining +dialects are the Kymric and Gadhelic. The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Kymric</span></em> +comprises the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Welsh</span></em>; the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Cornish</span></em>, lately extinct; +and the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Armorican</span></em>, of Brittany. The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Gadhelic</span></em> comprises +the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Irish</span></em>; the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Galic</span></em> of the west coast of Scotland; +and the dialect of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Isle of Man</span></em>. Although +these Celtic dialects are still spoken, the Celts themselves +can no longer be considered an independent +nation, like the Germans or Slaves. In former times, +however, they not only enjoyed political autonomy, but +asserted it successfully against Germans and Romans. +Gaul, Belgium, and Britain were Celtic dominions, +and the north of Italy was chiefly inhabited by them. +In the time of Herodotus we find Celts in Spain; and +Switzerland, the Tyrol, and the country south of the +Danube have once been the seats of Celtic tribes. But +after repeated inroads into the regions of civilization, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page199">[pg 199]</span><a name="Pg199" id="Pg199" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +familiarizing Latin and Greek writers with the names +of their kings, they disappear from the east of Europe. +Brennus is supposed to mean king, the Welsh <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">brennin</span></em>. +A Brennus conquered Rome (390), another Brennus +threatened Delphi (280). And about the same time a +Celtic colony settled in Asia, and founded Galatia, where +the language spoken at the time of St. Jerome was +still that of the Gauls. Celtic words may be found in +German, Slavonic, and even in Latin, but only as +foreign terms, and their amount is much smaller than +commonly supposed. A far larger number of Latin +and German words have since found their way into +the modern Celtic dialects, and these have frequently +been mistaken by Celtic enthusiasts for original words, +from which German and Latin might, in their turn, be +derived. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fifth branch, which is commonly called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Slavonic</span></em>, +I prefer to designate by the name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Windic</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Winidae</span></em> +being one of the most ancient and comprehensive +names by which these tribes were known to the early +historians of Europe. We have to divide these tribes +into two divisions, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Lettic</span></em> and the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Slavonic</span></em>, and we +shall have to subdivide the Slavonic again into a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">South-East +Slavonic</span></em> and a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">West Slavonic</span></em> branch. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Lettic</span></em> division consists of languages hardly known +to the student of literature, but of great importance to +the student of language. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Lettish</span></em> is the language now +spoken in Kurland and Livonia. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Lithuanian</span></em> is the +name given to a language still spoken by about 200,000 +people in Eastern Prussia, and by more than a million +of people in the coterminous parts of Russia. The +earliest literary document of Lithuanian is a small catechism +of 1547.<a id="noteref_183" name="noteref_183" href="#note_183"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">183</span></span></a> +In this, and even in the language as +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page200">[pg 200]</span><a name="Pg200" id="Pg200" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +now spoken by the Lithuanian peasant, there are some +grammatical forms more primitive, and more like Sanskrit, +than the corresponding forms in Greek and Latin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Old Prussian</span></em>, which is nearly related to Lithuanian, +became extinct in the seventeenth century, +and the entire literature which it has left behind consists +in an old catechism. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Lettish</span></em> is the language of Kurland and Livonia, more +modern in its grammar than Lithuanian, yet not immediately +derived from it. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We now come to the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Slavonic</span></em> languages, properly so +called. The eastern branch comprehends the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Russian</span></em> +with various local dialects; the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Bulgarian</span></em>, and the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Illyrian</span></em>. The most ancient document of this eastern +branch is the so-called Ecclesiastical Slavonic, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> the +ancient Bulgarian, into which Cyrillus and Methodius +translated the Bible, in the middle of the ninth century. +This is still the authorized version<a id="noteref_184" name="noteref_184" href="#note_184"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">184</span></span></a> of the Bible +for the whole Slavonic race; and to the student of the +Slavonic languages, it is what Gothic is to the student +of German. The modern Bulgarian, on the contrary, +as far as grammatical forms are concerned, is the most +reduced among the Slavonic dialects. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Illyrian</span></em> is a convenient or inconvenient name to +comprehend the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Servian</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Croatian</span></em>, +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Slovinian</span></em> dialects. +Literary fragments of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Slovinian</span></em> go back as far +as the tenth century.<a id="noteref_185" name="noteref_185" href="#note_185"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">185</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The western branch comprehends the language of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Poland</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Bohemia</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Lusatia</span></em>. The oldest specimen +of Polish belongs to the fourteenth century: the Psalter +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page201">[pg 201]</span><a name="Pg201" id="Pg201" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of Margarite. The Bohemian language was, till +lately, traced back to the ninth century. But most of +these old Bohemian poems are now considered spurious; +and it is doubtful, even, whether an ancient interlinear +translation of the Gospel of St. John can be ascribed +to the tenth century.<a id="noteref_186" name="noteref_186" href="#note_186"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">186</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The language of Lusatia is spoken, probably, by no +more than 150,000 people, known in Germany by the +name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Wends</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have examined all the languages of our first or +Aryan family, which are spoken in Europe, with one +exception, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Albanian</span></em>. This language is clearly a +member of the same family; and as it is sufficiently +distinct from Greek or any other recognized language, +it has been traced back to one of the neighboring races +of the Greeks, the Illyrians, and is supposed to be the +only surviving representative of the various so-called +barbarous tongues which surrounded and interpenetrated +the dialects of Greece. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We now pass on from Europe to Asia; and here we +begin at once, on the extreme south, with the languages +of India. As I sketched the history of Sanskrit +in one of my former Lectures, it must suffice, at +present, to mark the different periods of that language, +beginning, about 1500 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>, with the dialect of the +Vedas, which is followed by the modern Sanskrit; the +popular dialects of the third century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>; the Prakrit +dialects of the plays; and the spoken dialects, such +as Hindí, Hindústání, Mahrattí, Bengalí. There are +many points of great interest to the student of language, +in the long history of the speech of India; and +it has been truly said that Sanskrit is to the science of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page202">[pg 202]</span><a name="Pg202" id="Pg202" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +language what mathematics are to astronomy. In an +introductory course of lectures, however, like the present, +it would be out of place to enter on a minute +analysis of the grammatical organism of this language +of languages. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is one point only on which I may be allowed +to say a few words. I have frequently been asked, +<span class="tei tei-q">“But how can you prove that Sanskrit literature is so +old as it is supposed to be? How can you fix any +Indian dates before the time of Alexander's conquest? +What dependence can be placed on Sanskrit manuscripts +which may have been forged or interpolated?”</span> +It is easier to ask such questions than to answer them, +at least to answer them briefly and intelligibly. But, +perhaps, the following argument will serve as a partial +answer, and show that Sanskrit was the spoken language +of India at least some centuries before the time +of Solomon. In the hymns of the Veda, which are +the oldest literary compositions in Sanskrit, the geographical +horizon of the poets is, for the greater part, +limited to the north-west of India. There are very few +passages in which any allusions to the sea or the sea-coast +occur, whereas the snowy mountains, and the rivers +of the Penjáb, and the scenery of the Upper Ganges +valley are familiar objects to the ancient bards. There +is no doubt, in fact, that the people who spoke Sanskrit +came into India from the north, and gradually +extended their sway to the south and east. Now, at the +time of Solomon, it can be proved that Sanskrit was +spoken at least as far south as the mouth of the Indus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +You remember the fleet of Tharshish<a id="noteref_187" name="noteref_187" href="#note_187"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">187</span></span></a> which Solomon +had at sea, together with the navy of Hiram, and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page203">[pg 203]</span><a name="Pg203" id="Pg203" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which came once in three years, bringing <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gold</span></em> and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">silver</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ivory</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">apes</span></em>, +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">peacocks</span></em>. The same navy, +which was stationed on the shore of the Red Sea, is +said to have fetched gold from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ophir</span></em>,<a id="noteref_188" name="noteref_188" href="#note_188"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">188</span></span></a> and to have +brought, likewise, great plenty of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">algum</span></em><a id="noteref_189" name="noteref_189" href="#note_189"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">189</span></span></a> trees and +precious stones from Ophir. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Well, a great deal has been written to find out +where this Ophir was; but there can be no doubt +that it was in India. The names for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">apes</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">peacocks</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ivory</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">algum</span></em>-trees are foreign words in Hebrew, as +much as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gutta-percha</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tobacco</span></em> are in English. Now, +if we wished to know from what part of the world +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gutta-percha</span></em> was first imported into England, we might +safely conclude that it came from that country where +the name, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gutta-percha</span></em>, formed part of the +spoken language.<a id="noteref_190" name="noteref_190" href="#note_190"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">190</span></span></a> +If, therefore, we can find a language in which +the names for peacock, apes, ivory, and algum-tree, +which are foreign in Hebrew, are indigenous, we may +be certain that the country in which that language +was spoken must have been the Ophir of the Bible. +That language is no other but Sanskrit. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Apes</span></em> are called, in Hebrew, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">koph</span></em>, a word without an +etymology in the Semitic languages, but nearly identical +in sound with the Sanskrit name of ape, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kapi</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ivory</span></em> is called either <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">karnoth-shen</span></em>, horns of tooth; +or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">shen habbim</span></em>. This <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">habbim</span></em> is again without a derivation +in Hebrew, but it is most likely a corruption of +the Sanskrit name for elephant, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ibha</span></em>, preceded by the +Semitic article.<a id="noteref_191" name="noteref_191" href="#note_191"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">191</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page204">[pg 204]</span><a name="Pg204" id="Pg204" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Peacocks</span></em> are called in Hebrew <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tukhi-im</span></em>, and this +finds its explanation in the name still used for peacock +on the coast of Malabar, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">togëi</span></em>, which in turn has been +derived from the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">śikhin</span></em>, meaning furnished +with a crest. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +All these articles, ivory, gold, apes, peacocks, are +indigenous in India, though of course they might have +been found in other countries likewise. Not so the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">algum-tree</span></em>, at least if interpreters are right in taking +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">algum</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">almug</span></em> for sandalwood. Sandalwood is found +indigenous on the coast of Malabar only; and one of +its numerous names there, and in Sanskrit, is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">valguka</span></em>. +This <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">valgu</span></em>(<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ka</span></em>) is clearly the name which Jewish and +Phœnician merchants corrupted into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">algum</span></em>, and which +in Hebrew was still further changed into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">almug</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now, the place where the navy of Solomon and +Hiram, coming down the Red Sea, would naturally +have landed, was the mouth of the Indus. There +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gold</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">precious stones</span></em> from the north would have +been brought down the Indus; and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sandalwood</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">peacocks</span></em>, +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">apes</span></em> would have been brought from Central +and Southern India. In this very locality Ptolemy +(vii. 1) gives us the name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Abiria</span></em>, above <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Pattalene</span></em>. +In the same locality Hindu geographers place the people +called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Abhîra</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Âbhîra</span></em>; and in the same neighborhood +MacMurdo, in his account of the province of +Cutch, still knows a race of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ahirs</span></em>,<a id="noteref_192" name="noteref_192" href="#note_192"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">192</span></span></a> the descendants, in +all probability, of the people who sold to Hiram and +Solomon their gold and precious stones, their apes, +peacocks, and sandalwood.<a id="noteref_193" name="noteref_193" href="#note_193"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">193</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page205">[pg 205]</span><a name="Pg205" id="Pg205" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If, then, in the Veda the people who spoke Sanskrit +were still settled in the north of India, whereas +at the time of Solomon their language had extended +to Cutch and even the Malabar coast, this will show +that at all events Sanskrit is not of yesterday, and +that it is as old, at least, as the book of Job, in which +the gold of Ophir is mentioned.<a id="noteref_194" name="noteref_194" href="#note_194"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">194</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Most closely allied to Sanskrit, more particularly to +the Sanskrit of the Veda, is the ancient language of +the Zend-avesta,<a id="noteref_195" name="noteref_195" href="#note_195"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">195</span></span></a> the so-called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Zend</span></em>, or +sacred language of the Zoroastrians or Fire-worshippers. It +was, in fact, chiefly through the Sanskrit, and with +the help of comparative philology, that the ancient +dialect of the Parsis or Fire-worshippers was deciphered. +The MSS. had been preserved by the Parsi +priests at Bombay, where a colony of fire-worshippers +had fled in the tenth century,<a id="noteref_196" name="noteref_196" href="#note_196"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">196</span></span></a> and where it has +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page206">[pg 206]</span><a name="Pg206" id="Pg206" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +risen since to considerable wealth and influence. +Other settlements of Guebres are to be found in +Yezd and parts of Kerman. A Frenchman, Anquetil +Duperron, was the first to translate the Zend-avesta, +but his translation was not from the original, but from +a modern Persian translation. The first European +who attempted to read the original words of Zoroaster +was Rask, the Dane; and after his premature death, +Burnouf, in France, achieved one of the greatest triumphs +in modern scholarship by deciphering the language +of the Zend-avesta, and establishing its close +relationship with Sanskrit. The same doubts which +were expressed about the age and the genuineness of +the Veda, were repeated with regard to the Zend-avesta, +by men of high authority as oriental scholars, +by Sir W. Jones himself, and even by the late Professor +Wilson. But Burnouf's arguments, based at +first on grammatical evidence only, were irresistible, +and have of late been most signally confirmed by the +discovery of the cuneiform inscriptions of Darius and +Xerxes. That there was a Zoroaster, an ancient sage, +was known long before Burnouf. Plato speaks of a +teacher of Zoroaster's Magic (Μαγεία), and calls Zoroaster +the son of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Oromazes</span></em>.<a id="noteref_197" name="noteref_197" href="#note_197"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">197</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This name of Oromazes is important; for Oromazes +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page207">[pg 207]</span><a name="Pg207" id="Pg207" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +is clearly meant for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ormuzd</span></em>, the god of the Zoroastrians. +The name of this god, as read in the inscriptions +of Darius and Xerxes, is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Auramazdâ</span></em>, which comes +very near to Plato's Oromazes.<a id="noteref_198" name="noteref_198" href="#note_198"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">198</span></span></a> Thus Darius says, +in one passage: <span class="tei tei-q">“Through the grace of Auramazda I +am king; Auramazda gave me the kingdom.”</span> But +what is the meaning of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Auramazda</span></em>? We receive a +hint from one passage in the Achæmenian inscriptions, +where Auramazda is divided into two words, both +being declined. The genitive of Auramazda occurs +there as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Aurahya mazdâha</span></em>. But even this is unintelligible, +and is, in fact, nothing but a phonetic corruption +of the name of the supreme Deity as it occurs +on every page of the Zend-avesta, namely, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ahurô +mazdâo</span></em> (nom.). Here, too, both words are declined; +and instead of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ahurô mazdâo</span></em>, we also find <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Mazdâo +ahurô</span></em>.<a id="noteref_199" name="noteref_199" href="#note_199"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">199</span></span></a> +Well, this <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ahurô mazdâo</span></em> is represented in +the Zend-avesta as the creator and ruler of the world; +as good, holy, and true; and as doing battle against +all that is evil, dark, and false. <span class="tei tei-q">“The wicked perish +through the wisdom and holiness of the living wise +Spirit.”</span> In the oldest hymns, the power of darkness, +which is opposed to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ahurô mazdâo</span></em> has not yet received +its proper name, which is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Angrô mainyus</span></em>, the +later <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ahriman</span></em>; but it is spoken of as a power, as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Drukhs</span></em> +or deceit; and the principal doctrine which Zoroaster +came to preach was that we must choose between these +two powers, that we must be good, and not bad. These +are his words:— +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“In the beginning there was a pair of twins, two +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page208">[pg 208]</span><a name="Pg208" id="Pg208" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +spirits, each of a peculiar activity. These are the +Good and the Base in thought, word, and deed. +Choose one of these two spirits; Be good, not +base!”</span><a id="noteref_200" name="noteref_200" href="#note_200"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">200</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Or again:— +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Ahuramazda is holy, true, to be honored through +veracity, through holy deeds.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“You cannot serve +both.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now, if we wanted to prove that Anglo-Saxon was +a real language, and more ancient than English, a mere +comparison of a few words such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lord</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hlafford</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gospel</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">godspel</span></em> would be +sufficient. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hlafford</span></em> has a +meaning; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lord</span></em> has none; therefore we may safely say +that without such a compound as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hlafford</span></em>, the word +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lord</span></em> could never have arisen. The same, if we compare +the language of the Zend-avesta with that of the +cuneiform inscriptions of Darius. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Auramazdâ</span></em> is clearly +a corruption of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ahurô mazdâo</span></em>, and if the language of +the Mountain-records of Behistun is genuine, then, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">à +fortiori</span></span>, is the language of the Zend-avesta genuine, as +deciphered by Burnouf, long before he had deciphered +the language of Cyrus and Darius. But what is the +meaning of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ahurô mazdâo</span></em>? Here Zend does not give +us an answer; but we must look to Sanskrit, as the +more primitive language, just as we looked from French +to Italian, in order to discover the original form and +meaning of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">feu</span></em>. According to the rules which govern +the changes of words, common to Zend and Sanskrit, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ahurô mazdâo</span></em> corresponds to the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Asuro medhas</span></em>; +and this would mean the <span class="tei tei-q">“Wise Spirit,”</span> neither +more nor less. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have editions, translations, and commentaries of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page209">[pg 209]</span><a name="Pg209" id="Pg209" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the Zend-avesta by Burnouf, Brockhaus, Spiegel, and +Westergaard. Yet there still remains much to be done. +Dr. Haug, now settled at Poona, has lately taken up +the work which Burnouf left unfinished. He has +pointed out that the text of the Zend-avesta, as we +have it, comprises fragments of very different antiquity, +and that the most ancient only, the so-called Gâthâs, +can be ascribed to Zarathustra. <span class="tei tei-q">“This portion,”</span> he +writes in a lecture just received from India, <span class="tei tei-q">“compared +with the whole bulk of the Zend fragments is very +small; but by the difference of dialect it is easily +recognized. The most important pieces written in +this peculiar dialect are called Gâthâs or songs, arranged +in five small collections; they have different +metres, which mostly agree with those of the Veda; +their language is very near to the Vedic dialect.”</span> It +is to be regretted that in the same lecture, which holds +out the promise of so much that will be extremely valuable, +Dr. Haug should have lent his authority to the +opinion that Zoroaster or Zarathustra is mentioned in +the Rig-Veda as Jaradashṭi. The meaning of jaradashti +in the Rig-Veda may be seen in the Sanskrit +Dictionary of the Russian Academy, and no Sanskrit +scholar would seriously think of translating the word +by Zoroaster. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At what time Zoroaster lived, is a more difficult +question which we cannot discuss at present.<a id="noteref_201" name="noteref_201" href="#note_201"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">201</span></span></a> It must +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page210">[pg 210]</span><a name="Pg210" id="Pg210" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +suffice if we have proved that he lived, and that his +language, the Zend, is a real language, and anterior +in time to the language of the cuneiform inscriptions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We trace the subsequent history of the Persian language +from Zend to the inscriptions of the Achæmenian +dynasty; from thence to what is called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Pehlevi</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Huzvaresh</span></em> +(better Huzûresh), the language of the Sassanian +dynasty (226-651), as it is found in the dialect of +the translations of the Zend-avesta, and in the official +language of the Sassanian coins and inscriptions. This +is considerably mixed with Semitic elements, probably +imported from Syria. In a still later form, freed also +from the Semitic elements which abound in Pehlevi, +the language of Persia appears again as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Parsi</span></em>, which +differs but little from the language of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Firdusi</span></em>, the great +epic poet of Persia, the author of the Shahnámeh, about +1000 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a. d.</span></span> The later history of Persian consists entirely +in the gradual increase of Arabic words, which +have crept into the language since the conquest of Persia +and the conversion of the Persians to the religion +of Mohammed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The other languages which evince by their grammar +and vocabulary a general relationship with Sanskrit +and Persian, but which have received too distinct and +national a character to be classed as mere dialects, are +the languages <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">of Afghanistan</span></em> or the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Pushtú</span></em>, the language +of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Bokhára</span></em>, the language of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Kurds</span></em>, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ossetian</span></em> +language in the Caucasus, and the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Armenian</span></em>. Much +might be said on every one of these tongues and their +claims to be classed as independent members of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page211">[pg 211]</span><a name="Pg211" id="Pg211" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Aryan family; but our time is limited, nor has any one +of them acquired, as yet, that importance which belongs +to the vernaculars of India, Persia, Greece, Italy, and +Germany, and to other branches of Aryan speech which +have been analyzed critically, and may be studied historically +in the successive periods of their literary existence. +There is, however, one more language which +we have omitted to mention, and which belongs equally +to Asia and Europe, the language of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Gipsies</span></em>. This +language, though most degraded in its grammar, and +with a dictionary stolen from all the countries through +which the Zingaris passed, is clearly an exile from Hindústán. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +You see, from the diagram before you,<a id="noteref_202" name="noteref_202" href="#note_202"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">202</span></span></a> that it is +possible to divide the whole Aryan family into two +divisions: the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Southern</span></em>, including the Indic and Iranic +classes, and the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Northern</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">North-western</span></em>, comprising +all the rest. Sanskrit and Zend share certain words +and grammatical forms in common which do not exist +in any of the other Aryan languages; and there can +be no doubt that the ancestors of the poets of the Veda +and of the worshippers of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ahurô mazdâo</span></em> lived together +for some time after they had left the original home of +the whole Aryan race. For let us see this clearly: +the genealogical classification of languages, as drawn +in this diagram, has an historical meaning. As sure as +the six Romance dialects point to an original home of +Italian shepherds on the seven hills at Rome, the Aryan +languages together point to an earlier period of language, +when the first ancestors of the Indians, the Persians, +the Greeks, the Romans, the Slaves, the Celts, +and the Germans were living together within the same +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page212">[pg 212]</span><a name="Pg212" id="Pg212" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +enclosures, nay under the same roof. There was a +time when out of many possible names for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">father</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mother</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">daughter</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">son</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dog</span></em> and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cow</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">heaven</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">earth</span></em>, those +which we find in all the Aryan languages were framed, +and obtained a mastery <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">in the struggle for life</span></em> which is +carried on among synonymous words as much as among +plants and animals. Look at the comparative table of +the auxiliary verb AS, to be, in the different Aryan +languages. The selection of the root AS out of many +roots, equally applicable to the idea of being, and the +joining of this root with one set of personal terminations, +all originally personal pronouns, were individual +acts, or if you like, historical events. They took place +once, at a certain date and in a certain place; and as +we find the same forms preserved by all the members +of the Aryan family, it follows that before the ancestors +of the Indians and Persians started for the south, and +the leaders of the Greek, Roman, Celtic, Teutonic, +and Slavonic colonies marched towards the shores of +Europe, there was a small clan of Aryans, settled probably +on the highest elevation of Central Asia, speaking +a language, not yet Sanskrit or Greek or German, but +containing the dialectical germs of all; a clan that had +advanced to a state of agricultural civilization; that +had recognized the bonds of blood, and sanctioned the +bonds of marriage; and that invoked the Giver of +Light and Life in heaven by the same name which you +may still hear in the temples of Benares, in the basilicas +of Rome, and in our own churches and cathedrals. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After this clan broke up, the ancestors of the Indians +and Zoroastrians must have remained together for some +time in their migrations or new settlements; and I believe +that it was the reform of Zoroaster which produced +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page213">[pg 213]</span><a name="Pg213" id="Pg213" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +at last the split between the worshippers of the Vedic +gods and the worshippers of Ormuzd. Whether, besides +this division into a southern and northern branch, it is +possible by the same test (the community of particular +words and forms), to discover the successive periods +when the Germans separated from the Slaves, the Celts +from the Italians, or the Italians from the Greeks, seems +more than doubtful. The attempts made by different +scholars have led to different and by no means satisfactory +results;<a id="noteref_203" name="noteref_203" href="#note_203"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">203</span></span></a> and it seems best, for the present, to +trace each of the northern classes back to its own dialect, +and to account for the more special coincidences between +such languages as, for instance, the Slavonic and Teutonic, +by admitting that the ancestors of these races +preserved from the beginning certain dialectical peculiarities +which existed before, as well as after, the separation +of the Aryan family. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page214">[pg 214]</span><a name="Pg214" id="Pg214" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a> +<a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Lecture VI. Comparative Grammar.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The genealogical classification of the Aryan languages +was founded, as we saw, on a close comparison of +the grammatical characteristics of each; and it is the object +of such works as Bopp's <span class="tei tei-q">“Comparative Grammar”</span> +to show that the grammatical articulation of Sanskrit, +Zend, Greek, Roman, Celtic, Teutonic, and Slavonic, +was produced once and for all; and that the apparent +differences in the terminations of Sanskrit, Greek, and +Latin, must be explained by laws of phonetic decay, peculiar +to each dialect, which modified the original common +Aryan type, and changed it into so many national +languages. It might seem, therefore, as if the object +of comparative grammar was attained as soon as the +exact genealogical relationship of languages had been +settled; and those who only look to the higher problems +of the science of language have not hesitated to +declare that <span class="tei tei-q">“there is no painsworthy difficulty nor dispute +about declension, number, case, and gender of +nouns.”</span> But although it is certainly true that comparative +grammar is only a means, and that it has well +nigh taught us all that it has to teach,—at least in the +Aryan family of speech,—it is to be hoped that, in the +science of language, it will always retain that prominent +place which it has obtained through the labors of Bopp, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page215">[pg 215]</span><a name="Pg215" id="Pg215" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Grimm, Pott, Benfey, Curtius, Kuhn, and others. Besides, +comparative grammar has more to do than simply +to compare. It would be easy enough to place side by +side the paradigms of declension and conjugation in Sanskrit, +Greek, Latin, and the other Aryan dialects, and +to mark both their coincidences and their differences. +But after we have done this, and after we have explained +the phonetic laws which cause the primitive +Aryan type to assume that national variety which we +admire in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, new problems +arise of a more interesting nature. We know that +grammatical terminations, as they are now called, were +originally independent words, and had their own purpose +and meaning. Is it possible, after comparative +grammar has established the original forms of the Aryan +terminations, to trace them back to independent words, +and to discover their original purpose and meaning? +You will remember that this was the point from which +we started. We wanted to know why the termination +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></em> in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I loved</span></em> should change a present into a past act. +We saw that before answering this question we had to +discover the most original form of this termination by +tracing it from English to Gothic, and afterwards, if +necessary, from Gothic to Sanskrit. We now return +to our original question, namely, What is language that +a mere formal change, such as that of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I love</span></em> into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I loved</span></em>, +should produce so very material a difference? +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us clearly see what we mean if we make a distinction +between the radical and formal elements of a +language; and by formal elements I mean not only the +terminations of declension and conjugation, but all derivative +elements; all, in fact, that is not radical. Our +view on the origin of language must chiefly depend on +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page216">[pg 216]</span><a name="Pg216" id="Pg216" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the view which we take of these formal, as opposed to +the radical, elements of speech. Those who consider +that language is a conventional production, base their arguments +principally on these formal elements. The inflections +of words, they maintain, are the best proof +that language was made by mutual agreement. They +look upon them as mere letters or syllables without any +meaning by themselves; and if they were asked why +the mere addition of a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></em> changes +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I love</span></em> into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I loved</span></em>, or +why the addition of the syllable <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rai</span></em> gave to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">j'aime</span></em>, I +love, the power of a future, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">j'aimerai</span></em>, they would answer, +that it was so because, at a very early time in +the history of the world, certain persons, or families, +or clans, agreed that it should be so. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This view was opposed by another which represents +language as an organic and almost a living being, and +explains its formal elements as produced by a principle +of growth inherent in its very nature. <span class="tei tei-q">“Languages,”</span><a id="noteref_204" name="noteref_204" href="#note_204"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">204</span></span></a> +it is maintained, <span class="tei tei-q">“are formed by a process, not of crystalline +accretion, but of germinal development. Every +essential part of language existed as completely (although +only implicitly) in the primitive germ, as the +petals of a flower exist in the bud before the mingled +influences of the sun and the air caused it to unfold.”</span> +This view was first propounded by Frederick Schlegel,<a id="noteref_205" name="noteref_205" href="#note_205"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">205</span></span></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page217">[pg 217]</span><a name="Pg217" id="Pg217" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and it is still held by many with whom poetical phraseology +takes the place of sound and severe reasoning. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The science of language adopts neither of these +views. As to imagining a congress for settling the +proper exponents of such relations as nominative, genitive, +singular, plural, active, and passive, it stands +to reason that if such abstruse problems could have +been discussed in a language void of inflections, there +was no inducement for agreeing on a more perfect +means of communication. And as to imagining language, +that is to say nouns and verbs, endowed with +an inward principle of growth, all we can say is, that +such a conception is really inconceivable. Language +may be conceived as a production, but it cannot be +conceived as a substance that could itself produce. +But the science of language has nothing to do with +mere theories, whether conceivable or not. It collects +facts, and its only object is to account for these facts, +as far as possible. Instead of looking on inflections in +general either as conventional signs or natural excrescences, +it takes each termination by itself, establishes +its most primitive form by means of comparison, +and then treats that primitive syllable as it would treat +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page218">[pg 218]</span><a name="Pg218" id="Pg218" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +any other part of language,—namely, as something +which was originally intended to convey a meaning. +Whether we are still able to discover the original intention +of every part of language is quite a different +question, and it should be admitted at once that many +grammatical forms, after they have been restored to +their most primitive type, are still without an explanation. +But with every year new discoveries are made +by means of careful inductive reasoning. We become +more familiar every day with the secret ways of language, +and there is no reason to doubt that in the end +grammatical analysis will be as successful as chemical +analysis. Grammar, though sometimes very bewildering +to us in its later stages, is originally a much less +formidable undertaking than is commonly supposed. +What is grammar after all but declension and conjugation? +Originally declension could not have been anything +but the composition of a noun with some other +word expressive of number and case. How the number +was expressed, we saw in a former lecture; and the +same process led to the formation of cases. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thus the locative is formed in various ways in +Chinese:<a id="noteref_206" name="noteref_206" href="#note_206"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">206</span></span></a> one is by adding such words as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ćung</span></em>, the +middle, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">néi</span></em>, inside. Thus, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kûŏ-ćung</span></em>, in the empire; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">i sûí ćung</span></em>, within a year. The instrumental is formed +by the preposition <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ẏ</span></em>, which preposition is an old root, +meaning <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to use</span></em>. Thus <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ẏ ting</span></em>, with a stick, where in +Latin we should use the ablative, in Greek the dative. +Now, however complicated the declensions, regular and +irregular, may be in Greek and Latin, we may be certain +that originally they were formed by this simple +method of composition. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page219">[pg 219]</span><a name="Pg219" id="Pg219" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There was originally in all the Aryan languages a +case expressive of locality, which grammarians call the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">locative</span></em>. In Sanskrit every substantive has its locative, +as well as its genitive, dative, and accusative. Thus, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">heart</span></em> in Sanskrit is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hṛid</span></em>; in the heart, is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hṛidi</span></em>. +Here, therefore, the termination of the locative is simply short +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">i</span></em>. This short <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">i</span></em> is a demonstrative root, and in all probability +the same root which in Latin produced the +preposition <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">in</span></em>. The Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hṛidi</span></em> represents, therefore, +an original compound, as it were, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">heart-within</span></em>, +which gradually became settled as one of the recognized +cases of nouns ending in consonants. If we look +to Chinese,<a id="noteref_207" name="noteref_207" href="#note_207"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">207</span></span></a> we find that the locative is expressed there +in the same manner, but with a greater freedom in the +choice of the words expressive of locality. <span class="tei tei-q">“In the +empire,”</span> is expressed by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kûŏ ćung</span></em>; <span class="tei tei-q">“within a year,”</span> is +expressed by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ĭ sûí ćung</span></em>. Instead of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ćung</span></em>, however, +we might have employed other terms also, such as, for +instance, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">néi</span></em>, inside. It might be said that the formation +of so primitive a case as the locative offers little +difficulty, but that this process of composition fails to +account for the origin of the more abstract cases, the +accusative, the dative, and genitive. If we derive our +notions of the cases from philosophical grammar, it is +true, no doubt, that it would be difficult to convey by +a simple composition the abstract relations supposed to +be expressed by the terminations of the genitive, dative, +and accusative. But remember that these are only +general categories under which philosophers and grammarians +endeavored to arrange the facts of language. +The people with whom language grew up knew nothing +of datives and accusatives. Everything that is abstract +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page220">[pg 220]</span><a name="Pg220" id="Pg220" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in language was originally concrete. If people wanted +to say the King of Rome, they meant really the King +at Rome, and they would readily have used what I +have just described as the locative; whereas the more +abstract idea of the genitive would never enter into +their system of thought. But more than this, it can +be proved that the locative has actually taken, in some +cases, the place of the genitive. In Latin, for instance, +the old genitive of nouns in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></em> was <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as</span></em>. This we find +still in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pater familiâs</span></em>, instead of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pater familiæ</span></em>. +The Umbrian and Oscan dialects retained the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em> throughout +as the sign of the genitive after nouns in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></em>. The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">æ</span></em> +of the genitive was originally <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ai</span></em>, that is to say, the old +locative in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">i</span></em>. <span class="tei tei-q">“King of Rome,”</span> if rendered by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Rex +Romæ</span></em>, meant really <span class="tei tei-q">“King at Rome.”</span> And here you +will see how grammar, which ought to be the most +logical of all sciences, is frequently the most illogical. +A boy is taught at school, that if he wants to say <span class="tei tei-q">“I +am staying at Rome,”</span> he must use the genitive to express +the locative. How a logician or grammarian can +so twist and turn the meaning of the genitive as to +make it express rest in a place, is not for us to inquire; +but, if he succeeded, his pupil would at once use +the genitive of Carthage (Carthaginis) or of Athens +(Athenarum) for the same purpose, and he would then +have to be told that these genitives could not be used +in the same manner as the genitive of nouns in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a.</span></em> +How all this is achieved by what is called philosophical +grammar, we know not; but comparative grammar +at once removes all difficulty. It is only in the first +declension that the locative has supplanted the genitive, +whereas <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Carthaginis</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Athenarum</span></em>, being real genitives, +could never be employed to express a locative. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page221">[pg 221]</span><a name="Pg221" id="Pg221" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +A special case, such as the locative, may be generalized +into the more general genitive, but not <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">vice versâ</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +You see thus by one instance how what grammarians +call a genitive was formed by the same process +of composition which we can watch in Chinese, and +which we can prove to have taken place in the original +language of the Aryans. And the same applies to the +dative. If a boy is told that the dative expresses a relation +of one object to another, less direct than that of +the accusative, he may well wonder how such a flying +arch could ever have been built up with the scanty +materials which language has at her disposal; but he +will be still more surprised if, after having realized this +grammatical abstraction, he is told that in Greek, in +order to convey the very definite idea of being in a +place, he has to use after certain nouns the termination +of the dative. <span class="tei tei-q">“I am staying at Salamis,”</span> must +be expressed by the dative <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Salamînĭ</span></em>. If you ask why? +Comparative grammar again can alone give an answer. +The termination of the Greek dative in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">i</span></em>, was originally +the termination of the locative. The locative may well +convey the meaning of the dative, but the faded features +of the dative can never express the fresh distinctness +of the locative. The dative <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Salamînĭ</span></em> was first a locative. +<span class="tei tei-q">“I live at Salamis,”</span> never conveyed the meaning, +<span class="tei tei-q">“I live to Salamis.”</span> On the contrary, the dative, +in such phrases as <span class="tei tei-q">“I give it to the father,”</span> was originally +a locative; and after expressing at first the palpable +relation of <span class="tei tei-q">“I give it unto the father,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“I +place it on or in the father,”</span> it gradually assumed the +more general, the less local, less colored aspect which +logicians and grammarians ascribe to their +datives.<a id="noteref_208" name="noteref_208" href="#note_208"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">208</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page222">[pg 222]</span><a name="Pg222" id="Pg222" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If the explanation just given of some of the cases +in Greek and Latin should seem too artificial or too +forced, we have only to think of French in order to see +exactly the same process repeated under our eyes. The +most abstract relations of the genitive, as, for instance, +<span class="tei tei-q">“The immortality of the soul”</span> (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">l'immortalité de l'âme</span></em>); +or of the dative, as, for instance, <span class="tei tei-q">“I trust myself to +God”</span> (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">je me fie à Dieu</span></em>), are expressed by prepositions, +such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">de</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ad</span></em>, which in Latin had the distinct +local meanings of <span class="tei tei-q">“down from,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“towards.”</span> +Nay, the English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">of</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to</span></em>, which have taken the +place of the German terminations <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">m</span></em>, are likewise +prepositions of an originally local character. The +only difference between our cases and those of the ancient +languages consists in this,—that the determining +element is now placed before the word, whereas, in the +original language of the Aryans, it was placed at the +end. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What applies to the cases of nouns, applies with +equal truth to the terminations of verbs. It may seem +difficult to discover in the personal terminations of +Greek and Latin the exact pronouns which were added +to a verbal base in order to express, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I</span></em> love, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thou</span></em> lovest, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">he</span></em> loves; but it stands to reason that originally these +terminations must have been the same in all languages,—namely, +personal pronouns. We may be puzzled by the terminations +of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thou lovest</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">he loves</span></em>, where <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">st</span></em> +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em> can hardly be identified with the modern <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thou</span></em> +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">he</span></em>; but we have only to place all the Aryan dialects +together, and we shall see at once that they point +back to an original set of terminations which can easily +be brought to tell their own story. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us begin with modern formations, because we +have here more daylight for watching the intricate and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page223">[pg 223]</span><a name="Pg223" id="Pg223" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sometimes wayward movements of language; or, better +still, let us begin with an imaginary case, or with what +may be called the language of the future, in order to +see quite clearly how, what we should call grammatical +forms, may arise. Let us suppose that the slaves in +America were to rise against their masters, and, after +gaining some victories, were to sail back in large numbers +to some part of Central Africa, beyond the reach +of their white enemies or friends. Let us suppose these +men availing themselves of the lessons they had learnt +in their captivity, and gradually working out a civilization +of their own. It is quite possible that some centuries +hence, a new Livingstone might find among the +descendants of the American slaves, a language, a literature, +laws, and manners, bearing a striking similitude +to those of his own country. What an interesting +problem for any future historian and ethnologist! +Yet there are problems in the past history of the world +of equal interest, which have been and are still to be +solved by the student of language. Now I believe that +a careful examination of the language of the descendants +of those escaped slaves would suffice to determine +with perfect certainty their past history, even though +no documents and no tradition had preserved the story +of their captivity and liberation. At first, no doubt, +the threads might seem hopelessly entangled. A missionary +might surprise the scholars of Europe by an +account of that new African language. He might describe +it at first as very imperfect—as a language, for +instance, so poor that the same word had to be used to +express the most heterogeneous ideas. He might point +out how the same sound, without any change of accent, +meant <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">true</span></em>, a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ceremony</span></em>, a +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">workman</span></em>, and was used also +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page224">[pg 224]</span><a name="Pg224" id="Pg224" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +as a verb in the sense of literary composition. All +these, he might say, are expressed in that strange dialect +by the sound <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rait</span></em> (right, rite, wright, write). He +might likewise observe that this dialect, as poor almost +as Chinese, had hardly any grammatical inflections, +and that it had no genders, except in a few words such +as man-of-war, and a railway-engine, which were both +conceived as feminine beings, and spoken of as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">she</span></em>. +He might then mention an even more extraordinary +feature, namely, that although this language had no +terminations for the masculine and feminine genders of +nouns, it employed a masculine and feminine termination +after the affirmative particle, according as it was +addressed to a lady or a gentleman. Their affirmative +particle being the same as the English, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yes</span></em>, they +added a final <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">r</span></em> to it if addressed to a man, and a final +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">m</span></em> if addressed to a lady: that is to say, instead of +simply saying, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yes</span></em>, these descendants of the escaped +American slaves said <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yesr</span></em> to a man, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yesm</span></em> to a +lady. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Absurd as this may sound, I can assure you that +the descriptions which are given of the dialects of savage +tribes, as explained for the first time by travellers +or missionaries, are even more extraordinary. But let +us consider now what the student of language would +have to do, if such forms as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yeśr</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yeśm</span></em> were, for +the first time, brought under his notice. He would +first have to trace them back historically, as far as possible +to their more original types, and if he discovered +their connection with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yes Sir</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yes Ma'm</span></em>, he would +point out how such contractions were most likely to +spring up in a vulgar dialect. After having traced +back the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yesr</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yesm of</span></em> the free African negroes +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page225">[pg 225]</span><a name="Pg225" id="Pg225" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to the idiom of their former American masters, the +etymologist would next inquire how such phrases as +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yes Sir</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yes Madam</span></em>, came to be used on the +American continent. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Finding nothing analogous in the dialects of the aboriginal +inhabitants of America, he would be led, by a +mere comparison of words, to the languages of Europe, +and here again, first to the language of England. Even +if no historical documents had been preserved, the documents +of language would show that the white masters, +whose language the ancestors of the free Africans +adopted during their servitude, came originally from +England, and, within certain limits, it would even be +possible to fix the time when the English language was +first transplanted to America. That language must +have passed, at least, the age of Chaucer before it migrated +to the New World. For Chaucer has two affirmative +particles, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yea</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yes</span></em>, and he distinguishes +between the two. He uses <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yes</span></em> only in answer to negative +questions. For instance, in answer to <span class="tei tei-q">“Does he +not go?”</span> he would say, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yes</span></em>. In all other cases +Chaucer uses <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yea</span></em>. To a question, <span class="tei tei-q">“Does he go?”</span> +he would answer <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yea</span></em>. He observes the same distinction +between <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">No</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Nay</span></em>, the former being used after +negative, the latter after all other questions. This distinction +became obsolete soon after Sir Thomas More,<a id="noteref_209" name="noteref_209" href="#note_209"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">209</span></span></a> +and it must have become obsolete before phrases such +as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yes Sir</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yes Madam</span></em> could have assumed their +stereotyped character. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But there is still more historical information to be +gained from these phrases. The word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yes</span></em> is Anglo-Saxon, +the same as the German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ja</span></em>, and it therefore +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page226">[pg 226]</span><a name="Pg226" id="Pg226" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +reveals the fact that the white masters of the American +slaves who crossed the Atlantic after the time of Chaucer, +had crossed the Channel at an earlier period after +leaving the continental fatherland of the Angles and +Saxons. The words <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sir</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Madam</span></em> tell us still more. +They are Norman words, and they could only have +been imposed on the Anglo-Saxons of Britain by Norman +conquerors. They tell us more than this. For +these Normans or Northmen spoke originally a Teutonic +dialect, closely allied to Anglo-Saxon, and in that +dialect words such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sir</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Madam</span></em> could never have +sprung up. We may conclude therefore that, previous +to the Norman conquest, the Teutonic Northmen must +have made a sufficiently long stay in one of the Roman +provinces to forget their own and adopt the language +of the Roman Provincials. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We may now trace back the Norman <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Madam</span></em> to the +French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Madame</span></em>, and we recognize in this a corruption +of the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Mea domina</span></em>, my mistress. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Domina</span></em> was +changed into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">domna</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">donna</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dame</span></em>, and the same +word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Dame</span></em> was also used as a masculine in the sense of lord, +as a corruption of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Domino</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Domno</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Donno</span></em>. The +temporal lord ruling as ecclesiastical seigneur under the +bishop, was called a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vidame</span></em>, as the Vidame of Chartres, +&c. The French interjection <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Dame!</span></em> has no connection +with a similar exclamation in English, but it simply +means Lord! <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Dame-Dieu</span></em> in old French is Lord God. +A derivative of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Domina</span></em>, mistress, was <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dominicella</span></em>, which +became <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Demoiselle</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Damsel</span></em>. The masculine <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Dame</span></em> +for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Domino</span></em>, Lord, was afterwards replaced by the Latin +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Senior</span></em>, a translation of the German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">elder</span></em>. This word +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">elder</span></em> was a title of honor, and we have it still both in +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">alderman</span></em>, and in what is originally the same, the English +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page227">[pg 227]</span><a name="Pg227" id="Pg227" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Earl</span></em>, the Norse <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Jarl</span></em>, a corruption of the A.-S. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ealdor</span></em>. This title <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Senior</span></em>, meaning +originally <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">older</span></em>, was but rarely<a id="noteref_210" name="noteref_210" href="#note_210"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">210</span></span></a> applied to ladies as a title of honor. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Senior</span></em> +was changed into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Seigneur</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Seigneur</span></em> into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sieur</span></em>, and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sieur</span></em> soon dwindled down to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sir</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thus we see how in two short phrases, such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yesr</span></em> +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yesm</span></em>, long chapters of history might be read. If +a general destruction of books, such as took place in +China under the Emperor Thsin-chi-hoang-ti (213 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>), +should sweep away all historical documents, language, +even in its most depraved state, would preserve the +secrets of the past, and would tell future generations +of the home and migrations of their ancestors from the +East to the West Indies. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It may seem startling at first to find the same name, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the East Indies</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the West Indies</span></em>, at the two extremities +of the Aryan migrations; but these very names +are full of historical meaning. They tell us how the +Teutonic race, the most vigorous and enterprising of +all the members of the Aryan family, gave the name +of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">West Indies</span></em> to the country which in their world-compassing +migrations they imagined to be India itself; +how they discovered their mistake and then distinguished +between the East Indies and West Indies; +how they planted new states in the west, and regenerated +the effete kingdoms in the east; how they +preached Christianity, and at last practised it by abolishing +slavery of body and mind among the slaves of +West-Indian landholders, and the slaves of Brahmanical +soulholders, till they greeted at last the very homes +from which the Aryan family had started when setting +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page228">[pg 228]</span><a name="Pg228" id="Pg228" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +out on their discovery of the world. All this, and +even more, may be read in the vast archives of language. +The very name of India has a story to tell, +for India is not a native name. We have it from the +Romans, the Romans from the Greeks, the Greeks from +the Persians. And why from the Persians? Because +it is only in Persian that an initial s is changed into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">h</span></em>, +which initial <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">h</span></em> was as usual dropped in Greek. It is +only in Persian that the country of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sindhu</span></em> (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sindhu</span></em> +is the Sanskrit name for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">river</span></em>), or of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">seven sindhus</span></em>, +could have been called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hindia</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">India</span></em> +instead of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sindia</span></em>. +Unless the followers of Zoroaster had pronounced +every <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em> like <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">h</span></em>, we should never have heard of the West +Indies! +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have thus seen by an imaginary instance what +we must be prepared for in the growth of language, +and we shall now better understand why it must be +laid down as a fundamental principle in Comparative +Grammar to look upon nothing in language as +merely formal, till every attempt has been made to +trace the formal elements of language back to their +original and substantial prototypes. We are accustomed +to the idea of grammatical terminations modifying +the meaning of words. But words can be modified +by words only; and though in the present state of +our science it would be too much to say that all grammatical +terminations have been traced back to original +independent words, so many of them have, even in +cases where only a single letter was left, that we may +well lay it down as a rule that all formal elements of +language were originally substantial. Suppose English +had never been written down before the time of Piers +Ploughman. What should we make of such a form as +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page229">[pg 229]</span><a name="Pg229" id="Pg229" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nadistou</span></em>,<a id="noteref_211" name="noteref_211" href="#note_211"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">211</span></span></a> instead of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ne hadst thou</span></em>? <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ne rechi</span></em> instead +of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I reck not</span></em>? <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Al ô'm</span></em> in Dorsetshire is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">all of +them</span></em>. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I midden</span></em> is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I may not</span></em>; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I cooden</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I could not</span></em>. Yet the +changes which Sanskrit had undergone before it was +reduced to writing, must have been more considerable +by far than what we see in these dialects. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now look to modern classical languages such +as French and Italian. Most of the grammatical terminations +are the same as in Latin, only changed by +phonetic corruption. Thus <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">j'aime</span></em> is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ego amo</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tu +aimes</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tu amas</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">il aime</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ille amat</span></em>. There +was originally a final <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">t</span></em> in French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">il aime</span></em>, and it comes out +again in such phrases as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">aime-t-il?</span></em> Thus the French +imperfect corresponds to the Latin imperfect, the Parfait +défini to the Latin perfect. But what about the +French future? There is no similarity between <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">amabo</span></em> +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">j'aimerai</span></em>. Here then we have a new grammatical +form, sprung up, as it were, within the recollection +of men; or, at least, in the broad daylight of history. +Now, did the termination <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rai</span></em> bud forth like a blossom +in spring? or did some wise people meet together to +invent this new termination, and pledge themselves to +use it instead of the old termination <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bo</span></em>? Certainly +not. We see first of all that in all the Romance +languages the terminations of the future are identical +with the auxiliary verb <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to have</span></em>.<a id="noteref_212" name="noteref_212" href="#note_212"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">212</span></span></a> In French +you find— +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">j'ai and je chanter-ai nous avons and nous chanterons.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">tu as and tu chanter-as vous avez and vous chanterez.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">il a and il chanter-a ils ont and ils chanteront.</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But besides this, we actually find in Spanish and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page230">[pg 230]</span><a name="Pg230" id="Pg230" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Provençal the apparent termination of the future used +as an independent word and not yet joined to the infinitive. +We find in Spanish, instead of <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lo hare</span></em>,”</span> I +shall do it, the more primitive form <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hacer lo he</span></em>; +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">facere id habeo</span></em>. We find in Provençal, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dir vos ai</span></em> instead +of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">je vous dirai</span></em>; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dir vos em</span></em> instead of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nous vous +dirons</span></em>. There can be no doubt, therefore, that the +Romance future was originally a compound of the auxiliary +verb <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to have</span></em> with an infinitive; and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I have to say</span></em>, +easily took the meaning of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I shall say</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Here, then, we see clearly how grammatical forms +arise. A Frenchman looks upon his futures as merely +grammatical forms. He has no idea, unless he is a +scholar, that the terminations of his futures are identical +with the auxiliary verb <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">avoir</span></em>. The Roman had no +suspicion that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">amabo</span></em> was a compound; but it can be +proved to contain an auxiliary verb as clearly as the +French future. The Latin future was destroyed by +means of phonetic corruption. When the final letters +lost their distinct pronunciation it became impossible to +keep the imperfect <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">amabam</span></em> separate from the future +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">amabo</span></em>. The future was then replaced by dialectical regeneration, +for the use of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">habeo</span></em> with an infinitive is found +in Latin, in such expressions as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">habeo dicere</span></em>, I have to +say, which would imperceptibly glide into I shall +say.<a id="noteref_213" name="noteref_213" href="#note_213"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">213</span></span></a> +In fact, wherever we look we see that, the future is +expressed by means of composition. We have in English +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I shall</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thou wilt</span></em>, which mean originally <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I am +bound</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thou intendest</span></em>. In German we use <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">werden</span></em>, +the Gothic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vairthan</span></em>, which means originally to go, to +turn towards. In modern Greek we find thelō, I will, +in thelō dōsei, I shall give. In Roumansch we meet +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page231">[pg 231]</span><a name="Pg231" id="Pg231" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vegnir</span></em>, to come, forming the future <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">veng a vegnir</span></em>, +I shall come; whereas in French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">je viens de dire</span></em>, I +come from saying, is equivalent to <span class="tei tei-q">“I have just said.”</span> +The French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">je vais dire</span></em> is almost a future, though +originally it is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vado dicere</span></em>, I go to say. The Dorsetshire, +<span class="tei tei-q">“I be gwâin to goo a-pickèn stuones,”</span> is another +case in point. Nor is there any doubt that in +the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bo</span></em> of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">amabo</span></em> we have the old +auxiliary <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bhû</span></em>, to +be, and in the Greek future in σω, the old auxiliary <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as</span></em>, +to be.<a id="noteref_214" name="noteref_214" href="#note_214"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">214</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We now go back another step, and ask the question +which we asked many times before, How can a mere <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></em> +produce so momentous a change as that from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I love</span></em> to +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I loved</span></em>? As we have learnt in the meantime that +English goes back to Anglo-Saxon, and is closely related +to continental Saxon and Gothic, we look at once +to the Gothic imperfect in order to see whether it has +preserved any traces of the original compound; for, +after what we have seen in the previous cases, we +are no doubt prepared to find here, too, grammatical +terminations mere remnants of independent words. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Gothic there is a verb <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nasjan</span></em>, to nourish. Its +preterite is as follows:— +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="3"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Singular.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Dual.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Plural.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">nas-i-da</td><td class="tei tei-cell">nas-i-dêdu</td><td class="tei tei-cell">nas-i-dêdum.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">nas-i-dês</td><td class="tei tei-cell">nas-i-dêtuts</td><td class="tei tei-cell">nas-i-dêduþ.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">nas-i-da</td><td class="tei tei-cell">——</td><td class="tei tei-cell">nas-i-dedun.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page232">[pg 232]</span><a name="Pg232" id="Pg232" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The subjunctive of the preterite: +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="3"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Singular.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Dual.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Plural.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">nas-i-dêdjau</td><td class="tei tei-cell">nas-i-dêdeiva</td><td class="tei tei-cell">nas-i-dêdeima.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">nas-i-dêdeis</td><td class="tei tei-cell">nas-i-dêdeits</td><td class="tei tei-cell">nas-i-dêdeiþ.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">nas-i-dêdi</td><td class="tei tei-cell">——</td><td class="tei tei-cell">nas-i-dêdeina.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This is reduced in Anglo-Saxon to: +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="2"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Singular.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Plural.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">ner-ë-de</td><td class="tei tei-cell">ner-ë-don.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">ner-ë-dest</td><td class="tei tei-cell">ner-ë-don.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">ner-ë-de</td><td class="tei tei-cell">ner-ë-don.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Subjunctive: +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="2"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">ner-ë-de</td><td class="tei tei-cell">ner-ë-don.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">ner-ë-de</td><td class="tei tei-cell">ner-ë-don.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">ner-ë-de</td><td class="tei tei-cell">ner-ë-don.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now look to the auxiliary verb <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to do</span></em>, in Anglo-Saxon: +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="2"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Singular.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Plural.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">dide</td><td class="tei tei-cell">didon.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">didest</td><td class="tei tei-cell">didon.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">dide</td><td class="tei tei-cell">didon.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If we had only the Anglo-Saxon preterite <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nerëde</span></em> and the +Anglo-Saxon <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dide</span></em>, the identity of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">de</span></em> in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nerëde</span></em> +with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dide</span></em> would not be very apparent. But here you +will perceive the advantage which Gothic has over all +other Teutonic dialects for the purposes of grammatical +comparison and analysis. It is in Gothic, and in Gothic +in the plural only, that the full auxiliary <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dêdum</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dêduþ</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dêdun</span></em> has been preserved. In the Gothic singular +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nasida</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nasidês</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nasida</span></em> stand +for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nasideda</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nasidedês</span></em>, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page233">[pg 233]</span><a name="Pg233" id="Pg233" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nasideda</span></em>. The same contraction has taken place in +Anglo-Saxon, not only in the singular but in the plural +also. Yet, such is the similarity between Gothic and +Anglo-Saxon that we cannot doubt their preterites +having been formed on the same last. If there be +any truth in inductive reasoning, there must have been +an original Anglo-Saxon preterite,<a id="noteref_215" name="noteref_215" href="#note_215"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">215</span></span></a> +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="2"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Singular.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Plural.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">ner-ë-dide</td><td class="tei tei-cell">ner-ë-didon.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">ner-ë-didest</td><td class="tei tei-cell">ner-ë-didon.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">ner-ë-dide</td><td class="tei tei-cell">ner-ë-didon.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ner-ë-dide</span></em> dwindled down to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nerëde</span></em>, +so <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nerëde</span></em> +would, in modern English, become <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nered</span></em>. The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></em> of +the preterite, therefore, which changes <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I love</span></em> into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I +loved</span></em> is originally the auxiliary verb <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to do</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I loved</span></em> +is the same as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I love did</span></em>, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I did love</span></em>. In English +dialects, as, for instance, in the Dorset dialect, every +preterite, if it expresses a lasting or repeated action, is +formed by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I did</span></em>,<a id="noteref_216" name="noteref_216" href="#note_216"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">216</span></span></a> and a distinction is thus established +between <span class="tei tei-q">“'e died eesterdae,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“the vo'ke did die by +scores;”</span> though originally <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">died</span></em> is the same as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">die did</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It might be asked, however, very properly, how <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">did</span></em> +itself, or the Anglo-Saxon <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dide</span></em>, was formed, and how it +received the meaning of a preterite. In <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dide</span></em> the final +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">de</span></em> is not termination, but it is the root, and the first +syllable <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">di</span></em> is a reduplication of the root, the fact being +that all preterites of old, or, as they are called, strong +verbs, were formed as in Greek and Sanskrit by means +of reduplication, reduplication being one of the principal +means by which roots were invested with a verbal +character.<a id="noteref_217" name="noteref_217" href="#note_217"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">217</span></span></a> The root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">do</span></em> in Anglo-Saxon is the same +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page234">[pg 234]</span><a name="Pg234" id="Pg234" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +as the root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thē</span></em> in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tithēmi</span></em> in Greek, and the Sanskrit +root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dhâ</span></em> in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dadâdmi</span></em>. Anglo-Saxon <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dide</span></em> would +therefore correspond to Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dadhau</span></em>, I placed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now, in this manner, the whole, or nearly the whole, +grammatical framework of the Aryan or Indo-European +languages has been traced back to original independent +words, and even the slightest changes which at first +sight seem so mysterious, such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">foot</span></em> into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">feet</span></em>, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I +find</span></em> into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I found</span></em>, have been fully accounted for. This +is what is called comparative grammar, or a scientific +analysis of all the formal elements of a language preceded +by a comparison of all the varieties which one and +the same form has assumed in the numerous dialects of +the Aryan family. The most important dialects for +this purpose are Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, and Gothic; +but in many cases Zend, or Celtic, or Slavonic dialects +come in to throw an unexpected light on forms unintelligible +in any of the four principal dialects. The result +of such a work as Bopp's <span class="tei tei-q">“Comparative Grammar”</span> +of the Aryan languages may be summed up in a few +words. The whole framework of grammar—the elements +of derivation, declension, and conjugation—had +become settled before the separation of the Aryan +family. Hence the broad outlines of grammar, in Sanskrit, +Greek, Latin, Gothic, and the rest, are in reality +the same; and the apparent differences can be explained +by phonetic corruption, which is determined by the +phonetic peculiarities of each nation. On the whole, +the history of all the Aryan languages is nothing but a +gradual process of decay. After the grammatical terminations +of all these languages have been traced back +to their most primitive form, it is possible, in many instances, +to determine their original meaning. This, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page235">[pg 235]</span><a name="Pg235" id="Pg235" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +however, can be done by means of induction only; and +the period during which, as in the Provençal <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dir vos ai</span></em>, +the component elements of the old Aryan grammar +maintained a separate existence in the language and +the mind of the Aryans had closed, before Sanskrit was +Sanskrit or Greek Greek. That there was such a +period we can doubt as little as we can doubt the real +existence of fern forests previous to the formation of +our coal fields. We can do even more. Suppose we +had no remnants of Latin; suppose the very existence +of Rome and of Latin were unknown to us; we might +still prove, on the evidence of the six Romance dialects, +that there must have been a time when these dialects +formed the language of a small settlement; nay, by +collecting the words which all these dialects share in +common, we might, to a certain extent, reconstruct the +original language, and draw a sketch of the state of +civilization, as reflected by these common words. The +same can be done if we compare Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, +Gothic, Celtic, and Slavonic. The words which have +as nearly as possible the same form and meaning in all +the languages must have existed before the people, who +afterwards formed the prominent nationalities of the +Aryan family, separated; and, if carefully interpreted, +they, too, will serve as evidence as to the state of civilization +attained by the Aryans before they left their +common home. It can be proved, by the evidence of +language, that before their separation the Aryans led +the life of agricultural nomads,—a life such as Tacitus +describes that of the ancient Germans. They knew the +arts of ploughing, of making roads, of building ships, of +weaving and sewing, of erecting houses; they had +counted at least as far as one hundred. They had domesticated +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page236">[pg 236]</span><a name="Pg236" id="Pg236" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the most important animals, the cow, the +horse, the sheep, the dog; they were acquainted with +the most useful metals, and armed with iron hatchets, +whether for peaceful or warlike purposes. They had +recognized the bonds of blood and the bonds of marriage; +they followed their leaders and kings, and the +distinction between right and wrong was fixed by laws +and customs. They were impressed with the idea of +a divine Being, and they invoked it by various names. +All this, as I said, can be proved by the evidence of +language. For if you find that languages like Greek, +Latin, Gothic, Celtic, or Slavonic, which, after their +first separation, have had but little contact with Sanskrit, +have the same word, for instance, for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">iron</span></em> which +exists in Sanskrit, this is proof absolute that iron was +known previous to the Aryan separation. Now, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">iron</span></em> +is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ais</span></em> in Gothic, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ayas</span></em> in Sanskrit, a word which, as +it could not have been borrowed by the Indians from +the Germans or by the Germans from the Indians, +must have existed previous to their separation. We +could not find the same name for house in Sanskrit, +Greek, Latin, Slavonic, and Celtic,<a id="noteref_218" name="noteref_218" href="#note_218"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">218</span></span></a> +unless houses had +been known before the separation of these dialects. In +this manner a history of Aryan civilization has been +written from the archives of language, stretching back +to times far beyond the reach of any documentary +history.<a id="noteref_219" name="noteref_219" href="#note_219"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">219</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The very name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Arya</span></em> belongs to this history, and +I shall devote the rest of this lecture to tracing the +origin and gradual spreading of this old word. I had +intended to include, in to-day's lecture, a short account +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page237">[pg 237]</span><a name="Pg237" id="Pg237" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">comparative mythology</span></em>, a branch of our science which +restores the original form and meaning of decayed words +by the same means by which comparative grammar recovers +the original form and meaning of terminations. +But my time is too limited; and, as I have been asked +repeatedly why I applied the name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Aryan</span></em> to that +family of language which we have just examined, I feel +that I am bound to give an answer. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ârya</span></em> is a Sanskrit word, and in the later Sanskrit it +means <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">noble</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">of a good family</span></em>. It was, however, originally +a national name, and we see traces of it as late as +the Law-book of the Mânavas, where India is still +called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ârya-âvarta</span></em>, the abode of the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Âryas</span></em>.<a id="noteref_220" name="noteref_220" href="#note_220"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">220</span></span></a> In the +old Sanskrit, in the hymns of the Veda, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ârya</span></em> occurs +frequently as a national name and as a name of honor, +comprising the worshippers of the gods of the Brahmans, +as opposed to their enemies, who are called in +the Veda <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Dasyus</span></em>. Thus one of the gods, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Indra</span></em>, who, +in some respects, answers to the Greek Zeus, is invoked +in the following words (Rigveda, i. 57, 8): <span class="tei tei-q">“Know thou +the Âryas, O Indra, and they who are Dasyus; punish +the lawless, and deliver them unto thy servant! Be +thou the mighty helper of the worshippers, and I will +praise all these thy deeds at the festivals.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the later dogmatic literature of the Vedic age, +the name of Ârya is distinctly appropriated to the +three first castes—the Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaiśyas—as +opposed to the fourth, or the Śûdras. In the +Śatapatha-Brâhmaņa it is laid down distinctly: <span class="tei tei-q">“Âryas +are only the Brahmans, the Kshatriyas, and Vaiśyas, +for they are admitted to the sacrifices. They shall not +speak with everybody, but only with the Brahman, the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page238">[pg 238]</span><a name="Pg238" id="Pg238" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Kshatriya, and the Vaiśya. If they should fall into a +conversation with a Śûdra, let them say to another +man, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Tell this Śûdra so.’</span> This is the law.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the Atharva-veda (iv. 20, 4; xix. 62, 1) expressions +occur such as, <span class="tei tei-q">“seeing all things, whether Śûdra +or Ârya,”</span> where Śûdra and Ârya are meant to express +the whole of mankind. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ârya</span></em> with a long <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">â</span></em> is derived from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arya</span></em> +with a short <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></em>, and this name <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arya</span></em> is applied in the +later Sanskrit to a Vaiśya, or a member of the third +caste.<a id="noteref_221" name="noteref_221" href="#note_221"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">221</span></span></a> +What is called the third class must originally +have constituted the large majority of the Brahmanic +society, for all who were not soldiers or priests, were +Vaiśyas. We may well understand, therefore, how a +name, originally applied to the cultivators of the soil +and householders, should in time have become a general +name for all Aryans.<a id="noteref_222" name="noteref_222" href="#note_222"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">222</span></span></a> Why the householders +were called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arya</span></em> is a question which would carry us +too far at present. I can only state that the etymological +signification of Arya seems to be <span class="tei tei-q">“one who ploughs +or tills,”</span> and that it is connected with the root of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arare</span></em>. +The Aryans would seem to have chosen this name for +themselves as opposed to the nomadic races, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the Turanians</span></em>, +whose original name <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Tura</span></em> implies the swiftness +of the horseman. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In India, as we saw, the name of Ârya, as a national +name, fell into oblivion in later times, and was +preserved only in the term Âryâvarta, the abode of +the Aryans. But it was more faithfully preserved +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page239">[pg 239]</span><a name="Pg239" id="Pg239" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by the Zoroastrians who migrated from India to the +north-west, and whose religion has been preserved to +us in the Zend-avesta, though in fragments only. Now +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Airya</span></em> in Zend means venerable, and is at the same +time the name of the people.<a id="noteref_223" name="noteref_223" href="#note_223"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">223</span></span></a> In the first chapter of +the Vendidád, where Ahuramazda explains to Zarathustra +the order in which he created the earth, sixteen +countries are mentioned, each, when created by +Ahuramazda, being pure and perfect; but each being +tainted in turn by Angro mainyus or Ahriman. Now +the first of these countries is called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Airyanem vaêjô</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Arianum semen</span></em>, the Aryan seed, and its position must +have been as far east as the western slopes of the Belurtag +and Mustag, near the sources of the Oxus and +Yaxartes, the highest elevation of Central +Asia.<a id="noteref_224" name="noteref_224" href="#note_224"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">224</span></span></a> From +this country, which is called their seed, the Aryans advanced +towards the south and west, and in the Zend-avesta +the whole extent of country occupied by the +Aryans is likewise called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Airyâ</span></em>. A line drawn from +India along the Paropamisus and Caucasus Indicus +in the east, following in the north the direction +between the Oxus and Yaxartes,<a id="noteref_225" name="noteref_225" href="#note_225"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">225</span></span></a> then running along +the Caspian Sea, so as to include Hyrcania and Râgha, +then turning south-east on the borders of Nisaea, Aria +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> Haria), and the countries washed by the Etymandrus +and Arachotus, would indicate the general +horizon of the Zoroastrian world. It would be what +is called in the fourth cardé of the Yasht of Mithra, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the whole space of Aria,”</span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vîśpem airyô-śayanem</span></em> (totum +Ariæ situm).<a id="noteref_226" name="noteref_226" href="#note_226"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">226</span></span></a> Opposed to the Aryan we find in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page240">[pg 240]</span><a name="Pg240" id="Pg240" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the Zend-avesta the non-Aryan countries (anairyâo +dainhâvô),<a id="noteref_227" name="noteref_227" href="#note_227"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">227</span></span></a> +and traces of this name are found in the +Ἀναριάκαι, a people and town on the frontiers of +Hyrcania.<a id="noteref_228" name="noteref_228" href="#note_228"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">228</span></span></a> +Greek geographers use the name of Ariana +in a wider sense even than the Zend-avesta. All the +country between the Indian Ocean in the south and +the Indus in the east, the Hindu-kush and Paropamisus +in the north, the Caspian gates, Karamania, and +the mouth of the Persian gulf in the west, is included +by Strabo (xv. 2) under the name of Ariana; and +Bactria is thus called<a id="noteref_229" name="noteref_229" href="#note_229"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">229</span></span></a> by him <span class="tei tei-q">“the ornament of the +whole of Ariana.”</span> As the Zoroastrian religion spread +westward, Persia, Elymais, and Media all claimed for +themselves the Aryan title. Hellanicus, who wrote +before Herodotus, knows of Aria as a name of +Persia.<a id="noteref_230" name="noteref_230" href="#note_230"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">230</span></span></a> +Herodotus (vii. 62) attests that the Medians called +themselves Arii; and even for Atropatene, the northernmost +part of Media, the name of Ariania (not Aria) +has been preserved by Stephanus Byzantinus. As to +Elymais its name has been derived from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ailama</span></em>, a +supposed corruption of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Airyama</span></em>.<a id="noteref_231" name="noteref_231" href="#note_231"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">231</span></span></a> The Persians, Medians, +Bactrians, and Sogdians all spoke, as late as the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page241">[pg 241]</span><a name="Pg241" id="Pg241" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +time of Strabo,<a id="noteref_232" name="noteref_232" href="#note_232"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">232</span></span></a> nearly the same language, and we +may well understand, therefore, that they should have +claimed for themselves one common name, in opposition +to the hostile tribes of Turan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +That <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Aryan</span></em> was used as a title of honor in the Persian +empire is clearly shown by the cuneiform inscriptions +of Darius. He calls himself <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ariya</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ariya-chitra</span></em>, +an Aryan and of Aryan descent; and Ahuramazda, +or, as he is called by Darius, Auramazda, is +rendered in the Turanian translation of the inscription +of Behistun, <span class="tei tei-q">“the god of the Aryans.”</span> Many historical +names of the Persians contain the same element. +The great-grandfather of Darius is called in the inscriptions +Ariyârâmna, the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ariaramnēs</span></em> (Herod, vii. +90). Ariobarzanēs (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> Euergetēs), +Ariomanes (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> +Eumenēs), Ariomardos, all show the same origin.<a id="noteref_233" name="noteref_233" href="#note_233"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">233</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +About the same time as these inscriptions, Eudemos, +a pupil of Aristotle, as quoted by Damascius, speaks +of <span class="tei tei-q">“the Magi and the whole Aryan race,”</span><a id="noteref_234" name="noteref_234" href="#note_234"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">234</span></span></a> evidently +using Aryan in the same sense in which the Zend-avesta +spoke of <span class="tei tei-q">“the whole country of Aria.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And when, after years of foreign invasion and occupation, +Persia rose again under the sceptre of the Sassanians +to be a national kingdom, we find the new +national kings the worshippers of Masdanes, calling +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page242">[pg 242]</span><a name="Pg242" id="Pg242" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +themselves, in the inscriptions deciphered by De +Sacy,<a id="noteref_235" name="noteref_235" href="#note_235"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">235</span></span></a> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Kings of the Aryan and un-Aryan races;”</span> in Pehlevi, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Irân va Anirân</span></em>; in Greek, Ἀριάνων καὶ Ἀναριάνων. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The modern name of Irán for Persia still keeps up +the memory of this ancient title. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Armenia</span></em> the same element of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Arya</span></em> +has been supposed to exist.<a id="noteref_236" name="noteref_236" href="#note_236"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">236</span></span></a> The name of Armenia, +however, does not occur in Zend, and the name +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Armina</span></em>, which is used for Armenia in the cuneiform +inscriptions, is of doubtful etymology.<a id="noteref_237" name="noteref_237" href="#note_237"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">237</span></span></a> In the language +of Armenia, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ari</span></em> is used in the widest sense for Aryan +or Iranian; it means also brave, and is applied more +especially to the Medians.<a id="noteref_238" name="noteref_238" href="#note_238"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">238</span></span></a> The word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arya</span></em>, therefore, +though not contained in the name of Armenia, can be +proved to have existed in the Armenian language as a +national and honorable name. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +West of Armenia, on the borders of the Caspian +Sea, we find the ancient name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Albania</span></em>. The Armenians +call the Albanians <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Aghovan</span></em>, and as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gh</span></em> in +Armenian stands for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">r</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">l</span></em>, it has been conjectured by +Boré, that in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Aghovan</span></em> also the name of Aria is contained. +This seems doubtful. But in the valleys of +the Caucasus we meet with an Aryan race speaking an +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page243">[pg 243]</span><a name="Pg243" id="Pg243" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Aryan language, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Os</span></em> of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ossethi</span></em>, and they call themselves +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Iron</span></em>.<a id="noteref_239" name="noteref_239" href="#note_239"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">239</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Along the Caspian, and in the country washed by +the Oxus and Yaxartes, Aryan and non-Aryan tribes +were mingled together for centuries. Though the relation +between Aryans and Turanians is hostile, and +though there were continual wars between them, as we +learn from the great Persian epic, the Shahnámeh, it +does not follow that all the nomad races who infested +the settlements of the Aryans, were of Tatar blood +and speech. Turvaśa and his descendants, who represent +the Turanians, are described in the later epic +poems of India as cursed and deprived of their inheritance +in India. But in the Vedas Turvaśa is represented +as worshipping Aryan gods. Even in the Shahnámeh, +Persian heroes go over to the Turanians and +lead them against Iran, very much as Coriolanus led +the Samnites against Rome. We may thus understand +why so many Turanian or Scythian names, mentioned +by Greek writers, should show evident traces of Aryan +origin. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Aspa</span></em> was the Persian name for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">horse</span></em>, and in +the Scythian names <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Aspabota</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Aspakara</span></em>, +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Asparatha</span></em>,<a id="noteref_240" name="noteref_240" href="#note_240"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">240</span></span></a> +we can hardly fail to recognize the same element. +Even the name of the Aspasian mountains, placed by +Ptolemy in Scythia, indicates a similar origin. Nor is +the word Arya unknown beyond the Oxus. There is +a people called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ariacœ</span></em>,<a id="noteref_241" name="noteref_241" href="#note_241"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">241</span></span></a> another called +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Antariani</span></em>.<a id="noteref_242" name="noteref_242" href="#note_242"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">242</span></span></a> A +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page244">[pg 244]</span><a name="Pg244" id="Pg244" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +king of the Scythians, at the time of Darius, was called +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ariantes</span></em>. A cotemporary of Xerxes is known by the +name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Aripithes</span></em> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> +Sanskrit, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">aryapati</span></em>; Zend, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">airyapaiti</span></em>); +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Spargapithes</span></em> seems to have some connection +with the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">svargapati</span></em>, lord of heaven. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have thus traced the name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ârya</span></em> from India +to the west, from Âryâvarta to Ariana, Persia, Media, +more doubtfully to Armenia and Albania, to the Iron +in the Caucasus, and to some of the nomad tribes in +Transoxiana. As we approach Europe the traces of +this name grow fainter, yet they are not altogether +lost. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Two roads were open to the Aryans of Asia in their +westward migrations. One through Chorasan<a id="noteref_243" name="noteref_243" href="#note_243"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">243</span></span></a> to the +north, through what is now called Russia, and thence +to the shores of the Black Sea and Thrace. Another +from Armenia, across the Caucasus or across the Black +Sea to Northern Greece, and along the Danube to +Germany. Now on the former road the Aryans left a +trace of their migration in the old name of Thrace +which was <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Aria</span></em>;<a id="noteref_244" name="noteref_244" href="#note_244"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">244</span></span></a> on the latter we meet in the eastern +part of Germany, near the Vistula, with a German +tribe called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Arii</span></em>. And as in Persia we found many +proper names in which <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Arya</span></em> formed an important ingredient, +so we find again in German history names +such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ariovistus</span></em>.<a id="noteref_245" name="noteref_245" href="#note_245"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">245</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Though we look in vain for any traces of this old +national name among the Greeks and Romans, late +researches have rendered it at least plausible that it has +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page245">[pg 245]</span><a name="Pg245" id="Pg245" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +been preserved in the extreme west of the Aryan migrations, +in the very name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ireland</span></em>. The common +etymology of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Erin</span></em> is that it means <span class="tei tei-q">“island of the west,”</span> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">iar-innis</span></em>, or land of the west, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">iar-in</span></em>. But this is clearly +wrong.<a id="noteref_246" name="noteref_246" href="#note_246"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">246</span></span></a> +The old name is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ériu</span></em> in the nominative, more +recently <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Éire</span></em>. It is only in the oblique cases that the +final <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">n</span></em> appears, as in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">regio</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">regionis</span></em>. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Erin</span></em> therefore +has been explained as a derivative of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Er</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Eri</span></em>, said +to be the ancient name of the Irish Celts as preserved +in the Anglo-Saxon name of their country, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Íraland</span></em>.<a id="noteref_247" name="noteref_247" href="#note_247"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">247</span></span></a> +It is maintained by O'Reilly, though denied by others, +that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">er</span></em> is used in Irish in the sense of noble, like the +Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ârya</span></em>.<a id="noteref_248" name="noteref_248" href="#note_248"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">248</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page246">[pg 246]</span><a name="Pg246" id="Pg246" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Some of the evidence here collected in tracing the +ancient name of the Aryan family, may seem doubtful, +and I have pointed out myself some links of the chain +uniting the earliest name of India with the modern +name of Ireland, as weaker than the rest. But the +principal links are safe. Names of countries, peoples, +rivers, and mountains, have an extraordinary vitality, +and they will remain while cities, kingdoms, and nations +pass away. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Rome</span></em> has the same name to-day, and +will probably have it forever, which was given to it by +the earliest Latin and Sabine settlers, and wherever we +find the name of Rome, whether in Wallachia, which +by the inhabitants is called Rumania, or in the dialects +of the Grisons, the Romansch, or in the title of the +Romance languages, we know that some threads would +lead us back to the Rome of Romulus and Remus, the +stronghold of the earliest warriors of Latium. The +ruined city near the mouth of the Upper Zab, now +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page247">[pg 247]</span><a name="Pg247" id="Pg247" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +usually known by the name of Nimrud, is called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Athur</span></em> +by the Arabic geographers, and in Athur we recognize +the old name of Assyria, which Dio Cassius writes Atyria, +remarking that the barbarians changed the Sigma +into Tau. Assyria is called Athurâ, in the inscriptions +of Darius.<a id="noteref_249" name="noteref_249" href="#note_249"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">249</span></span></a> We hear of battles fought on the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sutledge</span></em>, +and we hardly think that the battle field of the Sikhs +was nearly the same where Alexander fought the kings +of the Penjáb. But the name of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sutledge</span></em> is the +name of the same river as the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hesudrus</span></em> of Alexander, +the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Śatadru</span></em> of the Indians, and among the oldest +hymns of the Veda, about 1500 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>, we find a war-song +referring to a battle fought on the two banks of +the same river. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +No doubt there is danger in trusting to mere similarity +of names. Grimm may be right that the Arii of +Tacitus were originally Harii, and that their name is +not connected with Ârya. But the evidence on either +side being merely conjectural, this must remain an open +question. In most cases, however, a strict observation +of the phonetic laws peculiar to each language will remove +all uncertainty. Grimm, in his <span class="tei tei-q">“History of the +German Language”</span> (p. 228), imagined that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hariva</span></em>, +the name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Herat</span></em> in the cuneiform inscriptions, is connected +with Arii, the name which, as we saw, Herodotus +gives to the Medes. This cannot be, for the initial +aspiration in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hariva</span></em> points to a word which in Sanskrit +begins with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em>, and not with a vowel, like <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ârya</span></em>. The +following remarks will make this clearer. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Herat is called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Herat</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Heri</span></em>,<a id="noteref_250" name="noteref_250" href="#note_250"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">250</span></span></a> and the river on +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page248">[pg 248]</span><a name="Pg248" id="Pg248" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which it stands is called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Heri-rud</span></em>. This river <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Heri</span></em> +is called by Ptolemy Ἀρείας,<a id="noteref_251" name="noteref_251" href="#note_251"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">251</span></span></a> by other writers <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Arius</span></em>; +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Aria</span></em> is the name given to the country between +Parthia (Parthuwa) in the west, Margiana (Marghush) +in the north, Bactria (Bakhtrish) and Arachosia +(Harauwatish) in the east, and Drangiana (Zaraka) +in the south. This, however, though without the +initial <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">h</span></em>, is not Ariana, as described by Strabo, but an +independent country, forming part of it. It is supposed +to be the same as the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Haraiva</span></em> (Hariva) of the +cuneiform inscriptions, though this is doubtful. But it +is mentioned in the Zend-avesta, under the name of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Harôyu</span></em>,<a id="noteref_252" name="noteref_252" href="#note_252"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">252</span></span></a> as the sixth country created by Ormuzd. We +can trace this name with the initial <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">h</span></em> even beyond the +time of Zoroaster. The Zoroastrians were a colony +from northern India. They had been together for a +time with the people whose sacred songs have been +preserved to us in the Veda. A schism took place, +and the Zoroastrians migrated westward to Arachosia +and Persia. In their migrations they did what the +Greeks did when they founded new colonies, what +the Americans did in founding new cities. They +gave to the new cities and to the rivers along which +they settled, the names of cities and rivers familiar to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page249">[pg 249]</span><a name="Pg249" id="Pg249" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +them, and reminding them of the localities which they +had left. Now, as a Persian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">h</span></em> points to a Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Harôyu</span></em> would be in Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Saroyu</span></em>. One of the sacred +rivers of India, a river mentioned in the Veda, and +famous in the epic poems as the river of Ayodhyâ, one +of the earliest capitals of India, the modern Oude, has +the name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sarayu</span></em>, the modern +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sardju</span></em>.<a id="noteref_253" name="noteref_253" href="#note_253"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">253</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As Comparative Philology has thus traced the ancient +name of Ârya from India to Europe, as the original +title assumed by the Aryans before they left their common +home, it is but natural that it should have been +chosen as the technical term for the family of languages +which was formerly designated as Indo-Germanic, +Indo-European, Caucasian, or Japhetic. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page250">[pg 250]</span><a name="Pg250" id="Pg250" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc17" id="toc17"></a> +<a name="pdf18" id="pdf18"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Lecture VII. The Constituent Elements Of Language.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Our analysis of some of the nominal and verbal +formations in the Aryan or Indo-European family of +speech has taught us that, however mysterious and +complicated these grammatical forms appear at first +sight, they are in reality the result of a very simple +process. It seems at first almost hopeless to ask such +questions as why the addition of a mere <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">d</span></em> should +change love present into love past, or why the termination +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ai</span></em> in French, if added to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">aimer</span></em>, should convey +the idea of love to come. But, once placed under +the microscope of comparative grammar, these and all +other grammatical forms assume a very different and +much more intelligible aspect. We saw how what +we now call terminations were originally independent +words. After coalescing with the words which they +were intended to modify, they were gradually reduced +to mere syllables and letters, unmeaning in themselves, +yet manifesting their former power and independence +by the modification which they continue to produce in +the meaning of the words to which they are appended. +The true nature of grammatical terminations was first +pointed out by a philosopher, who, however wild some +of his speculations may be, had certainly caught many +a glimpse of the real life and growth of language, I +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page251">[pg 251]</span><a name="Pg251" id="Pg251" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +mean <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Horne Tooke</span></em>. This is what he writes +of terminations:<a id="noteref_254" name="noteref_254" href="#note_254"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">254</span></span></a>— +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“For though I think I have good reasons to believe +that all terminations may likewise be traced to their +respective origin; and that, however artificial they +may now appear to us, they were not originally the +effect of premeditated and deliberate <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">art</span></em>, but separate +words by length of time corrupted and coalescing with +the words of which they are now considered as the +terminations. Yet this was less likely to be suspected +by others. And if it had been suspected, they would +have had much further to travel to their journey's end, +and through a road much more embarrassed; as the +corruption in those languages is of much longer standing +than in ours, and more complex.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Horne Tooke, however, though he saw rightly what +road should be followed to track the origin of grammatical +terminations, was himself without the means to +reach his journey's end. Most of his explanations +are quite untenable, and it is curious to observe in +reading his book, the Diversions of Purley, how a man +of a clear, sharp, and powerful mind, and reasoning +according to sound and correct principles, may yet, +owing to his defective knowledge of facts, arrive at +conclusions directly opposed to truth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When we have once seen how grammatical terminations +are to be traced back in the beginning to independent +words, we have learnt at the same time that +the component elements of language, which remain in +our crucible at the end of a complete grammatical +analysis, are of two kinds, namely, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Roots predicative</span></em> +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Roots demonstrative</span></em>. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page252">[pg 252]</span><a name="Pg252" id="Pg252" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We call <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">root</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">radical</span></em>, whatever, in the words of +any language or family of languages, cannot be reduced +to a simpler or more original form. It may be well to +illustrate this by a few examples. But, instead of taking +a number of words in Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin, +and tracing them back to their common centre, it will +be more instructive if we begin with a root which has +been discovered, and follow it through its wanderings +from language to language. I take the root AR, to +which I alluded in our last Lecture as the source of +the word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Arya</span></em>, and we shall thus, while examining its +ramification, learn at the same time why that name +was chosen by the agricultural nomads, the ancestors +of the Aryan race. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This root AR<a id="noteref_255" name="noteref_255" href="#note_255"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">255</span></span></a> means <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to plough</span></em>, to open the soil. +From it we have the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar-are</span></em>, the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar-oun</span></em>, +the Irish <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar</span></em>, the Lithuanian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar-ti</span></em>, +the Russian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ora-ti</span></em>, +the Gothic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar-jan</span></em>, the Anglo-Saxon <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">er-jan</span></em>, the modern +English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to ear</span></em>. Shakespeare says (Richard II. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">iii.</span></span> 2), +<span class="tei tei-q">“to ear the land that has some hope to grow.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +From this we have the name of the plough, or the +instrument of earing: in Latin, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ara-trum</span></em>; in Greek, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">aro-tron</span></em>; in Bohemian, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">oradto</span></em>; in Lithuanian, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arklas</span></em>; in Cornish, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">aradar</span></em>; in Welsh, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arad</span></em>;<a id="noteref_256" name="noteref_256" href="#note_256"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">256</span></span></a> in Old Norse, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ardhr</span></em>. In Old Norse, however, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ardhr</span></em>, meaning originally +the plough, came to mean earnings or wealth; the +plough being, in early times, the most essential possession +of the peasant. In the same manner the Latin +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page253">[pg 253]</span><a name="Pg253" id="Pg253" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +name for money, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pecunia</span></em>, was derived from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pecus</span></em>, cattle; +the word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fee</span></em>, which is now restricted to the payment +made to a doctor or lawyer, was in Old English +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">feh</span></em>, and in Anglo-Saxon <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">feoh</span></em>, meaning cattle and +wealth; for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">feoh</span></em>, and Gothic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">faihu</span></em>, are really the same +word as the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pecus</span></em>, the modern German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vieh</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The act of ploughing is called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">aratio</span></em> in Latin; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arosis</span></em> +in Greek: and I believe that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arôma</span></em>, in the sense of +perfume, had the same origin; for what is sweeter or +more aromatic than the smell of a ploughed field? In +Genesis, xxviii. 27, Jacob says <span class="tei tei-q">“the smell of my son +is as the smell of a field which the Lord has blessed.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A more primitive formation of the root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar</span></em> seems to +be the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">era</span></em>, earth, the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">irâ</span></em>, the Old High-German +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ëro</span></em>, the Gaelic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ire</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">irionn</span></em>. It meant originally +the ploughed land, afterwards earth in general. Even +the word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">earth</span></em>, the Gothic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">airtha</span></em>,<a id="noteref_257" name="noteref_257" href="#note_257"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">257</span></span></a> the Anglo-Saxon +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eorthe</span></em>, must have been taken originally in the sense +of ploughed or cultivated land. The derivative <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar-mentum</span></em>, +formed like <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ju-mentum</span></em>, would naturally have +been applied to any animal fit for ploughing and other +labor in the field, whether ox or horse. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As agriculture was the principal labor in that early +state of society when we must suppose most of our +Aryan words to have been formed and applied to their +definite meanings, we may well understand how a word +which originally meant this special kind of labor, was +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page254">[pg 254]</span><a name="Pg254" id="Pg254" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +afterwards used to signify labor in general. The general +tendency in the growth of words and their meanings +is from the special to the more general: thus +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gubernare</span></em>, which originally meant to steer a ship, took +the general sense of governing. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">To equip</span></em>, which +originally was to furnish a ship (French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">équiper</span></em> and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">esquif</span></em>, from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">schifo</span></em>, ship), came to mean furnishing in +general. Now in modern German, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arbeit</span></em> means simply +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">labor</span></em>; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arbeitsam</span></em> means industrious. In Gothic, +too, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arbaiþs</span></em> is only used to express labor and trouble +in general. But in Old Norse, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">erfidhi</span></em> means chiefly +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ploughing</span></em>, and afterwards labor in general; and the +same word in Anglo-Saxon, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">earfodh</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">earfedhe</span></em>, is labor. +Of course we might equally suppose that, as laborer, +from meaning one who labors in general, came to take +the special sense of an agricultural laborer, so <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arbeit</span></em>, +from meaning work in general, came to be applied, in +Old Norse, to the work of ploughing. But as the root +of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">erfidhi</span></em> seems to be <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar</span></em>, our first explanation is the +more plausible. Besides, the simple <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar</span></em> in Old Norse +means ploughing and labor, and the Old High-German +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">art</span></em> has likewise the sense of ploughing.<a id="noteref_258" name="noteref_258" href="#note_258"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">258</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ἄρουρα and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arvum</span></em>, a field, would certainly have to +be referred to the root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar</span></em>, to plough. And as ploughing +was not only one of the earliest kinds of labor, but +also one of the most primitive arts, I have no doubt +that the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ars</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">artis</span></em>, and our own word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">art</span></em>, +meant originally the art of all arts, first taught to mortals by +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page255">[pg 255]</span><a name="Pg255" id="Pg255" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the goddess of all wisdom, the art of cultivating the +land. In Old High-German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arunti</span></em>, in Anglo-Saxon +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ærend</span></em>, mean simply work; but they too must originally +have meant the special work of agriculture; and in the +English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">errand</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">errand-boy</span></em>, the same word is still +in existence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar</span></em> did not only mean to plough, or to cut open +the land; it was transferred at a very early time to the +ploughing of the sea, or rowing. Thus Shakspeare +says:— +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Make the sea serve them; which they </span><em class="tei tei-emph" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">ear</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%"> and wound</span></span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">With keels.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In a similar manner, we find that Sanskrit derives +from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar</span></em> the substantive <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">aritra</span></em>, not in the sense of a +plough, but in the sense of a rudder. In Anglo-Saxon +we find the simple form <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">âr</span></em>, the English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">oar</span></em>, as it were +the plough-share of the water. The Greek also had +used the root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar</span></em> in the sense of rowing; for +ἐρέτης<a id="noteref_259" name="noteref_259" href="#note_259"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">259</span></span></a> in +Greek is a rower, and their word τρι-ήρ-ης, meant originally +a ship with three oars, or with three rows of +oars,<a id="noteref_260" name="noteref_260" href="#note_260"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">260</span></span></a> a trireme. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This comparison of ploughing and rowing is of frequent +occurrence in ancient languages. The English +word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">plough</span></em>, the Slavonic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ploug</span></em>, has been identified +with the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">plava</span></em>,<a id="noteref_261" name="noteref_261" href="#note_261"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">261</span></span></a> a ship, and with the Greek +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ploion</span></em>, ship. As the Aryans spoke of a ship ploughing +the sea, they also spoke of a plough sailing across +the field; and thus it was that the same names were +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page256">[pg 256]</span><a name="Pg256" id="Pg256" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +applied to both.<a id="noteref_262" name="noteref_262" href="#note_262"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">262</span></span></a> +In English dialects, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">plough</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">plow</span></em> +is still used in the general sense of waggon or conveyance.<a id="noteref_263" name="noteref_263" href="#note_263"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">263</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We might follow the offshoots of this root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar</span></em> still +further, but the number of words which we have examined +in various languages will suffice to show +what is meant by a predicative root. In all these +words <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar</span></em> is the radical element, all the rest is merely +formative. The root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar</span></em> is called a predicative root, +because in whatever composition it enters, it predicates +one and the same conception, whether of the plough, +or the rudder, or the ox, or the field. Even in such +a word as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">artistic</span></em>, the predicative power of the root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar</span></em> +may still be perceived, though, of course, as it were by +means of a powerful telescope only. The Brahmans +who called themselves <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ârya</span></em> in India, were no more +aware of the real origin of this name and its connection +with agricultural labor, than the artist who now +speaks of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">his art</span></em> as a divine inspiration suspects that +the word which he uses was originally applicable only +to so primitive an art as that of ploughing. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We shall now examine another family of words, in +order to see by what process the radical elements of +words were first discovered. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us take the word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">respectable</span></em>. It is a word of +Latin not of Saxon, origin, as we see by the termination +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page257">[pg 257]</span><a name="Pg257" id="Pg257" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">able</span></em>. In <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">respectabilis</span></em> we easily distinguish the verb +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">respectare</span></em> and the termination <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bilis</span></em>. We then separate +the prefix <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">re</span></em>, which leaves <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spectare</span></em>, and we trace +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spectare</span></em> as a participial formation back to the Latin verb +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spicere</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">specere</span></em>, meaning to see, to look. In +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">specere</span></em>, again, we distinguish between the changeable termination +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ere</span></em> and the unchangeable remnant <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spec</span></em>, which we +call the root. This root we expect to find in Sanskrit +and the other Aryan languages; and so we do. In +Sanskrit the more usual form is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">paś</span></em>, to see, without the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em>; but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spaś</span></em> also is found in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spaśa</span></em>, a spy, in +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spashṭa</span></em> (in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vi-spashṭa</span></em>), clear, manifest, and in the Vedic +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spaś</span></em>, a guardian. In the Teutonic family we find <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spëhôn</span></em> in +Old High-German meaning to look, to spy, to contemplate; +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spëha</span></em>, the English spy.<a id="noteref_264" name="noteref_264" href="#note_264"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">264</span></span></a> In Greek, the root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spek</span></em> has +been changed into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">skep</span></em>, which exists in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">skeptomai</span></em>, +I look, I examine; from whence <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">skeptikos</span></em>, an +examiner or inquirer, in theological language, a sceptic; +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">episkopos</span></em>, an overseer, a bishop. Let us now examine +the various ramifications of this root. Beginning +with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">respectable</span></em>, we found that it originally meant a +person who deserves <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">respect</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">respect</span></em> meaning <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">looking +back</span></em>. We pass by common objects or persons without +noticing them, whereas we turn back to look again at +those which deserve our admiration, our regard, our +respect. This was the original meaning of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">respect</span></em> and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">respectable</span></em>, nor need we be surprised at this if we consider +that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">noble</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nobilis</span></em> in Latin, conveyed originally +no more than the idea of a person that deserves to be +known; for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nobilis</span></em> stands for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gnobilis</span></em>, just as +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nomen</span></em> +stands for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gnomen</span></em>, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">natus</span></em> for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gnatus</span></em>. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page258">[pg 258]</span><a name="Pg258" id="Pg258" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“With respect to”</span> has now become almost a mere +preposition. For if we say, <span class="tei tei-q">“With respect to this +point I have no more to say,”</span> this is the same as <span class="tei tei-q">“I +have no more to say on this point.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Again, as in looking back we single out a person, +the adjective <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">respective</span></em>, and the adverb <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">respectively</span></em>, +are used almost in the same sense as special, or singly. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">respite</span></em> is the Norman modification of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">respectus</span></em>, the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">répit</span></em>. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Répit</span></em> meant originally +looking back, reviewing the whole evidence. A criminal +received so many days <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ad respectum</span></em>, to re-examine +the case. Afterwards it was said that the prisoner had +received a respit, that is to say, had obtained a re-examination; +and at last a verb was formed, and it was +said that a person had been respited. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">specere</span></em>, to see, with the preposition <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">re</span></em>, came to +mean respect, so with the preposition <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">de</span></em>, down, it forms +the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">despicere</span></em>, meaning to look down, the English +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">despise</span></em>. The French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dépit</span></em> (Old French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">despit</span></em>) means +no longer contempt, though it is the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">despectus</span></em>, +but rather <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anger</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vexation</span></em>. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Se dépiter</span></em> is to be +vexed, to fret. <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">En dépit de lui</span></em>”</span> is originally <span class="tei tei-q">“angry with +him,”</span> then <span class="tei tei-q">“in spite of him;”</span> and the English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spite</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">in spite of</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spiteful</span></em>, are mere abbreviations +of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">despite</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">in +despite of</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">despiteful</span></em>, and have nothing whatever to do +with the spitting of cats. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">de</span></em> means down from above, so <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sub</span></em> means up from +below, and this added to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">specere</span></em>, to look, gives us <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">suspicere</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">suspicari</span></em>, to look up, in the sense of to +suspect.<a id="noteref_265" name="noteref_265" href="#note_265"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">265</span></span></a> +From it <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">suspicion</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">suspicious</span></em>; and likewise the French +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page259">[pg 259]</span><a name="Pg259" id="Pg259" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">soupçon</span></em>, even in such phrases as <span class="tei tei-q">“there is a soupçon +of chicory in this coffee,”</span> meaning just a touch, just +the smallest atom of chicory. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">circum</span></em> means round about, so <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">circumspect</span></em> means, +of course, cautious, careful. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">in</span></em>, meaning into, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">specere</span></em> forms <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">inspicere</span></em>, to +inspect; hence <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">inspector</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">inspection</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ad</span></em>, towards, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">specere</span></em> becomes <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">adspicere</span></em>, to +look at a thing. Hence <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">adspectus</span></em>, the aspect, the look or +appearance of things. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +So with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pro</span></em>, forward, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">specere</span></em> became <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">prospicere</span></em>; +and gave rise to such words as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">prospectus</span></em>, as it were a +look out, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">prospective</span></em>, &c. With <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">con</span></em>, with, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spicere</span></em> forms <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">conspicere</span></em>, to see together, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">conspectus</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">conspicuous</span></em>. We +saw before in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">respectable</span></em>, that a new word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spectare</span></em> is +formed from the participle of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spicere</span></em>. This, with the +preposition <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ex</span></em>, out, gives us the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">expectare</span></em>, the +English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to expect</span></em>, to look out; with its derivatives. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Auspicious</span></em> is another word which contains our root +as the second of its component elements. The Latin +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">auspicium</span></em> stands for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">avispicium</span></em>, and meant the looking +out for certain birds which were considered to be +of good or bad omen to the success of any public or +private act. Hence <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">auspicious</span></em>, in the sense of lucky. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Haru-spex</span></em> was the name given to a person who foretold +the future from the inspection of the entrails of +animals. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Again, from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">specere</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">speculum</span></em> was formed, in the +sense of looking-glass, or any other means of looking +at oneself; and from it <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">speculari</span></em>, the English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to speculate</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">speculative</span></em>, &c. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But there are many more offshoots of this one root. +Thus, the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">speculum</span></em>, looking-glass, became <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">specchio</span></em> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page260">[pg 260]</span><a name="Pg260" id="Pg260" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in Italian; and the same word, though in a roundabout +way, came into French as the adjective <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">espiègle</span></em>, +waggish. The origin of this French word is curious. +There exists in German a famous cycle of stories, +mostly tricks, played by a half-historical, half-mythical +character of the name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Eulenspiegel</span></em>, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Owl-glass</span></em>. +These stories were translated into French, and the hero +was known at first by the name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ulespiègle</span></em>, which +name, contracted afterwards into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Espiègle</span></em>, became a +general name for every wag. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As the French borrowed not only from Latin, but +likewise from the Teutonic languages, we meet there +side by side with the derivatives of the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">specere</span></em>, +the old High-German, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spëhôn</span></em>, slightly disguised as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">épier</span></em>, +to spy, the Italian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spiare</span></em>. The German word for a +spy was <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spëha</span></em>, and this appears in old French as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">espie</span></em>, +in modern French as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">espion</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +One of the most prolific branches of the same root +is the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">species</span></em>. Whether we take <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">species</span></em> in the +sense of a perennial succession of similar individuals +in continual generations (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Jussieu</span></em>), or look upon it +as existing only as a category of thought (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Agassiz</span></em>), +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">species</span></em> was intended originally as the literal translation +of the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eidos</span></em> as opposed to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">genos</span></em>, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">genus</span></em>. +The Greeks classified things originally according to +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kind</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">form</span></em>, and though these terms were afterwards +technically defined by Aristotle, their etymological +meaning is in reality the most appropriate. +Things may be classified either because they are of +the same <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">genus</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kind</span></em>, that is to say, because they +had the same origin; this gives us a genealogical classification: +or they can be classified because they have +the same appearance, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eidos</span></em>, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">form</span></em>, without claiming +for them a common origin; and this gives us a morphological +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page261">[pg 261]</span><a name="Pg261" id="Pg261" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +classification. It was, however, in the Aristotelian, +and not in its etymological sense, that the +Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eidos</span></em> was rendered in Latin by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">species</span></em>, meaning +the subdivision of a genus, the class of a family. +Hence the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">espèce</span></em>, a kind; the English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">special</span></em>, +in the sense of particular as opposed to general. There +is little of the root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spaś</span></em>, to see, left in a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">special train</span></em>, +or a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">special messenger</span></em>; yet the connection, though not +apparent, can be restored with perfect certainty. We +frequently hear the expression <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to specify</span></em>. A man +specifies his grievances. What does it mean? The +mediæval Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">specificus</span></em> is a literal translation of the +Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eidopoios</span></em>. This means what makes or constitutes +an <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eidos</span></em> or species. Now, in classification, what +constitutes a species is that particular quality which, +superadded to other qualities, shared in common by +all the members of a genus, distinguishes one class +from all other classes. Thus the specific character +which distinguishes man from all other animals, is +reason or language. Specific, therefore, assumed the sense of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">distinguishing</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">distinct</span></em>, and the verb <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to specify</span></em> +conveyed the meaning of enumerating distinctly, +or one by one. I finish with the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">épicier</span></em>, a +respectable grocer, but originally a man who sold +drugs. The different kinds of drugs which the apothecary +had to sell, were spoken of, with a certain learned +air, as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">species</span></em>, not as drugs in general, but as peculiar +drugs and special medicines. Hence the chymist or +apothecary is still called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Speziale</span></em> in Italian, his shop +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spezieria</span></em>.<a id="noteref_266" name="noteref_266" href="#note_266"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">266</span></span></a> In French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">species</span></em>, which regularly became +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">espèce</span></em>, assumed a new form to express drugs, namely +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">épices</span></em>; the English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spices</span></em>, the German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spezereien</span></em>. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page262">[pg 262]</span><a name="Pg262" id="Pg262" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Hence the famous <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pain d'épices</span></em>, gingerbread nuts, and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">épicier</span></em>, a grocer. If you try for a moment to trace +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spicy</span></em>, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a well-spiced</span></em> article, back to the simple root +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">specere</span></em>, to look, you will understand that marvellous +power of language which out of a few simple elements +has created a variety of names hardly surpassed by the +unbounded variety of nature herself.<a id="noteref_267" name="noteref_267" href="#note_267"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">267</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I say <span class="tei tei-q">“out of a few simple elements,”</span> for the number +of what we call full predicative roots, such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar</span></em>, +to plough, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spaś</span></em>, to look, is indeed small. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A root is necessarily monosyllabic. Roots consisting +of more than one syllable can always be proved to +be derivative roots, and even among monosyllabic +roots it is necessary to distinguish between primitive, +secondary, and tertiary roots. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A. Primitive roots are those which consist— +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +(1) of one vowel; for instance, </span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">i</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to go; +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +(2) of one vowel and one consonant; for instance, +</span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">ad</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to eat; +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +(3) of one consonant and one vowel; for instance, +</span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">dâ</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to give. +</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +B. Secondary roots are those which consist— +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +(1) of one consonant, vowel, and consonant; for +instance, </span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">tud</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to strike. +</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In these roots either the first or the last consonant +is modificatory. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +C. Tertiary roots are those which consist— +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +(1) of consonant, consonant, and vowel; for instance, +</span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">plu</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to flow; +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +(2) of vowel, consonant, and consonant; for instance, +</span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">ard</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to hurt; +</span></p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page263">[pg 263]</span><a name="Pg263" id="Pg263" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +(3) of consonant, consonant, vowel, and consonant; +for instance, </span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">spaś</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to see; +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +(4) of consonant, consonant, vowel, consonant, +and consonant; for instance, </span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">spand</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to +tremble. +</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The primary roots are the most important in the +early history of language; but their predicative power +being generally of too indefinite a character to answer +the purposes of advancing thought, they were soon encroached +upon and almost supplanted by secondary and +tertiary radicals. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the secondary roots we can frequently observe +that one of the consonants, in the Aryan languages, +generally the final, is liable to modification. The root +retains its general meaning, which is slightly modified +and determined by the changes of the final consonants. +Thus, besides <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tud</span></em> (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tudati</span></em>), we have in Sanskrit +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tup</span></em> (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">topati</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tupati</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tumpati</span></em>), +meaning to strike; Greek, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">typ-tō</span></em>. We meet likewise with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tubh</span></em> +(<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tubhnâti</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tubhyati</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tobhate</span></em>), to strike; and, according to Sanskrit grammarians, with +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tuph</span></em> (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tophati</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tuphati</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tumphati</span></em>). +Then there is a root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tuj</span></em> (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tunjati</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tojati</span></em>), to +strike, to excite; +another root, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tur</span></em> (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tutorti</span></em>), to which the same meaning +is ascribed; another, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tûr</span></em> (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tûryate</span></em>), to hurt. Then +there is the further derivative <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">turv</span></em> (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tûrvati</span></em>), to strike, +to conquer; there is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tuh</span></em> (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tohati</span></em>), to pain, to vex; and +there is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tuś</span></em> (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tośate</span></em>), to which Sanskrit grammarians +attribute the sense of striking. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Although we may call all these verbal bases roots, +they stand to the first class in about the same relation +as the triliteral Semitic roots to the more primitive +biliteral.<a id="noteref_268" name="noteref_268" href="#note_268"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">268</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page264">[pg 264]</span><a name="Pg264" id="Pg264" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the third class we shall find that one of the two +consonants is always a semivowel, nasal, or sibilant, +these being more variable than the other consonants; +and we can almost always point to one consonant as +of later origin, and added to a biconsonantal root in +order to render its meaning more special. Thus we +have, besides <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spaś</span></em>, the root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">paś</span></em>, and even this root +has been traced back by Pott to a more primitive <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">aś</span></em>. +Thus <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vand</span></em>, again, is a mere strengthening of the root +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vad</span></em>, like <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mand</span></em> of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mad</span></em>, like +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yu-na-j</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yu-n-j</span></em> of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yuj</span></em>. +The root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yuj</span></em>, to join, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yudh</span></em>, to fight, both point +back to a root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yu</span></em>, to mingle, and this simple root has +been preserved in Sanskrit. We may well understand +that a root, having the general meaning of mingling or +being together, should be employed to express both the +friendly joining of hands and the engaging in hostile +combat; but we may equally understand that language, +in its progress to clearness and definiteness, +should have desired a distinction between these two +meanings, and should gladly have availed herself of +the two derivatives, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yuj</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yudh</span></em>, to mark this distinction. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Sanskrit grammarians have reduced the whole +growth of their language to 1706 roots,<a id="noteref_269" name="noteref_269" href="#note_269"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">269</span></span></a> that is to +say, they have admitted so many radicals in order to +derive from them, according to their system of grammatical +derivation, all nouns, verbs, adjectives, pronouns, +prepositions, adverbs, and conjunctions, which +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page265">[pg 265]</span><a name="Pg265" id="Pg265" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +occur in Sanskrit. According to our explanation of +a root, however, this number of 1706 would have +to be reduced considerably, and though a few new +roots would likewise have to be added which Sanskrit +grammarians failed to discover, yet the number +of primitive sounds, expressive of definite meanings, +requisite for the etymological analysis of the whole +Sanskrit dictionary would not amount to even one +third of that number. Hebrew has been reduced to +about 500 roots,<a id="noteref_270" name="noteref_270" href="#note_270"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">270</span></span></a> and I doubt whether we want a +larger number for Sanskrit. This shows a wise +spirit of economy on the part of primitive language, +for the possibility of forming new roots for every +new impression was almost unlimited. Even if we +put the number of letters only at twenty-four, the +possible number of biliteral and triliteral roots would +amount together to 14,400; whereas Chinese, though +abstaining from composition and derivation, and therefore +requiring a larger number of radicals than any +other language, was satisfied with about 450. With +these 450 sounds raised to 1263 by various accents and +intonations, the Chinese have produced a dictionary of +from 40,000 to 50,000 words.<a id="noteref_271" name="noteref_271" href="#note_271"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">271</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page266">[pg 266]</span><a name="Pg266" id="Pg266" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is clear, however, that in addition to these predicative +roots, we want another class of radical elements +to enable us to account for the full growth of language. +With the 400 or 500 predicative roots at her disposal, +language would not have been at a loss to coin names +for all things that come under our cognizance. Language +is a thrifty housewife. Consider the variety +of ideas that were expressed by the one root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spaś</span></em>, and +you will see that with 500 such roots she might form a +dictionary sufficient to satisfy the wants, however extravagant, +of her husband—the human mind. If +each root yielded fifty derivatives, we should have +25,000 words. Now, we are told, on good authority, +by a country clergyman, that some of the laborers in +his parish had not 300 words in their vocabulary.<a id="noteref_272" name="noteref_272" href="#note_272"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">272</span></span></a> +The vocabulary of the ancient sages of Egypt, at least +as far as it is known to us from the hieroglyphic inscriptions, +amounts to about 685 words.<a id="noteref_273" name="noteref_273" href="#note_273"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">273</span></span></a> The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">libretto</span></em> +of an Italian opera seldom displays a greater variety of +words.<a id="noteref_274" name="noteref_274" href="#note_274"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">274</span></span></a> A well-educated person in England, who has +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page267">[pg 267]</span><a name="Pg267" id="Pg267" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +been at a public school and at the university, who reads +his Bible, his Shakespeare, the <span class="tei tei-q">“Times,”</span> and all the +books of Mudie's Library, seldom uses more than about +3000 or 4000 words in actual conversation. Accurate +thinkers and close reasoners, who avoid vague and general +expressions, and wait till they find the word that +exactly fits their meaning, employ a larger stock; and +eloquent speakers may rise to a command of 10,000. +Shakespeare, who displayed a greater variety of expression +than probably any writer in any language, produced +all his plays with about 15,000 words. Milton's +works are built up with 8000; and the Old Testament +says all that it has to say with 5,642 +words.<a id="noteref_275" name="noteref_275" href="#note_275"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">275</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Five hundred roots, therefore, considering their fertility +and pliancy, was more than was wanted for the +dictionary of our primitive ancestors. And yet they +wanted something more. If they had a root expressive +of light and splendor, that root might have formed +the predicate in the names of sun, and moon, and stars, +and heaven, day, morning, dawn, spring, gladness, joy, +beauty, majesty, love, friend, gold, riches, &c. But if +they wanted to express <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">here</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">there</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">who</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">what</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">this</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">that</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thou</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">he</span></em>, they would have found it impossible to +find any predicative root that could be applied to this +purpose. Attempts have indeed been made to trace +these words back to predicative roots; but if we are +told that the demonstrative root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ta</span></em>, this or there, may +be derived from a predicative root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tan</span></em>, to extend, we +find that even in our modern languages, the demonstrative +pronouns and particles are of too primitive and +independent a nature to allow of so artificial an interpretation. +The sound <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ta</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sa</span></em>, for this or there, is as involuntary, +as natural, as independent an expression as any +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page268">[pg 268]</span><a name="Pg268" id="Pg268" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the predicative roots, and although some of these demonstrative, +or pronominal, or local roots, for all these +names have been applied to them, may be traced back +to a predicative source, we must admit a small class of +independent radicals, not predicative in the usual sense +of the word, but simply pointing, simply expressive of +existence under certain more or less definite, local or +temporal prescriptions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It will be best to give one illustration at least of a +pronominal root and its influence in the formation of +words. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In some languages, and particularly in Chinese, a +predicative root may by itself be used as a noun, or +a verb, or an adjective or adverb. Thus the Chinese +sound <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ta</span></em> means, without any change of form, great, +greatness, and to be great.<a id="noteref_276" name="noteref_276" href="#note_276"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">276</span></span></a> If <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ta</span></em> stands before a +substantive, it has the meaning of an adjective. Thus +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ta jin</span></em> means a great man. If <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ta</span></em> stands after a substantive, +it is a predicate, or, as we should say, a +verb. Thus <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">jin ta</span></em> (or jin ta ye) would mean the +man is great.<a id="noteref_277" name="noteref_277" href="#note_277"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">277</span></span></a> Or again, +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">ģin ngŏ, li pŭ ngŏ,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">would mean, man bad, law not bad.</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Here we see that there is no outward distinction whatever +between a root and a word, and that a noun is +distinguished from a verb merely by its collocation in +a sentence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In other languages, however, and particularly in the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page269">[pg 269]</span><a name="Pg269" id="Pg269" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Aryan languages, no predicative root can by itself form +a word. Thus in Latin there is a root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">luc</span></em>, to shine. In +order to have a substantive, such as light, it was necessary +to add a pronominal or demonstrative root, this +forming the general subject of which the meaning contained +in the root is to be predicated. Thus by the +addition of the pronominal element <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em> we have the +Latin noun, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">luc-s</span></em>, the light, or literally, shining-there. +Let us add a personal pronoun, and we have the verb +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">luc-e-s</span></em>, shining-thou, thou shinest. Let us add other +pronominal derivatives, and we get the adjectives, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lucidus</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">luculentus</span></em>, &c. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It would be a totally mistaken view, however, were +we to suppose that all derivative elements, all that remains +of a word after the predicative root has been removed, +must be traced back to pronominal roots. We +have only to look at some of our own modern derivatives +in order to be convinced that many of them were +originally predicative, that they entered into composition +with the principal predicative root, and then dwindled +down to mere suffixes. Thus <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">scape</span></em> in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">landscape</span></em>, +and the more modern <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ship</span></em> in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hardship</span></em> are both derived +from the same root which we have in Gothic,<a id="noteref_278" name="noteref_278" href="#note_278"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">278</span></span></a> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">skapa</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">skôp</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">skôpum</span></em>, to create; in Anglo-Saxon, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">scape</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">scôp</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">scôpon</span></em>. It is the same as the German derivative, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">schaft</span></em>, in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Gesellschaft</span></em>, &c. So again +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dom</span></em> in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">wisdom</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">christendom</span></em> +is derived from the same root which we have in +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to do</span></em>. It is the same as the German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thum</span></em> +in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Christenthum</span></em>, +the Anglo-Saxon <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dôm</span></em> in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cyning-dom</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Königthum</span></em>. +Sometimes it may seem doubtful whether a derivative +element was originally merely demonstrative or predicative. +Thus the termination of the comparative in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page270">[pg 270]</span><a name="Pg270" id="Pg270" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Sanskrit is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tara</span></em>, the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">teros</span></em>. This might, at first +sight, be taken for a demonstrative element, but it is in +reality the root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tar</span></em>, which means <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to go beyond</span></em>, which +we have likewise in the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">trans</span></em>. This <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">trans</span></em> in its +French form <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">très</span></em> is prefixed to adjectives in order to +express a higher or transcendent degree, and the same +root was well adapted to form the comparative in the +ancient Aryan tongues. This root must likewise be +admitted in one of the terminations of the locative +which is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tra</span></em> in Sanskrit; for instance from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ta</span></em>, a demonstrative +root, we form <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ta-tra</span></em>, there, originally this +way; we form <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anyatra</span></em>, in another way; the same as +in Latin we say <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ali-ter</span></em>, from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">aliud</span></em>; compounds no +more surprising than the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">autrement</span></em> (see p. 55) +and the English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">otherwise</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Most of the terminations of declension and conjugation +are demonstrative roots, and the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em>, for instance, of +the third person singular, he loves, can be proved to +have been originally the demonstrative pronoun of the +third person. It was originally not <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em> but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">t</span></em>. This will +require some explanation. The termination of the third +person singular of the present is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ti</span></em> in Sanskrit. Thus +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dâ</span></em>, to give, becomes <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dadâti</span></em>, he gives; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dhâ</span></em>, to +place, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dadhâti</span></em>, he places. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Greek this <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ti</span></em> is changed into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">si</span></em>; just as the Sanskrit +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tvam</span></em>, the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tu</span></em>, thou, appears in Greek as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sy</span></em>. +Thus Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">didōsi</span></em> corresponds to Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dadâti</span></em>; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tithēsi</span></em> to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dadhâti</span></em>. In the course of time, however, +every Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em> between two vowels, in a termination, +was elided. Thus <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">genos</span></em> does not form the genitive +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">genesos</span></em>, like the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">genus</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">genesis</span></em> or +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">generis</span></em>, but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">geneos</span></em> = <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">genous</span></em>. The dative is not +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">genesi</span></em> (the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">generi</span></em>), but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">geneï</span></em> = +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">genei</span></em>. In the same manner all the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page271">[pg 271]</span><a name="Pg271" id="Pg271" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +regular verbs have <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ei</span></em> for the termination of the third +person singular. But this <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ei</span></em> stands for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">esi</span></em>. Thus +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">typtei</span></em> stands for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">typtesi</span></em>, and this for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">typteti</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Latin drops the final <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">i</span></em>, and instead of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ti</span></em> has +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">t</span></em>. +Thus we get <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">amat</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dicit</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now there is a law to which I alluded before, which +is called Grimm's Law. According to it every tenuis +in Latin is in Gothic represented by its corresponding +aspirate. Hence, instead of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">t</span></em>, we should expect in +Gothic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">th</span></em>; and so we find indeed in Gothic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">habaiþ</span></em>, +instead of Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">habet</span></em>. This aspirate likewise appears +in Anglo-Saxon, where <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">he loves</span></em> is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lufað</span></em>. It is preserved +in the Biblical <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">he loveth</span></em>, and it is only in modern English +that it gradually sank to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em>. In the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em> of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">he loves</span></em>, +therefore, we have a demonstrative root, added to the +predicative root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">love</span></em>, and this <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em> is originally the same +as the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ti</span></em>. This <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ti</span></em> again must be traced back +to the demonstrative root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ta</span></em>, this or there; which exists +in the Sanskrit demonstrative pronoun <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tad</span></em>, the Greek +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to</span></em>, the Gothic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thata</span></em>, the English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">that</span></em>; and which +in Latin we can trace in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">talis</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tantus</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tunc</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tam</span></em>, and even +in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tamen</span></em>, an old locative in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">men</span></em>. We have thus seen +that what we call the third person singular of the +present is in reality a simple compound of a predicative +root with a demonstrative root. It is a compound like +any other, only that the second part is not predicative, +but simply demonstrative. As in pay-master we predicate +pay of master, meaning a person whose office it is +to pay, so in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dadâ-ti</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">give-he</span></em>, the ancient framers of language +simply predicated giving of some third person, +and this synthetic proposition, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">give-he</span></em>, is the same as +what we now call the third person singular in the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page272">[pg 272]</span><a name="Pg272" id="Pg272" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +indicative mood, of the present tense, in the active +voice.<a id="noteref_279" name="noteref_279" href="#note_279"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">279</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have necessarily confined ourselves in our analysis +of language to that family of languages to which +our own tongue, and those with which we are best acquainted, +belong; but what applies to Sanskrit and the +Aryan family applies to the whole realm of human +speech. Every language, without a single exception, +that has as yet been cast into the crucible of comparative +grammar, has been found to contain these two substantial +elements, predicative and demonstrative roots. +In the Semitic family these two constituent elements +are even more palpable than in Sanskrit and Greek. +Even before the discovery of Sanskrit, and the rise of +comparative philology, Semitic scholars had successfully +traced back the whole dictionary of Hebrew and Arabic +to a small number of roots, and as every root in +these languages consists of three consonants, the Semitic +languages have sometimes been called by the name +of triliteral. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To a still higher degree the constituent elements are, +as it were, on the very surface in the Turanian family +of speech. It is one of the characteristic features of +that family, that, whatever the number of prefixes and +suffixes, the root must always stand out in full relief, +and must never be allowed to suffer by its contact with +derivative elements. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is one language, the Chinese, in which no +analysis of any kind is required for the discovery of its +component parts. It is a language in which no coalescence +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page273">[pg 273]</span><a name="Pg273" id="Pg273" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of roots has taken place: every word is a root, +and every root is a word. It is, in fact, the most primitive +stage in which we can imagine human language +to have existed. It is language <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">comme il faut</span></em>; it is +what we should naturally have expected all languages +to be. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There are, no doubt, numerous dialects in Asia, +Africa, America, and Polynesia, which have not yet +been dissected by the knife of the grammarian; but we +may be satisfied at least with this negative evidence, +that, as yet, no language which has passed through +the ordeal of grammatical analysis has ever disclosed +any but these two constituent elements. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The problem, therefore, of the origin of language, +which seemed so perplexing and mysterious to the ancient +philosophers, assumes a much simpler aspect with +us. We have learnt what language is made of; we +have found that everything in language, except the +roots, is intelligible, and can be accounted for. There +is nothing to surprise us in the combination of the +predicative and demonstrative roots which led to the +building up of all the languages with which we are +acquainted, from Chinese to English. It is not only +conceivable, as Professor Pott remarks, <span class="tei tei-q">“that the formation +of the Sanskrit language, as it is handed down +to us, may have been preceded by a state of the greatest +simplicity and entire absence of inflections, such +as is exhibited to the present day by the Chinese and +other monosyllabic languages.”</span> It is absolutely impossible +that it should have been otherwise. After we +have seen that all languages must have started from +this Chinese or monosyllabic stage, the only portion of +the problem of the origin of language that remains to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page274">[pg 274]</span><a name="Pg274" id="Pg274" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +be solved is this: How can we account for the origin +of those predicative and demonstrative roots which form +the constituent elements of all human speech, and +which have hitherto resisted all attempts at further +analysis? This problem will form the subject of our +two next Lectures. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page275">[pg 275]</span><a name="Pg275" id="Pg275" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc19" id="toc19"></a> +<a name="pdf20" id="pdf20"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Lecture VIII. Morphological Classification.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We finished in our last Lecture our analysis of language, +and we arrived at the result that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">predicative</span></em> and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">demonstrative</span></em> roots are the sole constituent elements of +human speech. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We now turn back in order to discover how many +possible forms of language may be produced by the free +combination of these constituent elements; and we +shall then endeavor to find out whether each of these +possible forms has its real counterpart in some or other of +the dialects of mankind. We are attempting in fact to +carry out a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">morphological classification</span></em> of speech, which +is based entirely on the form or manner in which roots +are put together, and therefore quite independent of the +genealogical classification which, according to its very +nature, is based on the formations of language handed +down ready made from generation to generation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before, however, we enter on this, the principal subject +of our present Lecture, we have still to examine, +as briefly as possible, a second family of speech, which, +like the Aryan, is established on the strictest principles +of genealogical classification, namely, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Semitic</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Semitic family is divided into three branches, +the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Aramaic</span></em>, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hebraic</span></em>, and the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Arabic</span></em>.<a id="noteref_280" name="noteref_280" href="#note_280"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">280</span></span></a> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page276">[pg 276]</span><a name="Pg276" id="Pg276" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Aramaic</span></em> occupies the north, including Syria, +Mesopotamia, and part of the ancient kingdoms of Babylonia +and Assyria. It is known to us chiefly in two +dialects, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Syriac</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Chaldee</span></em>. The former name is +given to the language which has been preserved to us +in a translation of the Bible (the Peshito<a id="noteref_281" name="noteref_281" href="#note_281"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">281</span></span></a>) ascribed to +the second century, and in the rich Christian literature +dating from the fourth. It is still spoken, though in a +very corrupt form, by the Nestorians of Kurdistan, near +the lakes of Van and Urmia, and by some Christian +tribes in Mesopotamia; and an attempt has been made +by the American missionaries,<a id="noteref_282" name="noteref_282" href="#note_282"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">282</span></span></a> stationed at Urmia, to +restore this dialect to some grammatical correctness by +publishing translations and a grammar of what they call +the Neo-Syriac language. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Chaldee</span></em> has been given to the language +adopted by the Jews during the Babylonian captivity. +Though the Jews always retained a knowledge of their +sacred language, they soon began to adopt the dialect +of their conquerors, not for conversation only, but also +for literary composition.<a id="noteref_283" name="noteref_283" href="#note_283"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">283</span></span></a> The book of Ezra contains +fragments in Chaldee, contemporaneous with the cuneiform +inscriptions of Darius and Xerxes, and several of +the apocryphal books, though preserved to us in Greek +only, were most likely composed originally in Chaldee, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page277">[pg 277]</span><a name="Pg277" id="Pg277" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and not in Hebrew. The so-called +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Targums</span></span><a id="noteref_284" name="noteref_284" href="#note_284"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">284</span></span></a> again, +or translations and paraphrases of the Old Testament, +written during the centuries immediately preceding and +following the Christian era,<a id="noteref_285" name="noteref_285" href="#note_285"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">285</span></span></a> give us another specimen +of the Aramaic, or the language of Babylonia, as transplanted +to Palestine. This Aramaic was the dialect +spoken by Christ and his disciples. The few authentic +words preserved in the New Testament as spoken +by our Lord in His own language, such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Talitha +kumi</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ephphatha</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Abba</span></em>, are not in Hebrew, but in the +Chaldee, or Aramaic, as then spoken by the +Jews.<a id="noteref_286" name="noteref_286" href="#note_286"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">286</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After the destruction of Jerusalem the literature of +the Jews continued to be written in the same dialect. +The Talmud<a id="noteref_287" name="noteref_287" href="#note_287"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">287</span></span></a> of Jerusalem of the fourth, and that +of Babylon of the fifth, century exhibit the Aramean, +as spoken by the educated Jews settled in these two +localities, though greatly depraved and spoiled by an admixture +of strange elements. This language remained +the literary idiom of the Jews to the tenth century. +The <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Masora</span></span>,<a id="noteref_288" name="noteref_288" href="#note_288"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">288</span></span></a> and the traditional commentary of the Old +Testament, was written in it about that time. Soon +after the Jews adopted Arabic as their literary language, +and retained it to the thirteenth century. They +then returned to a kind of modernized Hebrew, which +they still continue to employ for learned discussions. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page278">[pg 278]</span><a name="Pg278" id="Pg278" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is curious that the Aramaic branch of the Semitic +family, though originally the language of the great +kingdoms of Babylon and Nineveh, should have been +preserved to us only in the literature of the Jews, and +of the Christians of Syria. There must have been a +Babylonian literature, for the wisdom of the Chaldeans +had acquired a reputation which could hardly have +been sustained without a literature. Abraham must +have spoken Aramaic before he emigrated to Canaan. +Laban spoke the same dialect, and the name which he +gave to the heap of stones that was to be a witness +between him and Jacob, (Jegar-sahadutha) is Syriac, +whereas Galeed, the name by which Jacob called it, +is Hebrew.<a id="noteref_289" name="noteref_289" href="#note_289"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">289</span></span></a> If we are ever to recover a knowledge +of that ancient Babylonian literature, it must +be from the cuneiform inscriptions lately brought home +from Babylon and Nineveh. They are clearly written +in a Semitic language. About this there can +be no longer any doubt. And though the progress +in deciphering them has been slow, and slower than +was at one time expected, yet there is no reason to +despair. In a letter, dated April, 1853, Sir Henry +Rawlinson wrote:— +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“On the clay tablets which we have found at Nineveh, +and which now are to be counted by thousands, +there are explanatory treatises on almost every subject +under the sun: the art of writing, grammars, and dictionaries, +notation, weights and measures, divisions of +time, chronology, astronomy, geography, history, mythology, +geology, botany, &c. In fact we have now at +our disposal a perfect cyclopædia of Assyrian science.”</span> +Considering what has been achieved in deciphering one +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page279">[pg 279]</span><a name="Pg279" id="Pg279" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +class of cuneiform inscriptions, the Persian, there is no +reason to doubt that the whole of that cyclopædia will +some day be read with the same ease with which we +read the mountain records of Darius. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is, however, another miserable remnant of +what was once the literature of the Chaldeans or +Babylonians, namely, the <span class="tei tei-q">“Book of Adam,”</span> and similar +works preserved by the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mendaïtes</span></span> +or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nasoreans</span></span>, a curious +sect settled near Bassora. Though the composition +of these works is as late as the tenth century after +Christ, it has been supposed that under a modern crust +of wild and senseless hallucinations, they contain some +grains of genuine ancient Babylonian thought. These +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mendaïtes</span></span> have in +fact been identified with the <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Nabateans</span></span>, +who are mentioned as late as the tenth century<a id="noteref_290" name="noteref_290" href="#note_290"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">290</span></span></a> +of our era, as a race purely pagan, and distinct from +Jews, Christians, and Mohammedans. In Arabic the +name Nabatean<a id="noteref_291" name="noteref_291" href="#note_291"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">291</span></span></a> is used for Babylonians,—nay, +all the people of Aramaic origin, settled in the earliest +times between the Euphrates and Tigris are referred +to by that name.<a id="noteref_292" name="noteref_292" href="#note_292"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">292</span></span></a> It is supposed that the Nabateans, +who are mentioned about the beginning of the Christian +era as a race distinguished for their astronomical +and general scientific knowledge, were the ancestors +of the mediæval Nabateans, and the descendants of +the ancient Babylonians and Chaldeans. You may +have lately seen in some literary journals an account +of a work called <span class="tei tei-q">“The Nabatean Agriculture.”</span> It +exists only in an Arabic translation by Ibn-Wahshiyyah, +the Chaldean,<a id="noteref_293" name="noteref_293" href="#note_293"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">293</span></span></a> +who lived about 900 years +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page280">[pg 280]</span><a name="Pg280" id="Pg280" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +after Christ, but the original, which was written by +Kuthami in Aramean, has lately been referred to +the beginning of the thirteenth century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span> The +evidence is not yet fully before us, but from what is +known it seems more likely that this work was the +compilation of a Nabatean, who lived about the fourth +century after Christ;<a id="noteref_294" name="noteref_294" href="#note_294"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">294</span></span></a> and though it contains ancient +traditions, which may go back to the days of the great +Babylonian monarchs, these traditions can hardly be +taken as a fair representation of the ancient civilization +of the Aramean race. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The second branch of the Semitic family is the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hebraic</span></em>, +chiefly represented by the ancient language of +Palestine, where Hebrew was spoken and written from +the days of Moses to the times of Nehemiah and the +Maccabees, though of course with considerable modifications, +and with a strong admixture of Aramean +forms, particularly since the Babylonian captivity, and +the rise of a powerful civilization in the neighboring +country of Syria. The ancient language of Phœnicia, +to judge from inscriptions, was most closely allied to +Hebrew, and the language of the Carthaginians too +must be referred to the same branch. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hebrew was first encroached upon by Aramaic dialects, +through the political ascendency of Babylon, and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page281">[pg 281]</span><a name="Pg281" id="Pg281" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +still more of Syria; and was at last swept away by +Arabic, which, since the conquest of Palestine and +Syria in the year 636, has monopolized nearly the +whole area formerly occupied by the two older branches +of the Semitic stock, the Aramaic and Hebrew. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This third, or Arabic, branch sprang from the Arabian +peninsula, where it is still spoken by a compact +mass of aboriginal inhabitants. Its most ancient documents +are the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Himyaritic</span></em> inscriptions. In very early +times this Arabic branch was transplanted to Africa, +where, south of Egypt and Nubia, on the coast opposite +Yemen, an ancient Semitic dialect has maintained +itself to the present day. This is the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ethiopic</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Abyssinian</span></em>, +or, as it is called by the people themselves, the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Gees</span></em> language. Though no longer spoken in its purity +by the people of Habesh, it is still preserved in their +sacred writings, translations of the Bible, and similar +works, which date from the third and fourth centuries. +The modern language of Abyssinia is called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Amharic</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The earliest literary documents of Arabic go back +beyond Mohammed. They are called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Moallakat</span></em>, literally, +suspended poems, because they are said to have +been thus publicly exhibited at Mecca. They are old +popular poems, descriptive of desert life. With Mohammed +Arabic became the language of a victorious +religion, and established its sway over Asia, Africa, +and Europe. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These three branches, the Aramaic, the Hebraic, +and Arabic, are so closely related to each other, that +it was impossible not to recognize their common origin. +Every root in these languages, as far back as we know +them, must consist of three consonants, and numerous +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page282">[pg 282]</span><a name="Pg282" id="Pg282" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +words are derived from these roots by a simple change +of vowels, leaving the consonantal skeleton as much +as possible intact. It is impossible to mistake a Semitic +language; and what is most important—it is +impossible to imagine an Aryan language derived +from a Semitic, or a Semitic from an Aryan language. +The grammatical framework is totally distinct in these +two families of speech. This does not exclude, however, +the possibility that both are diverging streams of +the same source; and the comparisons that have been +instituted between the Semitic roots, reduced to their +simplest form, and the roots of the Aryan languages, +have made it more than probable that the material elements +with which they both started were originally the +same. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Other languages which are supposed to belong to the +Semitic family are the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Berber</span></em> dialects of Northern +Africa, spoken on the coast from Egypt to the Atlantic +Ocean before the invasion of the Arabs, and now +pushed back towards the interior. Some other African +languages, too, such as the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Haussa</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Galla</span></em>, have +been classed as Semitic; and the language of Egypt, +from the earliest hieroglyphic inscriptions to the Coptic, +which ceased to be spoken after the seventeenth century, +has equally been referred to this class. The +Semitic character of these dialects, however, is much +less clearly defined, and the exact degree of relationship +in which they stand to the Semitic languages, +properly so-called, has still to be determined. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Strictly speaking the Aryan and Semitic are the +only <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">families</span></em> of speech which fully deserve that title. +They both presuppose the existence of a finished system +of grammar, previous to the first divergence of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page283">[pg 283]</span><a name="Pg283" id="Pg283" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +their dialects. Their history is from the beginning a +history of decay rather than of growth, and hence the +unmistakable family-likeness which pervades every one +even of their latest descendants. The language of the +Sepoy and that of the English soldier are, strictly +speaking, one and the same language. They are both +built up of materials which were definitely shaped before +the Teutonic and Indic branches separated. No +new root has been added to either since their first separation; +and the grammatical forms which are of more +modern growth in English or Hindustání, are, if closely +examined, new combinations only of elements which +existed from the beginning in all the Aryan dialects. +In the termination of the English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">he is</span></em>, and in the inaudible +termination of the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">il est</span></em>, we recognize +the result of an act performed before the first separation +of the Aryan family, the combination of the predicative +root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as</span></em> with the demonstrative root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ti</span></em>; an act +performed once for all, and continuing to be felt to the +present day. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was the custom of Nebuchadnezzar to have his +name stamped on every brick that was used during +his reign in erecting his colossal palaces. Those palaces +fell to ruins, but from the ruins the ancient materials +were carried away for building new cities; and on +examining the bricks in the walls of the modern city +of Baghdad on the borders of the Tigris, Sir Henry +Rawlinson discovered on each the clear traces of that +royal signature. It is the same if we examine the +structure of modern languages. They too were built +up with the materials taken from the ruins of the ancient +languages, and every word, if properly examined, +displays the visible stamp impressed upon it from the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page284">[pg 284]</span><a name="Pg284" id="Pg284" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +first by the founders of the Aryan and the Semitic +empires of speech. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The relationship of languages, however, is not always +so close. Languages may diverge before their +grammatical system has become fixed and hardened; +and in that case they cannot be expected to show the +same marked features of a common descent as, for +instance, the Neo-Latin dialects, French, Italian, and +Spanish. They may have much in common, but they +will likewise display an after-growth in words and +grammatical forms peculiar to each dialect. With regard +to words we see that even languages so intimately +related to each other as the six Romance dialects, +diverged in some of the commonest expressions. Instead +of the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">frater</span></em>, the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">frère</span></em>, we find in +Spanish <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hermano</span></em>. There was a very good reason for +this change. The Latin word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">frater</span></em>, changed into +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fray</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">frayle</span></em>, had been applied to express a brother +or a friar. It was felt inconvenient that the same word +should express two ideas which it was sometimes necessary +to distinguish, and therefore, by a kind of natural +elimination, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">frater</span></em> was given up as the name of brother +in Spanish, and replaced from the dialectical stores of +Latin, by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">germanus</span></em>. In the same manner the Latin +word for shepherd, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pastor</span></em>, was so constantly applied to +the shepherd of the people or the clergyman, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">le pasteur</span></em>, +that a new word was wanted for the real shepherd. Thus +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">berbicarius</span></em> from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">berbex</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vervex</span></em>, a wether, was +used instead of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pastor</span></em>, and changed into the French +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">berger</span></em>. Instead of the Spanish <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">enfermo</span></em>, ill, we find in +French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">malade</span></em>, in Italian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">malato</span></em>. Languages so intimately +related as Greek and Latin have fixed on different +expressions for son, daughter, brother, woman, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page285">[pg 285]</span><a name="Pg285" id="Pg285" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +man, sky, earth, moon, hand, mouth, tree, bird, +&c.<a id="noteref_295" name="noteref_295" href="#note_295"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">295</span></span></a> +That is to say, out of a large number of synonymes +which were supplied by the numerous dialects of the +Aryan family, the Greeks perpetuated one, the Romans +another. It is clear that when the working of +this principle of natural selection is allowed to extend +more widely, languages, though proceeding from the +same source, may in time acquire a totally different +nomenclature for the commonest objects. The number +of real synonymes is frequently exaggerated, and +if we are told that in Icelandic there are 120 names for +island, or in Arabic 500 names for lion,<a id="noteref_296" name="noteref_296" href="#note_296"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">296</span></span></a> and 1,000 +names for sword,<a id="noteref_297" name="noteref_297" href="#note_297"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">297</span></span></a> many of these are no doubt purely +poetical. But even where there are in a language only +four or five names for the same objects, it is clear that +four languages might be derived from it, each in appearance +quite distinct from the rest. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The same applies to grammar. When the Romance +languages, for instance, formed their new future by +placing the auxiliary verb <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">habere</span></em>, to have, after the +infinitive, it was quite open to any one of them to fix +upon some other expedient for expressing the future. +The French might have chosen <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">je vais dire</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">je dirvais</span></em> +(I wade to say) instead of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">je dirai</span></em>, and in this +case the future in French would have been totally distinct +from the future in Italian. If such changes are +possible in literary languages of such long standing as +French and Italian, we must be prepared for a great +deal more in languages which, as I said, diverged before +any definite settlement had taken place either in their +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page286">[pg 286]</span><a name="Pg286" id="Pg286" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +grammar or their dictionary. If we were to expect in +them the definite criteria of a genealogical relationship +which unites the members of the Aryan and Semitic +families of speech, we should necessarily be disappointed. +Such criteria could not possibly exist in these +languages. But there are criteria for determining even +these more distant degrees of relationship in the vast +realm of speech; and they are sufficient at least to arrest +the hasty conclusions of those who would deny the +possibility of a common origin of any languages more +removed from each other than French and Italian, +Sanskrit and Greek, Hebrew and Arabic. You will +see this more clearly after we have examined the principles +of what I call the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">morphological classification</span></em> of +human speech. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As all languages, so far as we can judge at present, +can be reduced in the end to roots, predicative and +demonstrative, it is clear that, according to the manner +in which roots are put together, we may expect +to find three kinds of languages, or three stages in the +gradual formation of speech. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +1. Roots may be used as words, each root preserving +its full independence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +2. Two roots may be joined together to form words, +and in these compounds one root may lose its independence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +3. Two roots may be joined together to form words, +and in these compounds both roots may lose their independence. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What applies to two roots, applies to three or four +or more. The principle is the same, though it would +lead to a more varied subdivision. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The first stage, in which each root preserves its independence, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page287">[pg 287]</span><a name="Pg287" id="Pg287" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and in which there is no formal distinction +between a root and a word, I call the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Radical Stage</span></em>. +This stage is best represented by ancient Chinese. +Languages belonging to this first or Radical Stage, +have sometimes been called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Monosyllabic</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Isolating</span></em>. +The second stage, in which two or more roots coalesce +to form a word, the one retaining its radical independence, +the other sinking down to a mere termination, +I call the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Terminational Stage</span></em>. This stage is best +represented by the Turanian family of speech, and the +languages belonging to it have generally been called +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">agglutinative</span></em>, from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gluten</span></em>, glue. The third stage, in +which roots coalesce so that neither the one nor the +other retains its substantive independence, I call the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Inflectional Stage</span></em>. This stage is best represented by +the Aryan and Semitic families, and the languages +belonging to it have sometimes been distinguished by +the name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">organic</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">amalgamating</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The first stage excludes phonetic corruption altogether. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The second stage excludes phonetic corruption in +the principal root, but allows it in the secondary or +determinative elements. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The third stage allows phonetic corruption both in +the principal root and in the terminations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A few instances will make this classification clearer. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the first stage, which is represented by Chinese, +every word is a root, and has its own substantial meaning. +Thus, where we say in Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">baculo</span></em>, with a stick, +we say in Chinese <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ỳ ćáng</span></em>.<a id="noteref_298" name="noteref_298" href="#note_298"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">298</span></span></a> Here <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ỳ</span></em> might be taken +for a mere preposition, like the English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">with</span></em>. But in +Chinese this <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ỳ</span></em> is a root; it is the same word which, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page288">[pg 288]</span><a name="Pg288" id="Pg288" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +if used as a verb, would mean <span class="tei tei-q">“to employ.”</span> Therefore +in Chinese <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ỳ ćáng</span></em> means literally <span class="tei tei-q">“employ stick.”</span> +Or again, where we say in English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">at home</span></em>, or in Latin +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">domi</span></em>, the Chinese say <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ŭŏ-li, ŭŏ</span></em> meaning <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">house</span></em>, +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">li</span></em> originally <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">inside</span></em>.<a id="noteref_299" name="noteref_299" href="#note_299"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">299</span></span></a> The name for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">day</span></em> in Chinese +is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ģi-tse</span></em>, which means originally <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">son of the +sun</span></em>.<a id="noteref_300" name="noteref_300" href="#note_300"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">300</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is in Chinese, as we saw before, no formal +distinction between a noun, a verb, an adjective, an +adverb, a preposition. The same root, according to +its position in a sentence, may be employed to convey +the meaning of great, greatness, greatly, and to be +great. Everything in fact depends in Chinese on the +proper collocation of words in a sentence. Thus <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ngò +tà ni</span></em> means <span class="tei tei-q">“I beat thee;”</span> but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ni tà ngò</span></em> would mean +<span class="tei tei-q">“Thou beatest me.”</span> Thus <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ngŏ ģin</span></em> means <span class="tei tei-q">“a bad +man;”</span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ģin ngŏ</span></em> would mean <span class="tei tei-q">“the man is bad.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As long as every word, or part of a word, is felt to +express its own radical meaning, a language belongs +to the first or radical stage. As soon as such words +as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tse</span></em> in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ģi-tse</span></em>, day, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">li</span></em> +in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ŭŏ-li</span></em>, at home, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ỳ</span></em> in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ỳ-ćáng</span></em>, +with the stick, lose their etymological meaning and +become mere signs of derivation or of case, language +enters into the second or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Terminational</span></em> stage. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +By far the largest number of languages belong to +this stage. The whole of what is called the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Turanian</span></em> +family of speech consists of Terminational or Agglutinative +languages, and this Turanian family comprises +in reality all languages spoken in Asia and Europe, +and not included under the Aryan and Semitic families, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page289">[pg 289]</span><a name="Pg289" id="Pg289" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with the exception of Chinese and its cognate +dialects. In the great continent of the Old World +the Semitic and Aryan languages occupy only what +may be called the four western peninsulas, namely, +India with Persia, Arabia, Asia Minor, and Europe; +and we have reason to suppose that even these countries +were held by Turanian tribes previous to the +arrival of the Aryan and Semitic nations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This Turanian family is of great importance in the +science of languages. Some scholars would deny it +the name of a family; and if family is only applicable +to dialects so closely connected among themselves as +the Aryan or Semitic, it would no doubt be preferable +to speak of the Turanian as a class or group, and not +as a family of languages. But this concession must +not be understood as an admission that the members +of this class start from different sources, and that +they are held together, not by genealogical affinity, +but by morphological similarity only. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These languages share elements in common which +they must have borrowed from the same source, and +their formal coincidences, though of a different character +from those of the Aryan and Semitic families, +are such that it would be impossible to ascribe them +to mere accident. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The name Turanian is used in opposition to Aryan, +and is applied to the nomadic races of Asia as opposed +to the agricultural or Aryan races. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Turanian family or class consists of two great +divisions, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Northern</span></em> and the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Southern</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Northern is sometimes called the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ural-Altaic</span></em> or +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ugro-Tataric</span></em>, and it is divided into five sections, the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Tungusic</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Mongolic</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Turkic</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Finnic</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Samoyedic</span></em>. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page290">[pg 290]</span><a name="Pg290" id="Pg290" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Southern, which occupies the south of Asia, is +divided into four classes, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Tamulic</span></em>, or the languages +of the Dekhan; the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Bhotîya</span></em>, or the dialects of Tibet +and Bhotan; the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Taïc</span></em>, or the dialects of Siam, +and the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Malaic</span></em>, or the Malay and Polynesian dialects. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +No doubt if we expected to find in this immense +number of languages the same family likeness which +holds the Semitic or Aryan languages together, we +should be disappointed. But the very absence of that +family likeness constitutes one of the distinguishing +features of the Turanian dialects. They are <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Nomad</span></em> +languages, as contrasted with the Aryan, and Semitic +languages.<a id="noteref_301" name="noteref_301" href="#note_301"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">301</span></span></a> In the latter most words and grammatical +forms were thrown out but once by the creative +power of one generation, and they were not lightly +parted with, even though their original distinctness +had been blurred by phonetic corruption. To hand +down a language in this manner is possible only among +people whose history runs on in one main stream; and +where religion, law, and poetry supply well-defined borders +which hem in on every side the current of language. +Among the Turanian nomads no such nucleus +of a political, social, or literary character has ever been +formed. Empires were no sooner founded than they +were scattered again like the sand-clouds of the desert; +no laws, no songs, no stories outlived the age of their +authors. How quickly language can change, if thus +left to itself without any literary standard, we saw in +a former Lecture, when treating of the growth of dialects. +The most necessary substantives, such as father, +mother, daughter, son, have frequently been lost and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page291">[pg 291]</span><a name="Pg291" id="Pg291" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +replaced by synonymes in the different dialects of Turanian +speech, and the grammatical terminations have +been treated with the same freedom. Nevertheless, +some of the Turanian numerals and pronouns, and +many Turanian roots, point to a single original source; +and the common words and common roots, which have +been discovered in the most distant branches of the +Turanian stock, warrant the admission of a real, though +very distant, genealogical relationship of all Turanian +speech. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The most characteristic feature of the Turanian languages +is what has been called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Agglutination</span></em>, or <span class="tei tei-q">“gluing +together.”</span><a id="noteref_302" name="noteref_302" href="#note_302"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">302</span></span></a> This means not only that, in their +grammar, pronouns are <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">glued</span></em> to the verbs in order to +form the conjugation, or prepositions to substantives in +order to form declension. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">That</span></em> would not be a distinguishing +characteristic of the Turanian or nomad languages; +for in Hebrew as well as in Sanskrit, conjugation +and declension were originally formed on the same +principle. What distinguishes the Turanian languages +is, that in them the conjugation and declension can still +be taken to pieces; and although the terminations have +by no means always retained their significative power +as independent words, they are felt as modificatory syllables, +and as distinct from the roots to which they are +appended. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the Aryan languages the modifications of words, +comprised under declension and conjugation, were likewise +originally expressed by agglutination. But the +component parts began soon to coalesce, so as to form +one integral word, liable in its turn to phonetic corruption +to such an extent that it became impossible after a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page292">[pg 292]</span><a name="Pg292" id="Pg292" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +time to decide which was the root and which the modificatory +element. The difference between an Aryan and +a Turanian language is somewhat the same as between +good and bad mosaic. The Aryan words seem made of +one piece, the Turanian words clearly show the sutures +and fissures where the small stones are cemented +together. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There was a very good reason why the Turanian +languages should have remained in this second or +agglutinative stage. It was felt essential that the radical +portion of each word should stand out in distinct relief, +and never be obscured or absorbed, as happens in the +third or inflectional stage. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">âge</span></em>, for instance, has lost its whole material +body, and is nothing but termination. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Age</span></em> in +old French was <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eage</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">edage</span></em>. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Edage</span></em> is a +corruption of the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">œtaticum</span></em>; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">œtaticum</span></em> is a derivative of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">œtas</span></em>; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">œtas</span></em> an abbreviation of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">œvitas</span></em>; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">œvitas</span></em> is derived +from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">œvum</span></em>, and in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">œvum</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">œ</span></em> only is the radical +or predicative element, the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ây</span></em> in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ây-us</span></em>, life, +which contains the germ from which these various +words derive their life and meaning. From <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">œvum</span></em> +the Romans derived <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">œviternus</span></em>, contracted into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">œternus</span></em>, +so that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">age</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eternity</span></em> flow from the same +source. What trace of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">œ</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">œvum</span></em>, or even <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">œvitas</span></em> +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">œtas</span></em>, remains in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">âge</span></em>? Turanian languages cannot +afford such words as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">âge</span></em> in their dictionaries. It +is an indispensable requirement in a nomadic language +that it should be intelligible to many, though +their intercourse be but scanty. It requires tradition, +society, and literature, to maintain words and +forms which can no longer be analyzed at once. Such +words would seldom spring up in nomadic languages, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page293">[pg 293]</span><a name="Pg293" id="Pg293" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +or if they did, they would die away with each generation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Aryan verb contains many forms in which the +personal pronoun is no longer felt distinctly. And yet +tradition, custom, and law preserve the life of these +veterans, and make us feel unwilling to part with them. +But in the ever-shifting state of a nomadic society no +debased coin can be tolerated in language, no obscure +legend accepted on trust. The metal must be pure, +and the legend distinct; that the one may be weighed, +and the other, if not deciphered, at least recognized as +a well-known guarantee. Hence the small proportion +of irregular forms in all agglutinative languages.<a id="noteref_303" name="noteref_303" href="#note_303"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">303</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A Turanian might tolerate the Sanskrit, +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">as-mi, a-si, as-ti, 's-mas, 's-tha, 's-anti,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I am, thou art, he is, we are, you are, they are;</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +or even the Latin, +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">'s-um, e-s, es-t, 'su-mus, es-tis, 'sunt.</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In these instances, with a few exceptions, root and +affix are as distinguishable as, for instance, in Turkish: +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">bakar-im, bakar-sin, bakar,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">I regard, thou regardest, he regards.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">bakar-iz, bakar-siniz, bakar-lar</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">we regard, you regard, they regard.</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But a conjugation like the Hindustání, which is a modern +Aryan dialect, +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">hun, hai, hai, hain, ho, hain,</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +would not be compatible with the genius of the Turanian +languages, because it would not answer the +requirements of a nomadic life. Turanian dialects +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page294">[pg 294]</span><a name="Pg294" id="Pg294" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +exhibit either no terminational distinctions at all, as +in Mandshu, which is a Tungusic dialect; or a complete +and intelligible system of affixes, as in the spoken +dialect of Nyertchinsk, equally of Tungusic descent. +But a state of conjugation in which, through phonetic +corruption, the suffix of the first person singular and +plural, and of the third person plural are the same, +where there is no distinction between the second and +third persons singular, and between the first and third +persons plural, would necessarily lead, in a Turanian +dialect, to the adoption of new and more expressive +forms. New pronouns would have to be used to mark +the persons, or some other expedient be resorted to for +the same purpose. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And this will make it still more clear why the +Turanian languages, or in fact all languages in this +second or agglutinative stage, though protected against +phonetic corruption more than the Aryan and Semitic +languages, are so much exposed to the changes produced +by dialectical regeneration. A Turanian retains, +as it were, the consciousness of his language and +grammar. The idea, for instance, which he connects +with a plural is that of a noun followed by a syllable +indicative of plurality; a passive with him is a verb +followed by a syllable expressive of suffering, or eating, +or going.<a id="noteref_304" name="noteref_304" href="#note_304"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">304</span></span></a> Now these determinative ideas may be +expressed in various ways, and though in one and the +same clan, and during one period of time, a certain +number of terminations would become stationary, and +be assigned to the expression of certain grammatical +categories, such as the plural, the passive, the genitive, +different hordes, as they separated, would still feel +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page295">[pg 295]</span><a name="Pg295" id="Pg295" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +themselves at liberty to repeat the process of grammatical +composition, and defy the comparative grammarian +to prove the identity of the terminations, even +in dialects so closely allied as Finnish and Hungarian, +or Tamil and Telugu. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It must not be supposed, however, that Turanian or +agglutinative languages are forever passing through +this process of grammatical regeneration. Where nomadic +tribes approach to a political organization, their +language, though Turanian, may approach to the system +of political or traditional languages, such as Sanskrit +or Hebrew. This is indeed the case with the most +advanced members of the Turanian family, the Hungarian, +the Finnish, the Tamil, Telugu, &c. Many +of their grammatical terminations have suffered by +phonetic corruption, but they have not been replaced +by new and more expressive words. The termination +of the plural is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lu</span></em> in Telugu, and this is probably a +mere corruption of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gaḷ.</span></em>, the termination of the plural +in Tamil. The only characteristic Turanian feature +which always remains is this: the root is never obscured. +Besides this, the determining or modifying +syllables are generally placed at the end, and the +vowels do not become so absolutely fixed for each +syllable as in Sanskrit or Hebrew. On the contrary, +there is what is called the Law of Harmony, according +to which the vowels of each word may be changed and +modulated so as to harmonize with the key-note struck +by its chief vowel. The vowels in Turkish, for instance, +are divided into two classes, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sharp</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">flat</span></em>. If +a verb contains a sharp vowel in its radical portion, +the vowels of the terminations are all sharp, while +the same terminations, if following a root with a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page296">[pg 296]</span><a name="Pg296" id="Pg296" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +flat vowel, modulate their own vowels into the flat +key. Thus we have <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sev-mek</span></em>, to love, but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bak-mak</span></em>, +to regard, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mek</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mak</span></em> being the termination of the +infinitive. Thus we say, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ev-ler</span></em>, the houses, but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">at-lar</span></em>, +the horses, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ler</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lar</span></em> being the termination of the plural. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +No Aryan or Semitic language has preserved a similar +freedom in the harmonic arrangement of its vowels, +while traces of it have been found among the most distant +members of the Turanian family, as in Hungarian, +Mongolian, Turkish, the Yakut, spoken in the +north of Siberia, and in dialects spoken on the eastern +frontiers of India. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +For completeness' sake I add a short account of the +Turanian family, chiefly taken from my Survey of +Languages, published 1855:— +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Tungusic Class.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Tungusic</span></em> branch extends from China northward +to Siberia and westward to 113°, where the +river Tunguska partly marks its frontier. The Tungusic +tribes in Siberia are under Russian sway. +Other Tungusic tribes belong to the Chinese empire, +and are known by the name of Mandshu, a name +taken after they had conquered China in 1644, and +founded the present imperial dynasty. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mongolic Class.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The original seats of the people who speak Mongolic +dialects lie near the Lake Baikal and in the +eastern parts of Siberia, where we find them as early +as the ninth century after Christ. They were divided +into three classes, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Mongols</span></em> proper, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Buriäts</span></em>, and +the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ölöts</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Kalmüks</span></em>. Chingis-khán (1227) united +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page297">[pg 297]</span><a name="Pg297" id="Pg297" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +them into a nation and founded the Mongolian empire, +which included, however, not only Mongolic, but +Tungusic and Turkic, commonly called Tataric, tribes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The name of Tatar soon became the terror of Asia +and Europe, and it was applied promiscuously to all +the nomadic warriors whom Asia then poured forth +over Europe. Originally Tatar was a name of the +Mongolic races, but through their political ascendency +in Asia after Chingis-khán, it became usual to call +all the tribes which were under Mongolian sway by +the name of Tatar. In linguistic works Tataric is +now used in two several senses. Following the example +of writers of the Middle Ages, Tataric, like +Scythian in Greek, has been fixed upon as the general +term comprising <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">all</span></em> languages spoken by the nomadic +tribes of Asia. Hence it is used sometimes in the +same sense in which we use Turanian. Secondly, +Tataric has become the name of that class of Turanian +languages of which the Turkish is the most +prominent member. While the Mongolic class—that +which in fact has the greatest claims to the name of +Tataric—is never so called, it has become an almost +universal custom to apply this name to the third or +Turkic branch of the Ural-Altaic division; and the +races belonging to this branch have in many instances +themselves adopted the name. These Turkish, or as +they are more commonly called, Tataric races, were +settled on the northern side of the Caspian Sea, and +on the Black Sea, and were known as Komanes, +Pechenegs, and Bulgars, when conquered by the +Mongolic army of the son of Chingis-khán, who +founded the Kapchakian empire, extending from the +Dniestr to the Yemba and the Kirgisian steppes. +Russia for two centuries was under the sway of these +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page298">[pg 298]</span><a name="Pg298" id="Pg298" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Kháns, known as the Khans of the Golden Horde. +This empire was dissolved towards the end of the +fifteenth century, and several smaller kingdoms rose +out of its ruins. Among these Krim, Kasan, and +Astrachan, were the most important. The princes +of these kingdoms still gloried in their descent from +Chingis-khán, and had hence a right to the name of +Mongols or Tatars. But their armies and subjects +also, who were of Turkish blood, received the name +of their princes; and their languages continued to be +called Tataric, even after the tribes by whom they +were spoken had been brought under the Russian +sceptre, and were no longer governed by khans of +Mongolic or Tataric origin. It would perhaps be desirable +to use Turkic instead of Tataric, when speaking +of the third branch of the northern division of the +Turanian family, did not a change of terminology +generally produce as much confusion as it remedies. +The recollection of their non-Tataric, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> non-Mongolic +origin, remains, it appears, among the so-called +Tatars of Kasan and Astrachan. If asked whether +they are Tatars, they reply no; and they call their +language Turki or Turuk, but not Tatari. Nay, they +consider Tatar as a term of abuse, synonymous with +robber, evidently from a recollection that their ancestors +had once been conquered and enslaved by Mongolic, +that is, Tataric, tribes. All this rests on the +authority of Klaproth, who during his stay in Russia +had great opportunities of studying the languages spoken +on the frontiers of this half-Asiatic empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The conquests of the Mongols or the descendants of +Chingis-khán were not confined, however, to these +Turkish tribes. They conquered China in the east, +where they founded the Mongolic dynasty of Yuan, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page299">[pg 299]</span><a name="Pg299" id="Pg299" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and in the west, after subduing the khalifs of Bagdad, +and the Sultans of Iconium, they conquered Moscow, +and devastated the greater part of Russia. In 1240 +they invaded Poland, in 1241 Silesia. Here they +recoiled before the united armies of Germany, Poland, +and Silesia. They retired into Moravia, and having +exhausted that country, occupied Hungary. At that +time they had to choose a new khan, which could +only be done at Karakorum, the old capital of their +empire. Thither they withdrew to elect an emperor +to govern an empire which then extended from China +to Poland, from India to Siberia. But a realm of such +vast proportions could not be long held together, and +towards the end of the thirteenth century it broke up +into several independent states, all under Mongolian +princes, but no longer under one khan of khans. Thus +new independent Mongolic empires arose in China, +Turkestan, Siberia, Southern Russia, and Persia. In +1360, the Mongolian dynasty was driven out of China; +in the fifteenth century they lost their hold on Russia. +In Central Asia they rallied once more under Timur +(1369), whose sway was again acknowledged from +Karakorum to Persia and Anatolia. But in 1468, this +empire also fell by its own weight, and for want of +powerful rulers like Chingis-khán or Timur. In Jagatai +alone, the country extending from the Aral Lake +to the Hindu-kush, between the rivers Oxus and +Yaxartes (Jihon and Sihon), and once governed by +Jagatai, the son of Chingis-khán—the Mongolian dynasty +maintained itself, and thence it was that Baber, +a descendant of Timur, conquered India, and founded +there a Mongolian dynasty, surviving up to our +own times in the Great Moguls of Delhi. Most +Mongolic tribes are now under the sway of the nations +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page300">[pg 300]</span><a name="Pg300" id="Pg300" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +whom they once had conquered, the Tungusic +sovereigns of China, the Russian czars, and the Turkish +sultans. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Mongolic language, although spoken (but not +continuously) from China as far as the Volga, has +given rise to but few dialects. Next to Tungusic, +the Mongolic is the poorest language of the Turanian +family, and the scantiness of grammatical terminations +accounts for the fact that, as a language, it has remained +very much unchanged. There is, however, a +distinction between the language as spoken by the +Eastern, Western, and Northern tribes, and incipient +traces of grammatical life have lately been discovered +by Castrén, the great Swedish traveller and Turanian +philologist, in the spoken dialect of the Buriäts. In +it the persons of the verb are distinguished by affixes, +while, according to the rules of Mongolic grammar, +no other dialect distinguishes in the verb between am<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">o</span></em>, +am<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">as</span></em>, am<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">at</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Mongols who live in Europe have fixed their +tents on each side of the Volga and along the coast of +the Caspian Sea near Astrachan. Another colony is +found south-east of Sembirsk. They belong to the +Western branch, and are Ölöts or Kalmüks, who left +their seats on the Koko-nur, and entered Europe in +1662. They proceeded from the clans Dürbet and +Torgod, but most of the Torgods returned again in +1770, and their descendants are now scattered over +the Kirgisian steppes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Turkic Class</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Much more important are the languages belonging +to the third branch of the Turanian family, most +prominent among which is the Turkish or Osmanli of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page301">[pg 301]</span><a name="Pg301" id="Pg301" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Constantinople. The number of the Turkish inhabitants +of European Turkey is indeed small. It is generally +stated at 2,000,000; but Shafarik estimates the +number of genuine Turks at not more than 700,000, +who rule over fifteen millions of people. The different +Turkic dialects of which the Osmanli is one, occupy +one of the largest linguistic areas, extending from the +Lena and the Polar Sea, down to the Adriatic. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The most ancient name by which the Turkic tribes +of Central Asia were known to the Chinese was +Hiung-nu. These Hiung-nu founded an empire (206 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>) comprising a large portion of Asia, west of +China. Engaged in frequent wars with the Chinese, +they were defeated at last in the middle of the first +century after Christ. Thereupon they divided into a +northern and southern empire; and, after the southern +Hiung-nu had become subjects of China, they attacked +the northern Hiung-nu, together with the Chinese, +and, driving them out of their seats between the rivers +Amur and Selenga, and the Altai mountains, westward, +they are supposed to have given the first impulse +to the inroads of the barbarians into Europe. In the +beginning of the third century, the Mongolic and Tungusic +tribes, who had filled the seats of the northern +Hiung-nu, had grown so powerful as to attack the +southern Hiung-nu and drive them from their territories. +This occasioned a second migration of Asiatic +tribes towards the west. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another name by which the Chinese designate these +Hiung-nu or Turkish tribes is Tu-kiu. This Tu-kiu +is supposed to be identical with Turk, and, although +the tribe to which this name was given was originally +but small, it began to spread in the sixth century from +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page302">[pg 302]</span><a name="Pg302" id="Pg302" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the Altai to the Caspian, and it was probably to them +that in 569 the Emperor Justinian sent an ambassador +in the person of Semarchos. The empire of the Tu-kiu +was destroyed in the eighth century, by the 'Hui-'he +(Chinese Kao-che). This tribe, equally of Turkish +origin, maintained itself for about a century, and was +then conquered by the Chinese and driven back from +the northern borders of China. Part of the 'Hui-'he +occupied Tangut, and, after a second defeat by the +Mongolians in 1257, the remnant proceeded still further +west, and joined the Uigurs, whose tents were +pitched near the towns of Turfan, 'Kashgar, 'Hamil, +and Aksu. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These facts, gleaned chiefly from Chinese historians, +show from the very earliest times the westward tendency +of the Turkish nations. In 568 Turkish tribes +occupied the country between the Volga and the sea +of Azov, and numerous reinforcements have since +strengthened their position in those parts. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The northern part of Persia, west of the Caspian +Sea, Armenia, the south of Georgia, Shirwan, and +Dagestan, harbor a Turkic population, known by the +general name of Turkman or Kisil-bash (Red-caps). +They are nomadic robbers, and their arrival in these +countries dates from the eleventh and twelfth centuries. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +East of the Caspian Sea the Turkman tribes are under +command of the Usbek-Khans of Khiva, Fergana, +and Bukhára. They call themselves, however, not +subjects but guests of these Khans. Still more to the +east the Turkmans are under Chinese sovereignty, and +in the south-west they reach as far as Khorasan and +other provinces of Persia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Usbeks, descendants of the 'Huy-'he and Uigurs, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page303">[pg 303]</span><a name="Pg303" id="Pg303" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and originally settled in the neighborhood of the towns +of 'Hoten, Kashgar, Turfan, and 'Hamil, crossed the +Yaxartes in the sixteenth century, and after several +successful campaigns gained possession of Balkh, Kharism +(Khiva), Bukhára, and Ferganah. In the latter +country and in Balkh they have become agricultural; +but generally their life is nomadic, and too warlike to +be called pastoral. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another Turkish tribe are the Nogái, west of the +Caspian, and also north of the Black Sea. To the +beginning of the seventeenth century they lived north-east +of the Caspian, and the steppes on the left of the +Irtish bore their name. Pressed by the Kalmüks, a +Mongolic tribe, the Nogáis advanced westward as far +as Astrachan. Peter I. transferred them thence to the +north of the Caucasian mountains, where they still +graze their flocks on the shores of the Kuban and +the Kuma. One horde, that of Kundur, remained on +the Volga, subject to the Kalmüks. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another tribe of Turkish origin in the Caucasus are +the Bazianes. They now live near the sources of the +Kuban, but before the fifteenth century within the +town Majari, on the Kuma. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A third Turkish tribe in the Caucasus are the +Kumüks on the rivers Sunja, Aksai, and Koisu: now +subjects of Russia, though under native princes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The southern portion of the Altaic mountains has +long been inhabited by the Bashkirs, a race considerably +mixed with Mongolic blood, savage and ignorant, +subjects of Russia, and Mohammedans by faith. Their +land is divided into four Roads, called the Roads of +Siberia, of Kasan, of Nogai, and of Osa, a place on +the Kama. Among the Bashkirs, and in villages +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page304">[pg 304]</span><a name="Pg304" id="Pg304" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +near Ufa, is now settled a Turkish tribe, the Mescheräks +who formerly lived near the Volga. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The tribes near the Lake of Aral are called Kara-Kalpak. +They are subject partly to Russia, partly to +the Khans of Khiva. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Turks of Siberia, commonly called Tatars, are +partly original settlers, who crossed the Ural, and +founded the Khanat of Sibir, partly later colonists. +Their chief towns are Tobolsk, Yeniseisk, and Tomsk. +Separate tribes are the Uran'hat on the Chulym, and +the Barabas in the steppes between the Irtish and the +Ob. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The dialects of these Siberian Turks are considerably +intermingled with foreign words, taken from Mongolic, +Samoyedic, or Russian sources. Still they resemble +one another closely in all that belongs to the +original stock of the language. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the north-east of Asia, on both sides of the river +Lena, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Yakuts</span></em> form the most remote link in the +Turkic chain of languages. Their male population +has lately risen to 100,000, while in 1795 it amounted +only to 50,066. The Russians became first acquainted +with them in 1620. They call themselves Sakha, and +are mostly heathen, though Christianity is gaining +ground among them. According to their traditions, +their ancestors lived for a long time in company with +Mongolic tribes, and traces of this can still be discovered +in their language. Attacked by their neighbors, +they built rafts and floated down the river Lena, where +they settled in the neighborhood of what is now Yakutzk. +Their original seats seem to have been north-west +of Lake Baikal. Their language has preserved +the Turkic type more completely than any other Turco-Tataric +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page305">[pg 305]</span><a name="Pg305" id="Pg305" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +dialect. Separated from the common stock at +an early time, and removed from the disturbing influences +to which the other dialects were exposed, whether +in war or in peace, the Yakutian has preserved so many +primitive features of Tataric grammar, that even now +it may be used as a key to the grammatical forms of +the Osmanli and other more cultivated Turkic dialects. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Southern Siberia is the mother country of the Kirgis, +one of the most numerous tribes of Turco-Tataric +origin. The Kirgis lived originally between the Ob +and Yenisei, where Mongolic tribes settled among them. +At the beginning of the seventeenth century the Russians +became acquainted with the Eastern Kirgis, then +living along the Yenisei. In 1606 they had become +tributary to Russia, and after several wars with two +neighboring tribes, they were driven more and more +south-westward, till they left Siberia altogether at the +beginning of the eighteenth century. They now live +at Burut, in Chinese Turkestan, together with the Kirgis +of the <span class="tei tei-q">“Great Horde,”</span> near the town of Kashgar, +north as far as the Irtish. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another tribe is that of the Western Kirgis, or +Kirgis-Kasak, who are partly independent, partly tributary +to Russia and China. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Of what are called the three Kirgis Hordes, from +the Caspian Sea east as far as Lake Tenghiz, the +Small Horde is fixed in the west, between the rivers +Yemba and Ural; the Great Horde in the east; while +the most powerful occupies the centre between the +Sarasu and Yemba, and is called the Middle Horde. +Since 1819, the Great Horde has been subject to Russia. +Other Kirgis tribes, though nominally subject to +Russia, are really her most dangerous enemies. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page306">[pg 306]</span><a name="Pg306" id="Pg306" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Turks of Asia Minor and Syria came from +Khorasan and Eastern Persia, and are Turkmans, or +remnants of the Seljuks, the rulers of Persia during +the Middle Ages. The Osmanli, whom we are accustomed +to call Turks <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">par excellence</span></em>, and who form +the ruling portion of the Turkish empire, must be traced +to the same source. They are now scattered over the +whole Turkish empire in Europe, Asia, and Africa, +and their number amounts to between 11,000,000 +and 12,000,000. They form the landed gentry, the +aristocracy, and bureaucracy of Turkey; and their +language, the Osmanli, is spoken by persons of rank +and education, and by all government authorities in +Syria, in Egypt, at Tunis, and at Tripoli. In the +southern provinces of Asiatic Russia, along the borders +of the Caspian, and through the whole of Turkestan, +it is the language of the people. It is heard even at +the court of Teheran, and is understood by official personages +in Persia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The rise of this powerful tribe of Osman, and the +spreading of that Turkish dialect which is now emphatically +called the Turkish, are matters of historical +notoriety. We need not search for evidence in Chinese +annals, or try to discover analogies between names that +a Greek or an Arabic writer may by chance have heard +and handed down to us, and which some of these tribes +have preserved to the present day. The ancestors of +the Osman Turks are men as well known to European +historians as Charlemagne or Alfred. It was in the +year 1224 that Soliman-shah and his tribe, pressed by +Mongolians, left Khorasan and pushed westward into +Syria, Armenia, and Asia Minor. Soliman's son, Ertoghrul, +took service under Aladdin, the Seljuk Sultan +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page307">[pg 307]</span><a name="Pg307" id="Pg307" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of Iconium (Nicæa), and after several successful campaigns +against Greeks and Mongolians, received part +of Phrygia as his own, and there founded what was +afterwards to become the basis of the Osmanic empire. +During the last years of the thirteenth century the +Sultans of Iconium lost their power, and their former +vassals became independent sovereigns. Osman, after +taking his share of the spoil in Asia, advanced through +the Olympic passes into Bithynia and was successful +against the armies of the Emperors of Byzantium. +Osman became henceforth the national name of his +people. His son, Orkhan, whose capital was Prusa +(Bursa), after conquering Nicomedia (1327) and Nicæa +(1330), threatened the Hellespont. He took the +title of Padishah, and his court was called the <span class="tei tei-q">“High +Porte.”</span> His son, Soliman, crossed the Hellespont +(1357), and took possession of Gallipoli and Sestos. +He thus became master of the Dardanelles. Murad I. +took Adrianople (1362), made it his capital, conquered +Macedonia, and, after a severe struggle, overthrew the +united forces of the Slavonic races south of the Danube, +the Bulgarians, Servians, and Kroatians, in the battle +of Kossova-polye (1389). He fell himself, but his successor +Bayazeth, followed his course, took Thessaly, +passed Thermopylæ, and devastated the Peloponnesus. +The Emperor of Germany, Sigismund, who advanced +at the head of an army composed of French, German, +and Slavonic soldiers, was defeated by Bayazeth on the +Danube in the battle of Nicopolis, 1399. Bayazeth +took Bosnia, and would have taken Constantinople, had +not the same Mongolians, who in 1244 drove the first +Turkish tribes westward into Persia, threatened again +their newly acquired possessions. Timur had grasped +the reins fallen from the hands of Chingis-khán: Bayazeth +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page308">[pg 308]</span><a name="Pg308" id="Pg308" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +was compelled to meet him, and suffered defeat +(1402) in the battle of Angora (Ankyra) in Galatia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Europe now had respite, but not long; Timur died, +and with him his empire fell to pieces, while the Osmanic +army rallied again under Mahomet I. (1413), +and re-attained its former power under Murad II. +(1421). Successful in Asia, Murad sent his armies +back to the Danube, and after long-continued campaigns, +and powerful resistance from the Hungarians +and Slaves under Hunyad, he at last gained two decisive +victories; Varna in 1444, and Kossova in 1448. +Constantinople could no longer be held, and the Pope +endeavored in vain to rouse the chivalry of Western +Europe to a crusade against the Turks. Mahomet II. +succeeded in 1451, and on the 26th of May, 1453, Constantinople, +after a valiant resistance, fell, and became +the capital of the Turkish empire. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is a real pleasure to read a Turkish grammar, +even though one may have no wish to acquire it practically. +The ingenious manner in which the numerous +grammatical forms are brought out, the regularity which +pervades the system of declension and conjugation, the +transparency and intelligibility of the whole structure, +must strike all who have a sense of that wonderful +power of the human mind which has displayed itself in +language. Given so small a number of graphic and demonstrative +roots as would hardly suffice to express +the commonest wants of human beings, to produce +an instrument that shall render the faintest shades +of feeling and thought;—given a vague infinitive or +a stern imperative, to derive from it such moods as +an optative or subjunctive, and tenses as an aorist +or paulo-post future;—given incoherent utterances, to +arrange them into a system where all is uniform and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page309">[pg 309]</span><a name="Pg309" id="Pg309" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +regular, all combined and harmonious;—such is the +work of the human mind which we see realized in +<span class="tei tei-q">“language.”</span> But in most languages nothing of this +early process remains visible. They stand before us +like solid rocks, and the microscope of the philologist +alone can reveal the remains of organic life with which +they are built up. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the grammar of the Turkic languages, on the contrary, +we have before us a language of perfectly transparent +structure, and a grammar the inner workings of +which we can study, as if watching the building of cells +in a crystal bee-hive. An eminent orientalist remarked +<span class="tei tei-q">“we might imagine Turkish to be the result of the deliberations +of some eminent society of learned men;”</span> +but no such society could have devised what the mind +of man produced, left to itself in the steppes of Tatary, +and guided only by its innate laws, or by an instinctive +power as wonderful as any within the realm +of nature. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us examine a few forms. <span class="tei tei-q">“To love,”</span> in the +most general sense of the word, or love, as a root, is in +Turkish <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sev</span></em>. This does not yet mean <span class="tei tei-q">“to love,”</span> +which is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sevmek</span></em>, or <span class="tei tei-q">“love”</span> as a substantive, which is +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sevgu</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sevi</span></em>; but it only expresses the general idea of +loving in the abstract. This root, as we remarked before, +can never be touched. Whatever syllables may +be added for the modification of its meaning, the root +itself must stand out in full prominence like a pearl set +in diamonds. It must never be changed or broken, +assimilated or modified, as in the English I fall, I fell, +I take, I took, I think, I thought, and similar forms. +With this one restriction, however, we are free to treat +it at pleasure. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page310">[pg 310]</span><a name="Pg310" id="Pg310" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us suppose we possessed nothing like our conjugation, +but had to express such ideas as I love, thou +lovest, and the rest, for the first time. Nothing would +seem more natural now than to form an adjective or a +participle, meaning <span class="tei tei-q">“loving,”</span> and then add the different +pronouns, as I loving, thou loving, &c. Exactly +this the Turks have done. We need not inquire at +present how they produced what we call a participle. +It was a task, however, by no means so facile as we +now conceive it. In Turkish, one participle is formed +by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">er</span></em>. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sev</span></em>+<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">er</span></em> would, therefore, mean lov+er or +lov+ing. Thou, in Turkish, is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sen</span></em>, and as all modificatory +syllables are placed at the end of the root, we +get <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sev-er-sen</span></em>, thou lovest. You in Turkish is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">siz</span></em>; +hence <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sev-er-siz</span></em>, you love. In these cases the pronouns +and the terminations of the verb coincide exactly. In +other persons the coincidences are less complete, because +the pronominal terminations have sometimes been +modified, or, as in the third person singular, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sever</span></em>, +dropped altogether as unnecessary. A reference to +other cognate languages, however, where either the +terminations or the pronouns themselves have maintained +a more primitive form, enables us to say that in +the original Turkish verb, all persons of the present +were formed by means of pronouns appended to this +participle <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sever</span></em>. Instead of <span class="tei tei-q">“I love, thou lovest, he +loves,”</span> the Turkish grammarian says, <span class="tei tei-q">“lover-I, lover-thou, +lover.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But these personal terminations are not the same in +the imperfect as in the present. +</p> + +<a name="Pg311" id="Pg311" class="tei tei-anchor"></a><table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="2"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">PRESENT.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">IMPERFECT.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Sever-im, I love,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">sever-di-m, I loved.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Sever-sen,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">sever-di-ñ.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Sever,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">sever-di.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Sever-iz,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">sever-di-k (miz).</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Sever-siz,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">sever-di-ñiz.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Sever-ler,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">sever-di-ler.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We need not inquire as yet into the origin of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">di</span></em>, +added to form the imperfect; but it should be stated +that in the first person plural of the imperfect a various +reading occurs in other Tataric dialects, and that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">miz</span></em> +is used there instead of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">k</span></em>. Now, looking at these terminations +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">m</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ñ</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">i</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">miz</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ñiz</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ler</span></em>, we find that they +are exactly the same as the possessive pronouns used +after nouns. As the Italian says <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fratelmo</span></em>, my brother, +and as in Hebrew we say, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">El-i</span></em>, God (of) I, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> my +God, the Tataric languages form the phrases <span class="tei tei-q">“my +house, thy house, his house,”</span> by possessive pronouns +appended to substantives. A Turk says,— +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="4"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bâbâ,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">father,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">bâbâ-m,</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">my father.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Aghâ,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">lord,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">aghâ-ñ,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">thy lord.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">El,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">hand,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">el-i,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">his hand.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Oghlu,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">son,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">oghlu-muz,</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">our son.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Anâ,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">mother,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">anâ-ñiz,</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">your mother.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Kitâb,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">book,</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kitâb-leri,</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">their book.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We may hence infer that in the imperfect these pronominal +terminations were originally taken in a possessive +sense, and that, therefore, what remains after +the personal terminations are removed, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sever-di</span></em>, was +never an adjective or a participle, but must have been +originally a substantive capable of receiving terminal +possessive pronouns; that is, the idea originally expressed +by the imperfect could not have been <span class="tei tei-q">“loving-I,”</span> +but <span class="tei tei-q">“love of me.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +How then, could this convey the idea of a past tense +as contrasted with the present? Let us look to our +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page312">[pg 312]</span><a name="Pg312" id="Pg312" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +own language. If desirous to express the perfect, we +say, I have loved, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">j'ai aimé</span></em>. This <span class="tei tei-q">“I have,”</span> meant +originally, I possess, and in Latin <span class="tei tei-q">“amicus quem amatum +habeo,”</span> signified in fact a friend whom I hold dear,—not +as yet, whom I <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">have</span></em> loved. In the course of +time, however, these phrases, <span class="tei tei-q">“I have said, I have +loved,”</span> took the sense of the perfect, and of time past—and +not unnaturally, inasmuch as what I <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hold</span></em>, or +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">have</span></em> done, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">is</span></em> done;—done, as we say, and past. In +place of an auxiliary possessive verb, the Turkish language +uses an auxiliary possessive pronoun to the same +effect. <span class="tei tei-q">“Paying belonging to me,”</span> equals <span class="tei tei-q">“I have +paid;”</span> in either case a phrase originally possessive, +took a temporal signification, and became a past or +perfect tense. This, however, is the very anatomy of +grammar, and when a Turk says <span class="tei tei-q">“severdim”</span> he is, +of course, as unconscious of its literal force, <span class="tei tei-q">“loving +belonging to me,”</span> as of the circulation of his blood. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The most ingenious part of Turkish is undoubtedly +the verb. Like Greek and Sanskrit, it exhibits a variety +of moods and tenses, sufficient to express the nicest +shades of doubt, of surmise, of hope, and supposition. +In all these forms the root remains intact, and sounds +like a key-note through all the various modulations +produced by the changes of person, number, mood, and +time. But there is one feature so peculiar to the Turkish +verb, that no analogy can be found in any of the +Aryan languages—the power of producing new verbal +bases by the mere addition of certain letters, which give +to every verb a negative, or causative, or reflexive, or +reciprocal meaning. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sev-mek</span></em>, for instance, as a simple root, means to love. +By adding <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">in</span></em>, we obtain a reflexive verb, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sev-in-mek</span></em>, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page313">[pg 313]</span><a name="Pg313" id="Pg313" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which means to love oneself, or rather, to rejoice, to +be happy. This may now be conjugated through all +moods and tenses, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sevin</span></em> being in every respect equal +to a new root. By adding <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ish</span></em> we form a reciprocal +verb, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sev-ish-mek</span></em>, to love one another. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To each of these three forms a causative sense +may be imparted by the addition of the syllable <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dir</span></em>. +Thus, +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">i.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to love, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">iv.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-dir-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to cause to love. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">ii.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-in-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to rejoice, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">v.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-in-dir-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to cause to +rejoice. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">iii.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-ish-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to love one another, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">vi.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-ish-dir-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, +to cause one to love one another. +</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Each of these six forms may again be turned into a +passive by the addition of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">il</span></em>. Thus, +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">i.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to love, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">vii.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-il-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to be loved. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">ii.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-in-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to rejoice, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">viii.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-in-il-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to be rejoiced +at. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">iii.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-ish-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to love one another, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">ix.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-ish-il-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, +not translatable. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">iv.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-dir-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to cause one to love, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">x.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-dir-il-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, +to be brought to love. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">v.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-in-dir-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to cause to rejoice, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">xi.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-in-dir-il-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, +to be made to rejoice. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">vi.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-ish-dir-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to cause them to love +one another, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">xii.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-ish-dir-il-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to +be brought to love one another. +</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This, however, is by no means the whole verbal +contingent at the command of a Turkish grammarian. +Every one of these twelve secondary or tertiary roots +may again be turned into a negative by the mere addition +of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">me</span></em>. Thus, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sev-mek</span></em>, to love, becomes <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sev-me-mek</span></em>, +not to love. And if it is necessary to express the +impossibility of loving, the Turk has a new root at +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page314">[pg 314]</span><a name="Pg314" id="Pg314" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +hand to convey even that idea. Thus while <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sev-me-mek</span></em> +denies only the fact of loving, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sev-eme-mek</span></em>, denies +its possibility, and means not to be able to love. By +the addition of these two modificatory syllables, the +numbers of derivative roots is at once raised to thirty-six. +Thus, +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">i.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to love, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">xiii.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-me-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, not to love. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">ii.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-in-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to rejoice, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">xiv.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-in-me-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, not to +rejoice. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">iii.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-ish-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to love one another, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">xv.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-ish-me-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, +not to love one another. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">iv.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-dir-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to cause to love, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">xvi.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-dir-me-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, +not to cause one to love. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">v.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-in-dir-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to cause to rejoice, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">xvii.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-in-dir-me-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, +not to cause one to rejoice. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">vi.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-ish-dir-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to cause them to +love one another, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">xviii.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-ish-dir-me-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, not to +cause them to love one +another. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">vii.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-il-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to be loved, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">xix.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-il-me-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, not to +be loved. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">viii.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-in-il-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to be rejoiced at, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">xx.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-in-il-me-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, +not to be the object of rejoicing. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">ix.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-ish-il-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, if it was used, would +become </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">xxi.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-ish-il-me-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">; +neither form being translatable. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">x.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-dir-il-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to be brought to love, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">xxii.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-dir-il-me-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, +not to be brought to love. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">xi.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-in-dir-il-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to be made +to rejoice, becomes </span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">xxiii.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-in-dir-il-me-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, +not to be made to rejoice. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">xii.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-ish-dir-il-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, to be +brought to love one another, becomes +</span><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-variant: small-caps">xxiv.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">sev-ish-dir-il-me-mek</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%">, not to be brought to +love one another. +</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Some of these forms are of course of rare occurrence, +and with many verbs these derivative roots, though +possible grammatically, would be logically impossible. +Even a verb like <span class="tei tei-q">“to love,”</span> perhaps the most pliant +of all, resists some of the modifications to which a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page315">[pg 315]</span><a name="Pg315" id="Pg315" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Turkish grammarian is fain to subject it. It is clear, +however, that wherever a negation can be formed, the +idea of impossibility also can be superadded, so that by +substituting <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eme</span></em> for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">me</span></em>, we should raise the number of +derivative roots to thirty-six. The very last of these, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">xxxvi.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sev-ish-dir-il-eme-mek</span></em> would +be perfectly intelligible, +and might be used, for instance, if, in speaking +of the Sultan and the Czar, we wished to say, that it +was impossible that they should be brought to love one +another. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Finnic Class.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is generally supposed that the original seat of the +Finnic tribes was in the Ural mountains, and their +languages have been therefore called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Uralic</span></em>. From +this centre they spread east and west; and southward +in ancient times, even to the Black Sea, where Finnic +tribes, together with Mongolic and Turkic, were probably +known to the Greeks under the comprehensive +and convenient name of Scythians. As we possess no +literary documents of any of these nomadic nations, it +is impossible to say, even where Greek writers have +preserved their barbarous names, to what branch of +the vast Turanian family they belonged. Their habits +were probably identical before the Christian era, during +the Middle Ages, and at the present day. One tribe +takes possession of a tract and retains it perhaps for +several generations, and gives its name to the meadows +where it tends its flocks, and to the rivers where the +horses are watered. If the country be fertile, it will +attract the eye of other tribes; wars begin, and if resistance +be hopeless, hundreds of families fly from their +paternal pastures, to migrate perhaps for generations,—for +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page316">[pg 316]</span><a name="Pg316" id="Pg316" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +migration they find a more natural life than permanent +habitation,—and after a time we may rediscover +their names a thousand miles distant. Or two +tribes will carry on their warfare for ages, till with +reduced numbers both have perhaps to make common +cause against some new enemy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +During these continued struggles their languages +lose as many words as men are killed on the field of +battle. Some words (we might say) go over, others +are made prisoners, and exchanged again during times +of peace. Besides, there are parleys and challenges, +and at last a dialect is produced which may very properly +be called a language of the camp, (Urdu-zebán, +camp-language, is the proper name of Hindustání, +formed in the armies of the Mogul emperors,) but +where it is difficult for the philologist to arrange the +living and to number the slain, unless some salient +points of grammar have been preserved throughout the +medley. We saw how a number of tribes may be at +times suddenly gathered by the command of a Chingis-khán +or Timur, like billows heaving and swelling at +the call of a thunder-storm. One such wave rolling +on from Karakorum to Liegnitz may sweep away all the +sheepfolds and landmarks of centuries, and when the +storm is over, a thin crust will, as after a flood, remain, +concealing the underlying stratum of people and languages. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On the evidence of language, the Finnic stock is +divided into four branches, +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The Chudic,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The Bulgaric,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The Permic,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The Ugric.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page317">[pg 317]</span><a name="Pg317" id="Pg317" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Chudic branch comprises the Finnic of the Baltic +coasts. The name is derived from Chud (Tchud) +originally applied by the Russians to the Finnic nations +in the north-west of Russia. Afterwards it took +a more general sense, and was used almost synonymously +with Scythian for all the tribes of Central and +Northern Asia. The Finns, properly so called, or as +they call themselves Suomalainen, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> inhabitants of +fens, are settled in the provinces of Finland (formerly +belonging to Sweden, but since 1809 annexed to Russia), +and in parts of the governments of Archangel and +Olonetz. Their number is stated at 1,521,515. The +Finns are the most advanced of their whole family, +and are, the Magyars excepted, the only Finnic race +that can claim a station among the civilized and civilizing +nations of the world. Their literature and, above +all, their popular poetry bear witness to a high intellectual +development in times which we may call mythical, +and in places more favorable to the glow of poetical +feelings than their present abode, the last refuge +Europe could afford them. The epic songs still live +among the poorest, recorded by oral tradition alone, +and preserving all the features of a perfect metre and +of a more ancient language. A national feeling has +lately arisen amongst the Finns, despite of Russian supremacy, +and the labors of Sjögern, Lönnrot, Castrén, +and Kellgren, receiving hence a powerful impulse, have +produced results truly surprising. From the mouths +of the aged an epic poem has been collected equalling +the Iliad in length and completeness, nay, if we can +forget for a moment all that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">we</span></em> in our youth learned +to call beautiful, not less beautiful. A Finn is not a +Greek, and Wainamoinen was not a Homer. But if +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page318">[pg 318]</span><a name="Pg318" id="Pg318" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the poet may take his colors from that nature by which +he is surrounded, if he may depict the men with whom +he lives, <span class="tei tei-q">“Kalewala”</span> possesses merits not dissimilar from +those of the Iliad, and will claim its place as the fifth +national epic of the world, side by side with the Ionian +songs, with the Mahábhárata, the Shahnámeh, and the +Nibelunge. This early literary cultivation has not +been without a powerful influence on the language. +It has imparted permanency to its forms and a traditional +character to its words, so that at first sight we +might almost doubt whether the grammar of this language +had not left the agglutinative stage, and entered +into the current of inflection with Greek or Sanskrit. +The agglutinative type, however, yet remains, and its +grammar shows a luxuriance of grammatical combination +second only to Turkish and Hungarian. Like +Turkish it observes the <span class="tei tei-q">“harmony of vowels,”</span> a feature +peculiar to Turanian languages, as explained +before. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Karelian and Tavastian are dialectical varieties of +Finnish. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Esths or Esthonians, neighbors to the Finns, +speak a language closely allied to the Finnish. It is +divided into the dialects of Dorpat (in Livonia) and +Reval. Except some popular songs it is almost without +literature. Esthonia, together with Livonia and +Kurland, forms the three Baltic provinces of Russia. +The population on the islands of the Gulf of Finland +is mostly Esthonian. In the higher ranks of society +Esthonian is hardly understood, and never spoken. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Besides the Finns and Esthonians, the Livonians +and the Lapps must be reckoned also amongst the +same family. Their number, however, is small. The +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page319">[pg 319]</span><a name="Pg319" id="Pg319" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +population of Livonia consists chiefly of Esths, Letts, +Russians, and Germans. The number of Livonians +speaking their own dialect is not more than 5000. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Lapps, or Laplanders, inhabit the most northern +part of Europe. They belong to Sweden and +Russia. Their number is estimated at 28,000. Their +language has lately attracted much attention, and Castrén's +travels give a description of their manners most +interesting from its simplicity and faithfulness. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Bulgaria branch comprises the Tcheremissians +and Mordvinians, scattered in disconnected colonies +along the Volga, and surrounded by Russian and Tataric +dialects. Both languages are extremely artificial +in their grammar, and allow an accumulation of pronominal +affixes at the end of verbs, surpassed only by +the Bask, the Caucasian, and those American dialects +that have been called Polysynthetic. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The general name given to these tribes, Bulgaric, +is not borrowed from Bulgaria, on the Danube; Bulgaria, +on the contrary, received its name (replacing +Moesia) from the Finnic armies by whom it was conquered +in the seventh century. Bulgarian tribes advanced +from the Volga to the Don, and after remaining +for a time under the sovereignty of the Avars on +the Don and Dnieper, they advanced to the Danube in +635, and founded the Bulgarian kingdom. This has +retained its name to the present day, though the Finnic +Bulgarians have long been absorbed by Slavonic inhabitants, +and both brought under Turkish sway since +1392. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The third, or Permic branch, comprises the idioms +of the Votiakes, the Sirianes, and the Permians, +three dialects of one language. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Perm</span></em> was the ancient +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page320">[pg 320]</span><a name="Pg320" id="Pg320" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +name for the country between 61°-76° <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">e.</span></span> lon. and +55°-65° <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">n.</span></span> lat. The Permic tribes were driven westward +by their eastern neighbors, the Voguls, and thus +pressed upon their western neighbors, the Bulgars +of the Volga. The Votiakes are found between the +rivers Vyatka and Kama. Northwards follow the +Sirianes, inhabiting the country on the Upper Kâma, +while the eastern portion is held by the Permians. +These are surrounded on the south by the Tatars of +Orenburg and the Bashkirs; on the north by the +Samoyedes, and on the east by Voguls, who pressed +on them from the Ural. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These Voguls, together with Hungarians and Ostiakes, +form the fourth and last branch of the Finnic +family, the Ugric. It was in 462, after the dismemberment +of Attila's Hunnic empire that these Ugric +tribes approached Europe. They were then called +Onagurs, Saragurs, and Urogs; and in later times +they occur in Russian chronicles as Ugry. They are +the ancestors of the Hungarians, and should not be +confounded with the Uigurs, an ancient Turkic tribe +mentioned before. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The similarity between the Hungarian language and +dialects of Finnic origin, spoken east of the Volga, is +not a new discovery. In 1253, Wilhelm Ruysbroeck, +a priest who travelled beyond the Volga, remarked +that a race called Pascatir, who live on the Yaïk, +spoke the same language as the Hungarians. They +were then settled east of the old Bulgarian kingdom, +the capital of which, the ancient Bolgari, on the left +of the Volga, may still be traced in the ruins of Spask. +If these Pascatir—the portion of the Ugric tribes that +remained east of the Volga—are identical with the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page321">[pg 321]</span><a name="Pg321" id="Pg321" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Bashkir, as Klaproth supposes, it would follow that, +in later times, they gave up their language, for the +present Bashkir no longer speak a Hungarian, but a +Turkic, dialect. The affinity of the Hungarian and +the Ugro-Finnic dialects was first proved philologically +by Gyarmathi in 1799. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A few instances may suffice to show this connection:— +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="3"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Hungarian.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Tcheremissian.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">English.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Atya-m</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> atya-m</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> my father.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Atya-d</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> atya-t</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> thy father.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Atya</td><td class="tei tei-cell">atya-se</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> his father.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Atya-nk</td><td class="tei tei-cell">atya-ne</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> our father.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Atya-tok</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> atya-da</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> your father.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Aty-ok</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> atya-st</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> their father.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Declension.</span></span> +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="4"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">Hungarian.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Esthonian.</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">English.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Nom.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">vér</td><td class="tei tei-cell">werri</td><td class="tei tei-cell">blood.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Gen.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">véré</td><td class="tei tei-cell">werre</td><td class="tei tei-cell">of blood.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Dat</td><td class="tei tei-cell">vérnek</td><td class="tei tei-cell">werrele</td><td class="tei tei-cell">to blood.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Acc.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">vért</td><td class="tei tei-cell">werd</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> blood.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Abl.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">vérestöl</td><td class="tei tei-cell">werrist</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell"> from blood.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Conjugation.</span></span> +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="3"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Hungarian.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">Esthonian.</td><td class="tei tei-cell">English.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Lelem</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> leian</td><td class="tei tei-cell">I find.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Leled</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> leiad</td><td class="tei tei-cell">thou findest.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Leli</td><td class="tei tei-cell">leiab</td><td class="tei tei-cell">he finds.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Leljük</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> leiame</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> we find.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Lelitek</td><td class="tei tei-cell">leiate</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> you find.</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Lelik</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> leiawad</td><td class="tei tei-cell"> they find.</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page322">[pg 322]</span><a name="Pg322" id="Pg322" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A +Comparative Table +of the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Numerals</span></span> of each of the Four Branches of the +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Finnic Class</span></span>, +showing the degree of their relationship. +</p> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="5"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">1</td><td class="tei tei-cell">2</td><td class="tei tei-cell">3</td><td class="tei tei-cell">4</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Chudic, Finnish</td><td class="tei tei-cell">yksi</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kaksi</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kolme</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">neljä</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Chudic, Esthonian</td><td class="tei tei-cell">iits</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kats</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kolm</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">nelli</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bulgaric, Tcheremissian</td><td class="tei tei-cell">ik</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kok</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kum</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">nil</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bulgaric, Mordvinian</td><td class="tei tei-cell">vaike</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kavto</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">kolmo</td><td class="tei tei-cell">nile</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Permic, Sirianian</td><td class="tei tei-cell">ötik</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kyk</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kujim</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">ujoli</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ugric, Ostiakian</td><td class="tei tei-cell">it</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kat</td><td class="tei tei-cell">chudem</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">njeda</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ugric, Hungarian</td><td class="tei tei-cell">egy</td><td class="tei tei-cell">ket</td><td class="tei tei-cell">harom</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">negy</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="4"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">5</td><td class="tei tei-cell">6</td><td class="tei tei-cell">7</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Chudic, Finnish</td><td class="tei tei-cell">viisi</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kuusi</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">seitsemän</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Chudic, Esthonian</td><td class="tei tei-cell">wiis</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kuas</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">seitse</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bulgaric, Tcheremissian</td><td class="tei tei-cell">vis</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kut</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">sim</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bulgaric, Mordvinian</td><td class="tei tei-cell">väte</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kóto</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">sisem</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Permic, Sirianian</td><td class="tei tei-cell">vit</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kvait</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">sizim</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ugric, Ostiakian</td><td class="tei tei-cell">vet</td><td class="tei tei-cell">chut</td><td class="tei tei-cell">tabet</td> + </tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ugric, Hungarian</td><td class="tei tei-cell">öt</td><td class="tei tei-cell">hat</td><td class="tei tei-cell">het</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<table summary="This is a table" cellspacing="0" class="tei tei-table" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><colgroup span="4"></colgroup><tbody><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell"></td><td class="tei tei-cell">8</td><td class="tei tei-cell">9</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">10</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Chudic, Finnish</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">kahdeksan</td><td class="tei tei-cell">yhdeksan</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kymmenen</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Chudic, Esthonian</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">kattesa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">üttesa</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kümme</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bulgaric, Tcheremissian</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">kändäxe</td><td class="tei tei-cell">endexe</td><td class="tei tei-cell">lu</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Bulgaric, Mordvinian</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">kavsko</td><td class="tei tei-cell">väikse</td><td class="tei tei-cell">kämen</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Permic, Sirianian</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">kökjâmys</td><td class="tei tei-cell">ökmys</td><td class="tei tei-cell">das</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ugric, Ostiakian</td><td class="tei tei-cell">nida</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">arjong</td><td class="tei tei-cell">jong</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-row"><td class="tei tei-cell">Ugric, Hungarian</td><td class="tei tei-cell">njolcz</td> + <td class="tei tei-cell">kilencz</td><td class="tei tei-cell">tiz</td></tr></tbody></table> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page323">[pg 323]</span><a name="Pg323" id="Pg323" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have thus examined the four chief classes of the +Turanian family, the Tungusic, Mongolic, Turkic, and +Finnic. The Tungusic branch stands lowest; its grammar +is not much richer than Chinese, and in its structure +there is an absence of that architectonic order +which in Chinese makes the Cyclopean stones of language +hold together without cement. This applies, +however, principally to the Mandshu; other Tungusic +dialects spoken, not in China, but in the original seats +of the Mandshus, are even now beginning to develop +grammatical forms. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Mongolic dialects excel the Tungusic, but in +their grammar can hardly distinguish between the +different parts of speech. The spoken idioms of the +Mongolians, as of the Tungusians, are evidently struggling +towards a more organic life, and Castrén has +brought home evidence of incipient verbal growth in +the language of the Buriäts and a Tungusic dialect +spoken near Nyertchinsk. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This is, however, only a small beginning, if compared +with the profusion of grammatical resources displayed +by the Turkic languages. In their system of +conjugation, the Turkic dialects can hardly be surpassed. +Their verbs are like branches which break +down under the heavy burden of fruits and blossoms. +The excellence of the Finnic languages consists rather +in a diminution than increase of verbal forms; but in +declension Finnish is even richer than Turkish. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These four classes, together with the Samoyedic, +constitute the northern or Ural-Altaic division of the +Turanian family. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The southern division consists of the Tamulic, the +Gangetic (Trans-Himalayan and Sub-Himalayan), the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page324">[pg 324]</span><a name="Pg324" id="Pg324" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Lohitic, the Taïc, and the Malaïc classes.<a id="noteref_305" name="noteref_305" href="#note_305"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">305</span></span></a> These two +divisions comprehend very nearly all the languages of +Asia, with the exception of Chinese, which, together +with its neighboring dialects, forms the only representative +of radical or monosyllabic speech. A few, such +as Japanese,<a id="noteref_306" name="noteref_306" href="#note_306"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">306</span></span></a> +the language of Korea, of the Koriakes, +the Kamchadales, and the numerous dialects of the +Caucasus, &c., remain unclassed; but in them also +some traces of a common origin with the Turanian +languages have, it is probable, survived, and await the +discovery of philological research. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Of the third, or inflectional, stage, I need not say +much, as we have examined its structure when analyzing +in our former Lectures a number of words in Sanskrit, +Greek, Latin, or any other of the Aryan languages. +The chief distinction between an inflectional +and an agglutinative language consists in the fact that +agglutinative languages preserve the consciousness of +their roots, and therefore do not allow them to be affected +by phonetic corruption; and, though they have +lost the consciousness of the original meaning of their +terminations, they feel distinctly the difference between +the significative root, and the modifying elements. +Not so in the inflectional languages. There +the various elements which enter into the composition +of words, may become so welded together, and suffer +so much from phonetic corruption, that none but the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page325">[pg 325]</span><a name="Pg325" id="Pg325" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +educated would be aware of an original distinction +between root and termination, and none but the comparative +grammarian able to discover the seams that +separate the component parts. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If you consider the character of our morphological +classification, you will see that this classification, differing +thereby from the genealogical, must be applicable +to all languages. Our classification exhausts all possibilities. +If the component elements of language are +roots, predicative and demonstrative, we cannot have +more than three combinations. Roots may either remain +roots without any modification; or secondly, they +may be joined so that one determines the other and +loses its independent existence; or thirdly, they may +be joined and be allowed to coalesce, so that both lose +their independent existence. The number of roots +which enter into the composition of a word makes no +difference, and it is unnecessary, therefore, to admit a +fourth class, sometimes called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">polysynthetic</span></em>, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">incorporating</span></em>, +including most of the American languages. As +long as in these sesquipedalian compounds, the significative +root remains distinct, they belong to the agglutinative +stage; as soon as it is absorbed by the terminations, +they belong to the inflectional stage. Nor is it necessary +to distinguish between <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">synthetic</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">analytical</span></em> +languages, including under the former name the ancient, +and under the latter the modern, languages of +the inflectional class. The formation of such phrases +as the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">j'aimerai</span></em>, for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">j'ai à aimer</span></em>, or the English, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I shall do</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thou wilt do</span></em>, may be called +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">analytical</span></em> or +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">metaphrastic</span></em>. But in their morphological nature these +phrases are still inflectional. If we analyze such a +phrase as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">je vivrai</span></em>, we find it was originally <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ego</span></em> (Sanskrit +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page326">[pg 326]</span><a name="Pg326" id="Pg326" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">aham</span></em>) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vivere</span></em> (Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">jîv-as-e</span></em>, +dat. neut.) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">habeo</span></em> +(Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bhâ-vayâ-mi</span></em>); that is to say, we have a +number of words in which grammatical articulation +has been almost entirely destroyed, but has not been +cast off; whereas in Turanian languages grammatical +forms are produced by the combination of integral +roots, and the old and useless terminations are first discarded +before any new combination takes place.<a id="noteref_307" name="noteref_307" href="#note_307"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">307</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the end of our morphological classification a +problem presents itself, which we might have declined +to enter upon if we had confined ourselves to a genealogical +classification. At the end of our genealogical +classification we had to confess that only a certain number +of languages had as yet been arranged genealogically, +and that therefore the time for approaching the +problem of the common origin of all languages had not +yet come. Now, however, although we have not specified +all languages which belong to the radical, the terminational, +and inflectional classes, we have clearly +laid it down as a principle, that all languages must fall +under one or the other of these three categories of +human speech. It would not be consistent, therefore, +to shrink from the consideration of a problem, which, +though beset with many difficulties, cannot be excluded +from the science of language. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us first see our problem clearly and distinctly. +The problem of the common origin of languages has +no necessary connection with the problem of the common +origin of mankind. If it could be proved that +languages had had different beginnings, this would in +nowise necessitate the admission of different beginnings +of the human race. For if we look upon language as +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page327">[pg 327]</span><a name="Pg327" id="Pg327" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +natural to man, it might have broken out at different +times and in different countries among the scattered +descendants of one original pair; if, on the contrary, +language is to be treated as an artificial invention, there +is still less reason why each succeeding generation should +not have invented its own idiom. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Nor would it follow, if it could be proved that all +the dialects of mankind point to one common source, +that therefore the human race must descend from one +pair. For language might have been the property of +one favored race, and have been communicated to the +other races in the progress of history. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The science of language and the science of ethnology +have both suffered most seriously from being +mixed up together. The classification of races and +languages should be quite independent of each other. +Races may change their languages, and history supplies +us with several instances where one race adopted +the language of another. Different languages, therefore, +may be spoken by one race, or the same language +may be spoken by different races; so that any attempt +at squaring the classification of races and tongues must +necessarily fail. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Secondly, the problem of the common origin of languages +has no connection with the statements contained +in the Old Testament regarding the creation of man, +and the genealogies of the patriarchs. If our researches +led us to the admission of different beginnings +for the languages of mankind, there is nothing in the +Old Testament opposed to this view. For although +the Jews believed that for a time the whole earth was +of one language and of one speech, it has long been +pointed out by eminent divines, with particular reference +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page328">[pg 328]</span><a name="Pg328" id="Pg328" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to the dialects of America, that new languages +might have arisen at later times. If, on the contrary, +we arrive at the conviction that all languages can be +traced back to one common source, we could never +think of transferring the genealogies of the Old Testament +to the genealogical classification of language. +The genealogies of the Old Testament refer to blood, +not to language, and as we know that people, without +changing their name, did frequently change their language, +it is clearly impossible that the genealogies of +the Old Testament should coincide with the genealogical +classification of languages. In order to avoid a +confusion of ideas, it would be preferable to abstain +altogether from using the same names to express relationship +of language which in the Bible are used to +express relationship of blood. It was usual formerly +to speak of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Japhetic</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hamitic</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Semitic</span></em> +languages. The first name has now been replaced by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Aryan</span></em>, the +second by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">African</span></em>; and though the third is still retained, +it has received a scientific definition quite different +from the meaning which it would have in the Bible. +It is well to bear this in mind, in order to prevent not +only those who are forever attacking the Bible with +arrows that cannot reach it, but likewise those who +defend it with weapons they know not how to wield, +from disturbing in any way the quiet progress of the +science of language. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now look dispassionately at our problem. +The problem of the possibility of a common origin of +all languages naturally divides itself into two parts, the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">formal</span></em> and the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">material</span></em>. We are to-day concerned +with the formal part only. We have examined all +possible forms which language can assume, and we +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page329">[pg 329]</span><a name="Pg329" id="Pg329" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +have now to ask, can we reconcile with these three +distinct forms, the radical, the terminational, and the +inflectional, the admission of one common origin of +human speech? I answer decidedly, Yes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The chief argument that has been brought forward +against the common origin of language is this, that no +monosyllabic or radical language has ever entered into +an agglutinative or terminational stage, and that no +agglutinative or terminational language has ever risen +to the inflectional stage. Chinese, it is said, is still +what it has been from the beginning; it has never +produced agglutinative or inflectional forms; nor has +any Turanian language ever given up the distinctive +feature of the terminational stage, namely, the integrity +of its roots. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In answer to this it should be pointed out that though +each language, as soon as it once becomes settled, retains +that morphological character which it had when it first +assumed its individual or national existence, it does not +lose altogether the power of producing grammatical +forms that belong to a higher stage. In Chinese, and +particularly in Chinese dialects, we find rudimentary +traces of agglutination. The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">li</span></em> which I mentioned +before as the sign of the locative, has dwindled down +to a mere postposition, and a modern Chinese is no +more aware that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">li</span></em> meant originally interior, than the +Turanian is of the origin of his case-terminations.<a id="noteref_308" name="noteref_308" href="#note_308"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">308</span></span></a> In +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page330">[pg 330]</span><a name="Pg330" id="Pg330" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the spoken dialects of Chinese, agglutinative forms are +of more frequent occurrence. Thus, in the Shanghai +dialect, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">wo</span></em> is to speak, as a verb; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">woda</span></em>, a word. Of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">woda</span></em> a genitive is formed, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">woda-ka</span></em>, +a dative <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pela woda</span></em>, an accusative <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tang +woda</span></em>.<a id="noteref_309" name="noteref_309" href="#note_309"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">309</span></span></a> +In agglutinative languages +again, we meet with rudimentary traces of inflection. +Thus in Tamil the root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tûngu</span></em>, to sleep, has not retained +its full integrity in the derivative <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tûkkam</span></em>, sleep. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I mention these instances, which might be greatly +multiplied, in order to show that there is nothing +mysterious in the tenacity with which each language +clings in general to that stage of grammar which it +had attained at the time of its first settlement. If a +family, or a tribe, or a nation, has once accustomed +itself to express its ideas according to one system of +grammar, that first mould remains and becomes +stronger with each generation. But, while Chinese +was arrested and became traditional in this very early +stage the radical, other dialects passed on through that +stage, retaining their pliancy. They were not arrested, +and did not become traditional or national, before those +who spoke them had learnt to appreciate the advantage +of agglutination. That advantage being once perceived, +a few single forms in which agglutination first showed +itself would soon, by that sense of analogy which is inherent +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page331">[pg 331]</span><a name="Pg331" id="Pg331" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in language, extend their influence irresistibly. +Languages arrested in that stage would cling with +equal tenacity to the system of agglutination. A Chinese +can hardly understand how language is possible, +unless every syllable is significative; a Turanian despises +every idiom in which each word does not display +distinctly its radical and significative element; whereas, +we who are accustomed to the use of inflectional languages, +are proud of the very grammar which a Chinese +and Turanian would treat with contempt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fact, therefore, that languages, if once settled, +do not change their grammatical constitution, is no +argument against our theory, that every inflectional +language was once agglutinative, and every agglutinative +language was once monosyllabic. I call it a +theory, but it is more than a theory, for it is the only +possible way in which the realities of Sanskrit or any +other inflectional language can be explained. As far +as the formal part of language is concerned, we cannot +resist the conclusion that what is now <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">inflectional</span></em> was +formerly <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">agglutinative</span></em>, and what is now <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">agglutinative</span></em> +was at first <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">radical</span></em>. The great stream of language +rolled on in numberless dialects, and changed its +grammatical coloring as it passed from time to time +through new deposits of thought. The different +channels which left the main current and became +stationary and stagnant, or, if you like, literary and +traditional, retained forever that coloring which the +main current displayed at the stage of their separation. +If we call the radical stage <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">white</span></em>, the agglutinative +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">red</span></em>, and the inflectional <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">blue</span></em>, then we may well +understand why the white channels should show hardly +a drop of red or blue, or why the red channels should +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page332">[pg 332]</span><a name="Pg332" id="Pg332" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +hardly betray a shadow of blue; and we shall be prepared +to find what we do find, namely, white tints in +the red, and white and red tints in the blue channels +of speech. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +You will have perceived that in what I have said I +only argue for the possibility, not for the necessity, of a +common origin of language. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I look upon the problem of the common origin of +language, which I have shown to be quite independent +of the problem of the common origin of mankind, as +a question which ought to be kept open as long as possible. +It is not, I believe, a problem quite as hopeless +as that of the plurality of worlds, on which so much +has been written of late, but it should be treated very +much in the same manner. As it is impossible to demonstrate +by the evidence of the senses that the planets +are inhabited, the only way to prove that they +are, is to prove that it is impossible that they should +not be. Thus on the other hand, in order to prove +that the planets are not inhabited, you must prove +that it is impossible that they should be. As soon +as the one or the other has been proved, the question +will be set at rest: till then it must remain an +open question, whatever our own predilections on the +subject may be. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I do not take quite as desponding a view of the +problem of the common origin of language, but I +insist on this, that we ought not to allow this problem +to be in any way prejudged. Now it has been the +tendency of the most distinguished writers on comparative +philology to take it almost for granted, that +after the discovery of the two families of language, the +Aryan and Semitic, and after the establishment of the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page333">[pg 333]</span><a name="Pg333" id="Pg333" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +close ties of relationship which unite the members of +each, it would be impossible to admit any longer a +common origin of language. It was natural, after the +criteria by which the unity of the Aryan as well as the +Semitic dialects can be proved had been so successfully +defined, that the absence of similar coincidences between +any Semitic and Aryan language, or between +these and any other branch of speech, should have +led to a belief that no connection was admissible between +them. A Linnæan botanist, who has his definite +marks by which to recognize an Anemone, would reject +with equal confidence any connection between the species +Anemone and other flowers which have since been +classed under the same head though deficient in the +Linnæan marks of the Anemone. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But there are surely different degrees of affinity in +languages as well as in all other productions of +nature, and the different families of speech, though +they cannot show the same signs of relationship by +which their members are held together, need not of +necessity have been perfect strangers to each other +from the beginning. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now I confess that when I found the argument +used over and over again, that it is impossible any +longer to speak of a common origin of language, because +comparative philology had proved that there +existed various families of language, I felt that this +was not true, that at all events it was an exaggeration. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The problem, if properly viewed, bears the following +aspect:—<span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">If you wish to assert that language +had various beginnings, you must prove it impossible +that language could have had a common origin.</span></em>”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +No such impossibility has ever been established +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page334">[pg 334]</span><a name="Pg334" id="Pg334" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with regard to a common origin of the Aryan and +Semitic dialects; while on the contrary the analysis +of the grammatical forms in either family has removed +many difficulties, and made it at least intelligible +how, with materials identical or very similar, two +individuals, or two families, or two nations, could in +the course of time have produced languages so different +in form as Hebrew and Sanskrit. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But still greater light was thrown on the formative +and metamorphic process of language by the study of +other dialects unconnected with Sanskrit or Hebrew, +and exhibiting before our eyes the growth of those +grammatical forms (grammatical in the widest sense +of the word) which in the Aryan and Semitic families +we know only as formed, not as forming; as decaying, +not as living; as traditional, not as understood and +intentional: I mean the Turanian languages. The +traces by which these languages attest their original +relationship are much fainter than in the Semitic +and Aryan families, but they are so of necessity. +In the Aryan and Semitic families, the agglutinative +process, by which alone grammatical forms can be +obtained, has been arrested at some time, and this +could only have been through religious or political +influences. By the same power through which an +advancing civilization absorbs the manifold dialects +in which every spoken idiom naturally represents +itself, the first political or religious centralization +must necessarily have put a check on the exuberance +of an agglutinative speech. Out of many possible +forms one became popular, fixed, and technical for +each word, for each grammatical category; and by +means of poetry, law, and religion, a literary or political +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page335">[pg 335]</span><a name="Pg335" id="Pg335" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +language was produced to which thenceforth +nothing had to be added; which in a short time, +after becoming unintelligible in its formal elements, +was liable to phonetic corruption only, but incapable +of internal resuscitation. It is necessary to admit a +primitive concentration of this kind for the Aryan +and Semitic families, for it is thus only that we can +account for coincidences between Sanskrit and Greek +terminations, which were formed neither from Greek +nor from Sanskrit materials, but which are still identically +the same in both. It is in this sense that I +call these languages political or state languages, and +it has been truly said that languages belonging to +these families must be able to prove their relationship +by sharing in common not only what is regular +and intelligible, but what is anomalous, unintelligible, +and dead. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If no such concentration takes place, languages, +though formed of the same materials and originally +identical, must necessarily diverge in what we may +call dialects, but in a very different sense from the +dialects such as we find in the later periods of political +languages. The process of agglutination will continue +in each clan, and forms becoming unintelligible will be +easily replaced by new and more intelligible compounds. +If the cases are formed by postpositions, new postpositions +can be used as soon as the old ones become obsolete. +If the conjugation is formed by pronouns, new +pronouns can be used if the old ones are no longer sufficiently +distinct. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us ask then, what coincidences we are likely to +find in agglutinative dialects which have become separated, +and which gradually approach to a more settled +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page336">[pg 336]</span><a name="Pg336" id="Pg336" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +state? It seems to me that we can only expect to find +in them such coincidences as Castrén and Schott have +succeeded in discovering in the Finnic, Turkic, Mongolic, +Tungusic, and Samoyedic languages; and such as +Hodgson, Caldwell, Logan, and myself have pointed out +in the Tamulic, Gangetic, Lohitic, Taïc, and Malaïc languages. +They must refer chiefly to the radical materials +of language, or to those parts of speech which it +is most difficult to reproduce, I mean pronouns, numerals, +and prepositions. These languages will hardly +ever agree in what is anomalous or inorganic, because +their organism repels continually what begins to be formal +and unintelligible. It is astonishing rather, that +any words of a conventional meaning should have +been discovered as the common property of the Turanian +languages, than that most of their words and forms +should be peculiar to each. These coincidences must, +however, be accounted for by those who deny the common +origin of the Turanian languages; they must be +accounted for, either as the result of accident, or of an +imitative instinct which led the human mind everywhere +to the same onomatopoëtic formations. This has +never been done, and it will require great efforts to +achieve it. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To myself the study of the Turanian family was interesting +particularly because it offered an opportunity +of learning how far languages, supposed to be of a common +origin, might diverge and become dissimilar by the +unrestrained operation of dialectic regeneration. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In a letter which I addressed to my friend, the late +Baron Bunsen, and which was published by him in his +<span class="tei tei-q">“Outlines of the Philosophy of Universal History”</span><a id="noteref_310" name="noteref_310" href="#note_310"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">310</span></span></a> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page337">[pg 337]</span><a name="Pg337" id="Pg337" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +(vol. i. pp. 263-521), it had been my object to trace, +as far as I was able, the principles which guided the +formation of agglutinative languages, and to show how +far languages may become dissimilar in their grammar +and dictionary, and yet allow us to treat them as cognate +dialects. In answer to the assertion that it was +impossible, I tried, in the fourth, fifth, and sixth +sections of that Essay, to show <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">how</span></em> it was possible, that, +starting from a common ground, languages as different +as Mandshu and Finnish, Malay and Siamese, should +have arrived at their present state, and might still be +treated as cognate tongues. And as I look upon this +process of agglutination as the only intelligible means +by which language can acquire a grammatical organization, +and clear the barrier which has arrested the +growth of the Chinese idiom, I felt justified in applying +the principles derived from the formation of the +Turanian languages to the Aryan and Semitic families. +They also must have passed through an agglutinative +stage, and it is during that period alone that we can +account for the gradual divergence and individualization +of what we afterwards call the Aryan and Semitic +forms of speech. If we can account for the different +appearance of Mandshu and Finnish, we can also account +for the distance between Hebrew and Sanskrit. +It is true that we do not know the Aryan speech during +its agglutinative period, but we can infer what it +was when we see languages like Finnish and Turkish +approaching more and more to an Aryan type. Such +has been the advance which Turkish has made towards +inflectional forms, that Professor Ewald claims for it +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page338">[pg 338]</span><a name="Pg338" id="Pg338" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the title of a synthetic language, a title which he gives +to the Aryan and Semitic dialects after they have left +the agglutinative stage, and entered into a process of +phonetic corruption and dissolution. <span class="tei tei-q">“Many of its +component parts,”</span> he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“though they were no +doubt originally, as in every language, independent +words, have been reduced to mere vowels, or have +been lost altogether, so that we must infer their former +presence by the changes which they have wrought +in the body of the word. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Göz</span></em> means eye, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gör</span></em>, +to see; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ish</span></em>, deed, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ir</span></em>, to do; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">îtsh</span></em>, the interior, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gîr</span></em>, +to enter.”</span><a id="noteref_311" name="noteref_311" href="#note_311"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">311</span></span></a> Nay, he goes so far as to admit some +formal elements which Turkish shares in common with +the Aryan family, and which therefore could only date +from a period when both were still in their agglutinative +infancy. For instance, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">di</span></em>, as exponent of a past +action; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ta</span></em>, as the sign of the past participle of the passive; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lu</span></em>, as a suffix to form adjectives, +&c.<a id="noteref_312" name="noteref_312" href="#note_312"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">312</span></span></a> This is +more than I should venture to assert. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Taking this view of the gradual formation of language +by agglutination, as opposed to intussusception, +it is hardly necessary to say that, if I speak of a +Turanian family of speech, I use the word family in a +different sense from that which it has with regard to +the Aryan and Semitic languages. In my Letter on +the Turanian languages, which has been the subject of +such fierce attacks from those who believe in different +beginnings of language and mankind, I had explained +this repeatedly, and I had preferred the term of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">group</span></em> +for the Turanian languages, in order to express as +clearly as possible that the relation between Turkish +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page339">[pg 339]</span><a name="Pg339" id="Pg339" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and Mandshu, between Tamil and Finnish, was a different +one, not in degree only, but in kind, from that +between Sanskrit and Greek. <span class="tei tei-q">“These Turanian languages,”</span> +I said (p. 216), <span class="tei tei-q">“cannot be considered as +standing to each other in the same relation as Hebrew +and Arabic, Sanskrit and Greek.”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“They are radii +diverging from a common centre, not children of a +common parent.”</span> And still they are not so widely +distant as Hebrew and Sanskrit, because none of them +has entered into that new phase of growth or decay +(p. 218) through which the Semitic and Aryan languages +passed after they had been settled, individualized, +and nationalized. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The real object of my Essay was therefore a defensive +one. It was to show how rash it was to speak of +different independent beginnings in the history of human +speech, before a single argument had been brought +forward to establish the necessity of such an admission. +The impossibility of a common origin of language has +never been proved, but, in order to remove what were +considered difficulties affecting the theory of a common +origin, I felt it my duty to show practically, and by the +very history of the Turanian languages, how such a +theory was possible, or as I say in one instance only, +probable. I endeavored to show how even the most distant +members of the Turanian family, the one spoken +in the north, the other in the south of Asia, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Finnic</span></em> +and the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Tamulic</span></em>, have preserved in their grammatical +organization traces of a former unity; and, if my opponents +admit that I have proved the ante-Brahmanic +or Tamulic inhabitants of India to belong to the Turanian +family, they can hardly have been aware that if +this, the most extreme point of my argument be conceded, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page340">[pg 340]</span><a name="Pg340" id="Pg340" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +everything else is involved, and must follow by +necessity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Yet I did not call the last chapter of my Essay, +<span class="tei tei-q">“On the Necessity of a common origin of Language,”</span> +but <span class="tei tei-q">“On the Possibility;”</span> and, in answer to the +opinions advanced by the opposite party, I summed up +my defence in these two paragraphs:— +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +I. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Nothing necessitates the admission of different independent +beginnings for the </span><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">material</span></em><span style="font-size: 90%"> elements of the +Turanian, Semitic, and Aryan branches of speech;—nay, +it is possible even now to point out radicals +which, under various changes and disguises, have been +current in these three branches ever since their first +separation.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +II. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"> +<span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Nothing necessitates the admission of different +beginnings for the formal elements of the Turanian, +Semitic, and Aryan branches of speech;—and though +it is impossible to derive the Aryan system of grammar +from the Semitic, or the Semitic from the Aryan, +we can perfectly understand how, either through individual +influences, or by the wear and tear of speech in +its own continuous working, the different systems of +grammar of Asia and Europe may have been produced.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span> +</p> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It will be seen, from the very wording of these two +paragraphs, that my object was to deny the necessity +of independent beginnings, and to assert the possibility +of a common origin of language. I have been accused +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page341">[pg 341]</span><a name="Pg341" id="Pg341" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of having been biassed in my researches by an implicit +belief in the common origin of mankind. I do not +deny that I hold this belief, and, if it wanted confirmation, +that confirmation has been supplied by Darwin's +book <span class="tei tei-q">“On the Origin of Species.”</span><a id="noteref_313" name="noteref_313" href="#note_313"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">313</span></span></a> But I defy my +adversaries to point out one single passage where I +have mixed up scientific with theological arguments. +Only if I am told that no <span class="tei tei-q">“quiet observer would ever +have conceived the idea of deriving all mankind from +one pair, unless the Mosaic records had taught it,”</span> I +must be allowed to say in reply, that this idea on the +contrary is so natural, so consistent with all human +laws of reasoning, that, as far as I know, there has +been no nation on earth which, if it possessed any traditions +on the origin of mankind, did not derive the +human race from one pair, if not from one person. +The author of the Mosaic records, therefore, though +stripped, before the tribunal of Physical Science, of his +claims as an inspired writer, may at least claim the +modest title of a quiet observer, and if his conception +of the physical unity of the human race can be proved +to be an error, it is an error which he shares in common +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page342">[pg 342]</span><a name="Pg342" id="Pg342" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with other quiet observers, such as Humboldt, +Bunsen, Prichard, and Owen.<a id="noteref_314" name="noteref_314" href="#note_314"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">314</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The only question which remains to be answered is +this, Was it one and the same volume of water which +supplied all the lateral channels of speech? or, to drop +all metaphor, are the roots which were joined together +according to the radical, the terminational, and inflectional +systems, identically the same? The only way to +answer, or at least to dispose of, this question is to consider +the nature and origin of roots; and we shall then +have reached the extreme limits to which inductive +reasoning can carry us in our researches into the mysteries +of human speech. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page343">[pg 343]</span><a name="Pg343" id="Pg343" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc21" id="toc21"></a> +<a name="pdf22" id="pdf22"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Lecture IX. The Theoretical Stage, And The Origin Of +Language.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“In examining the history of mankind, as well as in +examining the phenomena of the material world, when +we cannot trace the process by which an event <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">has been</span></em> +produced, it is often of importance to be able to show +how it <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">may have been</span></em> produced by natural causes. Thus, +although it is impossible to determine with certainty +what the steps were by which any particular language +was formed, yet if we can show, from the known principles +of human nature, how all its various parts <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">might</span></em> +gradually have arisen, the mind is not only to a certain +degree satisfied, but a check is given to that indolent +philosophy which refers to a miracle whatever appearances, +both in the natural and moral worlds, it is unable +to explain.”</span><a id="noteref_315" name="noteref_315" href="#note_315"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">315</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This quotation from an eminent Scotch philosopher +contains the best advice that could be given to the student +of the science of language, when he approaches +the problem which we have to examine to-day, namely, +the origin of language. Though we have stripped that +problem of the perplexing and mysterious aspect which +it presented to the philosophers of old, yet, even in its +simplest form, it seems to be almost beyond the reach +of the human understanding. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page344">[pg 344]</span><a name="Pg344" id="Pg344" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If we were asked the riddle how images of the eye +and all the sensations of our senses could be represented +by sounds, nay, could be so embodied in sounds +as to express thought and excite thought, we should +probably give it up as the question of a madman, who, +mixing up the most heterogeneous subjects, attempted +to change color into sound and sound into thought.<a id="noteref_316" name="noteref_316" href="#note_316"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">316</span></span></a> +Yet this is the riddle which we have now to solve. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is quite clear that we have no means of solving the +problem of the origin of language <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">historically</span></em>, or of explaining +it as a matter of fact which happened once in +a certain locality and at a certain time. History does +not begin till long after mankind had acquired the +power of language, and even the most ancient traditions +are silent as to the manner in which man came in possession +of his earliest thoughts and words. Nothing, +no doubt, would be more interesting than to know +from historical documents the exact process by which +the first man began to lisp his first words, and thus to +be rid forever of all the theories on the origin of speech. +But this knowledge is denied us; and, if it had been +otherwise, we should probably be quite unable to understand +those primitive events in the history of the +human mind.<a id="noteref_317" name="noteref_317" href="#note_317"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">317</span></span></a> We are told that the first man was the +son of God, that God created him in His own image, +formed him of the dust of the ground, and breathed +into his nostrils the breath of life. These are simple +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page345">[pg 345]</span><a name="Pg345" id="Pg345" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +facts, and to be accepted as such; if we begin to reason +on them, the edge of the human understanding glances +off. Our mind is so constituted that it cannot apprehend +the absolute beginning or the absolute end of +anything. If we tried to conceive the first man created +as a child, and gradually unfolding his physical and +mental powers, we could not understand his living for +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">one</span></em> day without supernatural aid. If, on the contrary, +we tried to conceive the first man created full-grown in +body and mind, the conception of an effect without a +cause, of a full-grown mind without a previous growth, +would equally transcend our reasoning powers. It is +the same with the first beginnings of language. Theologians +who claim for language a divine origin drift into +the most dangerous anthropomorphism, when they enter +into any details as to the manner in which they +suppose the Deity to have compiled a dictionary and +grammar in order to teach them to the first man, as a +schoolmaster teaches the deaf and dumb. And they do +not see that, even if all their premises were granted, +they would have explained no more than how the first +man might have learnt a language, if there was a language +ready made for him. How that language was +made would remain as great a mystery as ever. Philosophers, +on the contrary, who imagine that the first man, +though left to himself, would gradually have emerged +from a state of mutism and have invented words for +every new conception that arose in his mind, forget +that man could not by his own power have acquired <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the +faculty</span></em> of speech which is the distinctive character of +mankind,<a id="noteref_318" name="noteref_318" href="#note_318"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">318</span></span></a> unattained and unattainable by the mute +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page346">[pg 346]</span><a name="Pg346" id="Pg346" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +creation. It shows a want of appreciation as to the +real bearings of our problem, if philosophers appeal to +the fact that children are born without language, and +gradually emerge from mutism to the full command of +articulate speech. We want no explanation how birds +learn to fly, created as they are with organs adapted to +that purpose. Nor do we wish to inquire how children +learn to use the various faculties with which the human +body and soul are endowed. We want to gain, if possible, +an insight into the original faculty of speech; and +for that purpose I fear it is as useless to watch the first +stammerings of children, as it would be to repeat the +experiment of the Egyptian king who intrusted two +new-born infants to a shepherd, with the injunction to +let them suck a goat's milk, and to speak no word in +their presence, but to observe what word they would +first utter.<a id="noteref_319" name="noteref_319" href="#note_319"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">319</span></span></a> The same experiment is said to have been +repeated by the Swabian emperor, Frederic II., by +James IV. of Scotland, and by one of the Mogul emperors +of India. But, whether for the purpose of finding +out which was the primitive language of mankind, +or of discovering how far language was natural to man, +the experiments failed to throw any light on the problem +before us. Children, in learning to speak, do not +invent language. Language is there ready made for +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page347">[pg 347]</span><a name="Pg347" id="Pg347" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +them. It has been there for thousands of years. They +acquire the use of a language, and, as they grow up, +they may acquire the use of a second and a third. It +is useless to inquire whether infants, left to themselves, +would invent a language. It would be impossible, unnatural, +and illegal to try the experiment, and, without +repeated experiments, the assertions of those who believe +and those who disbelieve the possibility of children inventing +a language of their own, are equally valueless. +All we know for certain is, that an English child, if +left to itself, would never begin to speak English, and +that history supplies no instance of any language having +thus been invented. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If we want to gain an insight into the faculty of +flying, which is a characteristic feature of birds, all +we can do is, first, to compare the structure of birds +with that of other animals which are devoid of that +faculty, and secondly, to examine the conditions under +which the act of flying becomes possible. It is the +same with speech. Speech is a specific faculty of man. +It distinguishes man from all other creatures; and if +we wish to acquire more definite ideas as to the real +nature of human speech, all we can do is to compare +man with those animals that seem to come nearest to +him, and thus to try to discover what he shares in +common with these animals, and what is peculiar to +him and to him alone. After we have discovered this, +we may proceed to inquire into the conditions under +which speech becomes possible, and we shall then have +done all that we can do, considering that the instruments +of our knowledge, wonderful as they are, are +yet far too weak to carry us into all the regions to +which we may soar on the wings of our imagination. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page348">[pg 348]</span><a name="Pg348" id="Pg348" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In comparing man with the other animals, we need +not enter here into the physiological questions whether +the difference between the body of an ape and the body +of a man is one of degree or of kind. However that +question is settled by physiologists we need not be +afraid. If the structure of a mere worm is such as +to fill the human mind with awe, if a single glimpse +which we catch of the infinite wisdom displayed in the +organs of the lowest creature gives us an intimation of +the wisdom of its Divine Creator far transcending the +powers of our conception, how are we to criticise and +disparage the most highly organized creatures of His +creation, creatures as wonderfully made as we ourselves? +Are there not many creatures on many points +more perfect even than man? Do we not envy the +lion's strength, the eagle's eye, the wings of every +bird? If there existed animals altogether as perfect +as man in their physical structure, nay, even more perfect, +no thoughtful man would ever be uneasy. His +true superiority rests on different grounds. <span class="tei tei-q">“I confess,”</span> +Sydney Smith writes, <span class="tei tei-q">“I feel myself so much +at ease about the superiority of mankind—I have +such a marked and decided contempt for the understanding +of every baboon I have ever seen—I feel +so sure that the blue ape without a tail will never +rival us in poetry, painting, and music, that I see no +reason whatever that justice may not be done to the +few fragments of soul and tatters of understanding +which they may really possess.”</span> The playfulness of +Sydney Smith in handling serious and sacred subjects +has of late been found fault with by many: but humor +is a safer sign of strong convictions and perfect +safety than guarded solemnity. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page349">[pg 349]</span><a name="Pg349" id="Pg349" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With regard to our own problem, no one can doubt +that certain animals possess all the physical requirements +for articulate speech. There is no letter of the +alphabet which a parrot will not learn to pronounce.<a id="noteref_320" name="noteref_320" href="#note_320"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">320</span></span></a> +The fact, therefore, that the parrot is without a language +of his own, must be explained by a difference +between the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mental</span></em>, not between the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">physical</span></em>, faculties +of the animal and man; and it is by a comparison of +the mental faculties alone, such as we find them in +man and brutes, that we may hope to discover what +constitutes the indispensable qualification for language, +a qualification to be found in man alone, and in no +other creature on earth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I say <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mental faculties</span></em>, and I mean to claim a large +share of what we call our mental faculties for the +higher animals. These animals have <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sensation</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">perception</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">memory</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">will</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">intellect</span></em>, only we must restrict +intellect to the comparing or interlacing of single +perceptions. All these points can be proved by irrefragable +evidence, and that evidence has never, I believe, +been summed up with greater lucidity and power +than in one of the last publications of M. P. Flourens, +<span class="tei tei-q">“De la Raison, du Génie, et de la Folie:”</span> Paris, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page350">[pg 350]</span><a name="Pg350" id="Pg350" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +1861. There are no doubt many people who are as +much frightened at the idea that brutes have souls and +are able to think, as by <span class="tei tei-q">“the blue ape without a tail.”</span> +But their fright is entirely of their own making. If +people will use such words as soul or thought without +making it clear to themselves and others what they +mean by them, these words will slip away under their +feet, and the result must be painful. If we once ask +the question, Have brutes a soul? we shall never arrive +at any conclusion; for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">soul</span></em> has been so many times +defined by philosophers from Aristotle down to Hegel, +that it means everything and nothing. Such has been +the confusion caused by the promiscuous employment +of the ill-defined terms of mental philosophy that we +find Descartes representing brutes as living machines, +whereas Leibniz claims for them not only souls, but +immortal souls. <span class="tei tei-q">“Next to the error of those who +deny the existence of God,”</span> says Descartes, <span class="tei tei-q">“there +is none so apt to lead weak minds from the right path +of virtue, as to think that the soul of brutes is of the +same nature as our own; and, consequently, that we +have nothing to fear or to hope after this life, any more +than flies or ants; whereas, if we know how much they +differ, we understand much better that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">our</span></em> soul is quite +independent of the body, and consequently not subject +to die with the body.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The spirit of these remarks is excellent, but the argument +is extremely weak. It does not follow that +brutes have no souls because they have no human +souls. It does not follow that the souls of men are +not immortal, because the souls of brutes are not immortal; +nor has the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">major premiss</span></em> ever been proved by +any philosopher, namely, that the souls of brutes must +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page351">[pg 351]</span><a name="Pg351" id="Pg351" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +necessarily be destroyed and annihilated by death. +Leibniz, who has defended the immortality of the human +soul with stronger arguments than even Descartes, +writes:—<span class="tei tei-q">“I found at last how the souls of brutes and +their sensations do not at all interfere with the immortality +of human souls; on the contrary, nothing serves +better to establish our natural immortality than to believe +that all souls are imperishable.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Instead of entering into these perplexities, which are +chiefly due to the loose employment of ill-defined terms, +let us simply look at the facts. Every unprejudiced +observer will admit that— +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +1. Brutes see, hear, taste, smell, and feel; that is to +say, they have five senses, just like ourselves, neither +more nor less. They have both sensation and perception, +a point which has been illustrated by M. Flourens +by the most interesting experiments. If the roots of +the optic nerve are removed, the retina in the eye of +a bird ceases to be excitable, the iris is no longer movable; +the animal is blind, because it has lost the organ +of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sensation</span></em>. If, on the contrary, the cerebral lobes are +removed, the eye remains pure and sound, the retina +excitable, the iris movable. The eye is preserved, yet +the animal cannot see, because it has lost the organs of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">perception</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +2. Brutes have sensations of pleasure and pain. A +dog that is beaten behaves exactly like a child that is +chastised, and a dog that is fed and fondled exhibits the +same signs of satisfaction as a boy under the same circumstances. +We can only judge from signs, and if +they are to be trusted in the case of children, they +must be trusted likewise in the case of brutes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +3. Brutes do not forget, or as philosophers would +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page352">[pg 352]</span><a name="Pg352" id="Pg352" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +say, brutes have memory. They know their masters, +they know their home; they evince joy on recognizing +those who have been kind to them, and they bear +malice for years to those by whom they have been insulted +or ill-treated. Who does not recollect the dog +Argos in the Odyssey, who, after so many years' absence, +was the first to recognize Ulysses?<a id="noteref_321" name="noteref_321" href="#note_321"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">321</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +4. Brutes are able to compare and to distinguish. +A parrot will take up a nut, and throw it down again, +without attempting to crack it. He has found that it +is light; this he could discover only by comparing the +weight of the good nuts with that of the bad: and he +has found that it has no kernel; this he could discover +only by what philosophers would dignify with the +grand title of syllogism, namely, <span class="tei tei-q">“all light nuts are +hollow; this is a light nut, therefore this nut is hollow.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +5. Brutes have a will of their own. I appeal to any +one who has ever ridden a restive horse. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +6. Brutes show signs of shame and pride. Here +again any one who has to deal with dogs, who has +watched a retriever with sparkling eyes placing a partridge +at his master's feet, or a hound slinking away +with his tail between his legs from the huntsman's +call, will agree that these signs admit of but one interpretation. +The difficulty begins when we use philosophical +language, when we claim for brutes a moral +sense, a conscience, a power of distinguishing good and +evil; and, as we gain nothing by these scholastic terms, +it is better to avoid them altogether. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +7. Brutes show signs of love and hatred. There +are well-authenticated stories of dogs following their +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page353">[pg 353]</span><a name="Pg353" id="Pg353" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +masters to the grave, and refusing food from any one. +Nor is there any doubt that brutes will watch their +opportunity till they revenge themselves on those whom +they dislike. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If, with all these facts before us, we deny that brutes +have sensation, perception, memory, will, and intellect, +we ought to bring forward powerful arguments for interpreting +the signs which we observe in brutes so differently +from those which we observe in men. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Some philosophers imagine they have explained everything, +if they ascribe to brutes <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">instinct</span></em> instead of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">intellect</span></em>. But, if we take these two words in their +usual acceptations, they surely do not exclude each +other.<a id="noteref_322" name="noteref_322" href="#note_322"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">322</span></span></a> There are instincts in man as well as in brutes. +A child takes his mother's breast by instinct; the +spider weaves its net by instinct; the bee builds her +cell by instinct. No one would ascribe to the child a +knowledge of physiology because it employs the exact +muscles which are required for sucking; nor shall we +claim for the spider a knowledge of mechanics, or for +the bee an acquaintance with geometry, because <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">we</span></em> +could not do what they do without a study of these +sciences. But what if we tear a spider's web, and see +the spider examining the mischief that is done, and +either giving up his work in despair, or endeavoring to +mend it as well as may be?<a id="noteref_323" name="noteref_323" href="#note_323"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">323</span></span></a> Surely here we have +the instinct of weaving controlled by observation, +by comparison, by reflection, by judgment. Instinct, +whether mechanical or moral, is more prominent in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page354">[pg 354]</span><a name="Pg354" id="Pg354" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +brutes than in man; but it exists in both, as much as +intellect is shared by both. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Where, then, is the difference between brute and +man?<a id="noteref_324" name="noteref_324" href="#note_324"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">324</span></span></a> +What is it that man can do, and of which +we find no signs, no rudiments, in the whole brute +world? I answer without hesitation: the one great +barrier between the brute and man is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Language</span></em>. Man +speaks, and no brute has ever uttered a word. Language +is our Rubicon, and no brute will dare to cross +it. This is our matter of fact answer to those who +speak of development, who think they discover the rudiments +at least of all human faculties in apes, and who +would fain keep open the possibility that man is only +a more favored beast, the triumphant conqueror in the +primeval struggle for life. Language is something +more palpable than a fold of the brain, or an angle of +the skull. It admits of no cavilling, and no process of +natural selection will ever distill significant words out +of the notes of birds or the cries of beasts. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Language, however, is only the outward sign. We +may point to it in our arguments, we may challenge +our opponent to produce anything approaching to it +from the whole brute world. But if this were all, if +the art of employing articulate sounds for the purpose +of communicating our impressions were the only thing +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page355">[pg 355]</span><a name="Pg355" id="Pg355" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by which we could assert our superiority over the +brute creation, we might not unreasonably feel somewhat +uneasy at having the gorilla so close on our +heels. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It cannot be denied that brutes, though they do not +use articulate sounds for that purpose, have nevertheless +means of their own for communicating with each +other. When a whale is struck, the whole shoal, +though widely dispersed, are instantly made aware of +the presence of an enemy; and when the grave-digger +beetle finds the carcass of a mole, he hastens to communicate +the discovery to his fellows, and soon returns +with his <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">four</span></em> confederates.<a id="noteref_325" name="noteref_325" href="#note_325"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">325</span></span></a> It is evident, too, that +dogs, though they do not speak, possess the power of +understanding much that is said to them, their names +and the calls of their master; and other animals, such +as the parrot, can pronounce every articulate sound. +Hence, although for the purpose of philosophical warfare, +articulate language would still form an impregnable +position, yet it is but natural that for our own satisfaction +we should try to find out in what the strength +of our position really consists; or, in other words, that +we should try to discover that inward power of which +language is the outward sign and manifestation. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +For this purpose it will be best to examine the +opinions of those who approached our problem from +another point; who, instead of looking for outward +and palpable signs of difference between brute and +man, inquired into the inward mental faculties, and +tried to determine the point where man transcends +the barriers of the brute intellect. That point, if +truly determined, ought to coincide with the starting-point +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page356">[pg 356]</span><a name="Pg356" id="Pg356" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of language: and, if so, that coincidence ought +to explain the problem which occupies us at present. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I shall read an extract from Locke's Essay concerning +Human Understanding. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After having explained how universal ideas are +made, how the mind, having observed the same color +in chalk, and snow, and milk, comprehends these single +perceptions under the general conception of whiteness, +Locke continues:<a id="noteref_326" name="noteref_326" href="#note_326"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">326</span></span></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“If it may be doubted, whether +beasts compound and enlarge their ideas that way to +any degree: this, I think, I may be positive in, that +the power of abstracting is not at all in them; and +that the having of general ideas is that which puts a +perfect distinction betwixt man and brutes, and is an +excellency which the faculties of brutes do by no +means attain to.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If Locke is right in considering the having general +ideas as the distinguishing feature between man and +brutes, and, if we ourselves are right in pointing to +language as the one palpable distinction between the +two, it would seem to follow that language is the outward +sign and realization of that inward faculty which +is called the faculty of abstraction, but which is better +known to us by the homely name of Reason. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now look back to the result of our former +Lectures. It was this. After we had explained everything +in the growth of language that can be explained, +there remained in the end, as the only inexplicable residuum, +what we called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">roots</span></em>. These roots formed the +constituent elements of all languages. This discovery +has simplified the problem of the origin of language +immensely. It has taken away all excuse for those +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page357">[pg 357]</span><a name="Pg357" id="Pg357" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +rapturous descriptions of language which invariably +preceded the argument that language must have a +divine origin. We shall hear no more of that wonderful +instrument which can express all we see, and +hear, and taste, and touch, and smell; which is the +breathing image of the whole world; which gives form +to the airy feelings of our souls, and body to the loftiest +dreams of our imagination; which can arrange in accurate +perspective the past, the present, and the future, +and throw over everything the varying hues of certainty, +of doubt, of contingency. All this is perfectly +true, but it is no longer wonderful, at least not in the +Arabian Nights sense of that word. <span class="tei tei-q">“The speculative +mind,”</span> as Dr. Ferguson says, <span class="tei tei-q">“in comparing the first +and last steps of the progress of language, feels the +same sort of amazement with a traveller, who, after +rising insensibly on the slope of a hill, comes to look +from a precipice of an almost unfathomable depth to +the summit of which he scarcely believes himself to +have ascended without supernatural aid.”</span> To certain +minds it is a disappointment to be led down again by +the hand of history from that high summit. They +prefer the unintelligible which they can admire, to the +intelligible which they can only understand. But to a +mature mind reality is more attractive than fiction, and +simplicity more wonderful than complication. Roots +may seem dry things as compared with the poetry of +Goethe. Yet there is something more truly wonderful +in a root than in all the lyrics of the world. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What, then, are these roots? In our modern languages +roots can only be discovered by scientific analysis, +and, even as far back as Sanskrit, we may say +that no root was ever used as a noun or as a verb. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page358">[pg 358]</span><a name="Pg358" id="Pg358" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +But originally roots were thus used, and in Chinese we +have fortunately preserved to us a representative of +that primitive radical stage which, like the granite, +underlies all other strata of human speech. The +Aryan root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">DÂ</span></em>, to give, appears in Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dâ-nam</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">donum</span></em>, gift, as a substantive; in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">do</span></em>, +Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dadâmi</span></em>, +Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">di-dō-mi</span></em>, I give, as a verb; but the root D +can never be used by itself. In Chinese, on the contrary, +the root TA, as such, is used in the sense of a +noun, greatness; of a verb, to be great; of an adverb, +greatly or much. Roots therefore are not, as is commonly +maintained, merely scientific abstractions, but +they were used originally as real words. What we +want to find out is this, What inward mental phase +is it that corresponds to these roots, as the germs of +human speech? +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Two theories have been started to solve this problem, +which, for shortness' sake, I shall call the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Bow-wow +theory</span></em> and the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Pooh-pooh theory</span></em>.<a id="noteref_327" name="noteref_327" href="#note_327"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">327</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +According to the first, roots are imitations of sounds, +according to the second, they are involuntary interjections. +The first theory was very popular among the +philosophers of the eighteenth century, and, as it is still +held by many distinguished scholars and philosophers, +we must examine it more carefully. It is supposed +then that man, being as yet mute, heard the voices of +birds and dogs and cows, the thunder of the clouds, +the roaring of the sea, the rustling of the forest, the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page359">[pg 359]</span><a name="Pg359" id="Pg359" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +murmurs of the brook, and the whisper of the breeze. +He tried to imitate these sounds, and finding his +mimicking cries useful as signs of the objects from +which they proceeded, he followed up the idea and +elaborated language. This view was most ably defended +by Herder.<a id="noteref_328" name="noteref_328" href="#note_328"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">328</span></span></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“Man,”</span> he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“shows conscious +reflection when his soul acts so freely that it +may separate, in the ocean of sensations which rush +into it through the senses, one single wave, arrest it, +regard it, being conscious all the time of regarding this +one single wave. Man proves his conscious reflection +when, out of the dream of images that float past his +senses, he can gather himself up and wake for a moment, +dwelling intently on one image, fixing it with a +bright and tranquil glance, and discovering for himself +those signs by which he knows that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">this</span></em> is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">this</span></em> image +and no other. Man proves his conscious reflection +when he not only perceives vividly and distinctly all +the features of an object, but is able to separate and +recognize one or more of them as its distinguishing +features.”</span> For instance, <span class="tei tei-q">“Man sees a lamb. He +does not see it like the ravenous wolf. He is not +disturbed by any uncontrollable instinct. He wants +to know it, but he is neither drawn towards it nor +repelled from it by his senses. The lamb stands before +him, as represented by his senses, white, soft, +woolly. The conscious and reflecting soul of man +looks for a distinguishing mark;—the lamb bleats!—the +mark is found. The bleating which made the +strongest impression, which stood apart from all other +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page360">[pg 360]</span><a name="Pg360" id="Pg360" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +impressions of sight or touch, remains in the soul. +The lamb returns—white, soft, woolly. The soul +sees, touches, reflects, looks for a mark. The lamb +bleats, and now the soul has recognized it. <span class="tei tei-q">‘Ah, +thou art the bleating animal,’</span> the soul says within +herself; and the sound of bleating, perceived as the +distinguishing mark of the lamb, becomes the name +of the lamb. It was the comprehended mark, the +word. And what is the whole of our language but +a collection of such words?”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Our answer is, that though there are names in +every language formed by mere imitation of sound, yet +these constitute a very small proportion of our dictionary. +They are the playthings, not the tools, of language, +and any attempt to reduce the most common +and necessary words to imitative roots ends in complete +failure. Herder himself, after having most strenuously +defended this theory of Onomatopoieia, as it is called, +and having gained a prize which the Berlin Academy +had offered for the best essay on the origin of language, +renounced it openly towards the latter years of his life, +and threw himself in despair into the arms of those +who looked upon languages as miraculously revealed. +We cannot deny the possibility that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></em> language might +have been formed on the principle of imitation; all we +say is, that as yet no language has been discovered +that was so formed. An Englishman in China,<a id="noteref_329" name="noteref_329" href="#note_329"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">329</span></span></a> seeing +a dish placed before him about which he felt +suspicious, and wishing to know whether it was a +duck, said, with an interrogative accent, +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Quack quack?</span></em> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +He received the clear and straightforward answer, +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Bow-wow!</span></em> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page361">[pg 361]</span><a name="Pg361" id="Pg361" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This, no doubt, was as good as the most eloquent +conversation on the same subject between an Englishman +and a French waiter. But I doubt whether it +deserves the name of language. We do not speak of +a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bow-wow</span></em>, but of a dog. We speak of a cow, not of +a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">moo</span></em>. Of a lamb, not of a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">baa</span></em>. It is the same in +more ancient languages, such as Greek, Latin, and +Sanskrit. If this principle of Onomatopoieia is applicable +anywhere, it would be in the formation of the +names of animals. Yet we listen in vain for any similarity +between goose and cackling, hen and clucking, +duck and quacking, sparrow and chirping, dove and +cooing, hog and grunting, cat and mewing, between +dog and barking, yelping, snarling, or growling. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There are of course some names, such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cuckoo</span></em>, +which are clearly formed by an imitation of sound. +But words of this kind are, like artificial flowers, +without a root. They are sterile, and are unfit to +express anything beyond the one object which they +imitate. If you remember the variety of derivatives +that could be formed from the root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spac</span></em>, to see, you +will at once perceive the difference between the fabrication +of such a word as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cuckoo</span></em>, and the true natural +growth of words. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us compare two words such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cuckoo</span></em> and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">raven</span></em>. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Cuckoo</span></em> in English is clearly a mere imitation +of the cry of that bird, even more so than the corresponding +terms in Greek, Sanskrit, and Latin. In +these languages the imitative element has received the +support of a derivative suffix; we have <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kokila</span></em> in Sanskrit, +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kokkyx</span></em> in Greek, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cuculus</span></em> in +Latin.<a id="noteref_330" name="noteref_330" href="#note_330"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">330</span></span></a> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Cuckoo</span></em> +is, in fact, a modern word, which has taken the place +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page362">[pg 362]</span><a name="Pg362" id="Pg362" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the Anglo-Saxon <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">geac</span></em>, the German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Gauch</span></em>, and, +being purely onomatopoëtic, it is of course not liable +to the changes of Grimm's Law. As the word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cuckoo</span></em> +predicates nothing but the sound of a particular bird, it +could never be applied for expressing any general quality +in which other animals might share; and the only +derivatives to which it might give rise are words expressive +of a metaphorical likeness with the bird. The +same applies to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cock</span></em>, the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kukkuṭa</span></em>. Here, too, +Grimm's Law does not apply, for both words were +intended to convey merely the cackling sound of the +bird; and, as this intention continued to be felt, +phonetic change was less likely to set in. The Sanskrit +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kukkuṭa</span></em> is not derived from any root, it simply repeats +the cry of the bird, and the only derivatives to which +it gives rise are metaphorical expressions, such as the +French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">coquet</span></em>, originally strutting about like a cock; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">coquetterie</span></em>; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cocart</span></em>, conceited; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cocarde</span></em>, a cockade; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">coquelicot</span></em>, +originally a cock's comb, then the wild red +poppy, likewise so called from its similarity with a +cock's comb. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us now examine the word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">raven</span></em>. It might +seem at first, as if this also was merely onomatopoëtic. +Some people imagine they perceive a kind +of similarity between the word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">raven</span></em> and the cry of +that bird. This seems still more so if we compare +the Anglo-Saxon <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hrafn</span></em>, the German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Rabe</span></em>, Old High-German +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hraban</span></em>. The Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kârava</span></em> also, the Latin +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">corvus</span></em>, and the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">korōnē</span></em>, all are supposed to show +some similarity with the unmelodious sound of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Maître +Corbeau</span></em>. But as soon as we analyze the word we find +that it is of a different structure from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cuckoo</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cock</span></em>. +It is derived from a root which has a general predicative +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page363">[pg 363]</span><a name="Pg363" id="Pg363" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +power. The root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ru</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kru</span></em> is not a mere imitation +of the cry of the raven; it embraces many cries, from +the harshest to the softest, and it might have been +applied to the nightingale as well as to the raven. In +Sanskrit this root exists as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ru</span></em>, a verb which is applied +to the murmuring sound of rivers as well as to the +barking of dogs and the mooing of cows. From it are +derived numerous words in Sanskrit. In Latin we find +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">raucus</span></em>, hoarse; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rumor</span></em>, a whisper; in German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rûnen</span></em>, +to speak low, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">runa</span></em>, mystery. The Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lamentum</span></em> +stands for an original <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ravimentum</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cravimentum</span></em>. +This root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ru</span></em> has several secondary forms, such as the Sanskrit +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rud</span></em>, to cry; the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rug</span></em> in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rugire</span></em>, to howl; +the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kru</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">klu</span></em>, in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">klaiō</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">klausomai</span></em>; the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kruś</span></em>, to shout; the Gothic +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hrukjan</span></em>, to crow, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hropjan</span></em>, +to cry; the German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rufen</span></em>. Even the common +Aryan word for hearing is closely allied to this root. +It is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">śru</span></em> in Sanskrit, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">klyō</span></em> in Greek, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cluo</span></em> in +Latin; and before it took the recognized meaning of hearing, it +meant to sound, to ring. When a noise was to be +heard in a far distance, the man who first perceived +it might well have said I ring, for his ears were +sounding and ringing; and the same verb, if once +used as a transitive, expressed exactly what we mean +by I hear a noise. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +You will have perceived thus that the process which +led to the formation of the word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kârava</span></em> in Sanskrit +is quite distinct from that which produced <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cuckoo</span></em>. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Kârava</span></em><a id="noteref_331" name="noteref_331" href="#note_331"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">331</span></span></a> means a shouter, a caller, a crier. It might +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page364">[pg 364]</span><a name="Pg364" id="Pg364" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +have been applied to many birds; but it became the +traditional and recognized name for the crow. Cuckoo +could never mean anything but the cuckoo, and while +a word like <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">raven</span></em> has ever so many relations from a +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rumor</span></em> down to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a row</span></em>, cuckoo stands by itself like a +stick in a living hedge. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is curious to observe how apt we are to deceive +ourselves when we once adopt this system of Onomatopoieia. +Who does not imagine that he hears in the +word <span class="tei tei-q">“thunder”</span> an imitation of the rolling and rumbling +noise which the old Germans ascribed to their +God Thor playing at nine-pins? Yet <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thunder</span></em> is +clearly the same word as the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tonitru</span></em>. The root +is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tan</span></em>, to stretch. From this root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tan</span></em>, we have in +Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tonos</span></em>, our tone, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tone</span></em> being produced by the +stretching and vibrating of cords. In Sanskrit the +sound thunder is expressed by the same root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tan</span></em>, but +in the derivatives <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tanyu</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tanyatu</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tanayitnu</span></em>, +thundering, we perceive no trace of the rumbling noise +which we imagined we perceived in the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tonitru</span></em> +and the English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thunder</span></em>. The very same root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tan</span></em>, to +stretch, yields some derivatives which are anything but +rough and noisy. The English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tender</span></em>, the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tendre</span></em>, +the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tener</span></em>, are derived from it. Like <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tenuis</span></em>, +the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tanu</span></em>, the English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thin</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tener</span></em> meant +originally what was extended over a larger surface, then <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thin</span></em>, then +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">delicate</span></em>. The relationship betwixt <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tender</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thin</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thunder</span></em> would be hard to establish if the +original conception of thunder had really been its +rumbling noise. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Who does not imagine that he hears something sweet +in the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sucre</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sucré</span></em>? Yet sugar came from India, +and it is there called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">śarkhara</span></em>, which is anything +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page365">[pg 365]</span><a name="Pg365" id="Pg365" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +but sweet sounding. This <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">śarkhara</span></em> is the same word +as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sugar</span></em>; it was called in Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">saccharum</span></em>, and we +still speak of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">saccharine</span></em> juice, which is sugar juice. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">squirrel</span></em> again some people imagine they hear +something of the rustling and whirling of the little +animal. But we have only to trace the name back +to Greek, and there we find that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">skiouros</span></em> is composed +of two distinct words, the one meaning shade, the +other tail; the animal being called shade-tail by the +Greeks. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Thus the word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cat</span></em>, the German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">katze</span></em>, is supposed +to be an imitation of the sound made by a cat spitting. +But if the spitting were expressed by the sibilant, that +sibilant does not exist in the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">catus</span></em>, nor in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cat</span></em>, or +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kitten</span></em>, nor in the German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kater</span></em>.<a id="noteref_332" name="noteref_332" href="#note_332"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">332</span></span></a> The Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mârjâra</span></em>, +cat, might seem to imitate the purring of the cat; +but it is derived from the root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mṛij</span></em>, to clean, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mârjâra</span></em>, +meaning the animal that always cleans itself. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Many more instances might be given to show how +easily we are deceived by the constant connection of +certain sounds and certain meanings in the words of +our own language, and how readily we imagine that +there is something in the sound to tell us the meaning +of the words. <span class="tei tei-q">“The sound must seem an echo to the +sense.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Most of these Onomatopoieias vanish as soon as we +trace our own names back to Anglo-Saxon and Gothic, +or compare them with their cognates in Greek, Latin, +or Sanskrit. The number of names which are really +formed by an imitation of sound dwindle down to a +very small quotum if cross-examined by the comparative +philologist, and we are left in the end with the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page366">[pg 366]</span><a name="Pg366" id="Pg366" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +conviction that though <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></em> language might have been +made out of the roaring, fizzing, hissing, gobbling, +twittering, cracking, banging, slamming, and rattling +sounds of nature, the tongues with which <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">we</span></em> are acquainted +point to a different origin.<a id="noteref_333" name="noteref_333" href="#note_333"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">333</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And so we find many philosophers, and among them +Condillac, protesting against a theory which would +place man even below the animal. Why should man +be supposed, they say, to have taken a lesson from +birds and beasts? Does he not utter cries, and sobs, +and shouts himself, according as he is affected by fear, +pain, or joy? These cries or interjections were represented +as the natural and real beginnings of human +speech. Everything else was supposed to have been +elaborated after their model. This is what I call the +Interjectional, or Pooh-pooh, Theory. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Our answer to this theory is the same as to the +former. There are no doubt in every language interjections, +and some of them may become traditional, +and enter into the composition of words. But these +interjections are only the outskirts of real language. +Language begins where interjections end. There is +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page367">[pg 367]</span><a name="Pg367" id="Pg367" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +as much difference between a real word, such as <span class="tei tei-q">“to +laugh,”</span> and the interjection ha, ha! between <span class="tei tei-q">“I suffer,”</span> +and oh! as there is between the involuntary act +and noise of sneezing, and the verb <span class="tei tei-q">“to sneeze.”</span> We +sneeze, and cough, and scream, and laugh in the same +manner as animals, but if Epicurus tells us that we +speak in the same manner as dogs bark, moved by +nature,<a id="noteref_334" name="noteref_334" href="#note_334"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">334</span></span></a> our own experience will tell us that this is +not the case. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +An excellent answer to the interjectional theory has +been given by Horne Tooke. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“The dominion of speech,”</span> he says,<a id="noteref_335" name="noteref_335" href="#note_335"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">335</span></span></a> <span class="tei tei-q">“is erected +upon the downfall of interjections. Without the artful +contrivances of language, mankind would have +had nothing but interjections with which to communicate, +orally, any of their feelings. The neighing of a +horse, the lowing of a cow, the barking of a dog, the +purring of a cat, sneezing, coughing, groaning, shrieking, +and every other involuntary convulsion with oral +sound, have almost as good a title to be called parts +of speech, as interjections have. Voluntary interjections +are only employed where the suddenness and +vehemence of some affection or passion returns men +to their natural state; and makes them for a moment +forget the use of speech; or when, from some circumstance, +the shortness of time will not permit them to +exercise it.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As in the case of Onomatopoieia, it cannot be denied +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page368">[pg 368]</span><a name="Pg368" id="Pg368" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +that with interjections, too, some kind of language +might have been formed; but not a language like that +which we find in numerous varieties among all the races +of men. One short interjection may be more powerful, +more to the point, more eloquent than a long speech. +In fact, interjections, together with gestures, the movements +of the muscles of the mouth, and the eye, would +be quite sufficient for all purposes which language answers +with the majority of mankind. Lucian, in his +treatise on dancing, mentions a king whose dominions +bordered on the Euxine. He happened to be at Rome +in the reign of Nero, and, having seen a pantomime +perform, begged him of the emperor as a present, in +order that he might employ him as an interpreter +among the nations in his neighborhood with whom he +could hold no intercourse on account of the diversity +of language. A pantomime meant a person who could +mimic everything, and there is hardly anything which +cannot be thus expressed. We, having language at +our command, have neglected the art of speaking without +words; but in the south of Europe that art is +still preserved. If it be true that one look may speak +volumes, it is clear that we might save ourselves +much of the trouble entailed by the use of discursive +speech. Yet we must not forget that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hum!</span></em> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ugh!</span></em> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tut!</span></em> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pooh!</span></em> are as little to be called words as the expressive +gestures which usually accompany these exclamations. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As to the attempts at deriving some of our words +etymologically from mere interjections, they are apt to +fail from the same kind of misconception which leads +us to imagine that there is something expressive in the +sounds of words. Thus it is said <span class="tei tei-q">“that the idea of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page369">[pg 369]</span><a name="Pg369" id="Pg369" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +disgust takes its rise in the senses of smell and taste, in +the first instance probably in smell alone; that in defending +ourselves from a bad smell we are instinctively +impelled to screw up the nose, and to expire strongly +through the compressed and protruded lips, giving rise +to a sound represented by the interjections faugh! foh! +fie! From this interjection it is proposed to derive, not +only such words as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">foul</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">filth</span></em>, but, by transferring it +from natural to moral aversion, the English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fiend</span></em>, the +German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Feind</span></em>.”</span> If this were true, we should suppose +that the expression of contempt was chiefly conveyed +by the aspirate f, by the strong emission of the breathing +with half-opened lips. But <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fiend</span></em> is a participle from +a root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fian</span></em>, to hate; in Gothic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fijan</span></em>; and as a Gothic +aspirate always corresponds to a tenuis in Sanskrit, the +same root in Sanskrit would at once lose its expressive +power. It exists in fact in Sanskrit as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pîy</span></em>, to hate, to +destroy; just as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">friend</span></em> is derived from a root which in +Sanskrit is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">prî</span></em>, to delight.<a id="noteref_336" name="noteref_336" href="#note_336"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">336</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is one more remark which I have to make +about the Interjectional and the Onomatopoëtic theories, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page370">[pg 370]</span><a name="Pg370" id="Pg370" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +namely this: If the constituent elements of human +speech were either mere cries, or the mimicking of the +cries of nature, it would be difficult to understand why +brutes should be without language. There is not only +the parrot, but the mocking-bird and others, which can +imitate most successfully both articulate and inarticulate +sounds; and there is hardly an animal without the faculty +of uttering interjections, such as huff, hiss, baa, &c. +It is clear also that if what puts a perfect distinction +betwixt man and brutes is the having of general ideas, +language which arises from interjections and from the +imitation of the cries of animals could not claim to be +the outward sign of that distinctive faculty of man. +All words, in the beginning at least (and this is the +only point which interests us), would have been the +signs of individual impressions and individual perceptions, +and would only gradually have been adapted to +the expression of general ideas. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The theory which is suggested to us by an analysis +of language carried out according to the principles of +comparative philology is the very opposite. We arrive +in the end at roots, and every one of these expresses a +general, not an individual, idea. Every name, if we +analyze it, contains a predicate by which the object to +which the name applies was known. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is an old controversy among philosophers, +whether language originated in general appellations, or +in proper names.<a id="noteref_337" name="noteref_337" href="#note_337"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">337</span></span></a> It is the question of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">primum +cognitum</span></em>, and its consideration will help us perhaps in +discovering the true nature of the root, or the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">primum +appellatum</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Some philosophers, among whom I may mention +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page371">[pg 371]</span><a name="Pg371" id="Pg371" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Locke, Condillac, Adam Smith, Dr. Brown, and with +some qualification Dugald Stewart, maintain that all +terms, as at first employed, are expressive of individual +objects. I quote from Adam Smith. <span class="tei tei-q">“The assignation,”</span> +he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“of particular names to denote particular +objects, that is, the institution of nouns substantive, +would probably be one of the first steps towards the +formation of language. Two savages who had never +been taught to speak, but had been bred up remote +from the societies of men, would naturally begin to +form that language by which they would endeavor to +make their mutual wants intelligible to each other by +uttering certain sounds whenever they meant to denote +certain objects. Those objects only which were most +familiar to them, and which they had most frequent +occasion to mention, would have particular names assigned +to them. The particular cave whose covering +sheltered them from the weather, the particular tree +whose fruit relieved their hunger, the particular fountain +whose water allayed their thirst, would first be denominated +by the words <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cave</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tree</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fountain</span></em>, or by +whatever other appellations they might think proper, +in that primitive jargon, to mark them. Afterwards, +when the more enlarged experience of these savages +had led them to observe, and their necessary occasions +obliged them to make mention of, other caves, and other +trees, and other fountains, they would naturally bestow +upon each of those new objects the same name by which +they had been accustomed to express the similar object +they were first acquainted with. The new objects had +none of them any name of its own, but each of them +exactly resembled another object which had such an +appellation. It was impossible that those savages could +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page372">[pg 372]</span><a name="Pg372" id="Pg372" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +behold the new objects without recollecting the old +ones; and the name of the old ones, to which the new +bore so close a resemblance. When they had occasion, +therefore, to mention or to point out to each other any +of the new objects, they would naturally utter the name +of the correspondent old one, of which the idea could +not fail, at that instant, to present itself to their memory +in the strongest and liveliest manner. And thus +those words, which were originally the proper names +of individuals, became the common name of a multitude. +A child that is just learning to speak calls every +person who comes to the house its papa or its mamma; +and thus bestows upon the whole species those names +which it had been taught to apply to two individuals. +I have known a clown who did not know the proper +name of the river which ran by his own door. It was +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the river</span></em>, he said, and he never heard any other name +for it. His experience, it seems, had not led him to +observe any other river. The general word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">river</span></em> therefore +was, it is evident, in his acceptance of it, a proper +name signifying an individual object. If this person +had been carried to another river, would he not readily +have called it <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a river</span></em>? Could we suppose any person +living on the banks of the Thames so ignorant as not +to know the general word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">river</span></em>, but to be acquainted +only with the particular word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Thames</span></em>, if he were +brought to any other river, would he not readily call +it a <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Thames</span></em>? This, in reality, is no more than what +they who are well acquainted with the general word +are very apt to do. An Englishman, describing any +great river which he may have seen in some foreign +country, naturally says that it is another Thames.... +It is this application of the name of an individual +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page373">[pg 373]</span><a name="Pg373" id="Pg373" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to a great multitude of objects, whose resemblance +naturally recalls the idea of that individual, and +of the name which expresses it, that seems originally +to have given occasion to the formation of those classes +and assortments which, in the schools, are called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">genera</span></em> +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">species</span></em>.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This extract from Adam Smith will give a clear idea +of one view of the formation of thought and language. +I shall now read another extract, representing the diametrically +opposite view. It is taken from Leibniz,<a id="noteref_338" name="noteref_338" href="#note_338"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">338</span></span></a> +who maintains that general terms are necessary for the +essential constitution of languages. He likewise appeals +to children. <span class="tei tei-q">“Children,”</span> he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“and those +who know but little of the language which they attempt +to speak, or little of the subject on which they would +employ it, make use of general terms, as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thing</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">plant</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">animal</span></em>, instead of using proper names, of which they +are destitute. And it is certain that all proper or individual +names have been originally appellative or general.”</span> +And again: <span class="tei tei-q">“Thus I would make bold to +affirm that almost all words have been originally general +terms, because it would happen very rarely that +man would invent a name, expressly and without a +reason, to denote this or that individual. We may, +therefore, assert that the names of individual things +were names of species, which were given <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">par excellence</span></em>, +or otherwise, to some individual; as the name <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Great +Head</span></em> to him of the whole town who had the largest, +or who was the man of the most consideration of the +great heads known.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It might seem presumptuous to attempt to arbitrate +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page374">[pg 374]</span><a name="Pg374" id="Pg374" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +between such men as Leibniz and Adam Smith, particularly +when both speak so positively as they do on +this subject. But there are two ways of judging of +former philosophers. One is to put aside their opinions +as simply erroneous where they differ from our own. +This is the least satisfactory way of studying ancient +philosophy. Another way is to try to enter fully into +the opinions of those from whom we differ, to make +them, for a time at least, our own, till at last we discover +the point of view from which each philosopher +looked at the facts before him, and catch the light in +which he regarded them. We shall then find that +there is much less of downright error in the history +of philosophy than is commonly supposed; nay, we +shall find nothing so conducive to a right appreciation +of truth as a right appreciation of the error by which +it is surrounded. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now, in the case before us, Adam Smith is no doubt +right, when he says that the first individual cave which +is called cave gave the name to all other caves. In the +same manner, the first <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">town</span></em>, though a mere enclosure, +gave the name to all other towns; the first imperial residence +on the Palatine hill gave the name to all palaces. +Slight differences between caves, towns, or palaces are +readily passed by, and the first name becomes more +and more general with every new individual to which +it is applied. So far Adam Smith is right, and the +history of almost every substantive might be cited in +support of his view. But Leibniz is equally right +when, in looking beyond the first emergence of such +names as cave or town or palace, he asks how such +names could have arisen. Let us take the Latin names +of cave. A cave in Latin is called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">antrum</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cavea</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spelunca</span></em>. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page375">[pg 375]</span><a name="Pg375" id="Pg375" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Now <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">antrum</span></em> means really the same as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">internum</span></em>. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Antar</span></em> in Sanskrit means <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">between</span></em> and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">within</span></em>.<a id="noteref_339" name="noteref_339" href="#note_339"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">339</span></span></a> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Antrum</span></em>, +therefore, meant originally what is within or inside the +earth or anything else. It is clear, therefore, that such +a name could not have been given to any individual +cave, unless the general idea of being within, or inwardness, +had been present in the mind. This general +idea once formed, and once expressed by the pronominal +root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">an</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">antar</span></em>, the process of naming is clear and +intelligible. The place where the savage could live +safe from rain and from the sudden attacks of wild +beasts, a natural hollow in the rock, he would call his +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">within</span></em>, his <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">antrum</span></em>; and afterwards similar places, +whether dug in the earth or cut in a tree, would be +designated by the same name. The same general +idea, however, would likewise supply other names, +and thus we find that the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">entrails</span></em> were called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">antra</span></em> +(neuter) in Sanskrit, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">enteron</span></em> in Greek, originally +things within. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Let us take another word for cave, which is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">căvea</span></em> or +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">căverna</span></em>. Here again Adam Smith would be perfectly +right in maintaining that this name, when first given, +was applied to one particular cave, and was afterwards +extended to other caves. But Leibniz would be equally +right in maintaining that in order to call even the first +hollow <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cavea</span></em>, it was necessary that the general idea of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hollow</span></em> should have been formed in the mind, and should +have received its vocal expression <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cav</span></em>. Nay we may +go a step beyond, for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cavus</span></em>, or hollow, is a secondary, +not a primary, idea. Before a cave was called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cavea</span></em>, a +hollow thing, many things hollow had passed before the +eyes of men. Why then was a hollow thing, or a hole, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page376">[pg 376]</span><a name="Pg376" id="Pg376" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +called by the root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cav</span></em>? Because what had been hollowed +out was intended at first as a place of safety and +protection, as a cover; and it was called therefore by +the root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ku</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sku</span></em>, which conveyed the idea of +to cover.<a id="noteref_340" name="noteref_340" href="#note_340"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">340</span></span></a> +Hence the general idea of covering existed in the mind +before it was applied to hiding-places in rocks or trees, +and it was not till an expression had thus been framed +for things hollow or safe in general, that caves in particular +could be designated by the name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cavea</span></em> or +hollows. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another form for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cavus</span></em> was <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">koilos</span></em>, hollow. The +conception was originally the same; a hole was called +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">koilon</span></em> because it served as a cover. But once so used +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">koilon</span></em> came to mean a cave, a vaulted cave, a vault, +and thus the heaven was called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cœlum</span></em>, the modern <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ciel</span></em>, +because it was looked upon as a vault or cover for the +earth. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is the same with all nouns. They all express +originally one out of the many attributes of a thing, +and that attribute, whether it be a quality or an action, +is necessarily a general idea. The word thus formed +was in the first instance intended for one object only, +though of course it was almost immediately extended +to the whole class to which this object seemed to +belong. When a word such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rivus</span></em>, river, was first +formed, no doubt it was intended for a certain river, and that +river was called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rivus</span></em>, from a root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ru</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sru</span></em>, +to run, because of its running water. In many instances +a word meaning river or runner remained the +proper name of one river, without ever rising to the +dignity of an appellative. Thus <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Rhenus</span></em>, the Rhine, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page377">[pg 377]</span><a name="Pg377" id="Pg377" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +means river or runner, but it clung to one river, and +could not be used as an appellative for others. The +Ganges is the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Gangâ</span></em>, literally the Go-go; a +word very well adapted for any majestic river, but +in Sanskrit restricted to the one sacred stream. The +Indus again is the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sindhu</span></em>, and means the irrigator, +from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">syand</span></em>, to sprinkle. In this case, however, +the proper name was not checked in its growth, but +was used likewise as an appelative for any great stream. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have thus seen how the controversy about the +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">primum cognitum</span></em> assumes a new and perfectly clear +aspect. The first thing really known is the general. +It is through it that we know and name afterwards +individual objects of which any general idea can be +predicated, and it is only in the third stage that these +individual objects, thus known and named, become +again the representatives of whole classes, and their +names or proper names are raised into appellatives.<a id="noteref_341" name="noteref_341" href="#note_341"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">341</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is a petrified philosophy in language, and if +we examine the most ancient word for name we find it is +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nâman</span></em> in Sanskrit, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nomen</span></em> in Latin, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">namo</span></em> in Gothic. +This <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nâman</span></em> stands for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gnâman</span></em>, which is preserved in +the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">co-gnomen</span></em>. The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">g</span></em> is dropped as in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">natus</span></em>, +son, for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gnatus</span></em>. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Nâman</span></em>, therefore, and name are +derived from the root gnâ, to know, and meant originally +that by which we know a thing. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page378">[pg 378]</span><a name="Pg378" id="Pg378" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And how do we know things? We perceive things +by our senses, but our senses convey to us information +about single things only. But to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">know</span></em> is more than to +feel, than to perceive, more than to remember, more +than to compare. No doubt words are much abused. +We speak of a dog <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">knowing</span></em> his master, of an infant +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">knowing</span></em> his mother. In such expressions, to know +means to recognize. But to know a thing, means +more than to recognize it. We know a thing if we +are able to bring it, and any part of it, under more +general ideas. We then say, not that we have a perception, +but a conception, or that we have a general +idea of a thing. The facts of nature are perceived by +our senses; the thoughts of nature, to borrow an expression +of Oersted's, can be conceived by our reason +only.<a id="noteref_342" name="noteref_342" href="#note_342"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">342</span></span></a> Now the first step towards this real knowledge, +a step which, however small in appearance, separates +man forever from all other animals, is the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">naming of a +thing</span></em>, or the making a thing knowable. All naming +is classification, bringing the individual under the general; +and whatever we know, whether empirically or +scientifically, we know it only by means of our general +ideas. Other animals have sensation, perception, +memory, and, in a certain sense, intellect; but all +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page379">[pg 379]</span><a name="Pg379" id="Pg379" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +these, in the animal, are conversant with single objects +only. Man has sensation, perception, memory, intellect, +and reason, and it is his reason only that is conversant +with general ideas.<a id="noteref_343" name="noteref_343" href="#note_343"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">343</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Through reason we not only stand a step above the +brute creation: we belong to a different world. We +look down on our merely animal experience, on our +sensations, perceptions, our memory, and our intellect, +as something belonging to us, but not as constituting +our most inward and eternal self. Our senses, our +memory, our intellect, are like the lenses of a telescope. +But there is an eye that looks through them at the +realities of the outer world, our own rational and self-conscious +soul; a power as distinct from our perceptive +faculties as the sun is from the earth which it fills +with light, and warmth, and life. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the very point where man parts company with +the brute world, at the first flash of reason as the +manifestation of the light within us, there we see the +true genesis of language. Analyze any word you like, +and you will find that it expresses a general idea peculiar +to the individual to which the name belongs. What +is the meaning of moon?—the measurer. What is the +meaning of sun?—the begetter. What is the meaning +of earth?—the ploughed. The old name given to +animals, such as cows and sheep, was <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pasú</span></em>, the Latin +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pecus</span></em>, which means <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">feeders</span></em>. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Animal</span></em> itself is a +later name, and derived from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anima</span></em>, soul. This <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anima</span></em> again +meant originally blowing or breathing, like spirit from +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page380">[pg 380]</span><a name="Pg380" id="Pg380" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spirare</span></em>, and was derived from a root, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">an</span></em>, to blow, +which gives us <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anila</span></em>, wind, in Sanskrit, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anemos</span></em>, +wind, in Greek. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ghost</span></em>, the German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Geist</span></em>, is based on +the same conception. It is connected with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gust</span></em>, with +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yeast</span></em>, and even with the hissing and boiling <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">geysers</span></em> of +Iceland. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Soul</span></em> is the Gothic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">saivala</span></em>, and this is clearly +related to another Gothic word, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">saivs</span></em>,<a id="noteref_344" name="noteref_344" href="#note_344"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">344</span></span></a> which means +the sea. The sea was called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">saivs</span></em> from a root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">si</span></em> or +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">siv</span></em>, the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">seiō</span></em>, to shake; it meant the tossed-about +water, in contradistinction to stagnant or running +water. The soul being called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">saivala</span></em>, we see +that it was originally conceived by the Teutonic nations +as a sea within, heaving up and down with every +breath, and reflecting heaven and earth on the mirror +of the deep. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Sanskrit name for love is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">smara</span></em>; it is derived +from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">smar</span></em>, to recollect; and the same root has supplied +the German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">schmerz</span></em>, pain, and the English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">smart</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If the serpent is called in Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sarpa</span></em>, it is +because it was conceived under the general idea of +creeping, an idea expressed by the word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">srip</span></em>. But the +serpent was also called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ahi</span></em> in Sanskrit, in Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">echis</span></em> +or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">echidna</span></em>, in Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anguis</span></em>. This name is derived +from quite a different root and idea. The root is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ah</span></em> +in Sanskrit, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anh</span></em>, which means to press together, to +choke, to throttle. Here the distinguishing mark +from which the serpent was named was his throttling, +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ahi</span></em> meant serpent, as expressing the general idea +of throttler. It is a curious root this <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anh</span></em>, and it still +lives in several modern words. In Latin it appears as +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ango</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anxi</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anctum</span></em>, to strangle, in +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">angina</span></em>, quinsy,<a id="noteref_345" name="noteref_345" href="#note_345"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">345</span></span></a> in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page381">[pg 381]</span><a name="Pg381" id="Pg381" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">angor</span></em>, suffocation. But <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">angor</span></em> meant not only quinsy +or compression of the neck; it assumed a moral import +and signifies anguish or anxiety. The two adjectives +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">angustus</span></em>, narrow, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anxius</span></em>, uneasy, both come from +the same source. In Greek the root retained its natural +and material meaning; in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eggys</span></em>, near, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">echis</span></em>, +serpent, throttler. But in Sanskrit it was chosen with +great truth as the proper name of sin. Evil no doubt +presented itself under various aspects to the human +mind, and its names are many; but none so expressive +as those derived from our root, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anh</span></em>, to throttle. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Anhas</span></em> +in Sanskrit means sin, but it does so only because it +meant originally throttling,—the consciousness of sin +being like the grasp of the assassin on the throat of his +victim. All who have seen and contemplated the +statue of Laokoon and his sons, with the serpent +coiled round them from head to foot, may realize +what those ancients felt and saw when they called sin +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anhas</span></em>, or the throttler. This <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anhas</span></em> is the same word +as the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">agos</span></em>, sin. In Gothic the same root has +produced <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">agis</span></em>, in the sense of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fear</span></em>, and from the same +source we have <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">awe</span></em>, in awful, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> fearful, and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ug</span></em>, in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ugly</span></em>. The English <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anguish</span></em> is +from the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">angoisse</span></em>, +the Italian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">angoscia</span></em>, a corruption of the Latin +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">angustiæ</span></em>, a strait. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And how did those early thinkers and framers of +language distinguish between man and the other animals? +What general idea did they connect with the +first conception of themselves? The Latin word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">homo</span></em>, +the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">l'homme</span></em>, which has been reduced to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">on</span></em> in +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page382">[pg 382]</span><a name="Pg382" id="Pg382" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">on dit</span></em>, is derived from the same root which we have in +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">humus</span></em>, the soil, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">humilis</span></em>, humble. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Homo</span></em>, therefore, +would express the idea of a being made of the dust +of the earth.<a id="noteref_346" name="noteref_346" href="#note_346"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">346</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another ancient word for man was the Sanskrit +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">marta</span></em>,<a id="noteref_347" name="noteref_347" href="#note_347"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">347</span></span></a> the Greek <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">brotos</span></em>, +the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mortalis</span></em> (a secondary +derivative), our own <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mortal</span></em>. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Marta</span></em> means <span class="tei tei-q">“he +who dies,”</span> and it is remarkable that where everything +else was changing, fading, and dying, this should have +been chosen as the distinguishing name for man. +Those early poets would hardly have called themselves +mortals unless they had believed in other beings as +immortal. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is a third name for man which means simply +the thinker, and this, the true title of our race, still +lives in the name of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">man</span></em>. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Mâ</span></em> in Sanskrit means to +measure, from which you remember we had the name +of moon. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Man</span></em>, a derivative root, means to think. +From this we have the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">manu</span></em>, originally +thinker, then man. In the later Sanskrit we find +derivatives, such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mânava</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mânusha</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">manushya</span></em>, all +expressing man. In Gothic we find both <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">man</span></em>, and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mannisks</span></em>, the modern German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mann</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mensch</span></em>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There were many more names for man, as there were +many names for all things in ancient languages. Any +feature that struck the observing mind as peculiarly +characteristic could be made to furnish a new name. +The sun might be called the bright, the warm, the golden, +the preserver, the destroyer, the wolf, the lion, the +heavenly eye, the father of light and life. Hence that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page383">[pg 383]</span><a name="Pg383" id="Pg383" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +superabundance of synonymes in ancient dialects, and +hence that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">struggle for life</span></em> carried on among these words, +which led to the destruction of the less strong, the less +happy, the less fertile words, and ended in the triumph +of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">one</span></em>, as the recognized and proper name for every +object in every language. On a very small scale this +process of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">natural selection</span></em>, or, as it would better be +called, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">elimination</span></em>, may still be watched even in modern +languages, that is to say, even in languages so old and +full of years as English and French. What it was at the +first burst of dialects we can only gather from such isolated +cases as when Vón Hammer counts 5744 words +relating to the camel.<a id="noteref_348" name="noteref_348" href="#note_348"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">348</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fact that every word is originally a predicate, +that names, though signs of individual conceptions, are +all, without exception, derived from general ideas, is one +of the most important discoveries in the science of language. +It was known before that language is the distinguishing +characteristic of man; it was known also +that the having of general ideas is that which puts a +perfect distinction betwixt man and brutes; but that +these two were only different expressions of the same +fact was not known till the theory of roots had been +established as preferable to the theories both of Onomatopoieia +and of Interjections. But, though our +modern philosophy did not know it, the ancient poets +and framers of language must have known it. For in +Greek language is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">logos</span></em>, but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">logos</span></em> means also reason, +and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">alogon</span></em> was chosen as the name, and the most +proper name, for brute. No animal thinks, and no +animal speaks, except man. Language and thought +are inseparable. Words without thought are dead +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page384">[pg 384]</span><a name="Pg384" id="Pg384" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sounds; thoughts without words are nothing. To +think is to speak low; to speak is to think aloud. +The word is the thought incarnate. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And now I am afraid I have but a few minutes left to +explain the last question of all in our science, namely—How +can sound express thought? How did roots +become the signs of general ideas? How was the abstract +idea of measuring expressed by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mâ</span></em>, the idea of +thinking by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">man</span></em>? How did <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gâ</span></em> come to mean going, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sthâ</span></em> standing, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sad</span></em> sitting, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dâ</span></em> giving, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mar</span></em> dying, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">char</span></em> +walking, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kar</span></em> doing? +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I shall try to answer as briefly as possible. The 400 +or 500 roots which remain as the constituent elements +in different families of language are not interjections, +nor are they imitations. They are <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">phonetic types</span></em> produced +by a power inherent in human nature. They +exist, as Plato would say, by nature; though with +Plato we should add that, when we say by nature, we +mean by the hand of God.<a id="noteref_349" name="noteref_349" href="#note_349"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">349</span></span></a> There is a law which +runs through nearly the whole of nature, that everything +which is struck rings. Each substance has its +peculiar ring. We can tell the more or less perfect +structure of metals by their vibrations, by the answer +which they give. Gold rings differently from tin, wood +rings differently from stone; and different sounds are +produced according to the nature of each percussion. +It was the same with man, the most highly organized +of nature's works.<a id="noteref_350" name="noteref_350" href="#note_350"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">350</span></span></a> Man, in his primitive and perfect +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page385">[pg 385]</span><a name="Pg385" id="Pg385" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +state, was not only endowed, like the brute, with the +power of expressing his sensations by interjections, and +his perceptions by onomatopoieia. He possessed likewise +the faculty of giving more articulate expression to +the rational conceptions of his mind. That faculty +was not of his own making. It was an instinct, an +instinct of the mind as irresistible as any other instinct. +So far as language is the production of that instinct, it +belongs to the realm of nature. Man loses his instincts +as he ceases to want them. His senses become fainter +when, as in the case of scent, they become useless. +Thus the creative faculty which gave to each conception, +as it thrilled for the first time through the brain, +a phonetic expression, became extinct when its object +was fulfilled. The number of these <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">phonetic types</span></em> must +have been almost infinite in the beginning, and it was +only through the same process of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">natural elimination</span></em> +which we observed in the early history of words, that +clusters of roots, more or less synonymous, were gradually +reduced to one definite type. Instead of deriving +language from nine roots, like Dr. Murray,<a id="noteref_351" name="noteref_351" href="#note_351"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">351</span></span></a> or from +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">one</span></em> root, a feat actually accomplished by a Dr. +Schmidt,<a id="noteref_352" name="noteref_352" href="#note_352"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">352</span></span></a> +we must suppose that the first settlement of the radical +elements of language was preceded by a period of unrestrained +growth,—the spring of speech—to be followed +by many an autumn. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page386">[pg 386]</span><a name="Pg386" id="Pg386" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With the process of elimination, or natural selection, +the historical element enters into the science of +language. However primitive the Chinese may be +as compared with terminational and inflectional languages, +its roots or words have clearly passed through +a long process of mutual attrition. There are many +things of a merely traditional character even in Chinese. +The rule that in a simple sentence the first word is the +subject, the second the verb, the third the object, is a +traditional rule. It is by tradition only that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ngŏ ģin</span></em>, +in Chinese, means a bad man, whereas <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ģin ngŏ</span></em> signifies +man is bad. The Chinese themselves distinguish between +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">full</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">empty</span></em> roots,<a id="noteref_353" name="noteref_353" href="#note_353"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">353</span></span></a> the former being predicative, +the latter corresponding to our particles which +modify the meaning of full roots and determine their +relation to each other. It is only by tradition that +roots become empty. All roots were originally full +whether predicative or demonstrative, and the fact that +empty roots in Chinese cannot always be traced back +to their full prototypes shows that even the most ancient +Chinese had passed through successive periods of +growth. Chinese commentators admit that all empty +words were originally full words, just as Sanskrit grammarians +maintain that all that is found in grammar was +originally substantial. But we must be satisfied with +but partial proofs of this general principle, and must be +prepared to find as many fanciful derivations in Chinese +as in Sanskrit. The fact, again, that all roots in Chinese +are no longer capable of being employed at pleasure, +either as substantives, or verbs, or adjectives, is +another proof that, even in this most primitive stage, +language points back to a previous growth. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Fu</span></em> is father, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page387">[pg 387]</span><a name="Pg387" id="Pg387" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mu</span></em> is mother; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fu mu</span></em> parents; but neither <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fu</span></em> nor +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mu</span></em> is used as a root in its original predicative sense. +The amplest proof, however, of the various stages +through which even so simple a language as Chinese +must have passed is to be found in the comparatively +small number of roots, and in the definite meanings +attached to each; a result which could only have been +obtained by that constant struggle which has been so +well described in natural history as the struggle for life. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But although this sifting of roots, and still more the +subsequent combination of roots, cannot be ascribed to +the mere working of nature or natural instincts, it is +still less, as we saw in a former Lecture, the effect of +deliberate or premeditated art, in the sense in which, +for instance, a picture of Raphael or a symphony of +Beethoven is. Given a root to express flying, or bird, +and another to express heap, then the joining together +of the two to express many birds, or birds in the plural, +is the natural effect of the synthetic power of the human +mind, or, to use more homely language, of the +power of putting two and two together. Some philosophers +maintain indeed that this explains nothing, +and that the real mystery to be solved is how the mind +can form a synthesis, or conceive many things as one. +Into those depths we cannot follow. Other philosophers +imagine that the combination of roots to form +agglutinative and inflectional language is, like the first +formation of roots, the result of a natural instinct. +Thus Professor Heyse<a id="noteref_354" name="noteref_354" href="#note_354"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">354</span></span></a> maintained that <span class="tei tei-q">“the various +forms of development in language must be explained +by the philosophers as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">necessary</span></em> evolutions, founded in +the very essence of human speech.”</span> This is not the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page388">[pg 388]</span><a name="Pg388" id="Pg388" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +case. We can watch the growth of language, and we +can understand and explain all that is the result of that +growth. But we cannot undertake to prove that all +that is in language is so by necessity, and could not +have been otherwise. When we have, as in Chinese, +two such words as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kiai</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tu</span></em>, both expressing a heap, +an assembly, a quantity, then we may perfectly understand +why either the one or the other should have been +used to form the plural. But if one of the two becomes +fixed and traditional, while the other becomes obsolete, +then we can register the fact as historical, but no +philosophy on earth will explain its absolute necessity. +We can perfectly understand how, with two such roots +as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kûŏ</span></em>, empire, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ćung</span></em>, middle, the Chinese should +have formed what we call a locative, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kŭŏ ćung</span></em>, in the +empire. But to say that this was the only way to express +this conception is an assertion contradicted both +by fact and reason. We saw the various ways in which +the future can be formed. They are all equally intelligible +and equally possible, but not one of them is +inevitable. In Chinese <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ỳaó</span></em> means to will, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ngò</span></em> is I; +hence <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ngò ỳaó</span></em>, I will. The same root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ỳaó</span></em>, added to +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ḱiú</span></em>, to go, gives us <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ngò ỳaó ḱiú</span></em>, I will go, the first +germ of our futures. To say that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ngò ỳaó ḱiú</span></em> was the +necessary form of the future in Chinese would introduce +a fatalism into language which rests on no authority +whatever. The building up of language is not like +the building of the cells in a beehive, nor is it like the +building of St. Peter's by Michael Angelo. It is the +result of innumerable agencies, working each according +to certain laws, and leaving in the end the result of +their combined efforts freed from all that proved superfluous +or useless. From the first combination of two +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page389">[pg 389]</span><a name="Pg389" id="Pg389" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +such words as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ģin</span></em>, man, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kiai</span></em>, many, to form the plural +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ģin kiai</span></em>, to the perfect grammar of Sanskrit and Greek, +everything is intelligible as the result of the two principles +of growth which we considered in our second +Lecture. What is antecedent to the production of +roots is the work of nature; what follows after is the +work of man, not in his individual and free, but in his +collective and moderating, capacity. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I do not say that every form in Greek or Sanskrit +has as yet been analyzed and explained. There are +formations in Greek and Latin and English which +have hitherto baffled all tests; and there are certain +contrivances, such as the augment in Greek, the change +of vowels in Hebrew, the Umlaut and Ablaut in the +Teutonic dialects, where we might feel inclined to +suppose that language admitted distinctions purely +musical or phonetic, corresponding to very palpable +and material distinctions of thought. Such a supposition, +however, is not founded on any safe induction. +It may seem inexplicable to us why <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bruder</span></em> in +German should form its plural as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">brüder</span></em>; or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">brother</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">brethren</span></em>. But what is inexplicable and apparently +artificial in our modern languages becomes intelligible +in their more ancient phases. The change of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">u</span></em> into +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ü</span></em>, as in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bruder</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">brüder</span></em>, was not intentional; least +of all was it introduced to expressed plurality. The +change is phonetic, and due to the influence of an +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">i</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">j</span></em>,<a id="noteref_355" name="noteref_355" href="#note_355"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">355</span></span></a> which existed originally in the last syllable +and which reacted regularly on the vowel of the +preceding syllable; nay, which leaves its effect behind, +even after it has itself disappeared. By a +false analogy such a change, perfectly justifiable in a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page390">[pg 390]</span><a name="Pg390" id="Pg390" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +certain class of words, may be applied to other words +where no such change was called for; and it may +then appear as if an arbitrary change of vowels was +intended to convey a grammatical change. But even +into these recesses the comparative philologist can follow +language, thus discovering a reason even for what +in reality was irrational and wrong. It seems difficult +to believe that the augment in Greek should originally +have had an independent substantial existence, yet all +analogy is in favor of such a view. Suppose English +had never been written down before Wycliffe's time, +we should then find that in some instances the perfect +was formed by the mere addition of a short <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></em>. Wycliffe +spoke and wrote:<a id="noteref_356" name="noteref_356" href="#note_356"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">356</span></span></a> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I knowlech to a felid and seid +þus</span></em>; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> I acknowledge to have felt and said thus. +In a similar way we read: <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">it should a fallen</span></em>; instead +of <span class="tei tei-q">“it should have fallen;”</span> and in some parts of +England common people still say very much the same: +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I should a done it</span></em>. Now in some old English books +this <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></em> actually coalesces with the verb, at least they +are printed together; so that a grammar founded on +them would give us <span class="tei tei-q">“to fall”</span> as the infinitive of the +present, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">to afallen</span></em> as the infinitive of the past. I do +not wish for a moment to be understood as if there was +any connection between this <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></em>, a contraction of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">have</span></em> in +English, and the Greek augment which is placed before +past tenses. All I mean is, that, if the origin of the +augment has not yet been satisfactorily explained, we +are not therefore to despair, or to admit an arbitrary +addition of a consonant or vowel, used as it were algebraically +or by mutual agreement, to distinguish a +past from a present tense. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page391">[pg 391]</span><a name="Pg391" id="Pg391" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If inductive reasoning is worth anything, we are +justified in believing that what has been proved to +be true on so large a scale, and in cases where it was +least expected, is true with regard to language in general. +We require no supernatural interference, nor any +conclave of ancient sages, to explain the realities of +human speech. All that is formal in language is the +result of rational combination; all that is material, +the result of a mental instinct. The first natural and +instinctive utterances, if sifted differently by different +clans, would fully account both for the first origin and +for the first divergence of human speech. We can understand +not only the origin of language, but likewise +the necessary breaking up of one language into many; +and we perceive that no amount of variety in the material +or the formal elements of speech is incompatible +with the admission of one common source. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Science of Language thus leads us up to that +highest summit from whence we see into the very dawn +of man's life on earth; and where the words which we +have heard so often from the days of our childhood—<span class="tei tei-q">“And +the whole earth was of one language and of one +speech”</span>—assume a meaning more natural, more intelligible, +more convincing, than they ever had before. +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-tb"><hr style="width: 50%" /></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And now in concluding this course of Lectures, I +have only to express my regret that the sketch of the +Science of Language which I endeavored to place before +you, was necessarily so very slight and imperfect. +There are many points which I could not touch at all, +many which I could only allude to: there is hardly +one to which I could do full justice. Still I feel grateful +to the President and the Council of this Institution +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page392">[pg 392]</span><a name="Pg392" id="Pg392" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +for having given me an opportunity of claiming some +share of public sympathy for a science which I believe +has a great future in store; and I shall be pleased, if, +among those who have done me the honor of attending +these Lectures, I have excited, though I could not have +satisfied, some curiosity as to the strata which underlie +the language on which we stand and walk; and as to +the elements which enter into the composition of the +very granite of our thoughts. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page394">[pg 394]</span><a name="Pg394" id="Pg394" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc23" id="toc23"></a> +<a name="pdf24" id="pdf24"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Appendix.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +[Transcriber's Note: The Appendix contains genealogical tables of the language +families. In the original, they were displayed as wide landscape pages, +which could not be rendered effectively in e-book format. The information in them +has been reproduced here in textual paragraphs.] +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +No. 1. Genealogical Table of the Aryan Family of Languages. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Aryan Family consists of two Divisions: The Southern Division, and the +Norther Division. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Southern Division consists of two Classes: the Indic and Iranic. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Indic Class consists of the dead languages Prakrit and Pali, +Modern Sanskrit, and Vedic Sanskrit, and the modern Dialects of India, and +the Dialects of the Gipsies. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Iranic Class consists of the dead languages Parsi, Pehlevi, Cuneiform Inscriptions, +Zend, and Old Armenian; the the living languages of Persia, Afghanistan, +Kurdistan, Bokhara, Armenia, and Ossethi. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Northern Division consists of six Classes: Celtic, Italic, Illyric, Hellenic, +Windic, and Teutonic. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Celtic Class consists of two Branches: Cymric and Gadhelic. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Cymric Branch consists of the dead language Cornish, and the living languages +of Wales and Brittany. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Gadhelic Branch consists of the living languages of Scotland, Ireland, and Man. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Italic Class consists of the dead languages Oscan, Latin, and Umbrian, +together called Lingua Vulgaris, or Langue d'oc and Langue d'oil, +and the living languages of Portugal, Spain, Provençe, France, and Italy. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Illyric Class consists of the living languages of Wallachia, the Grisons, +and Albania. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Hellenic Class consists of the dead Κοινή languages, Doric, Æolic, +Attic, and Ionic, and the living language of Greece. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Windic Class consists of three Branches: Lettic, South-East Slavonic, +and West Slavonic. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page395">[pg 395]</span><a name="Pg395" id="Pg395" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Lettic Branch consists of the dead language Old Prussian, and the living +languages of Lithuania, Kurland and Livonia (Lettish). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The South-East Slavonic Branch consists of the dead language Ecclesiastical +Slavonic, and the living languages of Bulgaria, Russia (Great, Little, +White Russian), Illyria (Slovenian, Croatian, Servian). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The West Slavonic Branch consists of the dead languages Old Bohemian and +Pelabian, and the living languages of Poland, Bohemian (Slovakian), +and Lusatia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Teutonic Class consists of three branches: High-German, Low-German, +and Scandinavian. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The High-German Branch consists of the dead languages Middle High-German +Old High-German, and the living language of Germany. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Low-German Branch consists of the dead languages Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, Old +Dutch, Old Friesian, and Old Saxon, and the living languages of England, Holland, +Friesland, and North of Germany (Platt-Deutsch). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Scandinavian Branch consists of the dead language Old Norse, and the +living languages of Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Iceland. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page396">[pg 396]</span><a name="Pg396" id="Pg396" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +No. 2. Genealogical Table of the Semitic Family of Languages. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Semitic Family Family consists of three Classes: the Arabic or Southern, +the Hebraic or Middle, and the Aramaic or Northern. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Arabic or Southern Class consists of the dead languages Ethiopic and the +Himyaritic Inscriptions, and the living languages of Arabic and Amharic. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Hebraic or Middle Class consists of the dead languages Biblical Hebrew, +the Samaritan Pentateuch (third century, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a. d.</span></span>), +the Carthaginian, Phœnician Inscriptions, and the living language of the Jews. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Aramaic or Northern Class consists of the dead languages Chaldee (Masora, +Talmud, Targum, Biblical Chaldee), Syriac (Peshito, second cent. +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a. d.</span></span>), Cuneiform Inscriptions of Babylon and +Nineveh, and the living language Neo-Syriac. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page397">[pg 397]</span><a name="Pg397" id="Pg397" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +No. 3. Genealogical Table of the Turanian Family of Languages, Northern Division. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Northern Division of the Turanian Family consists of five Classes: the +Tungusic, Mongolic, Turkic, Samoyedic, and Finnic (Uralic). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Tungusic Class consists of two Branches: Western and Eastern. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Western Branch consists of the languages of the Chapogires (Upper +Tunguska), Orotongs (Lower Tunguska), and the People of Nyertchinsk. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Eastern Branch consists of the languages of the Lamutes (Coast of O'hotsk) +and Mandshu (China). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Mongolic Class consists of three Branches: Eastern or Mongols Proper, +Western Mongols, and Northern Mongols. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Eastern or Mongols Proper Class consists of the languages of the Sharra-Mongols +(South of Gobi), Khalkhas (North of Gobi), and Sharaigol (Tibet and Tangut). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Western Mongols Class consists of the languages of the Chosot (Kokonúr), Dsungur, +Torgod, Dürbet, Aimaks (tribes of Persia), and Sokpas (Tibet). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Northern Mongols Class consists of the language of the Buritäs (Lake Baikal). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Turkic Class consists of three Branches: Chagatic, S. E., Turkic, N., +and Turkic, W. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Chagatic Branch consists of the languages of the Uigurs, Komans, Chagatais, +Usbeks, Turkomans, and People of Kasan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The N. Turkic Branch consists of the languages of the Kirgis, Bashkirs, Nogais, +Kumians, Karachais, Karakalpaks, Meshcheryäks, People of Siberia, and Yakuts. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The W. Turkic Branch consists of the languages of the People of Derbend, +Aderbijan, Krimea, Anatolia, and Rumelia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Samoyedic Class consists of two Branches: Northern and Eastern. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Northern Branch consists of the languages of the Yurazes, Tawgi, and Yenisei. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Eastern Branch consists of the languages of the Ostiako-Samoyedes, and the Kamas. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Finnic (Uralic) Class consists of four Branches: Ugric, Bulgaric, Permic, +and Chudic. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Ugric Branch consists of the languages of the Hungarians, Voguls, and +Ugro-Ostiakes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Bulgaric Branch consists of the languages of the Tcheremissians and Mordvins. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Permic Branch consists of the languages of the Permians, Sirianes, and Votiaks. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Chudic Branch consists of the languages of the Lapps, Finns, and Esths. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page398">[pg 398]</span><a name="Pg398" id="Pg398" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +No. 4. Genealogical Table of the Turanian Family of Languages, Southern Division. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Southern Division of the Turanian Family consists of six Classes: the +Taïc, Malaic, Gangetic, Lohitic, Munda (See Turanian Languages, p. 175), +and Tamulic. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Taïc Class consists of the languages of Ahom, Laos, Khamti, and Shan +(Tenasserim). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Malaic Class consists of the languages of the Malay and Polynesian Islands. +(See Humboldt, Kavi Sprache.) +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Gangetic Class consists of two Branches: the Trans-Himalayan, and the +Sub-Himalayan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Trans-Himalayan Branch consists of the languages Tibetan, Horpa (N.W. Tibet, +Bucharia), Thochu-Sifan (N.E. Tibet, China), Gyarung-Sifan (N.E. Tibet, China), +Manyak-Sifan (N.E. Tibet, China), and Takpa (West of Kwombo). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Sub-Himalayan Branch consists of the languages Kenaveri (Setlej basin), +Sarpa (West of Gandakéan basin), Sunwár (Gandakéan basin), Gurung (Gandakéan basin), +Magar (Gandakéan basin), Newár (between Gandakéan and Koséan basins), +Murmi (between Gandakéan and Koséan basins), Limbú (Koséan basin), +Kiranti (Koséan basin), Lepcha (Tishtéan basin), Bhutanese (Manaséan basin), +and Chepang (Nepal-Terai). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Lohitic Class consists of the languages of Burmese (Burmah and Arakan), +Dhimâl (between Konki and Dhorla), Kachari-Bodo (Migrat. 80° to 93-1/2°, +and 25° to 27°), Garo (90°-91° E. long.; 25°-26° N. lat.), Changlo (91°-92° E. long.), +Mikir (Nowgong), Dophla (92° 50'-97° N. lat.), Miri (94°-97° E. long.?), +Abor-Miri, Abor (97°-99° E. long.), Sibsagor-Miri, Singpho (27°-28° N. lat.), +Naga tribes (93°-97° E. long.; 23° N. lat.) (Mithan) E. of Sibsagor, +Naga tribes (Namsang), Naga tribes (Nowgong), Naga tribes (Tengsa), Naga tribes +(Tablung N. of Sibsagor), Naga tribes (Khaü, Jorhat), Naga tribes (Angami, South), +Kuki (N.E. of Chittagong), Khyeng (Shyu) (19°-21° N. lat. Arakan), +Kami (Kuladan R. Arakan), Kumi (Kuladan R. Arakan), Shendus (22°-23° and 93-94°), +Mru (Arakan, Chittagong), Sak (Nauf River, East), and Tungihu (Tenasserim). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Munda Class consists of the languages Ho (Kolehan), Sinhbhum Kol (Chyebossa), +Sontal (Chyebossa), Bhumij (Chyebossa), Mundala (Chota Nagpur), and Canarese. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Tamulic Class consists of the languages Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, Gond, +Brahvi, Tuluva, Toduva, and Uraon-kol. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page399">[pg 399]</span><a name="Pg399" id="Pg399" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc25" id="toc25"></a> +<a name="pdf26" id="pdf26"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Index.</span></h1> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Abdu-l-Kadir Maluk, Mulla, Shah of Badáún, his general history of India, and other works, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Abhîra, or Âbhîra, at the mouth of the Indus, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Abiria, the, of Ptolemy, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ablative, the, in Chinese, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Abraham, the language of, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Abu Saleh, his translation from Sanskrit into Arabic, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Abyssinian language, ancient and modern, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Academy, New, doctrines of the, embraced in Rome, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Accusative, formation of the, in Chinese, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Achæmenian dynasty, inscriptions of the, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Adelung, his Mithridates, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">142</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Adjectives, formation of, in Tibetan, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Chinese, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ælius Stilo, Lucius, his lectures in Rome, on Latin grammar, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Affinity, indications of true, in the animal and vegetable world, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Afghanistan, the language of, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Africa, South, dialects of, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">African language, an imaginary, <a href="#Pg223" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">223</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Âge</span></span>, history of the French word, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Agglutination in the Turanian family of languages, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Aglossoi, the, of the Greeks, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Agriculture of the Chaldeans, work on the, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Punic work of Mago on, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ahirs, the, of Cutch, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Akbar, the Emperor, his search after the true religion, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Akbar, his foundation of the so-called Ilahi religion, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">works translated into Persian for him, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">not able to obtain a translation of the Veda, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Albania</span></span>, origin of the name, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">242</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Albanian language, origin of the, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Albertus Magnus, on the humanizing influence of Christianity, quoted, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Alchemy, causes of the extinction of the science, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Alexander the Great, influence of his expedition in giving the Greeks a knowledge of other nations and languages, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his difficulty in conversing with the Brahmans, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Alexandria, influence of, on the study of foreign languages, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">critical study of ancient Greek at, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Algebra, translation of the famous Indian work on, into Arabic, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Algonquins, the one case of the, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">America, Central, rapid changes which take place in the language of the savage tribes of, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">great number of languages spoken by the natives of, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Hervas's reduction of them to eleven families, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Amharic, or modern Abyssinian, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Anatomy, comparative, science of, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Anglo-Saxon, the most ancient epic in, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Angora, in Galatia, battle of, <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">308</a>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page400">[pg 400]</span><a name="Pg400" id="Pg400" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Anquetil Duperron, his translation of the Persian translation of the Upanishads into French, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his translation of the works of Zoroaster, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Apollo, temple of, at Rome, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">AR, the root, various ramifications of, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Arabic, influence of, over the Turkish language, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ascendency of, in Palestine and Syria, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">original seat of Arabic, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient Himyaritic inscriptions, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">earliest literary documents in Arabic, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">relation of Arabic to Hebrew, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Aramaic division of Semitic languages, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">two dialects of, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ariana, the, of Greek geographers, <a href="#Pg240" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">240</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ariaramnēs</span></span>, father of Darius, origin of the name, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Aristotle on grammatical categories, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Armenia</span></span>, origin of the name, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">242</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Arpinum, provincial Latin of, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Article</span></span>, the, original meaning of the word, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Greek, restored by Zenodotus, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ârya. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">See</span></span> <a href="#index-aryan" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Aryan</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ârya-âvarta, India so called, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-aryan" id="index-aryan" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Aryan, an Indo-European family of languages, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">43</a>, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">mode of tracing back the grammatical fragments of the Aryan languages to original independent words, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231-233</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Aryan grammar, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">northern and southern divisions of the, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the original Aryan clan of Central Asia, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">period when this clan broke up, <a href="#Pg212" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">212</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">formation of the locative in all the Aryan languages, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Aryan civilization proved by the evidence of language, <a href="#Pg235" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">235</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin and gradual spreading of the word <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Arya</span></span>, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">original seat of the Aryans, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Aryan and Semitic the only <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">families</span></span> of speech deserving that title, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">genealogical table, <a href="#Pg394" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">394</a>, <a href="#Pg395" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">395</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Asia Minor, origin of the Turks of, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Asiatic Society, foundation of the, at Calcutta, <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Aśoka, King, his rock inscriptions, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Assyria</span></span>, various forms of the name, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Astrology, causes of the extinction of the science, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Astronomy</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Ptolemæan system, although wrong, important to science, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Auramazda, of the cuneiform inscriptions, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">See</span></span> <a href="#index-ormuzd" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Ormuzd</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Auxentius on Ulfilas, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181-186</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Baber, his Indian empire, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Babylonia, literature of, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">probability of the recovery of, from the cuneiform inscriptions, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Barabas tribe, in the steppes between the Irtish and the Ob, <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Barbarians, the, of the Greeks, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">seemed to have possessed greater facility for acquiring languages than either Greeks or Romans, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the term Barbarian as used by the Greeks and Romans, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">unfortunate influence of the term, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bashkirs, race of the, in the Altaic mountains, <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Basil, St., his denial that God had created the names of all things, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Baziane tribe, in the Caucasus, <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Beaver, the, sagacity of, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Behar, Pâli once the popular dialect of, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Beowolf, the ancient English epic of, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Berber, dialects of Northern Africa, origin of the, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page401">[pg 401]</span><a name="Pg401" id="Pg401" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Berners, Juliana, on the expressions proper for certain things, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Berosus, his study and cultivation of the Greek language, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his history of Babylon, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his knowledge of the cuneiform inscriptions, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bible, number of obsolete words and senses in the English translation of 1611, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bibliandro, his work on language, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Birúni, Abu Rihan al, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Taríkhu-l-Hind,”</span> <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bishop and sceptic derived from the same root, <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Boëthius, Song of, age of the, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bohemian, oldest specimens of, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bonaparte, Prince L., his collection of English dialects, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Booker's <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Scripture and Prayer-Book Glossary”</span> referred to, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Books, general destruction of, in China in 213, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span> <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bopp, Francis, his great work, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">results of his <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Comparative Grammar,”</span> <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Botany</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Linnæan system, although imperfect, important to science, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Brahman, the highest being, known through speech, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Brahmans, their deification of language, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">their early achievements in grammatical analysis, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">difficulties of Alexander in conversing with them, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Brâhmanas, the, on language, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Brennus, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Brown, Rev. Mr. on the dialects of the Burmese, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Brutes, faculties of, <a href="#Pg351" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">351</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">instinct and intellect, <a href="#Pg353" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">353</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">language the difference between man and brute, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">354</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the old name given to brutes, <a href="#Pg379" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">379</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Buddhism, date of its introduction into China, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bulgarian Kingdom on the Danube, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">language and literature, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bulgaric branch of the Finnic class of languages, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bulgarian tribes and dialects, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Buriates, dialects of the, new phase of grammatical life of the, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Burmese language and literature, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">dialects, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Burnouf, Eugène, his studies of Zend, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">and of cuneiform inscriptions, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cæsar, Julius, publication of his work <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“De analogia,”</span> <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">invented the term <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">ablative</span></span>, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Carneades forbidden by Cato to lecture at Rome, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Carthaginian language, closely allied to Hebrew, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Case</span></span>, history of the word, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cases, formation of, in the Aryan languages, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cassius, Dionysius, of Utica, his translation of the agricultural work of Mago, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Castor and Pollux, worship of, in Italy, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Castren on the Mongolian dialects, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cat</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Catherine the Great of Russia, her <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Comparative Dictionary,”</span> <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cato, his history of Rome in Latin, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his acquisition of the Greek language in his old age, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">reasons for his opposition to everything Greek, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Caucasus, tribes of the, <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Celtic language, substantive existence of, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Celtic, a branch of the Indo-European family of languages, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Celts, their former political autonomy, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chaldee, in what it consisted, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">fragments in Ezra, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">language of the Targums, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">literature of Babylon and Nineveh, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the modern Mendaïtes or Nasoreans, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Changes, historical, affecting every variety of language. <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">rapid changes in the languages of savage tribes, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>.</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page402">[pg 402]</span><a name="Pg402" id="Pg402" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">words or senses obsolete in English since 1611, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">smaller changes, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">grammatical changes, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">laws of, in language, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Children, probable influence of the language of, on the gradual disappearance of irregular conjugations and declensions, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chili, language of, <a href="#Pg293" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">293</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">China, date of the introduction of Buddhism into, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Chinese Buddhist pilgrims to India, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">conquered by the Mongols, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chinese language, ancient, no trace of grammar in, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">notes by M. Stanislas Julien, on Chinese substantives and adjectives, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">formation of the locative in Chinese, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">and of the instrumental, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">number of roots in Chinese, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">number of words in the Chinese dictionary, obsolete, rare, and in use, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">no analysis required to discover its component parts, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">mode of using a predicative root in, <a href="#Pg268" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">268</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">roots in Chinese, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the parts of speech determined in Chinese by the position of the word in a sentence, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">rudimentary traces of agglutination in Chinese, <a href="#Pg329" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">329</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">imitative sounds in, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">list of Chinese interjections, <a href="#Pg369" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">369</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">natural selection of roots in, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chingis-Khán, founds the Mongolian empire, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Christianity, humanizing influence of, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chudic branch of the Finnic languages, <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">317</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chudic, the national epic of the Finns, <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">317</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cicero, his provincial Latin, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">quoted as an authority on grammatical questions, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Cæsar's <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">De analogia</span></span> dedicated to Cicero, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Class dialects, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Classical, or literary languages, origin of, <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">65</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">stagnation and inevitable decay of, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Classification, in the physical sciences, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">object of classification, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Colchis, dialects of, according to Pliny, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Conjugation, most of the terminations of, demonstrative roots, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Constantinople, taking of, <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">308</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Copernicus, causes which led to the discovery of his system, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cornish, last person who spoke, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cosmopolitan Club, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Crates of Pergamus, his visit to Rome, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his public lectures, there on grammar, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Cuckoo</span></span>, the word, <a href="#Pg361" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">361</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cuneiform inscriptions, the, deciphered by Burnouf, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">importance of the discovery of the inscriptions of Darius and Xerxes, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">progress in deciphering, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">letter from Sir H. Rawlinson quoted, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">D, origin of the letter, in forming English preterites, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dacian language, the ancient, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Dame</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Danish language, growth of the, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Darius, claimed for himself an Aryan descent, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dative, case in Greek, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Chinese, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Daughter</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Decay, phonetic, one of the processes which comprise the growth of language, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">instances of phonetic decay, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52-54</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Declension, most of the terminations of, demonstrative roots, <a href="#Pg270" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">270</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Dello</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">dell</span></span>, origins of the Italian, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Democritus, his travels, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dialect, what is meant by, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dialects, Italian, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>.</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page403">[pg 403]</span><a name="Pg403" id="Pg403" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">French, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Modern Greek, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Friesian, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">English, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the feeders rather than the channels of a literary language, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Grimm on the origin of dialects in general, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">difficulty in tracing the history of dialects, <a href="#Pg061" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">61</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">American dialects, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Burmese, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of the Ostiakes, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mongolian, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Southern Africa, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">class dialects, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">unbounded resources of dialects, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">dialectical growth beyond the control of individuals, <a href="#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">74</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dictionary, Comparative, of Catherine the Great of Russia, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Did</span></span>, origin of, as a preterite, <a href="#Pg233" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">233</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Diez, Professor, his <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Comparative Grammar of the Six Romance Dialects,”</span> <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dionysius Thrax, the author of the first practical Greek grammar, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dionysius of Halicarnassus, on the Pelasgi, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Discussion</span></span>, etymology of, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dorpat dialect of Esthonian, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Du</span></span>, origin of the French, <a href="#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">74</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dual, the, first recognized by Zenodotus, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dumaresq, Rev. Daniel, his <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Comparative Vocabulary of Eastern Languages,”</span> <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Duret, Claude, his work on language, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Dutch language, work of Goropius written to prove that it was the language spoken in Paradise, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">age of Dutch, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Earl, origin of the title, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Earth, guess of Philolaus as to its motion round the sun, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Eddas, the two, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the name Edda, <a href="#Pg194" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">194</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Egypt, number of words in the ancient vocabulary of, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Egyptian language, family to which it is referable, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Elder, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Elements, constituent, of language, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">English language, changes in the, since the translation of the Bible in 1611, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">richness of the vocabulary of the dialects of, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">real sources of the English language, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Prince L. Bonaparte's collection of English dialects, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the English language Teutonic, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">full of words derived from the most distant sources, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">proportion of Saxon to Norman words, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tests proving the Teutonic origin of the English language, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">genitives in English, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">nominatives and accusatives, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of grammatical forms in the English language, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">number of words in the English language, <a href="#Pg266" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">266</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">number of words in Milton, Shakspeare, and the Old Testament, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ennius, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his translations from Greek into Latin, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Eos, original meaning of the name, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ephraem Syrus, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Epicharmus, his philosophy translated into Latin by Ennius, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Epicurus, doctrines of, embraced, in Rome, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Erin</span></span>, Pictet's derivation of the name, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Mr. Whitley Stokes's remarks on the word Erin, <a href="#Pg245" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">245</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Espiègle</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Esths, or Esthonians, their language, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">dialects of, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Estienne, Henry, his grammatical labors anticipated by the Brahmans, 500 <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span> <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his work on language, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page404">[pg 404]</span><a name="Pg404" id="Pg404" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ethiopic, or Abyssinian, origin of the, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Eudemos, on the Aryan race, <a href="#Pg241" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">241</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Euhemerus, of Messene, his neologian work translated into Latin, by Ennius, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Eulalia, Song of, age of the, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Euripides, first translated into Latin, by Ennius, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ewald, on the relation of the Turanian to the Aryan languages, <a href="#Pg338" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">338</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ezour-Veda, the, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ezra, Chaldee fragments in the Book of, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fabius Pictor, his history of Rome in Greek, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fa-hian, the Chinese pilgrim to India, his travels, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Families of languages, tests for reducing the principal dialects of Europe and Asia to certain, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Fatum</span></span>, original meaning of the name, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Feeble</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Feizi and the Brahman, story of, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Feu</span></span>, origin of the French word, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Finnic class of languages, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">branches of Finnic, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Kalewala,”</span> the <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Iliad”</span> of the Finns, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tribes, original seat of the, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">their language and literature, <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">317</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">national feeling lately arisen, <a href="#Pg317" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">317</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Finnish, peculiarity of its grammar, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Firdusi, language in which he wrote his <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Shahnameh,”</span> <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fire-worshippers. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">See</span></span> <a href="#index-parsis" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Parsis</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Firoz Shah, translations from Sanskrit into Persian, made by order of, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Flaminius, his knowledge of Greek, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Flemish language and literature, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">French dialects, number of, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">laws of change in the French language, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">nominatives and accusatives, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">French, origin of grammatical terminations in French, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of the French future in <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">rai</span></span>, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Friesian, multitude of the dialects of, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">language and literature, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Fromage</span></span>, origin of the French word, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Future, the, in French, <a href="#Pg229" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">229</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Latin, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Greek, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Chinese, <a href="#Pg388" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">388</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in other languages, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Galatia, foundation and language of, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Galla language of Africa, family to which it belongs, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ganas, the, or lists of remarkable words in Sanskrit, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Garo, formation of adjectives in, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gâthâs, or songs of Zoroaster, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gebelin, Court de, his <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Monde Primitif,”</span> <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with Hervas, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gees language, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Genitive case, the term used in India, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">terminations of the genitive in most cases, identical with the derivative suffixes by which substantives are changed into adjectives, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">mode of forming the genitive in Chinese, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">formation of genitives in Latin, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Geometry</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">German language, history of the, <a href="#Pg179" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">179</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gipsies, language of the, <a href="#Pg211" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">211</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Glass, painted, before and since the Reformation, <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">20</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gordon, Captain, on the dialects of Burmese, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Goropius, his work written to prove that Dutch was the language spoken in Paradise, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Gospel</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gothic, a modern language, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">similarity between Gothic and Latin, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>.</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page405">[pg 405]</span><a name="Pg405" id="Pg405" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">class of languages to which Gothic belongs, <a href="#Pg189" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">189</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">number of roots in it, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Goths, the, and Bishop Ulfilas, <a href="#Pg187" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">187</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Grammar, the criterion of relationship in almost all languages, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">English grammar unmistakably of Teutonic origin, <a href="#Pg085" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">85</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">no trace of grammar in ancient Chinese, <a href="#Pg086" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">86</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">early achievements of the Brahmans in grammar, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">and the Greeks, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of grammar, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">causes of the earnestness with which Greek grammar was taken up at Rome, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Hindú science of grammar, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin and history of Sanskrit grammar, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of grammatical forms, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">historical evidence, <a href="#Pg121" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">121</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">collateral evidence, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">genealogical classification, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">comparative value of grammar in the classification of languages, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">comparative grammar, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Bopp's <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Comparative Grammar,”</span> <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of grammatical forms, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">mode of tracing back the grammatical framework of the Aryan languages to original independent words, <a href="#Pg231" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">231-234</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">result of Bopp's <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Comparative Grammar,”</span> <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Aryan grammar, <a href="#Pg234" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">234</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Turkish grammar, <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">308</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Turkic grammar, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Grammatici, the, at Rome, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Greek language, the, studied and cultivated by the barbarians, Berosus, Menander, and Manetho, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">critical study of ancient Greek at Alexandria, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the first practical Greek grammar, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">generally spoken at Rome, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Greek, earnestness with which Greek grammar was taken up at Rome, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">principles which governed the formation of adjectives and genitives, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">spread of the Greek grammar, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">genitives in Greek, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the principle of classification, never applied to speech by the Greeks, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Greeks and Barbarians, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Plato's notion of the origin of the Greek language, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">similarity between Greek and Sanskrit, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">142</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">affinity between Sanskrit and Greek, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">formation of the dative in Greek, <a href="#Pg221" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">221</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the future in Greek, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">number of forms each verb in Greek yields, if conjugated through all its voices, tenses &c., <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">modern, number of the dialects of, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Greeks, their speculations on languages, <a href="#Pg089" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">89</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Grammarians, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">reasons why the ancient Greeks never thought of learning a foreign language, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">first encouragement given by trade to interpreters, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">imaginary travels of Greek philosophers, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Greek use of the term Barbarian, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gregory of Nyssa, St., his defence of St. Basil, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Grimm, on the origin of dialects in general, quoted, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on the idiom of nomads, quoted, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Teutonic Grammar,”</span> <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Growth of language, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">examination of the idea that man can change or improve language, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">causes of the growth of language, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Guichard, Estienne, his work on language, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Guebres. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">See</span></span> <a href="#index-parsis" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Parsis</a>. </div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page406">[pg 406]</span><a name="Pg406" id="Pg406" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Halhead, his remarks on the affinity between Greek and Sanskrit, quoted, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Code of Gentoo Laws,”</span> <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hamilton, Sir W., on the origin of the general and particular in language, <a href="#Pg377" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">377</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Harald Ilaarfagr, King of Norway, his despotic rule and its consequences, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Haru-spex, origin of the name, <a href="#Pg259" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">259</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Harun-al-Rashid, translations made from Sanskrit works at his court, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Haug, his labors in Zend, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Haussa language of Africa, family to which it belongs, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hebrew, idea of the fathers of the church that it was the primitive language of mankind, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">amount of learning and ingenuity wasted on this question, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Leibniz, the first who really conquered this prejudice, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">number of roots in, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ancient form of the, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Aramean modifications of, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">swept away by Arabic, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hekate, an old name of the moon, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Heljand,”</span> the, of the Low Germans, <a href="#Pg178" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">178</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hellenic branch of the Indo-European family of languages, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Herat, origin of the name, <a href="#Pg247" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">247</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hermippus, his translation of the works of Zoroaster into Greek, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Herodotus, his travels, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on the Pelasgi, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hervas, his reduction of the multitude of American dialects to eleven families, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his list of works published during the 16th century, on the science of language, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">account of him and of his labors, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compared with Gebelin, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his discovery of the Malay and Polynesian family of speech, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">141</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hickes, on the proportion of Saxon to Norman words in the English language, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Himyaritic, inscriptions in, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hindústání, real origin of, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the genitive and adjective in, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Urdu-zeban, the proper name of Hindústání, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hiouen-thsang, the Chinese pilgrim, his travels into India, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hiram, fleet of, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">History and language, connection between, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hliod, or quida, of Norway, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Saemund's collection of, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hoei-seng, the Chinese pilgrim to India, his travels, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Homer, critical study of, at Alexandria, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">influence of the critical study of, on the development of grammatical terminology, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Horace, on the changes Latin had undergone in his time, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Hors</span></span>, origin of the French word, <a href="#Pg123" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">123</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">House</span></span>, name for in Sanskrit, and other Aryan languages, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>, and <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Humanity, the word not to be found in Plato or Aristotle, <a href="#Pg128" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">128</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Humboldt, Alex. von, on the limits of exact knowledge, quoted, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Humboldt, William von, his patronage of Comparative Philology, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hungarians, ancestors of the, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">language of the, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">its affinity to the Ugro-Finnic dialects, <a href="#Pg321" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">321</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Huron Indians, rapid changes in the dialects of the, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hyades, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">17</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ibn-Wahshiyyah, the Chaldean, his Arabic translation of <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“the Nabatean Agriculture,”</span> <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">account of him and his works, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Iceland, foundation of an aristocratic republic in, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">intellectual and literary activity of the people of, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>.</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page407">[pg 407]</span><a name="Pg407" id="Pg407" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">later history of, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Icelandic language, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Iconium, Turkish, sultans of, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">307</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Illumination of Manuscripts, lost art of, <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">20</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Illyrians, Greek and Roman writers on the race and language of the, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Illyrian language, the ancient, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Illyrian languages, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">India, the Mulla Abdu-l-Kádir Maluk's general history of, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of the name of <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">India</span></span>, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Indian Philosophers, difficulty of admitting the influence of, on Greek philosophers, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Indies, East</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">West</span></span>, historical meaning of the names, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Indo-European family of languages. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">See</span></span> <a href="#index-aryan" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Aryan</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Inflectional stage of language, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Instrumental, formation of the, in Chinese, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Interjectional theory of roots, <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Interpreters, first encouragement given to, by trade, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Irán, modern name of Persia, origin of the, <a href="#Pg242" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">242</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Iranic class of languages, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Iron</span></span>, name for, in Sanskrit and Gothic, <a href="#Pg236" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">236</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Iron, the Os of the Caucasus calling themselves, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Italian dialects, number of, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">natural growth of, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">real sources of, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Italians, the, indebted to the Greeks for the very rudiments of civilization, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Italic class of languages, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Italy, dialects spoken in, before the rise of Rome, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Its</span></span>, as a possessive pronoun, introduction of, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jerome, St., his opinion that Hebrew was the primitive language of mankind, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jews, literary idiom of the, in the century preceding and following the Christian era, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">and from the fourth to the tenth centuries, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">their adoption of Arabic, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">their return to a kind of modernized Hebrew, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jones, Sir William, his remarks on the affinity between Sanskrit and Greek, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Julien, M. Stanislas, his notes on the Chinese language, <a href="#Pg118" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">118</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Justinian, the Emperor, sends an embassy to the Turks, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Kalewala,”</span> the, the <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Iliad”</span> of the Finns, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kalmüks, the, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kapchakian empire, the, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kara-Kalpak tribes near Aral-Lake, <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Karelian dialect of Finnic, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Karians, Greek authors on the, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kempe, André, his notion of the languages spoken in Paradise, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kepler, quoted, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Khi-nie, the Chinese pilgrim, his travels into India, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kirgis tribe, the, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">305</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kirgis Hordes, the three, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">305</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kirgis-Kasak, tribe of the, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">305</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kumüks, tribe of the, in the Caucasus, <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kuthami, the Nabatean, his work on <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Nabatean Agriculture,”</span> <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">period in which he lived, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Laban, language of, <a href="#Pg278" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">278</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Language, science of, one of the physical sciences, <a href="#Pg011" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">11</a>, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">31</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">modern date of the science of, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">names of the science of, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning of the science of, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">little it offers to the utilitarian spirit of our age, <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">20</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">modern importance of the science of, in political and social questions, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the barrier between man and beast, <a href="#Pg023" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">23</a>.</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page408">[pg 408]</span><a name="Pg408" id="Pg408" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">importance of the science of, <a href="#Pg033" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">33</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">realm of, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the growth of, in contradistinction to the history of, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Dr. Whewell on the classification of, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">examination of objections against the science of, as a physical science, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">considered as an invention of man, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the science of, considered as a historical science, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">historical changes of, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">almost stationary amongst highly civilized nations, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">growth of, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the idea that man can change or improve language examined, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">causes of the growth of, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">processes of the growth of:—</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">1. phonetic decay, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">2. dialectical regeneration, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">laws of change in, <a href="#Pg073" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">73</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">futile attempts of single grammarians and purists to improve, <a href="#Pg075" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">75</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">connection between language and history, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">independent of historical events, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">no possibility of a mixed, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Empirical Stage in the historical progress of the science of, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">speculations of the Brahmans and Greeks, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the classificatory stage of, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">empirical or formal grammar, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">genealogical classification of, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Hervas's catalogue of works published during the 16th century on the science of language, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Leibniz, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et seq</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Hervas, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Adelung, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">142</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Catherine the Great, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">importance of the discovery of Sanskrit, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">value of comparative grammar, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">glance at the modern history of language, <a href="#Pg173" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">173</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">distinction between the radical and formal elements of, <a href="#Pg215" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">215</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">constituent elements of, <a href="#Pg250" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">250</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">morphological classification, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the inflectional stage of, <a href="#Pg324" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">324</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">consideration of the problem of a common origin of languages, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et seq</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">former theories, <a href="#Pg345" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">345</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">proper method of inquiry, <a href="#Pg347" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">347</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">man and brutes, faculties of, <a href="#Pg350" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">350</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the difference between man and brute, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">354</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the inward power of which language is the outward sign and manifestation, <a href="#Pg355" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">355</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">universal ideas, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">general ideas and roots, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the primum cognitum and primum appellatum, <a href="#Pg370" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">370</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">knowing and naming, <a href="#Pg378" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">378</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">language and reason, <a href="#Pg383" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">383</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sound and thought, <a href="#Pg384" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">384</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">natural selection of roots, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">nothing arbitrary in language, <a href="#Pg389" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">389</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin and confusion of tongues, <a href="#Pg391" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">391</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the radical stage of language, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the terminational stage, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the inflectional stage, <a href="#Pg285" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">285</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Languages, number of known, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">teaching of foreign languages comparatively a modern invention, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">reason why the ancient Greeks never learned foreign languages, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“The Mountain of Languages,”</span> <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">genealogical classification of, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">tests for reducing the principal dialects in Europe and Asia to certain families of languages, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">174</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">genealogical classification not applicable to all languages, <a href="#Pg174" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">174</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">radical relationship, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">176</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">comparative grammar, <a href="#Pg214" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">214</a>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page409">[pg 409]</span><a name="Pg409" id="Pg409" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Languages, formal and radical elements of, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">all formal elements of language originally substantial, <a href="#Pg228" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">228</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">degrees of relationship of, <a href="#Pg284" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">284</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">all languages reducible in the end to roots, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Langue d'Oil, ancient song in the, <a href="#Pg198" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">198</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Laps, or Laplanders, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">their habitat, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">their language, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Latin, what is meant by, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">changes in, according to Polybius, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the old Salian poems, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">provincialisms of Cicero, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">stagnation of Latin when it became the language of civilization, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Latin genitives, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">similarity between Gothic and Latin, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">genealogical relation of Latin to Greek, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the future in Latin, <a href="#Pg230" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">230</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Leibniz, the first to conquer the prejudice that Hebrew was the primitive language of mankind, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">and the first to apply the principle of inductive reasoning to the subject of language, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his letter to Peter the Great, quoted, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his labors in the science of language, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">137</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his various studies, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on the formation of thought and language, quoted, <a href="#Pg373" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">373</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lesbos, dialects of the island of, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lettic language, the, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lewis, Sir Cornewall, his criticisms on the theory of Raynouard, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Linnæus, his system, although imperfect, important to science, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Literary languages, origin of, <a href="#Pg065" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">65</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">inevitable decay of, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lithuanian language, the, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the oldest document in, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Livius Andronicus, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his translation of the Odyssey into Latin verse, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Livonians, dialect of the, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Locative, formation of the, in all the Aryan languages, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Chinese, <a href="#Pg119" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">119</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>, <a href="#Pg218" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">218</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Latin, <a href="#Pg220" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">220</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Locke, John, on language as the barrier between man and brutes, quoted, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on universal ideas, quoted, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his opinion on the origin of language, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Lord</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lord's Prayer, number of languages in which it was published by various authors in the 16th century, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lucilius, his book on the reform of Latin orthography, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lucina, a name of the moon, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Luna, origin of the name, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lusatia, language of, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lycurgus, his travels mythical, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Macedonians, ancient authors on the, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Madam</span></span>, origin of word, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mago, the Carthaginian, his book on agriculture in Punic, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Man</span></span>, ancient words for, <a href="#Pg381" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">381</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Man and brutes, faculties of, <a href="#Pg349" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">349</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">difference between man and brutes, <a href="#Pg354" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">354</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mandshu tribes, speaking a Tungusic language, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">grammar of, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">imitative sounds in, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Manetho, his study and cultivation of the Greek language, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his work on Egypt, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his knowledge of hieroglyphics, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Manka, the Indian, his translations from Sanskrit into Persian, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Masora, idiom in which it was written, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Maulána Izzu-d-din Khalid Khani, his translations from Sanskrit into Persian, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Même</span></span>, origin of the French word, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Menander, his study and cultivation of the Greek language, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his work on Phenicia, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mendaïtes, or Nasoreans, the <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Book of Adam”</span> of the, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page410">[pg 410]</span><a name="Pg410" id="Pg410" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Ment</span></span>, origin of the termination in French adverbs, <a href="#Pg055" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">55</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mescheräks, tribe of the, their present settlements, <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Milton, John, number of words used by, in his works, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ming-ti, the Emperor of China, allows the introduction of Buddhism into his empire, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sends officials to India to study the doctrines of Buddha, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Missionaries, their importance in elucidating the problem of the dialectical life of language, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Moallakat, or <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“suspended poems,”</span> of the Arabs, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Moffat, Rev. Robert, on the dialects of Southern Africa, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Monboddo, Lord, on language as the barrier between man and brutes, quoted, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Ancient Metaphysics”</span> quoted, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a> and <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mongolian dialects, entering a new phase of grammatical life, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mongolian class of languages, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">grammar of, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mongols, their original seat, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">three classes of them, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">their conquests, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">dissolution of the empire, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">their present state, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">their language, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Moon</span></span>, antiquity of the word, <a href="#Pg016" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">16</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Moravia, devastated by the Mongols, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Mortal</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg382" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">382</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Much</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Very</span></span>, distinction between, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Muhammed ben Musa, his translation of the Indian treatise on algebra into Arabic, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mythology, real nature of, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>, <a href="#Pg237" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">237</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nabateans, the, supposed to have been descendants of the Babylonians and Chaldeans, <a href="#Pg279" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">279</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the work of Kuthami on <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Nabatean Agriculture,”</span> <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">National languages, origin of, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nature, immutability of, in all her works, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Dr. Whewell quoted, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nebuchadnezzar, his name stamped on all the bricks made during his reign, <a href="#Pg283" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">283</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Neo-Latin dialects, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Νεμέτζιοι, the, of Constantinus Porphyrogeneta, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nestorians of Syria, forms and present condition of their language, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>, <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nicopolis, battle of, <a href="#Pg307" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">307</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">No</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">nay</span></span>, as used by Chaucer, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nobili, Roberto de, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his study of Sanskrit, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nogái tribes, history of the, <a href="#Pg303" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">303</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nomad languages, <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">indispensable requirements of a nomad language, <a href="#Pg292" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">292</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">wealth of, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">nomadic tribes and their wars, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">their languages, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nominalism and Realism, controversy between, in the Middle Ages, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Norman words in the English language, proportion of, to Saxon words, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Norway, poetry of, <a href="#Pg192" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">192</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">hliod</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">quida</span></span>,<a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the two Eddas, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191-194</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Norwegian language, stagnation of the, <a href="#Pg070" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">70</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Number of known languages, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Obsolete words and senses since the translation of the Bible in 1611, <a href="#Pg045" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">45</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Onomatopoieia, theory of, <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ophir of the Bible, <a href="#Pg203" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">203</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Origen, his opinion that Hebrew was the primitive language of mankind, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Origin of language, consideration of the problem of the common, <a href="#Pg326" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">326</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">et seq.</span></span></div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-ormuzd" id="index-ormuzd" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ormuzd, the god of the Zoroastrians, mentioned by Plato, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">discovery of the name Auramazda in the cuneiform inscriptions, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of the name Auramazda or Ormuzd, <a href="#Pg207" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">207</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Os, the, of Ossethi, calling themselves Iron, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page411">[pg 411]</span><a name="Pg411" id="Pg411" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Oscan language and literature, the <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Osmanli language, the, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ostiakes, dialects of the, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Owl-glass, stories of, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pâli, once the popular dialect of Behar, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Panætius, the Stoic philosopher at Rome, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pânini, Sanskrit grammar of, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pantomime, the, and the King, story of, <a href="#Pg368" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">368</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Paolino de San Bartolomeo, Fra, first Sanskrit grammar published by, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">142</a>, <a href="#Pg158" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">158</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Paradise, languages supposed by various authors to have been spoken in, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Parsi, period when it was spoken in Persia, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-parsis" id="index-parsis" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Parsis, or fire-worshippers, the ancient, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">their prosperous colony in Bombay, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">their various emigrations, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">their ancient language, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a>, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pascatir race, the, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Pater</span></span>, origin of the Latin word, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Pay, to</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>,</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pedro, Padre, the missionary at Calicut, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pehlevi, or Huzvaresh language, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pelasgi, Herodotus on the, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Dionysius of Halicarnassus on the, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Percussion</span></span>, etymology of, <a href="#Pg053" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">53</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Perion, his work on language, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Permian tribes and language, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Permic branch of the Finnic class of languages, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the name of Perm, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Permic tribes, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Persia, origin of the Turkman, or Kisilbash of, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Persian language, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">influence of the, over the Turkish language, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the ancient Persian language. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">See</span></span> <a href="#index-zend" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Zend</a>, <a href="#index-zend-avesta" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Zend-avesta</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Persian, subsequent history of Persian, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Peshito</span></span>, meaning of the word, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Philolaus, the Pythagorean, his guess on the motion of the earth round the sun, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Philology, comparative, science of, <a href="#Pg031" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">31</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">a historical science, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">aim of the science, <a href="#Pg081" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">81</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Phœnician, closely allied to Hebrew, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Plato, his notion of the origin of the Greek language, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on Zoroaster, quoted, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Plautus, Greek words in the plays of, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">all his plays mere adaptations of Greek originals, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Pleiades</span></span>, the, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg017" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">17</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Poland invaded by the Mongols, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Polish, oldest specimens of, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Polybius, on the changes Latin had undergone in his time, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pons, Father, his report of the literary treasures of the Brahmans, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pott, Professor, his <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Etymological Researches,”</span> <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his advocacy of the polygenetic theory, <a href="#Pg342" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">342</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Prâkrit idioms, the, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Prâtiśâkhyas, the, of the Brahmans, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Priest</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg122" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">122</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Priscianus, influence of his grammatical work on later ages, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Protagoras, his attempt to change and improve the language of Homer, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Provençal, the daughter of Latin, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">not the mother of French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the earliest Provençal poem, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Prussian, the old, language and literature of, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ptolemy, his system of astronomy, although wrong, important to science, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ptolemy Philadelphus and the Septuagint, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page412">[pg 412]</span><a name="Pg412" id="Pg412" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ptōsis, meaning of the word in the language of the Stoics, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Publius Crassus, his knowledge of the Greek dialects, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pushtú, the language of Afghanistan, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pythagoras, his travels mythical, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pyrrha, original meaning of the name, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Quatremère on the Ophir of the Bible, <a href="#Pg204" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">204</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Quinsy</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">380</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Quintilian, on the changes Latin had undergone in his time, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on the omission of the final <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></span> in Latin, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Radical relationship of languages, <a href="#Pg176" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">176</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Radicals. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">See</span></span> <a href="#index-roots" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Roots</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rask, Erasmus, his studies of Zend, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Raven</span></span>, the word, <a href="#Pg362" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">362</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Raynouard, his labors in comparative grammar, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">criticisms of his theory of the Langue Romane, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Realism and Nominalism, controversy between, in the Middle Ages, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Regeneration, dialectical, one of the processes which comprise the growth of language, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Respectable</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg256" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">256</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Reval dialect of Esthonian, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rig-Veda, the, quoted, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Romance languages, their Latin origin, <a href="#Pg170" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">170</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">modifications of, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">their origin in the ancient Italic languages, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Romane, the Langue, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Romanese language of the Grisons, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">translation of the Bible into, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">lower, or Enghadine, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Romans, their use of the term Barbarian, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rome, Greek generally spoken at, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">influence of Greece on Rome <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">changes in the intellectual atmosphere of, caused by Greek civilization, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the religious life of Rome more Greek than Roman, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">expulsion of the Greek grammarians and philosophers from Rome, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">compromise between religion and philosophy, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">wide interest excited by grammatical studies in Roman society, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-roots" id="index-roots" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Roots or radicals, <a href="#Pg252" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">252</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">classes of roots, primary, secondary, and tertiary, <a href="#Pg262" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">262-264</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">demonstrative and predicative roots, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">how many forms of speech may be produced by the free combination of these constituent elements, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">all languages reducible in the end to roots, <a href="#Pg286" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">286</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the radical stage of language, <a href="#Pg287" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">287</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">general ideas and roots, <a href="#Pg356" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">356</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of roots, <a href="#Pg357" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">357</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the bow-wow theory, <a href="#Pg358" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">358</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the pooh-pooh theory, <a href="#Pg366" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">366</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">natural selection of roots, <a href="#Pg386" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">386</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Russia devastated by the Mongols, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sabius, a word not found in classical Latin, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-saenund" id="index-saenund" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sænund, Sigfusson, his collection of songs in Iceland, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sagard Gabriel, on the languages of the Hurons, quoted, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Salian poems, the, and later Latin, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sálotar, translation of his work on veterinary medicine from Sanskrit into Persian, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sanskrit, formation of adjectives in, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">grammar, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">similarity between Greek and, <a href="#Pg142" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">142</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">importance of the discovery of, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>.</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page413">[pg 413]</span><a name="Pg413" id="Pg413" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">history of the language, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">doubts as to its age and authenticity examined, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">accounts given by writers of various nations who became acquainted with the language and literature of India, <a href="#Pg148" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">148</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Muhammedans in India, and their translations of Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">European Missionaries, <a href="#Pg155" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">155</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">studies and work of Frederick Schlegel, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">importance of the discovery of, in the classification of languages, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">its genealogical relation to Greek and Latin, <a href="#Pg172" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">172</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">antiquity of, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Iranic languages, relation to, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">formation of the locative in, <a href="#Pg219" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">219</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">number of roots in, <a href="#Pg265" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">265</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sassanian dynasty, Persian language of the, <a href="#Pg210" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">210</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Saxon language, proportion of Saxon to Norman words in the English language, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Savage tribes, rapid changes which take place in the languages of, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Scaliger, I. I., his <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Diatribe de Europæorum Linguis,”</span> <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Scandinavian branch of the Teutonic class of languages, <a href="#Pg190" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">190</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the East and West Scandinavian races, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Schlegel, Frederick, his Sanskrit studies, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his work <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“On the Language and Wisdom of the Indians,”</span> <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">how his work was taken up in Germany, <a href="#Pg166" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">166</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his view of the origin of language, <a href="#Pg216" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">216</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">August W. von, his <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Indische Bibliothek,”</span> <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his criticism of the theory of Raynouard, <a href="#Pg171" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">171</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sciences, uniformity in the history of most, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the empirical stage, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sciences, the necessity that science should answer some practical purpose, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the classificatory stage, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the theoretical or metaphysical stage, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">impulses received by the physical sciences from the philosopher and poet, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">difference between physical and historical science, <a href="#Pg032" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">32</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Scipios, influence of the <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Cosmopolitan Club”</span> at the house of the, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Scythian words mentioned by Greek writers, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Semitic family of languages, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">43</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">study of, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">constituent elements of the, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">divisions of the Semitic family of speech, <a href="#Pg275" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">275</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Aramaic class, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Hebraic class, <a href="#Pg280" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">280</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Arabic class, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">intimate relations of the three classes to each other, <a href="#Pg281" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">281</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Berber dialects, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Semitic and Aryan, the only <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">families</span></span> of speech deserving that title, <a href="#Pg282" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">282</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">genealogical table, <a href="#Pg396" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">396</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Senior</span></span>, the title, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Septuagint, the, and Ptolemy Philadelphus, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Serpent</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg380" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">380</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shakespeare, William, total number of words used by, in his plays, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Siberia, Tungusic tribes of, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Turkic tribes settled there, in, <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">dialects, <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Sibulla</span></span>, meaning of the word, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sibylla of Cumæ, oracles of the, written in Greek, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sigfusson. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">See </span></span> <a href="#index-saenund" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Sænund</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sigismund, the Emperor, and the Bohemian schoolmaster, anecdote of, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Silesia invaded by the Mongols, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Sir</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg226" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">226</a>, <a href="#Pg227" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">227</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Siriane tribes, their habitat, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">their language, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Sister</span></span>, origin of, <a href="#Pg057" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">57</a>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page414">[pg 414]</span><a name="Pg414" id="Pg414" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Skalda,”</span> the, of Snorri Sturluson, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Slavonic tribes, their settlement in Moesia, <a href="#Pg196" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">196</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">languages, properly so called, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Slovinian language, the, <a href="#Pg200" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">200</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Smith, Adam, his opinion on the origin of language, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on the formation of thought and language, quoted, <a href="#Pg371" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">371</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Sydney, on the superiority of mankind over brutes, quoted, <a href="#Pg348" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">348</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-snorri" id="index-snorri" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Snorri Sturluson, his prose Edda, <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Heimskringla,”</span> <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his <span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Skalda,”</span> <a href="#Pg193" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">193</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Solomon's fleet of Tharshish, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Song-yun, the Chinese pilgrim to India, his travels, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sound, small number of names formed by the imitation of, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Spec</span></span>, offshoots of the root, <a href="#Pg257" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">257</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Species</span></span>, origin of the Latin, <a href="#Pg260" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">260</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Squirrel</span></span>, origin of the name, <a href="#Pg365" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">365</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stewart, Dugald, his opinion on the origin of language, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his doubts as to the age and authenticity of Sanskrit, <a href="#Pg147" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">147</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his view of the affinity of Greek and Sanskrit, <a href="#Pg164" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">164</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">on the origin of language, quoted, <a href="#Pg343" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">343</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Stoics, philosophy of the, in Rome, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Strabo on the Barbarians, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sturluson. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">See</span></span> <a href="#index-snorri" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Snorri</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Sugar</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">364</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Swedish language, growth of the, <a href="#Pg071" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">71</a>, <a href="#Pg191" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">191</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Syria, origin of the Turks of, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Syriac language, date of the translation of the Bible into the, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning of Peshito, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">decline and present position of the language, <a href="#Pg276" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">276</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Talmud of Jerusalem, and that of Babylon, literary idiom of the Jews in the, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Targums, language in which they were written, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Targums, most celebrated of them, <a href="#Pg277" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">277</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left">“Tarikhu-l-Hind,”</span> the, of Al Birúni, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tatar tribes, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">terror caused by the name, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Golden Horde, <a href="#Pg298" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">298</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tataric language, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">sometimes used in the same sense as Turanian, <a href="#Pg297" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">297</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tavastian dialect of Finnic, <a href="#Pg318" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">318</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Terminations, grammatical, Horne Tooke's remarks on, quoted, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Terminology, grammatical of the Greeks and Hindus, coincidences between the, <a href="#Pg115" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">115</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Testament, the New, translated into Persian, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Old, number of words in the, <a href="#Pg267" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">267</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Teutonic class of languages, <a href="#Pg177" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">177</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the English language, a branch of, <a href="#Pg080" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">80</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tharshish, Solomon's fleet of, <a href="#Pg202" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">202</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Themistocles, his acquaintance with the Persian language, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Thommerel, M., on the proportion Saxon words bear to Norman in the English language, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Thracians, ancient authors on the, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Thunder</span></span>, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg364" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">364</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tiberius Gracchus, his knowledge of Greek, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tiberius the Emperor, and the grammarians, anecdote of, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tibetan language, how adjectives are formed in the, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Timur, Mongolian empire of, <a href="#Pg299" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">299</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tooke, Horne, on grammatical terminations, quoted, <a href="#Pg251" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">251</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his answer to the interjectional theory of roots, <a href="#Pg367" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">367</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Torgod Mongols, the, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Trade first encouraged the profession of interpreters, <a href="#Pg093" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">93</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Turanian family of languages, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">43</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of term Turanian, <a href="#Pg238" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">238</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Turanian races, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Turanian names mentioned by Greek writers, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">component parts of Turanian speech, <a href="#Pg272" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">272</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tungusic idioms, new phase of grammatical life of the, <a href="#Pg064" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">64</a>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page415">[pg 415]</span><a name="Pg415" id="Pg415" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tungusic class of languages, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">geographical limits of the, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">grammar of, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Turanian family of languages, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">a terminational or agglutinative family of languages, <a href="#Pg288" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">288</a>, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">divisions of the Turanian family, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">289</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the name Turanian, <a href="#Pg289" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">289</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">characteristic features of the Turanian languages, <a href="#Pg290" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">290</a>, <a href="#Pg291" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">291</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">account of the languages of the Turanian family, <a href="#Pg296" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">296</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">genealogical table, <a href="#Pg397" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">397</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Turkic class of languages, <a href="#Pg300" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">300</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">grammar, <a href="#Pg309" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">309</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">profuse system of conjugation, <a href="#Pg323" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">323</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Turkish language, influence of imported words over the whole native aspect of the, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">two classes of vowels in, <a href="#Pg295" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">295</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">ingenuity of Turkish grammar, <a href="#Pg308" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">308</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">its advance towards inflectional forms, <a href="#Pg337" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">337</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Turkman, or Kisil-bash, origin of the, of Persia, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Turks, history of the, <a href="#Pg301" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">301</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of the Turks of Asia Minor and Syria, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin and progress of the Osmanlis, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">spread of the Osmanli dialect, <a href="#Pg306" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">306</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Turner, Sharon, on the proportion of Norman to Saxon words in the English language, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Turvasa, the Turanian, <a href="#Pg243" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">243</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Twenty, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg052" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">52</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ugric branch of the Finnic class of languages, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ulfilas, Bishop, notice of him and of his Gothic translation of the Bible, <a href="#Pg181" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">181</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Umbrian language and literature, <a href="#Pg197" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">197</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Upanishads, the, translated from Sanskrit into Persian by Dárá, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">translated into French by Anquetil Duperron, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Uralic languages, <a href="#Pg315" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">315</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Uran'hat tribes, on the Chulym, <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Urdu-zeban, the proper name of Hindustání, <a href="#Pg316" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">316</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Usbeks, history of the, <a href="#Pg302" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">302</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vâch, the goddess of speech, her verses quoted from the Rig-Veda, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Varro, de Re Rust, on Mago's Carthaginian agricultural work, quoted, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his work on the Latin language, <a href="#Pg109" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">109</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">appointed by Cæsar librarian to the Greek and Latin library in Rome, <a href="#Pg110" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">110</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vasco da Gama, takes a missionary to Calicut, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vedas, the, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">differences between the dialect of the Vedas and later Sanskrit, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">objections of the Brahmans to allow the Vedas to be translated, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">story of Feizi, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Verbs, formation of the terminations of, in the Aryan dialects, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">modern formations, <a href="#Pg222" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">222</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Very</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">much</span></span>, distinction between, <a href="#Pg048" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">48</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vibhakti, in Sanskrit grammar, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Voguls, the, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Votiakes, idiom of the, <a href="#Pg319" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">319</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">habitat of the, <a href="#Pg320" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">320</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Vyâkarana, Sanskrit name for grammar, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wallachian language, the, <a href="#Pg195" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">195</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wends, language of the, <a href="#Pg201" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">201</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Whewell, Dr., on the science of language, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Wilkins, Mr., on the affinity between Sanskrit and Greek, <a href="#Pg160" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">160</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Windic, or Slavonic languages, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">divisions and subdivisions of, <a href="#Pg199" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">199</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Witsen, Nicholas, the Dutch traveller, his collection of words, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page416">[pg 416]</span><a name="Pg416" id="Pg416" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Xavier, Francis, his organization of the preaching of the Gospel in India, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his gift of tongues, <a href="#Pg154" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">154</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Yakuts, tribe of the, <a href="#Pg304" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">304</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">dialect of the, <a href="#Pg305" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">305</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Yea</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Yes</span></span>, as used by Chaucer, <a href="#Pg225" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">225</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-zend" id="index-zend" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zend, Rask's studies of, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Burnouf's, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<a name="index-zend-avesta" id="index-zend-avesta" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zend-avesta, the, <a href="#Pg167" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">167</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">antiquity of, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a>, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the words <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Zend</span></span> and <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">Zend-avesta</span></span>, <a href="#Pg205" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">205</a> <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Anquetil's translation of, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Rask and Burnouf's labors, <a href="#Pg206" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">206</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zend-avesta, authority of the Zend-avesta for the antiquity of the word Arya, <a href="#Pg239" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">239</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zenodotus, his restoration of the article before proper names in Homer, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the first to recognize the dual, <a href="#Pg099" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">99</a>. </div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zeus, original meaning of the word, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zoroaster, or Zarathustra, his writings (the Zend-avesta) translated into Greek, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">translated by Anquetil Duperron, <a href="#Pg168" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">168</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">his Gâthâs, or songs, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">age in which he lived, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">not the same as Jaradashti in the Veda, <a href="#Pg209" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">209</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Zoroastrians. <span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">See</span></span> <a href="#index-parsis" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">Parsis</a>.</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">original seat of the, <a href="#Pg248" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">248</a>.</div> +</div> + +</div> + +</div> +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-back" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc27" id="toc27"></a> + <a name="pdf28" id="pdf28"></a> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1> + <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes"><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href="#noteref_1">1.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Jessen, Was heisst Botanik? 1861.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href="#noteref_2">2.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Kuhn's Zeitschrift +für Vergleichende Sprachforschung, b. ix. s. 104.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href="#noteref_3">3.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Horne +Tooke, p. 27, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href="#noteref_4">4.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Curtius, Griechische Etymologie, s. +297.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href="#noteref_5">5.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ideler, Handbuch der +Chronologie, b. i. s. 241, 242.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href="#noteref_6">6.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">As early +as the times of Anaximenes of the Ionic, and Alcmæon of the +Pythagorean, schools, the stars had been divided into travelling (ἄστρα +πλανώμενα or πλανητά), and non-travelling stars (ἀπλανεῖς ἀστέρες, or +ἀπλανῆ ἄστρα). Aristotle first used ἄστρα ἐνδεδεμένα, or fixed stars. (See +Humboldt, Cosmos, vol. iii. p. 28.) Πόλος, the pivot, hinge, or the pole of +the heaven.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href="#noteref_7">7.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bunsen's Egypt, vol. +iv. p. 108.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href="#noteref_8">8.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">According to a writer in +<span class="tei tei-q">“Notes and Queries”</span> (2d Series, vol. x. p. +500,) astrology is not so entirely extinct as we suppose. <span class="tei tei-q">“One of our principal +writers,”</span> he states, <span class="tei tei-q">“one of our leading barristers, and several members +of the various antiquarian societies, are practised astrologers at this +hour. But no one cares to let his studies be known, so great is the prejudice +that confounds an art requiring the highest education with the jargon +of the gypsy fortune-teller.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href="#noteref_9">9.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Man +has two faculties, or two passive powers, the existence of which +is generally acknowledged; 1, the faculty of receiving the different impressions +caused by external objects, physical sensibility; and 2, the faculty +of preserving the impressions caused by these objects, called memory, or +weakened sensation. These faculties, the productive causes of thought, +we have in common with beasts.... Everything is reducible to +feeling.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Helvetius</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href="#noteref_10">10.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“The +generative organs being those which are most remotely related +to the habits and food of an animal, I have always regarded as affording +very clear indications of its true affinities.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Owen, +as quoted by Darwin, +Origin of Species</span></span>, p. 414.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href="#noteref_11">11.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Die Pflanze und ihr Leben, +von M. T. Schleiden. Leipzig, 1858.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href="#noteref_12">12.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir J. Stoddart, +Glossology, p. 22.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href="#noteref_13">13.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. Whewell classes the science +of language as one of the palaitiological +sciences; but he makes a distinction between palaitiological sciences +treating of material things, for instance, geology, and others respecting +the products which result from man's imaginative and social endowments, +for instance, comparative philology. He excludes the latter from the circle +of the physical sciences, properly so called, but he adds: <span class="tei tei-q">“We began +our inquiry with the trust that any sound views which we should be able +to obtain respecting the nature of truth in the physical sciences, and the +mode of discovering it, must also tend to throw light upon the nature and +prospects of knowledge of all other kinds;—must be useful to us in moral, +political, and philological researches. We stated this as a confident anticipation; +and the evidence of the justice of our belief already begins to appear. +We have seen that biology leads us to psychology, if we choose to +follow the path; and thus the passage from the material to the immaterial +has already unfolded itself at one point; and we now perceive that there +are several large provinces of speculation which concern subjects belonging +to man's immaterial nature, and which are governed by the same laws +as sciences altogether physical. It is not our business to dwell on the +prospects which our philosophy thus opens to our contemplation; but we +may allow ourselves, in this last stage of our pilgrimage among the +foundations of the physical sciences, to be cheered and animated by the +ray that thus beams upon us, however dimly, from a higher and brighter +region.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Indications of the Creator</span></span>, p. 146.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href="#noteref_14">14.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gen. ii. 19.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href="#noteref_15">15.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">St. +Basil was accused by Eunomius of denying Divine Providence, because +he would not admit that God had created the names of all things, +but ascribed the invention of language to the faculties which God had implanted +in man. St. Gregory, bishop of Nyssa in Cappadocia (331-396), +defended St. Basil. <span class="tei tei-q">“Though God has given to human nature its faculties,”</span> +he writes, <span class="tei tei-q">“it does not follow that therefore He produces all the actions +which we perform. He has given us the faculty of building a house +and doing any other work; but we surely are the builders, and not He. In +the same manner our faculty of speaking is the work of Him who has so +framed our nature; but the invention of words for naming each object is +the work of our mind.”</span> See Ladevi-Roche, De l'Origine du Langage: +Bordeaux, 1860, p. 14. Also, Horne Tooke, Diversions of Purley, p. 19.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href="#noteref_16">16.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">D. Stewart, Works, vol. iii. p. 27.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_17" name="note_17" href="#noteref_17">17.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">History of +Inductive Sciences, vol. iii. p. 531.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_18" name="note_18" href="#noteref_18">18.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Names ending +in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ic</span></span>, are names of classes as distinct from the names of single +languages.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_19" name="note_19" href="#noteref_19">19.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lectures on the English Language, by G. P. Marsh: New York, +1860, p. 263 and 630. These lectures embody the result of much careful research, +and are full of valuable observations.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_20" name="note_20" href="#noteref_20">20.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marsh, p. 532, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_21" name="note_21" href="#noteref_21">21.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marsh, +p. 589.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_22" name="note_22" href="#noteref_22">22.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir +J. Stoddart, Glossology, p. 60.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_23" name="note_23" href="#noteref_23">23.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Trench, English Past +and Present, p. 114; Marsh, p. 397.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_24" name="note_24" href="#noteref_24">24.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">As several +of my reviewers have found fault with the monk for using +the genitive <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">neutri</span></em>, instead of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">neutrius</span></em>, I beg to refer to Priscianus, 1. vi. +c. i. and c. vii. The expression +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">generis neutrius</span></em>, though frequently used by +modern editors, has no authority, I believe, in ancient +Latin.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_25" name="note_25" href="#noteref_25">25.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Castelvetro, in +Horne Tooke, p. 629, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_26" name="note_26" href="#noteref_26">26.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bopp, Comparative Grammar, § 320. +Schleicher, Deutsche Sprache, s. +233.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_27" name="note_27" href="#noteref_27">27.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Foucaux, Grammaire Tibetaine, p. +27, and Preface, p. x.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_28" name="note_28" href="#noteref_28">28.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Fuchs, +Romanische Sprachen, s. 355.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_29" name="note_29" href="#noteref_29">29.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Quint., +v. 10, 52. Bonâ mente factum, ideo palam; malâ, ideo ex insidiis.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_30" name="note_30" href="#noteref_30">30.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sanskrit +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em> = Persian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">h</span></em>; therefore <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">svasar</span></em> = +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hvahar</span></em>. This becomes <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">chohar</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">chor</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cho</span></em>. Zend, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">qaņha</span></em>, acc. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">qaņharem</span></em>, Persian, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kháher</span></em>. Bopp, +Comp. Gram. § 35.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_31" name="note_31" href="#noteref_31">31.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Schleicher, +Beiträge, b. ii. s. 392: <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dci</span></em> = +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dŭgti</span></em>; gen. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dcere</span></em> = <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dŭgtere</span></em>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_32" name="note_32" href="#noteref_32">32.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hui</span></em> = +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hodie</span></em>, Ital. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">oggi</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">oggidi</span></em>; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">jour</span></em> = <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">diurnum</span></em>, from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dies</span></em>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_33" name="note_33" href="#noteref_33">33.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +M. M.'s Letter to Chevalier Bunsen, On the Turanian Languages, +p. 67.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_34" name="note_34" href="#noteref_34">34.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +Marsh, p. 678; Sir John Stoddart's Glossology, s. 31.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_35" name="note_35" href="#noteref_35">35.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Glossology, p. 33.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_36" name="note_36" href="#noteref_36">36.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid., p. 29.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_37" name="note_37" href="#noteref_37">37.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Nea +Pandora, 1859, Nos. 227, 229. Zeitschrift für Vergleichende +Sprachforschung, x. s. 190.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_38" name="note_38" href="#noteref_38">38.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Grimm, +Geschichte der Deutschen Sprache, p. 668: Marsh, p. 379.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_39" name="note_39" href="#noteref_39">39.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Some people, who +may have been taught to consider the Dorset dialect +as having originated from corruption of the written English, may not +be prepared to hear that it is not only a separate offspring from the Anglo-Saxon +tongue, but purer, and in some cases richer, than the dialect which +is chosen as the national speech.”</span>—Barnes, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Poems in Dorset Dialect</span></span>, Preface, +p. xiv.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_40" name="note_40" href="#noteref_40">40.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Geschichte +der Deutschen Sprache, s. 833.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_41" name="note_41" href="#noteref_41">41.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny, +vi. 5; Hervas, Catalogo, i. 118.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_42" name="note_42" href="#noteref_42">42.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pliny +depends on Timosthenes, whom Strabo declares untrustworthy +(ii. p. 93, ed. Casaub.) Strabo himself says of Dioscurias, συνέρχεσθαι ἐς +αὐτὴν ἐβδομήκοντα, οἱ δὲ καὶ τριακόσια ἔθνη φασίν οἴς οὐδὲν τῶν ὄντων +υέλει (x. p. 498). The last words refer probably to +Timosthenes.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_43" name="note_43" href="#noteref_43">43.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Du Ponceau, p. 110.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_44" name="note_44" href="#noteref_44">44.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">S. F. Waldeck, +Lettre à M. Jomard des environs de Palenqué, Amérique +Centrale. (<span class="tei tei-q">“Il ne pouvait se servir, en 1833, d'un vocabulaire composé +avec beaucoup de soin dix ans auparavant.”</span>)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_45" name="note_45" href="#noteref_45">45.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Catalogo, +i. 393.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_46" name="note_46" href="#noteref_46">46.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Turanian +Languages, p. 114.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_47" name="note_47" href="#noteref_47">47.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid., p. 233.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_48" name="note_48" href="#noteref_48">48.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Turanian Languages, p. 30.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_49" name="note_49" href="#noteref_49">49.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Quintilian, +ix. 4. <span class="tei tei-q">“Nam neque Lucilium putant uti eadem (s) ultima, +cum dicit Serenu fuit, et Dignu loco. Quin etiam Cicero in Oratore plures +antiquorum tradit sic locutos.”</span> In some phrases the final <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">s</span></em> was omitted in +conversation; <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">abin</span></em> for abisne, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">viden</span></em> for videsne, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">opu'st</span></em> for opus est, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">conabere</span></em> for conaberis.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_50" name="note_50" href="#noteref_50">50.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marsh, Lectures, pp. 133, 368.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_51" name="note_51" href="#noteref_51">51.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“There are fewer +local peculiarities of form and articulation in our vast +extent of territory (U. S.), than on the comparatively narrow soil of Great +Britain.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Marsh</span></span>, p. 667.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_52" name="note_52" href="#noteref_52">52.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marsh, Lectures, pp. 181, 590.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_53" name="note_53" href="#noteref_53">53.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +Gothic forms <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sijum</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sijuth</span></em>, are not organic. They are either +derived by false analogy from the third person plural <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sind</span></em>, or +a new base <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sij</span></em> was derived from the subjunctive <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sijau</span></em>, +Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">syâm</span></em>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_54" name="note_54" href="#noteref_54">54.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Some +excellent statistics on the exact proportion of Saxon and Latin +in various English writers, are to be found in Marsh's Lectures on the English +Language, p. 120, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span> and 181, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_55" name="note_55" href="#noteref_55">55.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“En este +estado, que es el primer paso que las naciones dan para mudar +de lengua, estaba quarenta años ha la araucana en las islas de Chiloue (como +he oido á los jesuitas sus misioneros), en donde los araucanos apénas proferian +palabra que no fuese española; mas la proferian con el artificio y órden +de su lengua nativa, llamada araucana.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hervas, +Catalogo</span></span>, t. i. p. 16. +<span class="tei tei-q">“Este artificio ha sido en mi observacion el principal medio de que me he +valido para conocer la afinidad ó diferencia de las lenguas conocidas, y reducirlas +á determinadas classes.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ibid.</span></span>, p. 23.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_56" name="note_56" href="#noteref_56">56.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Colebrooke, Miscellaneous +Essays, i. 32. The following verses are pronounced +by Vâch, the goddess of speech, in the 125th hymn of the 10th +book of the Rig-Veda: <span class="tei tei-q">“Even I myself say this (what is) welcome to Gods +and to men: <span class="tei tei-q">‘Whom I love, him I make strong, him I make a Brahman, +him a great prophet, him I make wise. For Rudra (the god of thunder) I +bend the bow, to slay the enemy, the hater of the Brahmans. For the +people I make war; I pervade heaven and earth. I bear the father on the +summit of this world; my origin is in the water in the sea; from thence I +go forth among all beings, and touch this heaven with my height. I myself +breathe forth like the wind, embracing all beings; above this heaven, +beyond this earth, such am I in greatness.’</span> ”</span> See also Atharva-Veda, iv. +30; xix. 9, 3. Muir, Sanskrit Texts, part iii. pp. 108, +150.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_57" name="note_57" href="#noteref_57">57.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir +John Stoddart, Glossology, p. 276.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_58" name="note_58" href="#noteref_58">58.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Turks applied the Polish +name <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Niemiec</span></em> to the Austrians. As early +as Constantinus Porphyrogeneta, cap. 30, Νεμέτζιοι was used for the German +race of the Bavarians. (Pott, Indo-Germ. Sp. s. 44. Leo, Zeitschrift +für Vergleichende Sprachforschung, b. ii. s. 258.) Russian, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">njemez'</span></em>; Slovenian, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nĕmec</span></em>; Bulgarian, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">némec</span></em>; +Polish, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">niemiec</span></em>; Lusatian, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">njemc</span></em>, mean +German. Russian, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">njemo</span></em>, indistinct; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">njemyi</span></em>, +dumb; Slovenian, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nĕm</span></em>, dumb; +Bulgarian, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nêm</span></em>, dumb; Polish, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">njemy</span></em>, +dumb; Lusatian, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">njemy</span></em>, dumb.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_59" name="note_59" href="#noteref_59">59.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Leo, Zeitschrift für Vergl. Sprachf. b. ii. s. 252.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_60" name="note_60" href="#noteref_60">60.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Humboldt's Cosmos, vol. ii. p. 141.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_61" name="note_61" href="#noteref_61">61.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This shows how difficult it would be to admit that any +influence was exercised by Indian on Greek philosophers. Pyrrhon, if we may believe +Alexander Polyhistor, seems indeed to have accompanied Alexander on his +expedition to India, and one feels tempted to connect the scepticism of +Pyrrhon with the system of Buddhist philosophy then current in India. +But the ignorance of the language on both sides must have been an insurmountable +barrier between the Greek and the Indian thinkers. (Fragmenta +Histor. Græc., ed. Müller, t. iii. p. 243, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b.</span></span>; +Lasson, Indische Alterthumskande, +b. iii. s. 380.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_62" name="note_62" href="#noteref_62">62.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On +the supposed travels of Greek philosophers to India, see Lassen, Indische +Alterthumskunde, b. iii. s. 379; Brandis, Handbuch der Geschichte +der Philosophie, b. i. s. 425. The opinion of D. Stewart and Niebuhr that +the Indian philosophers borrowed from the Greeks, and that of Görres and +others that the Greeks borrowed from the Brahmans, are examined in my +Essay on Indian Logic, in Thomson's Laws of Thought.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_63" name="note_63" href="#noteref_63">63.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Niebuhr, Vorlesungen über Alte Geschichte, +b. i. s. 17.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_64" name="note_64" href="#noteref_64">64.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The translation of Mago's work on agriculture belongs to a +later time. There is no proof that Mago, who wrote twenty-eight books on agriculture +in the Punic language, lived, as Humboldt supposes (Cosmos, vol. ii. p. +184), 500 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span> +Varro de R. R. i. 1, says: <span class="tei tei-q">“Hos nobilitate Mago Carthaginiensis +præteriit Pœnica lingua, quod res dispersas comprehendit libris +xxix., quos Cassius Dionysius Uticensis vertit libris xx., Græca lingua, +ac Sextilio prætori misit: in quæ volumina de Græcis libris eorum quos +dixi adjecit non pauca, et de Magonis dempsit instar librorum viii. Hosce +ipsos utiliter ad vi. libros redegit Diophanes in Bithynia, et misit Dejotaro +regi.”</span> This Cassius Dionysius Uticencis lived about +40 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span> The translation +into Latin was made at the command of the Senate, shortly after the +third Punic war.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_65" name="note_65" href="#noteref_65">65.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ptolemæus Philadelphus +(287-246 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>), on the recommendation of +his chief librarian (Demetrius Philaretes), is said to have sent a Jew of the +name of Aristeas, to Jerusalem, to ask the high priest for a MS. of the +Bible, and for seventy interpreters. Others maintain that the Hellenistic +Jews who lived at Alexandria, and who had almost forgotten their native +language, had this translation made for their own benefit. Certain it is, +that about the beginning of the third century +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span> (285), we find the Hebrew +Bible translated into Greek.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_66" name="note_66" href="#noteref_66">66.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Plin. xxx. 2. <span class="tei tei-q">“Sine dubio illa orta in Perside a +Zoroastre, ut inter auctores convenit. Sed unus hic fuerit, an postea et alius, non satis constat. +Eudoxus qui inter sapientiæ sectas clarissimam utilissimamque eam +intelligi voluit, Zoroastrem hunc sex millibus annorum ante Platonis mortem +fuisse prodidit. Sic et Aristoteles. Hermippus qui de tota ea arte +diligentissime scripsit, et vicies centum millia versuum a Zoroastre condita, +indicibus quoque voluminum ejus positis explanavit, præceptorem a quo +institutum disceret, tradidit Azonacem, ipsum vero quinque millibus annorum +ante Trojanum bellum fuisse.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-q">“Diogenes Laertius Aristotelem +auctorem facit libri τὸ Μαγικόν. Suidas librum cognovit, dubitat vero a +quo scriptus sit.”</span> See Bunsen's Egypten, Va, 101.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_67" name="note_67" href="#noteref_67">67.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. M.'s History +of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 163.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_68" name="note_68" href="#noteref_68">68.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">ἄρθρον προτασσόμενον, ἄρθρον ὑποτασσόμενον.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_69" name="note_69" href="#noteref_69">69.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Suidas, +s. v. Διονύσιος. Διονύσιος Ἀλεξανδρεός, Θρᾷξ δὲ ἀπὸ πατρὸς +τούνομα κληθεὶς, Ἀριστάρχου μαθητὴς, γραμματικὸς ὁς ἐσοφίστευσεν ἐν +Ῥώμη ἐπὶ Πομπηιοῦ τοῦ Μεγάλου.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_70" name="note_70" href="#noteref_70">70.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Quintilian, i. 1, 12.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_71" name="note_71" href="#noteref_71">71.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Mommsen, Römische Geschichte, b. i. s. 197. <span class="tei tei-q">“The +Latin alphabet is the same as the modern alphabet of Sicily; the Etruscan is the +same as the old Attic alphabet. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Epistola</span></em>, letter, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">charta</span></em>, paper, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">stilus</span></em>, +are words borrowed from Greek.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mommsen</span></span>, +b. i. s. 184.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_72" name="note_72" href="#noteref_72">72.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mommsen, +Römische Geschichte, b. i. s. 186. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Statera</span></em>, the balance, +the Greek στατήρ; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">machina</span></em>, an engine, μηχανή; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">númus</span></em>, a silver +coin, νόμος, the Sicilian νοῦμμος; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">groma</span></em>, measuring-rod, the Greek γνώμων or +γνῶμα: <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">clathri</span></em>, a trellis, a grate, the Greek κλῆθρα, the native Italian word +for lock being <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">claustra</span></em>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_73" name="note_73" href="#noteref_73">73.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Gubernare</span></em>, +to steer, from κυβεονᾶν; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anchora</span></em>, anchor, from ἀγκῦρα; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">prora</span></em>, the forepart, from πρῶρα. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Navis</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">remus</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">velum</span></em>, &c., are common +Aryan words, not borrowed by the Romans from the Greeks, and show +that the Italians were acquainted with navigation before the discovery of +Italy by the Phocæans.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_74" name="note_74" href="#noteref_74">74.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mommsen, +i. 154.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_75" name="note_75" href="#noteref_75">75.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. i. 408.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_76" name="note_76" href="#noteref_76">76.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mommsen, i. 165.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_77" name="note_77" href="#noteref_77">77.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sibylla</span></em>, +or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sibulla</span></em>, is a diminutive of an Italian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sabus</span></em> or +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sabius</span></em>, wise; a +word which, though not found in classical writers, must have existed in the +Italian dialects. The French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sage</span></em> presupposes an +Italian <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sabius</span></em>, for it cannot +be derived either from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sapiens</span></em> or from +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sapius</span></em>.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Diez, Lexicon Etymologicum</span></span>, +p. 300. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sapius</span></em> has been preserved in +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nesapius</span></em>, foolish. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sibulla</span></em> +therefore meant a wise old woman.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_78" name="note_78" href="#noteref_78">78.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mommsen, i. 256.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_79" name="note_79" href="#noteref_79">79.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. i. 425, 444.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_80" name="note_80" href="#noteref_80">80.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. i. 857.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_81" name="note_81" href="#noteref_81">81.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mommsen, +i. 902.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_82" name="note_82" href="#noteref_82">82.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mommsen, i. 892.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_83" name="note_83" href="#noteref_83">83.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. +i. 843, 194.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_84" name="note_84" href="#noteref_84">84.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. i. 911.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_85" name="note_85" href="#noteref_85">85.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mommsen, ii. 407.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_86" name="note_86" href="#noteref_86">86.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mommsen, ii. 410.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_87" name="note_87" href="#noteref_87">87.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. ii. 408.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_88" name="note_88" href="#noteref_88">88.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. ii. 437, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>; +ii. 430.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_89" name="note_89" href="#noteref_89">89.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Zeno died 263; Epicurus died 270; Arcesilaus died 241; Carneades +died 129.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_90" name="note_90" href="#noteref_90">90.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mommsen, +ii. 417, 418.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_91" name="note_91" href="#noteref_91">91.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. i. 845.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_92" name="note_92" href="#noteref_92">92.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. ii. 415, 417.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_93" name="note_93" href="#noteref_93">93.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mommsen, +ii. 413, 426, 445, 457. Lucius Ælius Stilo wrote a work on +etymology, and an index to Plautus.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Lersch</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Die Sprachphilosophie der +Alten</span></span>, ii. 111.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_94" name="note_94" href="#noteref_94">94.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lersch, +ii. 113, 114, 143.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_95" name="note_95" href="#noteref_95">95.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lersch, iii. 144.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_96" name="note_96" href="#noteref_96">96.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Mommsen, +iii. 557. 48 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_97" name="note_97" href="#noteref_97">97.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lersch, ii. 25. Περὶ σημαινόντων, or περὶ φώνης; and +περὶ σημαινομένον, +or περὶ πραγμάτων.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_98" name="note_98" href="#noteref_98">98.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Beiträge +zur Geschichte der Grammatik, von Dr. K. E. A. Schmidt. +Halle, 1859. Uber den Begriff der γενικὴ πτῶσις, s. 320.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_99" name="note_99" href="#noteref_99">99.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In +the Tibetan languages the rule is, <span class="tei tei-q">“Adjectives are formed from substantives +by the addition of the genitive sign,”</span> which might be inverted +into, <span class="tei tei-q">“The genitive is formed from the nominative by the addition of the +adjective sign.”</span> For instance, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">shing</span></em>, +wood; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">shing gi</span></em>, of wood, or wooden: +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ser</span></em>, gold; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ser-gyi</span></em>, of gold, +or golden: <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mi</span></em>, man; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mi-yi</span></em>, of man, or human. +The same in Garo, where the sign of the genitive +is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ni</span></em>, we have; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mánde-ní +jak</span></em>, the hand of man, or the human hand; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ambal-ní ketháli</span></em>, a wooden +knife, or a knife of wood. In Hindustání the genitive is so clearly an adjective, +that it actually takes the marks of gender according to the words to which +it refers. But how is it in Sanskrit and Greek? In Sanskrit we may form +adjectives by the addition of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tya</span></em>. +(Turanian Languages, p. 41, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>; Essay +on Bengálí, p. 333.) For instance, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dakshiņâ</span></em>, +south; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dakshiņâ-tya</span></em>, southern. +This <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tya</span></em> is clearly a demonstrative pronoun, +the same as the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">syas</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">syâ</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tyad</span></em>, this or that. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Tya</span></em> is a pronominal base, and therefore such adjectives +as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dakshiņâ-tya</span></em>, southern, or +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">âp-tya</span></em>, aquatic, from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">âp</span></em>, water, must have +been conceived originally as <span class="tei tei-q">“water-there,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“south-there.”</span> Followed +by the terminations of the nominative singular, which was again an original +pronoun, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">âptyas</span></em> would mean <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">âp-tya-s</span></em>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, water-there-he. Now, it +makes little difference whether I say an aquatic bird or a bird of the water. +In Sanskrit the genitive of water would be, if we +take <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">udaka</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">udaka-sya</span></em>. +This <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sya</span></em> is the same pronominal base as +the adjective termination <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tya</span></em>, only +that the former takes no sign for the gender, like the adjective. The genitive +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">udakasya</span></em> is therefore the same as an adjective without gender. Now +let us look to Greek. We there form adjectives by σιος, which is the same +as the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tya</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sya</span></em>. For instance, from +δῆμος, people, the Greeks +formed δημόσιος, belonging to the people. Here ος, α, ον, mark the gender. +Leave the gender out, and you get δημοσιο. Now, there is a rule in Greek +that an ς between two vowels, in grammatical terminations, is elided. Thus +the genitive of γένος is not γένεσος, but γένεος, or γένους; +hence δημόσιο +would necessarily become δήμοιο. And what is δήμοιο but the regular +Homeric genitive of δῆμος, which in later Greek was replaced by δήμου? +Thus we see that the same principles which governed the formation of adjectives +and genitives in Tibetan, in Garo, and Hindustání, were at work +in the primitive stages of Sanskrit and Greek; and we perceive how accurately +the real power of the genitive was determined by the ancient Greek +grammarians, who called it the general or predicative case, whereas the +Romans spoiled the term by wrongly translating it into <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">genitivus</span></em>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_100" name="note_100" href="#noteref_100">100.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +M. M.'s History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 158.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_101" name="note_101" href="#noteref_101">101.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The following and some other notes were kindly sent to me by the +first Chinese scholar in Europe, M. Stanislas Julien, Membre de l'Institut. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Chinese do not decline their substantives, but they indicate the cases +distinctly— +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A. By means of particles.<br /> +B. By means of position.<br /> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +1. The nominative or the subject of a sentence is always placed at the +beginning. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +2. The genitive may be marked— +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>) By the particle <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tchi</span></em> +placed between the two nouns, of which the first +is in the genitive, the second in the nominative. Example, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">jin tchi kiun</span></em> +(hominum princeps, literally, man, sign of the genitive, prince.) +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>) By position, placing the word which is in the genitive first, +and the word which is in the nominative second. Ex. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">koue</span></em> (kingdom) +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">jin</span></em> (man) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, a man of the kingdom. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +3. The dative may be expressed— +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>) By the preposition <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yu</span></em>, to. Ex. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sse</span></em> (to give) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yen</span></em> (money) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yu</span></em> (to) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">jin</span></em> +(man). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>) By position, placing first the verb, then the word which +stands in the dative, lastly, the word which stands in the accusative. Ex. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yu</span></em> (to give) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">jin</span></em> (to a man) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pe</span></em> (white) +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yu</span></em> (jade), <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hoang</span></em> (yellow) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kin</span></em> (metal), +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, gold. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +4. The accusative is either left without any mark, for instance, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pao</span></em> (to +protect) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">min</span></em> (the people), or it is preceded by certain words which had +originally a more tangible meaning, but gradually dwindled away into +mere signs of the accusative. [These were first discovered and correctly +explained by M. Stanislas Julien in his Vindiciæ Philologicæ in Linguam +Sinicam, Paris, 1830.] The particles most frequently used for this purpose +by modern writers are <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pa</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tsiang</span></em>, to grasp, to take. Ex. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pa</span></em> (taking) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tchoung-jin</span></em> (crowd of men) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">t'eou</span></em> +(secretly) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">k'an</span></em> (he looked) <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, he looked +secretly at the crowd of men (hominum turbam furtim aspiciebat). In the +more ancient Chinese (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Kouwen</span></em>) the words used for the same purpose are +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">i</span></em> (to employ, etc.), <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">iu</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">iu</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hou</span></em>. +Ex. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">i</span></em> (employing) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">jin</span></em> (mankind) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">t'sun</span></em> (he +preserves) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sin</span></em> (in the heart), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, humanitatem +conservat corde. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">I</span></em> (taking) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tchi</span></em> (right) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">wêï</span></em> +(to make) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">k'iŏ</span></em> (crooked), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, rectum facere curvum. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Pao</span></em> (to protect) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hou</span></em> (sign of accus.) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">min</span></em> +(the people). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +5. The ablative is expressed— +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>) By means of prepositions, such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thsong</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yeou</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tsen</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hou</span></em>. Ex. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thsong</span></em> +(ex) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thien</span></em> (cœlo) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">laï</span></em> (venire); <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">te</span></em> (obtinere) +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hou</span></em> (ab) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thien</span></em> (cœlo). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>) By means of position, so that the word in the ablative is +placed before the verb. Ex. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thien</span></em> (heaven) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hiang-tchi</span></em> +(descended, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tchi</span></em> being the relative particle or sign of the genitive) +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tsaï</span></em> (calamities), <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, the calamities +which Heaven sends to men. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +6. The instrumental is expressed— +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>) By the preposition <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yu</span></em>, with. Ex. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yu</span></em> (with) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kien</span></em> (the sword) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cha</span></em> (to +kill) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">jin</span></em> (a man). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span>) By position, the substantive which stands in the instrumental +case being placed before the verb, which is followed again by the noun in the +accusative. Ex. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">i</span></em> (by hanging) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cha</span></em> (he killed) +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tchi</span></em> (him). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +7. The locative may be expressed by simply placing the noun before +the verb. Ex. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">si</span></em> (in the East or East) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yeou</span></em> +(there is) <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">suo-tou-po</span></em> (a sthúpa); +or by prepositions as described in the text. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The adjective is always placed before the substantive to which it belongs. +Ex. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">meï jin</span></em>, a beautiful woman. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The adverb is generally followed by a particle which produces the same +effect as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">e</span></em> in bene, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ter</span></em> in celeriter. +Ex. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cho-jen</span></em>, in silence, silently; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ngeou-jen</span></em>, perchance; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kiu-jen</span></em>, with fear. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Sometimes an adjective becomes an adverb through position. Ex. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">chen</span></em>, +good; but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">chen ko</span></em>, to sing well. +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_102" name="note_102" href="#noteref_102">102.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +some criticisms on this division in Marsh's Lectures on the +English Language, p. 48.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_103" name="note_103" href="#noteref_103">103.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Goddspell onn Ennglissh nemmnedd iss<br /> +God word, annd god tiþennde,<br /> +God errnde,”</span> &c.—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Ormulum</span></span>, pref. 157. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“And beode þer godes godd-spel.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Layamon</span></span>, +iii. 182, v. 29, 507.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_104" name="note_104" href="#noteref_104">104.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diez, +Lexicon Comparativum. Columella, vii. 8.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_105" name="note_105" href="#noteref_105">105.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Strabo, viii. p. +833. Τὴν μὲν Ἰάδα τῇ παλαιᾷ Ἀτθίδι τὴν αὐτὴν φαμέν, +τὴν δὲ Δωρίδα τῇ Αἰολίδι.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_106" name="note_106" href="#noteref_106">106.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Herodotus (vii. 94, 509) gives Pelasgi as the old name of +the Æolians and of the Ionians in the Peloponnesus and the islands. Nevertheless he +argues (i. 57), from the dialect spoken in his time by the Pelasgi of the +towns of Kreston, Plakia, and Skylake, that the old Pelasgi spoke a barbarous +tongue (βάρβαρον τὴν γλῶσσαν ἱέντες). He has, therefore, to admit +that the Attic race, being originally Pelasgic, unlearnt its language (τὸ +Ἀττικὸν ἔθνος ἐὸν Πελασγικόν, ἅμα τῇ μεταβόλη τῇ ἐς Ἕλληνας, καὶ τὴν +γλῶσσαν μετέμαθε). See Diefenbach, Origines Europææ, p. 59. Dionysius +of Halicarnassus (i. 17) avoids this difficulty by declaring the Pelasgi +to have been from the beginning a Hellenic race. This however, is +merely his own theory. The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Karians</span></em> are called βαρβαρόφωνοι by Homer +(II. v. 867); but Strabo (xiv. 662) takes particular care to show that they +are not therefore to be considered as βάρβαροι. He distinguishes between +βαρβαροφωνεῖν, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, κακῶς ἑλληνίζειν, and Καριστὶ λαλαεῖν, +καρίζειν καὶ βαρβαρίζειν. But the same Strabo says that the Karians were formerly +called Λέλεγεs (xii. p. 572); and these, together with Pelasgians and Kaukones, +are reckoned by him (vii. p. 321) as the earlier <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">barbarous</span></em> inhabitants +of Hellas. Again he (vii. p. 321), as well as Aristotle and Dionysius +of Halicarnassus (i. 17), considers the Locrians as descendants of the +Leleges, though they would hardly call the Locrians barbarians. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Macedonians</span></em> are mentioned by Strabo (x. p. 460) together with +<span class="tei tei-q">“the other Hellenes.”</span> Demosthenes speaks of Alexander as a barbarian; +Isokrates as a Heraclide. To judge from a few extant words, Macedonian +might have been a Greek dialect. (Diefenbach, Orig. Europ. p. 62.) Justine +(vii. 1) says of the Macedonians, <span class="tei tei-q">“Populus Pelasgi, regio Pæonia dicebatur.”</span> +There was a tradition that the country occupied by the Macedonians +belonged formerly to Thracians or Pierians (Thuc. ii. 99; Strabo, vii. +p. 321); part of it to Thessalians (ibid.). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Thracians</span></em> are called by Herodotus (v. 3) the greatest people after +the Indians. They are distinguished by Strabo from Illyrians (Diefenbach, +p. 65), from Celts (ibid.), and from Scythians (Thuc. ii. 96). What +we know of their language rests on a statement of Strabo (vii. 303, 305), +that the Thracians spoke the same language as the Getæ, and the Getæ the +same as the Dacians. We possess fragments of Dacian speech in the botanical +names collected by Dioskorides, and these, as interpreted by Grimm, +are clearly Aryan, though not Greek. The Dacians are called barbarians +by Strabo, together with Illyrians and Epirotes. (Strabo, vii. p. 321.) +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Illyrians</span></em> were barbarians in the eyes of the Greeks. They are now +considered as an independent branch of the Aryan family. Herodotus +refers the Veneti to the Illyrians (i. 196); and the Veneti, according +to Polybius (ii. 17), who knew them, spoke a language different from +that of the Celts. He adds that they were an old race, and in their manner +and dress like the Celts. Hence many writers have mistaken them +for Celts, neglecting the criterion of language, on which Polybius lays +such proper stress. The Illyrians were a widely extended race; the Pannonians, +the Dalmatians, and the Dardanians (from whom the Dardanelles +were called), are all spoken of as Illyrians. (Diefenbach, Origines Europææ, +pp. 74, 75.) It is lost labor to try to extract anything positive from +the statements of the Greeks and Romans on the race and the language of +their barbarian neighbors. +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_107" name="note_107" href="#noteref_107">107.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Albert, Count of +Bollstädten, or, as he is more generally called, Albertus +Magnus, the pioneer of modern physical science, wrote: <span class="tei tei-q">“God has +given to man His spirit, and with it also intellect, that man might use it +for to know God. And God is known through the soul and by faith from +the Bible, through the intellect from nature.”</span> And again: <span class="tei tei-q">“It is to the +praise and glory of God, and for the benefit of our brethren, that we study +the nature of created things. In all of them, not only in the harmonious +formation of every single creature, but likewise in the variety of different +forms, we can and we ought to admire the majesty and wisdom of God.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_108" name="note_108" href="#noteref_108">108.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">These are the last words in Kepler's +<span class="tei tei-q">“Harmony of the World,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“Thou +who by the light of nature hast kindled in us the longing after the light +of Thy grace, in order to raise us to the light of Thy glory, thanks to Thee, +Creator and Lord, that Thou lettest me rejoice in Thy works. Lo, I have +done the work of my life with that power of intellect which Thou hast +given. I have recorded to men the glory of Thy works, as far as my mind +could comprehend their infinite majesty. My senses were awake to search +as far as I could, with purity and faithfulness. If I, a worm before thine +eyes, and born in the bonds of sin, have brought forth anything that is +unworthy of Thy counsels, inspire me with Thy spirit, that I may correct +it. If, by the wonderful beauty of Thy works, I have been led into boldness, +if I have sought my own honor among men as I advanced in the +work which was destined to Thine honor, pardon me in kindness and charity, +and by Thy grace grant that my teaching may be to Thy glory, and +the welfare of all men. Praise ye the Lord, ye heavenly Harmonies, and +ye that understand the new harmonies, praise the Lord. Praise God, O my +soul, as long as I live. From Him, through Him, and in Him is all, the +material as well as the spiritual—all that we know and all that we know +not yet—for there is much to do that is yet undone.”</span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +These words are all the more remarkable, because written by a man who +was persecuted by theologians as a heretic, but who nevertheless was not +ashamed to profess himself a Christian. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I end with an extract from one of the most distinguished of living +naturalists:—<span class="tei tei-q">“The +antiquarian recognizes at once the workings of intelligence +in the remains of an ancient civilization. He may fail to ascertain their +age correctly, he may remain doubtful as to the order in which they were +successively constructed, but the character of the whole tells him they are +works of art, and that men like himself originated these relics of by-gone +ages. So shall the intelligent naturalist read at once in the pictures which +nature presents to him, the works of a higher Intelligence; he shall recognize +in the minute perforated cells of the coniferæ, which differ so wonderfully +from those of other plants, the hieroglyphics of a peculiar age; in +their needle-like leaves, the escutcheon of a peculiar dynasty; in their repeated +appearance under most diversified circumstances, a thoughtful and +thought-eliciting adaptation. He beholds, indeed, the works of a being +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">thinking</span></em> like himself, but he feels, at the same time, that he stands as +much below the Supreme Intelligence, in wisdom, power, and goodness, as the works +of art are inferior to the wonders of nature. Let naturalists look at the +world under such impressions, and evidence will pour in upon us that all +creatures are expressions of the thoughts of Him whom we know, love, +and adore unseen.”</span></p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_109" name="note_109" href="#noteref_109">109.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Rom. i. 20.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_110" name="note_110" href="#noteref_110">110.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hervas (Catalogo, i. 37) +mentions the following works, published during +the sixteenth century, bearing on the science of language:—<span class="tei tei-q">“Introductio +in Chaldaicam Linguam, Siriacam, atque Armenicam, et decem alias Linguas,”</span> +a Theseo Ambrosio. Papiæ, 1539, 4to. <span class="tei tei-q">“De Ratione communi +omnium Linguarum et Litterarum Commentarius,”</span> a Theodoro Bibliandro. +Tiguri, 1548, 4to. It contains the Lord's Prayer in fourteen languages. +Bibliander derives Welsh and Cornish from Greek, Greek having been carried +there from Marseilles, through France. He states that Armenian +differs little from Chaldee, and cites Postel, who derived the Turks from the +Armenians, because Turkish was spoken in Armenia. He treats the Persians +as descendants of Shem, and connects their language with Syriac and +Hebrew. Servian and Georgian are, according to him, dialects of Greek. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Other works on language published during the sixteenth century are:—<span class="tei tei-q">“Perion. +Dialogorum de Linguæ Gallicæ origine ejusque cum Græca cognatione, +libri quatuor.”</span> Parisiis, 1554. He says that as French is not mentioned +among the seventy-two languages which sprang from the Tower of +Babel, it must be derived from Greek. He quotes Cæsar (de Bello Gallico, +vi. 14) to prove that the Druids spoke Greek, and then derives from it the +modern French language! +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The works of Henri Estienne (1528-1598) stand on a much sounder basis. +He has been unjustly accused of having derived French from Greek. See +his <span class="tei tei-q">“Traicté de la Conformité du Langage français avec le grec;”</span> about +1566. It contains chiefly syntactical and grammatical remarks, and its object +is to show that modes of expression in Greek, which sound anomalous +and difficult, can be rendered easy by a comparison of analogous expressions +in French. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Lord's Prayer was published in 1548 in fourteen languages, by +Bibliander; in 1591 in twenty-six languages, by Roccha (<span class="tei tei-q">“Bibliotheca +Apostolica Vaticana,”</span> a fratre Angelo Roccha: Romæ, 1591, 4to.); in 1592 +in forty languages, by Megiserus (<span class="tei tei-q">“Specimen XL. Linguarum et Dialectorum +ab Hieronymo Megisero à diversis auctoribus collectarum quibus +Oratio Dominica est expressa:”</span> Francofurti, 1592); in 1593, in fifty languages, +by the same author (<span class="tei tei-q">“Oratio Dominica L. diversis linguis,”</span> cura H. +Megiseri: Francofurti, 1593, 8vo.).</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_111" name="note_111" href="#noteref_111">111.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">At +the beginning of the seventeenth century was published <span class="tei tei-q">“Trésor de +l'Histoire des Langues de cet Univers,”</span> par Claude Duret; seconde edition: +Iverdon, 1619, 4to. Hervas says that Duret repeats the mistakes of Postel, +Bibliander, and other writers of the sixteenth century. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Before Duret came Estienne Guichard, <span class="tei tei-q">“l'Harmonie Etymologique des +Langues Hebraique, Chaldaique, Syriaque—Greque—Latine, Françoise, +Italienne, Espagnole—Allemande, Flamende, Anglaise, &c.:”</span> Paris, +1606. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hervas only knows the second edition, Paris, 1618, and thinks the first +was published in 1608. The title of his book shows that Guichard distinguished +between four classes of languages, which we should now call the +Semitic, the Hellenic, Italic, and Teutonic: he derives, however, Greek from +Hebrew. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I. I. Scaliger, in his <span class="tei tei-q">“Diatriba de Europæorum Linguis”</span> (Opuscula varia: +Parisiis, 1610), p. 119, distinguishes eleven classes: Latin, Greek, Teutonic, +Slavonic, Epirotic or Albanian, Tartaric, Hungarian, Finnic, Irish, British +in Wales and Brittany, and Bask or Cantabrian.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_112" name="note_112" href="#noteref_112">112.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Initium +oris et communis eloquii, et hoc omne quod loquimur, Hebræam +esse linguam qua vetus Testamentum scriptum est, universa antiquitas +tradidit.”</span> In another place (Isaia, c. 7) he writes, <span class="tei tei-q">“Omnium enim +fere linguarum verbis utuntur Hebræi.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_113" name="note_113" href="#noteref_113">113.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Mansit +lingua per Adam primitus data, ut putamus, Hebræa, in +ea parte hominum, quæ non pars alicujus angeli, sed quæ +Dei portio permansit.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_114" name="note_114" href="#noteref_114">114.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Guichard +went so far as to maintain that as Hebrew was written from +right to left, and Greek from left to right, Greek words might be traced +back to Hebrew by being simply read from right to left.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_115" name="note_115" href="#noteref_115">115.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Among +the different systems of Rabbinical exegesis, there is one according +to which every letter in Hebrew is reduced to its numerical value, +and the word is explained by another of the same quantity; thus, from the +passage, <span class="tei tei-q">“And all the inhabitants of the earth were of one language.”</span> +(Gen. xi. 1), is deduced that they all spoke Hebrew, שכה being changed +for its synonym לשון, and הקרש, (5 + 100 + 4 + 300 = 409) is substituted for +its equivalent אחת (1 + 8 + 400 = 409). <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Coheleth</span></span>, +ed. Ginsburg, p. 31.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_116" name="note_116" href="#noteref_116">116.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Hermathena +Joannis Goropii Becani: Antuerpiæ, 1580. Origines Antverpianæ, +1569. André Kempe, in his work on the language of Paradise, +maintains that God spoke to Adam in Swedish, Adam answered in Danish, +and the serpent spoke to Eve in French. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Chardin relates that the Persians believe three languages to have been +spoken in Paradise; Arabic by the serpent, Persian by Adam and Eve, and +Turkish by Gabriel. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +J. B. Erro, in his <span class="tei tei-q">“El mundo primitivo,”</span> Madrid, 1814, claims Bask as +the language spoken by Adam. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A curious discussion took place about two hundred years ago in the Metropolitan +Chapter of Pampeluna. The decision, as entered in the minutes +of the chapter, is as follows:—1. Was Bask the primitive language of +mankind? The learned members confess that, in spite of their strong conviction +on the subject, they dare not give an affirmative answer. 2. Was +Bask the only language spoken by Adam and Eve in Paradise? On this +point the chapter declares that no doubt can exist in their minds, and that +<span class="tei tei-q">“it is impossible to bring forward any serious or rational objection.”</span> See +Hennequin, <span class="tei tei-q">“Essai sur l'Analogie des Langues,”</span> Bordeaux, 1838. p. 60.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_117" name="note_117" href="#noteref_117">117.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Guhrauer's +Life of Leibniz, ii. p. 129.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_118" name="note_118" href="#noteref_118">118.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Guhrauer, vol. +ii. p. 127. In his <span class="tei tei-q">“Dissertation on the Origin of Nations,”</span> +1710, Leibniz says:—<span class="tei tei-q">“The study of languages must not be conducted +according to any other principles but those of the exact sciences. +Why begin with the unknown instead of the known? It stands to reason +that we ought to begin with studying the modern languages which are +within our reach, in order to compare them with one another, to discover +their differences and affinities, and then to proceed to those which have +preceded them in former ages, in order to show their filiation and their +origin, and then to ascend step by step to the most ancient tongues, the +analysis of which must lead us to the only trustworthy conclusions.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_119" name="note_119" href="#noteref_119">119.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Nicolaes Witsen, Burgomaster of Amsterdam, travelled in Russia, +1666-1677; published his travels in 1672, dedicated to Peter the Great. +Second edition, 1705. It contains many collections of words.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_120" name="note_120" href="#noteref_120">120.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Catherinens der Grossen Verdienste um die Vergleichende +Sprachkunde, von F. Adelung. Petersburg, 1815. Another letter of his to the +Vice-Chancellor, Baron Schaffiroff, is dated Pirmont, June 22, 1716.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_121" name="note_121" href="#noteref_121">121.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Collectanea Etymologica, ii. 255. +<span class="tei tei-q">“Malim sine discrimine Dialectorum +corrogari Germanicas voces. Puto quasdam origines ex superioribus Dialectis +melius apparituras; ut ex Ulfilæ Pontogothicis, Otfridi Franciscis.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_122" name="note_122" href="#noteref_122">122.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Monde +primitif analysé et comparé avec le monde moderne: Paris, +1773.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_123" name="note_123" href="#noteref_123">123.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Catalogo, i. 63.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_124" name="note_124" href="#noteref_124">124.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Mas se +deben consultar gramaticas para conocer su caracter proprio +por medio de su artificio gramatical.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Catalogo</span></span>, +i. 65. The same principle +was expressed by Lord Monboddo, about 1795, in his Ancient Metaphysics, +vol. iv. p. 326. <span class="tei tei-q">“My last observation is, that, as the art of a +language is less arbitrary and more determined by rule than either the +sound or sense of words, it is one of the principal things by which the connection +of languages with one another is to be discovered. And, therefore, +when we find that two languages practise these great arts of language,—derivation, +composition, and flexion,—in the same way, we may conclude, +I think, with great certainty, that the one language is the original of the +other, or that they are both dialects of the same language.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_125" name="note_125" href="#noteref_125">125.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Catalogo, ii. 468.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_126" name="note_126" href="#noteref_126">126.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. +i. 49. Witsen, too, in a letter to Leibniz, dated Mai 22, 1698, +alludes to the affinity between the Tataric and Mongolic languages. <span class="tei tei-q">“On +m'a dit que ces deux langues (la langue Moegale et Tartare) sont différentes +à peu près comme l'Allemand l'est du Flamand, et qu'il est de +même des Kalmucs et Moegals.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Collectanea +Etymologica</span></span>, ii. p. 363.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_127" name="note_127" href="#noteref_127">127.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Leibniz +held the same opinion (see Hervas, Catalogo, i. 50), though he +considered the Celts in Spain as descendants of the Iberians.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_128" name="note_128" href="#noteref_128">128.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Catalogo, i. 30. <span class="tei tei-q">“Verá +que la lengua llamada <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">malaya</span></span>, la qual se habla +en la península de Malaca, es matriz de inumerables dialectos de naciones +isleñas, que desde dicha península se extienden por mas de doscientos grados +de longitud en los mares oriental y pacífico.”</span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ibid. ii. 10. <span class="tei tei-q">“De esta península de Malaca han salido enjambres de +pobladores de las islas del mar Indiano y Pacífico, en las que, aunque parece +haber otra nacion, que es de negros, la <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">malaya</span></em> es generalmente la mas +dominante y extendida. La lengua malaya se habla en dicha península, continente +del Asia, en las islas Maldivas, en la de Madagascar (perteneciente +al Africa), en las de Sonda, en las Molucas, en las Filipinas, en las del +archipiélago de San Lázaro, y en muchísimas del mar del Sur desde dicho +archipiélago hasta islas, que por su poca distancia de América se creian pobladas +por americanos. La isla de Madagascar se pone á 60 grados de +longitud, y á los 268 se pone la isla de Pasqua ó de Davis, en la que se +habla otro dialecto malayo; por lo que la extension de los dialectos malayos +es de 208 grados de longitud.”</span></p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_129" name="note_129" href="#noteref_129">129.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Catalogo, +ii. 134.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_130" name="note_130" href="#noteref_130">130.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. ii. 135.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_131" name="note_131" href="#noteref_131">131.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +first volume appeared in 1806. He died before the second volume +was published, which was brought out by Vater in 1809. The third and +fourth volumes followed in 1816 and 1817, edited by Vater and the younger +Adelung.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_132" name="note_132" href="#noteref_132">132.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Evidence +of this is to be found in Strahlenberg's work on the <span class="tei tei-q">“North +and East of Europe and Asia,”</span> 1730; with tabula polyglotta, &c.; in Messerschmidt's +<span class="tei tei-q">“Travels in Siberia,”</span> from 1729-1739; in Bachmeister, <span class="tei tei-q">“Idea +et desideria de colligendis linguarum speciminibus:”</span> Petropoli, 1773; in +Güldenstädt's <span class="tei tei-q">“Travels in the Caucasus,”</span> &c.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_133" name="note_133" href="#noteref_133">133.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The empress wrote to Nicolai at Berlin to +ask him to draw up a catalogue of grammars and dictionaries. The work was sent to her in +manuscript from Berlin, in 1785.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_134" name="note_134" href="#noteref_134">134.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Glossarium +comparativum Linguarum totius Orbis:”</span> Petersburg, +1787. A second edition, in which the words are arranged alphabetically, +appeared in 1790-91, in 4 vols., edited by Jankiewitsch de Miriewo. It contains +279 (272) languages, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> +171 for Asia, 55 for Europe, 30 for Africa, +and 23 for America. According to Pott, <span class="tei tei-q">“Ungleichheit,”</span> p. 230, it contains +277 languages, 185 for Asia, 22 for Europe, 28 for Africa, 15 for America. +This would make 280. It is a very scarce book.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_135" name="note_135" href="#noteref_135">135.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Singhalese call Pali, +Mungata; the Burmese, Magadabâsâ.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_136" name="note_136" href="#noteref_136">136.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Works, vol. iii. p. 72.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_137" name="note_137" href="#noteref_137">137.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">M. M.'s +Buddhism and Buddhist Pilgrims, p. 23.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_138" name="note_138" href="#noteref_138">138.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Méthode pour déchiffrer et transcrire les noms Sanscrits qui se +rencontrent dans les livres chinois, inventée et démontrée par M. Stanislas +Julien: Paris, 1861, p. 103.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_139" name="note_139" href="#noteref_139">139.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Fan-chou (brahmâkshara), les +caractères de l'écriture indienne, inventée +par Fan, c'est-à-dire Fan-lan-mo (brahmâ).”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Stanislas Julien, +Voyages des Pèlerins Bouddhistes</span></span>, vol. ii. p. 505.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_140" name="note_140" href="#noteref_140">140.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir Henry Elliot's Historians of +India, p. 259.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_141" name="note_141" href="#noteref_141">141.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Professor +Flügel, in Zeitschrift der D. M. G., xi., s. 148 and 325.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_142" name="note_142" href="#noteref_142">142.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Elliot's Historians of India, p. 96. Al Birúni knew the +Harivanśa, and fixes the date of the five Siddhântas. The great value of Al Birúni's +work was first pointed out by M. Reinaud, in his excellent <span class="tei tei-q">“Mémoire sur +l'Inde,”</span> Paris, 1849.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_143" name="note_143" href="#noteref_143">143.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the Persian work Mujmalu-t-Tawárikh, there are chapters +translated from the Arabic of Abu Saleh ben Shib ben Jawa, who had himself +abridged them, a hundred years before, from a Sanskrit work, called +<span class="tei tei-q">“Instruction of Kings”</span> (Râjanîti?). The Persian translator lived about +1150. See Elliot, l. c.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_144" name="note_144" href="#noteref_144">144.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sâlotar +is not known as the author of such a work. Śâlotarîya occurs +instead of Śâlâturîya, in Rája Rádhakant; but Śâlâturîya is a name of +Pâņini, and the teacher of Suśruta is said to have been Divodâsa. An +Arabic translation of a Sanskrit work on veterinary medicine by Châņakya +is mentioned by Háji Chalfa, v. p. 59. A translation of the Charaka from +Sanskrit into Persian, and from Persian into Arabic, is mentioned in the +Fihrist, finished 987 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a. d.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_145" name="note_145" href="#noteref_145">145.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Vans Kennedy, +<span class="tei tei-q">“Notice respecting the Religion introduced by +Akbar:”</span> Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay: London, 1820, +vol. ii. pp. 242-270.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_146" name="note_146" href="#noteref_146">146.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Elliot, +Historians of India, p. 249.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_147" name="note_147" href="#noteref_147">147.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Müllbauer, +Geschichte der Katholischen Missionen Ostindiens, p. 134.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_148" name="note_148" href="#noteref_148">148.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Elliot, +Historians of India, p. 248.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_149" name="note_149" href="#noteref_149">149.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. pp. +259, 260. The Tarikh-i-Badauni, or Muntakhabu-t-Tawárikh, +written by Mulla Abdu-l-Kádir Maluk, Shah of Badáún, and finished in +1595, is a general history of India from the time of the Ghaznevides to the +40th year of Akbar. The author is a bigoted Muhammedan and judges +Akbar severely, though he was himself under great obligations to him. +He was employed by Akbar to translate from Arabic and Sanskrit into +Persian: he translated the Râmâyaņa, two out of the eighteen sections of +the Mahâbhârata, and abridged a history of Cashmir. These translations +were made under the superintendence of Faizi, the brother of the minister +Abu-l-Fazl. <span class="tei tei-q">“Abulfacel, ministro de Akbar, sevalió del Amarasinha y del +Mahabhárata, que traduxo en persiano el año de +1586.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Hervas</span></span>, ii. 136.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_150" name="note_150" href="#noteref_150">150.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +M. M.'s History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, p. 327.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_151" name="note_151" href="#noteref_151">151.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">History of +the Settlements of the Europeans in the East and West Indies, +translated from the French of the Abbé Bernal by J. Justamond: +Dublin, 1776, vol. i. p. 34.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_152" name="note_152" href="#noteref_152">152.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Müllbauer, +p. 67.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_153" name="note_153" href="#noteref_153">153.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. p. 80. These Brahmans, according to Robert de Nobili, +were of a lower class, not initiated in the sacred literature. They were ignorant, +he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“of the books Smarta, Apostamba, and +Sutra.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Müllbauer</span></span>, p. +188. Robert himself quotes from the Âpastamba-Sûtra, in his defence, +ibid. p. 192. He also quotes Scanda Purâna, p. 193; Kadambari, p. 193.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_154" name="note_154" href="#noteref_154">154.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">The Ezour-Veda</span></span> +is not the work of Robert de Nobili. It was probably +written by one of his converts. It is in Sanskrit verse, in the style of the +Pûraņas, and contains a wild mixture of Hindu and Christian doctrine. +The French translation was sent to Voltaire and printed by him in 1778, +<span class="tei tei-q">“L'Ezour Vedam traduit du Sanscritam par un Brame.”</span> Voltaire expressed +his belief that the original was four centuries older than Alexander, +and that it was the most precious gift for which the West had been +ever indebted to the East. Mr. Ellis discovered the Sanskrit original at +Pondichery. (Asiatic Researches, vol. xiv.) There is no evidence for +ascribing the work to Robert, and it is not mentioned in the list of his +works. (Bertrand, la Mission du Maduré, Paris, 1847-50, t. iii. p. 116; +Müllbauer, p. 205, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_155" name="note_155" href="#noteref_155">155.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In 1677 +a Mr. Marshall is said to have been a proficient in Sanskrit. +Elliot's Historians of India, p. 265.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_156" name="note_156" href="#noteref_156">156.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See an excellent +account of this letter in an article of M. Biot in the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Journal des Savants,”</span> 1861.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_157" name="note_157" href="#noteref_157">157.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sidharubam +seu Grammatica Samscrdamica, cui accedit dissertatio +historico-critica in linguam Samscrdamicam, vulgo Samscret dictam, in +qua hujus linguæ existentia, origo, præstantia, antiquitas, extensio, maternitas +ostenditur, libri aliqui in ea exarati critice recensentur, et simul aliquæ +antiquissimæ gentilium orationes liturgicæ paucis attinguntur et +explicantur autore Paulino a S. Bartholomæo. Romæ, 1790.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_158" name="note_158" href="#noteref_158">158.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +earliest publications were the <span class="tei tei-q">“Bhagavadgîta,”</span> translated by Wilkins, +1785; the <span class="tei tei-q">“Hitopadeśa,”</span> translated by Wilkins, 1787; and the <span class="tei tei-q">“Sakuntalâ,”</span> +translated by W. Jones, 1789. Original grammars, without +mentioning mere compilations, were published by Colebrooke, 1805; by +Carey, 1806; by Wilkins, 1808; by Forster, 1810; by Yates, 1820; by Wilson, +1841. In Germany, Bopp published his grammars in 1827, 1832, 1834; +Benfey, in 1852 and 1855.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_159" name="note_159" href="#noteref_159">159.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Halhed +had published in 1776 the <span class="tei tei-q">“Code of Gentoo Laws,”</span> a digest of +the most important Sanskrit law-books made by eleven Brahmans, by the +order of Warren Hastings.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_160" name="note_160" href="#noteref_160">160.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“On the Origin and Progress +of Language,”</span> second edition, Edinburgh, +1774. 6 vols.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_161" name="note_161" href="#noteref_161">161.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“I +have supposed that language could not be invented without supernatural +assistance, and, accordingly, I have maintained that it was the invention +of the Dæmon kings of Egypt, who, being more than men, first +taught themselves to articulate, and then taught others. But, even among +them, I am persuaded there was a progress in the art, and that such a language +as the Shanskrit was not at once invented.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Monboddo, Antient +Metaphysics</span></span>, vol. iv. p. 357.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_162" name="note_162" href="#noteref_162">162.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Origin +and Progress of Language, vol. vi. p. 97.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_163" name="note_163" href="#noteref_163">163.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Antient Metaphysics, +vol. iv. p. 322.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_164" name="note_164" href="#noteref_164">164.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Conjugationssystem: Frankfurt, +1816.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_165" name="note_165" href="#noteref_165">165.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">New edition in 1856, much improved.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_166" name="note_166" href="#noteref_166">166.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Second +edition, 1859 and 1861. Pott's work on the Language of the +Gipsies, 1846; his work on Proper Names, 1856.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_167" name="note_167" href="#noteref_167">167.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Although the +Old Friesian documents rank, according to their dates, +with Middle rather than with Old German, the Friesian language appears +there in a much more ancient stage, which very nearly approaches the Old +High-German. The political isolation of the Friesians, and their noble attachment +to their traditional manners and rights, have imparted to their +language also a more conservative spirit. After the fourteenth century the +old inflections of the Friesian decay most rapidly, whereas in the twelfth and +thirteenth centuries they rival the Anglo-Saxon of the ninth and tenth +centuries.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Grimm</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">German Grammar</span></span> +(1st ed.), vol. i p. lxviii.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_168" name="note_168" href="#noteref_168">168.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +dialects of Swabia (the Allemannish), of Bavaria and Austria, of +Franconia along the Main, and of Saxony, &c.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_169" name="note_169" href="#noteref_169">169.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Über das Leben +und die Lehre des Ulfila, Hannover, 1840. Über +das Leben des Ulfila von Dr. Bessell, Göttingen, 1860.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_170" name="note_170" href="#noteref_170">170.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bessell, +l. c. p. 38.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_171" name="note_171" href="#noteref_171">171.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sozomenus, H. E. +vii. 6.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_172" name="note_172" href="#noteref_172">172.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Auxentius +thus speaks of Ulfilas, (Waitz, p. 19:) <span class="tei tei-q">“Et [ita prædic]-ante +et per Cristum cum dilectione Deo Patri gratias agente, hæc et his similia +exsequente, quadraginta annis in episcopatu gloriose florens, apostolica +gratia Græcam et Latinam et Goticam linguam sine intermissione in una +et sola eclesia Cristi predicavit.... Qui et ipsis tribus linguis plures +tractatus et multas interpretationes volentibus ad utilitatem et ad ædificationem, +sibi ad æternam memoriam et mercedem post se dereliquid. Quem +condigne laudare non sufficio et penitus tacere non audeo; cui plus omnium +ego sum debitor, quantum et amplius in me laboravit, qui me a prima etate +mea a parentibus meis discipulum suscepit et sacras litteras docuit et veritatem +manifestavit et per misericordiam Dei et gratiam Cristi et carnaliter +et spiritaliter ut filium suum in fide educavit.</span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Hic Dei providentia et Cristi misericordia propter multorum salutem in +gente Gothorum de lectore triginta annorum episkopus est ordinatus, ut +non solum esset heres Dei et coheres Cristi, sed et in hoc per gratiam Cristi +imitator Cristi et sanctorum ejus, ut quemadmodum sanctus David triginta +annorum rex et profeta est constitutus, ut regeret et doceret populum Dei +et filios Hisdrael, ita et iste beatus tamquam profeta est manifestatus et +sacerdos Cristi ordinatus, ut regeret et corrigeret et doceret et ædificaret +gentem Gothorum; quod et Deo volente et Cristo aucsiliante per ministerium +ipsius admirabiliter est adinpletum, et sicuti Josef in Ægypto triginta +annorum est manifes[tatus et] quemadmodum Dominus et Deus noster +Jhesus Cristus Filius Dei triginta annorum secundum carnem constitutus +et baptizatus, cœpit evangelium predicare et animas hominum pascere: ita +et iste sanctus, ipsius Cristi dispositione et ordinatione, et in fame et penuria +predicationis indifferenter agentem ipsam gentem Gothorum secundum +evangelicam et apostolicam et profeticam regulam emendavit et vibere +[Deo] docuit, et Cristianos, vere Cristianos esse, manifestavit et multiplicavit.</span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Ubi et ex invidia et operatione inimici thunc ab inreligioso et sacrilego +indice Gothorum tyrannico terrore in varbarico Cristianorum persecutio est +excitata, ut Satanas, qui male facere cupiebat, nolens faceret bene, ut quos +desiderabat prevaricatores facere et desertores, Cristo opitulante et propugnante, +fierent martyres et confessores, ut persecutor confunderetur, et +qui persecutionem patiebantur, coronarentur, ut hic, qui temtabat vincere, +victus erubesceret, et qui temtabantur, victores gauderent. Ubi et post +multorum servorum et ancillarum Cristi gloriosum martyrium, imminente +vehementer ipsa persecutione, conpletis septem annis tantummodo in episkopatum, +supradictus sanctissimus vir beatus Ulfila cum grandi populo +confessorum de varbarico pulsus, in solo Romanie a thu[n]c beate memorie +Constantio principe honorifice est susceptus, ut sicuti Deus per Moysem de +potentia et violentia Faraonis et Egyptorum po[pulum s]uum l[iberav]it +[et Rubrum] Mare transire fecit et sibi servire providit, ita et per sepe dictum +Deus confessores sancti Filii sui unigeniti de varbarico liberavit et per +Danubium transire fecit, et in montibus secundum sanctorum imitationem +sibi servire de[crevit] ..... eo populo in solo Romaniæ, ubi sine illis +septem annis, triginta et tribus annis veritatem predicavit, ut et in hoc +quorum sanctorum imitator erat [similis esset], quod quadraginta annorum +spatium et tempus ut multos ..... re et .... a[nn]orum ..... e +vita.”</span> .. <span class="tei tei-q">“Qu[i] c[um] precepto imperiali, conpletis quadraginta annis, +ad Constantinopolitanam urbem ad disputationem ..... contra p ... +ie ... p. t. stas perrexit, et eundo in .... nn .. ne. p ... ecias +sibi ax ..... to docerent et contestarent[ur] .... abat, et inge . e +.... supradictam [ci]vitatem, recogitato ei im .... de statu concilii, +ne arguerentur miseris miserabiliores, proprio judicio damnati et perpetuo +supplicio plectendi, statim cœpit infirmari; qua in infirmitate susceptus +est ad similitudine Elisei prophete. Considerare modo oportet meritum +viri, qui ad hoc duce Domino obit Constantinopolim, immo vero Cristianopolim, +ut sanctus et immaculatus sacerdos Cristi a sanctis et consacerdotibus, +a dignis dignus digne [per] tantum multitudinem Cristianorum pro +meritis [suis] mire et gloriose honoraretur.”</span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Unde et cum sancto Hulfila ceterisque consortibus ad alium comitatum +Constantinopolim venissent, ibique etiam et imperatores adissent, adque +eis promissum fuisset conci[li]um, ut sanctus Aux[en]tius exposuit, +[a]gnita promiss[io]ne prefati pr[e]positi heretic[i] omnibus viribu[s] +institerunt u[t] lex daretur, qu[æ] concilium pro[hi]beret, sed nec p[ri]vatim +in domo [nec] in publico, vel i[n] quolibet loco di[s]putatio de fide +haberetur, sic[ut] textus indicat [le]gis, etc.”</span> +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_173" name="note_173" href="#noteref_173">173.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Theodoret. H. E. V., 30.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_174" name="note_174" href="#noteref_174">174.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">For +instances where Old High-German is more primitive than Gothic, +see Schleicher, Zeitschrift für V. S., b. iv. s. 266. Bugge, ibid., b. v. s. 59.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_175" name="note_175" href="#noteref_175">175.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +Schleicher, Deutsche Sprache, p. 94.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_176" name="note_176" href="#noteref_176">176.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. s. 60.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_177" name="note_177" href="#noteref_177">177.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Weinhold, +Altnordisches Leben, p. 27; Gunnlaugssaga, c. 7.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_178" name="note_178" href="#noteref_178">178.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +Dasent's Burnt Njal, Introduction.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_179" name="note_179" href="#noteref_179">179.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The name +Edda is not found before the fourteenth century. Snorri +Sturluson does not know the word Edda, nor any collection of ancient +poems attributed to Saemund; and though Saemund may have made the +first collection of national poetry, it is doubtful whether the work which we +possess under his name is his.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_180" name="note_180" href="#noteref_180">180.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The +people whom we call Wallachians, call themselves Romàni, and +their language Romània. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This Romance language is spoken in Wallachia and Moldavia, and in +parts of Hungary, Transylvania, and Bessarabia. On the right bank of +the Danube it occupies some parts of the old Thracia, Macedonia, and even +Thessaly. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is divided by the Danube into two branches: the Northern or Daco-romanic, +and the Southern or Macedo-romanic. The former is less mixed, +and has received a certain literary culture; the latter has borrowed a larger +number of Albanian and Greek words, and has never been fixed grammatically. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The modern Wallachian is the daughter of the language spoken in the +Roman province of Dacia. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The original inhabitants of Dacia were called Thracians, and their language +Illyrian. We have hardly any remains of the ancient Illyrian language +to enable us to form an opinion as to its relationship with Greek or +any other family of speech. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +219 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>, the Romans conquered Illyria; 30 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>, they took Moesia; and 107 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a. d.</span></span>, the Emperor Trajan made Dacia a Roman province. At that +time the Thracian population had been displaced by the advance of Sarmatian +tribes, particularly the Yazyges. Roman colonists introduced the +Latin language; and Dacia was maintained as a colony up to 272, when +the Emperor Aurelian had to cede it to the Goths. Part of the Roman inhabitants +then emigrated and settled south of the Danube. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In 489 the Slavonic tribes began their advance into Mœsia and Thracia. +They were settled in Mœsia by 678, and eighty years later a province was +founded in Macedonia, under the name of Slavinia.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_181" name="note_181" href="#noteref_181">181.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The entire Bible has been published by the Bible Society +in Romanese, for the Grisons in Switzerland; and in Lower Romanese, or Enghadine, +as spoken on the borders of the Tyrol.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_182" name="note_182" href="#noteref_182">182.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Ed il primo, +così Dante, che cominciò a dire come poeta volgare, si +mosse, perocchè volle far intendere le sue parole a donna alla quale era +malagevole ad intendere versi Latini.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Vita +Nuova</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_183" name="note_183" href="#noteref_183">183.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Schleicher, Beiträge, i. 19.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_184" name="note_184" href="#noteref_184">184.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Oldest +dated MS. of 1056, written for Prince Ostromir. Some older +written with Glagolitic letters. Schleicher, Beiträge, b. i. s. 20.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_185" name="note_185" href="#noteref_185">185.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Schleicher, s. 22.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_186" name="note_186" href="#noteref_186">186.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Schleicher, Deutsche Sprache, s. 77.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_187" name="note_187" href="#noteref_187">187.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">1 +Kings viii. 21.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_188" name="note_188" href="#noteref_188">188.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">1 +Kings ix. 26.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_189" name="note_189" href="#noteref_189">189.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">1 +Kings x. 11.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_190" name="note_190" href="#noteref_190">190.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Gutta</span></em> in +Malay means <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">gum</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">percha</span></em> is the name of the tree (Isonandra +gutta), or of an island from which the tree was first imported (Pulo-percha).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_191" name="note_191" href="#noteref_191">191.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Lassen, Indische +Alterthumskunde, b. i. s. 537.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_192" name="note_192" href="#noteref_192">192.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +also Sir Henry Elliot's Supplementary Glossary, s. v. Aheer.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_193" name="note_193" href="#noteref_193">193.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The arguments brought +forward by Quatremère in his <span class="tei tei-q">“Mémoire sur +le Pays d'Ophir”</span> against fixing Ophir on the Indian coast are +not conclusive. The arguments derived from the names of the articles exported from +Ophir were unknown to him. It is necessary to mention this, because +Quatremère's name carries great weight, and his essay on Ophir has lately +been republished in the Bibliothèque Classique des Célébrités Contemporaines. +1861.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_194" name="note_194" href="#noteref_194">194.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Job xxii. 24.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_195" name="note_195" href="#noteref_195">195.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Zend-avesta</span></em> +is the name used by Chaqâni and other Muhammedan +writers. The Parsis use the name <span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Avesta</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Zend</span></em>,”</span> +taking <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Avesta</span></em> in the sense of text, and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Zend</span></em> as the title of the Pehlevi commentary. I doubt, however, whether this +was the original meaning of the word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Zend</span></em>. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Zend</span></em> +was more likely the same word as the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">chhandas</span></em> (scandere) a name +given to the Vedic hymns, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">avesta</span></em>, the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">avasthâna</span></em>, a +word which, though it does not occur in Sanskrit, would mean settled text. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Avasthita</span></em>, in Sanskrit, means laid down, settled. The Zend-avesta now +consists of four books, Yasna, Vispered, Yashts, and Vendidad (Vendidad += vidaeva dâta; in Pehlevi, Juddivdad). Dr. Haug, in his interesting +lecture on the <span class="tei tei-q">“Origin of the Parsee Religion,”</span> Bombay, 1861, takes +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Avesta</span></em> in the sense of the most ancient texts, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Zend</span></em> as +commentary, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Pazend</span></em> as explanatory notes, all equally written in what we +shall continue to call the Zend language.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_196" name="note_196" href="#noteref_196">196.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“According to +the Kissah-i-Sanján, a tract almost worthless as a +record of the early history of the Parsis, the fire-worshippers took refuge +in Khorassan forty-nine years before the era of Yezdegerd +(632 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a. d.</span></span>), or +about 583. Here they stayed 100 years, to 683, then departed to the city +of Hormaz (Ormus, in the Persian Gulf), and after staying fifteen years, +proceeded in 698 to Diu, an island on the south-west coast of Katiawar. +Here they remained nineteen years, to 717, and then proceeded to Sanján, +a town about twenty-four miles south of Damaun. After 300 years they +spread to the neighboring towns of Guzerat, and established the sacred fire +successively at Barsadah, Nauśari, near Surat, and +Bombay.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Bombay +Quarterly Review</span></span>, 1856, No. viii. p. 67.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_197" name="note_197" href="#noteref_197">197.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"> Alc. i. +p. 122, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></span>. Ὁ μὲν μαγείαν διδάσκει τὴν +Ζωροάστρου τοῦ +Ὠρομάζον; ἔστι δὲ τοῦτο θεῶν θεραπεία.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_198" name="note_198" href="#noteref_198">198.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the +inscriptions we find, nom. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Auramazdâ</span></em>, gen. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Auramazdâha</span></em>, acc. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Auramazdam</span></em>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_199" name="note_199" href="#noteref_199">199.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Gen. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ahurahe mazdâo</span></em>, dat. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mazdâi</span></em>, acc. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mazdam</span></em>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_200" name="note_200" href="#noteref_200">200.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Haug, Lecture, p. 11; and in Bunsen's Egypt.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_201" name="note_201" href="#noteref_201">201.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Berosus, as +preserved in the Armenian translation of Eusebius, mentions +a Median dynasty of Babylon, beginning with a king Zoroaster, long +before Ninus; his date would be 2234 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Xanthus, the Lydian (470 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>), as quoted by Diogenes +Laertius, places Zoroaster, the prophet, 600 before the Trojan war +(1800 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span>). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Aristotle and Eudoxus, according to Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxx. 1), placed +Zoroaster 6000 before Plato; Hermippus 5000 before the Trojan war (Diog. +Laert. proœm.). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxx. 2) places Zoroaster several thousand years before +Moses the Judæan, who founded another kind of Mageia.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_202" name="note_202" href="#noteref_202">202.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Printed +at the end of these Lectures.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_203" name="note_203" href="#noteref_203">203.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Schleicher, Deutsche +Sprache, s. 81.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_204" name="note_204" href="#noteref_204">204.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Farrar, +Origin of Languages, p. 35.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_205" name="note_205" href="#noteref_205">205.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“It +has been common among grammarians to regard those terminational +changes as evolved by some unknown process from the body of the +noun, as the branches of a tree spring from the stem—or as elements, unmeaning +in themselves, but employed arbitrarily or conventionally to modify +the meanings of words. This latter view is countenanced by Schlegel. +<span class="tei tei-q">‘Languages with inflexions,’</span> says Schlegel, <span class="tei tei-q">‘are organic languages, because +they include a living principle of development and increase, and alone possess, +if I may so express myself, a fruitful and abundant vegetation. The +wonderful mechanism of these languages consists in forming an immense +variety of words, and in marking the connection of ideas expressed by +these words by the help of an inconsiderable number of syllables, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">which, +viewed separately, have no signification</span></em>, but which determine with precision +the sense of the words to which they are attached. By modifying radical +letters and by adding derivative syllables to the roots, derivative words of +various sorts are formed, and derivatives from those derivatives. Words +are compounded from several roots to express complex ideas. Finally, +substantives, adjectives, and pronouns are declined, with gender, number, +and case; verbs are conjugated throughout voices, moods, tenses, numbers, +and persons, by employing, in like manner, terminations and sometimes +augments, which by themselves signify nothing. This method is attended +with the advantage of enunciating in a single word the principal idea, frequently +greatly modified, and extremely complex already, with its whole array +of accessory ideas and mutable relations.’</span> ”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Transactions +of the Philological Society</span></span>, vol. ii. p. 39.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_206" name="note_206" href="#noteref_206">206.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"> Endlicher, Chinesische Grammatik, p. +172.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_207" name="note_207" href="#noteref_207">207.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Endlicher, Chinesische +Grammatik, s. 172.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_208" name="note_208" href="#noteref_208">208.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“The Algonquins have but +one case which may be called locative.”</span> Du +Ponceau, p. 158.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_209" name="note_209" href="#noteref_209">209.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marsh, p. 579.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_210" name="note_210" href="#noteref_210">210.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In +Old Portuguese, Diez mentions <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">senhor rainha, mia sennor formosa</span></em>, +my beautiful mistress.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_211" name="note_211" href="#noteref_211">211.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marsh, p. 387. Barnes, Poems in Dorsetshire +Dialect.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_212" name="note_212" href="#noteref_212">212.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Survey +of Languages, p. 21.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_213" name="note_213" href="#noteref_213">213.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Fuchs, Romanische Sprachen, s. 344.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_214" name="note_214" href="#noteref_214">214.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Greek term for the future is ὁ μέλλων, and μέλλω is used as +an auxiliary verb to form certain futures in Greek. It has various meanings, +but they can all be traced back to the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">man</span></em> (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">manyate</span></em>), +to think. As <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anya</span></em>, other, is changed to ἄλλος, so <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">manye</span></em>, +I think, to μέλλω. Il. ii. 39: +θήσειν ἔτ᾽ ἔμελλεν ἐπ ἀλγέα τε στοναchάς τε Τρωσί τε καὶ Δαναοῖσι, <span class="tei tei-q">“he still +thought to lay sufferings on Trojans and Greeks.”</span> Il. xxiii. 544: μέλλεις +ἀφαιρήσεσθαι ἄεθλον, <span class="tei tei-q">“thou thinkest thou wouldst have stripped me of the +prize.”</span> Od. xiii. 293: οὐκ ἄρ᾽ ἔμελλες λήξειν; <span class="tei tei-q">“did you +not think of stopping?”</span> <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span> were +you not going to stop? Or again in such phrases as Il. +ii. 36, τὰ οὐ τελέσεσθαι ἔμελλον, <span class="tei tei-q">“these things were not meant to be accomplished,”</span> +literally, these things did not mean to be accomplished. Thus +μέλλω was used of things that were likely to be, as if these things themselves +meant or intended to be or not to be; and, the original meaning +being forgotten, μέλλω came to be a mere auxiliary expressing probability. +Μέλλω and μέλλομαι, in the sense of <span class="tei tei-q">“to hesitate,”</span> are equally explained +by the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">man</span></em>, to think or consider. In Old Norse the future is +likewise formed by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">mun</span></em>, to mean.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_215" name="note_215" href="#noteref_215">215.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bopp, Comp. +Grammar, § 620. Grimm, German Grammar, ii. 845.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_216" name="note_216" href="#noteref_216">216.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Barnes, +Dorsetshire Dialect, p. 39.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_217" name="note_217" href="#noteref_217">217.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See M. M.'s Letter on the Turanian +Languages, pp. 44, 46.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_218" name="note_218" href="#noteref_218">218.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sk. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dama</span></em>; Gr. δόμος; +L. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">domus</span></em>; Slav. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">domü</span></em>; Celt. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">daimh</span></em>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_219" name="note_219" href="#noteref_219">219.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See M. M.'s Essay on Comparative +Mythology, Oxford Essays, 1856.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_220" name="note_220" href="#noteref_220">220.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ârya-bhûmi, and Ârya-deśa are +used in the same sense.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_221" name="note_221" href="#noteref_221">221.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pân. iii. 1, 103.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_222" name="note_222" href="#noteref_222">222.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In one of the Vedas, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arya</span></em> with a short <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></em> is used like <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ârya</span></em>, as opposed +to Śûdra. For we read (Vâj-San. xx. 17): <span class="tei tei-q">“Whatever sin we have committed +in the village, in the forest, in the home, in the open air, against a +Śûdra, against an Arya,—thou art our deliverance.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_223" name="note_223" href="#noteref_223">223.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lassen, Ind. +Alt. b. i. s. 6.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_224" name="note_224" href="#noteref_224">224.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. b. i. s. 526.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_225" name="note_225" href="#noteref_225">225.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ptolemy +knows Ἀριάκαι, near the mouth of the Yaxartes. Ptol. vi. +14; Lassen, loc. cit. i. 6.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_226" name="note_226" href="#noteref_226">226.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Burnouf, Yaśna, notes, 61. In the same sense the +Zend-avesta uses the expression, Aryan provinces, <span class="tei tei-q">“airyanâm daqyunâm”</span> gen. plur., or +<span class="tei tei-q">“airyâo dainhâvô,”</span> provincias Arianas. Burnouf, Yaśna, 442; and +Notes, p. 70</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_227" name="note_227" href="#noteref_227">227.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Burnouf, Notes, p. 62.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_228" name="note_228" href="#noteref_228">228.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Strabo, xi. 7, 11. Plin. Hist. Nat. vi. 19. Ptol. vi. 2. +De Sacy, Mémoires sur diverses antiquités de la Perse, p. 48. Lassen, Indische +Alterthumskunde, i. 6.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_229" name="note_229" href="#noteref_229">229.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Strabo. +xi. 11; Burnouf, Notes, p. 110. <span class="tei tei-q">“In another place Eratosthenes +is cited as describing the western boundary to be a line separating Parthiene +from Media, and Karmania from Parætakene and Persia, thus taking +in Yezd and Kerman, but excluding Fars.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Wilson, +Ariana antiqua</span></span>, +p. 120.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_230" name="note_230" href="#noteref_230">230.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Hellanicus, fragm. 166, ed. Müller. Ἄρια Περσικὴ χώρα.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_231" name="note_231" href="#noteref_231">231.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Joseph +Müller, Journal Asiatique, 1839, p. 298. Lassen, loc. cit. i. 6. +From this the Elam of Genesis. Mélanges Asiatiques, i. p. +623.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_232" name="note_232" href="#noteref_232">232.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Heeren, Ideen, i. +p. 337: ὁμόγλωττοι παρὰ μικρόν. Strabo, p. 1054.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_233" name="note_233" href="#noteref_233">233.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">One +of the Median classes is called Ἀριζαντοί, which may be <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">âryajantu</span></em>. +Herod, i. 101.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_234" name="note_234" href="#noteref_234">234.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Μάγοι +δὲ καὶ πὰν τὸ Ἄρειον γένος, ὡς καὶ τοῦτο γράφει ὁ Εὔδημος, οἱ +μὲν, τόπον, οἱ δὲ χρόνον καλοῦσι τὸ νοητὸν ἅπαν καὶ τὸ ἡνωμένον; ἐξ οὐ +διακριθῆναι ἡ θεὸν ἀγαθὸν καὶ δαίμονα κακὸν ἢ φῶς καὶ σκότος πρὸ τούτων, +ὡσ ἐνίους λέγειν. Οὐτοι δὲ οὖν καὶ αὐτοὶ μετὰ τὴν ἀδιάκριτον φύσιν διακρινομένην +ποιοῦσι τὴν διττὴν συστοιχὴν τῶν κρειττόνων, τῆς μὲν ἡγεῖσθαι +τὸν Ὀρομάσδη, τῆς δὲ τὸν Ἀρειμάνιον.—Damascius, quæstiones de primis +principiis, ed. Kopp, 1826, cap. 125, p. 384.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_235" name="note_235" href="#noteref_235">235.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">De Sacy, Mémoire, p. 47; Lassen, Ind. Alt. i. 8.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_236" name="note_236" href="#noteref_236">236.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Burnouf, +Notes, 107. Spiegel, Beiträge zur Vergl. Sprachf. i. 131. +Anquetil had no authority for taking the Zend +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">airyaman</span></em> for Armenia.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_237" name="note_237" href="#noteref_237">237.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Bochart +shows (Phaleg, l. 1, c. 3, col. 20) that the Chaldee paraphrast +renders the Minî of Jeremiah by Har Minî, and as the same country is +called Minyas by Nicolaus Damascenus, he infers that the first syllable is +the Semitic Har, a mountain. (See Rawlinson's Glossary, s. v.)</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_238" name="note_238" href="#noteref_238">238.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Lassen, Ind. +Alt. i. 8, note. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Arikh</span></em> also is used in Armenian as the +name of the Medians, and has been referred by Jos. Müller to Aryaka, as a +name of Media. Journ. As. 1839, p. 298. If, as Quatremère says, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ari</span></em> and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anari</span></em> are used in Armenian for Medians and Persians, this can only be +ascribed to a misunderstanding, and must be a phrase of later +date.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_239" name="note_239" href="#noteref_239">239.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sjögren, Ossetic Grammar, p. +396. Scylax and Apollodorus mention +Ἄριοι and Ἀριάνια, south of the Caucasus. Pictet, Origines, 67; Scylax +Perip. p. 213, ed. Klausen; Apollodori Biblioth. p. 433, ed. Heyne.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_240" name="note_240" href="#noteref_240">240.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Burnouf, Notes, p. 105.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_241" name="note_241" href="#noteref_241">241.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ptol. +vi. 2, and vi. 14. There are Ἀναριάκαι on the frontiers of Hyrcania. +Strabo, xi. 7; Pliny, Hist. Nat. vi. 19.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_242" name="note_242" href="#noteref_242">242.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">On Arimaspi and +Aramæi, see Burnouf, Notes, p. 105; Plin. vi. 9.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_243" name="note_243" href="#noteref_243">243.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Qairizam</span></em> +in the Zend-avesta, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Uvârazmis</span></em> in the inscriptions of Darius.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_244" name="note_244" href="#noteref_244">244.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Stephanus +Byzantinus.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_245" name="note_245" href="#noteref_245">245.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Grimm, Rechts +alterthümer, p. 292, traces Arii and Ariovistus back to +the Gothic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">harji</span></em>, army. If this is right, this part of our argument must be +given up.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_246" name="note_246" href="#noteref_246">246.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pictet, Les Origines Indo-Européennes, p. 31. +<span class="tei tei-q">“<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Iar</span></em>, l'ouest, ne s'écrit jamais <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">er</span></em> ou <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eir</span></em>, +et la forme <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Iarin</span></em> ne se rencontre nulle part pour Erin.”</span> +Zeuss gives <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">iar-rend</span></em>, insula occidentalis. But <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rend</span></em> +(recte <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rind</span></em>) makes <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rendo</span></em> in the gen. sing.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_247" name="note_247" href="#noteref_247">247.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Old Norse <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">írar</span></em>, +Irishmen, Anglo-Saxon <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ira</span></em>, Irishman.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_248" name="note_248" href="#noteref_248">248.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Though +I state these views on the authority of M. Pictet, I think it +right to add the following note which an eminent Irish scholar has had the +kindness to send me:—<span class="tei tei-q">“The ordinary name of Ireland, in the oldest Irish +MSS., is (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">h</span></em>)<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ériu</span></em>, gen. (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">h</span></em>)<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">érenn</span></em>, +dat. (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">h</span></em>)<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">érinn</span></em>. The initial <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">h</span></em>, is often omitted. +Before etymologizing on the word, we must try to fix its Old Celtic form. +Of the ancient names of Ireland which are found in Greek and Latin +writers, the only one which <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hériu</span></em> can +formally represent is <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hiberio</span></em>. The +abl. sing. of this form—<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hiberione</span></em>—is +found in the Book of Armagh, a +Latin MS. of the early part of the ninth century. From the same MS. we +also learn that a name of the Irish people was <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hyberionaces</span></em>, which is +obviously a derivative from the stem of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hiberio</span></em>. Now if we remember that +the Old Irish scribes often prefixed <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">h</span></em> +to words beginning with a vowel (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">h-abunde</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">h-arundo</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">h-erimus</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">h-ostium</span></em>), and that they also often wrote <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></em> for +the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">v</span></em> consonant (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span> <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">bobes</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fribulas</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">corbus</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">fabonius</span></em>); if, moreover, we +observe that the Welsh and Breton names for Ireland—<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Ywerddon</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Iverdon</span></em>—point to an Old Celtic name beginning with +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">iver</span></em>—, we shall have little difficulty in giving +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Hiberio</span></em> a correctly latinized form, viz. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Iverio</span></em>. This +in Old Celtic would be <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Iveriu</span></em>, gen. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Iverionos</span></em>. So the +Old Celtic form of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Fronto</span></em> was <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Frontû</span></em>, as we see from the +Gaulish inscription at Vieux Poitiers. As <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">v</span></em> when flanked by vowels is +always lost in Irish, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Iveriû</span></em> would +become <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ieriu</span></em>, and then, the first two vowels +running together, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ériu</span></em>. As +regards the double <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">n</span></em> in the oblique cases of +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ériu</span></em>, the genitive <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">érenn</span></em> (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">e.g.</span></span>) +is to <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Iverionos</span></em> as the Old Irish <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anmann</span></em> +<span class="tei tei-q">‘names’</span> is to the Skr. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nâmâni</span></em>, Lat. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">nomina</span></em>. The doubling of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">n</span></em> may perhaps be due to the Old +Celtic accent. What then is the etymology of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Iveriû</span></em>? I venture to think that +it may (like the Lat. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Aver-nus</span></em>, Gr. Ἄφορ-νος) be connected with the Skr. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">avara</span></em>, <span class="tei tei-q">‘posterior,’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘western.’</span> +So the Irish <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">des</span></em>, Welsh <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">deheu</span></em>, <span class="tei tei-q">‘right,’</span> +<span class="tei tei-q">‘south,’</span> is the Skr. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">dakshina</span></em>, <span class="tei tei-q">‘dexter,’</span> and the +Irish <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">áir</span></em> (in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">an-áir</span></em>), if it +stand for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">páir</span></em>, <span class="tei tei-q">‘east,’</span> is the Skr. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">pûrva</span></em>, +<span class="tei tei-q">‘anterior.’</span></span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“M. Pictet regards Ptolemy's Ἰουερνια (Ivernia) as coming nearest to the +Old Celtic form of the name in question. He further sees in the first syllable +what he calls the Irish <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ibh</span></em>, <span class="tei tei-q">‘land,’</span> <span class="tei tei-q">‘tribe of people,’</span> +and he thinks that this <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ibh</span></em> may be +connected not only with the Vedic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ibha</span></em>, <span class="tei tei-q">‘family,’</span> but with the +Old High German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eiba</span></em>, <span class="tei tei-q">‘a district.’</span> But, first, according to the Irish +phonetic laws, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ibha</span></em> would have appeared as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eb</span></em> in Old, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eabh</span></em> in Modern-Irish. Secondly, the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ei</span></em> in <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eiba</span></em> is +a diphthong = Gothic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ái</span></em>, Irish <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ói</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">óe</span></em>, Skr. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ê</span></em>. Consequently <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ibh</span></em> and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ibha</span></em> cannot be identified +with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">eiba</span></em>. Thirdly, there is no +such word as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ibh</span></em> in the nom. sing., although it is to be found in O'Reilly's +dictionary, along with his explanation of the intensive prefix <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">er</span></em>—, as +<span class="tei tei-q">‘noble,’</span> and many other blunders and forgeries. The form <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ibh</span></em> is, no +doubt, producible, but it is a very modern dative plural of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">úa</span></em>, <span class="tei tei-q">‘a +descendant.’</span> Irish districts were often called by the names of the occupying clans. +These clans were often called <span class="tei tei-q">‘descendants (<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">huí</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hí</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">í</span></em>) of such an one.’</span> +Hence the blunder of the Irish lexicographer.”</span>—W. S.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_249" name="note_249" href="#noteref_249">249.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Rawlinson's Glossary, +s. v.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_250" name="note_250" href="#noteref_250">250.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">W. +Ouseley, Orient. Geog. of Ebn. Haukal. Burnouf, Yasna, Notes, p. +102.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_251" name="note_251" href="#noteref_251">251.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ptol. vi. +c. 17.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_252" name="note_252" href="#noteref_252">252.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It has been supposed +that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">harôyûm</span></em> in the Zend-avesta stands for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">haraêvem</span></em>, +and that the nominative was not <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Harôyu</span></em>, but <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Haraêvô</span></em>. +(Oppert, Journal +Asiatique, 1851, p. 280.) Without denying the possibility of the correctness +of this view, which is partially supported by the accusative <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vidôyum</span></em>, +from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vidaêvo</span></em>, enemy of the Divs, there +is no reason why <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Harôyûm</span></em> should +not be taken for a regular accusative of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Harôyu</span></em>. +This <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Harôyu</span></em> would be as +natural and regular a form as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sarayu</span></em> in Sanskrit, nay even more regular, +as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">harôyu</span></em> would presuppose a Sanskrit +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sarasyu</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">saroyu</span></em>, from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">saras</span></em>. M. +Oppert identifies the people of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Haraiva</span></em> with the Ἀρεῖοι, but not, like +Grimm, with the Ἄριοι.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_253" name="note_253" href="#noteref_253">253.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">It is derived from a root +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sar</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sṛi</span></em>, to go, to run, from which <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">saras</span></em>, water, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sarit</span></em>, river, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Sarayu</span></em>, the proper +name of the river near Oude; and we +may conclude with great probability that this Sarayu or Sarasyu gave the +name to the river Arius or Heri, and to the county of Ἄρια or Herat. Anyhow +Ἄρια, as the name of Herat, has no connection with Ἄρια the wide +country of the Âryas.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_254" name="note_254" href="#noteref_254">254.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diversions of Purley, p. 190.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_255" name="note_255" href="#noteref_255">255.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">AR might be traced back +to the Sanskrit root, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ṛi</span></em>, to go (Pott, Etymologische +Forschungen, i. 218); but for our present purposes the root, AR, +is sufficient.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_256" name="note_256" href="#noteref_256">256.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">If, as has been supposed, the Cornish and Welsh +words were corruptions of the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arâtrum</span></em> they would have appeared as +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">areuder</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arawd</span></em>, +respectively.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_257" name="note_257" href="#noteref_257">257.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Grimm +remarks justly that <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">airtha</span></em> could not be derived from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arjan</span></em>, on +account of the difference in the vowels. But <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">airtha</span></em> is a much more ancient +formation, and comes from the root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ar</span></em>, which root, again, was originally +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ṛi</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ir</span></em> (Benfey, Kurze Gr., p. 27). From this primitive root +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ṛi</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ir</span></em>, we must derive both the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">irâ</span></em> +or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">iḍâ</span></em>, and the Gothic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">airtha</span></em>. The latter +would correspond to the Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ṛita</span></em>. The true meaning of the Sanskrit +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">iḍâ</span></em> has never been discovered. The Brahmans explain it as prayer, +but this is not its original meaning.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_258" name="note_258" href="#noteref_258">258.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Grimm derives +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arbeit</span></em>, Gothic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arbaiths</span></em>, Old High-German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arapeit</span></em>, +Modern High-German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arbeit</span></em>, directly from the Gothic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arbja</span></em>, +heir; but admits a relationship between <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arbja</span></em> and the root +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arjan</span></em>, to plough. He identifies <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arbja</span></em> with the Slavonic, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rab</span></em>, servant, slave, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">arbeit</span></em> with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rabota</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">corvée</span></em>, supposing that sons and heirs were the first natural slaves. He +supposes +even a relationship between <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rabota</span></em> and the Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">labor</span></em>. German +Dictionary, s. v. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Arbeit</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_259" name="note_259" href="#noteref_259">259.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Latin <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">remus</span></em> (O. Irish <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rám</span></em>) for +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">resmus</span></em>, connected with ἐρετμός. From +ἐρέτης, ἐρέσσω; and ὑπηρέτης, servant, helper. +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Rostrum</span></em> from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">rodere</span></em>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_260" name="note_260" href="#noteref_260">260.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Cf. Eur. Hec. 455, κώπη ἁλιήρης. Ἀμφήρης +means having oars on both sides.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_261" name="note_261" href="#noteref_261">261.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">From Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">plu</span></em>, +πλέω; cf. fleet and float.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_262" name="note_262" href="#noteref_262">262.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Other similes: ὕνις, and ὕννις, ploughshare, derived +by Plutarch from ὗς, boar. A plough is said to be called a pigsnose. The Latin +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">porca</span></em>, a ploughed field, is derived from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">porcus</span></em>, hog; and the +German <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">furicha</span></em>, furrow, is connected with <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">farah</span></em>, boar. +The Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vṛika</span></em>, wolf, from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">vraśch</span></em>, to tear, is used for +plough, Rv. i. 117, 21. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Godaraņa</span></em>, earth-tearer, is another +word for plough in Sanskrit. Gothic <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hoha</span></em>, plough = Sk. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">koka</span></em>, +wolf. See Grimm, Deutsche Sprache, and Kuhn, Indische Studien, vol. i. p. 321.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_263" name="note_263" href="#noteref_263">263.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">In the +Vale of Blackmore, a waggon is called <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">plough</span></em>, or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">plow</span></em>, and +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">zull</span></em> +(A.-S. syl) is used for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">aratrum</span></em> (Barnes, Dorset Dialect, p. 369).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_264" name="note_264" href="#noteref_264">264.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pott, +Etymologische Forschungen, p. 267; Benfey, Griechisches Wurzelwörterbuch, +p. 236.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_265" name="note_265" href="#noteref_265">265.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Greek υποδρα, askance, is derived from ὑπὸ, and δρα, +which is connected with δέρκομαι, I see; the Sanskrit, dṛiś.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_266" name="note_266" href="#noteref_266">266.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Generi coloniali, +colonial goods. Marsh, p. 253. In Spanish, generos, +merchandise.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_267" name="note_267" href="#noteref_267">267.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Many derivatives might have +been added, such as <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">specimen</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spectator</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">le spectacle</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">specialité</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spectrum</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">spectacles</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">specious</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">specula</span></em>, &c.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_268" name="note_268" href="#noteref_268">268.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Benloew, Aperçu Général, p. 28 +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_269" name="note_269" href="#noteref_269">269.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Benfey, +Grammatik, § 147:— +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Roots of the 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9 classes: 226<br /> +Roots of the 1, 4, 6, 10 classes: 1480<br /> +Total: 1706, including 143 of the 10th class. +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_270" name="note_270" href="#noteref_270">270.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Renan, Histoire des Langues sémitiques, p. 138. +Benloew estimates the necessary radicals of Gothic at 600, of modern German at 250, p. 22. +Pott thinks that each language has about 1000 roots.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_271" name="note_271" href="#noteref_271">271.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +exact number in the Imperial Dictionary of Khang-hi amounts to +42,718. About one-fourth part has become obsolete; and one-half of the +rest may be considered of rare occurrence, thus leaving only about 15,000 +words in actual use. <span class="tei tei-q">“The exact number of the classical characters is +42,718. Many of them are no longer in use in the modern language, but +they occur in the canonical and in the classical books. They may be found +sometimes in official documents, when an attempt is made at imitating the +old style. A considerable portion of these are names of persons, places, +mountains, rivers, &c. In order to compete for the place of imperial historian, +it was necessary to know 9,000, which were collected in a separate +manual.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Stanislas Julien.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_272" name="note_272" href="#noteref_272">272.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The study +of the English language by A. D'Orsey, p. 15.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_273" name="note_273" href="#noteref_273">273.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This is the +number of words in the Vocabulary given by Bunsen, in +the first volume of his Egypt, pp. 453-491. Several of these words, however, +though identical in sound, must be separated etymologically, and later +researches have still further increased the number. The number of hieroglyphic +groups in Sharpe's <span class="tei tei-q">“Egyptian Hieroglyphics,”</span> 1861, amounts to +2030.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_274" name="note_274" href="#noteref_274">274.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marsh, Lectures, p. 182. M. Thommerel stated the number of words +in the Dictionaries of Robertson and Webster as 43,566. Todd's edition +of Johnson, however, is said to contain 58,000 words, and the later editions +of Webster have reached the number of 70,000, counting the participles of +the present and perfect as independent vocables. Flügel estimated the +number of words in his own dictionary at 94,464, of which 65,085 are simple, +29,379 compound. This was in 1843; and he then expressed a hope +that in his next edition the number of words would far exceed 100,000. +This is the number fixed upon by Mr. Marsh as the minimum of the <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">copia +vocabulorum</span></em> in English. See <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Saturday Review</span></span>, +Nov. 2, 1861.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_275" name="note_275" href="#noteref_275">275.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Renan, Histoire, p. 138.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_276" name="note_276" href="#noteref_276">276.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Endlicher, Chinesische +Grammatik, § 128.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_277" name="note_277" href="#noteref_277">277.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">If two words are placed +like <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">jin ta</span></em>, the first may form the predicate of +the second, the second being used as a substantive. Thus <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">jin ta</span></em> might mean +the greatness of man, but in this case it is more usual to say <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">jin tci ta</span></em>. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Another instance, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">chen</span></em>, virtue; Ex. jin tchi chen, +the virtue of man; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">chen</span></em>, virtuous; Ex. chen jin, the +virtuous man; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">chen</span></em>, to approve; Ex. chen tchi, +to find it good; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">chen</span></em>, well; Ex. chen ko, to sing +well.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Stanislas Julien.</span></span></p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_278" name="note_278" href="#noteref_278">278.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Grimm, Deutsche +Grammatik, b. ii. s. 521.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_279" name="note_279" href="#noteref_279">279.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Each verb in Greek, if conjugated through all its voices, +tenses, moods, and persons, yields, together with its participles, about 1300 +forms.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_280" name="note_280" href="#noteref_280">280.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Histoire Générale et +Système Comparé des Langues sémitiques, par +Ernest Renan. Seconde édition. Paris, 1858.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_281" name="note_281" href="#noteref_281">281.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Peshito</span></em> +means simple. The Old Testament was translated from Hebrew, +the New Testament from Greek, about 200, if not earlier. Ephraem +Syrus lived in the middle of the fourth century. During the eighth and +ninth centuries the Nestorians of Syria acted as the instructors of the +Arabs. Their literary and intellectual supremacy began to fail in the +tenth century. It was revived for a time by Gregorius Barhebræus +(Abulfaraj) in the thirteenth century. See Renan, p. 257.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_282" name="note_282" href="#noteref_282">282.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Messrs. Perkins +and Stoddard, the latter the author of a grammar, published +in the Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. v. 1.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_283" name="note_283" href="#noteref_283">283.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Renan, +p. 214 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Le chaldéen biblique serait un dialecte araméen +légèrement hébraisé.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_284" name="note_284" href="#noteref_284">284.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Arabic, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tarjam</span></em>, to +explain; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Dragoman</span></em>, Arabic, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tarjamân</span></em>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_285" name="note_285" href="#noteref_285">285.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The +most ancient are those of Onkelos and Jonathan, in the second +century after Christ. Others are much later, later even than the Talmud. +Renan, p. 220.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_286" name="note_286" href="#noteref_286">286.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Renan, pp. 220-222.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_287" name="note_287" href="#noteref_287">287.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Talmud</span></span> +(instruction) consists of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mishna</span></span> and +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gemara</span></span>. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Mishna</span></span> means +repetition, viz. of the Law. It was collected and written down about 218, +by Jehuda. <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Gemara</span></span> is a continuation and commentary of the Mishna; +that of Jerusalem was finished towards the end of the fourth, that of Babylon +towards the end of the fifth, century.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_288" name="note_288" href="#noteref_288">288.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">First printed +in the Rabbinic Bible, Venice, 1525.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_289" name="note_289" href="#noteref_289">289.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Quatremère, Mémoire +sur les Nabatéens, p. 139.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_290" name="note_290" href="#noteref_290">290.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Renan, p. 241.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_291" name="note_291" href="#noteref_291">291.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid. p. 237.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_292" name="note_292" href="#noteref_292">292.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Quatremère, Mémoire +sur les Nabatéens, p. 116.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_293" name="note_293" href="#noteref_293">293.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibn-Wahshiyyah was a Mussulman, but his family had been +converted for three generations only. He translated a collection of Nabatean books. +Three have been preserved, 1, the Nabatean Agriculture; 2, the book on +poisons; 3, the book of Tenkelusha (Teucros) the Babylonian; besides +fragments of the book of the secrets of the Sun and Moon. The Nabatean +Agriculture was referred by Quatremère (Journal Asiatique, 1835) to the +period between Belesis who delivered the Babylonians from their Median +masters, and the taking of Babylon by Cyrus. Prof. Chwolson, of St. Petersburg, +who has examined all the MSS., places Kuthami at the beginning +of the thirteenth ceatury <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b. c.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_294" name="note_294" href="#noteref_294">294.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Renan, Mémoire +sur l'âge du livre intitulé Agriculture Nabatéenne, +p. 38. Paris, 1860.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_295" name="note_295" href="#noteref_295">295.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Letter on Turanian Languages, p. 62.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_296" name="note_296" href="#noteref_296">296.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Renan, +Histoire des Langues sémitiques, p. 137.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_297" name="note_297" href="#noteref_297">297.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pococke, Notes to +Abulfaragius, p. 153; Glossology, p. 352.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_298" name="note_298" href="#noteref_298">298.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Endlicher, +Chinesische Grammatik, p. 223.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_299" name="note_299" href="#noteref_299">299.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Endlicher, +Chinesische Grammatik, p. 339.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_300" name="note_300" href="#noteref_300">300.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“In this word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tse</span></em> +(tseu) does not signify son; it is an addition of frequent +occurrence after nouns, adjectives, and verbs. Thus, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lao</span></em>, +old, + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tseu</span></em> is father; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">neï</span></em>, the interior, + +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tseu</span></em> is wife; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hiang</span></em>, scent, + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tseu</span></em> is +clove; <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hoa</span></em>, to beg, + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tseu</span></em>, a mendicant; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hi</span></em>, to act, + <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tseu</span></em>, an +actor.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Stanislas Julien</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_301" name="note_301" href="#noteref_301">301.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Letter on the +Turanian Languages, p. 24.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_302" name="note_302" href="#noteref_302">302.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Survey of +Languages, p. 90.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_303" name="note_303" href="#noteref_303">303.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Abbé +Molina states that the language of Chili is entirely free +from irregular forms. Du Ponceau, Mémoire, p. 90.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_304" name="note_304" href="#noteref_304">304.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Letter on +Turanian Languages, p. 206.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_305" name="note_305" href="#noteref_305">305.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Of +these I can only give a tabular survey at the end of these Lectures, +referring for further particulars to my <span class="tei tei-q">“Letter on the Turanian Languages.”</span> +The Gangetic and Lohitic dialects are those comprehended under the name +of Bhotîya.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_306" name="note_306" href="#noteref_306">306.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Professor Boller of Vienna, who +has given a most accurate analysis of +the Turanian languages in the <span class="tei tei-q">“Transactions of the Vienna Academy,”</span> +has lately established the Turanian character of Japanese.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_307" name="note_307" href="#noteref_307">307.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Letter +on the Turanian Languages, p. 75.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_308" name="note_308" href="#noteref_308">308.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">M. +Stanislas Julien remarks that the numerous compounds which occur +in Chinese prove the wide-spread influence of the principle of agglutination +in that language. The fact is, that in Chinese every sound has numerous +meanings; and in order to avoid ambiguity, one word is frequently followed +by another which agrees with it in that particular meaning which is +intended by the speaker. Thus:— +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">chi-youen</span></em> (beginning-origin) signifies beginning.<br /> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ken-youen</span></em> (root-origin) signifies beginning.<br /> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">youen-chi</span></em>n (origin-beginning) signifies beginning.<br /> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">meï-miai</span></em> (beautiful-remarkable) signifies beautiful.<br /> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">meï-li</span></em> (beautiful-elegant) signifies beautiful.<br /> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">chen-youen</span></em> (charming-lovely) signifies beautiful.<br /> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">yong-i</span></em> (easy-facile) signifies easily.<br /> +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">tsong-yong</span></em> (to obey, easy) signifies easily. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In order to express <span class="tei tei-q">“to boast,”</span> the Chinese say <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">king-koua</span></em>, +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">king-fu</span></em>, &c., +both words having one and the same meaning. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This peculiar system of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">juxta-position</span></em>, however, cannot be considered as +agglutination in the strict sense of the word.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_309" name="note_309" href="#noteref_309">309.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Turanian Languages, p. 24.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_310" name="note_310" href="#noteref_310">310.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">These +<span class="tei tei-q">“Outlines”</span> form vols. iii. and iv. of Bunsen's work, +<span class="tei tei-q">“Christianity and Mankind,”</span> in seven vols. (London, 1854: Longman), and are +sold separately.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_311" name="note_311" href="#noteref_311">311.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Göttingische Gelehrte Anzeigen, +1855, p. 298.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_312" name="note_312" href="#noteref_312">312.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ibid., p. 302, note.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_313" name="note_313" href="#noteref_313">313.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"><span class="tei tei-q">“Here the +lines converge as they recede into the geological ages, and +point to conclusions which, upon Darwin's theory, are inevitable, but hardly +welcome. The very first step backward makes the negro and the Hottentot +our blood-relations; not that reason or Scripture objects to that, though +pride may.”</span> Asa Gray, <span class="tei tei-q">“Natural Selection not inconsistent with Natural +Theology,”</span> 1861, p. 5. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“One good effect is already manifest, its enabling the advocates of the +hypothesis of a multiplicity of human species to perceive the double insecurity +of their ground. When the races of men are admitted to be of one +species, the corollary, that they are of one origin, may be expected to follow. +Those who allow them to be of one species must admit an actual +diversification into strongly marked and persistent varieties; while those, +on the other hand, who recognize several or numerous human species, will +hardly be able to maintain that such species were primordial and supernatural +in the ordinary sense of the word.”</span> Asa Gray, Nat. Sel. p. 54.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_314" name="note_314" href="#noteref_314">314.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Professor Pott, +the most distinguished advocate of the polygenetic dogma, +has pleaded the necessity of admitting more than one beginning for the +human race and for language in an article in the Journal of the German +Oriental Society, ix. 405, <span class="tei tei-q">“Max Müller und die Kennzeichen der Sprachverwandtschaft,”</span> +1855; in a treatise <span class="tei tei-q">“Die Ungleichheit menschlicher Rassen,”</span> +1856; and in the new edition of his <span class="tei tei-q">“Etymologische Forschungen,”</span> +1861.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_315" name="note_315" href="#noteref_315">315.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dugald Stewart, vol. iii. p. 35.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_316" name="note_316" href="#noteref_316">316.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Herder, +as quoted by Steinthal, <span class="tei tei-q">“Ursprung der Sprache,”</span> s. 39.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_317" name="note_317" href="#noteref_317">317.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“In all these paths of research, when we travel far +backwards the aspect of the earlier portions becomes very different from that of the +advanced part on which we now stand; but in all cases the path is lost in +obscurity as it is traced backwards towards its starting point:—it becomes +not only invisible, but unimaginable; it is not only an interruption, but an +abyss, which interposes itself between us and any intelligible beginning of +things.”</span> Whewell, Indications, p. 166.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_318" name="note_318" href="#noteref_318">318.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Der Mensch ist nur Mensch durch Sprache; um aber die +Sprache zu erfinden, müsste er schon Mensch sein.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">W. von +Humboldt, Sämmtliche +Werke</span></span>, b. iii. s. 252. The same argument is ridden to death by Süssmilch, +<span class="tei tei-q">“Versuch eines Beweises dass die erste Sprache ihrem Ursprung nicht +vom Menschen, sondern allein vom Schöpfer erhalten +habe.”</span> Berlin, 1766.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_319" name="note_319" href="#noteref_319">319.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Farrar, Origin of Language, p. +10; Grimm, Ursprung der Sprache, s. 32. +The word βεκός, which these children are reported to have uttered, and +which, in the Phrygian language, meant bread, thus proving, it was supposed, +that the Phrygian was the primitive language of mankind, is derived +from the same root which exists in the English, to bake. How these +unfortunate children came by the idea of baked bread, involving the ideas +of corn, mill, oven, fire, &c., seems never to have struck the ancient sages +of Egypt.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_320" name="note_320" href="#noteref_320">320.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“L'usage +de la main, la marche à deux pieds, la ressemblance, quoique +grossière, de la face, tous les actes qui peuvent résulter de cette conformité +d'organisation, ont fait donner au singe le nom d'<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">homme sauvage</span></em>, par des +homines à la vérité qui l'étaient à demi, et qui ne savaient comparer que +les rapports extérieurs. Que serait-ce, si, par une combinaison de nature +aussi possible que toute autre, le singe eût eu la voix du perroquet, et, +comme lui, la faculté de la parole? Le singe parlant eût rendu muette +d'étonnement l'espèce humaine entière, et l'aurait séduite au point que le +philosophe aurait eu grand'peine à démontrer qu'avec tous ces beaux +attributs humains le singe n'en était pas moins une bête. Il est donc +heureux, pour notre intelligence, que la nature ait séparé et placé, dans +deux espèces très-différentes, l'imitation de la parole et celle de nos +gestes.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Buffon</span></span>, as quoted by Flourens, p. 77.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_321" name="note_321" href="#noteref_321">321.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Odyssey, xvii. 300.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_322" name="note_322" href="#noteref_322">322.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“The evident marks of +reasoning in the other animals,—of reasoning +which I cannot but think as unquestionable as the instincts that mingle +with it.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Brown, Works</span></span>, vol. i. +p. 446.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_323" name="note_323" href="#noteref_323">323.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Flourens, +De la Raison, p. 51.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_324" name="note_324" href="#noteref_324">324.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">To allow that <span class="tei tei-q">“brutes have certain mental endowments in common +with men,”</span> ... <span class="tei tei-q">“desires, affections, memory, simple imagination, or the +power of reproducing the sensible past in mental pictures, and even judgment +of the simple or intuition kind;”</span>—that <span class="tei tei-q">“they compare and judge,”</span> +(Mem. Amer. Acad. 8, p. 118,)—is to concede that the intellect of brutes +really acts, so far as we know, like human intellect, as far as it goes; for +the philosophical logicians tell us that all reasoning is reducible to a series +of simple judgments. And Aristotle declares that even reminiscence,—which +is, we suppose, <span class="tei tei-q">“reproducing the sensible past in mental pictures,”</span>—is +a sort of reasoning (τὶ ἀναμιμνήσκεσθαί ἐστι οἱον συλλογισμός τισ.) +Asa Gray, Natural Selection, &c., p. 58, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">note</span></span>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_325" name="note_325" href="#noteref_325">325.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Conscience, +Boek der Natuer, vi., quoted by Marsh, p. 32.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_326" name="note_326" href="#noteref_326">326.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Book ii. chapter xi. +§ 10.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_327" name="note_327" href="#noteref_327">327.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">I +regret to find that the expressions here used have given offence to +several of my reviewers. They were used because the names Onomatopoetic +and Interjectional are awkward and not very clear. They were not +intended to be disrespectful to those who hold the one or the other theory, +some of them scholars for whose achievements in comparative philology I +entertain the most sincere respect.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_328" name="note_328" href="#noteref_328">328.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A fuller account of +the views of Herder and other philosophers on the +origin of language may be found in Steinthal's useful little work, <span class="tei tei-q">“Der +Ursprung der Sprache:”</span> Berlin, 1853.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_329" name="note_329" href="#noteref_329">329.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Farrar, p. 74.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_330" name="note_330" href="#noteref_330">330.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pott, Etymologische Forschungen, i. 87; Zeitschrift, +iii. 43.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_331" name="note_331" href="#noteref_331">331.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Kârava</span></em>, explained in +Sanskrit by <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ku-rava</span></em>, having a bad voice, is supposed +to be a mere dialectical corruption of <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">krava</span></em> or <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">karva</span></em>. +Κορώνη presupposes +κορων = κοροον = <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">h</span></em>(<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">a</span></em>)<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">raban</span></em>. +The Sanskrit <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kârava</span></em> may, however, +be derived from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kâru</span></em>, singer; but in that case <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kâru</span></em> must not be +derived from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">kṛi</span></em>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_332" name="note_332" href="#noteref_332">332.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See +Pictet, Aryas Primitifs, p. 381.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_333" name="note_333" href="#noteref_333">333.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">In Chinese +the number of imitative sounds is very considerable. They +are mostly written phonetically, and followed by the determinative sign +<span class="tei tei-q">“mouth.”</span> We give a few, together with the corresponding sounds in +Mandshu. The difference between the two will show how differently the +same sounds strike different ears, and how differently they are rendered +into articulate language:— +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The cock crows kiao kiao in Chinese, dchor dchor in Mandshu.<br /> +The wild goose cries kao kao in Chinese, kôr kor in Mandshu.<br /> +The wind and rain sound siao siao in Chinese, chor chor in Mandshu.<br /> +Waggons sound lin lin in Chinese, koungour koungour in Mandshu.<br /> +Dogs coupled together sound ling-ling in Chinese, kalang kalang in Mandshu.<br /> +Chains coupled together sound tsiang-tsiang in Chinese, kiling kiling in Mandshu.<br /> +Bells coupled together sound tsiang-tsiang in Chinese, tang tang in Mandshu.<br /> +Drums coupled together sound ḱan ḱan in Chinese, tung tung in Mandshu. +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_334" name="note_334" href="#noteref_334">334.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Ὁ γὰρ Ἐπίκουρος ἔλεγεν, ὅτι +οὑχὶ ἐπιστημόνως οὖτοι ἔθεντο τὰ ὀνόματα, +ἀλλὰ φυσικῶς κινούμενοι, ὡς οἱ βήσσοντες καὶ πταίροντες καὶ μυκώμενοι +καὶ ὐλακτοῦντες καὶ στενάζοντες.—Lersch, Sprach-philosophie der Alten, i. +40. The statement is taken from Proclus, and I doubt whether he represented +Epicurus rightly.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_335" name="note_335" href="#noteref_335">335.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Diversions +of Purley, p. 32.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_336" name="note_336" href="#noteref_336">336.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The +following list of Chinese interjections may be of interest:— +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +hu, to express surprise.<br /> +fu, the same.<br /> +tsai, to express admiration and approbation.<br /> +i, to express distress.<br /> +tsie, vocative particle.<br /> +tsie tsie, exhortative particle.<br /> +ài, to express contempt.<br /> +ŭ-hu, to express pain.<br /> +shin-ĭ, ah, indeed.<br /> +pŭ sin, alas!<br /> +ngo, stop! +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In many cases interjections were originally words, just as the French <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hélas</span></em> +is derived from <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lassus</span></em>, tired, miserable. Diez, Lexicon Etymologicum, s. +v. <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">lasso</span></em>.</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_337" name="note_337" href="#noteref_337">337.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir W. Hamilton's Lectures, +ii. p. 319.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_338" name="note_338" href="#noteref_338">338.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Nouveaux +Essais, lib. iii. c. i. p. 297 (Erdmann); Sir W. Hamilton, +Lectures, ii. 324.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_339" name="note_339" href="#noteref_339">339.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Pott, Etymologische Forschungen, p. 324, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">seq.</span></span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_340" name="note_340" href="#noteref_340">340.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Benfey, Griech. Wurzel Lex. p. 611. From <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">sku</span></em> or +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">ku</span></em>, σκῦτος, skin; +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cŭtis</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">haut</span></em>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_341" name="note_341" href="#noteref_341">341.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Sir +William Hamilton (Lectures on Metaphysics, ii. p. 327) holds a +view intermediate between those of Adam Smith and Leibniz. <span class="tei tei-q">“As our +knowledge,”</span> he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“proceeds from the confused to the distinct, from +the vague to the determinate, so, in the mouths of children, language at +first expresses neither the precisely general nor the determinately individual, +but the vague and confused, and out of this the universal is elaborated +by generification, the particular and singular by specification and +individualisation.”</span> Some further remarks on this point in the Literary +Gazette, 1861, p. 173.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_342" name="note_342" href="#noteref_342">342.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“We receive the impression of the falling of a large mass of +water, descending always from the same height and with the same difficulty. +The scattering of the drops of water, the formation of froth, the sound of +the fall by the roaring and by the froth, are constantly produced by the +same causes, and, consequently, are always the same. The impression +which all this produces on us is no doubt at first felt as multiform, but it +soon forms a whole, or, in other terms, we feel all the diversity of the isolated +impressions as the work of a great physical activity which results +from the particular nature of the spot. We may, perhaps, till we are better +informed, call all that is fixed in the phenomenon, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">the thoughts of +nature</span></em>.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Oersted, +Esprit dans la Nature</span></span>, p. 152.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_343" name="note_343" href="#noteref_343">343.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“Ce qui trompe l'homme, +c'est qu'il voit faire aux bêtes plusieurs des +choses qu'il fait, et qu'il ne voit pas que, dans ces choses-là même, les bêtes +ne mettent qu'une intelligence grossière, bornée, et qu'il met, lui, une +intelligence <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">doublée d'esprit</span></em>.”</span>—<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Flourens, +De la Raison</span></span>, p. 73.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_344" name="note_344" href="#noteref_344">344.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Heyse, +System der Sprachwissenschaft, s. 97.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_345" name="note_345" href="#noteref_345">345.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">quinsy</span></em>, +as was pointed out to me, offers a striking illustration +of the ravages produced by phonetic decay. The root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">anh</span></em> has here completely +vanished. But it was there originally, for <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">quinsy</span></em> is the Greek +κυνάγχη, dog-throttling. See Richardson's Dictionary, s. v. quinancy.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_346" name="note_346" href="#noteref_346">346.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Greek χαμαί, Zend <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">zem</span></em>, Lithuanian +<em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">zeme</span></em>, and <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">źmenes</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">homines</span></em>. See +Bopp, Glossarium Sanscritum, s. v.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_347" name="note_347" href="#noteref_347">347.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Windischmann, Fortschritt der +Sprachenkunde, p. 23.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_348" name="note_348" href="#noteref_348">348.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Farrar, Origin of Language, p. 85.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_349" name="note_349" href="#noteref_349">349.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Θήσω τὰ +μὲν φύσει λεγόμενα ποιεῖσθαι θείᾳ τέχνη.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_350" name="note_350" href="#noteref_350">350.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">This view +was propounded many years ago by Professor Heyse in the +lectures which he gave at Berlin, and which have been very carefully published +since his death by one of his pupils, Dr. Steinthal. The fact that +wood, metals, cords, &c., if struck, vibrate and ring, can, of course, be used +as an illustration only, and not as an explanation. The faculty peculiar to +man, in his primitive state, by which every impression from without received +its vocal expression from within, must be accepted as an ultimate +fact. That faculty must have existed in man, because its effects continue +to exist. Analogies from the inanimate world, however, are useful, and +deserve farther examination.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_351" name="note_351" href="#noteref_351">351.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Dr. Murray's +primitive roots were, ag, bag, dwag, cwag, lag, mag, nag, +rag, swag.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_352" name="note_352" href="#noteref_352">352.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Curtius, Griechische Etymologie, p. 13. Dr. Schmidt derives all +Greek words from the root <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">e</span></em>, and all Latin +words from the arch-radical <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">hi</span></em>.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_353" name="note_353" href="#noteref_353">353.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Endlicher, +Chinesische Grammatik, p. 163.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_354" name="note_354" href="#noteref_354">354.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">System der +Sprachwissenschaft, p. 16.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_355" name="note_355" href="#noteref_355">355.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Schleicher, +Deutsche Sprache, p. 144.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_356" name="note_356" href="#noteref_356">356.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Marsh, p. 388.</dd></dl> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LECTURES ON THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE*** +</pre><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader29" id="rightpageheader29"></a><a name="pgtoc30" id="pgtoc30"></a><a name="pdf31" id="pdf31"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr><th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">June 17, 2010 </th></tr><tr><td class="tei tei-item tei-item-gloss"><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-respStmt"> + <span class="tei tei-name"> + Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, David King, and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + </span> + </span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table></div><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader32" id="rightpageheader32"></a><a name="pgtoc33" id="pgtoc33"></a><a name="pdf34" id="pdf34"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">A Word from Project Gutenberg</span></h1><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This file should be named + 32856-h.html or + 32856-h.zip.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This and all associated files of various formats will be found + in: + + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/2/8/5/32856/" class="block tei tei-xref" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%">http://www.gutenberg.org</span><span style="font-size: 90%">/dirs/3/2/8/5/32856/</span></a></p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Updated editions will replace the previous one — the old + editions will be renamed.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Creating the works from public domain print editions means that + no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the + Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United + States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. + Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this + license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works + to protect the Project Gutenberg™ concept and trademark. 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