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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 9, Slice 1, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 9, Slice 1
+       "Edwardes" to "Ehrenbreitstein"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: June 17, 2010 [EBook #32860]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 9 SL 1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Hieroglyphic symbols are indicated by [HRG] and ancient letters by
+      [SGN].
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    Article EGG: "The outermost, or third, layer of this shell often
+      takes the form of a glaze, as of porcelain, as for example in the
+      burnished egg of the ostrich ..." 'porcelain' amended from
+      'procelain'.
+
+    Article EGLINTON, EARLS OF: "This earl's successor was his
+      grandson, Archibald William, the 13th earl (1812-1861), who was
+      born at Palermo on the 29th of September 1812." 'on' amended from
+      'in'.
+
+    Article EGYPT: "While the worship of the gods 55 tended more and
+      more to become a monopoly of the state and the priests ..."
+      'monopoly' amended from 'monoply'.
+
+    Article EGYPT: "... the home of the dead in the heavens was a
+      fertile region not very different from Egypt itself, intersected by
+      canals and abounding in corn and fruit ..." 'from' amended from
+      'form'.
+
+    Article EGYPT: "The celebrated Israel stele from this temple is his
+      principal inscription. The rock shrines at Silsila are of small
+      importance." 'is' amended from 'in'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME IX, SLICE I
+
+        Edwardes to Ehrenbreitstein
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  EDWARDES, SIR HERBERT BENJAMIN     EGER (town of Austria)
+  EDWARDS, AMELIA ANN BLANDFORD      EGER (town of Hungary)
+  EDWARDS, BELA BATES                EGERIA
+  EDWARDS, BRYAN                     EGERTON, SIR PHILIP DE MALPAS GREY
+  EDWARDS, GEORGE                    EGG, AUGUSTUS LEOPOLD
+  EDWARDS, HENRY THOMAS              EGG
+  EDWARDS, JONATHAN                  EGGENBERG, HANS ULRICH VON
+  EDWARDS, LEWIS                     EGGER, ÉMILE
+  EDWARDS, RICHARD                   EGGLESTON, EDWARD
+  EDWARDS, THOMAS CHARLES            EGHAM
+  EDWARDSVILLE (Illinois, U.S.A.)    EGIN
+  EDWARDSVILLE (Pennsylvania, U.S.A) EGLANTINE
+  EDWIN (king of Northumbria)        EGLINTON, EARLS OF
+  EDWIN, JOHN                        EGMONT, EARLS OF
+  EDWY                               EGMONT LAMORAL
+  EECKHOUT, GERBRAND VAN DEN         EGOISM
+  EEL                                EGORIEVSK
+  EFFENDI                            EGREMONT, EARLS OF.
+  EFFIGIES, MONUMENTAL               EGREMONT
+  EGAN, PIERCE                       EGRESS
+  EGBO                               EGYPT
+  EGEDE, HANS                        EHRENBERG, CHRISTIAN GOTTFRIED
+  EGER, AQIBA                        EHRENBREITSTEIN
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDES, SIR HERBERT BENJAMIN (1819-1868), English soldier-statesman in
+India, was born at Frodesley in Shropshire on the 12th of November 1819.
+His father was Benjamin Edwardes, rector of Frodesley, and his
+grandfather Sir John Edwardes, baronet, eighth holder of a title
+conferred on one of his ancestors by Charles I. in 1644. He was educated
+at a private school and at King's College, London. Through the influence
+of his uncle, Sir Henry Edwardes, he was nominated in 1840 to a
+cadetship in the East India Company; and on his arrival in India, at the
+beginning of 1841, he was posted as ensign in the 1st Bengal Fusiliers.
+He remained with this regiment about five years, during which time he
+mastered the lessons of his profession, obtained a good knowledge of
+Hindustani, Hindi and Persian, and attracted attention by the political
+and literary ability displayed in a series of letters which appeared in
+the _Delhi Gazette_.
+
+In November 1845, on the breaking out of the first Sikh War, Edwardes
+was appointed aide-de-camp to Sir Hugh (afterwards Viscount) Gough, then
+commander-in-chief in India. On the 18th of December he was severely
+wounded at the battle of Mudki. He soon recovered, however, and fought
+by the side of his chief at the decisive battle of Sobraon (February 10,
+1846). He was soon afterwards appointed third assistant to the
+commissioners of the trans-Sutlej territory; and in January 1847 was
+named first assistant to Sir Henry Lawrence, the resident at Lahore.
+Lawrence became his great exemplar and in later years he was accustomed
+to attribute to the influence of this "father of his public life"
+whatever of great or good he had himself achieved. He took part with
+Lawrence in the suppression of a religious disturbance at Lahore in the
+spring of 1846, and soon afterwards assisted him in reducing, by a rapid
+movement to Jammu, the conspirator Imam-ud-din. In the following year a
+more difficult task was assigned him--the conduct of an expedition to
+Bannu, a district on the Waziri frontier, in which the people would not
+tolerate the presence of a collector, and the revenue had consequently
+fallen into arrear. By his rare tact and fertility of resource, Edwardes
+succeeded in completely conquering the wild tribes of the valley without
+firing a shot, a victory which he afterwards looked back upon with more
+satisfaction than upon others which brought him more renown. His fiscal
+arrangements were such as to obviate all difficulty of collection for
+the future. In the spring of 1848, in consequence of the murder of Mr
+vans Agnew and Lieutenant Anderson at Multan, by order of the diwan
+Mulraj, and of the raising of the standard of revolt by the latter,
+Lieutenant Edwardes was authorized to march against him. He set out
+immediately with a small force, occupied Leiah on the left bank of the
+Indus, was joined by Colonel van Cortlandt, and, although he could not
+attack Multan, held the enemy at bay and gave a check at the critical
+moment to their projects. He won a great victory over a greatly superior
+Sikh force at Kinyeri (June 18), and received in acknowledgment of his
+services the local rank of major. In the course of the operations which
+followed near Multan, Edwardes lost his right hand by the explosion of a
+pistol in his belt. On the arrival of a large force under General Whish
+the siege of Multan was begun, but was suspended for several months in
+consequence of the desertion of Shere Singh with his army and artillery.
+Edwardes distinguished himself by the part he took in the final
+operations, begun in December, which ended with the capture of the city
+on the 4th of January 1849. For his services he received the thanks of
+both houses of parliament, was promoted major by brevet, and created
+C.B. by special statute of the order. The directors of the East India
+Company conferred on him a gold medal and a good service pension of £100
+per annum.
+
+After the conclusion of peace Major Edwardes returned to England for the
+benefit of his health, married during his stay there, and wrote and
+published his fascinating account of the scenes in which he had been
+engaged, under the title of _A Year on the Punjab Frontier in
+1848-1849_. His countrymen gave him fitting welcome, and the university
+of Oxford conferred on him the degree of D.C.L. In 1851 he returned to
+India and resumed his civil duties in the Punjab under Sir Henry
+Lawrence. In November 1853 he was entrusted with the responsible post of
+commissioner of the Peshawar frontier, and this he held when the Mutiny
+of 1857 broke out. It was a position of enormous difficulty, and
+momentous consequences were involved in the way the crisis might be met.
+Edwardes rose to the height of the occasion. He saw as if by inspiration
+the facts and the needs, and by the prompt measures which he adopted he
+rendered a service of incalculable importance, by effecting a
+reconciliation with Afghanistan, and securing the neutrality of the amir
+and the frontier tribes during the war. So effective was his procedure
+for the safety of the border that he was able to raise a large force in
+the Punjab and send it to co-operate in the siege and capture of Delhi.
+In 1859 Edwardes once more went to England, his health so greatly
+impaired by the continual strain of arduous work that it was doubtful
+whether he could ever return to India. During his stay he was created
+K.C.B., with the rank of brevet colonel; and the degree of LL.D. was
+conferred upon him by the university of Cambridge. Early in 1862 he
+again sailed for India, and was appointed commissioner of Umballa and
+agent for the Cis-Sutlej states. He had been offered the governorship of
+the Punjab, but on the ground of failing health had declined it. In
+February 1865 he was compelled to finally resign his post and return to
+England. A second good service pension was at once conferred on him; in
+May 1866 he was created K.C. of the Star of India; and early in 1868 was
+promoted major-general in the East Indian Army. He had been for some
+time engaged on a life of Sir Henry Lawrence, and high expectations were
+formed of the work; but he did not live to complete it, and after his
+death it was put into the hands of Mr Herman Merivale. He died in London
+on the 23rd of December 1868. Great in council and great in war, he was
+singularly beloved by his friends, generous and unselfish to a high
+degree, and a man of deep religious convictions.
+
+  See _Memorials of the Life and Letters of Sir Herbert Benjamin
+  Edwardes_, by his wife (2 vols., London, 1886); T. R. E. Holmes, _Four
+  Soldiers_ (London, 1889); J. Ruskin, _Bibl. pastorum_, iv. "A Knight's
+  Faith" (1885), passages from the life of Edwardes.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDS, AMELIA ANN BLANDFORD (1831-1892), English author and
+Egyptologist, the daughter of one of Wellington's officers, was born in
+London on the 7th of June 1831. At a very early age she displayed
+considerable literary and artistic talent. She became a contributor to
+various magazines and newspapers, and besides many miscellaneous works
+she wrote eight novels, the most successful of which were _Debenham's
+Vow_ (1870) and _Lord Brackenbury_ (1880). In the winter of 1873-1874
+she visited Egypt, and was profoundly impressed by the new openings for
+archaeological research. She learnt the hieroglyphic characters, and
+made a considerable collection of Egyptian antiquities. In 1877 she
+published _A Thousand Miles up the Nile_, with illustrations by herself.
+Convinced that only by proper scientific investigations could the
+wholesale destruction of Egyptian antiquities be avoided, she devoted
+herself to arousing public opinion on the subject, and ultimately, in
+1882, was largely instrumental in founding the Egypt Exploration Fund,
+of which she became joint honorary secretary with Reginald Stuart Poole.
+For the business of this Fund she abandoned her other literary work,
+writing only on Egyptology. In 1889-1890 she went on a lecturing tour in
+the United States. The substance of her lectures was published in volume
+form in 1891 as _Pharaohs, Fellahs, and Explorers_. She died at
+Weston-super-Mare, Somerset, on the 15th of April 1892, bequeathing her
+valuable collection of Egyptian antiquities to University College,
+London, together with a sum to found a chair of Egyptology. Miss Edwards
+received, shortly before her death, a civil list pension from the
+British government.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDS, BELA BATES (1802-1852), American man of letters, was born at
+Southampton, Massachusetts, on the 4th of July 1802. He graduated at
+Amherst College in 1824, was a tutor there in 1827-1828, graduated at
+Andover Theological Seminary in 1830, and was licensed to preach. From
+1828 to 1833 he was assistant secretary of the American Education
+Society (organized in Boston in 1815 to assist students for the
+ministry), and from 1828 to 1842 was editor of the society's organ,
+which after 1831 was called the _American Quarterly Register_. He also
+founded (in 1833) and edited the _American Quarterly Observer_; in
+1836-1841 edited the _Biblical Repository_ (after 1837 called the
+_American Biblical Repository_) with which the _Observer_ was merged in
+1835; and was editor-in-chief of the _Bibliotheca Sacra_ from 1844 to
+1851. In 1837 he became professor of Hebrew at Andover, and from 1848
+until his death was associate professor of sacred literature there. He
+died at Athens, Georgia, on the 20th of April 1852. Among his numerous
+publications were _A Missionary Gazetteer_ (1832), _A Biography of Self
+Taught Men_ (1832), a once widely known _Eclectic Reader_ (1835), a
+translation, with Samuel Harvey Taylor (1807-1871), of Kuhner's
+_Schulgrammatik der Griechischen Sprache_ and _Classical Studies_
+(1844), essays in ancient literature and art written in collaboration
+with Barnas Sears and C. C. Felton.
+
+  Edwards' _Addresses and Sermons_, with a memoir by Rev. Edwards A.
+  Park, were published in two volumes at Boston in 1853.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDS, BRYAN (1743-1800), English politician and historian, was born
+at Westbury, Wiltshire, on the 21st of May 1743. His father died in
+1756, when his maintenance and education were undertaken by his maternal
+uncle, Zachary Bayly, a wealthy merchant of Jamaica. About 1759 Bryan
+went to Jamaica, and joined his uncle, who engaged a private tutor to
+complete his education, and when Bayly died his nephew inherited his
+wealth, succeeding also in 1773 to the estate of another Jamaica
+resident named Hume. Edwards soon became a leading member of the
+colonial assembly of Jamaica, but in a few years he returned to England,
+and in 1782 failed to secure a seat in parliament as member for
+Chichester. He was again in Jamaica from 1787 to 1792, when he settled
+in England as a West India merchant, making in 1795 another futile
+attempt to enter parliament, on this occasion as the representative of
+Southampton. In 1796, however, he became member of parliament for
+Grampound, retaining his seat until his death at Southampton on the 15th
+or 16th of July 1800. In general Edwards was a supporter of the slave
+trade, and was described by William Wilberforce as a powerful opponent.
+By his wife, Martha, daughter of Thomas Phipps of Westbury, he left an
+only son, Hume.
+
+In 1784 Edwards wrote _Thoughts on the late Proceedings of Government
+respecting the Trade of the West India Islands with the United States of
+America_, in which he attacked the restrictions placed by the government
+upon trade with the United States. In 1793 he published in two volumes
+his great work, _History, Civil and Commercial, of the British Colonies
+in the West Indies_, and in 1797 published his _Historical Survey of the
+French Colony in the Island of St Domingo_. In 1801 a new edition of
+both these works with certain additions was published in three volumes
+under the title of _History of the British Colonies in the West Indies_.
+This has been translated into German and parts of it into French and
+Spanish, and a fifth edition was issued in 1819. When Mungo Park
+returned in 1796 from his celebrated journey in Africa, Edwards, who was
+secretary of the Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior
+Parts of Africa, drew up from Park's narrative an account of his
+travels, which was published by the association in their _Proceedings_,
+and when Park wrote an account of his journeys he availed himself of
+Edwards' assistance. Edwards also wrote some poems and some other works
+relating to the history of the West Indies.
+
+  He left a short sketch of his life which was prefixed to the edition
+  of the _History of the West Indies_, published in 1801.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDS, GEORGE (1693-1773), English naturalist, was born at Stratford,
+Essex, on the 3rd of April 1693. In his early years he travelled
+extensively over Europe, studying natural history, and gained some
+reputation for his coloured drawings of animals, especially birds. In
+1733, on the recommendation of Sir Hans Sloane, he was appointed
+librarian to the Royal College of Physicians in London. In 1743 he
+published the first volume of his _History of Birds_, the fourth volume
+of which appeared in 1751, and three supplementary volumes, under the
+title _Gleanings of Natural History_, were issued in 1758, 1760 and
+1764. The two works contain engravings and descriptions of more than 600
+subjects in natural history not before described or delineated. He
+likewise added a general index in French and English, which was
+afterwards supplied with Linnaean names by Linnaeus himself, with whom
+he frequently corresponded. About 1764 he retired to Plaistow, Essex,
+where he died on the 23rd of July 1773. He also wrote _Essays of Natural
+History_ (1770) and _Elements of Fossilogy_ (1776).
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDS, HENRY THOMAS (1837-1884), Welsh divine, was born on the 6th of
+September 1837 at Llan ym Mawddwy, Merioneth, where his father was
+vicar. He was educated at Westminster and at Jesus College, Oxford
+(B.A., 1860), and after teaching for two years at Llandovery went to
+Llangollen as his father's curate. He became vicar of Aberdare in 1866
+and of Carnarvon in 1869. Here he began his lifelong controversy with
+Nonconformity, especially as represented by the Rev. Evan Jones
+(Calvinistic Methodist) and Rev. E. Herber Evans (Congregationalist). In
+1870 he fought in vain for the principle of all-round denominationalism
+in the national education system, and in the same year addressed a
+famous letter to Mr Gladstone on "The Church of the Cymry," pointing out
+that the success of Nonconformity in Wales was largely due to "the
+withering effect of an alien episcopate." One immediate result of this
+was the appointment of the Welshman Joshua Hughes (1807-1889) to the
+vacant see of St Asaph. Edwards became dean of Bangor in 1876 and at
+once set about restoring the cathedral, and he promoted a clerical
+education society for supplying the diocese with educated Welsh-speaking
+clergy. He was a popular preacher and an earnest patriot; his chief
+defect was a lack of appreciation of the theological attainments of
+Nonconformity, and a Welsh commentary on St Matthew, which he had worked
+at for many years and published in two volumes in 1882, was severely
+handled by a Bangor Calvinistic Methodist minister. Edwards suffered
+from overwork and insomnia and a Mediterranean cruise in 1883 failed to
+restore his health; and he died by his own hand on the 24th of May 1884
+at Ruabon.
+
+  See V. Morgan, _Welsh Religious Leaders in the Victorian Era_.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDS, JONATHAN (1703-1758), American theologian and philosopher, was
+born on the 5th of October 1703 at East (now South) Windsor,
+Connecticut. His earliest known ancestor was Richard Edwards, Welsh by
+birth, a London clergyman in Elizabeth's reign. His father Timothy
+Edwards (1669-1758), son of a prosperous merchant of Hartford, had
+graduated at Harvard, was minister at East Windsor, and eked out his
+salary by tutoring boys for college. His mother, a daughter of the Rev.
+Solomon Stoddard, of Northampton, Mass., seems to have been a woman of
+unusual mental gifts and independence of character. Jonathan, the only
+son, was the fifth of eleven children. The boy was trained for college
+by his father and by his elder sisters, who all received an excellent
+education. When ten years old he wrote a semi-humorous tract on the
+immateriality of the soul; he was interested in natural history, and at
+the age of twelve wrote a remarkable essay on the habits of the "flying
+spider." He entered Yale College in 1716, and in the following year
+became acquainted with Locke's _Essay_, which influenced him profoundly.
+During his college course he kept note books labelled "The Mind,"
+"Natural Science" (containing a discussion of the atomic theory, &c.),
+"The Scriptures" and "Miscellanies," had a grand plan for a work on
+natural and mental philosophy, and drew up for himself rules for its
+composition. Even before his graduation in September 1720 as
+valedictorian and head of his class, he seems to have had a well
+formulated philosophy. The two years after his graduation he spent in
+New Haven studying theology. In 1722-1723 he was for eight months stated
+supply of a small Presbyterian church in New York city, which invited
+him to remain, but he declined the call, spent two months in study at
+home, and then in 1724-1726 was one of the two tutors at Yale, earning
+for himself the name of a "pillar tutor" by his steadfast loyalty to the
+college and its orthodox teaching at the time when Yale's rector
+(Cutler) and one of her tutors had gone over to the Episcopal Church.
+
+The years 1720 to 1726 are partially recorded in his diary and in the
+resolutions for his own conduct which he drew up at this time. He had
+long been an eager seeker after salvation and was not fully satisfied as
+to his own "conversion" until an experience in his last year in college,
+when he lost his feeling that the election of some to salvation and of
+others to eternal damnation was "a horrible doctrine," and reckoned it
+"exceedingly pleasant, bright and sweet." He now took a great and new
+joy in the beauties of nature, and delighted in the allegorical
+interpretation of the Song of Solomon. Balancing these mystic joys is
+the stern tone of his Resolutions, in which he is almost ascetic in his
+eagerness to live earnestly and soberly, to waste no time, to maintain
+the strictest temperance in eating and drinking. On the 15th of February
+1727 he was ordained minister at Northampton and assistant to his
+grandfather, Solomon Stoddard. He was a student minister, not a visiting
+pastor, his rule being thirteen hours of study a day. In the same year
+he married Sarah Pierrepont, then aged seventeen, daughter of James
+Pierrepont (1659-1714), a founder of Yale, and through her mother
+great-granddaughter of Thomas Hooker. Of her piety and almost nun-like
+love of God and belief in His personal love for her, Edwards had known
+when she was only thirteen, and had written of it with spiritual
+enthusiasm; she was of a bright and cheerful disposition, a practical
+housekeeper, a model wife and the mother of his twelve children. Solomon
+Stoddard died on the 11th of February 1729, leaving to his grandson the
+difficult task of the sole ministerial charge of one of the largest and
+wealthiest congregations in the colony, and one proud of its morality,
+its culture and its reputation.
+
+In 1731 Edwards preached at Boston the "Public Lecture" afterwards
+published under the title _God Glorified in Man's Dependence_. This was
+his first public attack on Arminianism. The leading thought was God's
+absolute sovereignty in the work of redemption: that while it behoved
+God to create man holy, it was of His "good pleasure" and "mere and
+arbitrary grace" that any man was now made holy, and that God might deny
+this grace without any disparagement to any of His perfections. In 1733
+a revival of religion began in Northampton, and reached such intensity
+in the winter of 1734 and the following spring as to threaten the
+business of the town. In six months nearly three hundred were admitted
+to the church. The revival gave Edwards an opportunity of studying the
+process of conversion in all its phases and varieties, and he recorded
+his observations with psychological minuteness and discrimination in _A
+Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God in the Conversion of
+Many Hundred Souls in Northampton_ (1737). A year later he published
+_Discourses on Various Important Subjects_, the five sermons which had
+proved most effective in the revival, and of these none, he tells us,
+was so immediately effective as that on the _Justice of God in the
+Damnation of Sinners_, from the text, "That every mouth may be stopped."
+Another sermon, published in 1734, on the _Reality of Spiritual Light_
+set forth what he regarded as the inner, moving principle of the
+revival, the doctrine of a "special" grace in the immediate and
+supernatural divine illumination of the soul. In the spring of 1735 the
+movement began to subside and a reaction set in. But the relapse was
+brief, and the Northampton revival, which had spread through the
+Connecticut valley and whose fame had reached England and Scotland, was
+followed in 1739-1740 by the Great Awakening, distinctively under the
+leadership of Edwards. The movement met with no sympathy from the
+orthodox leaders of the church. In 1741 Edwards published in its defence
+_The Distinguishing Marks of a Work of the Spirit of God_, dealing
+particularly with the phenomena most criticized, the swoonings, outcries
+and convulsions. These "bodily effects," he insisted, were not
+"distinguishing marks" of the work of the Spirit of God; but so bitter
+was the feeling against the revival in the more strictly Puritan
+churches that in 1742 he was forced to write a second apology, _Thoughts
+on the Revival in New England_, his main argument being the great moral
+improvement of the country. In the same pamphlet he defends an appeal to
+the emotions, and advocates preaching terror when necessary, even to
+children, who in God's sight "are young vipers ... if not Christ's." He
+considers "bodily effects" incidentals to the real work of God, but his
+own mystic devotion and the experiences of his wife during the Awakening
+(which he gives in detail) make him think that the divine visitation
+usually overpowers the body, a view in support of which he quotes
+Scripture. In reply to Edwards, Charles Chauncy anonymously wrote _The
+Late Religious Commotions in New England Considered_ (1743), urging
+conduct as the sole test of conversion; and the general convention of
+Congregational ministers in the Province of Massachusetts Bay protested
+"against disorders in practice which have of late obtained in various
+parts of the land." In spite of Edwards's able pamphlet, the impression
+had become widespread that "bodily effects" were recognized by the
+promoters of the Great Awakening as the true tests of conversion. To
+offset this feeling Edwards[1] preached at Northampton during the years
+1742 and 1743 a series of sermons published under the title of
+_Religious Affections_ (1746), a restatement in a more philosophical and
+general tone of his ideas as to "distinguishing marks." In 1747 he
+joined the movement started in Scotland called the "concert in prayer,"
+and in the same year published _An Humble Attempt to Promote Explicit
+Agreement and Visible Union of God's People in Extraordinary Prayer for
+the Revival of Religion and the Advancement of Christ's Kingdom on
+Earth_. In 1749 he published a memoir of David Brainerd; the latter had
+lived in his family for several months, had been constantly attended by
+Edwards's daughter Jerusha, to whom he had been engaged to be married,
+and had died at Northampton on the 7th of October 1747; and he had been
+a case in point for the theories of conversion held by Edwards, who had
+made elaborate notes of Brainerd's conversations and confessions.
+
+In 1748 there had come a crisis in his relations with his congregation.
+The Half-Way Covenant adopted by the synods of 1657 and 1662 had made
+baptism alone the condition to the civil privileges of church
+membership, but not of participation in the sacrament of the Supper.
+Edwards's grandfather and predecessor, Solomon Stoddard, had been even
+more liberal, holding that the Supper was a converting ordinance and
+that baptism was a sufficient title to all the privileges of the church.
+As early as 1744 Edwards, in his sermons on the Religious Affections,
+had plainly intimated his dislike of this practice. In the same year he
+had published in a church meeting the names of certain young people,
+members of the church, who were suspected of reading improper books,[2]
+and also the names of those who were to be called as witnesses in the
+case. But witnesses and accused were not distinguished on this list, and
+the congregation was in an uproar. A great many, fearing a scandal, now
+opposed an investigation which all had previously favoured. Edwards's
+preaching became unpopular; for four years no candidate presented
+himself for admission to the church; and when one did in 1748, and was
+met with Edwards's formal but mild and gentle tests, as expressed in the
+_Distinguishing Marks_ and later in _Qualifications for Full Communion_
+(1749) the candidate refused to submit to them; the church backed him
+and the break was complete. Even permission to discuss his views in the
+pulpit was refused him. The ecclesiastical council voted by 10 to 9 that
+the pastoral relation be dissolved. The church by a vote of more than
+200 to 23 ratified the action of the council, and finally a town meeting
+voted that Edwards should not be allowed to occupy the Northampton
+pulpit, though he did this on occasion as late as May 1755. He evinced
+no rancour or spite; his "Farewell Sermon" was dignified and temperate;
+nor is it to be ascribed to chagrin that in a letter to Scotland after
+his dismissal he expresses his preference for Presbyterian to
+Congregational church government. His position at the time was not
+unpopular throughout New England, and it is needless to say that his
+doctrine that the Lord's Supper is not a cause of regeneration and that
+communicants should be professing Christians has since (very largely
+through the efforts of his pupil Joseph Bellamy) become a standard of
+New England Congregationalism.
+
+Edwards with his large family was now thrown upon the world, but offers
+of aid quickly came to him. A parish in Scotland could have been
+procured, and he was called to a Virginia church. He declined both, to
+become in 1750 pastor of the church in Stockbridge and a missionary to
+the Housatonic Indians. To the Indians he preached through an
+interpreter, and their interests he boldly and successfully defended by
+attacking the whites who were using their official position among them
+to increase their private fortunes. In Stockbridge he wrote the _Humble
+Relation_, also called _Reply to Williams_ (1752), which was an answer
+to Solomon Williams (1700-1776), a relative and a bitter opponent of
+Edwards as to the qualifications for full communion; and he there
+composed the treatises on which his reputation as a philosophical
+theologian chiefly rests, the essay on _Original Sin_, the _Dissertation
+concerning the Nature of True Virtue_, the _Dissertation concerning the
+End for which God created the World_, and the great work on the Will,
+written in four months and a half, and published in 1754 under the
+title, _An Inquiry into the Modern Prevailing Notions Respecting that
+Freedom of the Will which is supposed to be Essential to Moral Agency_.
+
+In 1757, on the death of President Burr, who five years before had
+married Edwards's daughter Esther, he reluctantly accepted the
+presidency of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University),
+where he was installed on the 16th of February 1758. Almost immediately
+afterwards he was inoculated for smallpox, which was raging in Princeton
+and vicinity, and, always feeble, he died of the inoculation on the 28th
+of March 1758. He was buried in the old cemetery at Princeton. He was
+slender and fully six feet tall, and with his oval, gentle, almost
+feminine face looked the scholar and the mystic.
+
+  _The Edwardean System._--It is difficult to separate Edwards's
+  philosophy from his theology, except as the former is contained in the
+  early notes on the Mind, where he says that matter exists only in
+  idea; that space is God; that minds only are real; that in
+  metaphysical strictness there is no being but God; that entity is the
+  greatest and only good; and that God as infinite entity, wherein the
+  agreement of being with being is absolute, is the supreme excellency,
+  the supreme good. It seems certain that these conclusions were
+  independent of Berkeley and Malebranche, and were not drawn from
+  Arthur Collier's _Clavis universalis_ (1713), with which they have
+  much in common, but were suggested, in part at least, by Locke's
+  doctrine of ideas, Newton's theory of colours, and Cudworth's
+  Platonism, with all of which Edwards was early familiar. But they were
+  never developed systematically, and the conception of the material
+  universe here contended for does not again explicitly reappear in any
+  of his writings. The fundamental metaphysical postulate that being and
+  God are ultimately identical remained, however, the philosophical
+  basis of all his thinking, and reverence for this being as the supreme
+  good remained the fundamental disposition of his mind. That he did not
+  interpret this idea in a Spinozistic sense was due to his more
+  spiritual conception of "being" and to the reaction on his philosophy
+  of his theology. The theological interest, indeed, came in the end to
+  predominate, and philosophy to appear as an instrument for the defence
+  of Calvinism. Perhaps the best criticism of Edwards's philosophy as a
+  whole is that, instead of being elaborated on purely rational
+  principles, it is mixed up with a system of theological conceptions
+  with which it is never thoroughly combined, and that it is exposed to
+  all the disturbing effects of theological controversy. Moreover, of
+  one of his most central convictions, that of the sovereignty of God in
+  election, he confesses that he could give no account.
+
+  Edwards's reputation as a thinker is chiefly associated with his
+  treatise on the Will, which is still sometimes called "the one large
+  contribution that America has made to the deeper philosophic thought
+  of the world." The aim of this treatise was to refute the doctrine of
+  free-will, since he considered it the logical, as distinguished from
+  the sentimental, ground of most of the Arminian objections to
+  Calvinism. He defines the will as that by which the "mind chooses
+  anything." To act voluntarily, he says, is to act electively. So far
+  he and his opponents are agreed. But choice, he holds, is not
+  arbitrary; it is determined in every case by "that motive which as it
+  stands in the view of the mind is the strongest," and that motive is
+  strongest which presents in the immediate object of volition the
+  "greatest apparent good," that is, the greatest degree of
+  agreeableness or pleasure. What this is in a given case depends on a
+  multitude of circumstances, external and internal, all contributing to
+  form the "cause" of which the voluntary act and its consequences are
+  the "effect." Edwards contends that the connexion between cause and
+  effect here is as "sure and perfect" as in the realm of physical
+  nature and constitutes a "moral necessity." He reduces the opposite
+  doctrine to three assumptions, all of which he shows to be untenable:
+  (1) "a self-determining power in the will"; (2) "indifference,... that
+  the mind previous to the act of volition (is) in equilibrio"; (3)
+  "contingence ... as opposed to ... any fixed and certain connexion (of
+  the volition) with some previous ground or reason for its existence."
+  Although he denies liberty to the will in this sense--indeed, strictly
+  speaking, neither liberty nor necessity, he says, is properly applied
+  to the will, "for the will itself is not an agent that has a will"--he
+  nevertheless insists that the subject willing is a free moral agent,
+  and argues that without the determinate connexion between volition
+  and motive which he asserts and the libertarians deny, moral agency
+  would be impossible. Liberty, he holds, is simply freedom from
+  constraint, "the power ... that any one has to do as he pleases." This
+  power man possesses. And that the right or wrong of choice depends not
+  on the cause of choice but on its nature, he illustrates by the
+  example of Christ, whose acts were necessarily holy, yet truly
+  virtuous, praiseworthy and rewardable. Even God Himself, Edwards here
+  maintains, has no other liberty than this, to carry out without
+  constraint His will, wisdom and inclination.
+
+  There is no necessary connexion between Edwards's doctrine of the
+  motivation of choice and the system of Calvinism with which it is
+  congruent. Similar doctrines have more frequently perhaps been
+  associated with theological scepticism. But for him the alternative
+  was between Calvinism and Arminianism, simply because of the
+  historical situation, and in the refutation of Arminianism on the
+  assumptions common to both sides of the controversy, he must be
+  considered completely successful. As a general argument his account of
+  the determination of the will is defective, notably in his abstract
+  conception of the will and in his inadequate, but suggestive,
+  treatment of causation, in regard to which he anticipates in important
+  respects the doctrine of Hume. Instead of making the motive to choice
+  a factor within the concrete process of volition, he regards it as a
+  cause antecedent to the exercise of a special mental faculty. Yet his
+  conception of this faculty as functioning only in and through motive
+  and character, inclination and desire, certainly carries us a long way
+  beyond the abstraction in which his opponents stuck, that of a bare
+  faculty without any assignable content. Modern psychology has
+  strengthened the contention for a fixed connexion between motive and
+  act by reference to subconscious and unconscious processes of which
+  Edwards, who thought that nothing could affect the mind which was
+  unperceived, little dreamed; at the same time, at least in some of its
+  developments, especially in its freer use of genetic and organic
+  conceptions, it has rendered much in the older forms of statement
+  obsolete, and has given a new meaning to the idea of
+  self-determination, which, as applied to an abstract power, Edwards
+  rightly rejected as absurd.
+
+  Edwards's controversy with the Arminians was continued in the essay on
+  _Original Sin_, which was in the press at the time of his death. He
+  here breaks with Augustine and the Westminster Confession by arguing,
+  consistently with his theory of the Will, that Adam had no more
+  freedom of will than we have, but had a special endowment, a
+  supernatural gift of grace, which by rebellion against God was lost,
+  and that this gift was withdrawn from his descendants, not because of
+  any fictitious imputation of guilt, but because of their real
+  participation in his guilt by actual identity with him in his
+  transgression.
+
+  The _Dissertation on the Nature of True Virtue_, posthumously
+  published, is justly regarded as one of the most original works on
+  ethics of the 18th century, and is the more remarkable as reproducing,
+  with no essential modification, ideas on the subject written in the
+  author's youth in the notes on the Mind. Virtue is conceived as the
+  beauty of moral qualities. Now beauty, in Edwards's view, always
+  consists in a harmonious relation in the elements involved, an
+  agreement of being with being. He conceives, therefore, of virtue, or
+  moral beauty, as consisting in the cordial agreement or consent to
+  intelligent being. He defines it as benevolence (good-will), or rather
+  as a disposition to benevolence, towards being in general. This
+  disposition, he argues, has no regard primarily to beauty in the
+  object, nor is it primarily based on gratitude. Its first object is
+  being, "simply considered," and it is accordingly proportioned, other
+  things being equal, to the object's "degree of existence." He admits,
+  however, benevolent being as a second object, on the ground that such
+  an object, having a like virtuous propensity, "is, as it were,
+  enlarged, extends to, and in some sort comprehends being in general."
+  In brief, since God is the "being of beings" and comprehends, in the
+  fullest extent, benevolent consent to being in general, true virtue
+  consists essentially in a supreme love to God. Thus the principle of
+  virtue--Edwards has nothing to say of "morality"--is identical with
+  the principle of religion. From this standpoint Edwards combats every
+  lower view. He will not admit that there is any evidence of true
+  virtue in the approbation of virtue and hatred of vice, in the
+  workings of conscience or in the exercises of the natural affections;
+  he thinks that these may all spring from self-love and the association
+  of ideas, from "instinct" or from a "moral sense of a secondary kind"
+  entirely different from "a sense or relish of the essential beauty of
+  true virtue." Nor does he recognize the possibility of a natural
+  development of true virtue out of the sentiments directed on the
+  "private systems"; on the contrary, he sets the love of particular
+  being, when not subordinated to being in general, in opposition to the
+  latter and as equivalent to treating it with the greatest contempt.
+  All that he allows is that the perception of natural beauty may, by
+  its resemblance to the primary spiritual beauty, quicken the
+  disposition to divine love in those who are already under the
+  influence of a truly virtuous temper.
+
+  Closely connected with the essay on Virtue is the boldly speculative
+  _Dissertation on the End for which God Created the World_. As,
+  according to the doctrine of virtue, God's virtue consists primarily
+  in love to Himself, so His final end in creation is conceived to be,
+  not as the Arminians held, the happiness of His creatures, but His
+  own glory. Edwards supposes in the nature of God an original
+  disposition to an "emanation" of His being, and it is the excellency
+  of this divine being, particularly in the elect, which is, in his
+  view, the final cause and motive of the world.
+
+  Edwards makes no attempt to reconcile the pantheistic element in his
+  philosophy with the individuality implied in moral government. He
+  seems to waver between the opinion that finite individuals have no
+  independent being and the opinion that they have it in an
+  infinitesimal degree; and the conception of "degrees of existence" in
+  the essay on Virtue is not developed to elucidate the point. His
+  theological conception of God, at any rate, was not abstractly
+  pantheistic, in spite of the abstractness of his language about
+  "being," but frankly theistic and trinitarian. He held the doctrine of
+  the trinitarian distinctions indeed to be a necessity of reason. His
+  _Essay on the Trinity_, first printed in 1903, was long supposed to
+  have been withheld from publication because of its containing Arian or
+  Sabellian tendencies. It contains in fact nothing more questionable
+  than an attempted deduction of the orthodox Nicene doctrine,
+  unpalatable, however, to Edwards's immediate disciples, who were too
+  little speculative to appreciate his statement of the subordination of
+  the "persons" in the divine "oeconomy," and who openly derided the
+  doctrine of the eternal generation of the Son as "eternal nonsense";
+  and this perhaps was the original reason why the essay was not
+  published.
+
+  Though so typically a scholar and abstract thinker on the one hand and
+  on the other a mystic, Edwards is best known to the present generation
+  as a preacher of hell fire. The particular reason for this seems to
+  lie in a single sermon preached at Enfield, Connecticut, in July 1741
+  from the text, "Their foot shall slide in due time," and commonly
+  known from its title, _Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God_. The
+  occasion of this sermon is usually overlooked. It was preached to a
+  congregation who were careless and loose in their lives at a time when
+  "the neighbouring towns were in great distress for their souls." A
+  contemporary account of it says that in spite of Edwards's academic
+  style of preaching, the assembly was "deeply impressed and bowed down,
+  with an awful conviction of their sin and danger. There was such a
+  breathing of distress and weeping, that the preacher was obliged to
+  speak to the people and desire silence, that he might be heard."
+  Edwards preached other sermons of this type, but this one was the most
+  extreme. The style of the imprecatory sermon, however, was no more
+  peculiar to him than to his period. He was not a great preacher in the
+  ordinary meaning of the word. His gestures were scanty, his voice was
+  not powerful, but he was desperately in earnest, and he held his
+  audience whether his sermon contained a picturesque and detailed
+  description of the torments of the damned, or, as was often the case,
+  spoke of the love and peace of God in the heart of man. He was an
+  earnest, devout Christian, and a man of blameless life. His insight
+  into the spiritual life was profound. Certainly the most able
+  metaphysician and the most influential religious thinker of America,
+  he must rank in theology, dialectics, mysticism and philosophy with
+  Calvin and Fénelon, Augustine and Aquinas, Spinoza and Novalis; with
+  Berkeley and Hume as the great English philosophers of the 18th
+  century; and with Hamilton and Franklin as the three American thinkers
+  of the same century of more than provincial importance.
+
+  Edwards's main aim had been to revivify Calvinism, modifying it for
+  the needs of the time, and to promote a warm and vital Christian
+  piety. The tendency of his successors was--to state the matter
+  roughly--to take some one of his theories and develop it to an
+  extreme. Of his immediate followers Joseph Bellamy is distinctly
+  Edwardean in the keen logic and in the spirit of his _True Religion
+  Delineated_, but he breaks with his master in his theory of general
+  (not limited) atonement. Samuel Hopkins laid even greater stress than
+  Edwards on the theorem that virtue consists in disinterested
+  benevolence; but he went counter to Edwards in holding that
+  unconditional resignation to God's decrees, or more concretely,
+  willingness to be damned for the glory of God, was the test of true
+  regeneration; for Edwards, though often quoted as holding this
+  doctrine, protested against it in the strongest terms. Hopkins,
+  moreover, denied Edwards's identity theory of original sin, saying
+  that our sin was a result of Adam's and not identical with it; and he
+  went much further than Edwards in his objection to "means of grace,"
+  claiming that the unregenerate were more and more guilty for continual
+  rejection of the gospel if they were outwardly righteous and availed
+  themselves of the means of grace. Stephen West (1735-1819), too,
+  out-Edwardsed Edwards in his defence of the treatise on the _Freedom
+  of the Will_, and John Smalley (1734-1820) developed the idea of a
+  natural (not moral) inability on the part of man to obey God. Emmons,
+  like Hopkins, considered both sin and holiness "exercises" of the
+  will. Timothy Dwight (1752-1847) urged the use of the means of grace,
+  thought Hopkins and Emmons pantheistic, and boldly disagreed with
+  their theory of "exercises," reckoning virtue and sin as the result of
+  moral choice or disposition, a position that was also upheld by Asa
+  Burton (1752-1836), who thought that on regeneration the disposition
+  of man got a new relish or "taste."
+
+  JONATHAN EDWARDS[3] the younger (1745-1801), second son of the
+  philosopher, born at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 26th of May
+  1745, also takes an important place among his followers. He lived in
+  Stockbridge in 1751-1755 and spoke the language of the Housatonic
+  Indians with ease, for six months studied among the Oneidas, graduated
+  at Princeton in 1765, studied theology at Bethlehem, Connecticut,
+  under Joseph Bellamy, was licensed to preach in 1766, was a tutor at
+  Princeton in 1766-1769, and was pastor of the White Haven Church, New
+  Haven, Connecticut, in 1769-1795, being then dismissed for the nominal
+  reason that the church could not support him, but actually because of
+  his opposition to the Half-Way Covenant as well as to slavery and the
+  slave trade. He preached at Colebrook, Connecticut, in 1796-1799 and
+  then became president of Union College, Schenectady, New York, where
+  he died on the 1st of August 1801. His studies of the Indian dialects
+  were scholarly and valuable. He edited his father's incomplete
+  _History of the Work of Redemption_, wrote in answer to Stephen West,
+  _A Dissertation Concerning Liberty and Necessity_ (1797), which
+  defended his father's work on the Will by a rather strained
+  interpretation, and in answer to Chauncy on universal salvation
+  formulated what is known as the "Edwardean," New England or
+  Governmental theory of the atonement in _The Necessity of the
+  Atonement and its Consistency with Free Grace in Forgiveness_ (1785).
+  His collected works were edited by his grandson Tryon Edwards in two
+  volumes, with memoir (Andover, 1842). His place in the Edwardean
+  theology is principally due to his defence against the Universalists
+  of his father's doctrine of the atonement, namely, that Christ's
+  death, being the equivalent of the eternal punishment of sinners,
+  upheld the authority of the divine law, but did not pay any debt, and
+  made the pardon of all men a possibility with God, but not a
+  necessity.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--There have been various editions of Edwards's works.
+  His pupil, Samuel Hopkins, in 1765 published two volumes from
+  manuscript containing eighteen sermons and a memoir; the younger
+  Jonathan Edwards with Dr Erskine published an edition in 4 volumes
+  (1744 sqq.), and Samuel Austin in 1808 edited an edition in 8 volumes.
+  In 1829 Sereno E. Dwight, a great-grandson of Edwards, published the
+  _Life and Works_ in 10 volumes, the first volume containing the
+  memoir, which is still the most complete and was the standard until
+  the publication (Boston, 1889) of _Jonathan Edwards_, by A. V. G.
+  Allen, who attempts to "distinguish what he (Edwards) meant to affirm
+  from what he actually teaches." In 1865 the Rev. Alexander B. Grosart
+  edited from original manuscripts _Selections from the Unpublished
+  Writings of Jonathan Edwards of America_ (Edinburgh, 1865, printed for
+  private circulation). This was the only part of a complete edition
+  planned by Grosart that ever appeared. It contained the important
+  Treatise on Grace, Annotations on the Bible, Directions for Judging of
+  Persons' Experiences, and Sermons, the last for the most part merely
+  in outline. E. C. Smyth published from a copy _Observations Concerning
+  the Scripture Oeconomy of the Trinity and Covenant of Redemption_ (New
+  York, 1880), a careful edition from the manuscript of the essay on the
+  Flying Spider (in the _Andover Review_, January 1890) and "Some Early
+  Writings of Jonathan Edwards," with specimens from the manuscripts (in
+  _Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society_, October, 1895). In
+  1900 on the death of Prof. Edwards A. Park, the entire collection of
+  Edwards's manuscripts loaned to him by Tryon Edwards was transferred
+  to Yale University. Professor Park, like Mr Grosart before him, had
+  been unable to accomplish the great task of editing this mass of
+  manuscript. "A Study of the Manuscripts of Jonathan Edwards" was
+  published by F. B. Dexter in the _Proceedings of the Massachusetts
+  Historical Society_, series 2, vol. xv. (Boston, 1902), and in the
+  same volume of the _Proceedings_ appeared "A Study of the Shorthand
+  Writings of Jonathan Edwards," by W. P. Upham. The long sought for
+  essay on the Trinity was edited (New York, 1903) with valuable
+  introduction and appendices by G. P. Fisher under the title, _An
+  Unpublished Essay of Edwards's on the Trinity_. The only other edition
+  of Edwards (in whole or in part) of any importance is _Selected
+  Sermons of Jonathan Edwards_ (New York, 1904), edited by H. N.
+  Gardiner, with brief biographical sketch and annotations on seven
+  sermons, one of which had not previously been published.
+
+  For estimates of Edwards consult: _The Volume of the Edwards Family
+  Meeting at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, September 6-7, A.D. 1870_
+  (Boston, 1871); _Jonathan Edwards, a Retrospect, Being the Addresses
+  Delivered in Connecticut with the Unveiling of a Memorial in the
+  First Church of Christ in Northampton, Massachusetts, on the One
+  Hundred and Fiftieth Anniversary of his Dismissal from the Pastorate
+  of that Church_, edited by H. N. Gardiner (Boston, 1901); _Exercises
+  Commemorating the Two Hundredth Anniversary of the Birth of Jonathan
+  Edwards, held at Andover Theological Seminary, October 4-5, 1903_
+  (Andover, 1904); and among the addresses delivered at Stockbridge in
+  October 1903, John De Witt, "Jonathan Edwards: A Study," in the
+  _Princeton Theological Review_ (January, 1904). Also H. C. King,
+  "Edwards as Philosopher and Theologian," in _Hartford Theological
+  Seminary Record_, vol. xiv. (1903), pp. 23-57; H. N. Gardiner, "The
+  Early Idealism of Jonathan Edwards," in the _Philosophical Review_,
+  vol. ix. (1900), pp. 573-596; E. C. Smyth, _American Journal of
+  Theology_, vol. i. (1897), pp. 960-964; Samuel P. Hayes, "An
+  Historical Study of the Edwardean Revivals," in _American Journal of
+  Psychology_, vol. xiii. (1902), pp. 550 ff.; J. H. MacCracken,
+  "Philosophical Idealism of Edwards" in _Philosophical Review_, vol.
+  xi. (1902), pp. 26-42, suggesting that Edwards did not know Berkeley,
+  but Collier, and the same author's _Jonathan Edwards' Idealismus_
+  (Halle, 1899); F. J. E. Woodbridge, "Jonathan Edwards," in
+  _Philosophical Review_, vol. xiii. (1904), pp. 393-408; W. H. Squires,
+  _Jonathan Edwards und seine Willenslehre_ (Leipzig, 1901); Samuel
+  Simpson, "Jonathan Edwards, A Historical Review," in _Hartford
+  Seminary Record_, vol. xiv. (1903), pp. 3-22; and _The Edwardean, a
+  Quarterly Devoted to the History of Thought in America_ (Clinton, New
+  York, 1903-1904), edited by W. H. Squires, of which only four parts
+  appeared, all devoted to Edwards and all written by Squires.
+       (H. N. G.; R. WE.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Edwards recognized the abuse of impulses and impressions, opposed
+    itinerant and lay preachers, and defended a well-ordered and
+    well-educated clergy.
+
+  [2] These were probably not fiction like _Pamela_, as Sir Leslie
+    Stephen suggested, for Edwards listed several of Richardson's novels
+    for his own reading, and considered _Sir Charles Grandison_ a very
+    moral and excellent work.
+
+  [3] Besides the younger Jonathan many of Edwards's descendants were
+    great, brilliant or versatile men. Among them were: his son
+    Pierrepont (1750-1826), a brilliant but erratic member of the
+    Connecticut bar, tolerant in religious matters and bitterly hated by
+    stern Calvinists, a man whose personal morality resembled greatly
+    that of Aaron Burr; his grandsons, William Edwards (1770-1851), an
+    inventor of important leather rolling machinery; Aaron Burr the son
+    of Esther Edwards; Timothy Dwight (1752-1817), son of Mary Edwards,
+    and his brother Theodore Dwight, a Federalist politician, a member,
+    the secretary and the historian of the Hartford Convention; his
+    great-grandsons, Tryon Edwards (1809-1894) and Sereno Edwards Dwight,
+    theologian, educationalist and author; and his great-great-grandsons,
+    Theodore William Dwight, the jurist, and Timothy Dwight, second of
+    that name to be president of Yale.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDS, LEWIS (1809-1887), Welsh Nonconformist divine, was born in the
+parish of Llanbadarn Fawr, Cardiganshire, on the 27th of October 1809.
+He was educated at Aberystwyth and at Llangeitho, and then himself kept
+school in both these places. He had already begun to preach for the
+Calvinistic Methodists when, in December 1830, he went to London to take
+advantage of the newly-opened university. In 1832 he settled as minister
+at Laugharne in Carmarthenshire, and the following year went to
+Edinburgh, where a special resolution of the senate allowed him to
+graduate at the end of his third session. He was now better able to
+further his plans for providing a trained ministry for his church.
+Previously, the success of the Methodist preachers had been due mainly
+to their natural gifts. Edwards made his home at Bala, and there, in
+1837, with David Charles, his brother-in-law, he opened a school, which
+ultimately became the denominational college for north Wales. He died on
+the 19th of July 1887.
+
+Edwards may fairly be called one of the makers of modern Wales. Through
+his hands there passed generation after generation of preachers, who
+carried his influence to every corner of the principality. By fostering
+competitive meetings and by his writings, especially in _Y Traethodydd_
+("The Essayist"), a quarterly magazine which he founded in 1845 and
+edited for ten years, he did much to inform and educate his countrymen
+on literary and theological subjects. A new college was built at Bala in
+1867, for which he raised £10,000. His chief publication was a
+noteworthy book on _The Doctrine of the Atonement_, cast in the form of
+a dialogue between master and pupil; the treatment is forensic, and
+emphasis is laid on merit. It was due to him that the North and South
+Wales Calvinistic Methodist Associations united to form an annual
+General Assembly; he was its moderator in 1866 and again in 1876. He was
+successful in bringing the various churches of the Presbyterian order
+into closer touch with each other, and unwearying in his efforts to
+promote education for his countrymen.
+
+  See _Bywyd a Llythyrau y Parch_, (i.e. Life and Letters of the Rev.)
+  _Lewis Edwards, D.D._, by his son T. C. Edwards.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDS, RICHARD (c. 1523-1566), English musician and playwright, was
+born in Somersetshire, became a scholar of Corpus Christi College,
+Oxford, in 1540, and took his M.A. degree in 1547. He was appointed in
+1561 a gentleman of the chapel royal and master of the children, and
+entered Lincoln's Inn in 1564, where at Christmas in that year he
+produced a play which was acted by his choir boys. On the 3rd of
+September 1566 his play, _Palamon and Arcite_, was performed before
+Queen Elizabeth in the Hall of Christ Church, Oxford. Another play,
+_Damon and Pithias_, tragic in subject but with scenes of vulgar farce,
+entered at Stationers' Hall in 1567-8, appeared in 1571 and was
+reprinted in 1582; it may be found in Dodsley's _Old Plays_, vol. i.,
+and _Ancient British Drama_, vol. i. It is written in rhymed lines of
+rude construction, varying in length and neglecting the _caesura_. A
+number of the author's shorter pieces are preserved in the _Paradise of
+Dainty Devices_, first published in 1575, and reprinted in the _British
+Bibliographer_, vol. iii.; the best known are the lines on May, the
+_Amantium Irae_, and the _Commendation of Music_, which has the honour
+of furnishing a stanza to _Romeo and Juliet_. The _Historie of Damocles
+and Dionise_ is assigned to him in the 1578 edition of the _Paradise_.
+Sir John Hawkins credited him with the part song "In going to my lonely
+bed"; the words are certainly his, and probably the music. In his own
+day Edwards was highly esteemed. The fine poem, "The Soul's Knell," is
+supposed to have been written by him when dying.
+
+  See _Grove's Dict. of Music_ (new edition); the _Shakespeare Soc.
+  Papers_, vol. ii. art. vi.; Ward, _English Dram. Literature_, vol. i.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDS, THOMAS CHARLES (1837-1900), Welsh Nonconformist divine and
+educationist, was born at Bala, Merioneth, on the 22nd of September
+1837, the son of Lewis Edwards (q.v.). His resolve to become a minister
+was deepened by the revival of 1858-1859. After taking his degrees at
+London (B.A. 1861, M.A. 1862), he matriculated at St Alban Hall, Oxford,
+in October 1862, the university having just been opened to dissenters.
+He obtained a scholarship at Lincoln College in 1864, and took a first
+class in the school of Literae Humaniores in 1866. He was especially
+influenced by Mark Pattison and Jowett, who counselled him to be true to
+the church of his father, in which he had already been ordained. Early
+in 1867 he became minister at Windsor Street, Liverpool, but left it to
+become first principal of the University College of Wales at
+Aberystwyth, which had been established through the efforts of Sir Hugh
+Owen and other enthusiasts. The college was opened with a staff of three
+professors and twenty-five students in October 1872, and for some years
+its career was chequered enough. Edwards, however, proved a skilful
+pilot, and his hold on the affection of the Welsh people enabled him to
+raise the college to a high level of efficiency. When it was destroyed
+by fire in 1885 he collected £25,000 to rebuild it; the remainder of the
+necessary £40,000 being given by the government (£10,000) and by the
+people of Aberystwyth (£5000). In 1891 he gave up what had been the main
+work of his life to accept an undertaking that was even nearer his
+heart, the principalship of the theological college at Bala. A stroke of
+paralysis in 1894 fatally weakened him, but he continued at work till
+his death on the 22nd of March 1900. The Calvinistic Methodist Church of
+Wales bestowed on him every honour in their possession, and he received
+the degree of D.D. from the universities of Edinburgh (1887) and Wales
+(1898). His chief works were a _Commentary on 1 Corinthians_ (1885), the
+_Epistle to the Hebrews_ ("Expositor's Bible" series, 1888), and _The
+God-Man_ ("Davies Lecture," 1895).
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Madison county, Illinois,
+U.S.A., in the south-western part of the state, on Cahokia Creek, about
+18 m. N.E. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 3561; (1900) 4157 (573
+foreign-born); (1910) 5014. Edwardsville is served by the Toledo, St
+Louis & Western, the Wabash, the Litchfield & Madison, and the Illinois
+Terminal railways, and is connected with St Louis by three electric
+lines. It has a Carnegie library. The city's principal manufactures are
+carriages, ploughs, brick, machinery, sanitary ware and plumber's goods.
+Bituminous coal is extensively mined in the vicinity. Adjoining
+Edwardsville is the co-operative village Leclaire (unincorporated), with
+the factory of the N.O. Nelson Manufacturing Co., makers of plumber's
+supplies, brass goods, sanitary fixtures, &c.; the village was founded
+in 1890 by Nelson O. Nelson (b. 1844), and nearly all of the residents
+are employed by the company of which he is the head; they share to a
+certain extent in its profits, and are encouraged to own their own
+homes. The company supports a school, Leclaire Academy, and has built a
+club-house, bowling alleys, tennis-courts, base-ball grounds, &c. The
+first settlement on the site of Edwardsville was made in 1812, and in
+1815 the town was laid out and named in honour of Ninian Edwards
+(1775-1833), the governor of the Illinois Territory (1809-1818), and
+later United States senator (1818-1824) and governor of the state of
+Illinois (1826-1830). Edwardsville was incorporated in 1819 and received
+its present charter in 1872.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDSVILLE, a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the
+north branch of the Susquehanna river, adjoining Kingston and close to
+the north-western limits of Wilkes-Barre (on the opposite side of the
+river), in the north-eastern part of the state; the official name of the
+post office is Edwardsdale. Pop. (1890), 3284; (1900), 5165, of whom
+2645 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 8407. It is served by the
+electric line of the Wilkes-Barre & Wyoming Valley Traction Co. Coal
+mining and brewing are the chief industries. Edwardsville was
+incorporated in 1884.
+
+
+
+
+EDWIN, AEDUINI or EDWINE (585-633), king of Northumbria, was the son of
+Ella of Deira. On the seizure of Deira by Æthelfrith of Bernicia
+(probably 605), Edwin was expelled and is said to have taken refuge with
+Cadfan, king of Gwynedd. After the battle of Chester, in which
+Æthelfrith defeated the Welsh, Edwin fled to Roedwald, the powerful
+king of East Anglia, who after some wavering espoused his cause and
+defeated and slew Æthelfrith at the river Idle in 617. Edwin thereupon
+succeeded to the Northumbrian throne, driving out the sons of
+Æthelfrith. There is little evidence of external activity on the part of
+Edwin before 625. It is probable that the conquest of the Celtic kingdom
+of Elmet, a district in the neighbourhood of the modern Leeds, ruled
+over by a king named Cerdic (Ceredig) is to be referred to this period,
+and this may have led to the later quarrel with Cadwallon, king of
+Gwynedd. Edwin seems also to have annexed Lindsey to his kingdom by 625.
+In this year he entered upon negotiations with Eadbald of Kent for a
+marriage with his sister Æthelberg. It was made a condition that
+Christianity should be tolerated in Northumbria, and accordingly
+Paulinus was consecrated bishop by Justus in 625, and was sent to
+Northumbria with Æthelberg. According to Bede, Edwin was favourably
+disposed towards Christianity owing to a vision he had seen at the court
+of Roedwald, and in 626 he allowed Eanfled, his daughter by Æthelberg,
+to be baptized. On the day of the birth of his daughter, the king's life
+had been attempted by Eomer, an emissary of Cwichelm, king of Wessex.
+Preserved by the devotion of his thegn Lilla, Edwin vowed to become a
+Christian if victorious over his treacherous enemy. He was successful in
+the ensuing campaign, and abstained from the worship of the gods of his
+race. A letter of Pope Boniface helped to decide him, and after
+consulting his friends and counsellors, of whom the priest Coifi
+afterwards took a prominent part in destroying the temple at Goodmanham,
+he was baptized with his people and nobles at York, at Easter 627. In
+this town he granted Paulinus a see, built a wooden church and began one
+of stone. Besides York, Yeavering and Maelmin in Bernicia, and Catterick
+in Deira, were the chief scenes of the work of Paulinus. It was the
+influence of Edwin which led to the conversion of Eorpwald of East
+Anglia. Bede notices the peaceful state of Britain at this time, and
+relates that Edwin was preceded on his progresses by a kind of standard
+like that borne before the Roman emperors. In 633 Cadwallon of North
+Wales and Penda of Mercia rose against Edwin and slew him at Hatfield
+near Doncaster. His kinsman Osric succeeded in Deira, and Eanfrith the
+son of Æthelfrith in Bernicia. Bede tells us that Edwin had subdued the
+islands of Anglesey and Man, and the _Annales Cambriae_ record that he
+besieged Cadwallon (perhaps in 632) in the island of Glannauc (Puffin
+Island). He was definitely recognized as overlord by all the other
+Anglo-Saxon kings of his day except Eadbald of Kent.
+
+  See Bede, _Hist. Eccl._ (ed. Plummer, Oxford, 1896), ii. 5, 9, 11, 12,
+  13, 15, 16, 18, 20; Nennius (ed. San Marte, 1844), § 63; _Vita S.
+  Oswaldi_, ix. Simeon of Durham (ed. Arnold, London, 1882-1885, vol. i.
+  R.S.).     (F. G. M. B.)
+
+
+
+
+EDWIN, JOHN (1749-1790), English actor, was born in London on the 10th
+of August 1749, the son of a watchmaker. As a youth, he appeared in the
+provinces, in minor parts; and at Bath in 1768 he formed a connexion
+with a Mrs Walmsley, a milliner, who bore him a son, but whom he
+afterwards deserted. His first London appearance was at the Haymarket in
+1776 as Flaw in Samuel Foote's _The Cozeners_, but when George Colman
+took over the theatre he was given better parts and became its leading
+actor. In 1779 he was at Covent Garden, and played there or at the
+Haymarket until his death on the 31st of October 1790. Ascribed to him
+are _The Last Legacy of John Edwin_, 1780; _Edwin's Jests_ and _Edwin's
+Pills to Purge Melancholy_.
+
+His son, JOHN EDWIN (1768-1805), made a first appearance on the stage at
+the Haymarket as Hengo in Beaumont and Fletcher's _Bonduca_ in 1778, and
+from that time acted frequently with his father, and managed the private
+theatricals organized by his intimate friend Lord Barrymore at Wargrave,
+Berks. In 1791 he married Elizabeth Rebecca Richards, an actress already
+well known in juvenile parts, and played at the Haymarket and elsewhere
+thereafter with her. He died in Dublin on the 22nd of February 1805. His
+widow joined the Drury Lane company (then playing, on account of the
+fire of 1809, at the Lyceum), and took all the leading characters in the
+comedies of the day. She died on the 3rd of August 1854.
+
+
+
+
+EDWY (EADWIG), "THE FAIR" (c. 940-959), king of the English, was the
+eldest son of King Edmund and Ælfgifu, and succeeded his uncle Eadred in
+955, when he was little more than fifteen years old. He was crowned at
+Kingston by Archbishop Odo, and his troubles began at the coronation
+feast. He had retired to enjoy the company of the ladies Æthelgifu
+(perhaps his foster-mother) and her daughter Ælfgifu, whom the king
+intended to marry. The nobles resented the king's withdrawal, and he was
+induced by Dunstan and Cynesige, bishop of Lichfield, to return to the
+feast. Edwy naturally resented this interference, and in 957 Dunstan was
+driven into exile. By the year 956 Ælfgifu had become the king's wife,
+but in 958 Archbishop Odo of Canterbury secured their separation on the
+ground of their being too closely akin. Edwy, to judge from the
+disproportionately large numbers of charters issued during his reign,
+seems to have been weakly lavish in the granting of privileges, and soon
+the chief men of Mercia and Northumbria were disgusted by his partiality
+for Wessex. The result was that in the year 957 his brother, the
+Ætheling Edgar, was chosen as king by the Mercians and Northumbrians. It
+is probable that no actual conflict took place, and in 959, on Edwy's
+death, Edgar acceded peaceably to the combined kingdoms of Wessex,
+Mercia and Northumbria.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford), _sub
+  ann._; _Memorials of St Dunstan_ (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series); William
+  of Malmesbury, _Gesta regum_ (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series); Birch,
+  _Cartularium Saxonicum_, vol. ii. Nos. 932-1046; Florence of
+  Worcester.
+
+
+
+
+EECKHOUT, GERBRAND VAN DEN (1621-1674), Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam
+on the 19th of August 1621, entered early into the studio of Rembrandt.
+Though a companion pupil to F. Bol and Govaert Flinck, he was inferior
+to both in skill and in the extent of his practice; yet at an early
+period he assumed Rembrandt's manner with such success that his pictures
+were confounded with those of his master; and, even in modern days, the
+"Resurrection of the Daughter of Jairus," in the Berlin museum, and the
+"Presentation in the Temple," in the Dresden gallery, have been held to
+represent worthily the style of Rembrandt. As evidence of the fidelity
+of Eeckhout's imitation we may cite his "Presentation in the Temple," at
+Berlin, which is executed after Rembrandt's print of 1630, and his
+"Tobit with the Angel," at Brunswick, which is composed on the same
+background as Rembrandt's "Philosopher in Thought." Eeckhout not merely
+copies the subjects; he also takes the shapes, the figures, the Jewish
+dress and the pictorial effects of his master. It is difficult to form
+an exact judgment of Eeckhout's qualities at the outset of his career.
+His earliest pieces are probably those in which he more faithfully
+reproduced Rembrandt's peculiarities. Exclusively his is a tinge of
+green in shadows marring the harmony of the work, a certain gaudiness of
+jarring tints, uniform surface and a touch more quick than subtle.
+Besides the pictures already mentioned we should class amongst early
+productions on this account the "Woman taken in Adultery," at Amsterdam;
+"Anna presenting her Son to the High Priest," in the Louvre; the
+"Epiphany," at Turin; and the "Circumcision," at Cassel. Eeckhout
+matriculated early in the Gild of Amsterdam. A likeness of a lady at a
+dressing-table with a string of beads, at Vienna, bears the date of
+1643, and proves that the master at this time possessed more imitative
+skill than genuine mastery over nature. As he grew older he succeeded
+best in portraits, a very fair example of which is that of the historian
+Dappers (1669), in the Städel collection. Eeckhout occasionally varied
+his style so as to recall in later years the "small masters" of the
+Dutch school. Waagen justly draws attention to his following of Terburg
+in "Gambling Soldiers," at Stafford House, and a "Soldiers'
+Merrymaking," in the collection of the marquess of Bute. A "Sportsman
+with Hounds," probably executed in 1670, now in the Vander Hoo gallery,
+and a "Group of Children with Goats" (1671), in the Hermitage, hardly
+exhibit a trace of the artist's first education. Amongst the best of
+Eeckhout's works "Christ in the Temple" (1662), at Munich, and the
+"Haman and Mordecai" of 1665, at Luton House, occupy a good place.
+Eeckhout died at Amsterdam on the 22nd of October 1674.
+
+
+
+
+EEL. The common freshwater eel (Lat. _anguilla_; O. Eng. _oel_) belongs
+to a group of soft-rayed fishes distinguished by the presence of an
+opening to the air-bladder and the absence of the pelvic fins. With its
+nearest relatives it forms the family _Muraenidae_, all of which are of
+elongated cylindrical form. The peculiarities of the eel are the
+rudimentary scales buried in the skin, the well-developed pectoral fins,
+the rounded tail fin continuous with the dorsal and ventral fins. Only
+one other species of the family occurs in British waters, namely, the
+conger, which is usually much larger and lives in the sea. In the conger
+the eyes are larger than in the eel, and the upper jaw overlaps the
+lower, whereas in the eel the lower jaw projects beyond the upper. Both
+species are voracious and predatory, and feed on almost any animal food
+they can obtain, living or dead. The conger is especially fond of squid
+or other Cephalopods, while the eel greedily devours carrion. The common
+eel occurs in all the rivers and fresh waters of Europe, except those
+draining towards the Arctic Ocean, the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. It
+also occurs on the Atlantic side of North America. The conger has a
+wider range, extending from the western and southern shores of Britain
+and Ireland to the East Indian Archipelago and Japan. It is common in
+the Mediterranean.
+
+The ovaries of the eel resemble somewhat those of the salmon in
+structure, not forming closed sacs, as in the majority of Teleostei, but
+consisting of laminae exposed to the body cavity. The laminae in which
+the eggs are produced are very numerous, and are attached transversely
+by their inner edges to a membranous band running nearly the whole
+length of the body-cavity. The majority of the eels captured for market
+are females with the ovaries in an immature condition. The male eel was
+first discovered in 1873 by Syrski at Trieste, the testis being
+described by him as a lobed elongated organ, in the same relative
+position as the ovary in the female, surrounded by a smooth surface
+without laminae. He did not find ripe spermatozoa. He discovered the
+male by examining small specimens, all the larger being female. L.
+Jacoby, a later observer, found no males exceeding 19 in. in length,
+while the female may reach a length of 39 in. or more. Dr C. G. J.
+Petersen, in a paper published in 1896, states that in Denmark two kinds
+of eels are distinguished by the fishermen, namely, yellow eels and
+silver eels. The silver eels are further distinguished by the shape of
+the snout and the size of the eyes. The snout in front of the eyes is
+not flat, as in the yellow eels, but high and compressed, and therefore
+appears more pointed, while the eyes are much larger and directed
+outwards. In both kinds there are males and females, but Petersen shows
+that the yellow eels change into silver eels when they migrate to the
+sea. The sexual organs in the silver eels are more developed than in the
+yellow eels, and the former have almost or entirely ceased to take food.
+The male silver eels are from 11½ to 19 in. in length, the females from
+16½ to about 39 in. It is evident, therefore, that if eels only spawn
+once, they do not all reach the same size when they become sexually
+mature. The male conger was first described in 1879 by Hermes, who
+obtained a ripe specimen in the Berlin Aquarium. This specimen was not
+quite 2½ ft. in length, and of the numerous males which have been
+identified at the Plymouth Laboratory, none exceeded this length. The
+large numbers of conger above this size caught for the market are all
+immature females. Female conger of 5 or 6 ft. in length and weighing
+from 30 to 50 lb. are common enough, and occasionally they exceed these
+limits. The largest recorded was 8 ft. 3 in. long, and weighed 128 lb.
+
+There is every reason to believe that eels and conger spawn but once in
+their lives, and die soon after they have discharged their generative
+products. When kept in aquaria, both male and female conger are vigorous
+and voracious. The males sooner or later cease to feed, and attain to
+the sexually mature condition, emitting ripe milt when handled and
+gently squeezed. They live in this condition five or six months, taking
+no food and showing gradual wasting and disease of the bodily organs.
+The eyes and skin become ulcerated, the sight is entirely lost, and the
+bones become soft through loss of lime. The females also after a time
+cease to feed, and live in a fasting condition for five or six months,
+during which time the ovaries develop and reach great size and weight,
+while the bones become soft and the teeth disappear. The female,
+however, always dies in confinement before the ova are perfectly ripe
+and before they are liberated from the ovarian tissue. The absence of
+some necessary condition, perhaps merely of the pressure which exists at
+the bottom of the sea, evidently prevents the complete development of
+the ovary. The invariable death of the fish in the same almost ripe
+condition leads to the conclusion that under normal conditions the fish
+dies after the mature ova have been discharged. G. B. Grassi states that
+he obtained ripe male eels, and ripe specimens of _Muraena_, another
+genus of the family, in the whirlpools of the Strait of Messina. A ripe
+female _Muraena_ has also been described at Zanzibar. Gravid female
+eels, i.e. specimens with ovaries greatly enlarged, have been
+occasionally obtained in fresh water, but there is no doubt that,
+normally, sexual maturity is attained only in the sea.
+
+Until recent years nothing was known from direct observation concerning
+the reproduction of the common eel or any species of the family. It was
+a well-known fact that large eels migrated towards the sea in autumn,
+and that in the spring small transparent eels of 2 in. in length and
+upwards were common on the shore under stones, and ascended rivers and
+streams in vast swarms. It was reasonable, therefore, to infer that the
+mature eels spawned in the sea, and that there the young were developed.
+
+[Illustration: Leptocephali. (By permission of J. & A. Churchill.)]
+
+A group of peculiar small fishes were, however, known which were called
+Leptocephali, from the small proportional size of the head. The first of
+these described was captured in 1763 near Holyhead, and became the type
+of _L. Morrisii_, other specimens of which have been taken either near
+the shore or at the surface of the sea. Other forms placed in the same
+genus had been taken by surface fishing in the Mediterranean and in
+tropical ocean currents. The chief peculiarities of Leptocephali, in
+addition to the smallness of the head, are their ribbon-like shape and
+their glassy transparency during life. The body is flattened from side
+to side, and broad from the dorsal to the ventral edge. Like the eels,
+they are destitute of pelvic fins and no generative organs have been
+observed in them (see fig.).
+
+In 1864 the American naturalist, T. N. Gill, published the conclusion
+that _L. Morrisii_ was the young or larva of the conger, and
+Leptocephali generally the young stages of species of _Muraenidae_. In
+1886 this conclusion was confirmed from direct observation by Yves
+Delage, who kept alive in a tank at Roscoff a specimen of _L. Morrisii_,
+and saw it gradually transformed into a young conger. From 1887 to 1892
+Professor Grassi and Dr Calandruccio carried on careful and successful
+researches into the development of the Leptocephali at Catania, in
+Sicily. The specimens were captured in considerable numbers in the
+harbour, and the transformation of _L. Morrisii_ into young conger, and
+of various other forms of Leptocephalus into other genera of
+_Muraenidae_, such as _Muraena_, _Congromuraena_ and _Ophichthys_, was
+observed. In 1894 the same authors published the announcement that
+another species of Leptocephalus, namely, _L. brevirostris_, was the
+larva of the common eel. This larval form was captured in numbers with
+other Leptocephali in the strong currents of the Strait of Messina. In
+the metamorphosis of all Leptocephali a great reduction in size occurs.
+The _L. brevirostris_ reaches a length of 8 cm., or a little more than
+2½ in., while the perfectly-formed young eel is 2 in. long or a little
+more.
+
+The Italian naturalists have also satisfied themselves that certain
+pelagic fish eggs originally described by Raffaele at Naples are the
+eggs of _Muraenidae_, and that among them are the eggs of _Conger_ and
+_Anguilla_. They believe that these eggs, although free in the water,
+remain usually near the bottom at great depths, and that fertilization
+takes place under similar conditions. No fish eggs of the kind to which
+reference is here made have yet been obtained on the British coasts,
+although conger and eels are so abundant there. Raffaele described and
+figured the larva newly hatched from one of the eggs under
+consideration, and it is evident that this larva is the earliest stage
+of a Leptocephalus.
+
+Although young eels, some of them more or less flat and transparent, are
+common enough on the coasts of Great Britain and north-western Europe in
+spring, neither eggs nor specimens of _Leptocephalus brevirostris_ have
+yet been taken in the North Sea, English Channel or other shallow waters
+in the neighbourhood of the British Islands, or in the Baltic. Marked
+eels have been proved to migrate from the inmost part of the Baltic to
+the Kattegat. Recently, however, search has been made for the larvae in
+the more distant and deeper portions of the Atlantic Ocean. In May 1904
+a true larval specimen was taken at the surface south-west of the Faeroe
+Islands, and another was taken 40 m. north by west of Achill Head,
+Ireland. In 1905 numbers were taken in deep water in the Atlantic. The
+evidence at present available indicates that the spawning of mature eels
+takes place beyond the 100 fathom line, and that the young eels which
+reach the coast are already a year old. As eels, both young and old, are
+able to live for a long time out of water and have the habit of
+travelling at night over land in wet grass and in damp weather, there is
+no difficulty in explaining their presence in wells, ponds or other
+isolated bodies of fresh water at any distance from the sea.
+
+  See "The Eel Question," _Report U.S. Commissioner of Fisheries for
+  1879_ (Washington, 1882); J. T. Cunningham, "Reproduction and
+  Development of the Conger," _Journ. Mar. Biol. Assn._ vol. ii.; C. G.
+  J. Petersen, _Report Dan. Biol. Station_, v. (1894); G. B. Grassi,
+  _Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci._ vol. xxxix. (1897).     (J. T. C.)
+
+
+
+
+EFFENDI (a Turkish word, corrupted from the Gr. [Greek: authentês], a
+lord or master), a title of respect, equivalent to the English "sir," in
+the Turkish empire and some other eastern countries. It follows the
+personal name, when that is used, and is generally given to members of
+the learned professions, and to government officials who have no higher
+rank, such as Bey, Pasha, &c. It may also indicate a definite office, as
+_Hakim effendi_, chief physician to the sultan. The possessive form
+_effendim_ (my master) is used by servants and in formal intercourse.
+
+
+
+
+EFFIGIES, MONUMENTAL. An "effigy" (Lat. _effigies_, from _effingere_, to
+fashion) is, in general, a material image or likeness of a person; and
+the practice of hanging or burning people "in effigy," i.e. their
+semblance only, preserves the more general sense of the word. Such
+representations may be portraits, caricatures or models. But, apart from
+general usages of the term (see e.g. Wax Figures), it is more
+particularly applied in the history of art to a particular class of
+sculptured figures, in the flat or the round, associated with Christian
+sepulchral monuments, dating from the 12th century. The earliest of
+these attempts at commemorative portraiture were executed in low relief
+upon coffin-lids of stone or purbeck marble, some portions of the
+designs for the most part being executed by means of incised lines, cut
+upon the raised figure. Gradually, with the increased size and the
+greater architectural dignity of monumental structures, effigies
+attained to a high rank as works of art, so that before the close of the
+13th century very noble examples of figures of this order are found to
+have been executed in full relief; and, about the same period, similar
+figures also began to be engraved, either upon monumental slabs of stone
+or marble, or upon plates of metal, which were affixed to the surfaces
+of slabs that were laid in the pavements of churches.
+
+Engraved plates of this class, known as "Brasses" (see BRASSES,
+MONUMENTAL), continued in favour until the era of the Reformation, and
+in recent times their use has been revived. It seems probable that the
+introduction and the prevalence of flat engraved memorials, in place of
+commemorative effigies in relief, was due, in the first instance, to the
+inconvenience resulting from increasing numbers of raised stones on the
+pavement of churches; while the comparatively small cost of engraved
+plates, their high artistic capabilities, and their durability, combined
+to secure for them the popularity they unquestionably enjoyed. If
+considerably less numerous than contemporary incised slabs and engraved
+brasses, effigies sculptured in relief--with some exceptions in full
+relief--continued for centuries to constitute the most important
+features in many medieval monuments. In the 13th century, their origin
+being apparently derived from the endeavour to combine a monumental
+effigy with a monumental cross upon the same sepulchral stone (whether
+in sculpture or by incised lines), parts only of the human figure
+sometimes were represented, such as the head or bust, and occasionally
+also the feet; in some of the early examples of this curious class the
+cross symbol was not introduced, and after awhile half-length figures
+became common.
+
+Except in very rare instances, that most important element, genuine
+face-portraiture, is not to be looked for, in even the finest sculptured
+effigies, earlier than about the middle of the 15th century. In works of
+the highest order of art, indeed, the memorials of personages of the
+most exalted rank, effigies from an early period in their existence may
+be considered occasionally to have been portraits properly so called;
+and yet even in such works as these an approximately correct general
+resemblance but too frequently appears to have been all that was
+contemplated or desired. At the same time, in the earliest monumental
+effigies we possess contemporary examples of vestments, costume,[1]
+armour, weapons, royal and knightly insignia, and other personal
+appointments and accessories, in all of which accurate fidelity has been
+certainly observed with scrupulous care and minute exactness. Thus,
+since the monumental effigies of England are second to none in artistic
+merit, while they have been preserved in far greater numbers, and
+generally in better condition than those in other countries, they
+represent in unbroken continuity an unrivalled series of original
+personal representations of successive generations, very many of them
+being, in the most significant acceptation of that term, veritable
+contemporaneous portraits.
+
+Once esteemed to be simply objects of antiquarian curiosity, and either
+altogether disregarded or too often subjected to injurious indignity,
+the monumental effigies in England long awaited the formation of a just
+estimate of their true character and their consequent worth in their
+capacity as authorities for face-portraiture. In the original contract
+for the construction of the monument at Warwick to Richard Beauchamp,
+the fifth earl, who died in 1439, it is provided that an effigy of the
+deceased noble should be executed in bronze gilt, with all possible
+care, by the most skilful and experienced artists of the time; and the
+details of the armour and the ornaments of the figure are specified with
+minute precision. It is remarkable, however, that the effigy itself is
+described only in the general and indefinite terms--"an image of a man
+armed." There is no provision that the effigy should be "an image" of
+the earl; and much less is anything said as to its being such a
+"counterfeit presentment" of the features and person of the living man,
+as the contemporaries of Shakespeare had learned to expect in what they
+would accept as true portraiture. The effigy, almost as perfect as when
+it left the sculptor's hands, still bears witness, as well to the
+conscientious care with which the conditions of the contract were
+fulfilled, as to the eminent ability of the artists employed. So
+complete is the representation of the armour, that this effigy might be
+considered actually to have been equipped in the earl's own favourite
+suit of the finest Milan steel. The cast of the figure also was
+evidently studied from what the earl had been when in life, and the
+countenance is sufficiently marked and endowed with the unmistakable
+attributes of personal character. Possibly such a resemblance may have
+been the highest aim in the image-making of the period, somewhat before
+the middle of the 15th century. Three-quarters of a century later, a
+decided step towards fidelity in true portraiture is shown to have been
+taken, when, in his will (1510 A.D.), Henry VII. spoke of the effigies
+of himself and of his late queen, Elizabeth of York, to be executed for
+their monument, as "an image of our figure and another of hers." The
+existing effigies in the Beauchamp chapel and in Henry VII.'s chapel,
+with the passages just quoted from the contract made by the executors of
+the Lancastrian earl, strikingly illustrate the gradual development of
+the idea of true personal portraiture in monumental effigies, during the
+course of the 15th and at the commencement of the 16th century in
+England.
+
+Study of the royal effigies still preserved must commence in Worcester
+Cathedral with that of King John. This earliest example of a series of
+effigies of which the historical value has never yet been duly
+appreciated is rude as a work of art, and yet there is on it the impress
+of such individuality as demonstrates that the sculptor did his best to
+represent the king. Singularly fine as achievements of the sculptor's
+art are the effigies of Henry III., Queen Eleanor of Castile, and her
+ill-fated son Edward II., the two former in Westminster Abbey, the last
+in Gloucester cathedral; and of their fidelity also as portraits no
+doubt can be entertained. In like manner the effigies of Edward III. and
+his queen Philippa, and those of their grandson Richard II. and his
+first consort, Anne of Bohemia (all at Westminster), and of their other
+grandson, Henry of Lancaster, with his second consort, Joan of Navarre,
+at Canterbury--all convince us that they are true portraits. Next follow
+the effigies of Henry VII. and Elizabeth of York,--to be succeeded, and
+the royal series to be completed, by the effigies of Queen Elizabeth and
+Mary Stuart, all of them in Westminster Abbey. Very instructive would be
+a close comparison between the two last-named works and the painted
+portraits of the rival queens, especially in the case of Mary, the
+pictures of whom differ so remarkably from one another.
+
+As the 15th century advanced, the rank of the personage represented and
+the character of the art that distinguishes any effigy goes far to
+determine its portrait qualities. Still later, when more exact
+face-portraiture had become a recognized element, sculptors must be
+supposed to have aimed at the production of such resemblance as their
+art would enable them to give to their works; and accordingly, when we
+compare effigies with painted portraits of the same personages, we find
+that they corroborate one another. The prevalence of portraiture in the
+effigies of the 16th and 17th centuries, when their art generally
+underwent a palpable decline, by no means raises all works of this
+class, or indeed the majority of them, to the dignity of true portraits;
+on the contrary, in these effigies, as in those of earlier periods, it
+is the character of the art in each particular example that affects its
+merit, value and authority as a portrait. In judging of these latter
+effigies, however, we must estimate them by the standard of art of their
+own era; and, as a general rule, the effigies that are the best as works
+of art in their own class are the best also and the most faithful in
+their portraiture. The earlier effigies, usually produced without any
+express aim at exact portraiture, as we now employ that expression, have
+nevertheless strong claims upon our veneration. Often their sculpture is
+very noble; and even when they are rudest as works of art, there is
+rarely lacking a rough grandeur about them, as exhibited in the fine
+bold figure of Fair Rosamond's son, Earl William of the Long Sword,
+which reposes in such dignified serenity in his own cathedral at
+Salisbury. These effigies may not bring us closely face to face with
+remote generations, but they do place before us true images of what the
+men and women of those generations were.
+
+Observant students of monumental effigies will not fail to appreciate
+the singular felicity with which the medieval sculptors adjusted their
+compositions to the recumbent position in which their "images"
+necessarily had to be placed. Equally worthy of notice is the manner in
+which many monumental effigies, particularly those of comparatively
+early date, are found to have assumed an aspect neither living nor
+lifeless, and yet impressively life-like. The sound judgment also, and
+the good taste of those early sculptors, were signally exemplified in
+their excluding, almost without exception, the more extravagant fashions
+in the costume of their era from their monumental sculpture, and
+introducing only the simpler but not less characteristic styles of dress
+and appointments. Monumental effigies, as commonly understood, represent
+recumbent figures, and the accessories of the effigies themselves have
+been adjusted to that position. With the exceptions when they appear on
+one side resting on the elbow (as in the case of Thomas Owen (d. 1598)
+and Sir Thomas Heskett (d. 1605), both in Westminster Abbey), these
+effigies lie on their backs, and as a general rule (except in the case
+of episcopal figures represented in the act of benediction, or of
+princes and warriors who sometimes hold a sceptre or a sword) their
+hands are uplifted and conjoined as in supplication. The crossed-legged
+attitude of numerous armed effigies of the era of mail-armour has been
+supposed to imply the personages so represented to have been crusaders
+or Knights of the Temple; but in either case the supposition is
+unfounded and inconsistent with unquestionable facts. Much beautiful
+feeling is conveyed by figures of ministering angels being introduced as
+in the act of supporting and smoothing the pillows or cushions that are
+placed in very many instances to give support to the heads of the
+recumbent effigies. The animals at the feet of these effigies, which
+frequently have an heraldic significance, enabled the sculptors, with
+equal propriety and effectiveness, to overcome one of the special
+difficulties inseparable from the recumbent position. In general,
+monumental effigies were carved in stone or marble, or cast in bronze,
+but occasionally they were of wood: such is the effigy of Robert
+Curthose, son of William I. (d. 1135), whose altar tomb in Gloucester
+cathedral was probably set up about 1320.
+
+In addition to recumbent statues, upright figures must receive notice
+here, especially those set in wall-monuments in churches mainly. These
+usually consisted in half-length figures, seen full-face, placed in a
+recess within an architectural setting more or less elaborate. They
+belong mainly to the 16th and 17th centuries. Among the many examples in
+old St Paul's cathedral (destroyed in the Great Fire of 1666) were those
+of Dean Colet (d. 1519), William Aubrey (1595) and Alexander Nowell (d.
+1601). In St Giles's, Cripplegate, is the similarly designed effigy of
+John Speed (d. 1629); while that of John Stow (d. 1605) is a
+full-length, seated figure. This, like the figure of Thomas Owen, is in
+alabaster, but since its erection has always been described as
+terra-cotta--a material which came into considerable favour for the
+purpose of busts and half-lengths towards the end of the 16th century,
+imported, of course, from abroad. Sometimes the stone monuments were
+painted to resemble life, as in the monuments to Shakespeare and John
+Combe (the latter now over-painted white), in Holy Trinity Church,
+Stratford-on-Avon.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Among the more noteworthy publications are the
+  following: _Monumental Effigies in Great Britain_ (Norman Conquest to
+  Henry VIII.), by C. A. Stothard, folio (London, 1876); _The Recumbent
+  Monumental Effigies in Northamptonshire_, by A. Hartshorne (4to,
+  London, 1867-1876); _Sepulchral Memorials_ (Northamptonshire), by W.
+  H. Hyett (folio, London, 1817); _Ancient Sepulchral Effigies and
+  Monumental Sculpture of Devon_, by W. H. H. Rogers (4to, Exeter,
+  1877); _The Ancient Sepulchral Monuments of Essex_, ed. by C. M.
+  Carlton (4to, Chelmsford, 1890); and other works dealing with the
+  subject according to counties. Of particular value is the _Report of
+  the Sepulchral Monuments Committee_ of the Society of Antiquaries,
+  laboriously compiled at the request of the Office of Works, arranged
+  (1) personally and chronologically, and (2) locally (1872).
+       (C. B.; M. H. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] It is well known that the costume of effigies nearly always
+    represented what was actually worn by the remains of the person
+    commemorated, when prepared for interment and when lying in state;
+    and, in like manner, the aspect of the lifeless countenance, even if
+    not designedly reproduced by medieval "image" makers, may long have
+    exercised a powerful influence upon their ideas of consistent
+    monumental portraiture.
+
+
+
+
+EGAN, PIERCE (1772-1849), English sporting writer, was born in London in
+1772. He began life as sporting reporter for the newspapers, and was
+soon recognized as the best of his day. In 1814 he wrote, set and
+printed a book about the relations of the prince regent (afterwards
+George IV.) and Miss Robinson, called _The Mistress of Royalty, or the
+Loves of Florizel and Perdita_. But his best-known work is _Life in
+London, or Days and Nights of Jerry Hawthorne and his Elegant Friend
+Corinthian Tom_ (1821), a book describing the amusements of sporting
+men, with illustrations by Cruikshank. This book took the popular fancy
+and was one of Thackeray's early favourites (see his _Roundabout
+Papers_). It was repeatedly imitated, and several dramatic versions were
+produced in London. A sequel containing more of country sports and
+misadventures probably suggested Dickens's _Pickwick Papers_. In 1824
+_Pierce Egan's Life in London and Sporting Guide_ was started, a weekly
+newspaper afterwards incorporated with _Bell's Life_. Among his numerous
+other books are _Boxiana_ (1818), _Life of an Actor_ (1824), _Book of
+Sports_ (1832), and the _Pilgrims of the Thames_ (1838). Egan died at
+Pentonville on the 3rd of August 1849.
+
+His son, Pierce Egan (1814-1880), illustrated his own and his father's
+books, and wrote a score of novels of varying merit, of which _The Snake
+in the Grass_ (1858) is perhaps the best.
+
+
+
+
+EGBO, a secret society flourishing chiefly among the Efiks of the
+Calabar district, West Africa. Egbo or Ekpé is a mysterious spirit who
+lives in the jungle and is supposed to preside at the ceremonies of the
+society. Only males can join, boys being initiated about the age of
+puberty. Members are bound by oath of secrecy, and fees on entrance are
+payable. The Egbo-men are ranked in seven or nine grades, for promotion
+to each of which fresh initiation ceremonies, fees and oaths are
+necessary. The society combines a kind of freemasonry with political and
+law-enforcing aims. For instance any member wronged in an Egbo district,
+that is one dominated by the society, has only to address an Egbo-man or
+beat the Egbo drum in the Egbo-house, or "blow Egbo" as it is called,
+i.e. sound the Egbo horn before the hut of the wrong-doer, and the whole
+machinery of the society is put in force to see justice done. Formerly
+the society earned as bad a name as most secret sects, from the
+barbarous customs mingled with its rites; but the British authorities
+have been able to make use of it in enforcing order and helping on
+civilization. The Egbo-house, an oblong building like the nave of a
+church, usually stands in the middle of the villages. The walls are of
+clay elaborately painted inside and ornamented with clay figures in
+relief. Inside are wooden images, sometimes of an obscene nature, to
+which reverence is paid. Much social importance attaches to the highest
+ranks of Egbo-men, and it is said that very large sums, sometimes more
+than a thousand pounds, are paid to attain these dignities. At certain
+festivals in the year the Egbo-men wear black wooden masks with horns
+which it is death for any woman to look on.
+
+  See Mary H. Kingsley, _West African Studies_ (1901); Rev. Robt. H.
+  Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_ (1904); C. Partridge, _Cross River
+  Natives_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+EGEDE, HANS (1686-1758), Norwegian missionary, was born in the vogtship
+of Senjen, Norway, on the 31st of January 1686. He studied at the
+university of Copenhagen, and in 1706 became pastor at Vaagen in the
+Lofoten islands, but the study of the chronicles of the northmen having
+awakened in him the desire to visit the colony of Northmen in Greenland,
+and to convert them to Christianity, he resigned his charge in 1717; and
+having, after great difficulty, obtained the sanction and help of the
+Danish government in his enterprise, he set sail with three ships from
+Bergen on the 3rd of May 1721, accompanied by his wife and children. He
+landed on the west coast of Greenland on the 3rd of July, but found to
+his dismay that the Northmen were entirely superseded by the Eskimo, in
+whom he had no particular interest, and whose language he would be able
+to master, if at all, only after years of study. But, though compelled
+to endure for some years great privations, and at one time to see the
+result of his labours almost annihilated by the ravages of small-pox, he
+remained resolutely at his post. He founded the colony of Godthaab, and
+soon gained the affections of the people. He converted many of them to
+Christianity, and established a considerable commerce with Denmark.
+Ill-health compelling him to return home in 1736, he was made principal
+of a seminary at Copenhagen, in which workers were trained for the
+Greenland mission; and from 1740 to 1747 he was superintendent of the
+mission. He died on the 5th of November 1758. He is the author of a book
+on the natural history of Greenland.
+
+His work in Greenland was continued, on his retirement, by his son PAUL
+EGEDE (1708-1789), who afterwards returned to Denmark and succeeded his
+father as superintendent of the Greenland mission. Paul Egede also
+became professor of theology in the mission seminary. He published a
+Greenland-Danish-Latin dictionary (1750), Greenland grammar (1760) and
+Greenland catechism (1756). In 1766 he completed the translation begun
+by his father of the New Testament into the Greenland tongue; and in
+1787 he translated Thomas à Kempis. In 1789 he published a journal of
+his life in Greenland.
+
+
+
+
+EGER, AQIBA (1761-1837), Jewish scholar, was for the last twenty-five
+years of his life rabbi of Posen. He was a rigorous casuist of the old
+school, and his chief works were legal notes on the Talmud and the code
+of Qaro (q.v.). He believed that religious education was enough, and
+thus opposed the party which favoured secular schools. He was a
+determined foe of the reform movement, which began to make itself felt
+in his time.
+
+
+
+
+EGER (Czech, _Cheb_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 148 m. W.N.W. of
+Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 23,665. It is situated on the river Eger, at
+the foot of one of the spurs of the Fichtelgebirge, and lies in the
+centre of a German district of about 40,000 inhabitants, who are
+distinguished from the surrounding population by their costumes,
+language, manners and customs. On the rock, to the N.W. of the town,
+lies the Burg or Castle, built probably in the 12th century, and now in
+ruins. It possesses a massive black tower, built of blocks of lava, and
+in the courtyard is an interesting chapel, in Romanesque style with
+fantastic ornamentations, which was finished in the 13th century. In the
+banquet-room of this castle Wallenstein's officers Terzky, Kinsky, Illo
+and Neumann were assassinated a few hours before Wallenstein himself was
+murdered by Captain Devereux. The murder took place on the 25th of
+February 1634 in the town-house, which was at that time the
+burgomaster's house. The rooms occupied by Wallenstein have been
+transformed since 1872 into a museum, which contains many historical
+relics and antiquities of the town of Eger. The handsome and imposing St
+Nicholas church was built in the 13th century and restored in 1892.
+There is a considerable textile industry, together with the manufacture
+of shoes, machinery and milling. Eger was the birthplace of the novelist
+and playwright Braun von Braunthal (1802-1866). About 3 m. N.W. of Eger
+is the well-known watering place of Franzensbad (q.v.).
+
+The district of Eger was in 870 included in the new margraviate of East
+Franconia, which belonged at first to the Babenbergs, but from 906 to
+the counts of Vohburg, who took the title of margraves of Eger. By the
+marriage, in 1149, of Adela of Vohburg with the emperor Frederick I.,
+Eger came into the possession of the house of Swabia, and remained in
+the hands of the emperors until the 13th century. In 1265 it was taken
+by Ottakar II. of Bohemia, who retained it for eleven years. After being
+repeatedly transferred from the one power to the other, according to the
+preponderance of Bohemia or the empire, the town and territory were
+finally incorporated with Bohemia in 1350, after the Bohemian king
+became the emperor Charles IV. Several imperial privileges, however,
+continued to be enjoyed by the town till 1849. It suffered severely
+during the Hussite war, during the Swedish invasion in 1631 and 1647,
+and in the War of the Austrian Succession in 1742.
+
+  See Drivok, _Ältere Geschichte der deutschen Reichstadt Eger und des
+  Reichsgebietes Egerland_ (Leipzig, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+EGER (Ger. _Erlau_, Med. Lat. _Agria_), a town of Hungary, capital of
+the county of Heves, 90 m. E.N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900)
+24,650. It is beautifully situated in the valley of the river Eger, an
+affluent of the Theiss, and on the eastern outskirts of the Mátra
+mountains. Eger is the see of an archbishopric, and owing to its
+numerous ecclesiastical buildings has received the name of "the
+Hungarian Rome." Amongst the principal buildings are the beautiful
+cathedral in the Italian style, with a handsome dome 130 ft. high,
+erected in 1831-1834 by the archbishop Ladislaus Pyrker (1772-1847); the
+church of the Brothers of Mercy, opposite which is a handsome minaret,
+115 ft. high, the remains of a mosque dating from the Turkish
+occupation, other Roman Catholic churches, and an imposing Greek church.
+The archiepiscopal palace; the lyceum, with a good library and an
+astronomical observatory; the seminary for Roman priests; and the
+town-hall are all noteworthy. On an eminence N.E. of the town, laid out
+as a park, are the ruins of the old fortress, and a monument of Stephen
+Dobó, the heroic defender of the town against the assaults of the Turks
+in 1552. The chief occupation of the inhabitants is the cultivation of
+the vineyards of the surrounding hills, which produce the red Erlauer
+wine, one of the best in Hungary. To the S.W. of Eger, in the same
+county of Heves, is situated the town of Gyöngyös (pop. 15,878). It lies
+on the south-western outskirts of the Mátra mountains, and carries on a
+brisk trade in the Erlauer wine, which is produced throughout the
+district. The Hungarians defeated the Austrians at Gyöngyös on the 3rd
+of April 1849. To the S.W. of Gyöngyös is situated the old town of
+Hatvan (pop. 9698), which is now a busy railway junction, and possesses
+several industrial establishments.
+
+Eger is an old town, and owes its importance to the bishopric created by
+King Stephen in 1010, which was one of the richest in the whole of
+Hungary. In 1552 Eger resisted the repeated assaults of a large Turkish
+force; in 1596, however, it was given up to the Turks by the Austrian
+party in the garrison, and remained in their possession until 1687. It
+was created an archbishopric in 1814. During the revolution of
+1848-1849, Eger was remarkable for the patriotic spirit displayed by its
+inhabitants; and it was here that the principal campaigns against the
+Austrians were organized.
+
+
+
+
+EGERIA, an ancient Italian goddess of springs. Two distinct localities
+were regarded as sacred to her,--the grove of Diana Nemorensis at
+Aricia, and a spring in the immediate neighbourhood of Rome at the Porta
+Capena. She derives her chief importance from her legendary connexion
+with King Numa, who had frequent interviews with her and consulted her
+in regard to his religious legislation (Livy i. 19; Juvenal iii. 12).
+These meetings took place on the spot where the sacred shield had fallen
+from heaven, and here Numa dedicated a grove to the Camenae, like Egeria
+deities of springs. After the death of Numa, Egeria was said to have
+fled into the grove of Aricia, where she was changed into a spring for
+having interrupted the rites of Diana by her lamentations (Ovid,
+_Metam._ xv. 479). At Aricia there was also a Manius Egerius, a male
+counterpart of Egeria. Her connexion with Diana Nemorensis, herself a
+birth goddess, is confirmed by the fact that her aid was invoked by
+pregnant women. She also possessed the gift of prophecy; and the
+statement (Dion. Halic. ii. 60) that she was one of the Muses is due to
+her connexion with the Camenae, whose worship was displaced by them.
+
+
+
+
+EGERTON, SIR PHILIP DE MALPAS GREY, Bart. (1806-1881), English
+palaeontologist, was born on the 13th of November 1806, the son of the
+9th baronet. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he
+graduated B.A. in 1828. While at college his interest in geology was
+aroused by the lectures of W. Buckland, and by his acquaintance with
+W.D. Conybeare. Subsequently when travelling in Switzerland with Lord
+Cole (afterwards 3rd earl of Enniskillen) they were introduced to Prof.
+L. Agassiz at Neufchatel, and determined to make a special study of
+fossil fishes. During the course of fifty years they gradually gathered
+together two of the largest and finest of private collections--that of
+Sir Philip Grey Egerton being at Oulton Park, Tarporley, Cheshire. He
+described the structure and affinities of numerous species in the
+publications of the Geological Society of London, the _Geological
+Magazine_ and the Decades of the Geological Survey; and in recognition
+of his services the Wollaston medal was awarded to him in 1873 by the
+Geological Society. He was elected F.R.S. in 1831, and was a trustee of
+the British Museum. As a member of Parliament he represented the city of
+Chester in 1830, the southern division of Cheshire from 1835 until 1868,
+and the western division from 1868 to 1881. He died in London on the 6th
+of April 1881. His collection of fossil fishes is now in the British
+Museum.
+
+
+
+
+EGG, AUGUSTUS LEOPOLD (1816-1863), English painter, was born on the 2nd
+of May 1816 in London, where his father carried on business as a
+gun-maker. He had some schooling at Bexley, and was not at first
+intended for the artistic profession; but, developing a faculty in this
+line, he entered in 1834 the drawing class of Mr Sass, and in 1836 the
+school of the Royal Academy. His first exhibited picture appeared in
+1837 at the Suffolk Street gallery. In 1838 he began exhibiting in the
+Academy, his subject being a "Spanish Girl"; altogether he sent
+twenty-seven works to this institution. In 1848 he became an associate
+and in 1860 a full member of the Academy: he had considerable means,
+apart from his profession. In 1857 he took a leading part in selecting
+and arranging the modern paintings in the Art-Treasures Exhibition in
+Manchester. His constitution being naturally frail, he went in 1853,
+with Dickens and Wilkie Collins, to Italy for a short trip, and in 1863
+he visited Algeria. Here he benefited so far as his chronic lung-disease
+was concerned; but exposure to a cold wind while out riding brought on
+an attack of asthma, from which he died on the 26th of March 1863 at
+Algiers, near which city his remains were buried.
+
+Egg was a gifted and well-trained painter of genre, chiefly in the way
+of historical anecdote, or of compositions from the poets and novelists.
+Among his principal pictures may be named: 1843, the "Introduction of
+Sir Piercie Shafton and Halbert Glendinning" (from Scott's _Monastery_);
+1846, "Buckingham Rebuffed"; 1848, "Queen Elizabeth discovers she is no
+longer young"; 1850, "Peter the Great sees Catharine for the first
+time"; 1854, "Charles I. raising the Standard at Nottingham" (a study);
+1855, the "Life and Death of Buckingham"; 1857 and 1858, two subjects
+from Thackeray's _Esmond_; 1858, "Past and Present, a triple picture of
+a faithless wife"; 1859, the "Night before Naseby"; 1860, his last
+exhibited work, the Dinner Scene from _The Taming of the Shrew_. The
+Tate Gallery contains one of his earlier pictures, Patricio entertaining
+two Ladies, from the _Diable boiteux_; it was painted in 1844.
+
+Egg was rather below the middle height, with dark hair and a handsome
+well-formed face; the head of Peter the Great (in the picture of Peter
+and Catharine, which may be regarded as his best work, along with the
+Life and Death of Buckingham) was studied, but of course considerably
+modified, from his own countenance. He was manly, kind-hearted,
+pleasant, and very genial and serviceable among brother-artists; social
+and companionable, but holding mainly aloof from fashionable circles.
+As an actor he had uncommon talent. He appeared among Dickens's company
+of amateurs in 1852 in Lord Lytton's comedy _Not so Bad as we Seem_, and
+afterwards in Wilkie Collins's _Frozen Deep_, playing the humorous part
+of Job Want.
+
+
+
+
+EGG (O.E. _aeg_, cf. Ger. _Ei_, Swed. _aegg_, and prob. Gr. [Greek:
+ôon], Lat. _ovum_), the female reproductive cell or ovum of animals,
+which gives rise generally only after fertilization to the young. The
+largest eggs are those of birds; and this because, to the minute
+essential portion of the egg, or germ, from which the young bird grows,
+there is added a large store of food-material--the yolk and white of the
+egg--destined to nourish the growing embryo while the whole is enclosed
+within a hard shell.
+
+The relative sizes of eggs depend entirely on the amount of the
+food-yolk thus enclosed with the germ; while the form and texture of the
+outer envelope are determined by the nature of the environment to which
+the egg is exposed. Where the food material is infinitesimal in quantity
+the egg is either not extruded--the embryo being nourished by the
+maternal tissues,--or it passes out of the parental body and gives rise
+at once to a free-living organism or "larva" (see LARVAL FORMS), as in
+the case of many lowly freshwater and marine animals. In such cases no
+"egg" in the usual sense of the term is produced.
+
+The number of eggs periodically produced by any given individual depends
+on the risks of destruction to which they, and the young to which they
+give rise, are exposed: not more than a single egg being annually laid
+by some species, while with others the number may amount to millions.
+
+
+_Birds' Eggs._--The egg of the bird affords, for general purposes, the
+readiest example of the modifications imposed on eggs by the external
+environment. Since it must be incubated by the warmth of the parent's
+body, the outer envelope has taken the form of a hard shell for the
+protection of the growing chick from pressure, while the dyes which
+commonly colour the surface of this shell serve as a screen to hide it
+from egg-eating animals.
+
+Carbonate of lime forms the principal constituent of this shell; but in
+addition phosphate of lime and magnesia are also present. In section,
+this shell will be found to be made up of three more or less distinct
+crystalline layers, traversed by vertical canals, whereby the shell is
+made porous so as to admit air to the developing chick.
+
+The outermost, or third, layer of this shell often takes the form of a
+glaze, as of porcelain, as for example in the burnished egg of the
+ostrich: or it may assume the character of a thick, chalky layer as in
+some cuckoos (_Guira_, _Crotophaga ani_), cormorants, grebes and
+flamingoes: while in some birds as in the auks, gulls and tinamous, this
+outer layer is wanting; yet the tinamous have the most highly glazed
+eggs of all birds, the second layer of the shell developing a surface
+even more perfectly burnished than that formed by the outermost, third
+layer in the ostrich.
+
+While the eggs of some birds have the shell so thin as to be
+translucent, e.g. kingfisher, others display considerable thickness, the
+maximum being reached in the egg of the extinct _Aepyornis_.
+
+Though in shape differing but little from that of the familiar hen's
+egg, certain well-marked modifications of form are yet to be met with.
+Thus the eggs of the plover are pear-shaped, of the sand-grouse more or
+less cylindrical, of the owls and titmice spherical and of the grebes
+biconical.
+
+In the matter of coloration the eggs of birds present a remarkable
+range. The pigments to which this coloration is due have been shown, by
+means of their absorption spectra (Sorby, _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1875), to
+be seven in number. The first of these, oorhodeine, is brown-red in
+tone, and rarely absent: the second and third, oocyanin, and banded
+oocyanin, are of a beautiful blue, and though differing
+spectroscopically give rise to the same product when oxidized: the
+fourth and fifth are yellow, and rufous ooxanthine, the former combining
+with oocyanin gives rise to the wonderful malachite green of the emu's
+egg, while the latter occurs only in the eggs of tinamous: the sixth is
+lichenoxanthine, a pigment not yet thoroughly known but present in the
+shells of all eggs having a peculiar brick-red colour. Still less is
+known of the seventh pigment which is, as yet, nameless. It is a
+substance giving a banded absorption spectrum, and which, mixed with
+other pigments, imparts an abnormally browner tint. The origin of these
+pigments is yet uncertain, but it is probable that they are derived from
+the haemoglobin or red colouring matter of the blood. This being so,
+then the pigments of the egg-shell differ entirely in their nature from
+those which colour the yolk or the feathers.
+
+While many eggs are either colourless or of one uniform tint, the
+majority have the surface broken up by spots or lines, or a combination
+of both, of varying tints: the pigment being deposited as the egg passes
+down the lower portion of the oviduct. That the egg during this passage
+turns slowly on its long axis is shown by the fact that the spots and
+lines have commonly a spiral direction; though some of the markings are
+made during periods of rest, as is shown by their sharp outlines,
+movement giving a blurred effect. Where the egg is pyriform, the large
+end makes way for the smaller. Many eggs display, in addition to the
+strongly marked spots, more or fewer fainter spots embedded in a deeper
+layer of the shell, and hence such eggs are said to be "double-spotted,"
+e.g. rails and plovers.
+
+Among some species, as in birds of prey, the intensity of this
+coloration is said to increase with age up to a certain point, when it
+as gradually decreases. Frequently, especially where but two eggs are
+laid (Newton), all the dye will be deposited, sometimes on the first,
+sometimes on the last laid, leaving the other colourless. But although
+of a number of eggs in a "clutch"--as the full complement of eggs in a
+nest is called--no two are exactly alike, they commonly bear a very
+close resemblance. Among certain species, however, which lay several
+eggs, one of the number invariably differs markedly from the rest, as
+for example in the eggs of the house-sparrow or in those of the
+sparrow-hawk, where, of a clutch of six, two generally differ
+conspicuously from the rest. Differing though these eggs do from the
+rest of the clutch, all yet present the characters common to the
+species. But the eggs of some birds, such as the Australian swamp quail,
+_Synoecus australis_, present a remarkably wide range of variation in
+the matter of coloration, no two clutches being alike, the extremes
+ranging from pure white to eggs having a greenish ground colour and
+rufous spots or blotches. But a still more interesting illustration of
+variation equally marked is furnished by the chikor partridge (_Caccabis
+chukar_), since here the variation appears to be correlated with the
+geographical distribution of the species. Thus eggs taken in Greece are
+for the most part cream-coloured and unspotted; those from the Grecian
+Archipelago are generally spotted and blotched; while more to the
+eastward spots are invariably present, and the blotches attain their
+maximum development.
+
+But in variability the eggs of the guillemot (_Lomvia troile_) exceed
+all others: both in the hue of the ground colour and in the form of the
+superimposed markings, these eggs exhibit a wonderful range for which no
+adequate explanation has yet been given.
+
+Individual peculiarities of coloration are commonly reproduced, not only
+with this species but also in others, year after year.
+
+
+  Significance of colour.
+
+The coloration of the egg bears no sort of relation to the coloration of
+the bird which lays it; but it bears on the other hand a more or less
+direct relation to the nature of the environment during incubation.
+
+White eggs may generally be regarded as representing the primitive type
+of egg, since they agree in this particular with the eggs of reptiles.
+And it will generally be found that eggs of this hue are deposited in
+holes or in domed nests. So long indeed as nesting-places of this kind
+are used will the eggs be white. And this because coloured eggs would be
+invisible in dimly lighted chambers of this description, and therefore
+constantly exposed to the risk of being broken by the sitting bird, or
+rolling out of reach where the chamber was large enough to admit of
+this, whereas white eggs are visible so long as they can be reached by
+the faintest rays of light. Pigeons invariably lay white eggs; and while
+some deposit them in holes others build an open nest, a mere platform
+of sticks. These exceptions to the rule show that the depredations of
+egg-eating animals are sufficiently guarded against by the overhanging
+foliage, as well as by the great distance from the ground at which the
+nest is built. Birds which have reverted to the more ancient custom of
+nesting in holes after having developed pigmented eggs, have adopted the
+device of covering the shell with a layer of chalky matter (e.g.
+puffins), or, to put the case more correctly, they have been enabled to
+maintain survival after their return to the more ancient mode of
+nidification, because this reversion was accompanied by the tendency to
+cover the pigmented surface of the shell with this light-reflecting
+chalky incrustation.
+
+Eggs which are deposited on the bare ground, or in other exposed
+situations, are usually protectively coloured: that is to say, the hue
+of the shell more or less completely harmonizes with the ground on which
+the egg is placed. The eggs of the plover tribe afford the most striking
+examples of this fact.
+
+But the majority of birds deposit their eggs in a more or less
+elaborately constructed nest, and in such cases the egg, so far from
+being protectively coloured, often displays tints that would appear
+calculated rather to attract the attention of egg-stealing animals;
+bright blue or blue spotted with black being commonly met with. It may
+be, however, that coloration of this kind is less conspicuous than is
+generally supposed, but in any case the safety of the egg depends not so
+much on its coloration as on the character of the nest, which, where
+protective devices are necessary, must harmonize sufficiently with its
+surroundings to escape observation from prowling egg-stealers of all
+kinds.
+
+The size of the egg depends partly on the number produced and partly on
+the conditions determining the state of the young bird at hatching:
+hence there is a great disparity in the relative sizes of the eggs of
+different birds. Thus it will be found that young birds which emerge in
+the world blind, naked and helpless are the product of relatively small
+eggs, while on the contrary young hatched from relatively large eggs are
+down-clad and active from birth.
+
+The fact that the eggs must be brooded by the parent is also a
+controlling factor in so far as number is concerned, for no more can be
+hatched than can be covered by the sitting bird. Other factors, however,
+less understood, also exercise a controlling influence in this matter.
+Thus the ostrich lays from 12 to 16, the teal 15, the partridge 12-20,
+while among many other species the number is strictly limited, as in the
+case of the hornbills and guillemots, which lay but a single egg; the
+apteryx, divers, petrels and pigeons never lay more than 2, while the
+gulls and plovers never exceed 4. Tropical species are said to lay fewer
+eggs than their representatives in temperate regions, and further
+immature birds lay more and smaller eggs than when fully adult.
+
+Partly owing to the uniformity of shape, size and texture of the shell,
+the eggs of birds are by no means easy to distinguish, except in so far
+as their family resemblances are concerned: that is to say, except in
+particular cases, they cannot be specifically distinguished, and hence
+they are of but little or no value for the purposes of classification.
+
+Save only among the megapodes, all birds brood their eggs, the period of
+incubation varying from 13 days, as in small passerine birds, to 8
+weeks, as in the cassowary, though eggs of the rhea and of _Struthio_
+hatch in from 5 to 6 weeks. But the megapodes deposit their eggs in
+mounds of decaying vegetable matter or in sand in the neighbourhood of
+hot springs, and there without further apparent care leave them. Where
+the nestling is active from the moment of hatching the eggs have a
+relatively longer incubation period than in cases where the nestlings
+are for a long while helpless.
+
+
+_Eggs of Mammals._--Only in the spiny ant-eater, or _Echidna_, and the
+duck-billed platypus, or _Ornithorhynchus_, among the Mammalia, are the
+eggs provided with a large store of yolk, enclosed within a shell, and
+extruded to undergo development apart from the maternal tissues. In the
+case of the echidna the eggs, two in number, are about as large as those
+of a sparrow, similar in shape, and have a white, parchment-like shell.
+After expulsion they are transferred by the beak of the mother to a
+pouch resembling that of the marsupial kangaroos, and there they undergo
+development. The _Ornithorhynchus_, on the other hand, lays from two to
+four eggs, which in size and general appearance resemble those of the
+echidna. They are, however, deposited in a loosely constructed nest at
+the end of a long burrow and there brooded. In Marsupials, the eggs are
+smaller than those of _Echidna_ and _Ornithorhynchus_, and they contain
+a larger proportion of yolk than occurs in higher mammals.
+
+
+_Eggs of Reptiles._--The eggs of reptiles are invariably provided with a
+large amount of food yolk and enclosed with a firm test or shell, which
+though generally parchment-like in texture may be calcareous as in
+birds, as, for example, in many of the tortoises and turtles and in the
+crocodiles.
+
+Among reptiles the egg is always white or yellowish, while the number
+laid often far exceeds that in the case of birds. The tuatara of New
+Zealand, however, lays but ten--white hard-shelled, long and oval--at
+intervals between November and January. The long intervals between the
+appearance of the successive eggs is a characteristic feature of the
+reptiles, but is met with among the birds only in the megapodes, which,
+like the reptiles, do not "brood" their eggs.
+
+Among the Chelonia the number of eggs varies from two to four in some of
+the tortoises, to 200 in some of the turtles: while in the crocodiles
+between 20 and 30 are produced, hard-shelled and white.
+
+The eggs of the lizards are always white or yellowish, and generally
+soft-shelled; but the geckos and the green lizard lay hard-shelled eggs.
+Many of the soft-shelled eggs are remarkable for the fact that they
+increase in size after extrusion, owing to the stretching of the
+membranous shell by the growing embryo. In the matter of number lizards
+are less prolific than many of the Chelonia, a dozen eggs being the
+general number, though as many as thirty may be produced at a time, as
+in the case of the common chameleon.
+
+While as a general rule the eggs of lizards are laid in burrows or
+buried, some are retained within the body of the parent until the young
+are ready to emerge; or they may even hatch within the oviduct. This
+occurs with some chameleons and some lizards, e.g. the slow-worm. The
+common English lizard is also viviparous. Normally the young leaves the
+egg immediately after its extrusion, but if by any chance this extrusion
+is delayed they escape while yet in the oviduct.
+
+The majority of the snakes lay eggs, but most of the vipers and the
+aquatic snakes are viviparous, as also are a few terrestrial species.
+The shell of the egg is always soft and parchment-like. As a rule the
+number of eggs produced among the snakes is not large, twenty or thirty
+being common, but some species of python lay as many as a hundred.
+Generally, among the oviparous snakes the eggs are buried, but some
+species of boas jealously guard them, enclosing them within the coils of
+the body.
+
+
+_Eggs of Amphibia._--Among the amphibia a greater variety obtains in the
+matter of the investment of the egg, as well as in the number, size and
+method of their disposal. The outer covering is formed by a toughening
+of the surface of a thick gelatinous coat which surrounds the essential
+parts of the egg. This coat in many species of salamander--using this
+name in the wide sense--is produced into threads which serve either to
+anchor the eggs singly or to bind them together in bunches.
+
+Viviparity occurs both among the limbless and the tailed Amphibia, the
+eggs hatching before they leave the oviduct or immediately after
+extrusion. The number of young so produced is generally not large, but
+the common salamander (_Salamandra maculosa_) may produce as many as
+fifty at a birth, though fifteen is the more normal figure. When the
+higher number is reached the young are relatively small and weak.
+
+As a rule among the Amphibia the young leave the egg in the form of
+larvae, generally known as "tadpoles"; but many species produce eggs
+containing a sufficient amount of food material to enable the whole of
+the larval phase to be completed before hatching.
+
+Among the tailless Amphibia (frogs and toads) there are wide differences
+in the number of eggs produced, while the methods by which these eggs
+are disposed of present a marvellous variety.
+
+As a rule vast quantities of eggs are shed by the female into the water
+in the form of "spawn." In the common toad as many as 7000 eggs may be
+extruded at a time. These leave the body in the form of two long
+strings--one from each oviduct--of translucent globules, gelatinous in
+texture, and enclosing a central sphere of yolk, the upper pole of which
+is black. The spawn of the common frog differs from that of the toad in
+that the eggs all adhere to form a huge jelly-like mass. But in many
+species the number of eggs produced are few; and these may be
+sufficiently stored with food-yolk to allow of the tadpole stage being
+passed before hatching, as in frogs of the genus _Hylodes_. In many
+cases the eggs are deposited out of the water and often in quite
+remarkable ways.
+
+
+_Eggs of Fishes._--The eggs of fishes present an extremely wide range of
+form, and a no less extensive range in the matter of number. Both among
+the cartilaginous and bony fishes viviparity occurs. Most of the sharks
+and rays are viviparous, but in the oviparous species the eggs present
+some interesting and peculiar forms. Large in size, the outer coat or
+"shell" is in all cases horn-like and flexible, but differs greatly in
+shape. Thus in the egg of the larger spotted dog-fish it is oblong in
+shape, flattened from side to side, and has the angles produced into
+long, slender tendrils. As the egg is laid the lower tendrils project
+from the vent, and the mother rubs herself against some fixed body. The
+tendrils soon catch fast in some slight projection, when the egg is
+dragged forth there to remain till hatching takes place. A couple of
+narrow slits at each corner of the upper end serve to admit fresh water
+to the imprisoned embryo during the later stages of development; when
+development is complete escape is made through the end of the shell. In
+the rays or "skates," long spines take the place of tendrils, the egg
+simply resting at the bottom of the sea. The empty egg-cases of the rays
+are often found on the seashore, and are known as "Mermaids' purses."
+The egg of the Port Jackson shark (_Cestracion_) is of enormous size,
+pear-shaped, and provided with a spiral flange extending along the whole
+length of the capsule. In the _Chimaera_ the egg is long, more or less
+spindle-shaped, and produced on each side into a broad flange having a
+fringed edge, so that the whole bears a close resemblance to a long
+leaf, broad and notched at one end, pointed at the other. This likeness
+to the seaweed among which it rests is doubtless a protective device,
+akin to that of protectively coloured birds' eggs.
+
+Among the bony fishes the eggs generally take the form of small spheres,
+enclosed within a tough membrane or capsule. But they present many
+important differences, being in some fishes heavy and remaining at the
+bottom of the water, in other light and floating on the surface. While
+in some species they are distributed separately, in others they adhere
+together in masses. The eggs of the salmon, for example, are heavy, hard
+and smooth, and deposited separately in a trough dug by the parent and
+afterwards covered to prevent them from being carried away by the
+stream. In the perch they are adhesive and form long band-like masses of
+spawn adhering to water-plants. In the gobies the egg is spindle-shaped,
+and attached by one end by means of a network of fibres, resembling
+rootlets; while in the smelt the egg is loosely suspended by a membrane
+formed by the peeling off of a part of the outer sheath of the capsule.
+The eggs of the garfish (_Belone vulgaris_) and of the flying-fish of
+the genus _Exocoetus_, attach themselves to foreign objects, or to one
+another, by means of threads or cords developed at opposite poles of the
+egg.
+
+Among a number of fishes the eggs float at the surface of the sea, often
+in enormous masses, when they are carried about at the mercy of tides
+and currents. An idea of the size which such masses attain may be
+gathered from the fact that the spawn of the angler-fish, _Lophius
+piscatorius_, takes the form of a sheet from 2 to 3 ft. wide, and 30 ft.
+long. Another remarkable feature of these floating eggs is their
+transparency, inasmuch as they are extremely difficult to see, and hence
+they probably escape the rapacious maws of spawn-eating animals. The cod
+tribe and flat-fishes lay floating eggs of this description.
+
+The maximum number of eggs laid by fishes varies greatly, some species
+laying relatively few, others an enormous number. But in all cases the
+number increases with the weight and age of the fish. Thus it has been
+calculated that the number laid by the salmon is roughly about 1000 to
+every pound weight of the fish, a 15 lb. salmon laying 15,000 eggs. The
+sturgeon lays about 7,000,000; the herring 50,000; the turbot
+14,311,000; the sole 134,000; the perch 280,000. Briefly, the number is
+greatest where the risks of destruction are greatest.
+
+The eggs of the degenerate fishes known as the lampreys and hag-fishes
+are remarkable for the fact that in the latter they are large in size,
+cylindrical in shape, and provided at each end with hooklets whereby
+they adhere one to another; while in the lampreys they are extremely
+small and embedded in a jelly.
+
+
+_Molluscs._--Among the Mollusca, Crustacea and Insecta yolk-stored eggs
+of very remarkable forms are commonly produced.
+
+In variety, in this connexion, the Mollusca must perhaps be given the
+first place. This diversity, indeed, is strikingly illustrated by the
+eggs of the Cephalopoda. In the squids (_Loligo_), for example, the eggs
+are enclosed in long cylindrical cases, of which there are several
+hundreds, attached by one end to a common centre; the whole series
+looking strangely like a rough mop-head. Each case, in such a cluster,
+contains about 250 eggs, or about 40,000 in all. By way of contrast the
+eggs of the true cuttle-fish (_Sepia_) are deposited separately, each
+enclosed in a tough, black, pear-shaped capsule which is fastened by a
+stalk to fronds of sea-weed or other object. They appear to be extruded
+at short intervals, till the full complement is laid, the whole forming
+a cluster looking like a bunch of grapes. The octopus differs yet again
+in this matter, its eggs being very small, berry-like, and attached to a
+stalk which runs through the centre of the mass.
+
+The eggs of the univalve Mollusca are hardly less varied in the shapes
+they take. In the common British _Purpura lapillus_ they resemble
+delicate pink grains of rice set on stalks; in _Busycon_ they are
+disk-shaped, and attached to a band nearly 3 ft. long. The eggs of the
+shell-bearing slugs (_Testacella_) are large, and have the outer coat so
+elastic that if dropped on a stone floor they will rebound several
+inches; while some of the snails (_Bulimus_) lay eggs having a white
+calcareous and slightly iridescent shell, in size and shape closely
+resembling the egg of the pigeon. Some are even larger than the egg of
+the wood-pigeon. The beautiful violet-snail (_Ianthina_)--a marine
+species--carries its eggs on the under side of a gelatinous raft. No
+less remarkable are the eggs of the whelk; since, like those of the
+squids, they are not laid separately but enveloped in capsules, and
+these to the number of many hundreds form the large, ball-like masses so
+commonly met with on the seashore. When the eggs in these capsules
+hatch, the crowd of embryos proceed to establish an internecine warfare,
+devouring one another till only the strongest survives!
+
+With the Mollusca, as with other groups of animals, where the eggs are
+exposed to great risks they are small, produced in great numbers, and
+give rise to larvae. This is well illustrated by the common oyster which
+annually disperses about 60,000,000 eggs. But where the risk of
+destruction is slight, the eggs are large and produce young differing
+from the parent only in size, as in the case of the pigeon-like eggs of
+_Bulimus_.
+
+
+_Crustaceans._--Among the higher Crustacea, as a rule, the eggs are
+carried by the female, attached to special appendages on the under side
+of the body. But in some--Squillas--they are deposited in burrows.
+Generally they are relatively small so that the young which emerge
+therefrom differ markedly in appearance from the parents, but in
+deep-sea and freshwater species the eggs are large, when the young, on
+emerging, differ but little from the adults in appearance.
+
+
+_Insects, &c._--The eggs of insects though minute, are also remarkable
+for the great variety of form which they present, while they are
+frequently objects of great beauty owing to the sculptured markings of
+the shell. They are generally laid in clusters, either on the ground, on
+the leaves of plants, or in the water. Some of the gnats (_Culex_) lay
+them on the water. Cylindrical in shape they are packed closely
+together, set on end, the whole mass forming a kind of floating raft.
+Frequently, as in the case of the stick and leaf insect, the eggs are
+enclosed in capsules of very elaborate shapes and highly ornamented.
+
+As to the rest of the Invertebrata--above the Protozoa the eggs are laid
+in water, or in damp places. In the former case they are as a rule
+small, and give rise to larvae; while eggs hatched on land are sometimes
+enclosed in capsules, "cocoons," as in the case of the earthworm, where
+this capsule is filled with a milky white fluid, of a highly nutritious
+character, on which the embryos feed.
+
+Among some invertebrates two different kinds of eggs are laid by the
+same individual. The water-flea, _Daphnia_ (a crustacean), lays two
+kinds of eggs known as "summer" and "winter" eggs. The summer eggs are
+carried by the female in a "brood-pouch" on the back. The "winter" eggs,
+produced at the approach of winter, differ markedly in appearance from
+the summer eggs, being larger, darker in colour, thicker shelled, and
+enclosed in a capsule formed from the shell or carapace, of the parent's
+body. "Winter eggs," however, may be produced in the height of summer.
+While the "summer eggs" are unfertilized, the winter eggs are fertilized
+by the male, and possess the remarkable power of lying dormant for
+months or even years before they develop. The production of these two
+kinds of eggs is a device to overcome the cold of winter, or the drying
+up of the pools in which the species lives, during the heat of the
+summer. The power of resistance which such eggs possess may be seen in
+the fact that a sample of mud which had been kept dry for ten years
+still contained living eggs. In deep water where neither drought nor
+winter cold can seriously affect the _Daphnias_, they propagate all the
+year round by unfertilized "summer" eggs.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For further details on this subject the following
+  authors should be consulted:--_Mammals_: F. E. Beddard, "Remarks on
+  the Ovary of Echidna," _Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin._ vol. viii.
+  (1885); W. H. Caldwell, "The Embryology of Monotremata and
+  Marsupialia," _Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc._ vol. 178 (1887); E. B. Poulton,
+  "The Structures connected with the Ovarian Ovum of the Marsupialia and
+  Monotremata," _Quart. Journ. Micros. Sci._ vol. xxiv. (1884). _Birds,
+  Systematic_:--H. Seebohm, _Coloured Figures of the Eggs of British
+  Birds_ (1896); A. Newton, _Ootheca Wooleyana_ (1907); E. Oates, _Cat.
+  Birds' Eggs Brit. Mus._ (appearing), vols. i.-iv. published.
+  _General_:--A. Newton, _Dictionary of Birds_ (1896). _Colouring
+  matter_:--Newbegin, _Colour in Nature_ (1898). _Reptiles and
+  Amphibia_:--H. Gadow, "Reptiles," _Camb. Nat. Hist._ (1901); G. A.
+  Boulenger, "The Tailless Batrachians of Europe," _Ray Soc._ (1896).
+  _Fishes_:--Bridge and Boulenger, "Fishes, Ascidians, &c.," _Camb. Nat.
+  Hist._ (1904); B. Dean, _Fishes Living and Fossil_ (1895); J. T.
+  Cunningham, _Marketable Marine Fishes_ (1896). _Invertebrate_:--G. H.
+  Carpenter, _Insects. Their Structure and Life_ (1899); L. C. Miall, _A
+  History of Aquatic Insects_ (1895); T. R. R. Stebbing, _Crustacea_,
+  Internat. Sci. series (1893); M. C. Cooke, "Mollusca," _Camb. Nat.
+  Hist._ (1906). For further references to the above and other
+  Invertebrate groups see various text-books on Entomology, Zoology.
+       (W. P. P.)
+
+
+
+
+EGGENBERG, HANS ULRICH VON, PRINCE (1568-1634), Austrian statesman, was
+a son of Siegfried von Eggenberg (d. 1594), and began life as a soldier
+in the Spanish service, becoming about 1596 a trusted servant of the
+archduke of Styria, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand II. Having become a
+Roman Catholic, he was soon the chancellor and chief adviser of
+Ferdinand, whose election as emperor he helped to secure in 1619. He
+directed the imperial policy during the earlier part of the Thirty
+Years' War, and was in general a friend and supporter of Wallenstein,
+and an opponent of Maximilian I., duke of Bavaria, and of Spain. He was
+largely responsible for Wallenstein's return to the imperial service
+early in 1632, and retired from public life just after the general's
+murder in February 1634, dying at Laibach, on the 18th of October 1634.
+Eggenberg's influence with Ferdinand was so marked that it was commonly
+said that Austria rested upon three hills (_Berge_): Eggenberg,
+Questenberg and Werdenberg. He was richly rewarded for his services to
+the emperor. Having received many valuable estates in Bohemia and
+elsewhere, he was made a prince of the Empire in 1623, and duke of
+Krumau in 1625.
+
+  See H. von Zwiedineck-Südenhorst, _Hans Ulrich, Fürst von Eggenberg_
+  (Vienna, 1880); and F. Mares, _Beiträge zur Geschichte der Beziehungen
+  des Fürsten J. U. von Eggenberg zu Kaiser Ferdinand II und zu
+  Waldstein_ (Prague, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+EGGER, ÉMILE (1813-1885), French scholar, was born in Paris on the 18th
+of July 1813. From 1840 till 1855 he was assistant professor, and from
+1855 till his death professor of Greek literature in the Faculté; des
+Lettres at Paris University. In 1854 he was elected a member of the
+Académie des Inscriptions and in 1873 of the Conseil supérieur de
+l'instruction publique. He was a voluminous writer, a sound and
+discerning scholar, and his influence was largely responsible for the
+revival of the study of classical philology in France. His most
+important works were _Essai sur l'histoire de la critique chez les
+Grecs_ (1849), _Notions élémentaires de grammaire comparée_ (1852),
+_Apollonius Dyscole, essai sur l'histoire des théories grammalicales
+dans l'antiquité_ (1854), _Mémoires de littérature ancienne_ (1862),
+_Mémoires d'histoire ancienne et de philologie_ (1863), _Les Papyrus
+grecs du Musée du Louvre et de la Biblioth&èque Impériale_ (1865),
+_Études sur les traités publics chez les Grecs et les Romains_ (1866),
+_L'Hellénisme en France_ (1869), _La Littérature grecque_ (1890). He was
+also the author of _Observations et réflexions sur le développement de
+l'intelligence et du langage chez les enfants_ (1879). Egger died in
+Paris on the 1st of September 1885.
+
+
+
+
+EGGLESTON, EDWARD (1837-1902), American novelist and historian, was born
+in Vevay, Indiana, on the 10th of December 1837, of Virginia stock.
+Delicate health, by which he was more or less handicapped throughout his
+life, prevented his going to college, but he was naturally a diligent
+student. He was a Methodist circuit rider and pastor in Indiana and
+Minnesota (1857-1866); associate editor (1866-1867) of _The Little
+Corporal_, Chicago; editor of _The National Sunday School Teacher_,
+Chicago (1867-1870); literary editor and later editor-in-chief of _The
+Independent_, New York (1870-1871); and editor of _Hearth and Home_ in
+1871-1872. He was pastor of the church of Christian Endeavour, Brooklyn,
+in 1874-1879. From 1880 until his death on the 2nd of September 1902, at
+his home on Lake George, New York, he devoted himself to literary work.
+His fiction includes _Mr Blake's Walking Stick_ (1869), for children;
+_The Hoosier Schoolmaster_ (1871); _The End of the World_ (1872); _The
+Mystery of Metropolisville_ (1873); _The Circuit Rider_ (1874); _Roxy_
+(1878); The _Hoosier Schoolboy_ (1883); _The Book of Queer Stories_
+(1884), for children; _The Graysons_ (1888), an excellent novel; _The
+Faith Doctor_ (1891); and _Duffels_ (1893), short stories. Most of his
+stories portray the pioneer manners and dialect of the Central West, and
+the _Hoosier Schoolmaster_ was one of the first examples of American
+local realistic fiction; it was very popular, and was translated into
+French, German and Danish. During the last third of his life Eggleston
+laboured on a _History of Life in the United States_, but he lived to
+finish only two volumes--_The Beginners of a Nation_ (1896) and _The
+Transit of Civilization_ (1900). In addition he wrote several popular
+compendiums of American history for schools and homes.
+
+  See G. C. Eggleston, _The First of the Hoosiers_ (Philadelphia, 1903),
+  and Meredith Nicholson, _The Hoosiers_ (1900).
+
+His brother GEORGE CARY EGGLESTON (1839-   ), American journalist and
+author, served in the Confederate army; was managing editor and later
+editor-in-chief of _Hearth and Home_ (1871-1874); was literary editor of
+the _New York Evening Post_ (1875-1881), literary editor and afterwards
+editor-in-chief of the New York _Commercial Advertiser_ (1884-1889), and
+editorial writer for _The World_ (New York) from 1889 to 1900. Most of
+his books are stories for boys; others, and his best, are romances
+dealing with life in the South especially in the Virginias and the
+Carolinas--before and during the Civil War. Among his publications may
+be mentioned: _A Rebel's Recollections_ (1874); _The Last of the
+Flatboats_ (1900); _Camp Venture_ (1900); _A Carolina Cavalier_ (1901);
+_Dorothy South_ (1902); _The Master of Warlock_ (1903); _Evelyn Byrd_
+(1904); _A Daughter of the South_ (1905); _Blind Alleys_ (1906); _Love
+is the Sum of it all_ (1907); _History of the Confederate War_ (1910);
+and _Recollections of a Varied Life_ (1910).
+
+
+
+
+EGHAM, a town in the Chertsey parliamentary division of Surrey, England,
+on the Thames, 21 m. W.S.W. of London by the London & South Western
+railway. Pop. (1901) 11,895. The church of St John the Baptist is a
+reconstruction of 1817; it contains monuments by John Flaxman. Above the
+right bank of the river a low elevation, Cooper's Hill, commands fine
+views over the valley, and over Windsor Great Park to the west. On the
+hill was the Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, commonly called
+Cooper's Hill College, of which Sir George Tomkyns Chesney was the
+originator and first president (1871). It educated men for the public
+works, accounts, railways and telegraph departments of India, and
+included a school of forestry; but it was decided, in the face of some
+opposition, to close it in 1906, on the theory that it was unnecessary
+for a college with such a specialized object to be maintained by the
+government, in view of the readiness with which servants for these
+departments could be recruited elsewhere. Part of the organization,
+including the school of forestry, was transferred to Oxford University.
+Cooper's Hill gives name to a famous poem of Sir John Denham (1642). A
+large and handsome building houses the Royal Holloway College for Women
+(1886), founded by Thomas Holloway; in the neighbourhood is the
+sanatorium of the same founder (1885) for the treatment of mental
+ailments, accommodating about 250 patients. The college for women,
+surrounded by extensive grounds, commands a wide view from the wooded
+slope on which it stands. The recreation hall, with its fine art
+collection, is the most notable room in this handsome building, which
+can receive 250 students. Within the parish, bordering the river, is the
+field of Runnymede, which, with Magna Charta Island lying off it, is
+famous in connexion with the signature of the charter by King John.
+Virginia Water, a large and picturesque artificial lake to the south of
+Windsor Great Park, is much frequented by visitors. It was formed under
+the direction of the duke of Cumberland, about 1750, and was the work of
+the brothers Thomas and Paul Sandby.
+
+
+
+
+EGIN (Armenian _Agn_, "the spring"), an important town in the Mamuret
+el-Aziz vilayet of Asiatic Turkey (altitude 3300 ft.). Pop. about
+20,000, fairly equally divided between Armenian Christians and Moslems.
+It is picturesquely situated in a theatre of lofty, abrupt rocks, on the
+right bank of the western Euphrates, which is crossed by a wooden
+bridge. The stone houses stand in terraced gardens and orchards, and the
+streets are mere rock ladders. Egin was settled by Armenians who
+emigrated from Van in the 11th century with Senekherim. On the 8th of
+November 1895 and in the summer of 1896 many Armenians were massacred
+here.     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+EGLANTINE (E. Frisian, _egeltiere_; Fr. _aiglantier_), a plant-name of
+which Dr R. C. A. Prior (_Popular Names of British Plants_, p. 70) says
+that it "has been the subject of much discussion, both as to its exact
+meaning and as to the shrub to which it properly belongs." The eglantine
+of the herbalists was the sweet-brier, _Rosa rubiginosa_. The
+signification of the word seems to be thorn-tree or thorn-bush, the
+first two syllables probably representing the Anglo-Saxon _egla_,
+_egle_, a prick or thorn, while the termination is the Dutch _tere_,
+_taere_, a tree. Eglantine is frequently alluded to in the writings of
+English poets, from Chaucer downwards. Milton, in _L'Allegro_, is
+thought by the term "twisted eglantine" to denote the honeysuckle,
+_Lonicera Periclymenum_, which is still known as eglantine in north-east
+Yorkshire.
+
+
+
+
+EGLINTON, EARLS OF. The title of earl of Eglinton has been held by the
+famous Scottish family of Montgomerie since 1508. The attempts made to
+trace the descent of this house to Roger of Montgomery, earl of
+Shrewsbury (d. 1094), one of William the Conqueror's followers, will not
+bear examination, and the sure pedigree of the family only begins with
+Sir John Montgomerie, lord of Eaglesham, who fought at the battle of
+Otterbourne in 1388 and died about 1398. His grandson, Sir Alexander
+Montgomerie (d. c. 1460), was made a lord of the Scottish parliament
+about 1445 as Lord Montgomerie, and Sir Alexander's great-grandson Hugh,
+the 3rd lord (c. 1460-1545), was created earl of Eglinton, or Eglintoun,
+in 1508. Hugh, who was a person of importance during the minority of
+James V., was succeeded by his grandson Hugh (d. 1546), and then by the
+latter's son Hugh (c. 1531-1585), who became 3rd earl of Eglinton. This
+nobleman was a firm supporter of Mary queen of Scots, for whom he fought
+at Langside, and of the Roman Catholic Church; his son and successor,
+Hugh, was murdered in April 1586 by the Cunninghams, a family with which
+his own had an hereditary blood feud. In 1612, by the death of Hugh, the
+5th earl, the male line of the Montgomeries became extinct.
+
+Having no children Earl Hugh had settled his title and estates on his
+cousin, Sir Alexander Seton of Foulstruther (1588-1661), a younger son
+of Robert Seton, 1st earl of Wintoun (c. 1550-1603), and his wife
+Margaret, daughter of the 3rd earl of Eglinton. Alexander, who thus
+became the 6th earl of Eglinton and took the name of Montgomerie, was
+commonly called Greysteel; he was a prominent Covenanter and fought
+against Charles I. at Marston Moor. Later, however, he supported the
+cause of Charles II., and fell into the hands of Cromwell, who
+imprisoned him. His fifth son, Robert Montgomerie (d. 1684), a soldier
+of distinction, fought against Cromwell at Dunbar and at Worcester,
+afterwards escaping from the Tower of London and serving in Denmark.
+Robert's elder brother, Hugh, 7th earl of Eglinton (1613-1669), who also
+fought against Cromwell, was the grandfather of Alexander, the 9th earl
+(c. 1660-1729), who married, for his third wife, Susannah (1689-1780),
+daughter of Sir Archibald Kennedy, Bart., of Culzean, a lady celebrated
+for her wit and beauty. Alexander, the 10th earl (1723-1769), a son of
+the 9th earl, was one of the first of the Scottish landowners to carry
+out improvements on his estates. He was shot near Ardrossan by an excise
+officer named Mungo Campbell on the 24th of October 1769. His brother
+and successor, Archibald, the 11th earl (1726-1796), raised a regiment
+of Highlanders with which he served in America during the Seven Years'
+War. As he left no male issue he was succeeded in the earldom by his
+kinsman Hugh Montgomerie (1739-1819), a descendant of the 6th earl, who
+was created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Ardrossan in 1806.
+Before succeeding to the earldom Hugh had served in the American war and
+had been a member of parliament; after this event he began to rebuild
+Eglinton castle on a magnificent scale and to construct a harbour at
+Ardrossan.
+
+This earl's successor was his grandson, Archibald William, the 13th earl
+(1812-1861), who was born at Palermo on the 29th of September 1812. His
+father was Archibald, Lord Montgomerie (1773-1814), the eldest son of
+the 12th earl, and his mother was Mary (d. 1848), a daughter of the 11th
+earl. Educated at Eton, the young earl's main object of interest for
+some years was the turf; he kept a large racing stud and won success and
+reputation in the sporting world. In 1839 his name became more widely
+known in connexion with the famous tournament which took place at
+Eglinton castle and is said to have cost him £30,000 or £40,000. This
+was made the subject of much ridicule and was partly spoiled by the
+unfavourable weather, the rain falling in torrents. Yet it was a real
+tournament and the "knights" broke their spears in the orthodox way.
+Prince Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III.) took part in it, and Lady Seymour,
+a daughter of Thomas Sheridan and the wife of Lord Seymour, afterwards
+12th duke of Somerset, was the queen of beauty. A list of the
+challengers with an account of the jousts and the melée will be found in
+the volume on the tournament written by John Richardson, with drawings
+by J. H. Nixon. It is also described by Disraeli in _Endymion_. Eglinton
+was a staunch Tory, and in February 1852 he became lord-lieutenant of
+Ireland under the earl of Derby. He retired with the ministry in the
+following December, having by his princely hospitality made himself one
+of the most popular of Irish viceroys. When Derby returned to office in
+February 1858 he was again appointed lord-lieutenant, and he discharged
+the duties of this post until June 1859. In this year he was created
+earl of Winton, an earldom which had been held by his kinsfolk, the
+Setons, from 1600 until 1716, when George Seton, the 5th earl (c.
+1678-1749), was deprived of his honours for high treason. The earl died
+on the 4th of October 1861, and was succeeded by his eldest son
+Archibald William (1841-1892). When this earl died in 1892 his younger
+brother George Arnulph (b. 1848) became 15th earl of Eglinton and 3rd
+earl of Winton.
+
+  See Sir W. Fraser, _Memorials of the Montgomeries, earls of Eglinton_
+  (1859).
+
+
+
+
+EGMONT, EARLS OF. John Perceval, 1st earl of Egmont (1683-1748), Irish
+politician, and partner with J. E. Oglethorpe in founding the American
+colony of Georgia, was created earl in 1733. He claimed descent from the
+Egmonts of Flanders, but his title was taken from the place in County
+Cork where the family residence stood. Its name of Burton House, and
+that of Burton manor which formed part of the family estates, were a
+reminiscence of Burton in Somerset, where was the earlier English family
+property of his great-great-grandfather Richard Perceval (1550-1620),
+Burghley's secret agent, and author of a Spanish dictionary published in
+1591, whose son Sir Philip Perceval (1605-1647) acquired the Irish
+estates by judicious use of his opportunities as commissioner for land
+titles and of his interest at court. Sir Philip's son John, grandfather
+of the 1st earl, was made a baronet in 1661. The first earl of Egmont
+(who had been made Baron Perceval in 1715, and Viscount Perceval in
+1723) is chiefly important for his connexion with the colonization of
+Georgia, and for his voluminous letters and writings on biography and
+genealogy.
+
+John Perceval, 2nd earl of Egmont (1711-1770), his eldest son, was an
+active politician, first lord of the admiralty (1763-1766), and
+political pamphleteer, and like his father an ardent genealogist. He was
+twice married, and had eight sons and eight daughters. One of his
+younger sons was Spencer Perceval, prime minister of England. His eldest
+son succeeded as 3rd earl, and the eldest by his second marriage (with
+Catherine Compton, baroness of Arden in Ireland) was in 1802 created
+Baron Arden of the United Kingdom, a title which subsequently became
+merged in the Egmont earldom.
+
+
+
+
+EGMONT (EGMOND), LAMORAL, COUNT OF, prince of Gavre (1522-1568), was
+born in Hainaut in 1522. He was the younger of the two sons of John IV.,
+count of Egmont, by his wife Françoise of Luxemburg, princess of Gavre.
+On the death of his elder brother Charles, about 1541, he succeeded to
+his titles and estates. In this year he served his apprenticeship as a
+soldier in the expedition of the emperor Charles V. to Algiers,
+distinguishing himself in the command of a body of cavalry. In 1544 he
+married Sabina, sister of the elector palatine Frederick III., and the
+wedding was celebrated at Spires with great pomp in the presence of the
+emperor and his brother Ferdinand, afterwards emperor. Created knight of
+the Golden Fleece in 1546, he accompanied Philip of Spain in his tour
+through the Netherland towns, and in 1554 he went to England at the head
+of a special embassy to ask the hand of Mary of England for Philip, and
+was afterwards present at the wedding ceremony at Winchester. In the
+summer of 1557 Egmont was appointed commander of the Flemish cavalry in
+the war between Spain and France; and it was by his vehement persuasion
+that the battle of St Quentin was fought. The victory was determined by
+the brilliant charge that he led against the French. The reputation
+which he won at St Quentin was raised still higher in 1558, when he
+encountered the French army under de Thermes at Gravelines, on its march
+homewards after the invasion of Flanders, totally defeated it, and took
+Marshal de Thermes prisoner. The battle was fought against the advice of
+the duke of Alva, and the victory made Alva Egmont's enemy. But the
+count now became the idol of his countrymen, who looked upon him as the
+saviour of Flanders from the devastations of the French. He was
+nominated by Philip stadtholder of Flanders and Artois. At the
+conclusion of the war by the treaty of Cateau Cambrésis, Egmont was one
+of the four hostages selected by the king of France as pledges for its
+execution.
+
+The attempt made by King Philip to convert the Netherlands into a
+Spanish dependency and to govern it by Spanish ministers excited the
+resentment of Egmont and other leading members of the Netherlands
+aristocracy. Between him and Cardinal Granvella, the all-powerful
+minister of the regent Margaret of Parma, there was no love lost. As a
+member of the council of state Egmont joined the prince of Orange in a
+vigorous protest addressed to Philip (1561) against the autocratic
+proceedings of the minister; and two years later he again protested in
+conjunction with the prince of Orange and Count Horn. In the spring of
+1564 Granvella left the Netherlands, and the malcontent nobles once more
+took their places in the council of state. The resolve, however, of
+Philip to enforce the decrees of the council of Trent throughout the
+Netherlands once more aroused their resentment. Although himself a good
+Catholic, Egmont had no wish to see the Spanish Inquisition established
+in his native country. Orange, Egmont and others were convinced that the
+enforcement of the decrees in the Netherlands was impossible, and, in
+January 1665, Egmont accepted a special mission to Spain to make known
+to Philip the state of affairs and the disposition of the people. At
+Madrid the king gave him an ostentatiously cordial reception, and all
+the courtiers vied with one another in lavishing professions of respect
+upon him. They knew his vain and somewhat unstable character, and hoped
+to win him over without conceding anything to the wishes of the
+Netherlanders. The king gave him plenty of flatteries and promises, but
+steadily evaded any serious discussion of the object of his mission, and
+Egmont finally returned home without having accomplished anything. At
+the same time Philip sent further instructions to the regent to abate
+nothing of the severity of the persecution.
+
+Egmont was naturally indignant at the treatment he had received, while
+the terrors of the Inquisition were steadily rousing the people to a
+state of frenzied excitement. In 1566 a confederacy of the lesser
+nobility was formed (_Les Gueux_) whose principles were set out in a
+document known as the Compromise. From this league Egmont held aloof; he
+declined to take any step savouring of actual disloyalty to his
+sovereign. He withdrew to his government of Flanders, and as stadtholder
+took active measures for the persecution of heretics. But in the eyes of
+Philip he had long been a marked man. The Spanish king had temporized
+only until the moment arrived when he could crush opposition by force.
+In the summer of 1567 the duke of Alva was despatched to the Netherlands
+at the head of an army of veterans to supersede the regent Margaret and
+restore order in the discontented provinces. Orange fled to Germany
+after having vainly warned Egmont and Horn of the dangers that
+threatened them. Alva was at pains to lull their suspicions, and then
+suddenly seized them both and threw them in the castle of Ghent. Their
+trial was a farce, for their fate had already been determined before
+Alva left Spain. After some months of imprisonment they were removed to
+Brussels, where sentence was pronounced upon them (June 4) by the
+infamous Council of Blood erected by Alva. They were condemned to death
+for high treason. It was in vain that the most earnest intercessions
+were made in behalf of Egmont by the emperor Maximilian, by the knights
+of the order of the Golden Fleece, by the states of Brabant, and by
+several of the German princes. Vain, too, was the pathetic pleading of
+his wife, who with her eleven children was reduced to want, and had
+taken refuge in a convent. Egmont was beheaded at Brussels in the square
+before the town hall on the day after his sentence had been publicly
+pronounced (June 5, 1568). He met his fate with calm resignation; and in
+the storm of terror and exasperation to which this tragedy gave rise
+Egmont's failings were forgotten, and he and his fellow-victim to
+Spanish tyranny were glorified in the popular imagination as martyrs of
+Flemish freedom. From this memorable event, which Goethe made the theme
+of his play _Egmont_ (1788), is usually dated the beginning of the
+famous revolt of the Netherlands. In 1865 a monument to Counts Egmont
+and Horn, by Fraiken, was erected on the spot where they were beheaded.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--T. Juste, _Le Comte d'Egmont et le comte de Hornes_
+  (Brussels, 1862), _Les Pays-Bas sous Philippe II_, 1555-1565 (2 vols.,
+  Brussels, 1855); J. L. Motley, _Rise of the Dutch Republic_, 1555-1584
+  (3 vols., London, 1856); J. P. Blok, _History of the People of the
+  Netherlands_ (tr. from Dutch), vol. iii. (New York, 1900); R. Fruin,
+  _Het voorspel van den tastigjarigen oorlag_ (Amsterdam, 1866); E.
+  Marx, _Studien zur Geschichte des niederländischen Aufstandes_
+  (Leipzig, 1902).     (G. E.)
+
+
+
+
+EGOISM (from Gr. and Lat. _ego_, I, the 1st personal pronoun), a modern
+philosophical term used generally, in opposition to "Altruism," for any
+ethical system in which the happiness or the good of the individual is
+the main criterion of moral action. Another form of the word, "Egotism,"
+is really interchangeable, though in ordinary language it is often used
+specially (and similarly "egoism," as in George Meredith's _Egoist_) to
+describe the habit of magnifying one's self and one's achievements, or
+regarding all things from a selfish point of view. Both these ideas
+derive from the original meaning of _ego_, myself, as opposed to
+everything which is outside myself. This antithesis of ego and non-ego,
+self and not-self, may be understood in several senses according to the
+connexion in which it is used. Thus the self may be held to include
+one's family, property, business, and an indefinitely wider range of
+persons or objects in which the individual's interest is for the moment
+centred, i.e. everything which I can call "mine." In this, its widest,
+sense "a man's Self is the sum total of all that he _can_ call his" (Wm.
+James, _Principles of Psychology_, chap x.). This self may be divided up
+in many ways according to the various forms in which it may be
+expressed. Thus James (ibid.) classifies the various "selves" as the
+material, the spiritual, the social and the "pure." Or again the self
+may be narrowed down to a man's own person, consisting of an individual
+mind and body. In the true philosophical sense, however, the conception
+of the ego is still further narrowed down to the individual
+consciousness as opposed to all that is outside it, i.e. can be its
+object. This conception of the self belongs mainly to metaphysics and
+involves the whole problem of the relation between subject and object,
+the nature of reality, and the possibility of knowledge of self and of
+object. The ordinary idea of the self as a physical entity, obviously
+separate from others, takes no account of the problem as to how and in
+what sense the individual is conscious of himself; what is the relation
+between subject and object in the phenomenon of self-consciousness, in
+which the mind reflects upon itself both past and present? The mind is
+in this case both subject and object, or, as William James puts it, both
+"I" and "me." The phenomenon has been described in various ways by
+different thinkers. Thus Kant distinguished the two selves as rational
+and empirical, just as he distinguished the two egos as the noumenal or
+real and the phenomenal from the metaphysical standpoint. A similar
+distinction is made by Herbart. Others have held that the self has a
+complex content, the subject self being, as it were, a fuller expression
+of the object-self (so Bradley); or again the subject self is the active
+content of the mind, and the object self the passive content which for
+the moment is exciting the attention. The most satisfactory and also the
+most general view is that consciousness is complex and unanalysable.
+
+The relation of the self to the not-self need not to be treated here
+(see METAPHYSICS). It may, however, be pointed out that in so far as an
+object is cognized by the mind, it becomes in a sense part of the
+complex self-content. In this sense the individual is in himself his own
+universe, his whole existence being, in other words, the sum total of
+his psychic relations, and nothing else being _for him_ in existence at
+all. A similar idea is prominent in many philosophico-religious systems
+wherein the idea of God or the Infinite is, as it were, the union of the
+ego and the non-ego, of subject and object. The self of man is regarded
+as having limitations, whereas the Godhead is infinite and
+all-inclusive. In many mystical Oriental religions the perfection of the
+human self is absorption in the infinite, as a ripple dies away on the
+surface of water. The problems of the self may be summed up as follows.
+The psychologist investigates the ideal construction of the self, i.e.
+the way in which the conception of the self arises, the different
+aspects or contents of the self and the relation of the subject to the
+object self. At this point the epistemologist takes up the question of
+empirical knowledge and considers the kind of validity, if any, which it
+can possess. What existence has the known object for the knowing
+subject? The result of this inquiry is generally intellectual scepticism
+in a greater or less degree, namely, that the object has no existence
+for the knower except a relative one, i.e. in so far as it is "known"
+(see RELATIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE). Finally the metaphysician, and in another
+sphere the theologian, consider the nature of the pure or transcendental
+self apart from its relations, i.e. the absolute self.
+
+In ethics, egoistic doctrines disregard the ultimate problems of
+selfhood, and assume the self to consist of a man's person and those
+things in which he is or ought to be directly interested. The general
+statement that such doctrines refer all moral action to criteria of the
+individual's happiness, preservation, moral perfection, raises an
+obvious difficulty. Egoism merely asserts that the self is all-important
+in the application of moral principles, and does not in any way supply
+the material of these principles. It is a purely formal direction, and
+as such merely an adjunct to a substantive ethical criterion. A
+practical theory of ethics seeks to establish a particular moral ideal;
+if it is an absolute criterion, then the altruist would place first the
+attainment of that ideal by others, while the egoist would seek it for
+himself. The same is true of ethical theories which may be described as
+material. Of the second type are those, e.g. of Hobbes and Spinoza,
+which advocate self-preservation as the ideal, as contrasted with modern
+evolutionist moralists who advocate race-preservation. Again, we may
+contrast the early Greek hedonists, who bade each man seek the greatest
+happiness (of whatever kind), with modern utilitarian and social
+hedonists, who prefer the greatest good or the greatest happiness of the
+greatest number. It is with hedonistic and other empirical theories that
+egoism is generally associated. As a matter of fact, however, egoism has
+been no less prominent in intuitional ethics. Thus the man who seeks
+only or primarily his own moral perfection is an egoist par excellence.
+Such are ascetics, hermits and the like, whose whole object is the
+realization of their highest selves.
+
+The distinction of egoistical and altruistic action is further
+complicated by two facts. In the first place, many systems combine the
+two. Thus Christian ethics may be said to insist equally on duty to self
+and duty to others, while crudely egoistic systems become unworkable if
+a man renders himself obnoxious to his fellows. On the other hand, every
+deliberate action based on an avowedly altruistic principle necessarily
+has a reference to the agent; if it is right that A should do a certain
+action for the benefit of B, then it tends to the moral self-realization
+of A that he should do it. Upon whatsoever principle the rightness of an
+action depends, its performance is right _for the agent_. The
+self-reference is inevitable in every action in so far as it is regarded
+as voluntary and chosen as being of a particular moral quality.
+
+It is this latter fact which has led many students of human character to
+state that men do in fact aim at the gratification of their personal
+desires and impulses. The laws of the state and the various rules of
+conduct laid down by religion or morality are merely devices adopted for
+general convenience. The most remarkable statement of this point of view
+is that of Friedrich Nietzsche, who went so far as to denounce all forms
+of self-denial as cowardice:--let every one who is strong seek to make
+himself dominant at the expense of the weak.
+
+
+
+
+EGORIEVSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Ryazañ, 70 m. by rail
+E.S.E. of Moscow, by a branch line (15 m.) connecting with the Moscow to
+Ryazañ main line. The cotton mills and other factories give occupation
+to 6000 persons. Egorievsk has important fairs for grain, hides, &c.,
+which are exported. Pop. (1897) 23,932.
+
+
+
+
+EGREMONT, EARLS OF. In 1749 Algernon Seymour, 7th duke of Somerset, was
+created earl of Egremont, and on his childless death in February 1750
+this title passed by special remainder to his nephew, Sir Charles
+Wyndham or Windham, Bart. (1710-1763), a son of Sir William Wyndham of
+Orchard Wyndham, Somerset. Charles, who had succeeded to his father's
+baronetcy in 1740, inherited Somerset's estates in Cumberland and
+Sussex. He was a member of parliament from 1734 to 1750, and in October
+1761 he was appointed secretary of state for the southern department in
+succession to William Pitt. His term of office, during which he acted in
+concert with his brother-in-law, George Grenville, was mainly occupied
+with the declaration of war on Spain and with the negotiations for peace
+with France and Spain, a peace the terms of which the earl seems to have
+disliked. He was also to the fore during the proceedings against Wilkes,
+and he died on the 21st of August 1763. Horace Walpole perhaps rates
+Egremont's talents too low when he says he "had neither knowledge of
+business, nor the smallest share of parliamentary abilities."
+
+The 2nd earl's son and successor, George O'Brien Wyndham (1751-1837),
+was more famous as a patron of art and an agriculturist than as a
+politician, although he was not entirely indifferent to politics. For
+some time the painter Turner lived at his Sussex residence, Petworth
+House, and in addition to Turner, the painter Leslie, the sculptor
+Flaxman and other talented artists received commissions from Egremont,
+who filled his house with valuable works of art. Generous and
+hospitable, blunt and eccentric, the earl was in his day a very
+prominent figure in English society. Charles Greville says, "he was
+immensely rich and his munificence was equal to his wealth"; and again
+that in his time Petworth was "like a great inn." The earl died
+unmarried on the 11th of November 1837, and on the death of his nephew
+and successor, George Francis Wyndham, the 4th earl (1785-1845), the
+earldom of Egremont became extinct. Petworth, however, and the large
+estates had already passed to George Wyndham (1787-1869), a natural son
+of the 3rd earl, who was created Baron Leconfield in 1859.
+
+
+
+
+EGREMONT, a market town in the Egremont parliamentary division of
+Cumberland, England, 5 m. S.S.E. of Whitehaven, on a joint line of the
+London & North Western and Furness railways. Pop. of urban district
+(1901) 5761. It is pleasantly situated in the valley of the Ehen. Ruins
+of a castle command the town from an eminence. It was founded c. 1120 by
+William de Meschines; it is moated, and retains a Norman doorway and
+some of the original masonry, as well as fragments of later date. The
+church of St Mary is a modern reconstruction embodying some of the
+Norman features of the old church. Iron ore and limestone are raised in
+the neighbourhood.
+
+It seems impossible to find any history for Egremont until after the
+Norman Conquest, when Henry I. gave the barony of Coupland to William de
+Meschines, who erected a castle at Egremont around which the town grew
+into importance. The barony afterwards passed by marriage to the
+families of Lucy and Multon, and finally came to the Percys, earls of
+Northumberland, from whom are descended the present lords of the manor
+of Egremont. The earliest evidence that Egremont was a borough occurs in
+a charter, granted by Richard de Lucy in the reign of King John, which
+gave the burgesses right to choose their reeve, and set out the customs
+owing to the lord of the manor, among which was that of providing twelve
+armed men at his castle in the time of war. The borough was represented
+by two members in the parliament of 1295, but in the following year was
+disfranchised, on the petition of the burgesses, on account of the
+expense of sending members. In 1267 Henry III. granted Thomas de Multon
+a market every Wednesday at Egremont, and a fair every year on the eve,
+day and morrow of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary. In the _Quo Warranto_
+rolls he is found to have claimed by prescription another weekly market
+on Saturday. The market rights were purchased from Lord Leconfield in
+1885, and the market on Saturday is still held. Richard de Lucy's
+charter shows that dyeing, weaving and fulling were carried on in the
+town in his time.
+
+
+
+
+EGRESS (Lat. _egressus_, going out), in astronomy, the end of the
+apparent transit of a small body over the disk of a larger one;
+especially of a transit of a satellite of Jupiter over the disk of that
+planet. It designates the moment at which the smaller body is seen to
+leave the limb of the other.
+
+
+
+
+EGYPT, a country forming the N.E. extremity of Africa.[1] In the
+following account a division is made into (I.) _Modern Egypt_, and (II.)
+_Ancient Egypt_; but the history from the earliest times is given as a
+separate section (III.).
+
+  Section I. includes Geography, Economics, Government, Inhabitants,
+  Finance and Army. Section II. is subdivided into:--(A) Exploration and
+  Research; (B) The Country in Ancient Times; (C) Religion; (D) Language
+  and Writing; (E) Art and Archaeology; (F) Chronology. Section III. is
+  divided into three main periods:--(1) Ancient History; (2) the
+  Mahommedan Period; (3) Modern History (from Mehemet Ali).
+
+
+I. MODERN EGYPT
+
+_Boundaries and Areas._--Egypt is bounded N. by the Mediterranean, S. by
+the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, N.E. by Palestine, E. by the Red Sea, W. by
+Tripoli and the Sahara. The western frontier is ill-defined. The
+boundary line between Tripoli and Egypt is usually taken to start from a
+point in the Gulf of Sollum and to run S. by E. so as to leave the oasis
+of Siwa to Egypt. South of Siwa the frontier, according to the Turkish
+firman of 1841, bends eastward, approaching the cultivated Nile-land
+near Wadi Halfa, i.e. the southern frontier. This southern frontier is
+fixed by agreement between Great Britain and Egypt at the 22° N. The
+N.E. frontier is an almost direct line drawn from Taba, near the head of
+the Gulf of Akaba, the eastern of the two gulfs into which the Red Sea
+divides, to the Mediterranean at Rafa in 34° 15' E. The peninsula of
+Sinai, geographically part of Asia, is thus included in the Egyptian
+dominions. The total area of the country is about 400,000 sq. m., or
+more than three times the size of the British Isles. Of this area
+14/15ths is desert. Canals, roads, date plantations, &c., cover 1900 sq.
+m.; 2850 sq. m. are comprised in the surface of the Nile, marshes,
+lakes, &c. A line corresponding with the 30° N., drawn just S. of Cairo,
+divides the country into Lower and Upper Egypt, natural designations in
+common use, Lower Egypt being the Delta and Upper Egypt the Nile valley.
+By the Arabs Lower Egypt is called Er-Rif, the cultivated or fertile;
+Upper Egypt Es Sa'id, the happy or fortunate. Another division of the
+country is into Lower, Middle and Upper Egypt, Middle Egypt in this
+classification being the district between Cairo and Assiut.
+
+_General Character._--The distinguishing features of Egypt are the Nile
+and the desert. But for the river there would be nothing to
+differentiate the country from other parts of the Sahara. The Nile,
+however, has transformed the land through which it passes. Piercing the
+desert, and at its annual overflow depositing rich sediment brought from
+the Abyssinian highlands, the river has created the Delta and the
+fertile strip in Upper Egypt. This cultivable land is Egypt proper; to
+it alone is applicable the ancient name--"the black land." The _Misr_ of
+the Arabs is restricted to the same territory. Beyond the Nile valley
+east and west stretch great deserts, containing here and there fertile
+oases. The general appearance of the country is remarkably uniform. The
+Delta is a level plain, richly cultivated, and varied alone by the lofty
+dark-brown mounds of ancient cities, and the villages set in groves of
+palm-trees, standing on mounds often, if not always, ancient. Groves of
+palm-trees are occasionally seen besides those around the villages, but
+other trees are rare. In Upper Egypt the Nile valley is very narrow and
+is bounded by mountains of no great height. They form the edge of the
+desert on either side of the valley, of which the bottom is level rock.
+The mountains rarely take the form of peaks. Sometimes they approach the
+river in bold promontories, and at others are divided by the dry beds of
+ancient watercourses. The bright green of the fields, the reddish-brown
+or dull green of the great river, contrasting with the bare yellow
+rocks, seen beneath a brilliant sun and a deep-blue sky, present views
+of great beauty. In form the landscape varies little and is not
+remarkable; in colour its qualities are always splendid, and under a
+general uniformity show a continual variety.
+
+  _The Coast Region._--Egypt has a coast-line of over 600 m. on the
+  Mediterranean and about 1200 m. on the Red Sea. The Mediterranean
+  coast extends from the Gulf of Sollum on the west to Rafa on the east.
+  From the gulf to the beginning of the Delta the coast is rock-bound,
+  but slightly indented, and possesses no good harbourage. The cliffs
+  attain in places a height of 1000 ft. They are the termination of a
+  stony plateau, containing several small oases, which southward joins
+  the more arid and uninhabitable wastes of the Libyan Desert. The Delta
+  coast-line, composed of sandhills and, occasionally, limestone rocks,
+  is low, with cape-like projections at the Nile mouths formed by the
+  river silt. Two bays are thus formed, the western being the famous Bay
+  of Aboukir. It is bounded W. by a point near the ancient Canopic
+  mouth, eastward by the Rosetta mouth. Beyond the Delta eastward the
+  coast is again barren and without harbours. It rises gradually
+  southward, merging into the plateau of the Sinai peninsula. The Red
+  Sea coast is everywhere mountainous. The mountains are the northern
+  continuation of the Abyssinian table-land, and some of the peaks are
+  over 6000 ft. above the sea. The highest peaks, going from north to
+  south, are Jebels Gharib, Dukhan, Es Shayib, Fatira, Abu Tiur, Zubara
+  and Hammada (Hamata). The coast has a general N.N.W. and S.S.E. trend,
+  and, save for the two gulfs into which it is divided by the massif of
+  Sinai, is not deeply indented. Where the frontier between Egypt and
+  the Sudan reaches the sea is Ras Elba (see further RED SEA).
+
+  _The Nile Valley_ (see also NILE).--Entering Egypt proper, a little
+  north of the Second Cataract, the Nile flows through a valley in
+  sandstone beds of Cretaceous age as far as 25° N., and throughout this
+  part of its course the valley is extremely narrow, rarely exceeding 2
+  m. in width. At two points, namely, Kalabsha--the valley here being
+  only 170 yds. wide and the river over 100 ft. deep--and Assuan (First
+  Cataract), the course of the river is interrupted by outcrops of
+  granites and other crystalline rocks, which have been uncovered by the
+  erosion of the overlying sandstone, and to-day form the mass of
+  islands, with numerous small rapids, which are described not very
+  accurately as cataracts; no good evidence exists in support of the
+  view that they are the remains of a massive barrier, broken down and
+  carried away by some sudden convulsion. From 25° N. northwards for 518
+  m. the valley is of the "rift-valley" type, a level depression in a
+  limestone plateau, enclosed usually by steep cliffs, except where the
+  tributary valleys drained into the main valley in early times, when
+  there was a larger rainfall, and now carry off the occasional
+  rainstorms that burst on the desert. The cliffs are highest between
+  Esna and Kena, where they reach 1800 ft. above sea-level. The average
+  width of the cultivated land is about 10 m., of which the greater part
+  lies on the left (western) bank of the river; and outside this is a
+  belt, varying from a few hundred yards to 3 or 4 m., of stony and
+  sandy ground, reaching up to the foot of the limestone cliffs, which
+  rise in places to as much as 1000 ft. above the valley. This continues
+  as far as 29° N., after which the hills that close in the valley
+  become lower, and the higher plateaus lie at a distance of 10 or 15 m.
+  back in the desert.
+
+  _The Fayum._--The fertile province of the Fayum, west of the Nile and
+  separated from it by some 6 m. of desert, seems to owe its existence
+  to movements similar to those which determined the valley itself.
+  Lying in a basin sloping in a series of terraces from an altitude of
+  65 ft. above sea-level in the east to about 140 ft. _below_ sea-level
+  on the north-west, at the margin of the Birket-el-Kerun, this province
+  is wholly irrigated by a canalized channel, the Bahr Yusuf, which,
+  leaving the Nile at Derut esh Sherif in Upper Egypt, follows the
+  western margin of the cultivation in the Nile valley, and at length
+  enters the Fayum through a gap in the desert hills by the XIIth
+  Dynasty pyramids of Lahun and Hawara (see FAYUM).
+
+  _The Delta._--About 30° N., where the city of Cairo stands, the hills
+  which have hitherto run parallel with the Nile turn W.N.W. and E.N.E.,
+  and the triangular area between them is wholly deltaic. The Delta
+  measures 100 m. from S. to N., having a width of 155 m. on the shore
+  of the Mediterranean between Alexandria on the west and Port Said on
+  the east. The low sandy shore of the Delta, slowly increasing by the
+  annual deposit of silt by the river, is mostly a barren area of
+  sand-hills and salty waste land. This is the region of the lagoons and
+  marshes immediately behind the coast-line. Southwards the quality of
+  the soil rapidly improves, and becomes the most fertile part of Egypt.
+  This area is watered by the Damietta and the Rosetta branches of the
+  Nile, and by a network of canals. The soil of the Delta is a dark grey
+  fine sandy soil, becoming at times almost a stiff clay by reason of
+  the fineness of its particles, which consist almost wholly of
+  extremely small grains of quartz with a few other minerals, and often
+  numerous flakes of mica. This deposit varies in thickness, as a rule,
+  from 55 to 70 ft., at which depth it is underlain by a series of
+  coarse and fine yellow quartz sands, with occasional pebbles, or even
+  banks of gravel, while here and there thin beds of clay occur. These
+  sand-beds are sharply distinguished by their colour from the overlying
+  Nile deposit, and are of considerable thickness. A boring made in 1886
+  for the Royal Society at Zagazig attained a depth of 375 ft. without
+  reaching rock, and another, subsequently sunk near Lake Aboukir (close
+  to Alexandria), reached a depth of 405 ft. with the same result.
+  Numerous other borings to depths of 100 to 200 ft. have given similar
+  results, showing the Nile deposit to rest generally on these yellow
+  sands, which provide a constant though not a very large supply of good
+  water; near the northern limits of the Delta this cannot, however, be
+  depended on, since the well water at these depths has proved on
+  several occasions to be salt. The surface of the Delta is a wide
+  alluvial plain sloping gently towards the sea, and having an altitude
+  of 29 ft. above it at its southern extremity. Its limits east and west
+  are determined by the higher ground of the deserts, to which the
+  silt-laden waters of the Nile in flood time cannot reach. This silt
+  consists largely of alumina (about 48%) and calcium carbonate (18%)
+  with smaller quantities of silica, oxide of iron and carbon. Although
+  the Nile water is abundantly charged with alluvium, the annual deposit
+  by the river, except under extraordinary circumstances, is smaller
+  than might be supposed. The mean ordinary rate of the increase of the
+  soil of Egypt is calculated as about 4½ in. in a century.
+
+  _The Lakes._--The lagoons or lakes of the Delta, going from west to
+  east, are Mareotis (Mariut), Edku, Burlus and Menzala. The land
+  separating them from the Mediterranean is nowhere more than 10 m.
+  wide. East of the Damietta mouth of the Nile this strip is in places
+  not more than 200 yds. broad. All the lakes are shallow and the water
+  in them salt or brackish. Mareotis, which bounds Alexandria on the
+  south side, varies considerably in area according to the rise or fall
+  of the Nile; when the Nile is low there is a wide expanse of marsh,
+  when at its highest the lake covers about 100 sq. m. In ancient times
+  Mareotis was navigable and was joined by various canals to the Nile.
+  The country around was cultivated and produced the famous Mareotic
+  wine. The canals being neglected, the lake decreased in size, though
+  it was still of considerable area in the 15th and 16th centuries, and
+  was then noted for the value of its fisheries. When the French army
+  occupied Egypt in 1798, Mareotis was found to be largely a sandy
+  plain. In April 1801 the British army besieging Alexandria cut through
+  the land between Aboukir and the lake, admitting the waters of the sea
+  into the ancient bed of Mareotis and laying under water a large area
+  then in cultivation. This precedent was twice imitated, first by the
+  Turks in 1803 and a second time by the British in 1807. Mareotis has
+  no outlet, and the water is kept at a uniform level by means of
+  powerful pumps which neutralize the effect of the Nile flood. A
+  western arm has been cut off from the lake by a dyke, and in this arm
+  a thick crust of salt is formed each year after the evaporation of the
+  flood water. Near the shores of the lake wild flowers grow in rich
+  profusion. Like all the Delta lakes, Mareotis abounds in wild-fowl.
+  North-east of Mareotis was Lake Aboukir, a small sheet of water, now
+  dry, lying S.W. of Aboukir Bay. East of this reclaimed marsh and
+  reaching to within 4 m. of the Rosetta branch of the Nile, lies Edku,
+  22 m. long and in places 16 wide, with an opening, supposed to be the
+  ancient Canopic mouth of the Nile, into Aboukir Bay. Burlus begins a
+  little eastward of the Rosetta channel, and stretches bow-shaped for
+  64 m. Its greatest width is about 16 m. Adjoining it S.E. is an
+  expanse of sandy marsh. Several canals or canalized channels enter the
+  lake. Opposite the spot where the Bahr-mit Yezir enters is an opening
+  into the Mediterranean. Canal and opening indicate the course of the
+  ancient Sebennytic branch of the Nile. Burlus is noted for its
+  water-melons, which are yellow within and come into season after those
+  grown on the banks of the Nile.
+
+  Menzala greatly exceeds the other Delta lakes in size, covering over
+  780 sq. m. It extends from very near the Damietta branch of the Nile
+  to Port Said. It receives the waters of the canalized channels which
+  were once the Tanitic, Mendesian and Pelusiac branches. The northern
+  shore is separated from the sea by an extremely narrow strip of land,
+  across which, when the Mediterranean is stormy and the lake full, the
+  waters meet. Its average length is about 40 m., and its average
+  breadth about 15. The depth is greater than that of the other lakes,
+  and the water is salt, though mixed with fresh. It contains a large
+  number of islands, and the whole lake abounds in reeds of various
+  kinds. Of the islands Tennis (anciently Tennesus) contains ruins of
+  the Roman period. The lake supports a considerable population of
+  fishermen, who dwell in villages on the shore and islands and live
+  upon the fish of the lake. The reeds are cover for waterfowl of
+  various kinds, which the traveller sees in great numbers, and wild
+  boars are found in the marshes to the south. The Suez Canal runs in a
+  straight line for 20 m. along the eastern edge of the lake. That part
+  of the lake east of where the canal was excavated is now marshy plain,
+  and the Tanitic and Pelusiac mouths of the Nile are dry. East of
+  Menzala is the site of Serbonis, another dried-up lake, which had the
+  general characteristics of the Delta lagoons. In the Isthmus of Suez
+  are Lake Timsa and the Great and Little Bitter Lakes, occupying part
+  of the ancient bed of the Red Sea. All three were dry or marshy
+  depressions previously to the cutting of the Suez Canal, at which time
+  the waters of the Mediterranean and Red Sea were let into them (see
+  SUEZ CANAL).
+
+  A chain of natron lakes (seven in number) lies in a valley in the
+  western desert, 70 to 90 m. W.N.W. of Cairo. In the Fayum province
+  farther south is the Birket-el-Kerun, a lake, lying below the level of
+  the Nile, some 30 m. long and 5 wide at its broadest part. Kerun is
+  all that is left of the Lake of Moeris, an ancient artificial sheet of
+  water which played an important part in the irrigation schemes of the
+  Pharaohs. The water of el-Kerun is brackish, though derived from the
+  Nile, which has at all seasons a much higher level. It is bounded on
+  the north by the Libyan Desert, above which rises a bold range of
+  mountains; and it has a strange and picturesque wildness. Near the
+  lake are several sites of ancient towns, and the temple called
+  Kasr-Karun, dating from Roman times, distinguishes the most important
+  of these. South-west of the Fayum is the Wadi Rayan, a large and deep
+  depression, utilizable in modern schemes for re-creating the Lake of
+  Moeris (q.v.).
+
+  [Illustration: Nile Delta.]
+
+  _The Desert Plateaus._--From the southern borders of Egypt to the
+  Delta in the north, the desert plateaus extend on either side of the
+  Nile valley. The eastern region, between the Nile and the Red Sea,
+  varies in width from 90 to 350 m. and is known in its northern part as
+  the Arabian Desert. The western region has no natural barrier for many
+  hundreds of miles; it is part of the vast Sahara. On its eastern edge,
+  a few miles west of Cairo, stand the great pyramids (q.v.) of Gizeh or
+  Giza. North of Assuan it is called the Libyan Desert. In the north the
+  desert plateaus are comparatively low, but from Cairo southwards they
+  rise to 1000 and even 1500 ft. above sea-level. Formed mostly of
+  horizontal strata of varying hardness, they present a series of
+  terraces of minor plateaus, rising one above the other, and
+  intersected by small ravines worn by the occasional rainstorms which
+  burst in their neighbourhood. The weathering of this desert area is
+  probably fairly rapid, and the agents at work are principally the
+  rapid heating and cooling of the rocks by day and night, and the
+  erosive action of sand-laden wind on the softer layers; these, aided
+  by the occasional rain, are ceaselessly at work, and produce the
+  successive plateaus, dotted with small isolated hills and cut up by
+  valleys (wadis) which occasionally become deep ravines, thus forming
+  the principal type of scenery of these deserts. From this it will be
+  seen that the desert in Egypt is mainly a rock desert, where the
+  surface is formed of disintegrated rock, the finer particles of which
+  have been carried away by the wind; and east of the Nile this is
+  almost exclusively the case. Here the desert meets the line of
+  mountains which runs parallel to the Red Sea and the Gulf of Suez. In
+  the western desert, however, those large sand accumulations which are
+  usually associated with a desert are met with. They occur as lines of
+  dunes formed of rounded grains of quartz, and lie in the direction of
+  the prevalent wind, usually being of small breadth as compared with
+  their length; but in certain areas, such as that lying S.W. and W. of
+  the oases of Farafra and Dakhla, these lines of dunes, lying parallel
+  to each other and about half a mile apart, cover immense areas,
+  rendering them absolutely impassable except in a direction parallel
+  to the lines themselves. East of the oases of Baharia and Farafra is a
+  very striking line of these sand dunes; rarely more than 3 miles wide,
+  it extends almost continuously from Moghara in the north, passing
+  along the west side of Kharga Oasis to a point near the Nile in the
+  neighbourhood of Abu Simbel--having thus a length of nearly 550 m. In
+  the northern part of this desert the dunes lie about N.W.-S.E., but
+  farther south incline more towards the meridian, becoming at last very
+  nearly north and south.
+
+  _Oases._--In the western desert lie the five large oases of Egypt,
+  namely, Siwa, Baharia, Farafra, Dakhla and Kharga or Great Oasis,
+  occupying depressions in the plateau or, in the case of the last
+  three, large indentations in the face of limestone escarpments which
+  form the western versant of the Nile valley hills. Their fertility is
+  due to a plentiful supply of water furnished by a sandstone bed 300 to
+  500 ft. below the surface, whence the water rises through natural
+  fissures or artificial boreholes to the surface, and sometimes to
+  several feet above it. These oases were known and occupied by the
+  Egyptians as early as 1600 B.C., and Kharga (q.v.) rose to special
+  importance at the time of the Persian occupation. Here, near the town
+  of Kharga, the ancient Hebi, is a temple of Ammon built by Darius I.,
+  and in the same oasis are other ruins of the period of the Ptolemies
+  and Caesars. The oasis of Siwa (Jupiter Ammon) is about 150 m. S. of
+  the Mediterranean at the Gulf of Sollum and about 300 m. W. of the
+  Nile (see SIWA). The other four oases lie parallel to and distant 100
+  to 150 m. from the Nile, between 25° and 29° N., Baharia being the
+  most northerly and Kharga the most southerly.
+
+  Besides the oases the desert is remarkable for two other valleys. The
+  first is that of the natron lakes already mentioned. It contains four
+  monasteries, the remains of the famous anchorite settlement of
+  Nitriae. South of the Wadi Natron, and parallel to it, is a sterile
+  valley called the Bahr-bela-Ma, or "River without Water."
+
+  _The Sinai Peninsula._--The triangular-shaped Sinai peninsula has its
+  base on the Mediterranean, the northern part being an arid plateau,
+  the desert of Tih. The apex is occupied by a massif of crystalline
+  rocks. The principal peaks rise over 8500 ft. Owing to the slight
+  rainfall, and the rapid weathering of the rocks by the great range of
+  temperature, these hills rise steeply from the valleys at their feet
+  as almost bare rock, supporting hardly any vegetation. In some of the
+  valleys wells or rock-pools filled by rain occur, and furnish
+  drinking-water to the few Arabs who wander in these hills (see also
+  SINAI).
+
+  [_Geology._--Just as the Nile valley forms the chief geographical
+  feature of Egypt, so the geology of the country is intimately related
+  to it. The north and south direction of the river has been largely
+  determined by faults, though the geologists of the Egyptian Survey are
+  finding that the influence of faulting in determining physical outline
+  has, in some cases, been overestimated. The oldest rocks, consisting
+  of crystalline schists with numerous intrusions of granite, porphyry
+  and diorite, occupy the eastern portion of the country between the
+  Nile south of Assuan and the Red Sea. The intrusive rocks predominate
+  over the schists in extent of area covered. They furnished the chief
+  material for the ancient monuments. At Assuan (Syene) the well-known
+  syenite of Werner occurs. It is, however, a hornblende granite and
+  does not possess the mineralogical composition of the syenites of
+  modern petrology. Between Thebes and Khartum the western banks of the
+  Nile are composed of Nubian Sandstone, which extends westward from the
+  river to the edge of the great Libyan Desert, where it forms the bed
+  rock. The age of this sandstone has given rise to much dispute. The
+  upper part certainly belongs to the Cretaceous formation; the lower
+  part has been considered to be of Karroo age by some geologists, while
+  others regard the whole formation to be of Cretaceous age. In the
+  Kharga Oasis the upper portion consists of variously coloured
+  unfossiliferous clays with intercalated bands of sandstone containing
+  fossil silicified woods (_Nicolia Aegyptiaca_ and _Araucarioxylon
+  Aegypticum_). They are conformably overlain by clays and limestones
+  with _Exogyra Overwegi_ belonging to the Lower Danian, and these by
+  clays and white chalk with _Ananchytes ovata_ of the Upper Danian. In
+  many instances the Tertiary formation, which occurs between Esna and
+  Cairo, unconformably overlies the Cretaceous, the Lower Eocene being
+  absent. The fluvio-marine deposits of the Upper Eocene and Oligocene
+  formations contain an interesting mammalian fauna, proving that the
+  African continent formed a centre of radiation for the mammalia in
+  early Tertiary times. _Arsinoitherium_ is the precursor of the horned
+  Ungulata; while _Moeritherium_ and _Palaeomastodon_ undoubtedly
+  include the oldest known elephants. Miocene strata are absent in the
+  southern Tertiary areas, but are present at Moghara and in the north.
+  Marine Pliocene strata occur to the south of the pyramids of Giza and
+  in the Fayum province, where, in addition, some gravel terraces, at a
+  height of 500 ft. above sea-level, are attributed to the Pliocene
+  period. The Lake of Moeris, as a large body of fresh water, appears to
+  have come into existence in Pleistocene times. It is represented now
+  by the brackish-water lake of the Birket-el-Kerun. The superficial
+  sands of the deserts and the Nile mud form the chief recent
+  formations. The Nile deposits its mud over the valley before reaching
+  the sea, and consequently the Delta receives little additional
+  material. At Memphis the alluvial deposits are over 50 ft. thick. The
+  superficial sands of the desert region, derived in large part from the
+  disintegration of the Nubian Sandstone, occupy the most extensive
+  areas in the Libyan Desert. The other desert regions of Egypt are
+  elevated stony plateaus, which are diversified by extensively
+  excavated valleys and oases, and in which sand frequently plays quite
+  a subordinate part. These regions present magnificent examples of dry
+  erosion by wind-borne sand, which acts as a powerful sand blast
+  etching away the rocks and producing most beautiful sculpturing. The
+  rate of denudation in exposed positions is exceedingly rapid; while
+  spots sheltered from the sand blast suffer a minimum of erosion, as
+  shown by the preservation of ancient inscriptions. Many of the
+  Egyptian rocks in the desert areas and at the cataracts are coated
+  with a highly polished film, of almost microscopic thinness,
+  consisting chiefly of oxides of iron and manganese with salts of
+  magnesia and lime. It is supposed to be due to a chemical change
+  within the rock and not to deposition on the surface.]
+
+  _Minerals._--Egypt possesses considerable mineral wealth. In ancient
+  times gold and precious stones were mined in the Red Sea hills. During
+  the Moslem period mining was abandoned, and it was not until the
+  beginning of the 20th century that renewed efforts were made to
+  develop the mining industry. The salt obtained from Lake Mareotis at
+  Meks, a western suburb of Alexandria, supplies the salt needed for the
+  country, except a small quantity used for curing fish at Lake Menzala;
+  while the lakes in the Wadi Natron, 45 m. N.W. of the pyramids of
+  Giza, furnish carbonate of soda in large quantities. Alum is found in
+  the western oases. Nitrates and phosphates are also found in various
+  parts of the desert and are used as manures. The turquoise mines of
+  Sinai, in the Wadi Maghara, are worked regularly by the Arabs of the
+  peninsula, who sell the stones in Suez; while there are emerald mines
+  at Jebel Zubara, south of Kosseir. Petroleum occurs at Jebel Zeit, on
+  the west shore of the Gulf of Suez. Considerable veins of haematite of
+  good quality occur both in the Red Sea hills and in Sinai. At Jebel
+  ed-Dukhan are porphyry quarries, extensively worked under the Romans,
+  and at Jebel el-Fatira are granite quarries. At El-Hammamat, on the
+  old way from Coptos to Philoteras Portus, are the breccia verde
+  quarries, worked from very early times, and having interesting
+  hieroglyphic inscriptions. At the various mines, and on the routes to
+  them and to the Red Sea, are some small temples and stations, ranging
+  from the Pharaonic to the Roman period. The quarries of Syene (Assuan)
+  are famous for extremely hard and durable red granite (syenite), and
+  have been worked since the days of the earliest Pharaohs. Large
+  quantities of this syenite were used in building the Assuan dam
+  (1898-1902). The cliffs bordering the Nile are largely quarried for
+  limestone and sandstone.
+
+  Gold-mining recommenced in 1905 at Um Rus, a short distance inland
+  from the Red Sea and some 50 m. S. of Kosseir, where milling
+  operations were started in March of that year. Another mine opened in
+  1905 was that of Um Garaiat, E.N.E. of Korosko, and 65 m. distant from
+  the Nile.
+
+  _Climate._--Part of Upper Egypt is within the tropics, but the greater
+  part of the country is north of the Tropic of Cancer. Except a narrow
+  belt on the north along the Mediterranean shore, Egypt lies in an
+  almost rainless area, where the temperature is high by day and sinks
+  quickly at night in consequence of the rapid radiation under the
+  cloudless sky. The mean temperature at Alexandria and Port Said varies
+  between 57° F. in January and 81° F. in July; while at Cairo, where
+  the proximity of the desert begins to be felt, it is 53° F. in
+  January, rising to 84° F. in July. January is the coldest month, when
+  occasionally in the Nile valley, and more frequently in the open
+  desert, the temperature sinks to 32° F., or even a degree or two
+  below. The mean maximum temperatures are 99° F. for Alexandria and
+  110° F. for Cairo. Farther south the range of temperature becomes
+  greater as pure desert conditions are reached. Thus at Assuan the mean
+  maximum is 118° F., the mean minimum 42° F. At Wadi Halfa the figures
+  in each case are one degree lower.
+
+  The relative humidity varies greatly. At Assuan the mean value for the
+  year is only 38%, that for the summer being 29%, and for the winter
+  51%; while for Wadi Halfa the mean is 32%, and 20% and 42% are the
+  mean values for summer and winter respectively. A white fog, dense and
+  cold, sometimes rises from the Nile in the morning, but it is of short
+  duration and rare occurrence. In Alexandria and on all the
+  Mediterranean coast of Egypt rain falls abundantly in the winter
+  months, amounting to 8 in. in the year; but southwards it rapidly
+  decreases, and south of 31° N. little rain falls.
+
+  Records at Cairo show that the rainfall is very irregular, and is
+  furnished by occasional storms rather than by any regular rainy
+  season; still, most falls in the winter months, especially December
+  and January, while, on the other hand, none has been recorded in June
+  and July. The average annual rainfall does not exceed 1.50 in. In the
+  open desert rain falls even more rarely, but it is by no means
+  unknown, and from time to time heavy storms burst, causing sudden
+  floods in the narrow ravines, and drowning both men and animals. These
+  are more common in the mountainous region of the Sinai peninsula,
+  where they are much dreaded by the Arabs. Snow is unknown in the Nile
+  valley, but on the mountains of Sinai and the Red Sea hills it is not
+  uncommon, and a temperature of 18° F. at an altitude of 2000 ft. has
+  been recorded in January.
+
+  The atmospheric pressure varies between a maximum in January and a
+  minimum in July, the mean difference being about 0.29 in. In a series
+  of records extending over 14 years the mean pressure varied between
+  29.84 and 29.90 in.
+
+  The most striking meteorological factor in Egypt is the persistence of
+  the north wind throughout the year, without which the climate would be
+  very trying. It is this "Etesian" wind which enables sailing boats
+  constantly to ascend the Nile, against its strong and rapid current.
+  In December, January and February, at Cairo, the north wind slightly
+  predominates, though those from the south and west often nearly equal
+  it, but after this the north blows almost continuously for the rest of
+  the year. In May and June the prevailing direction is north and
+  north-north-east, and for July, August, September and October north
+  and north-west. From the few observations that exist, it seems that
+  farther south the southern winter winds decrease rapidly, becoming
+  westerly, until at Assuan and Wadi Haifa the northerly winds are
+  almost invariable throughout the year. The _khamsin_, hot sand-laden
+  winds of the spring months, come invariably from the south. They are
+  preceded by a rapid fall of the barometer for about a day, until a
+  gradient from south to north is formed, then the wind commences to
+  blow, at first gently, from the south-east; rapidly increasing in
+  violence, it shifts through south to south-west, finally dropping
+  about sunset. The same thing is repeated on the second and sometimes
+  the third day, by which time the wind has worked round to the north
+  again. During a khamsin the temperature is high and the air extremely
+  dry, while the dust and sand carried by the wind form a thick yellow
+  fog obscuring the sun. Another remarkable phenomenon is the _zobaa_, a
+  lofty whirlwind of sand resembling a pillar, which moves with great
+  velocity. The southern winds of the summer months which occur in the
+  low latitudes north of the equator are not felt much north of Khartum.
+
+  One of the most interesting phenomena of Egypt is the mirage, which is
+  frequently seen both in the desert and in the waste tracts of
+  uncultivated land near the Mediterranean; and it is often so truthful
+  in its appearance that one finds it difficult to admit the illusion.
+
+  _Flora._--Egypt possesses neither forests nor woods and, as
+  practically the whole of the country which will support vegetation is
+  devoted to agriculture, the flora is limited. The most important tree
+  is the date-palm, which grows all over Egypt and in the oases. The
+  lower branches being regularly cut, this tree grows high and assumes a
+  much more elegant form than in its natural state. The dom-palm is
+  first seen a little north of 26° N., and extends southwards. The vine
+  grows well, and in ancient times was largely cultivated for wine;
+  oranges, lemons and pomegranates also abound. Mulberry trees are
+  common in Lower Egypt. The sunt tree (_Acacia nilotica_) grows
+  everywhere, as well as the tamarisk and the sycamore. In the deserts
+  halfa grass and several kinds of thorn bushes grow; and wherever rain
+  or springs have moistened the ground, numerous wild flowers thrive.
+  This is especially the case where there is also shade to protect them
+  from the midday sun, as in some of the narrow ravines in the eastern
+  desert and in the palm groves of the oases, where various ferns and
+  flowers grow luxuriantly round the springs. Among many trees which
+  have been imported, the "lebbek" (_Albizzia lebbek_), a thick-foliaged
+  mimosa, thrives especially, and has been very largely employed. The
+  weeping-willow, myrtle, elm, cypress and eucalyptus are also used in
+  the gardens and plantations.
+
+  The most common of the fruits are dates, of which there are nearly
+  thirty varieties, which are sold half-ripe, ripe, dried, and pressed
+  in their fresh moist state in mats or skins. The pressed dates of Siwa
+  are among the most esteemed. The Fayum is celebrated for its grapes,
+  and chiefly supplies the market of Cairo. The most common grape is
+  white, of which there is a small kind far superior to the ordinary
+  sort. The black grapes are large, but comparatively tasteless. The
+  vines are trailed on trelliswork, and form agreeable avenues in the
+  gardens of Cairo. The best-known fruits, besides dates and grapes, are
+  figs, sycamore-figs and pomegranates, apricots and peaches, oranges
+  and citrons, lemons and limes, bananas, which are believed to be of
+  the fruits of Paradise (being always in season), different kinds of
+  melons (including some of aromatic flavour, and the refreshing
+  water-melon), mulberries, Indian figs or prickly pears, the fruit of
+  the lotus and olives. Among the more usual cultivated flowers are the
+  rose (which has ever been a favourite among the Arabs), the jasmine,
+  narcissus, lily, oleander, chrysanthemum, convolvulus, geranium,
+  dahlia, basil, the henna plant (_Lawsonia alba_, or Egyptian privet,
+  which is said to be a flower of Paradise), the helianthus and the
+  violet. Of wild flowers the most common are yellow daisies, poppies,
+  irises, asphodels and ranunculuses. The _Poinsettia pulcherrima_ is a
+  bushy tree with leaves of brilliant red.
+
+  Many kinds of reeds are found in Egypt, though they were formerly much
+  more common. The famous byblus or papyrus no longer exists in the
+  country, but other kinds of _cyperi_ are found. The lotus, greatly
+  prized for its flowers by the ancient inhabitants, is still found in
+  the Delta, though never in the Nile itself. There are two varieties of
+  this water-lily, one with white flowers, the other with blue.
+
+  _Fauna._--The chief quadrupeds are all domestic animals. Of these the
+  camel and the ass are the most common. The ass, often a tall and
+  handsome creature, is indigenous. When the camel was first introduced
+  into Egypt is uncertain--it is not pictured on the ancient monuments.
+  Neither is the buffalo, which with the sheep is very numerous in
+  Egypt. The horses are of indifferent breed, apparently of a type much
+  inferior to that possessed by the ancient Egyptians. Wild animals are
+  few. The principal are the hyena, jackal and fox. The wild boar is
+  found in the Delta. Wolves are rare. Numerous gazelles inhabit the
+  deserts. The ibex is found in the Sinaitic peninsula and the hills
+  between the Nile and the Red Sea, and the mouflon, or maned sheep, is
+  occasionally seen in the same regions. The desert hare is abundant in
+  parts of the Fayum, and a wild cat, or lynx, frequents the marshy
+  regions of the Delta. The ichneumon (Pharaoh's rat) is common and
+  often tame; the coney and jerboa are found in the eastern mountains.
+  Bats are very numerous. The crocodile is no longer found in Egypt, nor
+  the hippopotamus, in ancient days a frequenter of the Nile. The common
+  or pariah dog is generally of sandy colour; in Upper Egypt there is a
+  breed of wiry rough-haired black dogs, noted for their fierceness.
+  Among reptiles are several kinds of venomous snakes--the horned viper,
+  the hooded snake and the echis. Lizards of many kinds are found,
+  including the monitor. There are many varieties of beetle, including a
+  number of species representing the scarabaeus of the ancients. Locusts
+  are comparatively rare. The scorpion, whose sting is sometimes fatal,
+  is common. There are many large and poisonous spiders and flies; fleas
+  and mosquitoes abound. Fish are plentiful in the Nile, both scaled and
+  without scales. The scaly fish include members of the carp and perch
+  kind. The _bayad_, a scaleless fish commonly eaten, reaches sometimes
+  3½ ft. in length. A somewhat rare fish is the _Polypterus_, which has
+  thick bony scales and 16 to 18 long dorsal fins. The _Tetrodon_, or
+  ball fish, is found in the Red Sea, as well as in the Nile.
+
+  Some 300 species of birds are found in Egypt, and one of the most
+  striking features of a journey up the Nile is the abundance of bird
+  life. Many of the species are sedentary, others are winter visitants,
+  while others again simply pass through Egypt on their way to or from
+  warmer or colder regions. Birds of prey are very numerous, including
+  several varieties of eagles--the osprey, the spotted, the golden and
+  the imperial. Of vultures the black and white Egyptian variety
+  (_Neophron percnopterus_) is most common. The griffon and the black
+  vulture are also frequently seen. There are many kinds of kites,
+  falcons and hawks, kestrel being numerous. The long-legged buzzard is
+  found throughout Egypt, as are owls. The so-called Egyptian eagle owl
+  (_Bubo ascalaphus_) is rather rare, but the barn owl is common. The
+  kingfisher is found beside every watercourse, a black and white
+  species (_Ceryle rudis_) being much more numerous than the common
+  kingfisher. Pigeons and hoopoes abound in every village. There are
+  various kinds of plovers--the black-headed species (_Pluvianus
+  Aegyptius_) is most numerous in Upper Egypt; the golden plover and the
+  white-tailed species are found chiefly in the Delta. The spurwing is
+  supposed to be the bird mentioned by Herodotus as eating the parasites
+  covering the inside of the mouth of the crocodile. Of game-birds the
+  most plentiful are sandgrouse, quail (a bird of passage) and snipe.
+  Red-legged and other partridges are found in the eastern desert and
+  the Sinai hills. Of aquatic birds there is a great variety. Three
+  species of pelican exist, including the large Dalmatian pelican.
+  Storks, cranes, herons and spoonbills are common. The sacred ibis is
+  not found in Egypt, but the buff-backed heron, the constant companion
+  of the buffalo, is usually called an ibis. The glossy ibis is
+  occasionally seen. The flamingo, common in the lakes of Lower Egypt,
+  is not found on the Nile. Geese, duck and teal are abundant. The most
+  common goose is the white-fronted variety; the Egyptian goose is more
+  rare. Both varieties are depicted on the ancient monuments; the
+  white-fronted goose being commonly shown. Several birds of gorgeous
+  plumage come north into Egypt in the spring, among others the golden
+  oriole, the sun-bird, the roller and the blue-cheeked bee-eater.
+
+  _Egypt as a Health Resort._--The country is largely resorted to during
+  the winter months by Europeans in search of health as well as
+  pleasure. Upper Egypt is healthier than Lower Egypt, where, especially
+  near the coast, malarial fevers and diseases of the respiratory organs
+  are not uncommon. The least healthy time of the year is the latter
+  part of autumn, when the inundated soil is drying. In the desert, at a
+  very short distance from the cultivable land, the climate is uniformly
+  dry and unvaryingly healthy. The most suitable places for the
+  residence of invalids are Helwan, where there are natural mineral
+  springs, in the desert, 14 m. S. of Cairo, and Luxor and Assuan in
+  Upper Egypt.
+
+  The diseases from which Egyptians suffer are very largely the result
+  of insanitary surroundings. In this respect a great improvement has
+  taken place since the British occupation in 1882. Plague, formerly one
+  of the great scourges of the country, seems to have been stamped out,
+  the last visitation having been in 1844, but cholera epidemics
+  occasionally occur.[2] Cholera rarely extends south of Cairo. In 1848
+  it is believed that over 200,000 persons died from cholera, but later
+  epidemics have been much less fatal. Smallpox is not uncommon, and
+  skin diseases are numerous, but the two most prevalent diseases among
+  the Egyptians are dysentery and ophthalmia. The objection entertained
+  by many natives to entering hospitals or to altering their traditional
+  methods of "cure" renders these diseases much more malignant and fatal
+  than they would be in other circumstances. The government, however,
+  enforces certain health regulations, and the sanitary service is under
+  the direction of a European official.
+
+_Chief Towns._--Cairo (q.v.) the capital, a city of Arab foundation, is
+built on the east bank of the Nile, about 12 m, above the point where
+the river divides, and in reference to its situation at the head of the
+Delta has been called by the Arabs "the diamond stud in the handle of
+the fan of Egypt." It has a population (1907) of 654,476 and is the
+largest city in Africa. Next in importance of the cities of Egypt and
+the chief seaport is Alexandria (q.v.), pop. (with Ramleh) 370,009, on
+the shore of the Mediterranean at the western end of the Delta. Port
+Said (q.v.), pop. 49,884, at the eastern end of the Delta, and at the
+north entrance to the Suez Canal, is the second seaport. Between
+Alexandria and Port Said are the towns of Rosetta (q.v.), pop. 16,810,
+and Damietta (q.v.), pop. 29,354, each built a few miles above the mouth
+of the branch of the Nile of the same name. In the middle ages, when
+Alexandria was in decay, these two towns were busy ports; with the
+revival of Alexandria under Mehemet Ali and the foundation of Port Said
+(c. 1860), their trade declined. The other ports of Egypt are Suez
+(q.v.), pop. 18,347, at the south entrance of the canal, Kosseir (794)
+on the Red Sea, the seat of the trade carried on between Upper Egypt and
+Arabia, Mersa Matruh, near the Tripolitan frontier, and El-Arish, pop.
+5897, on the Mediterranean, near the frontier of Palestine, and a
+halting-place on the caravan route from Egypt to Syria. In the interior
+of the Delta are many flourishing towns, the largest being Tanta, pop.
+54,437, which occupies a central position. Damanhur (38,752) lies on the
+railway between Tanta and Alexandria; Mansura (40,279) is on the
+Damietta branch of the Nile, to the N.E. of Tanta; Zagazig (34,999) is
+the largest town in the Delta east of the Damietta branch; Bilbeis
+(13,485) lies N.N.E. of Cairo, on the edge of the desert and in the
+ancient Land of Goshen. Ismailia (10,373) is situated midway on the Suez
+Canal. All these towns, which depend largely on the cotton industry, are
+separately noticed.
+
+Other towns in Lower Egypt are: Mehallet el-Kubra, pop. 47,955, 16 m. by
+rail N.E. of Tanta, with manufactories of silk and cottons; Salihia
+(6100), E.N.E. of and terminus of a railway from Zagazig, on the edge of
+the desert south of Lake Menzala, and the starting-point of the caravans
+to Syria; Mataria (15,142) on Lake Menzala and headquarters of the
+fishing industry; Zifta (15,850) on the Damietta branch and the site of
+a barrage; Samanud (14,408), also on the Damietta branch, noted for its
+pottery, and Fua (14,515), where large quantities of tarbushes are made,
+on the Rosetta branch. Shibin el-Kom (21,576), 16 m. S. of Tanta, is a
+cotton centre, and Menuf (22,316), 8 m. S.W. of Shibin, in the fork
+between the branches of the Nile, is the chief town of a rich
+agricultural district. There are many other towns in the Delta with
+populations between 10,000 and 20,000.
+
+In Upper Egypt the chief towns are nearly all in the narrow valley of
+the Nile. The exceptions are the towns in the oases comparatively
+unimportant, and those in the Fayum province. The capital of the Fayum,
+Medinet el-Fayum, has a population (1907) of 37,320. The chief towns on
+the Nile, taking them in their order in ascending the river from Cairo,
+are Beni Suef, Minia, Assiut, Akhmim, Suhag, Girga, Kena, Luxor, Esna,
+Edfu, Assuan and Korosko. Beni Suef (23,357) is 77 m. from Cairo by
+rail. It is on the west bank of the river, is the capital of a _mudiria_
+and a centre for the manufacture of woollen goods. Minia (27,221) is 77
+m. by rail farther south. It is also the capital of a mudiria, has a
+considerable European colony, possesses a large sugar factory and some
+cotton mills. It is the starting-point of a road to the Baharia oasis.
+Assiut (q.v.), pop. 39,442, is 235 m. S. of Cairo by rail, and is the
+most important commercial centre in Upper Egypt. At this point a barrage
+is built across the river. Suhag (17,514) is 56 m. by rail S. of Assiut
+and is the headquarters of Girga mudiria. The ancient and celebrated
+Coptic monasteries El Abiad (the white) and El Ahmar (the red) are 3 to
+4 m. W. and N.W. respectively of Suhag. A few miles above Suhag, on the
+opposite (east) side of the Nile is Akhmim (q.v.) or Ekhmim (23,795),
+where silk and cotton goods are made. Girga (q.v.), pop. 19,893, is 22
+m. S. by rail of Suhag, and on the same (the west) side of the river. It
+is noted for its pottery. Kena (q.v.), pop. 20,069, is on the east bank
+of the Nile, 145 m. by rail from Assiut. It is the chief seat of the
+manufacture of the porous earthenware water-bottles used all over Egypt.
+Luxor (q.v.), pop. (with Karnak) 25,229, marks the site of Thebes. It is
+418 m. from Cairo, and here the gauge of the railway is altered from
+broad to narrow. Esna (q.v.), pop. 19,103, is another place where
+pottery is made in large quantities. It is on the west bank of the Nile,
+36 m. by rail S. of Luxor. Edfu (q.v.), pop. 19,262, is also on the west
+side of the river, 30 m. farther south. It is chiefly famous for its
+ancient temple. Assuan (q.v.), pop. 12,618, is at the foot of the First
+Cataract and 551 m. S. of Cairo by rail. Three miles farther south, at
+Shellal, the Egyptian railway terminates. Korosko, 118 m. by river above
+Assuan, is a small place notable as the northern terminus of the caravan
+route from the Sudan across the Nubian desert. Since the building of the
+railway--which starts 96 m. higher up, at Wadi Halfa--to Khartum, this
+route is little used, and Korosko has lost what importance it had.
+
+_Ancient Cities and Monuments._--Many of the modern cities of Egypt are
+built on the sites of ancient cities, and they generally contain some
+monuments of the time of the Pharaohs, Greeks or Romans. The sites of
+other ancient cities now in complete ruin may be indicated. Memphis, the
+Pharaonic capital, was on the west bank of the Nile, some 14 m. above
+Cairo, and Heliopolis lay some 5 m. N.N.E. of Cairo. The pyramids of
+Giza or Gizeh, on the edge of the desert, 8 m. west of Cairo, are the
+largest of the many pyramids and other monuments, including the famous
+Sphinx, built in the neighbourhood of Memphis. The site of Thebes has
+already been indicated. Syene stood near to where the town of Assuan now
+is; opposite, on an island in the Nile, are scanty ruins of the city of
+Elephantine, and a little above, on another island, is the temple of
+Philae. The ancient Coptos (Keft) is represented by the village of Kuft,
+between Luxor and Kena. A few miles north of Kena is Dendera, with a
+famous temple. The ruins of Abydos, one of the oldest places in Egypt,
+are 8 m. S.W. of Balliana, a small town in Girga mudiria. The ruined
+temples of Abu Simbel are on the west side of the Nile, 56 m. above
+Korosko. On the Red Sea, south of Kosseir, are the ruins of Myos Hormos
+and Berenice. Of the ancient cities in the Delta there are remains,
+among others, of Sais, Iseum, Tanis, Bubastis, Onion, Sebennytus,
+Pithom, Pelusium, and of the Greek cities Naucratis and Daphnae. There
+are, besides the more ancient cities and monuments, a number of Coptic
+towns, monasteries and churches in almost every part of Egypt, dating
+from the early centuries of Christianity. The monasteries, or _ders_,
+are generally fort-like buildings and are often built in the desert.
+Tombs of Mahommedan saints are also numerous, and are often placed on
+the summit of the cliffs overlooking the Nile. The traveller in Egypt
+thus views, side by side with the activities of the present day, where
+occident and orient meet and clash, memorials of every race and
+civilization which has flourished in the valley of the Nile.
+
+_Trade Routes and Communications._--Its geographical position gives
+Egypt command of one of the most important trade routes in the world. It
+is, as it were, the fort which commands the way from Europe to the East.
+This has been the case from time immemorial, and the provision, in 1869,
+of direct maritime communication between the Mediterranean and the Red
+Sea, by the completion of the Suez Canal, ensured for the Egyptian route
+the supremacy in sea-borne traffic to Asia, which the discovery of the
+passage to India by way of the Cape of Good Hope had menaced for three
+and a half centuries. The Suez Canal is 87 m. long, 66 actual canal and
+21 lakes. It has sufficient depth to allow vessels drawing 27 ft. of
+water to pass through. It is administered by a company whose
+headquarters are in Paris, and no part of its revenue reaches the
+Egyptian exchequer (see SUEZ CANAL). Besides the many steamship lines
+which use the Suez Canal, other steamers run direct from European ports
+to Alexandria. There is also a direct mail service between Suez and Port
+Sudan.
+
+  The chief means of internal communication are, in the Delta the
+  railways, in Upper Egypt the railway and the river. The railways are
+  of two kinds: (1) those state-owned and state-worked, (2) agricultural
+  light railways owned and worked by private companies. Railway
+  construction dates from 1852, when the line from Alexandria to Cairo
+  was begun, by order of Abbas I. The state railways, unless otherwise
+  indicated, have a gauge of 4 ft. 8½ in. The main system is extremely
+  simple. Trunk lines from Alexandria (via Damanhur and Tanta) and from
+  Port Said (via Ismailia) traverse the Delta and join at Cairo. From
+  Cairo the railway is continued south up the valley of the Nile and
+  close to the river. At first it follows the west bank, crossing the
+  stream at Nag Hamadi, 354 m. from Cairo, by an iron bridge 437 yds.
+  long. Thence it continues on the east bank to Luxor, where the broad
+  gauge ceases. From Luxor the line continues on the standard African
+  gauge (3 ft. 6 in.) to Shellal, 3 m. above Assuan and 685 m. from
+  Alexandria. This main line service is supplemented by a steamer
+  service on the Nile from Shellal to Wadi Halfa, on the northern
+  frontier of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, whence there is direct railway
+  communication with Khartum and the Red Sea (see SUDAN).
+
+  Branch lines connect Cairo and Alexandria with Suez and with almost
+  every town in the Delta. From Cairo to Suez via Ismailia is a distance
+  of 160 m. Before the Suez Canal was opened passengers and goods were
+  taken to Suez from Cairo by a railway 84 m. long which ran across the
+  desert. This line, now disused, had itself superseded the "overland
+  route" organized by Lieut. Thomas Waghorn, R.N., c. 1830, for the
+  conveyance of passengers and mails to India. In Upper Egypt a line, 40
+  m. long, runs west from Wasta, a station 56 m. S. of Cairo, to Abuksa
+  in the Fayum mudiria. Another railway goes from Kharga Junction, a
+  station on the main line 24 m. S. of Girga, to the oasis of Kharga.
+  These lines are privately owned.
+
+  In the Delta the light railways supplement the ordinary lines and
+  connect the villages with the towns and seaports. There are over 700
+  m. of these lines. The railway development of Egypt has not been very
+  rapid. In 1880 944 m. of state lines were open; in 1900 the figure was
+  1393, and in 1905, 1688. For several years before 1904 the
+  administration of the railways was carried on by an international or
+  mixed board for the security of foreign creditors. In the year named
+  the railways came directly under the control of the Egyptian
+  government, which during the next four years spent £E.3,000,000 on
+  improving and developing the lines. In the five years 1902-1906 the
+  capital value of the state railways increased from £E.20,383,000 to
+  £E.23,200,000 and the net earnings from £E.1,059,000 to £E. 1,475,000.
+  The number of passengers carried in the same period rose from 12½ to
+  over 22 millions, and the weight of goods from slightly under
+  3,000,000 to nearly 6,750,000 tons. In 1906 the light railways carried
+  nearly a million tons of goods and over 6,800,000 passengers.
+
+  Westward from Alexandria a railway, begun in 1904 by the khedive,
+  Abbas II., runs parallel with the coast, and is intended to be
+  continued to Tripoli. The line forms the eastern end of the great
+  railway system which will eventually extend from Tangier to
+  Alexandria.
+
+  The Nile is navigable throughout its course in Egypt, and is largely
+  used as a means of cheap transit of heavy goods. Lock and bridge tolls
+  were abolished in 1899 and 1901 respectively. As a result, river
+  traffic greatly increased. Above Cairo the Nile is the favourite
+  tourist route, while between Shellal (Assuan) and the Sudan frontier
+  it is the only means of communication. Among the craft using the river
+  the dahabiya is a characteristic native sailing vessel, somewhat
+  resembling a house-boat. From the Nile, caravan routes lead westward
+  to the various oases and eastward to the Red Sea, the shortest (120
+  m.) and most used of the eastern routes being that from Kena to
+  Kosseir. Roads suitable for wheeled vehicles are found in Lower Egypt,
+  but the majority of the tracks are bridle-paths, goods being conveyed
+  on the backs of donkeys, mules and camels.
+
+  _Posts and Telegraphs._--The Egyptian postal system is highly
+  organized and efficient, and in striking contrast with its condition
+  in 1870, when there were but nineteen post-offices in the country. All
+  the branches of business transacted in European post-offices are
+  carried on by the Egyptian service, Egypt being a member of the Postal
+  Union. It was the first foreign country to establish a penny postage
+  with Great Britain, the reduction from 2½d. being made in 1905. The
+  inland letters and packages carried yearly exceed 20,000,000 and
+  foreign letters (30% to England) number over 4,000,000. Over
+  £17,000,000 passes yearly through the post. A feature of the service
+  are the travelling post-offices, of which there are some 200.
+
+  All the important towns are connected by telegraph, the telegraphs
+  being state-owned and worked by the railway administration. Egypt is
+  also connected by cables and land-lines with the outside world. One
+  land-line connects at El-Arish with the line through Syria and Asia
+  Minor to Constantinople. Another line connects at Wadi Halfa with the
+  Sudan system, affording direct telegraphic communication via Khartum
+  and Gondokoro with Uganda and Mombasa. The Eastern Telegraph Company,
+  by concessions, have telegraph lines across Egypt from Alexandria via
+  Cairo to Suez, and from Port Said to Suez, connecting their cables to
+  Europe and the East. The principal cables are from Alexandria to
+  Malta, Gibraltar and England; from Alexandria to Crete and Brindisi;
+  from Suez to Aden, Bombay, China and Australia.
+
+  The telephone is largely used in the big towns, and there is a trunk
+  telephone line connecting Alexandria and Cairo.
+
+  _Standard Time._--The standard time adopted in Egypt is that of the
+  longitude of Alexandria, 30° E., i.e. two hours earlier than Greenwich
+  time. It thus corresponds with the standard time of British South
+  Africa.
+
+_Agriculture and Land Tenure._--The chief industry of Egypt is
+agriculture. The proportions of the industry depend upon the area of
+land capable of cultivation. This again depends upon the fertilizing
+sediment brought down by the Nile and the measure in which lands beyond
+the natural reach of the flood water can be rendered productive by
+irrigation. By means of canals, "basins," dams and barrages, the Nile
+flood is now utilized to a greater extent than ever before (see
+IRRIGATION: _Egypt_). The result has been a great increase in the area
+of cultivated or cultivable land.
+
+At the time of the French occupation of Egypt in 1798, it was found that
+the cultivable soil covered 4,429,400 acres, but the quantity actually
+under cultivation did not exceed 3,520,000 acres, or six-elevenths of
+the entire surface. Under improved conditions the area of cultivated
+land, or land in process of reclamation, had risen in 1906 to 5,750,000
+acres, while another 500,000 acres of waste land awaited reclamation.
+
+Throughout Egypt the cultivable soil does not present any very great
+difference, being always the deposit of the river; it contains, however,
+more sand near the river than at a distance from it. Towards the
+Mediterranean its quality is injured by the salt with which the air is
+impregnated, and therefore it is not so favourable to vegetation. Of the
+cultivated land, some three-fourths is held, theoretically, in life
+tenancy. The state, as ultimate proprietor, imposes a tax which is the
+equivalent of rent. These lands are _Kharaji_ lands, in distinction from
+the _Ushuri_ or tithe-paying lands. The _Ushuri_ lands were originally
+granted in fee, and are subject to a quit-rent. All tenants are under
+obligation to guard or repair the banks of the Nile in times of flood,
+or in any case of sudden emergency. Only to this extent does the
+_corvée_ now prevail. The land-tax is proportionate, i.e. land under
+perennial irrigation pays higher taxes than land not so irrigated (see
+below, _Finance_). The unit of land is the _feddan_, which equals 1.03
+acre. Out of 1,153,759 proprietors of land in 1905, 1,005,705 owned less
+than 5 _feddans_. The number of proprietors owning over 50 _feddans_ was
+12,475. The acreage held by the first class was 1,264,084, that by the
+second class, 2,356,602. Over 1,600,000 _feddans_ were held in holdings
+of from 5 to 50 _feddans_. The state domains cover over 240,000
+_feddans_, and about 600,000 _feddans_ are owned by foreigners. The
+policy of the government is to maintain the small proprietors, and to do
+nothing tending to oust the native in favour of European landowners.
+
+The kind of crops cultivated depends largely on whether the land is
+under perennial, flood or "basin" irrigation. Perennial irrigation is
+possible where there are canals which can be supplied with water all the
+year round from the Nile. This condition exists throughout the Delta and
+Middle Egypt, but only in parts of Upper Egypt. Altogether some
+4,000,000 acres are under perennial irrigation. In these regions two and
+sometimes three crops can be harvested yearly. In places where perennial
+irrigation is impossible, the land is divided by rectangular dikes into
+"basins." Into these basins--which vary in area from 600 to 50,000
+acres--water is led by shallow canals when the Nile is in flood. The
+water is let in about the middle of August and the basins are begun to
+be emptied about the 1st of October. The land under basin irrigation
+covers about 1,750,000 acres. In the basins only one crop can be grown
+in the year. This basin system is of immemorial use in Egypt, and it was
+not until the time of Mehemet Ali (c. 1820) that perennial irrigation
+began. High land near the banks of the Nile which cannot be reached by
+canals is irrigated by raising water from the Nile by steam-pumps,
+water-wheels (_sakias_) worked by buffaloes, or water-lifts (_shadufs_)
+worked by hand. There are several thousand steam-pumps and over 100,000
+_sakias_ or _shadufs_ in Egypt. The _fellah_ divides his land into
+little square plots by ridges of earth, and from the small canal which
+serves his holding he lets the water into each plot as needed. The same
+system obtains on large estates (see further IRRIGATION: _Egypt_).
+There are three agricultural seasons: (1) summer (_sefi_), 1st of April
+to 31st of July, when crops are grown only on land under perennial
+irrigation; (2) flood (_Nili_), 1st of August to 30th of November; and
+(3) winter (_shetwi_), 1st of December to 31st of March. Cotton, sugar
+and rice are the chief summer crops; wheat, barley, flax and vegetables
+are chiefly winter crops; maize, millet and "flood" rice are _Nili_
+crops; millet and vegetables are also, but in a less degree, summer
+crops. The approximate areas under cultivation in the various seasons
+are, in summer, 2,050,000 acres; in flood, 1,500,000 acres; in winter,
+4,300,000 acres. The double-cropped area is over 2,000,000 acres.
+Although on the large farms iron ploughs, and threshing and
+grain-cleaning machines, have been introduced, the small cultivator
+prefers the simple native plough made of wood. Corn is threshed by a
+_norag_, a machine resembling a chair, which moves on small iron wheels
+or thin circular plates fixed to axle-trees, and is drawn in a circle by
+oxen.
+
+  _Crops._--Egypt is third among the cotton-producing countries of the
+  world. Its production per acre is the greatest of any country but,
+  owing to the restricted area available, the bulk raised is not more
+  than one-tenth of that of the United States and about half that of
+  India. Some 1,600,000 acres of land, five-sixths being in Lower Egypt,
+  are devoted to cotton growing. The climate of Lower Egypt being very
+  suitable to the growth of the plant, the cotton produced there is of
+  excellent quality. The seed is sown at the end of February or
+  beginning of March and the crop is picked in September and October.
+  The cotton crop increased from 1,700,000 _kantars_[3] in 1878 to
+  4,100,000 in 1890, had reached 5,434,000 in 1900, and was 6,750,000 in
+  1905. Its average value, 1897-1905, was over £14,000,000 a year. The
+  cotton exported was valued in 1907 at £E.23,598,000, in 1908 at
+  £E.17,091,612.
+
+  While cotton is grown chiefly in the Delta, the sugar plantations,
+  which cover about 100,000 acres, are mainly in Upper Egypt. The canes
+  are planted in March and are cut in the following January or February.
+  Although since 1884 the production of sugar has largely increased,
+  there has not been a corresponding increase in its value, owing to the
+  low price obtained in the markets of the world. Beetroot is also grown
+  to a limited extent for the manufacture of sugar. The sugar exported
+  varied in annual value in the period 1884-1905 from £400,000 to
+  £765,000.
+
+  A coarse and strong tobacco was formerly extensively grown, but its
+  cultivation was prohibited in 1890. Flax and hemp are grown in a few
+  places.
+
+  Maize in Lower Egypt and millet (of which there are several varieties)
+  in Upper Egypt are largely grown for home consumption, these grains
+  forming a staple food of the peasantry. The stalk of the maize is also
+  a very useful article. It is used in the building of the houses of the
+  fellahin, as fuel, and, when green, as food for cattle. Wheat and
+  barley are important crops, and some 2,000,000 acres are sown with
+  them yearly. The barley in general is not of good quality, but the
+  desert or "Mariut" barley, grown by the Bedouins in the coast region
+  west of Alexandria, is highly prized for the making of beer. Beans and
+  lentils are extensively sown, and form an important article of export.
+  The annual value of the crops is over £3,000,000. Rice is largely
+  grown in the northern part of the Delta, where the soil is very wet.
+  Two kinds are cultivated: _Sultani_, a summer crop, and _Sabaini_, a
+  flood crop. _Sabaini_ is a favourite food of the fellahin, while
+  _Sultani_ rice is largely exported. In the absence of grass, the chief
+  green food for cattle and horses is clover, grown largely in the basin
+  lands of Upper Egypt. To a less extent vetches are grown for the same
+  purpose.
+
+  _Vegetables and Fruit._--Vegetables grow readily, and their
+  cultivation is an important part of the work of the fellahin. The
+  onion is grown in great quantities along the Nile banks in Upper
+  Egypt, largely for export. Among other vegetables commonly raised are
+  tomatoes (the bulk of which are exported), potatoes (of poor quality),
+  leeks, marrows, cucumbers, cauliflowers, lettuce, asparagus and
+  spinach.
+
+  The common fruits are the date, orange, citron, fig, grape, apricot,
+  peach and banana. Olives, melons, mulberries and strawberries are also
+  grown, though not in very large numbers. The olive tree flourishes
+  only in the Fayum and the oases. The Fayum also possesses extensive
+  vineyards. The date is a valuable economic asset. There are some
+  6,000,000 date-palms in the country, 4,000,000 being in Upper Egypt.
+  The fruit is one of the chief foods of the people. The value of the
+  crop is about £1,500,000 a year.
+
+  _Roses and Dyes._--There are fields of roses in the Fayum, which
+  supply the market with rose-water. Of plants used for dyeing, the
+  principal are bastard saffron, madder, woad and the indigo plant. The
+  leaves of the henna plant are used to impart a bright red colour to
+  the palms of the hands, the soles of the feet, and the nails of both
+  hands and feet, of women and children, the hair of old ladies and the
+  tails of horses. Indigo is very extensively employed to dye the
+  shirts of the natives of the poorer classes; and is, when very dark,
+  the colour of mourning; therefore, women at funerals, and generally
+  after a death, smear themselves with it.
+
+  _Domestic Animals._--The Egyptians are not particularly a pastoral
+  people, though the wealth of the Bedouin in the Eastern or Arabian
+  Desert consists in their camels, horses, sheep and goats. In the Nile
+  valley the chief domestic animals are the camel, donkey, mule, ox,
+  buffalo, sheep and goat. Horses are comparatively few, and are seldom
+  seen outside the large towns, the camel and donkey being the principal
+  beasts of burden. The cattle are short-horned, rather small and well
+  formed. They are quiet in disposition, and much valued for
+  agricultural labour by the people, who therefore very rarely slaughter
+  them for meat. Buffaloes of an uncouth appearance and of a dark slaty
+  colour, strikingly contrasting with the neat cattle, abound in Egypt.
+  They are very docile, and the little children of the villagers often
+  ride them to or from the river. The buffaloes are largely employed for
+  turning the _sakias_. Sheep (of which the greater number are black)
+  and goats are abundant, and mutton is the ordinary butcher's meat. The
+  wool is coarse and short. Swine are very rarely kept, and then almost
+  wholly for the European inhabitants, the Copts generally abstaining
+  from eating their meat. Poultry is plentiful and eggs form a
+  considerable item in the exports. Pigeons are kept in every village
+  and their flesh is a common article of food.
+
+  _Fishing._--The chief fishing-ground is Lake Menzala, where some 4000
+  persons are engaged in the industry, but fish abound in the Nile also,
+  and are caught in large quantities along the coast of the Delta. The
+  salting and curing of the fish is done chiefly at Mataria, on Lake
+  Menzala, and at Damietta. Dried and salted fish eggs, called
+  _batarekh_, command a ready market. The average annual value of the
+  fisheries is about £200,000.
+
+  _Canals._--The irrigation canals, which are also navigable by small
+  craft, are of especial importance in a country where the rainfall is
+  very slight. The Delta is intersected by numerous canals which derive
+  their supply from four main channels. The Rayya Behera, known in its
+  lower courses first as the Khatatba and afterwards as the Rosetta
+  canal, follows the west bank of the Rosetta branch of the Nile and has
+  numerous offshoots. The most important is the Mahmudia (50 m. long),
+  which connects Alexandria with the Rosetta branch, taking a similar
+  direction to that of the ancient canal which it succeeded. This canal
+  supplies Alexandria with fresh water.
+
+  The Rayya Menufia, or Menuf canal, connects the two branches of the
+  Nile and supplies water to the large number of canals in the central
+  part of the Delta. Following the right (eastern) bank of the Damietta
+  branch is the Rayya Tewfiki, known below Benha as the Mansuria, and
+  below Mansura as the Fareskur, canal. This canal has many branches.
+  Farther east are other canals, of which the most remarkable occupy in
+  part the beds of the Tanitic and Pelusiac branches. That following the
+  old Tanitic channel is called the canal of Al-Mo'izz, the first
+  Fatimite caliph who ruled in Egypt, having been dug by his orders, and
+  the latter bears the name of the canal of Abu-l-Muneggi, a Jew who
+  executed this work, under the caliph Al-Amir, in order to water the
+  province called the Sharkia. From this circumstance this canal is also
+  known as the Sharkawia. From a town on its bank it is called in its
+  lower course the Shibini canal. The superfluous water from all the
+  Delta canals is drained off by _bahrs_ (rivers) into the coast lakes.
+  The Ismailia or Fresh-water canal branches from the Nile at Cairo and
+  follows, in the main, the course of the canal which anciently joined
+  the Nile and the Red Sea. It dates from Pharaonic times, having been
+  begun by "Sesostris," continued by Necho II. and by Darius Hystaspes,
+  and at length finished by Ptolemy Philadelphus. This canal, having
+  fallen into disrepair, was restored in the 7th century A.D. by the
+  Arabs who conquered Egypt, but appears not long afterwards to have
+  again become unserviceable. The existing canal was dug in 1863 to
+  supply fresh water to the towns on the Suez Canal. Although designed
+  for irrigation purposes, the Delta canals are also used for the
+  transport of passengers and goods.
+
+  In Upper Egypt the most important canals are the Ibrahimia and the
+  Bahr Yusuf (the River of Joseph). They are both on the west side of
+  the Nile. The Ibrahimia takes its water from the Nile at Assiut, and
+  runs south to below Beni Suef. It now supplies the Bahr Yusuf, which
+  runs parallel with and west of the Ibrahimia, until it diverges to
+  supply the Fayum--a distance of some 350 m. It leaves the Ibrahimia at
+  Derut near its original point of departure from the Nile. Although the
+  Joseph whence it takes its name is the celebrated Saladin, it is
+  related that he merely repaired it, and it is not doubted to be of a
+  much earlier period. Most probably it was executed under the Pharaohs.
+  By some authorities it is believed to be a natural channel canalized.
+  Besides supplying the canals of the Fayum with summer water, it fills
+  many of the "basins" of Upper Egypt with water in flood time.
+
+_Manufactures and Native Industries._--Although essentially an
+agricultural country, Egypt possesses several manufactures. In connexion
+with the cotton industry there are a few mills where calico is made or
+oil crushed, and ginning-mills are numerous. In Upper Egypt there are a
+number of factories for sugar-crushing and refining, and one or two
+towns of the Delta possess rice mills. Flour mills are found in every
+part of the country, the maize and other grains being ground for home
+consumption. Soap-making and leather-tanning are carried on, and there
+are breweries at Alexandria and Cairo. The manufacture of tobacco into
+cigarettes, carried on largely at Alexandria and Cairo, is another
+important industry. Native industries include the weaving of silk,
+woollen, linen and cotton goods, the hand-woven silk shawls and
+draperies being often rich and elegant. The silk looms are chiefly at
+Mehallet el-Kubra, Cairo and Damietta. The Egyptians are noted for the
+making of pottery of the commoner kinds, especially water-jars. There is
+at Cairo and in other towns a considerable industry in ornamental wood
+and metal work, inlaying with ivory and pearl, brass trays, copper
+vessels, gold and silver ornaments, &c. At Cairo and in the Fayum, attar
+of roses and other perfumes are manufactured. Boat-building is an
+important trade.
+
+  _Commerce._--The trade of Egypt has developed enormously since the
+  British occupation in 1882 ensured to all classes of the community the
+  enjoyment of the profit of their labour. The total value of the
+  exterior trade increased in the 20 years 1882 to 1902 from £19,000,000
+  to £32,400,000. The wealth of Egypt lying in the cultivation of its
+  soil, almost all the exports are agricultural produce, while the
+  imports are mostly manufactured goods, minerals and hardware. The
+  chief exports in order of importance are: raw cotton, cotton seed,
+  sugar, beans, cigarettes, onions, rice and gum-arabic. The gum is not
+  of native produce, being in transit from the Sudan. Of less importance
+  are the exports of hides and skins, eggs, wheat and other grains,
+  wool, quails, lentils, dates and Sudan produce in transit. The
+  principal articles imported are: cotton goods and other textiles,
+  coal, iron and steel, timber, tobacco, machinery, flour, alcoholic
+  liquors, petroleum, fruits, coffee and live animals. There is an _ad
+  valorem_ duty of 8% on imports and of about 1% on exports. Tobacco and
+  precious stones and metals pay heavier duties. The tobacco is imported
+  chiefly from Turkey and Greece, is made into cigarettes in Egypt, and
+  in this form exported to the value of about £500,000 yearly.
+
+  In comparison with cotton, all other exports are of minor account. The
+  cotton exported, of which Great Britain takes more than half, is worth
+  over three-fourths of the total value of goods sent abroad. Next to
+  cotton, sugar is the most important article exported. A large
+  proportion of the sugar manufactured is, however, consumed in the
+  country and does not figure in the trade returns. Of the imports the
+  largest single item is cotton goods, nearly all being sent from
+  England. Woollen goods come chiefly from England, Austria and Germany,
+  silk goods from France. Large quantities of ready-made clothes and
+  fezes are imported from Austria. Iron and steel goods, machinery,
+  locomotives, &c., come chiefly from England, Belgium and Germany, coal
+  from England, live stock from Turkey and the Red Sea ports, coffee
+  from Brazil, timber from Russia, Turkey and Sweden.
+
+  A British consular report (No. 3121, annual series), issued in 1904,
+  shows that in the period 1887-1902 the import trade of Egypt nearly
+  doubled. In the same period the proportion of imports from the United
+  Kingdom fell from 39.63 to 36.76%. Though the percentage decreased,
+  the value of imports from Great Britain increased in the same period
+  from £2,500,000 to £4,500,000. In addition to imports from the United
+  Kingdom, British possessions took 6.0% of the import trade. Next to
+  Great Britain, Turkey had the largest share of the import trade, but
+  it had declined in the sixteen years from 19 to 15%. France about 10%,
+  and Austria 6.72%, came next, but their import trade was declining,
+  while that of Germany had risen from less than 1 to over 3%, and
+  Belgium imports from 1.74 to 4.27%.
+
+  In the same period (1887-1902) Egyptian exports to Great Britain
+  decreased from 63.25 to 52.30%, Germany and the United States showing
+  each an increase of over 6.0%. Exports to Germany had increased from
+  0.13 to 6.75%, to the United States from 0.26 to 6.70%. Exports to
+  France had remained practically stationary at 8.0%; those to Austria
+  had dropped from 6.3% to 4.0%, to Russia from 9.11 to 8.43%.
+
+  For the quinquennial period 1901-1905, the average annual value of the
+  exterior trade was:--imports £17,787,296; exports £18,811,588; total
+  £36,598,884. In 1907 the total value of the merchandise imported and
+  exported, exclusive of transit, re-exportation and specie, was
+  £E.54,134,000--constituting a record trade return. The value of the
+  imports was £E.26,121,000, of the exports £E.28,013,000.
+
+  _Shipping._--More than 90% of the external trade passes through the
+  port of Alexandria. Port Said, which in consequence of its position at
+  the northern entrance of the Suez Canal has more frequent and regular
+  communication with Europe, is increasing in importance and is the port
+  where mails and passengers are landed. Over 3000 ships enter and clear
+  harbour at Alexandria every year. The total tonnage entering the port
+  increased in the five years 1901-1905 from 2,555,259 to 3,591,281. In
+  the same period the percentage of British shipping, which before 1900
+  was nearly 50, varied from 40 to 45. No other nation had more than 12%
+  of the tonnage, Italy, France, Austria and Turkey each having 9 to
+  12%. The tonnage of German ships increased in the five years mentioned
+  from 3 to 7%. In number of steamships entering the harbour Great
+  Britain is first, with some 800 yearly, or about 50% of all steamers
+  entering. The sailing boats entering the harbour are almost entirely
+  Turkish. They are vessels of small tonnage.
+
+  The transit trade with the East, which formerly passed overland
+  through Egypt, has been diverted to the Suez Canal, the traffic
+  through which has little to do with the trade or shipping of Egypt.
+  The number of ships using the canal increased in the 20 years
+  1880-1900 from 2000 to 4000, while in the same period the tonnage rose
+  from 4,300,000 to 14,000,000. In 1905 the figures were:--Number of
+  ships that passed through the canal, 4116 (2484 being British and 600
+  German), net tonnage 13,134,105 (8,356,940 British and 2,113,484
+  German). Next to British and German the nationality of ships using the
+  canal in order of importance is French, Dutch, Austrian, Italian and
+  Russian. About 250,000 passengers (including some 40,000 pilgrims to
+  Mecca) pass through the canal in a year (see further SUEZ).
+
+  _Currency._--The monetary system in force dates from 1885, when
+  through the efforts of Sir Edgar Vincent the currency was placed on a
+  sound basis. The system is based on the single gold standard. The unit
+  is a gold coin called a pound and equal to £1, 0s. 6d. in English
+  currency. The Egyptian pound (£E.) is divided into 100 piastres, of
+  which there are coins in silver of 20, 10, 5 and 2 piastres. One, ½,
+  1/5 and 1/10 piastre pieces are coined in nickel and 1/20 and 1/40
+  piastre pieces in bronze. The one piastre piece is worth a fraction
+  over 2½d. The 1/40 of a piastre is popularly called a para and the
+  native population generally reckon in paras. The legal piastre is
+  called the piastre tariff (P.T.), to distinguish it from the ½
+  piastre, which in local usage in Cairo and Alexandria is called a
+  piastre. Officially the ½ piastre is known as 5 milliemes, and so with
+  the coins of lower denomination, the para being ¼ millieme. The old
+  terms _kis_ or "purse" (500 piastres) and _khazna_ or "treasury" (1000
+  purses) are still occasionally used. Formerly European coins of all
+  kinds were in general circulation, now the only foreign coins current
+  are the English sovereign, the French 20 franc piece and the Turkish
+  mejidie, a gold coin worth 18 shillings. For several years no Egyptian
+  gold pieces have been coined. Egyptian silver money is minted at
+  Birmingham, and nickel and bronze money at Vienna. Bank-notes, of the
+  National Bank, are issued for £E.100, £E.50, £E.10, £E.5 and £E.1, and
+  for 50 piastres. The notes are not legal tender, but are accepted by
+  the government in payment of taxes.
+
+  The history of the currency reform in Egypt is interesting as
+  affording a practical example of a system much discussed in connexion
+  with the currency question in India, namely, a gold standard without a
+  gold coinage. The Egyptian pound is practically nonexistent, nearly
+  all that were coined having been withdrawn from circulation. Their
+  place has been taken by foreign gold, principally the English
+  sovereign, which circulates at a value of 97½ piastres. In practice
+  the system works perfectly smoothly, the gold flowing in and out of
+  the country through the agency of private banking establishments in
+  proportion to the requirements of the circulation. It is, moreover,
+  very economical for the government. As in most agricultural countries,
+  there is a great expansion of the circulation in the autumn and winter
+  months in order to move the crops, followed by a long period of
+  contracted circulation throughout the rest of the year. Under the
+  existing system the fluctuating requirements of the currency are met
+  without the expense of alternately minting and melting down.
+
+  _Weights and Measures._--The metrical system of weights and measures
+  is in official but not in popular use, except in the foreign quarters
+  of Cairo, Alexandria, &c. The most common Egyptian measures are the
+  _fitr_, or space measured by the extension of the thumb and first
+  finger; the _shibr_, or span; and the cubit (of three kinds = 22-2/3,
+  25 and 26½ in.). The measure of land is the _feddan_, equal to 1.03
+  acres, subdivided into 24 _kirats_. The _ardeb_ is equal to about 5
+  bushels, and is divided into 6 _waybas_, and each _wayba_ into 24
+  _rubas_. The _okieh_ equals 1.32 oz., the _rotl_ .99 lb., the _oke_
+  2.75 lb., the _kantar_ (or 100 _rotls_ or 36 _okes_) 99.04 lb.
+
+_Constitution and Administration._--Egypt is a tributary state of the
+Turkish empire, and is ruled by an hereditary prince with the style of
+khedive, a Persian title regarded as the equivalent of king. The
+succession to the throne is by primogeniture. The central administration
+is carried on by a council of ministers, appointed by the khedive, one
+of whom acts as prime minister. To these is added a British financial
+adviser, who attends all meetings of the council of ministers, but has
+not a vote; on the other hand, no financial decision may be taken
+without his consent. The ministries are those of the interior, finance,
+public works, justice, war, foreign affairs and public instruction,[4]
+and in each of these are prepared the drafts of decrees, which are then
+submitted to the council of ministers for approval, and on being signed
+by the khedive become law. No important decision, however, has been
+taken since 1882 without the concurrence of the British minister
+plenipotentiary. With a few exceptions, laws cannot, owing to the
+Capitulations, be enforced against foreigners except with the consent of
+the powers.
+
+While the council of ministers with the khedive forms the legislative
+authority, there are various representative bodies with strictly limited
+powers. The legislative council is a consultative body, partly elective,
+partly nominative. It examines the budget and all proposed
+administrative laws, but cannot initiate legislation, nor is the
+government bound to adopt its suggestions. The general assembly consists
+of the legislative council and the ministers of state, together with
+popularly elected members, who form a majority of the whole assembly. It
+has no legislative functions, but no new direct personal tax nor land
+tax can be imposed without its consent. It must meet at least once in
+every two years.
+
+For purposes of local government the chief towns constitute
+governorships (_moafzas_), the rest of the country being divided into
+_mudirias_ or provinces. The governors and _mudirs_ (heads of provinces)
+are responsible to the ministry of the interior. The provinces are
+further divided into districts, each of which is under a _mamur_, who in
+his turn supervises and controls the _omda_, mayor or head-man, of each
+village in his district.
+
+The governorships are: Cairo; Alexandria, which includes an area of 70
+sq. m.; Suez Canal, including Port Said and Ismailia; Suez and El-Arish.
+Lower Egypt is divided into the provinces of: Behera, Gharbia, Menufia,
+Dakahlia, Kaliubia, Sharkia. The oasis of Siwa and the country to the
+Tripolitan frontier are dependent on the province of Behera. Upper
+Egypt: Giza, Beni Suef, Fayum, Minia, Assiut, Girga, Kena, Assuan. The
+peninsula of Sinai is administered by the war office.
+
+_Justice._--There are four judicial systems in Egypt: two applicable to
+Egyptian subjects only, one applicable to foreigners only, and one
+applicable to foreigners and, to a certain extent, natives also. This
+multiplicity of tribunals arises from the fact that, owing to the
+Capitulations, which apply to Egypt as part of the Turkish empire,
+foreigners are almost entirely exempt from the jurisdiction of the
+native courts. It will be convenient to state first the law as regards
+foreigners, and secondly the law which concerns Egyptians. Criminal
+jurisdiction over foreigners is exercised by the consuls of the fifteen
+powers possessing such right by treaty, according to the law of the
+country of the offender. These consular courts also judge civil cases
+between foreigners of the same nationality.
+
+Jurisdiction in civil matters between natives and foreigners and between
+foreigners of different nationalities is no longer exercised by the
+consular courts. The grave abuse to which the consular system was
+subject led to the establishment, in February 1876, at the instance of
+Nubar Pasha and after eight years of negotiation, of International or
+"Mixed" Tribunals to supersede consular jurisdiction to the extent
+indicated. The Mixed Tribunals employ a code based on the _Code
+Napoléon_ with such additions from Mahommedan law as are applicable.
+There are three tribunals of first instance, and an appeal court at
+Alexandria. These courts have both foreign and Egyptian judges--the
+foreign judges forming the majority of the bench. In certain designated
+matters they enjoy criminal jurisdiction, including, since 1900,
+offences against the bankruptcy laws. Cases have to be conducted in
+Arabic, French, Italian and English, English having been admitted as a
+"judicial language" by khedivial decree of the 17th of April 1905.
+Besides their judicial duties, the courts practically exercise
+legislative functions, as no important law can be made applicable to
+Europeans without the consent of the powers, and the powers are mainly
+guided by the opinions of the judges of the Mixed Courts.
+
+The judicial systems applicable solely to Egyptians are supervised by
+the ministry of justice, to which has been attached since 1890 a British
+judicial adviser. Two systems of laws are administered:--(1) the
+_Mehkemehs_, (2) the Native Tribunals. The _mehkemehs_, or courts of the
+cadis, judge in all matters of personal status, such as marriage,
+inheritance and guardianship, and are guided in their decisions by the
+code of laws founded on the Koran. The grand cadi, who must belong to
+the sect of the _Hanifis_, sits at Cairo, and is aided by a council of
+_Ulema_ or learned men. This council consists of the sheikh or religious
+chief of each of the four orthodox sects, the sheikh of the mosque of
+Azhar, who is of the sect of the _Shafi'is_, the chief (_nakib_) of the
+_Sherifs_, or descendants of Mahomet, and others. The cadis are chosen
+from among the students at the Azhar university. (In the same manner, in
+matters of personal law, Copts and other non-Moslem Egyptians are, in
+general, subject to the jurisdiction of their own religious chiefs.)
+
+For other than the purposes indicated, the native judicial system, both
+civil and criminal, was superseded in 1884 by tribunals administering a
+jurisprudence modelled on that of the French code. It is, in the words
+of Lord Cromer, "in many respects ill adapted to meet the special needs
+of the country" (_Egypt_, No. 1, 1904, p. 33). The system was, on the
+advice of an Anglo-Indian official (Sir John Scott), modified and
+simplified in 1891, but its essential character remained unaltered. In
+1904, however, more important modifications were introduced. Save on
+points of law, the right of appeal in criminal cases was abolished, and
+assize courts, whose judgments were final, established. At the same time
+the penal code was thoroughly revised, so that the Egyptian judges were
+"for the first time provided with a sound working code" (Ibid. p. 49).
+The native courts have both native and foreign judges. There are courts
+of summary jurisdiction presided over by one judge, central tribunals
+(or courts of first instance) with three judges, and a court of appeal
+at Cairo. A committee of judicial surveillance watches the working of
+the courts of first instance and the summary courts, and endeavours, by
+letters and discussions, to maintain purity and sound law. There is a
+_procureur-général_, who, with other duties, is entrusted with criminal
+prosecutions. His representatives are attached to each tribunal, and
+form the _parquet_ under whose orders the police act in bringing
+criminals to justice. In the _markak_ (district) tribunals, created in
+1904 and presided over by magistrates with jurisdiction in cases of
+misdemeanour, the prosecution is, however, conducted directly by the
+police. Special Children's Courts have been established for the trial of
+juvenile offenders.
+
+The police service, which has been subject to frequent modification, was
+in 1895 put under the orders of the ministry of the interior, to which a
+British adviser and British inspectors are attached. The provincial
+police is under the direction of the local authorities, the _mudirs_ or
+governors of provinces, and the _mamurs_ or district officials; to the
+_omdas_, or village head-men, who are responsible for the good order of
+the villages, a limited criminal jurisdiction has been entrusted.
+
+_Religion._--The great majority of the inhabitants are Mahommedans. In
+1907 the Moslems numbered over ten millions, or 91.8% of the entire
+population. The Christians in the same year numbered 880,000, or 8% of
+the population. Of these the Coptic Orthodox church had some 667,000
+adherents. Among other churches represented were the Greek Orthodox, the
+Armenian, Syrian and Maronite, the Roman Catholic and various Protestant
+bodies. The last-named numbered 37,000 (including 24,000 Copts). There
+were in 1907 over 38,000 Jews in Egypt.
+
+The Mahommedans are Sunnites, professing the creed commonly termed
+"orthodox," and are principally of the persuasion of the _Shafi'is_,
+whose celebrated founder, the imam ash-Shafi'i, is buried in the great
+southern cemetery of Cairo. Many of them are, however, _Hanifis_ (to
+which persuasion the Turks chiefly belong), and in parts of Lower, and
+almost universally in Upper, Egypt, _Malikis_. Among the Moslems the
+_Sheikh-el-Islam_, appointed by the khedive from among the _Ulema_
+(learned class), exercises the highest religious and, in certain
+subjects, judicial authority. There is also a grand cadi, nominated by
+the sultan of Turkey from among the _Ulema_ of Stamboul. Valuable
+property is held by the Moslems in trust for the promotion of religion
+and for charitable purposes, and is known as the Wakfs administration.
+The revenue derived is over £250,000 yearly.
+
+The Coptic organization includes in Egypt three metropolitans and
+twelve bishops, under the headship of the patriarch of Alexandria. The
+minor orders are arch-priests, priests, archdeacons, deacons, readers
+and monks (see COPTS: _Coptic Church_).
+
+_Education._--Two different systems of education exist, one founded on
+native lines, the other European in character. Both systems are more or
+less fully controlled by the ministry of public instruction. The
+government has primary, secondary and technical schools, training
+colleges for teachers, and schools of agriculture, engineering, law,
+medicine and veterinary science. The government system, which dates back
+to a period before the British occupation, is designed to provide, in
+the main, a European education. In the primary schools Arabic is the
+medium of instruction, the use of English for that purpose being
+confined to lessons in that language itself. The school of law is
+divided into English and French sections according to the language in
+which the students study law. Besides the government primary and
+secondary schools, there are many other schools in the large towns owned
+by the Moslems, Copts, Hebrews, and by various missionary societies, and
+in which the education is on the same lines. A movement initiated among
+the leading Moslems led in 1908 to the establishment as a private
+enterprise of a national Egyptian university devoted to scientific,
+literary and philosophical studies. Political and religious subjects are
+excluded from the curriculum and no discrimination in regard to race or
+religion is allowed.
+
+  Education on native lines is given in _kuttabs_ and in the Azhar
+  university in Cairo. _Kuttabs_ are schools attached to mosques, found
+  in every village and in every quarter of the larger towns. In these
+  schools the instruction given before the British occupation was very
+  slight. All pupils were taught to recite portions of the Koran, and a
+  proportion of the scholars learnt to read and write Arabic and a
+  little simple arithmetic. Those pupils who succeeded in committing to
+  memory the whole of the Koran were regarded as _fiki_ (learned in
+  Mahommedan law), and as such escaped liability to military
+  conscription. The government has improved the education given in the
+  _kuttabs_, and numbers of them have been taken under the direct
+  control of the ministry of public instruction. In these latter schools
+  an excellent elementary secular education is given, in addition to the
+  instruction in the Koran, to which half the school hours are devoted.
+  The number of pupils in 1905 was over 12,000 boys and 2000 girls.
+  Grants-in-aid are given to other schools where a sufficiently good
+  standard of instruction is maintained. No grant is made to any
+  _kuttab_ where any language other than Arabic is taught. In all there
+  are over 10,000 kuttabs, attended by some 250,000 scholars. The number
+  of pupils in private schools under government inspection was in 1898,
+  the first year of the grant-in-aid system, 7536; in 1900, 12,315; in
+  1905, 145,691. The number of girls in attendance rose from 598 in 1898
+  to 997 in 1900 and 9611 in 1905. The Copts have about 1000 primary
+  schools, in which the teaching of Coptic is compulsory, a few
+  industrial schools, and one college for higher instruction.
+
+  Cairo holds a prominent place as a seat of Moslem learning, and its
+  university, the Azhar, is considered the first of the eastern world.
+  Its professors teach "grammatical inflexion and syntax, rhetoric,
+  versification, logic, theology, the exposition of the Koran, the
+  traditions of the Prophet, the complete science of jurisprudence, or
+  rather of religious, moral, civil and criminal law, which is chiefly
+  founded on the Koran and the traditions, together with arithmetic as
+  far as it is useful in matters of law. Lectures are also given on
+  algebra and on the calculations of the Mahommedan calendar, the times
+  of prayer, &c." (E. W. Lane, _Modern Egyptians_). The students come
+  from all parts of the Mahommedan world. They number about 8000, of
+  whom some 2000 are resident. The students pay no fees, and the
+  professors receive no salaries. The latter maintain themselves by
+  private teaching and by copying manuscripts, and the former in the
+  same manner, or by reciting the Koran. To meet the demand for better
+  qualified judges for the Moslem courts a training college for cadis
+  was established in 1907. Besides the subjects taught at the Azhar
+  university, instruction is given in literature, mathematics and
+  physical science. The necessity for a reorganization of the Azhar
+  system itself being also recognized by the high Moslem dignitaries in
+  Egypt, a law was passed in 1907 creating a superior board of control
+  under the presidency of the Sheikh el-Azhar to supervise the
+  proceedings of the university and other similar establishments. This
+  attempt to reform the Azhar met, however, with so much opposition that
+  in 1909 it was, for the time, abandoned.
+
+  In 1907, of the sedentary Egyptian population over seven years of age,
+  some 12% of the Moslems could read and write, female literacy having
+  increased 50% since 1897; of the foreign population over seven years
+  of age 75% could read and write. Of the Coptic community about 50% can
+  read and write.
+
+  _Literature and the Press._--Since the British occupation there has
+  been a marked renaissance of Arabic learning and literature in Egypt.
+  Societies formed for the encouragement of Arabic literature have
+  brought to light important texts bearing on Mahommedan history,
+  antiquities and religion. Numbers of magazines and reviews are
+  published in Arabic which cater both for the needs of the moment and
+  the advancement of learning. Side by side with these literary organs
+  there exists a vernacular press largely devoted to nationalist
+  propaganda. Prominent among these papers is _Al Lewa_ (_The
+  Standard_), founded in 1900. Other papers of a similar character are
+  _Al Omma_, _Al Moayad_ and _Al Gerida_. The _Mokattam_ represents the
+  views of the more enlightened and conservative section of the native
+  population. In Cairo and Alexandria there are also published several
+  newspapers in English and French.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--(a) General descriptions, geography, travel, &c.:
+  _Description de l'Égypte_, 10 folio vols. and atlas of 10 vols.
+  (Paris, 1809-1822), compiled by the scientific commission sent to
+  Egypt by Bonaparte; Clot Bey, _Aperçu général sur l'Égypte_, 2 vols.
+  (Paris, 1840); Boinet Bey, _Dictionnaire géographique de l'Égypte_
+  (Cairo, 1899); Murray's and Baedeker's handbooks and _Guide Joanne_;
+  G. Ebers, _Egypt, Descriptive, Historical and Picturesque_, translated
+  from the German edition of 1879 by Clara Bell, new edition, 2 vols.
+  (London, 1887); Sir Gardiner Wilkinson, _Modern Egypt and Thebes_ (2
+  vols., London, 1843); Lady Duff Gordon, _Letters from Egypt_, complete
+  edition (London, 1902), an invaluable account of social conditions in
+  the period 1862-1869; A. B. Edwards, _A Thousand Miles up the Nile_
+  (2nd edition, London, n.d. [1889]); _Pharaohs, Fellahs and Explorers_
+  (London, 1892); H. W. Mardon, _Geography of Egypt ..._ (London, 1902),
+  an excellent elementary text-book; D. G. Hogarth, _The Nearer East_
+  (London, 1902), contains brief but suggestive chapters on Egypt; S.
+  Lane Poole, _Egypt_ (London, 1881); A. B. de Guerville, _New Egypt_,
+  translated from the French (London, 1905); R. T. Kelly, _Egypt Painted
+  and Described_ (London, 1902). The best maps are those of the Survey
+  Department, Cairo, on the scale of 1:50000 (1.3 in. to the mile).
+
+  (b) Administration: Sir John Bowring's _Report on Egypt ..._ to Lord
+  Palmerston (London, 1840) shows the system obtaining at that period.
+  For the study of the state of Egypt at the time of the British
+  occupation, 1882, and the development of the country since, the most
+  valuable documents[5] are:
+
+  I. _Official._--The _Reports on the Finances, Administration and
+  Condition of Egypt_, issued yearly since 1892 (the reports 1888-1891
+  were exclusively financial). Up to 1906 the reports were by Lord
+  Cromer (Sir Evelyn Baring). They clearly picture the progress of the
+  country. The following reports are specially valuable as exhibiting
+  the difficulties which at the outset confronted the British
+  administrators:--_Correspondence respecting the Reorganization of
+  Egypt_ (1883); _Reports by Mr Villiers Stuart respecting
+  Reorganization of Egypt_ (1883 and 1895); _Despatch from Lord Dufferin
+  forwarding the Decree constituting the New Political Institutions of
+  Egypt_ (1883); _Reports on the State of Egypt and the Progress of
+  Administrative Reforms_ (1885); _Reports by Sir H. D. Wolff on the
+  Administration of Egypt_ (1887). Annual returns are published in Cairo
+  in English or French by the various ministries, and British consular
+  reports on the trade of Egypt and of Alexandria and of the tonnage and
+  shipping of the Suez Canal are also issued yearly.
+
+  II. _Non-official._--Lord Cromer, _Modern Egypt_ (2 vols., 1908), an
+  authoritative record; Alfred (Lord) Milner, _England in Egypt_, first
+  published in 1892, the story being brought up to 1904 in the 11th
+  edition; Sir A. Colvin, _The Making of Modern Egypt_ (1906); J. Ward,
+  _Pyramids and Progress_ (1900); A. S. White, _The Expansion of Egypt_
+  (1899); and F. W. Fuller, _Egypt and the Hinterland_ (1901). See also
+  the works cited in _History_, last section.
+
+  (c) Law: H. Lamba, _De l'évolution de la condition juridique des
+  Européens en Égypte_ (Paris, 1896); J. H. Scott, _The Law affecting
+  Foreigners in Egypt ..._ (Edinburgh, 1907); _The Egyptian Codes_
+  (London, 1892).
+
+  (d) Irrigation, agriculture, geology, &c.: _Despatch from Sir Evelyn
+  Baring enclosing Report on the Condition of the Agricultural
+  Population in Egypt_ (1888); _Notes on Egyptian Crops_ (Cairo, 1896);
+  Yacub Artin Bey, _La Propriété foncière en Égypte_ (Bulak, 1885);
+  _Report on Perennial Irrigation and Flood Protection for Egypt_, 1
+  vol. and atlas (Cairo, 1894). The reports (_Egypt_, No. 2, 1901, and
+  _Egypt_, No. 2, 1904), by Sir William Garstin on irrigation projects
+  on the Upper Nile are very valuable records--notably the 1904 report.
+  W. Willcocks, _Egyptian Irrigation_ (2nd ed., 1899); H. G. Lyons, _The
+  Physiography of the River Nile and its Basin_ (Cairo, 1906); Leigh
+  Canney, _The Meteorology of Egypt and its Influence on Disease_
+  (1897). Annual meteorological reports are issued by the Public Works
+  Department, Cairo. The same department issues special irrigation
+  reports. See for geology Carl von Zittel, _Beiträge zur Geologie und
+  Paläontologie der libyschen Wüste_ (Cassel, 1883); _Reports of the
+  Geological Survey of Egypt_ (Cairo, 1900, et seq.).
+
+  (e) Natural history, anthropology, &c.: F. Pruner, _Ägyptens
+  Naturgeschichte und Anthropologie_ (Erlangen, 1848); R. Hartmann,
+  _Naturgeschichtliche Skizze der Nilländer_ (Berlin, 1866); Captain G.
+  E. Shelley, _Birds of Egypt_ (London, 1872).     (F. R. C.)
+
+
+_Inhabitants._
+
+The population enumerated at the census taken in April 1907 was
+11,189,978. In these figures nomad Arabs or Bedouins, estimated to
+number 97,381, are not included. The total population was thus returned
+at 11,287,359, or some 16% more than in 1897 when the inhabitants
+numbered 9,734,405. The figures for 1897 compared with 6,813,919 in
+1882, an increase of 43.5% in fifteen years. Thus, during the first
+twenty-five years of the British occupation of the country the
+population increased by nearly 4,500,000. In 1800 the French estimated
+the population at no more than 2,460,000; the census of 1846 gave the
+figures at 4,476,440. From that year to 1882 the average annual increase
+was 1.25%. If the desert regions be excluded, the population of Egypt is
+extremely dense, being about 939 per sq. m. This figure may be compared
+with that of Belgium, the most densely populated country in Europe, 589
+per sq. m., and with that of Bengal, 586 per sq. m. In parts of Menufia,
+a Delta province, the density rises to 1352 per sq. m., and in the Kena
+province of Upper Egypt to 1308.
+
+The population is generally divisible into--
+
+  1. The fellahin or peasantry and the native townsmen.
+  2. The Bedouins or nomad Arabs of the desert.
+  3. The Nuba, Nubians or Berberin, inhabitants of the Nile valley
+       between Assuan and Dongola.
+  4. Foreigners.
+
+The first of these divisions includes both the Moslem and Coptic
+inhabitants. The Bedouins, or the Arabs of the desert, are of two
+different classes: first, Arabic-speaking tribes who range the deserts
+as far south as 26° N.; secondly, the tribes inhabiting the desert from
+Kosseir to Suakin, namely the Hadendoa, Bisharin and the Ababda tribes.
+This group speak a language of their own, and are probably descendants
+of the Blemmyes, who occupied these parts in ancient times (see ARABS;
+BEDOUINS; HADENDOA; BISHARIN; &c.). The Nubas are of mixed negro and
+Arab blood. They are mainly agriculturists, though some are keen traders
+(see NUBIA).
+
+Foreigners number over 150,000 and form 1½% of the total population. They
+are chiefly Greeks--of whom the majority live in Alexandria--Italians,
+British and French. Syrians and Levantines are numerous, and there is a
+colony of Persians. The Turkish element is not numerically strong--a few
+thousands only--but holds a high social position.
+
+Of the total population, about 20% is urban. In addition to the 97,000
+pure nomads, there are half a million Bedouins described as
+"semi-sedentaries," i.e. tent-dwelling Arabs, usually encamped in those
+parts of the desert adjoining the cultivated land. The rural classes are
+mainly engaged in agriculture, which occupies over 62% of the adults.
+The professional and trading classes form about 10% of the whole
+population, but 50% of the foreigners are engaged in trade. Of the total
+population the males exceed the females by some 46,000.
+
+
+    Physical characteristics of the Egyptians.
+
+  The Coptic inhabitants are described in the article COPTS, and the
+  rural population under FELLAH. It remains here to describe
+  characteristics and customs common to the Moslem Egyptians and
+  particularly to those of the cities. In some respects the manner of
+  life of the natives has been modified by contact with Europeans, and
+  what follows depicts in general the habits of the people where little
+  affected by western culture. With regard to physical characteristics
+  the Egyptians are of full average height (the men are mostly 5 ft. 8
+  in. or 5 ft. 9 in), and both sexes are remarkably well proportioned
+  and of strong physique. The Cairenes and the inhabitants of Lower
+  Egypt generally have a clear complexion and soft skin of a light
+  yellowish colour; those of Middle Egypt have a tawny skin, and the
+  dwellers in Upper Egypt a deep bronze or brown complexion. The face of
+  the men is of a fine oval, forehead prominent but seldom high,
+  straight nose, eyes deep set, black and brilliant, mouth well formed,
+  but with rather full lips, regular teeth beautifully made, and beard
+  usually black and curly but scanty. Moustaches are worn, while the
+  head is shaved save for a small tuft (called _shusheh_) upon the
+  crown. As to the women, "from the age of about fourteen to that of
+  eighteen or twenty, they are generally models of beauty in body and
+  limbs; and in countenance most of them are pleasing, and many
+  exceedingly lovely; but soon after they have attained their perfect
+  growth, they rapidly decline." There are few Egyptian women over forty
+  who retain either good looks or good figures. "The forms of womanhood
+  begin to develop themselves about the ninth and tenth year: at the
+  age of fifteen or sixteen they generally attain their highest degree
+  of perfection. With regard to their complexions, the same remarks
+  apply to them as to the men, with only this difference, that their
+  faces, being generally veiled when they go abroad, are not quite so
+  much tanned as those of the men. They are characterized, like the men,
+  by a fine oval countenance, though in some instances it is rather
+  broad. The eyes, with very few exceptions, are black, large and of a
+  long almond-form, with long and beautiful lashes, and an exquisitely
+  soft, bewitching expression--eyes more beautiful can hardly be
+  conceived: their charming effect is much heightened by the concealment
+  of the other features (however pleasing the latter may be), and is
+  rendered still more striking by a practice universal among the females
+  of the higher and middle classes, and very common among those of the
+  lower orders, which is that of blackening the edge of the eyelids both
+  above and below the eye, with a black powder called 'kohl'" (Lane,
+  _Modern Egyptians_). Both sexes, but especially the women, tattoo
+  several parts of the person, and the women stain their hands and feet
+  with the red dye of the henna.
+
+
+    Dress and social life.
+
+  The dress of the men of the upper and middle classes who have not
+  adopted European clothing--a practice increasingly common--consists of
+  cotton drawers, and a cotton or silk shirt with very wide sleeves.
+  Above these are generally worn a waistcoat without sleeves, and a long
+  vest of silk, called kaftan, which has hanging sleeves, and reaches
+  nearly to the ankles. The kaftan is confined by the girdle, which is a
+  silk scarf, or cashmere or other woollen shawl. Over all is worn a
+  long cloth robe, the gibbeh (or jibbeh) somewhat resembling the kaftan
+  in shape, but having shorter sleeves, and being open in front. The
+  dress of the lower orders is the shirt and drawers, and waistcoat,
+  with an outer shirt of blue cotton or brown woollen stuff; some wear a
+  kaftan. The head-dress is the red cloth fez or tarbush round which a
+  turban is usually worn. Men who have otherwise adopted European
+  costume retain the tarbush. Many professions and religions, &c., are
+  distinguished by the shape and colour of the turban, and various
+  classes, and particularly servants, are marked by the form and colour
+  of their shoes; but the poor go usually barefoot. Many ladies of the
+  upper classes now dress in European style, with certain modifications,
+  such as the head-veil. Those who retain native costume wear a very
+  full pair of silk trousers, bright coloured stockings (usually pink),
+  and a close-fitting vest with hanging sleeves and skirts, open down
+  the front and at the sides, and long enough to turn up and fasten into
+  the girdle, which is generally a cashmere shawl; a cloth jacket,
+  richly embroidered with gold, and having short sleeves, is commonly
+  worn over the vest. The hair in front is combed down over the forehead
+  and cut across in a straight line; behind it is divided into very many
+  small plaits, which hang down the back, and are lengthened by silken
+  cords, and often adorned with gold coins and ornaments. A small
+  tarbush is worn on the back of the head, sometimes having a plate of
+  gold fixed on the crown, and a handkerchief is tastefully bound round
+  the temples. The women of the lower orders have trousers of printed or
+  dyed cotton, and a close waistcoat. All wear the long and elegant
+  head-veil. This is a simple "breadth" of muslin, which passes over the
+  head and hangs down behind, one side, being drawn forward over the
+  face in the presence of a man. A lady's veil is of white muslin,
+  embroidered at the ends in gold and colours; that of a person of the
+  lower class is simply dyed blue. In going abroad the ladies wear above
+  their indoor dress a loose robe of coloured silk without sleeves, and
+  nearly open at the sides, and above it a large enveloping piece of
+  black silk, which is brought over the head, and gathered round the
+  person by the arms and hands on each side. A face-veil entirely
+  conceals the features, except the eyes; it is a long and narrow piece
+  of thick white muslin, reaching to a little below the knees. The women
+  of the lower orders have the same out-door dress of different
+  materials and colour. Ladies use slippers of yellow morocco, and
+  abroad, inner boots of the same material, above which they wear, in
+  either case, thick shoes, having only toes. The poor wear red shoes,
+  very like those of the men. The women, especially in Upper Egypt, not
+  infrequently wear nose-rings.
+
+  Children, though often neglected, are not unkindly treated, and
+  reverence for their parents and the aged is early inculcated. They are
+  also well grounded in the leading doctrines of Islam. Boys are
+  circumcised at the age of five or six years, when the boy is paraded,
+  generally with a bridal procession, on a gaily caparisoned horse and
+  dressed in woman's clothes. Most parents send their boys to school
+  where a knowledge of reading and writing Arabic--the common tongue of
+  the Egyptians--is obtainable, and from the closing years of the 19th
+  century a great desire for the education of girls has arisen (see §
+  _Education_).
+
+  It is deemed disreputable for a young man not to marry when he has
+  attained a sufficient age; there are, therefore, few unmarried men.
+  Girls, in like manner, marry very young, some at ten years of age, and
+  few remain single beyond the age of sixteen; they are generally very
+  prolific. The bridegroom never sees his future wife before the wedding
+  night, a custom rendered more tolerable than it otherwise might be by
+  the facility of divorce. A dowry is always given, and a simple
+  marriage ceremony performed by a _fiki_ (a schoolmaster, or one who
+  recites the Koran, properly one learned in _fiqh_, Mahommedan law) in
+  the presence of two witnesses. The bridal of a virgin is attended with
+  great festivity and rejoicing, a grandee's wedding sometimes
+  continuing eleven days and nights. On the last day, which should be
+  that terminating with the eve of Friday, or of Monday, the bride is
+  taken in procession to the bridegroom's house, accompanied by her
+  female friends, and a band of musicians, jugglers, wrestlers, &c. As
+  before stated, a boy about to be circumcised joins in such a
+  procession, or, frequently, a succession of such boys. Though allowed
+  by his religion four wives, most Egyptians are monogamists. A man may,
+  however, possess any number of concubines, who, though objects of
+  jealousy to the legal wife, are tolerated by her in consideration of
+  her superior position and power over them, a power which she often
+  uses with great tyranny; but certain privileges are possessed by
+  concubines, especially if they have borne sons to their master. A
+  divorce is rendered obligatory by the simple words "Thou art
+  divorced." Repudiation may take place twice without being final, but
+  if the husband repeats thrice "Thou art divorced" the separation is
+  absolute. In that case the dowry must be returned to the wife.
+
+  Elaborate ceremonies are observed at funerals. Immediately on death
+  the corpse is turned towards Mecca, and the women of the household,
+  assisted by hired mourners, commence their peculiar wailing, while
+  fikis recite portions of the Koran. The funeral takes place on the day
+  of the death, if that happen in the morning; otherwise on the next
+  day. The corpse, having been washed and shrouded, is placed in an open
+  bier, covered with a cashmere shawl, in the case of a man; or in a
+  closed bier, having a post in front, on which are placed feminine
+  ornaments, in that of a woman or child. The funeral procession is
+  headed by a number of poor, and generally blind, men, chanting the
+  profession of the faith, followed by male friends of the deceased, and
+  a party of schoolboys, also chanting, generally from a poem
+  descriptive of the state of the soul after death. Then follows the
+  bier, borne on the shoulders of friends, who are relieved by the
+  passers-by, such an act being deemed highly meritorious. Behind come
+  the women relatives and the hired wailers. On the way to the cemetery
+  the corpse is generally carried to some revered mosque. Here the
+  funeral service is performed by the imam, and the procession then
+  proceeds to the tomb. In the burials of the rich, water and bread are
+  distributed to the poor at the grave; and sometimes a buffalo or
+  several buffaloes are slaughtered there, and the flesh given away. The
+  tomb is a vault, surmounted by an oblong stone monument, with a stele
+  at the head and feet; and a cupola, supported by four walls, covers
+  the whole in the case of sheikhs' tombs and those of the wealthy.
+  During the night following the interment, called the Night of
+  Desolation, or that of Solitude, the soul being believed to remain
+  with the body that one night, fikis are engaged at the house of the
+  deceased to recite various portions of the Koran, and, commonly, to
+  repeat the first clause of the profession of the faith, "There is no
+  God but God," three thousand times. The women alone put on mourning
+  attire, by dyeing their veils, shirts, &c., dark blue, with indigo;
+  and they stain their hands, and smear the walls, with the same colour.
+  Everything in the house is also turned upside down. The latter customs
+  are not, however, observed on the death of an old man. At certain
+  periods after the burial, a khatmeh, or recitation of the whole of the
+  Koran, is performed, and the tomb is visited by the women relations
+  and friends of the deceased. The women of the peasants of Upper Egypt
+  perform strange dances, &c., at funerals, which are regarded partly as
+  relics of ancient Egyptian customs.
+
+  The harem system of appointing separate apartments to the women, and
+  secluding them from the gaze of men, is observed in Egypt as in other
+  Moslem countries, but less strictly. The women of an Egyptian
+  household in which old customs are maintained never sit in the
+  presence of the master, but attend him at his meals, and are treated
+  in every respect as inferiors. The mother, however, forms a remarkable
+  exception to this rule; in rare instances, also, a wife becomes a
+  companion to her husband. On the other hand, if a pair of women's
+  shoes are placed outside the door of the harem apartments, they are
+  understood to signify that female visitors are within, and a man is
+  sometimes thus excluded from the upper portion of his own house for
+  many days. Ladies of the upper or middle classes lead a life of
+  extreme inactivity, spending their time at the bath, which is the
+  general place of gossip, or in receiving visits, embroidering, and the
+  like, and in absolute _dolce far niente_. Both sexes are given to
+  licentiousness.
+
+  The principal meals are breakfast, about an hour after sunrise;
+  dinner, or the mid-day meal, at noon; and supper, which is the chief
+  meal of the day, a little after sunset. Pastry, sweetmeats and fruit
+  are highly esteemed. Coffee is taken at all hours, and is, with a
+  pipe, presented at least once to each guest. Tobacco is the great
+  luxury of the men of all classes in Egypt, who begin and end the day
+  with it, and generally smoke all day with little intermission. Many
+  women, also, especially among the rich, adopt the habit. The smoking
+  of hashish, though illegal, is indulged in by considerable numbers of
+  people. Men who can afford to keep a horse, mule or ass are very
+  seldom seen to walk. Ladies ride asses and sit astride. The poorer
+  classes cannot fully observe the harem system, but the women are in
+  general carefully veiled. Some of them keep small shops, and all fetch
+  water, make fuel, and cook for their households. Domestic slavery
+  lingers but is moribund. The majority of the slaves are negresses
+  employed in household duties.
+
+  In social intercourse the Egyptians observe many forms of salutation
+  and much etiquette; they are very affable, and readily enter into
+  conversation with strangers. Their courtesy and dignity of manner are
+  very striking, and are combined with ease and a fluency of discourse.
+  They have a remarkable quickness of apprehension, a ready wit, a
+  retentive memory, combined, however, with religious pride and
+  hypocrisy, and a disregard for the truth. Their common discourse is
+  full of asseverations and expressions respecting sacred things. They
+  entertain reverence for their Prophet; and the Koran is treated with
+  the utmost respect--never, for example, being placed in a low
+  situation--and this is the case with everything they esteem holy. They
+  are fatalists, and bear calamities with surprising resignation. Their
+  filial piety and respect for the aged have been mentioned, and
+  benevolence and charity are conspicuous in their character. Humanity
+  to animals is another virtue, and cruelty is openly discountenanced in
+  the streets. Their affability, cheerfulness and hospitality are
+  remarkable, as well as frugality and temperance in food and drink, and
+  honesty in the payment of debt. Their cupidity is mitigated by
+  generosity; their natural indolence by the necessity, especially among
+  the peasantry, to work hard to gain a livelihood. Egyptians, however,
+  are as a rule suspicious of all not of their own creed and country.
+  Murders and other grave crimes are rare, but petty larcenies are very
+  common.
+
+  The amusements of the people are generally not of a violent kind,
+  being in keeping with their sedentary habits and the heat of the
+  climate. The bath is a favourite resort of both sexes and all classes.
+  They are acquainted with chess, draughts, backgammon, and other games,
+  among which is one peculiar to themselves, called Mankalah, and played
+  with cowries. Notwithstanding its condemnation by Mahomet, music is
+  the most favourite recreation of the people; the songs of the boatmen,
+  the religious chants, and the cries in the streets are all musical.
+  There are male and female musical performers; the former are both
+  instrumental and vocal, the latter (called _'Almeh_, pl. _'Awalim_)
+  generally vocal. The 'Awalim are, as their name ("learned") implies,
+  generally accomplished women, and should not be confounded with the
+  Ghawazi, or dancing-girls. There are many kinds of musical
+  instruments. The music, vocal and instrumental, is generally of little
+  compass, and in the minor key; it is therefore plaintive, and strikes
+  a European ear as somewhat monotonous, though often possessing a
+  simple beauty, and the charm of antiquity, for there is little doubt
+  that the favourite airs have been handed down from remote ages. The
+  Ghawazi (sing. Ghazia) form a separate class, very similar to the
+  gipsies. They intermarry among themselves only, and their women are
+  professional dancers. Their performances are often objectionable and
+  are so regarded by many Egyptians. They dance in public, at fairs and
+  religious festivals, and at private festivities, but, it is said, not
+  in respectable houses. Mehemet Ali banished them to Esna, in Upper
+  Egypt; and the few that remained in Cairo called themselves 'Awalim,
+  to avoid punishment. Many of the dancing-girls of Cairo to-day are
+  neither 'Awalim nor Ghawazi, but women of the very lowest class whose
+  performances are both ungraceful and indecent. A most objectionable
+  class of male dancers also exists, who imitate the dances of the
+  Ghawazi, and dress in a kind of nondescript female attire. Not the
+  least curious of the public performances are those of the
+  serpent-charmers, who are generally Rifa'ia (Saadia) dervishes. Their
+  power over serpents has been doubted, yet their performances remain
+  unexplained; they, however, always extract the fangs of venomous
+  serpents. Jugglers, rope-dancers and farce-players must also be
+  mentioned. In the principal coffee-shops of Cairo are to be found
+  reciters of romances, surrounded by interested audiences.
+
+
+    Public festivals.
+
+  The periodical public festivals are exceedingly interesting, but many
+  of the remarkable observances connected with them are passing away.
+  The first ten days of the Mahommedan year are held to be blessed, and
+  especially the tenth; and many curious practices are observed on these
+  days, particularly by the women. The tenth day, being the anniversary
+  of the martyrdom of Hosain, the son of Ali and grandson of the
+  Prophet, the mosque of the Hasanen at Cairo is thronged to excess,
+  mostly by women. In the evening a procession goes to the mosque, the
+  principal figure being a white horse with white trappings, upon which
+  is seated a small boy, the horse and the lad, who represents Hosain,
+  being smeared with blood. From the mosque the procession goes to a
+  private house, where a mullah recites the story of the martyrdom.
+  Following the order of the lunar year, the next festival is that of
+  the Return of the Pilgrims, which is the occasion of great rejoicing,
+  many having friends or relatives in the caravan. The Mahmal, a kind of
+  covered litter, first originated by Queen Sheger-ed-Dur, is brought
+  into the city in procession, though not with as much pomp as when it
+  leaves with the pilgrims. These and other processions have lost much
+  of their effect since the extinction of the Mamelukes, and the gradual
+  disuse of gorgeous dress for the retainers of the officers of state. A
+  regiment of regular infantry makes but a sorry substitute for the
+  splendid cavalcade of former times. The Birth of the Prophet (Molid
+  en-Nebi), which is celebrated in the beginning of the third month, is
+  the greatest festival of the whole year. For nine days and nights
+  Cairo has more the aspect of a fair than of a city keeping a religious
+  festival. The chief ceremonies take place in some large open spot
+  round which are erected the tents of the khedive, of great state
+  officials, and of the dervishes. Next in time, and also in importance,
+  is the Molid El-Hasanen, commemorative of the birth of Hosain, and
+  lasting fifteen days and nights; and at the same time is kept the
+  Molid of al-Salih Ayyub, the last sovereign but two of the Ayyubite
+  dynasty. In the seventh month occur the Molid of the sayyida Zenab,
+  and the commemoration of the Miarag, or the Prophet's miraculous
+  journey to heaven. Early in the eighth month (Sha'ban), the Molid of
+  the imam Shafi'i is observed; and the night of the middle of that
+  month has its peculiar customs, being held by the Moslems to be that
+  on which the fate of all living is decided for the ensuing year. Then
+  follows Ramadan, the month of abstinence, a severe trial to the
+  faithful; and the Lesser Festival (Al-'id as-saghir), which commences
+  Shawwal, is hailed by them with delight. A few days after, the Kiswa,
+  or new covering for the Ka'ba at Mecca, is taken in procession from
+  the citadel, where it is always manufactured, to the mosque of the
+  Hasanen to be completed; and, later, the caravan of pilgrims departs,
+  when the grand procession of the Mahmal takes place. On the tenth day
+  of the last month of the year the Great Festival (Al-'id al-kabir), or
+  that of the Sacrifice (commemorating the willingness of Ibrahim to
+  slay his son Ismail--according to the Arab legend), closes the
+  calendar. The Lesser and Great Festivals are those known in Turkish as
+  the Bairam (q.v.).
+
+  The rise of the Nile is naturally the occasion of annual customs, some
+  of which are doubtless relics of antiquity; these are observed
+  according to the Coptic calendar. The commencement of the rise is
+  commemorated on the night of the 11th of Bauna, the 17th of June,
+  called that of the Drop (Lelet-en-Nukta), because a miraculous drop is
+  then supposed to fall and cause the swelling of the river. The real
+  rise begins at Cairo about the summer solstice, or a few days later,
+  and early in July a crier in each district of the city begins to go
+  his daily rounds, announcing, in a quaint chant, the increase of water
+  in the nilometer of the island of Roda. When the river has risen 20 or
+  21 ft., he proclaims the Wefa en-Nil, "Completion" or "Abundance of
+  the Nile." On the following day the dam which closed the canal of
+  Cairo was cut with much ceremony. The canal having been filled up in
+  1897 the ceremony has been much modified, but a brief description of
+  what used to take place may be given. A pillar of earth before the dam
+  is called the "Bride of the Nile," and Arab historians relate that
+  this was substituted, at the Moslem conquest, for a virgin whom it was
+  the custom annually to sacrifice, to ensure a plentiful inundation. A
+  large boat, gaily decked out, representing that in which the victim
+  used to be conveyed, was anchored near, and a gun on board fired every
+  quarter of an hour during the night. Rockets and other fireworks were
+  also let off, but the best, strangely, after daybreak. The governor of
+  Cairo attended the ceremony, with the cadi and others, and gave the
+  signal for the cutting of the dam. As soon as sufficient water had
+  entered, boats ascended the canal to the city. The crier continues his
+  daily rounds, with his former chant, excepting on the Coptic New
+  Year's Day, when the cry of the Wefa is repeated, until the Salib, or
+  Discovery of the Cross, the 26th or 27th of September, at which
+  period, the river having attained its greatest height, he concludes
+  his annual employment with another chant, and presents to each house
+  some limes and other fruit, and dry lumps of Nile mud.
+
+  The period of the hot winds, called the khamsin, that is, "the
+  fifties," is calculated from the day after the Coptic Easter, and
+  terminates on the day of Pentecost, and the Moslems observe the
+  Wednesday preceding this period, called "Job's Wednesday," as well as
+  its first day, when many go into the country from Cairo, "to smell the
+  air." This day is hence called Shem en-Nesim, or "the smelling of the
+  zephyr." The Ulema observe the same custom on the first three days of
+  the spring quarter.
+
+  Tombs of saints abound, one or more being found in every town and
+  village; and no traveller up the Nile can fail to remark how every
+  prominent hill has the sepulchre of its patron saint. The great saints
+  of Egypt are the imam Ash-Shafi'i, founder of the persuasion called
+  after him, the sayyid Ahmad al-Baidawi, and the sayyid Ibrahim
+  Ed-Desuki, both of whom were founders of orders of dervishes.
+  Al-Baidawi, who lived in the 13th century A.D., is buried at the town
+  of Tanta, in the Delta, and his tomb attracts many thousands of
+  visitors at each of the three festivals held yearly in his honour;
+  Ed-Desuki is also much revered, and his festivals draw together, in
+  like manner, great crowds to his birthplace, the town of Desuk. But,
+  besides the graves of her native saints, Egypt boasts of those of
+  several members of the Prophet's family, the tomb of the sayyida
+  Zeyneb, daughter of 'Ali, that of the sayyida Sekeina, daughter of
+  Hosain, and that of the sayyida Nefisa, great-granddaughter of Hasan,
+  all of which are held in high veneration. The mosque of the Hasanen
+  (or that of the "two Hasans") is the most reverenced shrine in the
+  country, and is believed to contain the head of Hosain. Many orders of
+  Dervishes live in Egypt, the following being the most celebrated:--(1)
+  the Rifa'ia, and their sects the 'Ilwania and Saadia; (2) the Qadiria
+  (Kahiria), or howling dervishes; (3) the Ahmedia, or followers of the
+  sayyid Ahmad al-Baidawi, and their sects the Beyumia (known by their
+  long hair), Shinnawia, Sharawia and many others; and (4) the Baramia,
+  or followers of the sayyid Ibrahim Ed-Desuki. These are all presided
+  over by a direct descendant of the caliph Abu Bekr, called the Sheikh
+  El-Bekri. The Saadia are famous for charming and eating live serpents,
+  &c., and the 'Ilwania for eating fire, glass, &c. The Egyptians firmly
+  believe in the efficacy of charms, a belief associated with that in
+  an omnipresent and over-ruling providence. Thus the doors of houses
+  are inscribed with sentences from the Koran, or the like, to preserve
+  from the evil eye, or avert the dangers of an unlucky threshold;
+  similar inscriptions may be observed over most shops, while almost
+  every one carries some charm about his person. The so-called sciences
+  of magic, astrology and alchemy still flourish.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The standard authority for the Moslem Egyptians is E. W.
+  Lane's _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_, first published
+  in 1836. The best edition is that of 1860, edited, with additions, by
+  E. S. Poole. See also B. Saint-John, _Village Life in Egypt_ (2 vols.,
+  1852); S. Lane Poole, _Social Life in Egypt_ (1884); P. Arminjon,
+  _L'Enseignement, la doctrine, el la vie dans les universités
+  musulmanes d'Égypte_ (Paris, 1907). For the language see J. S.
+  Willmore, _The Spoken Arabic of Egypt_ (2nd ed., London, 1905); Spitta
+  Bey, _Grammatik des arabischen Vulgardialektes von Ägypten, Contes
+  arabes modernes_ (Leiden, 1883). For statistical information consult
+  the reports on the censuses of 1897 and 1907, published by the
+  Ministry of the Interior, Cairo, in 1898 and 1909.
+       (E. S. P.; S. L.-P.; F. R. C.)
+
+
+_Finance._
+
+The important part which the financial arrangements have played in the
+political and social history of Egypt since the accession of Ismail
+Pasha in 1863 is shown in the section _History_ of this article. Here it
+is proposed to trace the steps by which Egypt, after having been brought
+to a state of bankruptcy, passed through a period of great stress, and
+finally attained prosperity and a large measure of financial autonomy.
+
+In 1862 the foreign debt of Egypt stood at £3,292,000. With the
+accession of Ismail (q.v.) there followed a period of wild extravagance
+and reckless borrowing accompanied by the extortion of every piastre
+possible from the fellahin. The real state of affairs was disclosed in
+the report of Mr Stephen Cave, a well-known banker, who was sent by the
+British government in December 1875 to inquire into the situation. The
+Cave report showed that Egypt suffered from "the ignorance, dishonesty,
+waste and extravagance of the East" and from "the vast expense caused by
+hasty and inconsiderate endeavours to adopt the civilization of the
+West." The debtor and creditor account of the state from 1864 to 1875
+showed receipts amounting to £148,215,000. Of this sum over £94,000,000
+had been obtained from revenue and nearly £4,000,000 by the sale of the
+khedive's shares in the Suez Canal to Great Britain. The rest was
+credited to: loans £31,713,000, floating debt £18,243,000. The cash
+which reached the Egyptian treasury from the loans and floating debt was
+far less than the nominal amount of such loans, none of which cost the
+Egyptian government less than 12% per annum. When the expenditure during
+the same period was examined the extraordinary fact was disclosed that
+the sum raised by revenue was only three millions less than that spent
+on administration, tribute and public works, including a sum of
+£10,500,000, described as "expenses of questionable utility or policy."
+The whole proceeds of the loans and floating debt had been absorbed in
+payment of interest and sinking funds, with the exception of £16,000,000
+debited to the Suez Canal. In other words, Egypt was burdened with a
+debt of £91,000,000--funded or floating--for which she had no return,
+for even from the Suez Canal she derived no revenue, owing to the sale
+of the khedive's shares.
+
+Soon after Mr Cave's report appeared (March 1876), default took place on
+several of the loans. Nearly the whole of the debt, it should be stated,
+was held in England or France, and at the instance of French financiers
+the stoppage of payment was followed by a scheme to unify the debt. This
+scheme included the distribution of a bonus of 25% to holders of
+treasury bonds. These bonds had then reached a sum exceeding £20,000,000
+and were held chiefly by French firms. The unification scheme was
+elaborated in a khedivial decree of the 7th of May 1876, but was
+rendered abortive by the opposition of the British bondholders. Its
+place was taken by another scheme drawn up by Mr (afterwards Lord)
+Goschen and M. Joubert, who represented the British and French
+bondholders respectively. The details of this settlement, promulgated by
+decree of the 17th of November 1876, need not be given, as it was
+superseded in 1880. One of the securities devised for the benefit of the
+bondholders in the abortive scheme of May 1876 was retained in the
+Goschen-Joubert settlement, and being continued in later settlements
+grew to be one of the most important institutions in Egypt. This
+security was the establishment of a Treasury of the Public Debt, known
+by its French title of _Caisse de la Dette_, and commonly spoken of
+simply as "the Caisse." The duty of this body was to act as receivers of
+the revenues assigned to the service of the debt. To render their powers
+effective they were given the right to sue the Egyptian government in
+the Mixed Tribunals for any breach of engagement to the bondholders.
+
+
+  The Law of Liquidation.
+
+The Goschen-Joubert settlement was accompanied by guarantees against
+maladministration by the appointment of an Englishman and a Frenchman to
+superintend the revenue and expenditure--the "Dual Control"; while a
+commission was appointed in 1878 to investigate the condition of the
+country. The settlement of 1880 was effected on the basis of the
+proposals made by this commission, and was embodied in the Law of
+Liquidation of July 1880--after the deposition of Ismail. For the
+purposes of the new settlement the loans raised by Ismail on his private
+estates, those known as the Daïra (i.e. "administrations") and Domains
+loans, were brought into account. By the Law of Liquidation the floating
+debt was paid off, the whole debt being consolidated into four large
+loans, upon which the rate of interest was reduced to a figure which it
+was considered Egypt was able to bear. The Egyptian debt under this
+composition was:
+
+  Privileged debt        £22,609,000
+  Unified debt            58,018,000
+  Daïra Sanieh loan        9,513,000
+  Domains loan             8,500,000
+                         -----------
+                         £98,640,000
+
+The rate of interest was, on the Privileged debt and Domains loan, 5%;
+on the Unified debt and Daïra loan, 4%. Under this settlement the total
+annual charges on the country amounted to £4,500,000, about half the
+then revenue of Egypt. These charges included the services of the
+Privileged and Unified debts, the tribute to Turkey and the interest on
+the Suez Canal shares held by Great Britain, but excluded the interest
+on the Daïra and Domains loans, expected to be defrayed by the revenues
+from the estates on which those loans were secured. The general revenue
+of Egypt was divided between the bondholders and the government, any
+surplus on the bondholders' share being devoted to the redemption of the
+capital.
+
+The 1880 settlement proved little more lasting than that of 1876. After
+a brief period of prosperity, the Arabi rising, the riots at Alexandria,
+and the events generally which led to the British occupation of Egypt in
+1882, followed by the losses incurred in the Sudan in the effort to
+prevent it falling into the hands of the Mahdi, brought Egypt once more
+to the verge of financial disaster. The situation was an anomalous one.
+While the revenue assigned to the service of the debt was more than
+sufficient for the payment of interest and the sinking fund was in full
+operation, the government found that their share of the revenue was
+altogether inadequate for the expenses of administration, and they were
+compelled to borrow on short loans at high rate of interest. Moreover,
+to make good the losses incurred at Alexandria, and to get money to pay
+the charges arising out of the Sudan War and the Arabi rebellion, a new
+loan was essential. On the initiative of Great Britain a conference
+between the representatives of the great powers and Turkey was held in
+London, and resulted in the signing of a convention in March 1885. The
+terms agreed upon in this instrument, known as the London Convention,
+were embodied in a khedivial decree, which, with some modification in
+detail, remained for twenty years the organic law under which the
+finances of Egypt were administered.
+
+
+  Provisions of the London Convention.
+
+The principle of dividing the revenue of the country between the Caisse,
+as representing the bondholders, and the government was maintained by
+the London Convention. The revenue assigned to the service of the debt,
+namely, that derived from the railway, telegraphs, port of Alexandria,
+customs (including tobacco) and from four of the provinces, remained as
+before. It was recognized, however, that the non-assigned revenue was
+insufficient to meet the necessary expenses of government, and a scale
+of administrative expenditure was drawn up. This was originally fixed at
+£E.5,237,000,[6] but subsequently other items were allowed, and in 1904,
+the last year in which the system described existed, it was
+£E.6,300,600. The Caisse was authorized, after payment of the coupons on
+the debt, to make good out of their balance in hand the difference
+between the authorized expenditure and the non-assigned revenue. If a
+surplus remained to the Caisse after making good such deficit the
+surplus was to be divided equally between the Caisse and the government;
+the government to be free to spend its share as it pleased, while the
+Caisse had to devote its share to the reduction of the debt. This
+limitation of administrative expenditure was the cardinal feature and
+the leading defect of the convention. Those responsible for this
+arrangement--the most favourable for Egypt that Great Britain could
+secure--failed to recognize the complete change likely to result from
+the British occupation of Egypt, and probably regarded that occupation
+as temporary. The system devised might have been justifiable as a check
+on a retrograde government, but was wholly inapplicable to a reforming
+government and a serious obstacle to the attainment of national
+prosperity. In practice administrative expenditure always exceeded the
+amount fixed by the convention. Any excess could, however, only be met
+out of the half-share of the eventual surplus reached in the manner
+described. Consequently, in order to meet new expenditure necessitated
+by the growing wants of a country in process of development, just double
+the amount of revenue had to be raised.
+
+To return to the provisions of the London Convention. The convention
+left the permanent rate of interest on the debt, as fixed by the Law of
+Liquidation, unchanged, but to afford temporary relief to the Egyptian
+exchequer a reduction of 5% on the interest of the debt was granted for
+two years, on condition that if at the end of that period payment,
+including the arrears of the two years, was not resumed in full, another
+international commission was to be appointed to examine into the whole
+financial situation. Lastly, the convention empowered Egypt to raise a
+loan of nine millions, guaranteed by all the powers, at a rate of
+interest of 3%. For the service of this loan--known as the Guaranteed
+loan--an annuity of £315,000 was provided in the Egyptian budget for
+interest and sinking fund. The £9,000,000 was sufficient to pay the
+Alexandria indemnities, to wipe out the deficits of the preceding years,
+to give the Egyptian treasury a working balance of £E.500,000 and
+thereby avoid the creation of a fresh floating debt, and to provide a
+million for new irrigation works. To the wise foresight which, at a
+moment when the country was sinking beneath a weight of debt, did not
+hesitate to add this million for expenditure on productive works, the
+present prosperity of Egypt is largely due.
+
+The provisions of the London Convention did not exhaust the restrictions
+placed upon the Egyptian government in respect of financial autonomy.
+These restrictions were of two categories, (1) those independent of the
+London Convention, (2) those dependent upon that instrument. In the
+first category came (a) the prohibition to raise a loan without the
+consent of the Porte. The right to raise loans had been granted to the
+khedive Ismail in 1873, but was taken away in 1879 by the firman
+appointing Tewfik khedive. (b) Next came the inability to levy taxes on
+foreigners without the consent of their respective governments. This
+last obligation was, in virtue of the Capitulations, applicable to Egypt
+as part of the Ottoman empire. The only exception, resulting from the
+Ottoman law under which foreigners are allowed to acquire and hold real
+property, is the land tax. (All taxes formerly paid by natives and not
+by foreigners have been abolished in Egypt, but the immunity described
+constitutes a most serious obstacle to the redistribution of the burden
+of taxation in a more equitable manner.)
+
+From the purely Egyptian point of view the most powerful restriction in
+this first category remains to be named. In 1883 the supervision
+exercised over the finances by French and British controllers was
+replaced by that of a British official called the financial adviser. The
+British government has declared that "no financial decision shall be
+taken without his consent," a declaration never questioned by the
+Egyptian government. This restriction, therefore, is at the same time
+the chief safeguard for the purity of Egypt's finances.
+
+In the second category of restrictions, namely, those dependent on the
+London Convention, were the various commissions or boards known as Mixed
+Administrations and having relations of a quasi-independent character
+with the ministry of finance. Of these boards by far the most important
+was the Caisse. As first constituted it consisted of a French, an
+Austrian, and an Italian member; a British member was added in 1877 and
+a German and a Russian member in 1885. The revenue assigned to the debt
+charges was paid direct to the Caisse without passing through the
+ministry of finance. The assent of the Caisse (as well as that of the
+sultan) was necessary before any new loan could be issued, and in the
+course of a few years from its creation this body acquired very
+extensive powers. Besides the Caisse there was the Railway Board, which
+administered the railways, telegraphs and port of Alexandria for the
+benefit of the bondholders, and the Daïra and Domains commissions, which
+administered the estates mortgaged to the holders of those loans. Each
+of the three boards last named consisted of an Englishman, a Frenchman
+and an Egyptian.
+
+
+  The race against bankruptcy.
+
+During the two years that followed the signing of the London Convention,
+the financial policy of the Egyptian government was directed to placing
+the country in a position to resume full payment of the interest on the
+debt in 1887, and thereby to avoid the appointment of an international
+commission. By the exercise of the most rigid economy in all branches
+this end was attained, though budgetary equilibrium was only secured by
+a variety of financial expedients, justified by the vital importance of
+saving Egypt from further international interference. By such means this
+additional complication was averted, but the struggle to put Egypt in a
+genuinely solvent position was by no means over. It was not until his
+report on the financial results of 1888 that Sir Evelyn Baring
+(afterwards Lord Cromer) was able to inform the British government that
+the situation was such that "it would take a series of untoward events
+seriously to endanger the stability of Egyptian finance and the solvency
+of the Egyptian government." From this moment the corner was turned, and
+the era of financial prosperity commenced. The results of the labours of
+the preceding six years began to manifest themselves with a rapidity
+which surprised the most sanguine observers. The principal feature of
+the successive Egyptian budgets of 1890-1894 was the fiscal relief
+afforded to the population. From 1894 onward more attention was paid
+than had hitherto been possible to the legitimate demands of the
+spending departments and to the prosecution of public works. Of these
+the most notable was the construction (1898-1902) of the Assuan dam,
+which by bringing more land under cultivation permanently increased the
+resources of the country and widened the area of taxation.
+
+
+  Reserve funds.
+
+With the accumulating proofs of the financial stability of the country
+various changes were made in connexion with the debt charges. With the
+consent of the powers a General Reserve Fund was created by decree of
+the 12th of July 1888, into which was paid the Caisse's half-share in
+the eventual surplus of revenue. This fund, primarily intended as a
+security for the bondholders, might be drawn upon for extraordinary
+expenditure with the consent of the commissioners of the Caisse. Large
+sums were so advanced for the purposes of drainage and irrigation and
+other public works, and in relief of taxation. The defect of this
+arrangement consisted in the necessity of obtaining the consent of the
+commissioners--a consent sometimes withheld on purely political grounds.
+At the same time it is believed that but for the faculty given by the
+decree of 1888 to spend the General Reserve Fund on public works, the
+financial system elaborated by the London Convention would have broken
+down altogether. Between 1888 and 1904 about £10,000,000 was devoted
+from this fund to public works.
+
+In June 1890 the assent of the powers was obtained to the conversion of
+the Preference (Privileged), Domains and Daïra loans on the following
+conditions, imposed at the initiative of the French government:--
+
+  1. The employment of the economies resulting from the conversion was
+  to be the subject of future agreement with the powers.
+
+  2. The Daïra loan was to be reimbursed at 85%, instead of 80%, as
+  provided by the Law of Liquidation.
+
+  3. The sales of Domains and Daïra lands were to be restricted to
+  £E.300,000 a year each, thus prolonging the period of liquidation of
+  those estates.
+
+The interest on the Preference stock was reduced from 5 to 3½%, and on
+the Domains from 5 to 4¼%. As regards the Daïra loan, there was no
+apparent reduction in the rate of interest, which remained at 4%, but
+the bondholders received £85 of the new stock for every £100 of the old.
+The capital of the debt was increased by £1,945,000 by these
+conversions, while the annual economy to the Egyptian government
+amounted at the time of the conversion to £E.348,000. Further, an
+engagement was entered into that there should be no reimbursement of the
+loans till 1905 for the Preference and Daïra, and 1908 for the Domains.
+By an arrangement concluded in June 1898, between the Egyptian
+government and a syndicate, the unsold balance of the Daïra estates was
+taken over by the syndicate in October 1905, for the amount of the debt
+remaining, when the Daïra loan ceased to exist. The fund formed by the
+accumulation of the economies resulting from the conversion of the
+Privileged, Daïra and Domains loan was known as the Conversion Economies
+Fund. The fund could not be used for any purpose without the consent of
+the powers, and the money paid into it was invested by the Caisse in
+Egyptian stock. The fund therefore acted as a very expensive sinking
+fund, the market price of the stock purchased being above par. Up to
+1904 the consent of the powers to the employment of this fund for any
+purpose of public utility was withheld. On the 31st of December of that
+year the fund amounted to £E.6,031,000. It may be added that besides the
+General Reserve Fund and the Conversion Economies Fund, there existed
+another fund called the Special Reserve Fund. This was constituted in
+1886 and was chiefly made up of the net savings of the Egyptian
+government on its share of the annual surpluses from revenue. Of the
+three funds this last-named was the only one at the absolute disposal of
+the government. The whole of the extraordinary expenditure of the Sudan
+campaigns of 1896-1898, with the exception of £800,000 granted by the
+British government, was paid out of this fund--a sum amounting in round
+figures to £1,500,000.
+
+
+  An era of prosperity.
+
+Notwithstanding all the hampering conditions stated, the prosperity of
+the country became more manifest each succeeding year. During the four
+years 1883-1886, both inclusive, the aggregate deficit amounted to
+£E.2,606,000. In 1887 there was practical equilibrium in the budget, in
+1888 there was a deficit of £E.53,000. In 1889 there was a surplus of
+£E.218,000, and from that date onward every year has shown a surplus. In
+1895 the surplus exceeded, for the first time, £E.1,000,000. The growth
+of revenue was no less marked. "In 1883--the first complete year after
+the British occupation--the revenue was slightly under 9 millions. This
+sum was collected with difficulty. The revenue steadily rose until, in
+1890, the figure of 10 millions was exceeded. In 1897 a figure of over
+11 millions was attained. Continuing to rise with ever-increasing
+rapidity, a revenue of close on 12 millions was collected in 1901 and
+1902, in spite of the fact that during the latter of these two years the
+Nile flood was one of the lowest on record. In 1903 the revenue amounted
+to 12½ millions, and in 1904 the unprecedented figure of £E.13,906,000
+was reached."[7] Yet during this period the amount of direct taxation
+remitted reached £E.1,900,000 a year. Arrears of land tax to the extent
+of £E.1,245,000 were cancelled. In indirect taxation the salt tax had
+been reduced by 40%, the postal, railway and telegraph rates lowered,
+octroi duties and bridge and lock dues abolished. The only increase of
+taxation had been on tobacco, on which the duty was raised from P.T. 14
+to P.T. 20 per kilogramme. At the same time the house duty, with the
+consent of the powers, had been imposed on European residents. The fact
+that during the period under review Egypt suffered very severely from
+the general fall in the price of commodities makes the prosperity of the
+country the more remarkable. Had it not been for the great increase of
+production as the result of improved irrigation and the fiscal relief
+afforded to landowners, the agricultural depression would have impaired
+the financial situation. In this connexion it should be stated that
+during 1899 the reassessment of the land tax, a much-needed reform, was
+seriously taken in hand. The existing assessment, made before the
+British occupation, had long been condemned by all competent
+authorities, but the inherent intricacies and difficulties of the
+problem had hitherto postponed a solution. After careful study and a
+preliminary examination of the land, a scheme was passed which has given
+satisfaction to the landowning community, and which distributes the tax
+equitably in proportion to the fertility of the soil. The reassessment
+was completed in 1907.
+
+
+  The cost of internationalism.
+
+While the country thus prospered it also suffered greatly from the
+restrictions imposed by the system of international control. This system
+produced a great disproportion between the sums available for capital
+and those available for administrative expenditure. Although the money
+for public works could be obtained out of grants from the General
+Reserve Fund, there was no fund from which to provide a sufficient sum
+to keep those works in order. Moreover, to avoid having to pay half the
+amount received into the General Reserve Fund the government was
+compelled to keep certain items of revenue and expenditure out of the
+accounts altogether--a violation of the principles of sound finance.
+Then there was the glaring anomaly of allowing the Conversion Economies
+to accumulate at compound interest in the hands of the commissioners of
+the Caisse, instead of using the money for remunerative purposes. The
+net result of internationalism was to impose an extra charge of about
+£1,750,000 a year on the Egyptian treasury.
+
+
+  Egypt gains financial liberty.
+
+All these cumbersome restrictions were swept away by the khedivial
+decree of the 28th of November 1904, a decree which received the assent
+of the powers and was the result of the Anglo-French agreement of April
+1904 (see § HISTORY). The decree did not affect the inability of Egypt
+to tax foreigners without their consent nor remove the right of Turkey
+to veto the issue of new loans, but in other respects the financial
+changes made by it were of a radical character. The main effect was to
+give to the Egyptian government a free hand in the disposal of its own
+resources so long as the punctual payment of interest on the debt was
+assured. The plan devised by the London Convention of fixing a limit to
+administrative expenditure was abolished. The consent of the Caisse to
+the raising of a new loan was no longer required. The Caisse itself
+remained, but shorn of all political and administrative powers, its
+functions being strictly limited to receiving the assigned revenues and
+to ensuring the due payment of the coupon. The nature of the assigned
+revenue was altered, the land tax being substituted for those previously
+assigned, that tax being chosen as it had a greater character of
+stability than any other source of revenue. By this means Egypt gained
+complete control of its railways, telegraphs, the port of Alexandria and
+the customs, and as a consequence the mixed administration known as the
+Railway Board ceased to exist. Moreover, it was provided that when the
+Caisse had received from the land tax the amount needed for the service
+of the debt, the balance of the tax was to be paid direct to the
+Egyptian treasury. The Conversion Economies Fund was also placed at the
+free disposal of the Egyptian government. The General Reserve Fund
+ceased to exist, but for the better security of the bondholders a
+reserve fund of £1,800,000 was constituted and left in the hands of the
+Caisse to be used in the highly improbable event of the land tax being
+insufficient to meet the debt charges. Moreover, the Caisse started
+under the new arrangement with a cash balance of £1,250,000. The
+interest of the money lying in the hands of the Caisse goes towards
+meeting the debt charges and thus reduces the amount needed from the
+land tax. The bondholders gained a further material advantage by the
+consent of the Egyptian government to delay the conversion of the loans,
+which under previous arrangements they would have been free to do in
+1905. It was agreed that there should be no conversion of the Guaranteed
+or Privileged debts before 1910 and no conversion of the Unified debt
+until 1912. Such were the chief provisions of the khedivial decree, and
+in 1905, for the first time, it was possible to draw up the Egyptian
+budget in accordance with the needs of the country and on perfectly
+sound principles.
+
+  In the system adopted in 1905 and since maintained, recurring and
+  non-recurring expenditure were shown separately, the non-recurring
+  expenditure being termed "special." At the same time a new General
+  Reserve Fund was created, made up chiefly of the surpluses of the old
+  General Reserve, Special Reserve, and Conversion Economies funds. This
+  new fund started with a capital of £13,376,000 and was replenished by
+  the surpluses of subsequent years, by the interest earned by its
+  temporary investment, and by the sums accruing by the liquidation of
+  the Daïra and Domains loans. During 1905 and 1906 about £3,000,000 was
+  paid into the fund through the liquidation of the Daïra loan. From
+  this fund, which had a balance of over £12,000,000 in 1906, is taken
+  capital expenditure on remunerative public works in Egypt and the
+  Sudan, and while the fund lasts the necessity for any new loan is
+  avoided. The greater freedom of action attained as the result of the
+  Anglo-French declaration of 1904 enabled the Egyptian government to
+  advance simultaneously along the lines of fiscal reform and increased
+  administrative expenditure. Thus in 1906 the salt monopoly was
+  abolished at a cost to the revenue of £175,000, while the reduction of
+  import duties on coal and other fuels, live-stock, &c., involved a
+  further loss of £118,000, and an increase of over £1,000,000 in
+  expenditure was budgeted for. The accounts for 1907 showed a total
+  revenue of £E.16,368,000 and a total expenditure of £E.14,280,000, a
+  surplus of £E.2,088,000. The annual growth of revenue for the previous
+  five years averaged over £E.500,000. About one-third of the annual
+  revenue is derived from the land tax; customs and tobacco duties yield
+  about £3,000,000, and an equal or larger amount is received from
+  railways and other revenue-earning departments. The chief items of
+  ordinary expenditure are tribute and debt charges, the expenses of the
+  civil administration, of the Egyptian army (between £500,000 and
+  £600,000 yearly), of the revenue-earning departments and of pensions.
+
+  It will be convenient here to summarize the position of the Egyptian
+  debt at the close of 1905, that is at the period immediately following
+  the liquidation of the Daïra loan. In a previous table it has been
+  shown that under the Law of Liquidation of 1880 the total debt was
+  £98,640,000. In 1883, the first complete year after the British
+  occupation, the capital of the debt--then exclusively held by the
+  public--was £96,457,000. In 1885 the Guaranteed loan, the nominal
+  capital of which was £9,424,000, was issued, and in 1891 the debt
+  reached its maximum figure of £106,802,000. At that period the charge
+  for interest and sinking fund was £4,127,000. On the 31st of December
+  1905 the total capital of the debt was as follows:--
+
+    Guaranteed 3%            £7,849,000
+    Preference 3½%           31,128,000
+    Unified 4%               55,972,000
+    Domains 4¼%               1,535,000
+                             ----------
+                     Total  £96,484,000
+
+  The charge on account of interest and sinking fund was £3,709,000.
+  Thus the capital of the debt in 1905 stood at almost the exact figure
+  it did in 1883, although by borrowing and conversion operations nearly
+  £17,000,000 had in the meantime been added to the capital. This
+  reduction was brought about by surplus revenue, and by the operation
+  of the sinking fund in the case of the Guaranteed loan, while
+  £15,729,000 had been wiped out by the sale of Daïra and Domains
+  property. These figures do not, however, indicate fully the prosperity
+  of the country, for although the nominal amount of the capital was
+  practically identical in 1883 and 1905, in the latter year the
+  Egyptian government or the Caisse held stock (bought with surplus
+  revenue) to the value of £8,770,000. The amount of debt in the hands
+  of the public was therefore only £87,714,000, that is to say
+  £8,743,000 less than in 1883, while the interest charge to be borne by
+  the taxpayer of Egypt was £3,378,000, being £890,000 less than in
+  1883. The charge amounts to about 40% of the national expenditure. On
+  the other hand, Egypt is not now weighed down with a huge warlike
+  expenditure. There is no navy to support, and the army costs but 7% of
+  the total expenditure.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A concise view of the financial situation in 1877 will
+  be found in J. C. McCoan's _Egypt as it is_ (London n.d.). Mr Cave's
+  report is printed in an appendix. The subsequent history of Egyptian
+  finance is told in the following blue-books, &c.:--_Correspondence
+  respecting the State Domains of Egypt_ (1883); _Statement of the
+  Revenue and Expenditure of Egypt, together with a List of the Egyptian
+  Bonds and the Charges for their Services_ (1885); _Reports on the
+  Finances of Egypt_, by the British agent, yearly from 1888;
+  _Convention ... relative to the Finance of Egypt, signed at London,
+  March 18, 1885; Khedivial decree of the 28th November 1904; Compte
+  général de l'administration des finances_, issued yearly at Cairo.
+  Consult also the works of Lord Cromer, Lord Milner, and Sir A. Colvin
+  cited under § History, last section.     (E. Go.; F. R. C.)
+
+
+_The Egyptian Army._
+
+  Early history.
+
+The fellah soldier has been aptly likened to a bicycle, which although
+incapable of standing up alone, is very useful while under the control
+of a skilful master. It is generally believed that the successes gained
+in the time of the Pharaohs were due to foreign legions; and from
+Cambyses to Alexander, from the Ptolemies to Antony (Cleopatra), from
+Augustus to the 7th century, throughout the Arab period, and from
+Saladin's dynasty down to the middle of the 13th century, the military
+power of Egypt was dependent on mercenaries. The Mamelukes (slaves),
+imported from the eastern borders of the Black Sea and then trained as
+soldiers, usurped the government of Egypt, and held it till 1517, when
+the Ottomans began to rule. This form of government, speaking generally,
+endured till the French invasion at the end of the 18th century. British
+and Turkish troops drove the French out after an occupation of two
+years, the British troops remaining till 1803. Then Mehemet Ali, a small
+tobacconist of Kavala, Macedonia, coming with Albanian mercenaries, made
+himself governor, and later (1811), by massacring the Mamelukes, became
+the actual master of the country, and after seven years' war brought
+Arabia under Egypt's rule. He subdued Nubia and Sennar in 1820-22; and
+then, requiring a larger army, he obtained instructors from France. To
+them were handed over 1000 Turks and Circassians to be trained as
+officers, who later took command of 30,000 Sudanese. These died so
+rapidly in Egypt from pneumonia[8] that Mehemet Ali conscripted over
+250,000 fellahin, and in so arbitrary a fashion that many peasants
+mutilated themselves to avoid the much-dreaded service. The common
+practice was to place a small piece of nitrate of silver into the eye,
+which was then kept tightly bandaged till the sight was destroyed.
+Battalions were then formed of one-eyed men, and of soldiers who, having
+cut off their right-hand fingers, were made to shoot from the left
+shoulder. Every man who could not purchase exemption, with the exception
+of those living in Cairo, Alexandria and Suez, on becoming 19 years old
+was liable nominally to 12 years' service; but many men were kept for 30
+or 40 years, in spite of constant appeals. Nevertheless the experiment
+succeeded. The docile, yet robust and hardy peasants, under their
+foreign leaders, gained an unbroken series of successes in the first
+Syrian War; and after the bloody battle of Konia (1832), where the raw
+Turkish army was routed and the grand vizier taken prisoner, it was only
+European intervention which prevented the Egyptian general, Ibrahim
+Pasha, from marching unopposed to the Bosphorus. The defeat of the
+Turkish army at Nizib (Nezeeb or Nisib), in the second Syrian War
+(1839), showed that it was possible to obtain favourable military
+results with Egyptians when stiffened by foreigners and well commanded.
+Ibrahim, the hero of Konia, declared, however, that no native Egyptian
+ought to rise higher than the rank of sergeant; and in the Syrian
+campaigns nearly all the officers were Turks or Circassians, as were
+several non-commissioned officers. In the cavalry and artillery many of
+the privates were foreigners, numbers of the janissaries who escaped the
+massacre at Stamboul (1832) having joined Mehemet Ali's army.
+
+In the reign of Abbas, who succeeded Mehemet Ali, the Egyptian troops
+were driven from Nejd, and the Wahhabi state recovered its independence.
+The next viceroy, Said, began as an ardent soldier, but took to
+agriculture, and at his death (1863) 3000 men only were retained under
+arms. Ismail, on succeeding, immediately added 27,000 men, and in seven
+years was able to put 100,000 men, well equipped, in the field. He sent
+10,000 men to help to suppress a rebellion in Crete, and conquered the
+greater part of the (Nile) Sudan; but an expedition of 11,000 men, sent
+to Abyssinia under Prince Hasan and Rateb Pasha, well equipped with guns
+and all essentials, was, in two successive disasters (1875 and 1876),
+practically destroyed. The education of Egyptians in continental cities
+had not produced the class of leaders who led the fellahin to victory at
+Konia.
+
+Ismail's exactions from the Egyptian peasantry reacted on the army,
+causing discontent; and when he was tottering on the throne he
+instigated military demonstrations against his own government, and, by
+thus sapping the foundations of discipline, assisted Arabi's revolution;
+the result was the battle of Tell el-Kebir, the British occupation, and
+the disbandment of the army, which at that time in Egypt proper
+consisted of 18,000 men. Ismail had collected 500 field-guns, 200
+Armstrong cannon, and had created factories of warlike and other stores.
+These latter were conducted extravagantly, and badly administered.
+
+
+  Reorganization.
+
+In January 1883, Major-General Sir Evelyn Wood, V.C., was given
+£200,000, and directed to spend it in raising a fellahin force of 6000
+men for the defence of Egypt. He was assisted at first by 26 officers,
+amongst whom were two who later became successively sirdars--Colonel F.
+Grenfell, commanding a brigade, and Lieutenant H. Kitchener, R.E.,
+second in command of the cavalry regiment. There were four batteries,
+eight battalions, and a camel company. Each battalion of the 1st
+infantry brigade had three British mounted officers, Turks and Egyptians
+holding the corresponding positions in the battalions of the 2nd
+Brigade. The sirdar selected these native officers from those of Arabi's
+followers who had been the least prominent in the recent mutiny;
+non-commissioned officers who had been drill-instructors in the old army
+were recalled temporarily, but all the privates were conscripted from
+their villages. The earlier merciless practice had been in theory
+abolished by a decree based on the German system, published in 1880; but
+owing to defective organization, and internal disturbances induced by
+Khedive Ismail's follies, the law had not been applied, and the 6000
+recruits collected at Cairo in January 1883 represented the biggest and
+strongest peasants who could not purchase exemption by bribing the
+officials concerned. The difficulties experienced in applying the 1880
+decree were great, but the perseverance of British officers gave the
+oppressed peasants, in 1885, an equitable law, which has been since
+improved by the decree of 1900. General considerations later caused the
+sirdar to allow exemption by payment of (Badalia) £20 before ballot.
+This tax, which is popular amongst the peasantry, produced in 1906
+£E.150,000, and over £250,000 in 1908. This is a marked indication of
+the increasing prosperity of the fellahin. A portion of the badalia is
+expended in the betterment of the soldier's position. He is no longer
+drafted into the police on completing his army service, but goes free at
+the end of five years with a gift of £E.20. The sirdar is allowed,
+moreover, to use £20,000 per annum of the badalia for the improvement of
+the education of the rank and file. As an experiment the police is now a
+voluntary service, except in Alexandria and Cairo, for which cities
+peasants are conscripted for the police under army conditions. The
+recruiting superintending committee, travelling through districts,
+supervise every ballot, and work under stringent rules which render
+systematic bribery difficult. The recruits who draw unlucky numbers at
+19 years of age are seldom called up till they are 23, when they are
+summoned by name and escorted by a policeman to Cairo. To prevent
+substitution on the journey each recruit wears a string girdle sealed in
+lead. The periods of service are: with the colours, 5 years; in the
+reserve, 5 years, during which time they may be called up for police
+service, manoeuvres, &c. The pay is £E.3, 14s. per annum for all
+services, and the liberal scale of rations of meat, bread and rice
+remains as before in theory, but in practice the value of pay and food
+received is greatly enhanced. So also with the pension and promotion
+regulations. They were in 1882 sufficiently liberal on paper, but had
+never been carried into effect.
+
+The efforts of 48 American officers, who under Gen. C. P. Stone
+zealously served Ismail, had entirely failed to overcome Egyptian
+venality and intrigue; and in spite of the military schools, with a
+comprehensive syllabus, the only perceptible difference between the
+Egyptian officer and private in 1879 consisted, according to one of the
+Americans, in the fact that the first was the product of the harem, and
+the second of the field. Marshal Marmont, writing in 1839, mentions the
+capacity of the Egyptians for endurance; and it was tested in 1883,
+especially in the 2nd Brigade, since its officers (Turks and Egyptians),
+anxious to excel as drill-masters, worked their men not only from morn
+till eve, but also by lamplight in the corridors of the barracks. On the
+31st March 1883, ten weeks after the arrival of the first draft of
+recruits, about 5600 men went through the ceremonial parade movements as
+practised by the British guards in Hyde Park, with unusual precision.
+The British officers had acquired the words of command in Turkish, as
+used in the old army, an attempt to substitute Egyptian words having
+failed owing to lack of crisp, sharp-sounding words. As the Egyptian
+brigadier, who had spent some years in Berlin, spoke German fluently,
+and it was also understood by the senior British officers, that language
+was used for all commands given by the sirdar on that special parade.
+The British drill-book, minus about one-third of the least serviceable
+movements, was translated by an English officer, and by 1900 every
+necessary British official book had been published in English and
+Arabic, except the new Recruiting Law (1885) and a manufacturing manual,
+for which French and Arabic editions are in use. The discipline of the
+old army had been regulated by a translation of part of the Code
+Napoleon, which was inadequate for an Eastern army, and the sirdar
+replaced it by the British Army Act of 1881, slightly modified, and
+printed in Arabic.
+
+The task undertaken by the small body of British officers was difficult.
+There was not one point in the former administration of the army
+acceptable to English gentlemen. That there had been no adequate
+auxiliary departments, without which an army cannot move or be
+efficient, was comparatively a minor difficulty. To succeed, it was
+essential that the fellah should be taught that discipline might be
+strict without being oppressive, that pay and rations would be fairly
+distributed, that brutal usage by superiors would be checked, that
+complaints would be thoroughly investigated, and impartial justice meted
+out to soldiers of all ranks. An epidemic of cholera in the summer of
+1883 gave the British officers their first chance of acquiring the
+esteem and confidence of their men, and the opportunity was nobly
+utilized. While the patient fellah, resigned to the decrees of the
+Almighty, saw the ruling Egyptian class hurry away from Cairo, he saw
+also those of his comrades who were stricken tenderly nursed, soothed in
+death's struggles, and in many cases actually washed, laid out and
+interred by their new self-sacrificing and determined masters. The
+regeneration of the fellahin army dates from that epidemic.
+
+When the Egyptian Army of the Delta was dispersed at Tell el-Kebir, the
+khedive had 40,000 troops in the Sudan, scattered from Massawa on the
+Red Sea to 1200 m. towards the west, and from Wadi Halfa, 1500 m.
+southward to Wadelai, near Albert Nyanza. These were composed of Turks,
+Albanians, Circassians and some Sudanese. Ten thousand fellahin,
+collected in March 1883, mainly from Arabi's former forces, set out from
+Duem, 100 m. south of Khartum, in September 1883, under Hicks Pasha, a
+dauntless retired Indian Army officer, to vanquish the Mahdi. They
+disappeared in the deserts of Kordofan, where they were destroyed by the
+Mahdists about 50 m. south of El Obeid. In the wave of successful
+rebellion, except at Khartum, few of the Egyptian garrisons were killed
+when the posts fell, long residence and local family ties rendering easy
+their assimilation in the ranks of the Mahdists.
+
+Baker Pasha, with about 4000 constabulary, who were old soldiers,
+attempted to relieve Tokar in February 1884. He was attacked by 1200
+tribesmen and utterly routed, losing 4 Krupp guns, 2 machine guns and
+3000 rifles. Only 1400 Egyptians escaped the slaughter.
+
+The sirdar made an attempt to raise a battalion of Albanians, but the
+few men obtained mutinied when ordered to proceed to the Sudan, and it
+was deemed advisable, after the ringleaders had been executed, to
+abandon the idea, and rely on blacks to stiffen the fellahin. Then the
+9th (Sudanese) Battalion was created for service at Suakin, and four
+others having been successively added, these (with one exception--at
+Gedaref) have since borne the brunt of all the fighting which has been
+done by the khedivial troops. The Egyptian troops in the operations near
+Suakin behaved well; and there were many instances of personal gallantry
+by individual soldiers. In the autumn of 1884, when a British expedition
+went up the Nile to endeavour to relieve the heroic Gordon, besieged in
+Khartum, the Egyptians did remarkably good work on the line of
+communication from Assiut to Korti, a distance of 800 m., and the
+training and experience thus gained were of great value in all
+subsequent operations. The honesty and discipline of the fellah were
+shown to be undoubtedly of a high order. When the crews of the
+whale-boats were conveying stores, the forwarding officers tried to keep
+brandy and such like medical comforts from the European crews, coffee
+and tea from Canadian voyageurs and sugar from Kroo boys. The only
+immaculate carrier was the Egyptian. A large sum of specie having failed
+under British escort to reach Dongola, an equivalent sum was handed to
+an Egyptian lieutenant of six months' service, with 10 men, and duly
+reached its destination.
+
+Twelve years later the standard of honesty was unimpaired, and the
+British officers had imparted energy and activity into Egyptians of all
+ranks. The intelligent professional knowledge of the native officers,
+taught under British gentlemen, and the constant hard work cheerfully
+rendered by the fellah soldiers, were the main factors of the success
+achieved at Omdurman on the 2nd of September 1898. The large depots of
+stores at Assuan, Halfa and Dongola could only be cursorily supervised
+by British officers, and yet when the stores were received at the
+advance depot the losses were infinitesimal.
+
+
+  Character of Egyptian soldier.
+
+By nature the fellah is unwarlike. Born in the valley of a great river,
+he resembles in many respects the Bengali, who exists under similar
+conditions; but the Egyptian has proved capable of greater improvement.
+He is stronger in frame, and can undergo greater exertion. Singularly
+unemotional, he stood steady at Tell el-Kebir after Arabi Pasha and all
+his officers, from general to subaltern, had fled, and gave way only
+when decimated by the British field artillery firing case shot. At El
+Teb, however, in 1884 he allowed himself to be slaughtered by tribesmen
+formerly despised, and only about one-fourth of the force under General
+Valentine Baker escaped. Baker Pasha's force was termed constabulary,
+yet his men were all old soldiers, though new to their gallant leader
+and to the small band of their brave but strange British officers. Since
+that fatal day, however, many of the fellahin have shown they are
+capable of devoted conduct, and much has been done to raise in the
+soldiers a sense of self-respect, and, in spite of centuries of
+oppression, of veracity. The barrack-square drill was smart under the
+old system, but there was no fire discipline, and all individuality was
+crushed. Now both are encouraged, and the men, receiving their full
+rations, are unsurpassable in endurance at work and in marching. All the
+troops present in the surprise fight when the Dervish force was
+destroyed at Firket in June 1896 had covered long distances, and one
+battalion (the 10th Sudanese) accomplished 90 m. within 72 hours,
+including the march back to railhead immediately after the action. The
+troops under Colonel Parsons, Royal Artillery, who beat the Dervishes at
+Gedaref, were so short of British officers that all orders were
+necessarily given in Arabic and carried to commanders of units by Arabs.
+While an Egyptian battalion was attacking in line, it was halted to
+repel a rush from the rear, and front and rear ranks were simultaneously
+engaged, firing in opposite directions--yet the fellahin were absolutely
+steady; they shot well and showed no signs of trepidation. On the other
+hand, neither was there any exultation after their victory. It has been
+aptly said "the fellah would make an admirable soldier if he only
+wished to kill some one!" The fellahin furnish three squadrons, five
+batteries, three garrison artillery companies and nine battalions.
+
+The well-educated Egyptian officer, with his natural aptitude for
+figures, does subordinate regimental routine carefully, and works well
+when supervised by men of stronger character. The ordinary Egyptian is
+not self-reliant or energetic by nature, and, like most Eastern people,
+finds it difficult to be impartial where duty and family or other
+personal relations are in the balance. The black soldier has, on the
+other hand, many of the finest fighting qualities. This was observed by
+British officers, from the time of the preliminary operations about
+Kosha and at the action near Ginnis in December 1885 down to the
+brilliant operations in the pursuit of the Mahdists on the Blue Nile
+after the action of Gedaref (subsequent to the battle of Omdurman), and
+the fighting in Kordofan in 1899, which resulted in the death of the
+khalifa and his amirs.
+
+Black soldiers served in the army of Mehemet Ali, but their fighting
+value was not then duly appreciated. Prior to the death of the khalifa,
+many of his soldiers deserted to join their brethren who had been
+captured by the sirdar's troops, during the gradual advance up the Nile.
+After 1899 many more enlisted: the greater number were Shilluks and
+Dinkas coming from the country between Fashoda and the equatorial
+provinces, but a proportion came from the western borders of the Sudan,
+and some from Wadai and Bornu. Many were absolute savages, difficult to
+control, wayward and thoughtless like children. Sudanese are very
+excitable and apt to get out of hand; unlike the fellahs they are not
+fond of drill, and are slow to acquire it; but their dash, pugnacious
+instincts and desire to close with an enemy, are valuable military
+qualities. The Sudanese, moreover, shoot better than the fellahin, whose
+eyesight is often defective. The Sudanese captain can seldom read or
+write, and is therefore in the hands of the Egyptian-born company
+quartermaster-sergeant as regards pay and clothing accounts. He is slow,
+and as a rule has little knowledge of drill. Nevertheless he is
+self-reliant, much respected by his men, and can be trusted in the field
+to carry out any orders received from his British officer. The most
+efficient companies in the Sudanese battalions are apparently those in
+which the captain is a black and the lieutenants are Egyptians.
+
+  In 1908 the Egyptian army, with a total establishment of 18,000,
+  consisted of three squadrons of cavalry (one composed of Sudanese)
+  each numbering 116 men; four batteries of field artillery and a Maxim
+  battery, horses and mules being used, with a total strength of 1257 of
+  all ranks; the camel corps, 626 of all ranks (fellahin and Sudanese);
+  and nine fellahin and six Sudanese infantry battalions, 10,631 of all
+  ranks. Every battalion receives two additional companies on
+  mobilization and takes the field with six companies.
+
+  The armament of the infantry is Martini-Henry rifle and bayonet; of
+  the cavalry, lance, sword and carbine.
+
+  There are seven gunboats on the Nile.
+
+  The medical department (reorganized in 1883 by Surgeon-Major J. G.
+  Rogers at the time of the cholera epidemic) controls in peace fourteen
+  station hospitals, and in war furnishes a mobile field hospital to
+  each brigade. There are also veterinary station hospitals. The supply
+  department controls mills at Tura, Halfa and Khartum.
+
+  The stringent system of selecting British officers, originated by the
+  first sirdar in 1883, is shown by the fact that of the 24 employed in
+  creating the army, 14 rose to be generals. The competition for
+  employment in the army is still severe. In 1908 there were 140 British
+  warrant and non-commissioned officers. Four of the fellahin battalions
+  were officered by Orientals; in the other five, British officers
+  commanded. Seven officers were employed with the artillery, six with
+  the camel corps. Each of the Sudanese battalions had four British
+  officers, and each squadron of cavalry one. Twelve medical and two
+  veterinary officers are also employed departmentally, as well as
+  officers acting as directors of supply, &c. Since the assumption of
+  command by the third sirdar, Colonel (afterwards Lord) Kitchener, the
+  ordnance, supply and engineer services have been separately
+  administered, and a financial secretary is charged with the duty of
+  preparing the budget, making contracts, &c. The total annual
+  expenditure is £500,000.
+
+  The reorganized military school system under British control, for
+  supplying officers, dates from 1887. The course lasts for about two
+  years, and two hundred students can be accommodated. After the
+  reconquest of the Sudan one-fourth of the cadets in the military
+  school of Cairo were Sudanese. Later, however, the Sudanese cadets
+  were transferred to a branch school at Khartum.
+
+  The army raised by the first sirdar in January 1883 was highly
+  commended for its work on the line of communication in 1884-1885, and
+  its artillery and camelry distinguished themselves in the action at
+  Kirbekan in February 1885. Colonel Sir Francis Grenfell succeeded
+  General Sir Evelyn Wood in March 1885, and while under his command the
+  army continued to improve, and fought successful actions at Gemaiza,
+  Argin, Toski and Tokar. At Toski the Dervish force was nearly
+  annihilated. In March 1892 Colonel Kitchener succeeded General Sir
+  Francis Grenfell, and four years later began his successful reconquest
+  of the Sudan. In June 1896, owing to the indefatigable exertions of
+  Major Wingate, a perfected system of secret intelligence enabled the
+  sirdar to bring an overwhelming force of 6 to 1 against the Dervish
+  outpost at Firket and destroy it. In September 1896 a skirmish at
+  Hafir, with similarly successful tactics, gave the British commander
+  the possession of Dongola. On the 7th of August 1897 Colonel Hunter
+  surprised and annihilated a weak Dervish garrison at Abu Hamed, to
+  which place, by the 31st of October 1897, a railway had been laid
+  across the Nubian desert from Wadi Halfa, a distance of 230 m., the
+  "record" construction of 5300 yds surveyed, embanked and laid in one
+  day having been attained. On the 26th of December 1897 the Italian
+  troops handed over Kassala to Colonel Parsons, R.A. On the 8th of
+  April 1898 a British division, with the Egyptian army, destroyed the
+  Dervish force under the amir Mahmud Ahmed, on the Atbara river. On the
+  2nd of September the khalifa attacked the British-Egyptian troops at
+  Kerreri (near Omdurman), and being routed, his men dispersed; Khartum
+  was occupied, and on the 19th of September the Egyptian flag was
+  rehoisted at Fashoda. On the 22nd of September 1898 Gedaref was taken
+  from the amir Ahmed Fedil by Colonel Parsons, and on the 26th of
+  December the army of Ahmed Fedil was finally defeated and dispersed
+  near Roseires. The khalifa's army, reduced to an insignificant number,
+  after several unsuccessful engagements withdrew to the west of the
+  Nile, where it was attacked, on the 24th of November 1899, after a
+  forced march by Colonel Wingate, and annihilated. The khalifa himself
+  was killed; while the victor, who had joined the Egyptian army in 1883
+  as aide-de-camp to the first sirdar, in December 1899 became the
+  fourth sirdar, as Major-General Sir F. R. Wingate, K.C.B., K.C.M.G.,
+  D.S.O., &c.     (E. Wo.)
+
+
+II. ANCIENT EGYPT
+
+A. _Exploration and Research._--Owing to its early development of a high
+civilization with written records, its wealth, and its preservative
+climate, Egypt is the country which most amply repays archaeological
+research. It is especially those long ages during which Egypt was an
+independent centre of culture and government, before its absorption in
+the Persian empire in the 6th century B.C., that make the most powerful
+appeal to the imagination and can often justify this appeal by the
+splendour of the monuments representing them. Later, however, the
+history of Hellenism, the provincial history of the Roman empire, the
+rise of Christianity and the triumph of Islam successively receive
+brilliant illustration in Egypt.
+
+As early as the 17th century travellers began to bring home specimens of
+ancient Egyptian handiwork: a valuable stele from Sakkara of the
+beginning of the Old Kingdom was presented to the Ashmolean Museum at
+Oxford in 1683. In the following century the Englishman R. Pococke
+(1704-1765), the Dane F. L. Norden (1708-1742), both travelling in 1737,
+and others later, planned, described or figured Egyptian ruins in a
+primitive way and identified many of the sites with cities named in
+classical authors. Napoleon's great military expedition in 1798 was
+accompanied by a scientific commission including artists and
+archaeologists, the results of whose labours fill several of the
+magnificent volumes of the _Description de l'Égypte_. The antiquities
+collected by the expedition, including the famous Rosetta stone, were
+ceded to the British government at the capitulation of Alexandria, in
+1801. Thereafter Mehemet Ali threw Egypt freely open to Europeans, and a
+busy traffic in antiquities began, chiefly through the agency of the
+consuls of different powers. From the year 1820 onwards the growth of
+the European collections was rapid, and Champollion's decipherments (see
+below, § "Language and Writing") of the hieroglyphic inscriptions,
+dating from 1821, added fresh impetus to the fashion of collecting, in
+spite of doubts as to their trustworthiness. In 1827 a combined
+expedition led by Champollion and Rosellini was despatched by the
+governments of France and Tuscany, and accomplished a great deal of
+valuable work in copying scenes and inscriptions. But the greatest of
+such expeditions was that of Lepsius, under the auspices of the
+Prussian government, in 1842-1845. Its labours embraced not only Egypt
+and Nubia (as far as Khartum) but also the Egyptian monuments in Sinai
+and Syria; its immense harvest of material is of the highest value, the
+new device of taking paper impressions or "squeezes" giving Lepsius a
+great advantage over his predecessors, similar to that which was later
+conferred by the photographic camera.
+
+A new period was opened in Egyptian exploration in 1858 when Mariette
+was appointed director of archaeological works in Egypt, his duties
+being to safeguard the monuments and prevent their exploitation by
+dealers. As early as 1835 Mehemet Ali had given orders for a museum to
+be formed; little however, was accomplished before the whole of the
+resulting collection was given away to the Archduke Maximilian of
+Austria in 1855. Mariette, who was appointed by the viceroy Said Pasha
+at the instance of the French government, succeeded in making his office
+effective and permanent, in spite of political intrigues and the whims
+of an Oriental ruler; he also secured a building on the island of Bulak
+(Bulaq) for a viceregal museum in which the results of his explorations
+could be permanently housed. Supported by the French interest, the
+established character of this work as a department of the Egyptian
+government (which also claims the ancient sites) has been fully
+recognized since the British occupation. The "Service of Antiquities"
+now boasts a large annual budget and employs a number of European and
+native officials--a director, curators of the museum, European
+inspectors and native sub-inspectors of provinces (at Luxor for Upper
+Egypt and Nubia, at Assiut for Middle Egypt and the Fayum, at Mansura
+for Lower Egypt, besides a European official in charge of the government
+excavations at Memphis). The museum, no longer the property of an
+individual, was removed in 1889 from the small building at Bulak to a
+disused palace at Giza, and since 1902 has been established at
+Kasr-en-Nil, Cairo, in a special building, of ample size and safe from
+fire and flood. In the year 1881 the directorship of the museum was
+temporarily undertaken by Prof. Maspero, who resumed it in 1899. The
+admirably conducted Archaeological Survey of the portion of Nubia
+threatened by the raising of the Assuan dam is in the charge of another
+department--the Survey department, directed for many years up to 1909 by
+Captain H. G. Lyons. Non-official agencies (supported by voluntary
+contributions) for exploration in Egypt comprise the Egypt Exploration
+Fund, started in London in 1881, with its two branches, viz. the
+Archaeological Survey (1890) for copying and publishing the monuments
+above ground, and the Graeco-Roman Branch (1897), well known through the
+brilliant work in Greek papyri of B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt; and the
+separate Research Account founded by Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie in
+London (University College) in 1896, and since 1905 called the British
+School of Archaeology in Egypt (see especially MEMPHIS). The _Mission
+archéologique française au Caire_, established as a school by the French
+government in 1881, was re-organized in 1901 on a lavish scale under the
+title _Institut français d'archéologie orientale du Caire_, and
+domiciled with printing-press and library in a fine building near the
+museum. As the result of an excellent bargain, it was afterwards removed
+to the Munira palace in the south-east part of the city. An
+archaeologist is attached to the German general consulate to look after
+the interests of German museums, and is director of the German Institute
+of Archaeology. The Orient-Gesellschaft (German Orient-Society) has
+worked in Egypt since 1901 with brilliant results. Excavations and
+explorations are also conducted annually by the agents of universities
+and museums in England, America and Germany, and by private explorers,
+concessions being granted generally on the terms that the Egyptian
+government shall retain half of the antiquities discovered, while the
+other half remains for the finders.
+
+The era of scientific excavation began with Flinders Petrie's work at
+Tanis in 1883. Previous explorers kept scientific aims in view, but the
+idea of scientific archaeology was not realized by them. The procedure
+in scientific excavation is directed to collecting and interpreting all
+the information that can be obtained from the excavation as to the
+history and nature of the site explored, be it town, temple, house,
+cemetery or individual grave, wasting no evidence that results from it
+touching the endless problems which scientific archaeology
+affords--whether in regard to arts and crafts, manners and customs,
+language, history or beliefs. This is a totally different thing from
+mere hunting for inscriptions, statues or other portable objects which
+will present a greater or less value in themselves even when torn from
+their context. Such may, of course, form the greater part of the harvest
+and working material of a scientific excavator; their presence is most
+welcome to him, but their complete absence need be no bar to his
+attainment of important historical results. The absence of scientific
+excavation in Egypt was deplored by the Scottish archaeologist Alexander
+Henry Rhind (1833-1863), as early as 1862. Since Flinders Petrie began,
+the general level of research has gradually risen, and, while much is
+shamefully bad and destructive, there is a certain proportion that fully
+realizes the requirements of scientific archaeology.
+
+_Antiquities, Sites, &c._--The remains for archaeological investigation
+in Egypt may be roughly classified as material and literary: to the
+latter belong the texts on papyri and the inscriptions, to the former
+the sites of ancient towns with the temples, fortifications and houses;
+remains of roads, canals, quarries and other matters falling within the
+domain of ancient topography; the larger monuments, as obelisks,
+statues, stelae, &c.; and finally the small antiquities--utensils,
+clothes, weapons, amulets, &c. Where moisture can reach the antiquities
+their preservation is no better in Egypt than it would have been in
+other countries; for this reason all the papyri in the Delta have
+perished unless they happen to have been charred by fire. A terrible
+pest is a kind of termite which is locally abundant and has probably
+visited most parts of Egypt at one time or another, destroying all dead
+vegetable or animal material in the soil that was not specially
+protected.
+
+In Lower Egypt the cities built of crude brick were very numerous,
+especially after the 7th century B.C., but owing to the value of stone
+very few of their monuments have escaped destruction: even the mounds of
+rubbish which marked their sites furnish a valuable manure for the
+fields and in consequence are rapidly disappearing. Granite and other
+hard stones, having but a limited use (for millstones and the like),
+have the best chance of survival. At Bubastis, Tanis, Behbeit (Iseum)
+and Heliopolis considerable stone remains have been discovered. In the
+north of the Delta wherever salt marshes have prevented cultivation in
+modern times, the mounds, such as those of Pelusium, still stand to
+their full height, and the more important are covered with ruins of
+brick structures of Byzantine and Arab date.
+
+Middle and Upper Egypt were less busy and prosperous in the later ages
+than Lower Egypt. There was consequently somewhat less consumption of
+the old stone-work. Moreover, in many places equally good material could
+be obtained without much difficulty from the cliffs on both sides of the
+Nile. Yet even the buried portions of limestone buildings have seldom
+been permitted to survive on the cultivated land; the Nubian sandstone
+of Upper Egypt was of comparatively little value, and, generally
+speaking, buildings in that material have fallen into decay rather than
+been destroyed by quarrying.
+
+Starting from Cairo and going southward we have first the great
+pyramid-field, with the necropolis of Memphis as its centre; stretching
+from Abu Roash on the north to Lisht on the south, it is followed by the
+pyramid group of Dahshur, the more isolated pyramids of Medum and
+Illahun, and that of Hawara in the Fayum. On the east bank are the
+limestone quarries of Turra and Masara opposite Memphis. South of the
+Fayum on the western border of the desert are the tombs of Deshasha,
+Meir and Assiut, and on the east bank those of Beni Hasan, the rock-cut
+temple of Speos Artemidos, the tombs of El Bersha and Sheikh Said, the
+tombs and stelae of El Amarna with the alabaster quarries of Hanub in
+the desert behind them, and the tombs of Deir el Gebrawi. Beyond Assiut
+are the tombs of Dronka and Rifa, the temples of Abydos and Dendera, and
+the tombs, &c., at Akhmim and Kasr es Saiyad. Farther south are the
+stupendous ruins of Thebes on both sides of the river, the temple of
+Esna, the ruins and tombs of El Kab, the temple of Edfu, the quarries of
+Silsila and the temple of Ombos, followed by the inscribed rocks of the
+First Cataract, the tombs and quarries of Assuan and the temples of
+Philae.
+
+[Illustration: EGYPT Scale, 1:8,400,000]
+
+In Nubia, owing to the poverty of the country and its scanty population,
+the proportion of monuments surviving is infinitely greater than in
+Egypt. Here are the temples of Debod, the temple and quarries of
+Kertassi, the temples of Kalabsha, Bet el Wali, Dendur, Gerf Husen,
+Dakka, Maharaka, Es-Sebu'a, 'Amada and Derr, the grottos of Elles ya,
+the tombs of Aniba, the temple of Ibrim, the great rock-temples of
+Abu-Simbel, the temples at Jebel Adda and Wadi Halfa, the forts and
+temples of Semna, the temples of Amara (Meroitic) and Soleb. Beyond are
+the Ethiopian temples and pyramids of Jebel Barkal and the other
+pyramids of Napata at Tangassi, &c., the still later pyramids of Meroe
+at Begerawia, and the temples of Mesauwarat and Naga reaching to within
+50 m. of Khartum.
+
+Outside the Nile valley on the west are temples in the Great and Little
+Oases and the Oasis of Ammon: on the east quarries and stelae on the
+Hammamat road to the Red Sea, and mines and other remains at Wadi
+Maghara and Serabit el Khadim in the Sinai peninsula. In Syria there are
+tablets of conquest on the rocks at the mouth of the Nahr el Kelb.
+
+Of the collections of Egyptian antiquities in public museums, those of
+the British Museum, Leiden, Berlin, the Louvre, Turin were already very
+important in the first half of the 19th century, also in a less degree
+those of Florence, Bologna and the Vatican. Most of these have since
+been greatly increased and many others have been created. By far the
+largest collection in the world is that at Cairo. In America the museums
+and universities of Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, San Francisco and New
+York have collections of greater or less interest. Besides these the
+museums of Edinburgh, Liverpool, Manchester and Oxford are noteworthy in
+Great Britain for their Egyptian antiquities, as are those of St
+Petersburg, Vienna, Marseilles, Munich, Copenhagen, Palermo and Athens;
+there are also collections in most of the British colonies. Private
+collections are numerous.
+
+_Literary Records._--In estimating the sources of information regarding
+pre-Christian Egypt, the native sources, first opened to us by
+Champollion, are infinitely the most important. With very few exceptions
+they are contemporary with the events which they record. Of the
+composition of history and the description of their own manners and
+customs by the Egyptians for posterity, few traces have reached our day.
+Consequently the information derived from their monuments, in spite of
+their great abundance, is of a fortuitous character. For one early
+papyrus that survives, many millions must have perished. If the journals
+of accounts, the letters and business documents, had come down to us _en
+masse_, they would no doubt have yielded to research the history and
+life of Egypt day by day; but those that now represent a thousand years
+of the Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom together would not half fill an
+ordinary muniment chest. A larger proportion of the records on stone
+have survived, but that an event should be inscribed on stone depends on
+a variety of circumstances and not necessarily on its importance. There
+may seem to be a great abundance of Egyptian monuments, but they have to
+cover an enormous space of time, and even in the periods which are best
+represented, gravestones recording the names of private persons with a
+prayer or two are scarcely material for history. A scrap of annals has
+been found extending from the earliest times to the Vth Dynasty, as well
+as a very fragmentary list of kings reaching nearly to the end of the
+Middle Kingdom, to help out the scattered data of the other monuments.
+As to manners and customs, although we possess no systematic
+descriptions of them from a native source, the native artists and
+scribes have presented us with exceptionally rich materials in the
+painted and sculptured scenes of the tombs from the Old and Middle
+Kingdoms and the New Empire. For the Deltaic dynasties these sources
+fail absolutely, the scenes being then either purely religious or
+conventional imitations of the earlier ones.
+
+Fortunately the native records are largely supplemented by others:
+valuable information comes from cuneiform literature, belonging to two
+widely separated periods. The first group is contemporary with the
+XVIIIth and XIXth Dynasties and consists in the first place of the Tell
+el Amarna tablets with others related to them, containing the reports of
+governors of the Syrian possessions of Egypt, and the correspondence of
+the kings of Babylon, Assur, Mitanni and Khatti (the Hittites) with the
+Pharaohs. The sequel to this is furnished by Winckler's discovery of
+documents relating to Rameses II. of the XIXth Dynasty in the Hittite
+capital at Boghaz Keui (see also HITTITES and PTERIA). The other group
+comprises the annals and inscriptions of the Assyrian kings Esarhaddon
+and Assur-bani-pal, recording their invasions of Egypt under the XXVth
+Dynasty. There are also a few references to Egypt of later date down to
+the reign of Darius. In Hebrew literature the Pentateuch, the historical
+books and the prophets alike contain scanty but precious information
+regarding Egypt. Aramaic papyri written principally by Jews of the
+Persian period (5th century B.C.) have been found at Syene and Memphis.
+
+Of all the external sources the literary accounts written in Greek are
+the most valuable. They comprise fragments of the native historian
+Manetho, the descriptions of Egypt in Herodotus and Diodorus, the
+geographical accounts of Strabo and Ptolemy, the treatise of Plutarch on
+Isis and Osiris and other monographs or scattered notices of less
+importance. Our knowledge of the history of Alexander's conquest, of the
+Ptolemies and of the Roman occupation is almost entirely derived from
+Greek sources, and in fact almost the same might be said of the history
+of Egypt as far back as the beginning of the XXVIth Dynasty. The
+non-literary Greek remains in papyri and inscriptions which are being
+found in great abundance throw a flood of light on life in Egypt and the
+administration of the country from the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus to
+the Arab conquest. On the other hand, papyri and inscriptions in Latin
+are of the greatest rarity, and the literary remains in that language
+are of small importance for Egypt.
+
+Arabic literature appears to be entirely barren of authentic information
+regarding the earlier condition of the country. Two centuries of
+unchallenged Christianity had broken almost completely the traditions of
+paganism, even if the Moslems had been willing to consider them, either
+in their fanciful accounts of the origins of cities, &c., or elsewhere.
+
+B. _The Country in Ancient Times._--The native name of Egypt was Kemi
+(KM·T), clearly meaning "the black land," Egypt being so called from the
+blackness of its alluvial soil (cf. Plut. _De Is. et Os._ cap. 33): in
+poetical inscriptions _Kemi_ is often opposed to _Toshri_, "the red
+land," referring to the sandy deserts around, which however, would
+probably be included in the term Kemi in its widest sense. Egypt is
+called in Hebrew Mizraim, [Hebrew: Mizraim], possibly a dual form
+describing the country in reference to its two great natural and
+historical divisions of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt: but Mizraim
+(poetically sometimes Mazor) often means Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt being
+named Pathros, "the south land." In Assyrian the name was Musri, Misri:
+in Arabic it is Misr, [Arabic: Misr], pronounced Masr in the vulgar
+dialect of Egypt. These names are certainly of Semitic origin and
+perhaps derive from the Assyrian with the meaning "frontier-land" (see
+MIZRAIM). Winckler's theory of a separate Musri immediately south of
+Palestine is now generally rejected (see, for instance, Ed. Meyer, _Die
+Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstämme_, 455). The Greek [Greek: Aigyptos]
+(Aegyptus) occurs as early as Homer; in the _Odyssey_ it is the name of
+the Nile (masc.) as well as of the country (fem.): later it was confined
+to the country. Its origin is very obscure (see Pietschmann in
+Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopädie_, s.v. "Aigyptos"). Brugsch's
+derivation from Hakeptah, a name of the northern capital, Memphis,
+though attractive, is unconfirmed.
+
+Egypt normally included the whole of the Nile valley from the First
+Cataract to the sea; pure Egyptians, however, formed the population of
+Lower Nubia above the Cataract in prehistoric times; at some periods
+also the land was divided into separate kingdoms, while at others Egypt
+stretched southward into Nubia, and it generally claimed the
+neighbouring Libyan deserts and oases on the west and the Arabian
+deserts on the east to the shore of the Red Sea, with Sinai and the
+Mediterranean coast as far as Rhinocorura (El Arish). The physical
+features in ancient times were essentially the same as at the present
+day. The bed of the Nile was lower: it appears to have risen by its own
+deposits at a rate of about 4 in. in a century. In the north of the
+Delta, however, there was a sinking of the land, in consequence of which
+the accumulations on some of the ancient sites there extend below the
+present sea-level. On the other hand at the south end of the Suez canal
+the land may have risen bodily, since the head of the Gulf of Suez has
+been cut off by a bank of rock from the Bitter lakes, which were
+probably joined to it in former days. The banks of the Nile and the
+islands in it are subject to gradual but constant alteration--indeed,
+several ancient sites have been much eroded or destroyed--and the main
+volume of the stream may in course of time be diverted into what has
+previously been a secondary channel. According to the classical writers,
+the mouths or branches of the Nile in the Delta were five in number
+(seven including two that were artificial): now there are only two. In
+Upper Egypt the main stream tended as now to flow along the eastern edge
+of the valley, while to the west was a parallel stream corresponding to
+the Bahr Yusuf. From the latter a canal or branch led to the Lake of
+Moeris, which, until the 3rd century B.C., filled the deep depression of
+the Fayum, but is now represented only by the strongly brackish waters
+of the Birket el Kerun, left in the deepest part. The area of alluvial
+land has probably not changed greatly in historic times. The principal
+changes that have occurred are due to the grip which civilization has
+taken upon the land in the course of thousands of years, often weakening
+but now firmer than ever. In early days no doubt the soil was cultivated
+in patches, but gradually a great system of canals was organized under
+the control of the central government, both for irrigation and for
+transport. The wild flora of the alluvial valley was probably always
+restricted and eventually was reduced almost to the "weeds of
+cultivation," when every acre of soil, at one period of the year under
+water, and at another roasted under the burning heat of a semi-tropical
+sun, was carefully tilled. The acacia abounded on the borders of the
+valley, but the groves were gradually cut down for the use of the
+carpenter and the charcoal-burner. The desert was full of wild life, the
+balance of nature being preserved by the carnivorous animals preying on
+the herbivorous; trees watered by soakage from the Nile protected the
+undergrowth and encouraged occasional rainfall. But this balance was
+upset by the early introduction of the goat and later of the camel,
+which destroyed the sapling trees, while the grown ones fell to the axe
+of the woodcutter. Thus in all probability the Egyptian deserts have
+become far poorer in animals and trees than they were in primitive
+times. Much of Lower Egypt was left in a wilder state than Upper Egypt.
+The marshy lands in the north were the resort of fishermen and fowlers,
+and the papyrus, the cultivation of which was a regular industry,
+protected an abundance of wild life. The abandonment of papyrus culture
+in the 8th century A.D., the neglect of the canals, and the inroads of
+the sea, have converted much of that country into barren salt marsh,
+which only years of draining and washing can restore to fertility.
+
+The rich alluvial deposits of the Nile which respond so readily to the
+efforts of the cultivator ensured the wealth of the country. Moulded
+into brick, without burning, this black clay also supplied the common
+wants of the builder, and even the palaces of the greatest kings were
+constructed of crude brick. For more lasting and ambitious work in
+temples and tombs the materials could be obtained from the rocks and
+deserts of the Nile valley. The chief of these was limestone of varying
+degrees of fineness, composing the cliffs which lined the valley from
+the apex of the Delta to the neighbourhood of El Kab; the best quality
+was obtained on the east side opposite Memphis from the quarries of
+Turra and Masara. From El Kab southward its place was taken by Libyan
+sandstone, soft and easily worked, but unsuitable for fine sculpture.
+These two were the ordinary building stones. In the limestone was found
+the flint or chert used for weapons and instruments in early times. For
+alabaster the principal quarry was that of Hanub in the desert 10 m.
+behind El Amarna, but it was obtained elsewhere in the limestone region,
+including a spot near Alexandria. A hard and fine-grained quartzite
+sandstone was quarried at Jebel Ahmar behind Heliopolis, and basalt was
+found thence along the eastern edge of the Delta to near the Wadi
+Tumilat. Red granite was obtained from the First Cataract, breccia and
+diorite were quarried from very early times in the Wadi Hammamat, on the
+road from Coptos to the Red Sea, and porphyry was brought, chiefly in
+Roman times but also in the prehistoric age, from the same region at
+Jebel Dokhan.
+
+Egypt was poor in metals. Gold was obtained chiefly from Nubia: iron was
+found in small quantities in the country and at one time was worked in
+the neighbourhood of Assuan. Some copper was obtained in Sinai. Of
+stones that were accounted precious Sinai produced turquoise and the
+Egyptian deserts garnet, carnelian and jasper.
+
+The native supply of wood for industrial purposes was exceedingly bad:
+there was no native wood long enough and straight enough to be used in
+joiners' work or sculpture without fitting and patching: palm trees were
+abundant, and if the trees could be spared, their split stems could be
+used for roofing. For boatbuilding papyrus stems and acacia wood were
+employed, and for the best work cedar-wood was imported from Lebanon.
+
+Egypt was isolated by the deserts and the sea. The Nile valley afforded
+a passage by ship or on foot into Nubia, where, however, little wealth
+was to be sought, though gold and rarities from the Sudan, such as ivory
+and ebony, came that way and an armed raid could yield a good spoil in
+slaves and cattle. The poverty-stricken and barbarous Nubians were
+strong and courageous, and gladly served in Egypt as mercenary soldiers
+and police. Through the oases also ran paths to the Sudan by which the
+raw merchandise of the southern countries could be brought to Egypt.
+Eastward, roads led through the Arabian mountains to the Red Sea, whence
+ships made voyages to the incense-bearing land of Puoni (Punt) on the
+Somali coast of Africa, rich also in gold and ivory. The mines of Sinai
+could be reached either by sea or by land along the route of the Exodus.
+The roads to Syria skirted the east border of the Delta and then
+followed the coast from near Pelusium through El Arish and Gaza. A
+secondary road branched off through the Wadi Tumilat, whence the ways
+ran northwards to Syria and southwards to Sinai. On the Libyan side the
+oasis of Siwa could be reached from the Lake of Moeris or from Terrana
+(Terenuthis), or by the coast route which also led to the Cyrenaica. The
+Egyptians had some traffic on the Mediterranean from very remote times,
+especially with Byblus in Phoenicia, the port for cedar-wood.
+
+Of the populations surrounding Egypt the negroes (Nehsi) in the south
+(Cush) were the lowest in the scale of civilization: the people of Puoni
+and of Libya (the Tehen, &c.) were pale in colour and superior to the
+negroes, but still show no sign of a high culture. The Syrians and the
+Keftiu, the latter now identified with the Cretans and other
+representatives of the Aegean civilization, are the only peoples who by
+their elaborate clothing and artistic products reveal themselves upon
+the ancient Egyptian monuments as the equals in culture of the Egyptian
+nation.
+
+The Egyptians seem to have applied no distinctive name to themselves in
+early times: they called themselves proudly _romi_ (RMTW), i.e. simply
+"men," "people," while the despised races around them, collectively
+H'SWT, "desert-peoples," were distinguished by special appellations.
+The races of mankind, including the Egyptians, were often called the
+Nine Archers. Ultimately the Egyptians, when their insularity
+disappeared under the successive dominations of Ethiopia, Assyria and
+Persia, described themselves as _rem-n-Kemi_, "men of Egypt." Whence the
+population of Egypt as we trace it in prehistoric and historic times
+came, is not certain. The early civilization of Egypt shows remarkable
+coincidences with that of Babylonia, the language is of a Semitic type,
+the religion may well be a compound of a lower African and a higher
+Asiatic order of ideas. According to the evidence of the mummies, the
+Egyptians were of slender build, with dark hair and of Caucasian type.
+Dr Elliott Smith, who has examined thousands of skeletons and mummies of
+all periods, finds that the prehistoric population of Upper Egypt, a
+branch of the North African-Mediterranean-Arabian race, changed with the
+advent of the dynasties to a stronger type, better developed than before
+in skull and muscle. This was apparently due to admixture with the Lower
+Egyptians, who themselves had been affected by Syrian immigration.
+Thereafter little further change is observable, although the rich lands
+of Egypt must have attracted foreigners from all parts. The Egyptian
+artists of the New Empire assigned distinctive types of feature as well
+as of dress to the different races with which they came into contact,
+Hittites, Syrians, Libyans, Bedouins, negroes, &c.
+
+The people of Egypt were not naturally fierce or cruel. Intellectually,
+too, they were somewhat sluggish, careless and unbusinesslike. In the
+mass they were a body of patient labourers, tilling a rich soil, and
+hating all foreign lands and ways. The wealth of their country gave
+scope for ability within the population and also attracted it from
+outside: it enabled the kings to organize great monumental enterprises
+as well as to arm irresistible raids upon the inferior tribes around.
+Urged on by necessity and opportunity, the Egyptians possessed
+sufficient enterprise and originating power to keep ahead of their
+neighbours in most departments of civilization, until the more warlike
+empires of Assyria and Persia overwhelmed them and the keener intellects
+of the Greeks outshone them in almost every department. The debt of
+civilization to Egypt as a pioneer must be considerable, above all
+perhaps in religious thought. The moral ideals of its nameless teachers
+were high from an early date: their conception of an after-life was
+exceedingly vivid: the piety of the Egyptians in the later days was a
+matter of wonder and scoffing to their contemporaries; it is generally
+agreed that certain features in the development of Christianity are to
+be traced to Egypt as their birthplace and nidus.
+
+  For researches into the ethnography of Egypt and the neighbouring
+  countries, see W. Max Müller, _Asien und Europa nach den altäg.
+  Inschriften_ (Leipzig, 1893), _Egyptological Researches_ (Washington,
+  1906); for measurements of Egyptian skulls, Miss Fawcett in
+  _Biometrika_ (1902); A. Thomson and D. Randall-MacIver, _The Ancient
+  Races of the Thebaid_ (Oxford, 1905) (cf. criticisms in _Man_, 1905;
+  and for comparisons with modern measurements, C. S. Myers, _Journ.
+  Anthropological Institute_, 1905, 80). W. Flinders Petrie has
+  collected and discussed a series of facial types shown in prehistoric
+  and early Egyptian sculpture, _Journal Anthropological Institute_,
+  1901, 248. For Elliott Smith's results see _The Cairo Scientific
+  Journal_, No. 30, vol. iii., March 1909.
+
+_Divisions._--In ancient times Egypt was divided into two regions,
+representing the kingdoms that existed before Menes. Lower Egypt,
+comprising the Delta and its borders, formed the "North Land," _To-meh_,
+and reached up the valley to include Memphis and its province or "nome,"
+while the remainder of the Egyptian Nile valley was "the South," _Shema_
+(SM'W [HRGs: sw-w-a]). The south, if only as the abode of the sun,
+always had the precedence over the north in Egypt, and the west over the
+east. Later the two regions were known respectively as P-to-res
+(Pathros), "the south land," and P-to-meh, "the north land." In
+practical administration this historic distinction was sometimes
+observed, at others ignored, but in religious tradition it had a firm
+hold. In Roman times a different system marked off a third region,
+namely Middle Egypt, from the point of the Delta southward.
+Theoretically, as its name Heptanomis implies, this division contained
+seven nomes, actually from the Hermopolite on the south to the Memphite
+on the north (excluding the Arsinoite according to the papyri). Some
+tendency to this existed earlier. Egypt to the south of the Heptanomis
+was the Thebais, called P-tesh-en-Ne, "the province of Thebes," as early
+as the XXVIth Dynasty. The Thebais was much under the influence of the
+Ethiopian kingdom, and was separated politically in the troubled times
+of the XXIIIrd Dynasty, though the old division into Upper and Lower
+Egypt was resumed in the XXVIth Dynasty.
+
+If Upper and Lower Egypt represented ancient kingdoms, the nomes have
+been thought to carry on the traditions of tribal settlements. They are
+found in inscriptions as early as the end of the IIIrd Dynasty, and the
+very name of Thoth, and that of another very ancient god, are derived
+from those of two contiguous nomes in Lower Egypt. The names are written
+by special emblems placed on standards, such as an ibis, [HRG: G26], a
+jackal [HRG: E15:R12], a hare [HRG: wn:R12], a feathered crown [HRG:
+Swty:R12], a sistrum [HRG: zSSt:R12], a blade [HRG: T30:R12], &c.,
+suggesting tribal badges. Some nomes having a common badge but
+distinguished as "nearer" or "further," i.e. "northern" or "southern,"
+have simply been split, as they are contiguous: in one case, however,
+corresponding "eastern" and "western" Harpoon nomes are widely separated
+on opposite sides of the Delta. In a few cases, such as "the West," "the
+Beginning of the East," it is obvious that the names are derived solely
+from their geographical situation. It is quite possible that the
+divisions are geographical in the main, but it seems likely that there
+were also religious, tribal and other historical reasons for them. How
+their boundaries were determined is not certain: in Upper Egypt in many
+cases a single nome embraced both sides of the river. The number and
+nomenclature of the nomes were never absolutely fixed. In temples of
+Ptolemaic and Roman age the full series is figured presenting their
+tribute to the god, and this series approximately agrees with the
+scattered data of early monuments. The normal number of the nomes in the
+sacred lists appears to be 42, of which 22 belonged to Upper Egypt and
+20 to Lower Egypt. In reality again these nome-divisions were treated
+with considerable freedom, being split or reunited and their boundaries
+readjusted. Each nome had its metropolis, normally the seat of a
+governor or nomarch and the centre of its religious observances. During
+the New Empire, except at the beginning, the nomes seem to have been
+almost entirely ignored: under the Deltaic dynasties (except of course
+in the traditions of the sacred writing) they were named after the
+metropolis, as "the province (_tosh_) of Busiris," "the province of
+Sais," &c.: hence the Greek names [Greek: Bousiritês nomos], &c. The
+Arsinoite nome was added by the Ptolemies after the draining of the Lake
+of Moeris (q.v.), and in the later Ptolemaic and the Roman times many
+changes and additions to the list must have been made. In Christian
+texts the "provinces" appear to have been very numerous.
+
+  See H. Brugsch, _Geographische Inschriften altägyptischer Denkmäler_
+  (3 vols., Leipzig, 1857-1860), and for the nomes on monuments of the
+  Old Kingdom, N. de G. Davies, _Mastaba of Ptahhetep and Akhethetep_
+  (London, 1901), p. 24 et sqq.
+
+_King and Government._--The government of Egypt was monarchical. The
+king (for titles see PHARAOH) was the head of the hierarchy: he was
+himself divine and is often styled "the good god," and was the proper
+mediator between gods and men. He was also the dispenser of office,
+confirmer of hereditary titles and estates and the fountain of justice.
+Oaths were generally sworn by the "life" of the king. The king wore
+special headdresses and costumes, including the crowns of Upper [HRG:
+HDt] and Lower Egypt [HRG: N] (often united [HRG: S5]), and the cobra
+upon his forehead. Females were admitted to the succession, but very few
+instances occur before the Cleopatras. The most notable Pharaonic queen
+in her own right was Hatshepsut in the XVIIIth Dynasty, but her reign
+was ignored by the later rulers even of her own family. A certain
+Nitocris of about the VIIIth Dynasty and Scemiophris of the XIIth
+Dynasty are in the lists, but are quite obscure. Yet inheritance through
+the female line was fully recognized, and marriage with the heiress
+princess was sought by usurpers to legitimate the claims of their
+offspring. Often, especially in the XIIth Dynasty, the king associated
+his heir on the throne with him to ensure the succession.
+
+From time to time feudal conditions prevailed: the great landowners and
+local princes had establishments of their own on the model of the royal
+court, and were with difficulty kept in order by the monarch. In rare
+cases during the Middle Kingdom (inscriptions in the tomb of Ameni at
+Beni Hasan, graffiti in the quarries of Hanub) documents were dated in
+the years of reign of these feudatory nobles. Under the Empire all power
+was again centralized in the hands of the Pharaoh. The apportionment of
+duties amongst the swarm of officials varied from age to age, as did
+their titles. Members of the royal family generally held high office.
+Under the Empire Egypt was administered by a vast bureaucracy, at the
+head of which, responsible to the king, was the vizier, or sometimes two
+viziers, one for Upper Egypt, the other for Lower Egypt (in which case
+the former, stationed at Thebes, had the precedence). The duties of the
+vizier and the procedure in his court are detailed in a long inscription
+which is repeated in three tombs of the XVIIIth Dynasty at Thebes
+(Breasted, _Records_, ii. § 663 et seqq.). The strictest impartiality
+was enjoined upon him, and he was advised to hold aloof from the people
+in order to preserve his authority. The office of vizier was by no means
+a sinecure. All the business of the country was overlooked by
+him--treasury, taxation, army, law-courts, expeditions of every kind.
+Egypt was the vast estate of Pharaoh, and the vizier was the steward of
+it.
+
+_Army._--The youth of Egypt was liable to be called upon for service in
+the field under the local chiefs. Their training consisted of gymnastic
+and warlike exercises which developed strength and discipline that would
+be as useful in executing public works and in dragging large monuments
+as in strictly military service. They were armed in separate companies
+with bows and arrows, spears, daggers and shields, and the officers
+carried battle-axes and maces. The army, commanded in chief by Una under
+the VIth Dynasty for raids in Sinai or Palestine, comprised levies from
+every part of Egypt and from Nubia, each under its own leader. Under the
+New Empire, when Egypt was almost a military state, the army was a more
+specialized institution, the art of war in siege and strategy had
+developed, divisions were formed with special standards, there were
+regiments armed with battle-axes and scimitars, and chariots formed an
+essential part of the host. Egyptian cavalry are not represented upon
+the monuments, and we hear little of such at any time. Herodotus divides
+the army into two classes, the Calasiries and the Hermotybies; these
+names, although he was not aware of it, mean respectively horse- and
+foot-soldiers, but it is possible that the former name was only
+traditional and had characterized those who fought from chariots, a mode
+of warfare that was obsolete in Herodotus's own day: as a matter of fact
+both classes are said to have served on the warships of Xerxes' fleet.
+
+_Arms and Armour._--From the contents of graves and other remains, and
+the sculptured and painted scenes, an approximate idea can be obtained
+of the weapons of the Egyptians at all periods from the prehistoric age
+onwards. Only a few points are here noted. Stone mace-heads are found in
+the earliest cemeteries, together with flint implements that may be the
+heads of lances, &c., and thin leaf-shaped daggers of bronze. Stone
+arrow-heads are common on the surface of the desert. Thin bronze
+arrow-heads appear at an early date; under the Empire they are stouter
+and furnished with a tang, and later still, towards the Greek period,
+they are socketed (often three-sided), or, if of iron, still tanged. The
+wooden club, a somewhat primitive weapon, seems to have been considered
+characteristic of foreigners from very early times, and, in scenes
+dating from the Middle Kingdom, belong principally to the levies from
+the surrounding barbarians. The dagger grew longer and stouter, but the
+sword made its appearance late, probably first in the hands of the
+_Sherdana_ (Sardinian?), mercenaries of the time of Rameses II. A
+peculiar scimitar, _khopsh_ [HRG], is characteristic of the Empire.
+Slings are first heard of in Egyptian warfare in the 8th century B.C.
+The chariot was doubtless introduced with the horse in the Hyksos
+period; several examples have been discovered in the tombs of the New
+Kingdom. Shields were covered with ox-hide and furnished with round
+sighting-holes above the middle. Cuirasses of bronze scales were worn by
+the kings and other leaders. The linen corslets of the Egyptian soldiery
+at a later time were famous, and were adopted by the Persian army.
+According to the paintings of the Middle Kingdom in the tombs of Beni
+Hasan, the battlements of brick fortresses were attacked and wrenched
+away with long and massive spears. No siege engines are depicted, even
+in the time of the Empire, and the absence of original representations
+after the XXth Dynasty renders it difficult to judge the advances made
+in the art of war during the first half of the last millennium B.C. The
+inscription of Pankhi, however, proves that in the 8th century
+approaches and towers were raised against the walls of besieged cities.
+
+_Priesthood._--The priesthood was in a great degree hereditary, though
+perhaps not essentially so. In each temple the priests were divided into
+four orders (until Ptolemy Euergetes added a fifth), each of which
+served in turn for a lunar month under the chief priest or prophet. They
+received shares of the annual revenues of the temple in kind, consisting
+of linen, oil, flesh, bread, vegetables, wine, beer, &c. The "divine
+servants" or "prophets" had residences assigned them in the temple area.
+In late times the priests were always shaven, and paid the greatest
+attention to cleanliness and ceremonial purity already implied in their
+ancient name. Fish and beans then were abhorred by them. Among the
+priests were the most learned men of Egypt, but probably many were
+illiterate. For the Hellenistic period see W. Otto, _Priester und Tempel
+im hellenistichen Ägypten_ (Leipzig, 1905 foll.).
+
+  For ancient Egyptian life and civilization in all departments, the
+  principal work is Ad. Erman, _Life in Ancient Egypt_, translated by H.
+  M. Tirard (London, 1894), (the original _Ägypten und ägyptisches Leben
+  im Altertum_, 2 vols., was published in 1885 at Tübingen); G. Maspero,
+  _Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria_, translated by A. P. Morton
+  (London, 1892), (_Lectures historiques_, Paris, 1890); also J. G.
+  Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_, new ed. by
+  S. Birch (3 vols., London, 1878). The annual _Archaeological Reports_
+  of the Egypt Exploration Fund contain summaries of the work done each
+  year in the several departments of research.
+
+  Of the innumerable publications of Egyptian monuments, scenes and
+  inscriptions, C. R. Lepsius, _Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopien_
+  (Berlin, 1849-1859), and Memoirs of the _Archaeological Survey_ of the
+  Egypt Exploration Fund, may be specified. For antiquities in museums
+  there is the sumptuous _Catalogue général des antiquités égyptiennes
+  du musée de Caire_; for excavations the Memoirs of the Egypt
+  Exploration Fund, of the Research Account, of the British School of
+  Archaeology, of the Liverpool School of Archaeology, of the Deutsche
+  Orient-Gesellschaft, of the Hearst Egyptian Expedition, of the
+  Theodore M. Davis excavations (Tombs of the Kings).
+
+_Trade and Money._--There is little evidence to show how buying and
+selling were carried on in ancient Egypt. A unique scene in a tomb of
+the IVth Dynasty, however, shows men and women exchanging commodities
+against each other--fish, fish-hooks, fans, necklaces, &c. Probably this
+was a market in the open air such as is held weekly at the present time
+in every considerable village. Rings of metal, gold, silver and bronze
+played some part in exchange, and from the Hyksos period onwards formed
+the usual standards by which articles of all kinds might be valued. In
+the XVIIIth Dynasty the value of meat, &c., was reckoned in gold;
+somewhat later copper seems the commonest standard, and under the
+Deltaic dynasties silver. But barter must have prevailed much longer.
+The precious metals were kept in the temples under the tutelage of the
+deities. During the XXVth and XXVIth Dynasties silver of the treasury of
+Harshafe (at Heracleopolis Magna) was commonly prescribed in contracts,
+and in the reign of Darius we hear of silver of the treasury of Ptah (at
+Memphis). Aryandes, satrap of Egypt, is said by Herodotus to have been
+punished by Darius for coining money of equal fineness with that of the
+king in Persia: thus coinage had then begun in Egypt. But the early
+coins that have been found there are mainly Greek, and especially
+Athenian, and it was not until the introduction of a regular currency in
+the three metals under the Ptolemies that much use was made of coined
+money.
+
+Corn was the staple produce of Egypt and may have been exported
+regularly, and especially when there was famine in other countries. In
+the Tell el-Amarna letters the friendly kings ask Pharaoh for "much
+gold." Papyrus rolls and fine linen were good merchandise in Phoenicia
+in the 10th century B.C. From the earliest times Egypt was dependent on
+foreign countries to supply its wants in some degree. Vessels were
+fashioned in foreign stone as early as the Ist Dynasty. All silver must
+have been imported, and all copper except a little that the Pharaohs
+obtained from the mines of Sinai. Cedar wood was brought from the
+forests of Lebanon, ivory, leopard skins and gold from the south, all
+kinds of spices and ingredients of incense from Somaliland and Arabia,
+fine linen and beautifully worked vessels from Syria and the islands.
+Such supplies might be obtained by forcible raiding or as tribute of
+conquered countries, or perhaps as the free offerings of simple savages
+awed by the arrival of ships and civilized well-armed crews, or again by
+royal missions in which rich gifts on both sides were exchanged, or
+lastly by private trading. For deciding how large a share was due to
+trade, there is almost no evidence. But there are records of expeditions
+sent out by the king to obtain the rarities of different countries, and
+the hero of the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor was upon this quest.
+Egyptian objects of the age of the XVIIIth Dynasty are found in the
+Greek islands and on the mainland among remains of the Mycenaean epoch,
+and on the other hand the products of the workshops of Crete and other
+centres of that culture are found in Egypt and are figured as "tribute
+of the Keftiu" in the tomb-paintings, though we have no information of
+any war with or conquest of that people. It must be a case of trade
+rather than tribute here and in like instances. According to the papyrus
+of Unamun at the end of the weak XXth Dynasty payment for cedar was
+insisted on by the king of Byblus from the Egyptian commissioner, and
+proofs were shown to him of payment having been made even in the more
+glorious times of Egypt. Trade both internal and external must have been
+largely in the hands of foreigners. It is impossible to say at what
+period Phoenician traffic by sea with Egypt began, but it existed as
+early as the IIIrd Dynasty. In the time of Herodotus much wine was
+imported from Syria and Greece. Amasis II. (c. 570 B.C.) established
+Naucratis as the centre of Greek trade in Egypt. Financial transactions
+by Jews settled at the southern extremity of Egypt, at Assuan, are found
+as early as the reign of Artaxerxes.
+
+_Hunting, Fishing, &c._--In the desert hunting was carried on by hunters
+with bows and arrows, dogs and nets to check the game. Here in ancient
+times were found the oryx, addax, ibex, gazelle, bubale, ostrich, hyena
+and porcupine, more rarely the wild ox and wild sheep (_O.
+tragelaphus_). All of these were considered fit for the table. The lion,
+leopard and jackal were not eaten. Pigeons and other birds were caught
+in traps, and quails were netted in the fields and on the sea-shore. In
+the papyrus marshes the hippopotamus was slain with harpoons, the wild
+boar, too, was probably hunted, and the sportsman brought down wild-fowl
+with the boomerang, or speared or angled for fish. Enormous quantities
+of wild-fowl of many sorts were taken in clap-nets, to be preserved in
+jars with salt. Fish were taken sometimes in hand-nets, but the
+professional fishermen with their draw-nets caught them in shoals. The
+fishing industry was of great importance: the annual catch in the Lake
+of Moeris and its canal formed an important part of the Egyptian
+revenue. The fish of the Nile, which were of many kinds (including
+mullets, &c., which came up from the sea), were split and dried in the
+sun: others were salted and so preserved. A supply of sea fish would be
+obtained off the coast of the Delta and at the mouth of the Lake
+Serbonis.
+
+_Farming, Horticulture, &c._--The wealth of Egypt lay in its
+agriculture. The regular inundations, the ease of irrigating the rich
+alluvial flats, and the great heat of the sun in a cloudless sky, while
+limiting the natural flora, gave immense opportunities to the
+industrious farmer. The normal rise of the Nile was sixteen cubits at
+the island of Roda, and two cubits more or less caused a failure of the
+harvest. In the paintings we see gardens irrigated by handbuckets and
+_shadufs_; the latter (buckets hung on a lever-pole) were probably the
+usual means of raising water for the fields in ancient times, and still
+are common in Egypt and Nubia, although water-wheels have been known
+since the Ptolemaic age, if not earlier. Probably a certain amount of
+cultivation was possible all the year round, and there was perhaps a
+succession of harvests; but there was a pause after the main harvests
+were gathered in by the end of April, and from then till June was the
+period in which taxes were collected and loans were repaid. Under the
+Ptolemaic régime the records show a great variety of crops, wheat and
+barley being probably the largest (see B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt,
+_Tebtunis Papyri_, i. 560; J. P. Mahaffy and J. G. Smyly, _Petrie
+Papyri_, iii. p. 205). Earlier the _boti_, in Greek [Greek: olyra]
+(spelt? or durra?) was the main crop, and earlier again inferior
+varieties of wheat and barley took the lead, with _boti_ apparently in
+the second place. The bread was mainly made of _boti_, the beer of
+barley. There were green crops such as clover, and lentils, peas, beans,
+radishes, onions, lettuces (as a vegetable and for oil), castor oil and
+flax were grown. The principal fruit trees were the date palm, useful
+also for its wood and fibre, the pomegranate, fig and fig-sycamore. The
+vine was much cultivated in early times, and the vintage is a subject
+frequently depicted. Later the wine of the Mareotic region near
+Alexandria was celebrated even amongst Roman epicures. Papyrus, which
+grew wild in the marshes, was also cultivated, at least in the later
+ages: its stems were used for boat-building, and according to the
+classical authors for rope-making, as well as for the famous writing
+material. About the 8th century A.D. paper drove the latter out of use,
+and the papyrus plant quickly became extinct. The Indian lotus described
+by Herodotus is found in deposits of the Roman age. Native lotuses, blue
+and white, were much used for decoration in garlands, &c., also the
+chrysanthemum and the corn-flower.
+
+  See chapters on plant remains by Newberry in W. M. F. Petrie, _Hawara,
+  Biahmu, and Arsinoe_ (London, 1889); _Kahun, Gurob and Hawara_ (1890);
+  V. Loret, _La Flore pharaonique_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1892), and the
+  authorities there cited.
+
+_Domestic Animals and Birds._--The farmer kept up a large stock of
+animals: in the houses there were pets and in the temples sacred
+creatures of many kinds. Goats browsed on the trees and herbage at the
+edge of the desert. Sheep of a peculiar breed with horizontal twisted
+horns and hairy coat are figured on the earliest monuments: a more
+valuable variety, woolly with curved horns, made its appearance in the
+Middle Kingdom and pushed out the older form: sheep were driven into the
+ploughed fields to break the clods and trample in the seed. The oxen
+were long-horned, short-horned and polled. They drew the plough,
+trampled the corn sheaves round the circular threshing floor, and were
+sometimes employed to drag heavy weights. The pig is rarely figured and
+was less and less tolerated as the Egyptians grew in ceremonial purity.
+A variety of wild animals caught in the chase were kept alive and fed
+for slaughter. Geese and ducks of different sorts were bred in countless
+numbers by the farmers, also pigeons and quails, and in the early ages
+cranes. The domestic fowl was unknown in Egypt before the Deltaic
+dynasties, but Diodorus in the first century B.C. describes how its eggs
+were hatched artificially, as they are at the present day. Bee-keeping,
+too, must have been a considerable industry, though dates furnished a
+supply of sweetening material.
+
+The farm lands were generally held at a rent from an overlord, who might
+according to times and circumstances be the king, a feudal prince, or a
+temple-corporation. The stock also might be similarly held, or might
+belong to the farmers. The ordinary beast of burden, even in the desert,
+was the ass. The horse seems to have been introduced with the chariot
+during the Hyksos period. It is thought that the camel is shown in rude
+figures of the earliest age, but it is scarcely traceable again before
+the XXVIth Dynasty. In the Ptolemaic period it was used for desert
+transport and gradually became common. Strange to say, it is only very
+rarely that men are depicted riding on animals, and never before the New
+Kingdom.
+
+The dog was of many varieties as early as the XIIth Dynasty, when the
+greyhound and turnspit and other well-marked forms are seen. The cat was
+sometimes trained by the sportsman to catch birds. Monkeys were commonly
+kept as pets. The sacred beasts in the various temples, tame as far as
+possible, were of almost every conceivable variety, from the vulture to
+the swallow or the goose, from the lion to the shrew-mouse, from the
+hippopotamus to the sheep and the monkey, from the crocodile to the
+tortoise and the cobra, from the carp to the eel; the scorpion and the
+scarab beetle were perhaps the strangest in this strange company of
+deities.
+
+  For agriculture see J. J. Tylor and F. Ll. Griffith, _The Tomb of
+  Paheri_ at El Kab, in the XIth Memoir of the Egypt Exploration Fund.
+  Together with hunting and fishing it is illustrated in many of the
+  Memoirs of the _Archaeological Survey_ of the same society. See also
+  Lortet and M. C. Gaillard, _La Faune momifiée de l'ancienne Égypte_
+  (Lyons, 1905).
+
+_Law._--No code of Egyptian laws has come down to us. Diodorus names a
+series of Egyptian kings who were law-givers, ending with Amasis (Ahmosi
+II.) and Darius. Frequent reference is made in inscriptions to customs
+and laws which were traditional, and perhaps had been codified in the
+sacred books. From time to time regulations on special points were
+issued by royal decree: a fragment of such a decree, directed by
+Horemheb of the XVIIIth Dynasty against oppression of the peasantry by
+officials and prescribing penalties, is preserved on a stela in the
+temple of Karnak, and enactments of Ptolemy Philadelphus and Euergetes
+II. are known from papyri. In the Ptolemaic age matters arising out of
+native contracts were decided according to native law by [Greek:
+laokritai], while travelling courts of [Greek: chrêmatistai]
+representing the king settled litigation on Greek contracts and most
+other disputes. Affairs were decided in accordance with the code of the
+country, [Greek: tês chôras nomoi], the Greek code, [Greek: politikoi
+nomoi], modelled, it would seem, on Athenian law or royal decrees,
+[Greek: prostagmata]. "Native" law was still quoted in Roman times, but
+the significance of the expression remains to be ascertained. In ancient
+Egypt petitions were sent to the king or the great feudal landowners in
+whose territory the petitioner or his adversary dwelt or the injury was
+committed: courts were composed of royal or feudal officials, or in the
+New Kingdom of officials or responsible citizens. The right of appeal to
+the king probably existed at all times. The statement of the case and
+the evidence were frequently ordered to be put in writing. The evidence
+was supported by oath: in criminal cases, such as the harem conspiracy
+against Rameses III., torture of the accused was resorted to to extract
+evidence, the bastinado being applied on the hands and the feet.
+Penalties in the New Kingdom were death (by starvation or
+self-inflicted), fines, beating with a certain number of blows so as to
+open a specified number of wounds on as many different parts of the body
+(e.g. five wounds, i.e. on hands, feet and back?), also cutting off the
+nose with banishment to Nubia or the Syrian frontier. In the times of
+the Old Kingdom decapitation was in use, and a decree exists of the
+Middle Kingdom degrading a nomarch of Coptos and his family for ever
+from his office and from the priesthood on account of services to a
+rival pretender.
+
+As to legal instruments: contracts agreed to in public or before
+witnesses and written on papyrus are found as early as the Middle
+Kingdom and perhaps belong to all historic times, but are very scarce
+until the XXVth Dynasty. Two wills exist on papyrus of the XIIth
+Dynasty, but they are isolated, and such are not again found among
+native documents, though they occur in Greek in the Ptolemaic age. The
+virtual will of a high priest of Ammon under the XXIInd Dynasty is put
+in the form of a decree of the god himself.
+
+From the time of the XXVth Dynasty there is a great increase in written
+documents of a legal character, sales, loans, &c., apparently due to a
+change in law and custom; but after the reign of Darius I. there is
+again almost a complete cessation until the reign of Alexander, probably
+only because of the disturbed condition of the country. Under Ptolemy
+Philadelphus Greek documents begin to be numerous: under Euergetes II.
+(Physcon) demotic contracts are particularly abundant, but they cease
+entirely after the first century of Roman rule.
+
+Marriage contracts are not found earlier than the XXVIth Dynasty. Women
+had full powers of inheritance (though not of dealing with their
+property), and succession through the mother was of importance. In the
+royal line there are almost certain instances of the marriage of a
+brother with an heiress-sister in Pharaonic times: this was perhaps
+helped by the analogy of Osiris and Isis: in the Ptolemaic dynasty it
+was an established custom, and one of the stories of Khamois, written in
+the Ptolemaic age, assumes its frequency at a very remote date. It would
+be no surprise to find examples of the practice in other ranks also at
+an early period, as it certainly was prevalent in the Hellenistic age,
+but as yet it is very difficult to prove its occurrence. The native
+contracts with the wife gave to her child all the husband's property,
+and divorce or separation was provided for, entailing forfeiture of the
+dowry. The "native law" of Roman times allowed a man to take his
+daughter away from her husband if the last quarrelled with him.
+
+Slavery is traceable from an early date. Private ownership of slaves,
+captured in war and given by the king to their captor or otherwise, is
+certainly seen at the beginning of the XVIIIth Dynasty. Sales of slaves
+occur in the XXVth Dynasty, and contracts of servitude are found in the
+XXVIth Dynasty and in the reign of Darius, appearing as if the consent
+of the slave was then required. Presumably at this late period there
+were eunuchs in Egypt, though adequate evidence of their existence there
+is not yet forthcoming. They must have originated among a more cruel
+people. That circumcision (though perhaps not till puberty) was
+regularly practised is proved by the mummies (agreeing with the
+testimony of Herodotus and the indications of the early tomb sculptures)
+until an edict of Hadrian forbade it: after that, only priests were
+circumcised.
+
+  See A. H. Gardiner, _The Inscription of Mes_ (from Sethe's
+  _Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde Ägyptens_, iv.); J.
+  H. Breasted, _Ancient Records_, Egypt, passim, esp. i. § 190, 535 et
+  seqq., 773, ii. 54, 671, iii. 45, 367, iv. 416, 499, 795; F. Ll.
+  Griffith, _Catalogue of the John Rylands Demotic Papyri_; B. P.
+  Grenfell and J. P. Mahaffy, _Revenue Laws of Philadelphus_ (Oxford,
+  1896); B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt, _Tebtunis Papyri_, part i.
+  (London, 1902); Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire des Lagides_, tome iv.
+  (Paris, 1907).
+
+_Science._--The Egyptians sought little after knowledge for its own
+sake: they might indulge in religious speculation, but their science was
+no more than the knowledge of practical methods. Undoubtedly the
+Egyptians acquired great skill in the application of simple means to the
+fulfilment of the most difficult tasks. But the books that have come
+down to us prove how greatly their written theoretical knowledge fell
+short of their practical accomplishment. The explanation of the fact may
+partly be that the mechanical and other discoveries of the most
+ingenious minds among them, when not in constant requisition by later
+generations, were misunderstood or forgotten, and even in other cases
+were preserved only as rules of thumb by the craftsmen and experts, who
+would jealously hide them as secrets of trade. Men of genius were not
+wanting in the long history of Egypt; two doctors, Imhotp (Imuthes), the
+architect of Zoser, in the IIIrd Dynasty, and Amenophis (Amenhotp), son
+of Hap, the wise scribe under Amenophis III. in the XVIIIth, eventually
+received the honours of deification; and Hardadf under Cheops of the
+IVth Dynasty was little behind these two in the estimation of posterity.
+Such men, who, capable in every field, designed the Great Pyramids and
+bestowed the highest monumental fame on their masters, must surely have
+had an insight into scientific principles that would hardly be credited
+to the Egyptians from the written documents alone.
+
+_Mathematics._--The Egyptian notation for whole numbers was decimal,
+each power of 10 up to 100,000 being represented by a different figure,
+on much the same principle as the Roman numerals. Fractions except 2/3
+were all primary, i.e. with the numerator unity: in order to express
+such an idea as 9/13 the Egyptians were obliged to reduce it to a series
+of primary fractions through double fractions 2/13 + 2/13 + 2/13 + 2/13
++ 1/13 = 4(1/8 + 1/52 + 1/104) + 1/13 = ½ + 2/13 + 1/26 = ½ + 1/8 + 1/26
++ 1/52 + 1/104; this operation was performed in the head, only the
+result being written down, and to facilitate it tables were drawn up of
+the division of 2 by odd numbers. With integers, besides adding and
+subtracting, it was easy to double and to multiply by 10: multiplying
+and dividing by 5 and finding the 1½ value were also among the
+fundamental instruments of calculation, and all multiplication proceeded
+by repetitions of these processes with addition, e.g. 9 × 7 = (9 × 2 ×
+2) + (9 × 2) + 9. Division was accomplished by multiplying the divisor
+until the dividend was reached; the answer being the number of times the
+divisor was so multiplied. Weights and measures proceeded generally on
+either a decimal or a doubling system or a combination of the two. Apart
+from a few calculations and accounts, practically all the materials for
+our knowledge of Egyptian mathematics before the Hellenistic period date
+from the Middle Kingdom.
+
+  The principal text is the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus in the British
+  Museum, written under a Hyksos king c. 1600 B.C.; unfortunately it is
+  full of gross errors. Its contents fall roughly into the following
+  scheme, but the main headings are not shown in the original:--
+
+  I. _Arithmetic._--A. Tables and rule to facilitate the employment of
+  fractions.
+
+    (a) Table of the divisions of 2 by odd numbers from 3 to 99 (e.g. 2
+          ÷ 11 = 1/6 + 1/66), see above.
+    (b) Conversions of compound fractions (e.g. 2/3 × 1/3 = 1/6 + 1/18),
+          with rule for finding 2/3 of a fraction.
+
+  B. The "bread" calculation--a division by 10 of the units 1 to 9.
+
+  C. "Completing" calculations.
+
+    (a) Adding multiples of a fraction to produce a more convenient
+          fraction (perhaps connected with the use of palms and
+          cubits in decoration in a proportion based on the number 8).
+    (b) Finding the difference between a given fraction and a given
+          whole number.
+
+  D. _Ahe_[9] or "mass"-problems (of the form x + x/n = a, to find the
+  _ahe_ x).
+
+  E. _Tooun_-problems (_tooun_, "rising," seems to be the difference
+  between the shares of two sets of persons dividing an amount between
+  them on a lower and a higher scale).
+
+  II. _Geometry._--A. Measurement of volume (amounts of grain in
+  cylindrical and rectangular spaces of different dimensions and vice
+  versa).
+
+  B. Measurement of area (areas of square, circular, triangular, &c.,
+  fields).
+
+  C. Proportions of pyramids and other monuments with sloping sides.
+
+  III. _Miscellaneous problems_ (and tables) such as are met with in
+  bread-making, beer-making, food of live-stock, &c. &c.
+
+  The method of estimating the area of irregular fields and the cubic
+  contents of granaries, &c., is very faulty. It would be interesting to
+  find material of later date, such as Pythagoras is reported to have
+  studied.
+
+  See A. Eisenlohr, _Ein mathematisches Handbuch der alten Ägypter_
+  (Leipzig, 1877); F. Ll. Griffith, "The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus" in
+  _Proceedings of the Soc. of Biblical Archaeology_, Nov. 1891, March,
+  May and June 1894.
+
+_Astronomy._--The brilliant skies of day and night in Egypt favoured the
+development of astronomy. A papyrus of the Roman period in the British
+Museum attributes the invention of horoscopes to the Egyptians, but no
+early instance is known. Professor Petrie has indeed suggested, chiefly
+on chronological grounds, that a table of stars on the ceiling of the
+Ramesseum temple and another in the tomb of Rameses VI. (repeated in
+that of Rameses IX. without alteration) were horoscopes of Rameses II.
+and VI.; but Mahler's interpretation of the tables on which this would
+rest appears to be false. Astronomy played a considerable part in
+religious matters for fixing the dates of festivals and determining the
+hours of the night. The titles of several temple books are preserved
+recording the movements and phases of the sun, moon and stars. The
+rising of Sothis (Sirius) at the beginning of the inundation was a
+particularly important point to fix in the yearly calendar (see below, §
+"Chronology"). The primitive clock[10] of the temple time-keeper
+(horoscopus), consisting of a [Greek: hôrologion kai phoinika] (Clemens
+Alex. _Strom._, vi. 4. 35), has been identified with two inscribed
+objects in the Berlin Museum; these are a palm branch with a sight-slit
+in the broader end, and a short handle from which a plummet line was
+hung. The former was held close to the eye, the latter in the other
+hand, perhaps at arm's length. From the above-mentioned tables of
+culmination in the tombs of Rameses VI. and IX. it seems that for fixing
+the hours of the night a man seated on the ground faced the horoscopus
+in such a position that the line of observation of the Pole-star passed
+over the middle of his head. On the different days of the year each hour
+was determined by a fixed star culminating or nearly culminating in it,
+and the position of these stars at the time is given in the tables as
+"in the centre," "on the left eye," "on the right shoulder," &c.
+According to the texts, in founding or rebuilding temples the north axis
+was determined by the same apparatus, and we may conclude that it was
+the usual one for astronomical observations. It is conceivable that in
+ingenious and careful hands it might give results of a high degree of
+accuracy.
+
+  See L. Borchardt, "Ein altägyptisches astronomisches Instrument" in
+  _Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache_, xxxvii. (1899), p. 10; Ed.
+  Meyer, _Ägyptische Chronologie_, p. 36. Besides the sun and moon, five
+  planets, thirty-six dekans, and constellations to which animal and
+  other forms are given, appear in the early astronomical texts and
+  paintings. The zodiacal signs were not introduced till the Ptolemaic
+  period. See H. Brugsch, _Die Ägyptologie_ (Leipzig, 1891), pp. 315 et
+  seqq., for a full account of all these.
+
+_Medicine._--Except, that splints are sometimes found on the limbs of
+bodies of all periods, at present nothing is known, from texts or
+otherwise, of the existence of Egyptian surgery or dentistry. For
+historical pathology the examination of mummies and skeletons is
+yielding good results. There is little sign of the existence of gout or
+of syphilitic diseases until late times (see MUMMY). A number of papyri
+have been discovered containing medical prescriptions. The earliest are
+of the XIIth Dynasty from Kahun, one being veterinary, the other
+gynaecological. The finest non-religious papyrus known, the Ebers
+Papyrus, is a vast collection of receipts. One section, giving us some
+of "the mysteries of the physician," shows how lamentably crude were his
+notions of the constitution of the body. It teaches little more than
+that the pulse is felt in every part of the body, that there are vessels
+leading from the heart to the eyes, ears, nose and all the other
+members, and that "the breath entering the nose goes to the heart and
+the lungs." The prescriptions are for a great variety of ailments and
+afflictions--diseases of the eye and the stomach, sores and broken
+bones, to make the hair grow, to keep away snakes, fleas, &c. Purgatives
+and diuretics are particularly numerous, and the medicines take the form
+of pillules, draughts, liniments, fumigations, &c. The prescriptions are
+often fanciful and may thus bear some absurd relation to the disease to
+be cured, but generally they would be to some extent effective. Their
+action was assisted by spells, for general use in the preparation or
+application, or for special diseases. In most cases several ingredients
+are prescribed together: when the amounts are indicated it is by measure
+not by weight, and evidently no very potent drugs were employed, for the
+smallest measure specified is equal to about half of a cubic inch.
+Little has yet been accomplished in identifying the diseases and the
+substances named in the medical papyri.
+
+  See G. A. Reisner, _The Hearst Medical Papyrus_ (Leipzig, 1905),
+  (XVIIIth Dynasty), and for a great magical text of the Roman period
+  (3rd century A.D.) with some prescriptions, F. Ll. Griffith and H.
+  Thompson, _The Demotic Magical Papyrus of London and Leiden_ (London,
+  1904).
+
+_Literature_.--The vast mass of writing which has come down to us from
+the ancient Egyptians comprises documents of almost every conceivable
+kind, business documents and correspondence, legal documents, memorial
+inscriptions, historical, scientific, didactic, magical and religious
+literature; also tales and lyrics and other compositions in poetical
+language. Most of these classes are dealt with in this article under
+special headings. In addition there should be mentioned the abundant
+explanatory inscriptions attached to wall-scenes as a secondary element
+in those compositions. As early as the Middle Kingdom, papyri are found
+containing classified lists of words, titles, names of cities, &c., and
+of nomes with their capitals, festivals, deities and sacred things,
+calendars, &c.
+
+To a great extent the standard works in all classes date from an early
+age, not later than the Middle Kingdom, and subsequent works of religion
+and learning like the later additions were largely written in the same
+style. Several books of proverbs or "instructions" were put in
+circulation during the Middle Kingdom. Kagemni and Ptahhotp of the Old
+Kingdom were nominally or really the instructors in manners: King
+Amenemhe I. laid down the principles of conduct in government for his
+son Senwosri I., preaching on the text of beneficence rewarded by
+treachery; Kheti points out in detail to his schoolboy son Pepi the
+advantages enjoyed by scribes and the miseries of all other careers.
+Some of these books are known only in copies of the New Kingdom. The
+instructions of Ani to his son Khenshotp are of later date. In demotic
+the most notable of such works is a papyrus of the first century A.D. at
+Leiden.
+
+A number of Egyptian tales are known, dating from the Middle Kingdom and
+later. Some are so sober and realistic as to make it doubtful whether
+they are not true biographies and narratives of actual events. Such are
+the story of Sinuhi, a fugitive to Syria in the reign of Sesostris
+[Senwosri] I., and perhaps the narrative of Unamun of his expedition in
+quest of cedar wood for the bark of the Theban Ammon in the XXIst
+Dynasty. Others are highly imaginative or with miraculous incidents,
+like the story of the Predestined Prince and the story of the Two
+Brothers, which begins with a pleasing picture of the industrious
+farmer, and, in demotic of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods, two stories
+of the learned Sethon Khamois, son of Rameses II. and high priest of
+Ptah, with his rather tragical experiences at the hands of magicians.
+The stories of the Middle Kingdom were in choice diction, large portions
+of them being rhetorical or poetical compositions attributed to the
+principal characters. The story of Sinuhi is of this description and was
+much read during the New Kingdom. Another, of the Eloquent Peasant whose
+ass had been stolen, was only a framework to the rhetoric of endless
+petitions. The tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor in the Red Sea was a piece
+of simpler writing, not unpicturesque, of the marvellous type of a
+Sindbad story. If all these are deficient in literary merit, they are
+deeply interesting as revelations of primitive mind and manners. Of New
+Kingdom tales, the story of the Two Brothers is frankly in the simplest
+speech of everyday life, while others are more stilted. The demotic
+stories of Khamois are simple, but the "Rape of Inaros' Cuirass" (at
+Vienna) is told in a stiff and high-flown style.
+
+In general it may be said of Egyptian literary compositions that apart
+from their interest as anthropological documents they possess no merit
+which would entitle them to survive. They are more or less touched by
+artificiality, but so far as we are able to appreciate them at present
+they very seldom attain to any degree of literary beauty. Most of the
+compositions in the literary language, whether old or archaistic, are in
+a stilted style and often with parallelisms of phrase like those of
+Hebrew poetry. Simple prose narrative is here quite exceptional. Some
+few hymns contain stanzas of ten lines, each line with a break in the
+middle. There is no sign of rhyming in Egyptian poetry, and the rhythm
+is not yet recognizable owing to our ignorance of the ancient
+vocalization. In old Egyptian tales the narrative portions are
+frequently in prose; New Egyptian and demotic contain as a rule little
+else. Hymns exist in both of these later forms of the language, and a
+few love songs in Late Egyptian.
+
+  See W. M. F. Petrie, _Egyptian Tales_ (2 vols., London, 1895); G.
+  Maspero, _Les Contes populaires de l'Égypte ancienne_ (3rd edition,
+  Paris, 1906); W. Max Müller, _Die Liebespoesie der alten Ägypter_
+  (Leipzig, 1899).     (F. LL. G.)
+
+C. _Religion._--1. _Introductory._--Copious as are the sources of
+information from which our knowledge of the Egyptian religion is drawn,
+there is nevertheless no aspect of the ancient civilization of Egypt
+that we really so little understand. While the youth of Egyptological
+research is in part responsible for this, the reason lies still more in
+the nature of the religion itself and the character of the testimony
+bearing upon it. For a true appreciation of the chaotic polytheism that
+reveals itself even in the earliest texts it would be necessary to be
+able to trace its development, stage by stage, out of a number of naive
+primitive cults; but the period of growth lies behind recorded history,
+and we are here reduced to hypotheses and _a posteriori_
+reconstructions. The same criticism applies, no doubt, to other
+religions, like those of Greece and Rome. In Egypt, however, the
+difficulty is much aggravated by the poor quality of the evidence. The
+religious books are textually very corrupt, one-sided in their
+subject-matter, and distributed over a period of more than two thousand
+years. The greatest defect of all is their relative silence with regard
+to the myths. For the story of Isis and Osiris we have indeed the late
+treatise ascribed to Plutarch, and a few fragments of other myths may be
+culled from earlier native sources. But in general the tales that passed
+current about the gods are referred to only in mysterious and recondite
+allusions; as Herodotus for his own times explicitly testifies, a
+reticence in such matters seems to have been encouraged by the priests.
+Thus with regard to Egyptian theology we are very imperfectly informed,
+and the account that is here given of it must be looked upon as merely
+provisional. The actual practices of the cult, both funerary and divine,
+are better known, and we are tolerably familiar with the doctrines as to
+the future state of the dead. There is good material, too, for the study
+of Egyptian magic, though this branch has been somewhat neglected
+hitherto.
+
+2. _Main Sources._--(a) _The Pyramid texts,_ a vast collection of
+incantations inscribed on the inner walls of five royal tombs of the Vth
+and VIth Dynasties at Sakkara, discovered and first published by
+Maspero. Much of these texts is of extreme antiquity; one incantation at
+least has been proved to belong to an age anterior to the unification of
+the Northern and Southern kingdoms. Later copies also exist, but possess
+little independent critical value. The subject-matter is funerary, i.e.
+it deals with the fate of the dead king in the next life. Some chapters
+describe the manner in which he passes from earth to heaven and becomes
+a star in the firmament, others deal with the food and drink necessary
+for his continued existence after death, and others again with the royal
+prerogatives which he hopes still to enjoy; many are directed against
+the bites of snakes and stings of scorpions. It is possible that these
+incantations were recited as part of the funerary ritual, but there is
+no doubt that their mere presence in the tombs was supposed to be
+magically effective for the welfare of the dead. Originally these texts
+had an application to the king alone, but before the beginning of the
+XIIth Dynasty private individuals had begun to employ them on their own
+behalf. They seem to be relatively free from textual corruption, but the
+vocabulary still occasions much difficulty to the translator.
+
+(b) _The Book of the Dead_ is the somewhat inappropriate name applied to
+a large similar collection of texts of various dates, certain chapters
+of which show a tendency to become welded together into a book of fixed
+content and uniform order. A number of chapters contained in the later
+recensions are already found on the sarcophagi of the Middle Kingdom,
+together with a host of funereal texts not usually reckoned as belonging
+to the Book of the Dead; these have been published by Lepsius and Lacau.
+The above-mentioned nucleus, combined with other chapters of more recent
+origin, is found in the papyri of the XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties, and forms
+the so-called Theban recension, which has been edited by Naville in an
+important work. Here already more or less rigid groups of chapters may
+be noted, but individual manuscripts differ greatly in what they include
+and exclude. In the Saite period a sort of standard edition was drawn
+up, consisting of 165 chapters in a fixed order and with a common title
+"the book of going forth in the day"; this recension was published by
+Lepsius in 1842 from a Turin papyrus. Like the Pyramid texts, the Book
+of the Dead served a funerary purpose, but its contents are far more
+heterogeneous; besides chapters enabling the dead man to assume what
+shape he will, or to issue triumphant from the last judgment, there are
+lists of gates to be passed and demons to be encountered in the nether
+world, formulae such as are inscribed on sepulchral figures and amulets,
+and even hymns to the sun-god. These texts are for the most part
+excessively corrupt, and despite the translations of Pierret, Renouf and
+Budge, much labour must yet be expended upon them before they can rank
+as a first-rate source.
+
+(c) The texts of the _Tombs of the Kings at Thebes_ (XVIIIth-XXth Dyn.)
+consist of a series of theological books compiled at an uncertain date;
+they have been edited by Naville and Lefébure. The chief of these,
+extant in a longer and a shorter version, is called _The book of that
+which is in the Nether World_ (familiarly known as the _Am Duat_) and
+deals with the journey of the sun during the twelve hours of the night.
+_The Book of Gates_ treats of the same topic from a more theological
+standpoint. _The Litanies of the Sun_ contain the acclamations with
+which the sun-god Re was greeted, when at eventide his bark reached the
+entrance of the nether world. Another treatise relates the destruction
+of mankind, and the circumstances that led to the creation of the
+heavens in the form of a cow.
+
+(d) Among the _later religious books_ one or two deserve a special
+mention, such as _The Overthrowing of Apophis_, the serpent enemy of the
+sun-god; _The Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys_ over their murdered
+brother Osiris; _The Book of Breathings_, a favourite book among the
+later Theban priests. Several of these books were used in the ritual of
+feast days, but all have received a secondary funerary employment, and
+are therefore found buried with the dead in their tombs.
+
+(e) The _Ritual texts_ have survived only in copies not earlier than the
+New Kingdom. The temple ritual employed in the daily cult is illustrated
+by the scenes depicted on the inner walls of the great temples: the
+formulae recited during the performance of the ceremonies are recorded
+at length in the temple of Seti I. (XIXth Dyn.) at Abydos, as well as in
+some later papyri in Berlin. The whole material has been collected and
+studied by Moret. The funerary ritual is known from texts in the Theban
+tombs (XVIIIth-XXth Dyn.) and papyri and sarcophagi of later date; older
+versions are contained in the Pyramid texts and _The Book of the Dead_.
+Schiaparelli has done much towards gathering together this scattered
+material. The ritual observed during the process of embalmment is
+preserved in late papyri in Paris and Cairo published by Maspero.
+
+(f) The _magical_ documents have been comparatively little studied, in
+spite of their great interest. They deal for the most part with the
+hearing of diseases, the bites of snakes and scorpions, &c., but
+incidentally cast many sidelights on the mythology and superstitious
+beliefs. The best-known of these books is the _Papyrus Harris_ published
+by F. J. Chabas, but other papyri of as great or greater importance are
+to be found in the Leiden, Turin and other collections. A curious book
+published by A. Erman contains spells to be used by mothers for the
+protection of their children. A papyrus in London contains a calendar of
+lucky and unlucky days. A late class of stelae, of which the best
+specimen has been published by Golenischeff, consists of spells of
+various kinds originally intended for the use of the living, but later
+employed for funerary purposes.
+
+(g) Under the heading _Miscellaneous_ we must mention a number of
+sources of great value: the grave-stones, or stelae, especially those
+from Abydos, which throw much light on funerary beliefs; the great
+_Papyrus Harris_, the longest of all papyri, which enumerates the gifts
+of Rameses III. (XXth Dyn.) to the various temples of Egypt; the hymns
+to the gods preserved in Cairo and Leiden papyri; and the inscriptions
+of the Ptolemaic temples (Dendera, Edfu, &c.), which teem with good
+religious material. Nor can any attempt here be made to summarize the
+remaining native Egyptian sources, literary and archaeological, that
+deserve notice.
+
+(h) Among the classical writers, Plutarch in his treatise _Concerning
+Isis and Osiris_ is the most important. Diodorus also is useful.
+Herodotus, owing to his religious awe and dread of divulging sacred
+mysteries, is only a second-rate source.
+
+3. _The Gods._--The end of the pre-dynastic period, in which we dimly
+descry a number of independent tribes in constant warfare with one
+another, was marked by the rise of a united Egyptian state with a single
+Pharaonic ruler at its head. The era of peace thus inaugurated brought
+with it a rapid progress in all branches of civilization; and there soon
+emerged not only a national art and a condition of material prosperity
+shared by the entire land in common, but also a state religion, which
+gathered up the ancient tribal cults and floating cosmical conceptions,
+and combining them as best it could, imposed them on the people as a
+whole. By the time that the Pyramid texts were put into writing,
+doubtless long before the Vth Dynasty, this religion had assumed a
+stereotyped appearance that clung to it for ever afterwards. But the
+multitude of the deities and the variety of the myths that it strove to
+incorporate prevented the development of a uniform theological system,
+and the heterogeneous origin of the religion remained irretrievably
+stamped upon its face. Written records were few at the time when the
+pantheon was built up, so that the process of construction cannot be
+followed historically from stage to stage; but it is possible by arguing
+backwards from the later facts to discern the main tendencies at work,
+and the principal elementary cults that served as the materials.
+
+
+  Classification of pre-dynastic gods.
+
+The gods of the pre-dynastic period may be divided into two chief
+groups, the tribal or local divinities and the cosmic or explanatory
+deities. At the beginning each tribe had its own particular god, who in
+essence was nothing but the articulate expression of the inner cohesion
+and of the outward independence of the tribe itself, but who outwardly
+manifested himself in the form of some animal or took up his abode in
+some fetish of wood or stone. In times of peace this visible emblem of
+the god's presence was housed in a rude shrine, but in war-time it was
+taken thence and carried into the battlefield on a standard. We find
+such divine standards [HRG: R12] often depicted on the earliest
+monuments, and among the symbols placed upon them may be detected the
+images of many deities destined to play an important part in the later
+national pantheon, such as the falcon Horus [HRG: G5:R12], the wolf
+Wepwawet (Ophois) [HRG: zAb:R12], the goddess Neith [HRG: R25:R12],
+symbolized by a shield transfixed with arrows, and the god Min [HRG:
+R23:R12], the nature of whose fetish is obscure. In course of time the
+tribes became localized in particular districts, under the influence of
+a growing central authority, and their gods then passed from tribal into
+local deities. Hence it came about that the provincial districts or
+nomes, as they were called, often derived their names from the gods of
+tribes that settled in them, these names being hieroglyphically written
+with the sign for "district" surmounted by standards of the type above
+described, e.g. [HRG: E15:R12], "the nome of the dog Anubis," the 17th
+or Cynopolite nome of Upper Egypt. In this way a large number of deities
+came to enjoy special reverence in restricted territories, e.g. the ram
+[HRG:] Khnum in Elephantine, the jerboa or okapi (?) [HRG: E20] Seth in
+Ombos, the ibis [HRG: G26] Thoth in Hermopolis Magna, and of the gods
+named above, Horus in Hieraconpolis, Wepwawet in Assiut, Neith in Sais,
+and Min in Coptos. As towns and villages gradually sprang up, they too
+adopted as their patron some one or other of the original tribal gods,
+so that these came to have different seats of worship all over Egypt.
+For this reason it is often hard to tell where the primitive cult-centre
+of a particular deity is to be sought; thus Horus seems equally at home
+both at Buto in the Delta and at Hieraconpolis in Upper Egypt, and the
+earliest worship of Seth appears to have been claimed no less by Tanis
+in the north than by Ombos in the south. The effect of the localization
+of gods in many different places was to give them a double aspect; so,
+for instance, Khnum the god of Elephantine could in one minute be
+regarded as identical with Khnum the god of Esna, while in the next
+minute and without any conscious sense of contradiction the two might be
+looked upon as entirely separate beings. In order that there might be no
+ambiguity as to what divinity was meant, it became usual, in speaking of
+any local deity, to specify the place of which he was "lord." The
+tendency to create new forms of a god by instituting his worship in new
+local centres persisted throughout the whole course of Egyptian history,
+unhindered by the opposite tendency which made national out of local
+gods. Some of the cosmic gods, like the sun-god Re of Heliopolis and of
+Hermonthis, early acquired a local in addition to their cosmic aspect.
+
+In the innermost principle of their existence, as patrons and protectors
+of restricted communities, the primitive tribal gods did not differ from
+one another. But externally they were distinguishable by the various
+shapes that their worshippers ascribed to them; and there can be little
+doubt that even in the beginning each had his own special attributes and
+particular mythical traits. These, however, may have borne little
+resemblance to the later conceptions of the same gods with which we are
+made familiar by the Pyramid texts. Thus we have no means of
+ascertaining what the earliest people of Sais thought about their
+goddess Neith, though her fetish would seem to point to her warlike
+nature. Nor are we much wiser in respect of those primitive tribal gods
+that are represented on the oldest monuments in animal form. For though
+we may be sure that the shape of an animal was that in which these gods
+were literally visible to their worshippers, yet it is impossible to
+tell whether some one living animal was chosen to be the earthly
+tenement of the deity, or whether he revealed himself in every
+individual of a species, or whether merely the cult-image was roughly
+hewn into the shape of an animal. Not too much weight must be attached
+to later evidence on this point; for the New Kingdom and still more the
+Graeco-Roman period witnessed a strange recrudescence of supposed
+primitive cults, to which they gave a form that may or may not have been
+historically exact. In some places whole classes of animals came to be
+deemed sacred. Thus at Bubastis, where the cat-headed Bast (Ubasti) was
+worshipped, vast cemeteries of mummified cats have been found; and
+elsewhere similar funerary cults were accorded to crocodiles, lizards,
+ibises and many other animals. In Elephantine Khnum was supposed to
+become incarnate in a ram, at whose death the divinity left him and took
+up his abode in another. So too the bull of Apis (a black animal with
+white spots) was during its lifetime regarded as a reincarnation of
+Ptah, the local god of Memphis, and similarly the Mnevis and Bacis bulls
+were accounted to be "the living souls" of Etom of Heliopolis and of Re
+of Hermonthis respectively; these latter cults are certainly secondary,
+for Ptah himself was never, either early or late, depicted otherwise
+than in human form, as a mummy or as a dwarf; and Etom and Re are but
+different names of the sun-god. The form of a snake, attributed to many
+local goddesses, especially in later times (e.g. Meresger of the Theban
+necropolis), was borrowed from the very ancient deity Outo (Buto); the
+semblance of a snake became so characteristic of female divinities that
+even the word "goddess" was written with the hieroglyph of a snake.
+Other animal shapes particularly affected by goddesses were those of a
+lioness (Sakhmi, Pakhe) or a cow (Hathor, Isis). The primitive animal
+gods are not to be confused with the animal forms ascribed to many
+cosmic deities; thus when the sun-god Re was pictured as a scarabaeus,
+or dung-beetle, rolling its ball of dung behind it, this was certainly
+mere poetical imagery. Or else a cosmic god might assume an animal shape
+through assimilation with some tribal god, as when Re was identified
+with Horus and therefore depicted as a falcon.
+
+With the advance of civilization and the transformation of the tribal
+gods into national divinities, the beliefs held about them must have
+become less crude. At a very early date the anthropomorphizing tendency
+caused the animal deities to be represented with human bodies, though as
+a rule they retained their animal heads; so in the case of Seth as early
+as the IInd Dynasty. The other gods carry their primitive fetishes in
+their hands (like Neith, who is depicted holding arrows) or on their
+heads (so Nefertem [Iphthimis] with his lotus-flower). At the same time
+the gods began to acquire human personalities. In a few instances this
+may have come about by the emphasizing of a really primitive trait; as
+when the wolf Ophois, in consonance with the predatory nature of that
+animal, developed into a god of war. In other cases the transitional
+steps are shrouded in mystery; we do not know, for example, why the ibis
+Thoth subsequently became the patron of the fine arts, the inventor of
+writing, and the scribe of the gods. But the main factor in this
+evolutionary process was undoubtedly the formation of myths, which
+brought gods of independent origin into relation with one another, and
+thus imbued them with human passions and virtues. Here dim historic
+recollections often determined the features of the story, and in one
+famous legend that knits together a group of gods all seemingly local in
+origin we can still faintly trace how the tale arose, was added to, and
+finally crystallized in a coherent form.
+
+Osiris was a wise and beneficent king, who reclaimed the Egyptians from
+savagery, gave them laws and taught them handicrafts. The prosperous
+reign of Osiris was brought to a premature close by the machinations of
+his wicked brother Seth, who with seventy-two fellow-conspirators
+invited him to a banquet, induced him to enter a cunningly-wrought
+coffin made exactly to his measure, then shut down the lid and cast the
+chest into the Nile. Isis, the faithful wife of Osiris, set forth in
+search of her dead husband's body, and after long and adventure-fraught
+wanderings, succeeded in recovering it and bringing it back to Egypt.
+Then while she was absent visiting her son Horus in the city of Buto,
+Seth once more gained possession of the corpse, cut it into fourteen
+pieces, and scattered them all over Egypt. But Isis collected the
+fragments, and wherever one was found, buried it with due honour; or,
+according to a different account, she joined the limbs together by
+virtue of her magical powers, and the slain Osiris, thus resurrected,
+henceforth reigned as king of the dead in the nether world. When Horus
+grew up he set out to avenge his father's murder, and after terrible
+struggles finally conquered and dispossessed his wicked uncle; or, as
+another version relates, the combatants were separated by Thoth, and
+Egypt divided between them, the northern part falling to Horus and the
+southern to Seth. Such is the story as told by Plutarch, with certain
+additions and modifications from older native sources. There existed,
+however, a very ancient tradition according to which Horus and Seth were
+hostile brothers, not nephew and uncle; and many considerations may be
+urged in support of the thesis which regards their struggles as
+reminiscences of wars between two prominent tribes or confederations of
+tribes, one of which worshipped the falcon Horus while the other had the
+okapi (?) Seth as its patron and champion. The Horus-tribes were the
+victors, and it was from them that the dynastic line sprang; hence the
+Pharaoh always bore the name of Horus, and represented in his own
+hallowed person the ancient tribal deity. Of Osiris we can only state
+that he was originally the local god of Busiris, whatever further
+characteristics he primitively possessed being quite obscure. Isis was
+perhaps the local goddess of Buto, a town not far distant from Busiris;
+this geographical proximity would suffice to explain her connexion with
+Osiris in the tale. A legend now arose, we know not how or why, which
+made Seth the brother and murderer of Osiris; and this led to a fusion
+of the Horus-Seth and the Seth-Isis-Osiris _motifs_. The relationships
+had now to be readjusted, and the most popular view recognized Horus as
+the son and avenger of Osiris. The more ancient account survived,
+however, in the myth that Osiris, Horus, Seth, Isis and Nephthys (a
+goddess who plays but a minor part in the Osiris cycle) were all
+children of the earth-god Keb and the sky-goddess Nut, born on the five
+consecutive days added on at the end of the year (the so-called
+epagomenal days). Later generations reconciled these contradictions by
+assuming the existence of two Horuses, one, the brother of Osiris, Seth
+and Isis, being named Haroeris, i.e. Horus the elder, while the other,
+the child of Isis and Osiris, was called Harpocrates, i.e. Horus the
+child.
+
+
+  Cosmic deities.
+
+The second main class of divinities that entered into the composition of
+the Egyptian pantheon was due to that innate and universal speculative
+bent which seeks, and never fails to find, an explanation of the facts
+of the external world. Behind the great natural phenomena that they
+perceived all around them, the Egyptians, like other primitive folk,
+postulated the existence of divine wills not dissimilar in kind to their
+own, though vastly superior in power. Chief among these cosmic deities
+was the sun-god Re, whose supremacy seemed predestined under the
+cloudless sky of Egypt. The oldest conceptions represented Re as sailing
+across the heavens in a ship called "Manzet," "the bark of the dawn"; at
+sunset he stepped aboard another vessel named "Mesenktet," "the bark of
+the dusk," which bore him back from west to east during the night. Later
+theories symbolized Re in many different ways. For some he was identical
+with Horus, and then he was falcon-headed and was called Hor-akhti, the
+Horus of the horizons. Others pictured him to themselves as a tiny
+infant in the early dawn, as full-grown at noon, and as an infirm old
+man in the evening. When the sky was imagined as a cow, he was a calf
+born anew every morning. The moon was a male deity, who likewise fared
+across the heavens in a boat; hence he was often named Chons, "the
+sailor." The ibis-god Thoth was early identified with the moon. The
+stars and planets were likewise gods. Among them the bright star Sirius
+was held in special esteem; it was a goddess Sothis (Sopde), often
+identified by the Egyptians with Isis. The constellations that seemed
+unceasingly to speed across the sky were named "the never-resting ones,"
+and the circumpolar stars, which never sink beneath the horizon, were
+known as "the imperishables." Concerning earth and sky there were many
+different opinions. Some thought that the sky was a goddess Nut, whom
+the god Show held aloof from her husband Keb the earth, on whose back
+the plants and trees grew. Others believed in a celestial ocean,
+personified under the name of Nun, over which the heavenly bodies sailed
+in boats. At a later date the sky was held to be a cow (Hathor) whose
+four feet stood firm upon the soil; or else a vast face, in which the
+right eye was the sun and the left eye the moon. Alongside these
+fanciful conceptions there existed a more sober view, according to which
+the earth was a long oval plain, and the sky an iron roof supported by
+the tops of mountains or by four pillars [HRG] at the cardinal points.
+Beneath the ground lay a dark and mysterious region, now conceived as an
+inverse heaven (Nenet), now as a vast series of caverns whose gates were
+guarded by demons. This nether world was known as the Duat (Dat, Têi),
+and through it passed the sun on his journey during the hours of night;
+here too, as many thought, dwelt the dead and their king Osiris. That
+great natural feature of Egypt, the Nile, was of course one of the gods;
+his name was Hapi, and as a sign of his fecundity he had long pendulous
+breasts like a woman. In contradistinction to the tribal gods, it rarely
+happened that the cosmic deities enjoyed a cult. But there are a few
+important exceptions: Re in Heliopolis (here identified with a local god
+Etom) and in Hermonthis; Hathor at Dendera and elsewhere. Certain of the
+tribal gods early became identified with cosmic divinities, and the
+latter thus became the objects of a cult; so, for instance, the Horus of
+Edfu was a sun-god, and Thoth in Hermopolis Magna was held to be the
+moon.
+
+
+  Minor deities and demons.
+
+An extension of the principle that created the cosmic gods gave rise to
+a large number of minor deities and demons. Day and night, the year, the
+seasons, eternity, and many similar conceptions were each represented by
+a god or goddess of their own, who nevertheless possessed but a shadowy
+and doubtful existence. Human attributes like Taste, Knowledge, Joy and
+so forth were likewise personified, no less than abstract ideas such as
+Fate, Destiny and others; rather more clearly defined than the rest was
+Maat, the goddess of Truth and Right, who was fabled to be the daughter
+of Re and may even have had a cult. Certain gods were purely functional,
+that is to say, they appeared at special times to perform some
+appointed task, at the completion of which they vanished. Such were
+Nepri, the god of the corn-harvest; Meskhonit, the goddess who attended
+every child-bed; Tait, the goddess of weaving. Numberless semi-divine
+beings had no other purpose than to fill out the myths, as, for
+instance, the chattering apes that greeted the sun-god Re as he rose
+above the eastern horizon, and the demons who opened the gates of the
+nether world at the approach of the setting sun.
+
+
+  Foreign deities.
+
+We take this opportunity of mentioning sundry other divinities who were
+later introduced to swell the already overcrowded ranks of the pantheon.
+Contact with foreign lands brought with it several new deities, Baal,
+Anat and Resheph from Syria, and the misshapen dwarf Bes from the south;
+earlier than these, the Astarte of Byblus, whom the Egyptians identified
+with Hathor. In Thebes Amenophis I. and his spouse Nefertari were
+worshipped as patron gods of the necropolis many centuries after their
+death. Two men of exceptional wisdom received divine honours, and had
+temples of their own in the Ptolemaic period; these were Imouthes, who
+had lived under Zoser of the IIIrd Dynasty, and Amenophis son of Hapu, a
+contemporary of the third king of the same name (XVIIIth Dyn.). The hill
+of Sheikh Abd-el-gurna at Thebes was looked upon as a particularly holy
+place, and was revered as a goddess. Almost anything that was regarded
+with awe, any object used in the divine ritual could at a given moment
+be envisaged as a deity. Thus the boat of Osiris (Neshemet) and those of
+the sun-god were goddesses; and various wands and sceptres belonging to
+certain gods were imagined as harbouring the divine being. Truly it
+might have been said in ancient Egypt: of the making of gods there is no
+end!
+
+
+  Theological combinations.
+
+For such order as can be discerned in the mythological conceptions of
+the Egyptians the priesthood was largely responsible. At a very early
+date the theological school of Heliopolis undertook the task of
+systematizing the gods and the myths, and it is mainly to them that is
+due the Egyptian religion as we find it in the Pyramid texts. Their
+influence is particularly conspicuous in the prominent place accorded to
+the sun-god Re, and in the creation-legend that made him the father of
+gods and men. First of all living things was Re; legend told how he
+arose as a naked babe from a lotus-flower that floated on the primeval
+ocean Nun. Others held the view that he crept from an egg that lay on a
+hill in the midst of a lake called Desdes; and a third, more barbarous,
+tale related his obscene act of self-procreation. Re became the father
+of the pair of gods Show and Tefnut (Tphenis), who emanated from his
+spittle. They again gave birth to Keb and Nut, from whom in their turn
+sprang Osiris and Seth, Isis and Nephthys. These nine gods were together
+known as the great Ennead or cycle of nine. A second series of nine
+deities, with Horus as its first member, was invented at the same time
+or not long afterwards, and was called the Lesser Ennead. In later times
+the theory of the Ennead became very popular and was adopted by most of
+the local priesthoods, who substituted their own favourite god for Re,
+sometimes retaining and sometimes changing the names of the other eight
+deities. Thus locally many different gods came to be viewed as the
+creators of the world. Only in two instances, however, did a local god
+ever obtain wide acceptance in the capacity of demiurge: Ptah of
+Memphis, who was famed as an artist and master-builder, and Khnum of
+Elephantine, who was said to have moulded mankind on the potter's wheel.
+
+Already in the Pyramid texts the importance of Osiris almost rivals that
+of Re. His worship does not seem to have been due to Heliopolitan
+influence, and may possibly have been propagated by active missionary
+effort. It is apparently through the funeral cult that Osiris so early
+took a firm hold on the imagination of the people; for at a very ancient
+date he was identified with every dead king, and it needed but a slight
+extension of this idea to make him into a king of the dead. In later
+times the moral aspect of his tale was doubtless the main cause of its
+continued popularity; Osiris was named Onnophris, "the good Being" _par
+excellence_, and Seth was contrasted with him as the author and the root
+of all evil. Still the Egyptians themselves seem to have been somewhat
+at a loss to account for the great veneration that they paid to Osiris.
+Successive theories interpreted him as the god of the earth, as the god
+of the Nile, as a god of vegetation, as a moon-god and as a sun-god; and
+nearly every one of these theories has been claimed to be the primitive
+truth by some scholar or another.
+
+Nowhere is the conservatism of the Egyptians more clearly displayed than
+in the tenacity with which they clung to the old forms of the theology,
+such as we have essayed to describe. Neither the influx of new deities
+nor the diligence of the priestly authors and commentators availed to
+break down the cast-iron traditions with which the compilers of the
+Pyramid texts were already familiar. It is true that with the
+displacement of the capital town certain local deities attained a degree
+of power that, superficially regarded, seems to alter the entire
+perspective of the religion. Thus Ammon, originally the obscure local
+god of Thebes, was raised by the Theban monarchs of the XIIth and of the
+XVIIIth to XXIst Dynasties to a predominant position never equalled by
+any other divinity; and, by similar means, Suchos of the Fayum, Ubasti
+of Bubastis, and Neith of Sais, each enjoyed for a short space of time a
+consideration that no other cause would have secured to them. But
+precisely the example of Ammon proves the hopelessness of any attempt to
+change the time-honoured religious creed; his priests identified him
+with the sun-god Re, whose cult-centre was thus merely transferred a few
+hundred miles to the South. Nor could even the violent religious
+revolution of Akhenaton (Amenophis IV.), of which we shall later have
+occasion to speak, sweep away for ever beliefs that had persisted for so
+many generations.
+
+But if the facts of the religion, broadly viewed, never underwent a
+change, the interpretation of those facts did so in no small degree. The
+religious books were for the most part written in archaic language,
+which was only imperfectly understood by the priests of later times; and
+hence great scope was given to them to exercise their ingenuity as
+commentators. By the time of the XVIIIth Dynasty some early chapters of
+the Book of the Dead had been provided with a triple commentary.
+Unfortunately the methods pursued were as little reasonable as those
+adopted by the medieval Jewish Rabbis; instead of the context being
+studied as a whole, with a view to the recovery of its literal sense,
+each single verse was considered separately, and explained as an
+allusion to some obscure myth or as embodying some mystical meaning.
+Thus so far from simplifying or really elucidating the religion, these
+priestly labours tended rather to confuse one legend with another and to
+efface the personality of individual gods. The ease with which one god
+could be identified with another is perhaps the most striking
+characteristic of later Egyptian theology. There are but few of the
+greater deities who were not at some time or another identified with the
+solar god Re. His fusion with Horus and Etom has already been noted;
+further we find an Ammon-Re, a Sobk-Re, a Khnum-Re; and Month, Onouris,
+Show and Osiris are all described as possessing the attributes of the
+sun. Ptah was early assimilated to the sepulchral gods Sokaris and
+Osiris. Pairs of deities whose personalities are often blended or
+interchanged are Hathor and Nut, Sakhmi and Pakhe, Seth and Apophis. So
+too in Abydos, his later home, Osiris was identified with Khante-Amentiu
+(Khentamenti, Khentamenthes), "the chief of those who are in the West,"
+a name that was given to a vaguely-conceived but widely-venerated
+divinity ruler of the dead. Many factors helped in the process of
+assimilation. The unity of the state was largely influential in bringing
+about the suppression of local differences of belief. The less important
+priesthoods were glad to enhance the reputation of the deity they served
+by identifying him with some more important god. And the mystical bent
+of the Egyptians found satisfaction in the multiplicity of forms that
+their gods could assume; among the favourite epithets which the hymns
+apply to divinities are such as "mysterious of shapes," "multiple of
+faces."
+
+
+  Monotheistic tendency.
+
+The goal towards which these tendencies verged was monotheism; and
+though this goal was only once, and then quite ephemerally, reached,
+still the monotheistic idea was at most periods, so to speak, in the
+air. Sometimes the qualities common to all the gods were abstracted, and
+the resultant notion spoken of as "the god." At other times, and
+especially in the hymns addressed to some divinity, all other gods were
+momentarily forgotten, and he was eulogized as "the only one," "the
+supreme," and so forth. Or else several of the chief deities were
+consciously combined and regarded as different emanations or aspects of
+a Sole Being; thus a Ramesside hymn begins with the words "Three are all
+the gods, Ammon, Re and Ptah," and then it is shown how these three
+gods, each in his own particular way, gave expression and effect to a
+single divine purpose.
+
+
+  Akhenaton.
+
+For a brief period at the end of the XVIIIth Dynasty a real monotheism,
+as exclusive as that of Judaism or of Islam, was adopted as the state
+religion of Egypt. The young Pharaoh Amenophis IV. seems to have been
+fired by genuine fanatical enthusiasm, though political motives, as well
+as doctrinal considerations, may have prompted him in the planning of
+his religious revolution (see also § History). The Theban god Ammon-Re
+was then supreme, and the ever-growing power of his priesthood may well
+have inflamed the jealousy of their Heliopolitan rivals. Amenophis began
+his reign in Thebes as an adherent of the traditional faith, but after a
+few years he abandoned that town and built a new capital for his god
+Aton 200 m. farther north, at a place now called El Amarna. The new
+deity was a personification of the sun's disk. The name Re was
+suppressed, as too intimately associated with that of Ammon; and Ammon,
+together with all the other gods, was put to the ban. Amenophis even
+changed his own name, of which the name of Ammon formed an element, to
+Akhenaton, "the brilliancy of the Aton," and the capital was called
+Khitaton, "The Horizon of the Aton." The new dogmas were known as "the
+Teaching," and their tenets, as revealed in the poems composed in honour
+of the Aton, breathe the purest and most exalted monotheistic spirit.
+The movement had, no doubt, met with serious opposition from the very
+start, and the reaction soon set in. The immediate successors of
+Akhenaton strove to follow in his footsteps, but the conservative nature
+of Egypt quickly asserted itself. Not sixty years after the accession of
+Akhenaton, his city was abandoned, its rulers branded as heretics, and
+the old religion restored in Thebes as completely as if the Aton had
+never existed.
+
+Having thus failed to become rational, Egyptian theology took refuge in
+learning. The need for a more spiritual and intellectual interpretation
+of the pantheon still remained, and gave rise to a number of theological
+sciences. The names of the gods and the places of their worship were
+catalogued and classified, and manuals were devoted to the topography of
+mythological regions. Much ingenuity was expended on the development of
+a history of the gods, the groundwork of which had been laid in much
+earlier times. Re was not only the creator of the world, but he was also
+the first king of Egypt. He was followed on the throne by the other
+eight members of his Ennead, then by the lesser Ennead and by other
+gods, and finally by the so-called "worshippers of Horus." The latter
+were not wholly mythical personages, though they were regarded as
+demigods (Manetho calls them "the dead," [Greek: nekues]); they have
+been shown to be none other than the dim rulers of the predynastic age.
+The Pharaohs of the historic period were thus divine, not only by virtue
+of their connexion with Horus (see above), but also as descendants of
+Re; and the king of Egypt was called "the good god" during his lifetime,
+and "the great god" after his death. The later religious literature is
+much taken up with the mythical and semi-mythical dynasties of kings,
+and the priests compiled, with many newly-invented details, the
+chronicles of the wars they were supposed to have waged.
+
+
+  Later developments.
+
+In a similar manner, the ethical and allegorical methods of
+interpretation came into much greater prominence towards the end of the
+New Kingdom. The Osirian legend, as we have already seen, was early
+accepted as symbolizing the conflict between good and evil. So too the
+victories of Re over the serpent named Apophis were more or less clearly
+understood as a simile of the antithetical nature of light and darkness.
+In one text at least as ancient as the XVIIIth Dynasty (the copy that we
+have dates only from the Ethiopian period) an ingenious attempt is made
+to represent Ptah as the source of all life: from him, it is said,
+emanated Horus as "heart" or "mind" and Thoth as "tongue," and through
+the conjoint action of these two, the mind conceiving the design and the
+tongue uttering the creative command, all gods and men and beasts
+obtained their being. Of this kind of speculation much more must have
+existed than has reached us. It is doubtless such explanations as these
+that the Greeks had in view when they praised the wisdom of the ancient
+Egyptians; and in the classical period similar semi-philosophical
+interpretations altogether supplanted, among the learned at least, the
+naive literal beliefs of earlier times. Plutarch in his treatise on Isis
+and Osiris well exemplifies this standpoint: for him every god and every
+rite is symbolic of some natural or moral truth.
+
+The final stages of the Egyptian religion are marked by a renewed
+popularity of all its more barbarous elements. Despairing, as it would
+seem, of discovering the higher wisdom that the more philosophic of the
+priests supposed that religion to conceal, the simpler-minded sought to
+work out their own salvation by restoring the worship of the gods to its
+most primitive forms. Hence came the fanatical revival of animal-worship
+which led to feud and bloodshed between neighbouring towns--a feature of
+Egyptian religion that at once amused and scandalized contemporary Greek
+and Latin authors (Plut. De Iside, 72; Juv. xv. 33). Nevertheless
+Egyptian cults, and particularly those of Serapis and Isis, found
+welcome acceptance on European soil; and the shrines of Egyptian deities
+were established in all the great cities of the Roman Empire. Serapis
+was a god imported by the first Ptolemy from Sinope on the Black Sea,
+who soon lost his own identity by assimilation with Osiris-Apis, the
+bull revered in Memphis. Far down into the Roman age the worship of
+Serapis persisted and flourished, and it was only when the Serapeum of
+Alexandria was razed to the ground by order of Theodosius the Great
+(A.D. 391) that the death-blow of the old Egyptian religion was struck.
+
+  Notes are here added on some divinities who have received inadequate
+  or no attention in the preceding pages. For information as to Ammon,
+  Anubis, Apis, Bes, Bubastis, Buto, Isis and Thoth, reference must be
+  made to the special articles on these gods.
+
+  ARSAPHES, in Egyptian _Harshafe_, "he who is upon his lake," the
+  ram-headed god of Heracleopolis Magna, gained an ephemeral importance
+  during the IXth Dynasty, which arose from his town. Outwardly, he
+  resembles Khnum. Little is known about him, and he is seldom
+  mentioned. The burial-place of his priests in later times was in 1904
+  discovered at Abusir el Meleq.
+
+  CHONS, "he who travels by boat," perhaps originally a mere epithet of
+  the moon-god Ioh or Thoth, is chiefly familiar as the third member of
+  the Theban triad. As such he is represented as a youthful god, wearing
+  a skull-cap surmounted by the moon. His cult was revived and became
+  popular in Ptolemaic times. A curious story about the sending of his
+  statue to Mesopotamia to heal a daughter of the king of Bakhtan is
+  related upon a stele that purports to date from the Ramesside period:
+  it has been proved to be a pious fraud invented by the priests not
+  earlier than the Greek period.
+
+  HATHOR, whose name means "house of Horus," was at all times a very
+  important deity. She is depicted as a cow, or with a broad human
+  countenance, the cow's ears just showing from under a massive wig.
+  Probably at first a goddess of the sky, she is early mentioned in
+  connexion with Re. Later she was often identified with Isis, and her
+  name was used to designate foreign goddesses like those of Puoni and
+  Byblus. Unlike most cosmic deities, she was worshipped in many
+  localities, chief among which was Dendera, where her magnificent
+  temple, of Ptolemaic date, still stands. "The seven Hathors" is a name
+  given to certain fairies, who appeared shortly after the birth of an
+  infant, and predicted his future.
+
+  KHNUM or KHNOUM, a ram-headed god, whose principal place of worship
+  was the island of Elephantine (there associated with Satis and
+  Anukis), but also revered elsewhere, e.g. together with Nebtu in Esna.
+  He enjoyed great repute as a creator, and was supposed to use the
+  potter's wheel for the purpose. In this capacity he is sometimes
+  accompanied by the frog-headed goddess Heket.
+
+  MONTH, a hawk-headed god of the Thebaid: in Thebes itself his cult was
+  superseded by that of Ammon, but it persisted in Hermonthis. He was
+  often given the solar attributes, and was credited as a great warrior.
+
+  MIN, the god of Coptos and Panopolis (Akhmim), seems to have been
+  early looked upon as a deity of the harvest and crops. His cult dates
+  from the earliest times. Represented as ithyphallic, with two tall
+  plumes on his head, the right arm upraised and bearing a scourge. In
+  old times he is identified with Horus: later Ammon was confused with
+  him, and depicted in his image.
+
+  NECHBET (Nekhbi, Nekhebi), the vulture-goddess of El Kab, called
+  Eileithyia by the Greeks. She gained an ascendancy as patroness of the
+  south at the time when the two kingdoms were striving for the mastery.
+  It is as such, in opposition to Buto the goddess of the north, that
+  she is most often named on the monuments.
+
+  NEITH, the very ancient and important goddess of Sais, the Greek
+  Athene. On the earliest monuments she is represented by a shield
+  transfixed by arrows. Later she wears the crown of Lower Egypt, and
+  carries in her hands a bow and arrows, a sign of her warlike
+  character. In the XXVIth Dynasty, when a line of Pharaohs sprang from
+  Sais, she regained a prominent position, and was given many cosmogonic
+  attributes, including the title of mother of Re.
+
+  NEPHTHYS, the sister of Osiris and wife of Seth, daughter of Keb and
+  Nut, plays a considerable rôle in the Osiris story. She sided with
+  Isis and aided her to bring Osiris back to life. Isis and Nephthys are
+  often mentioned together as protectresses of the dead.
+
+  ONOURIS, Egyptian _En-huri_, "sky-bearer," the god of Thinis. Later
+  identified with Shu (Show), who holds heaven and earth apart.
+
+  PTAH, the Hephaestus of the Greeks, a demiurgic and creative god,
+  special patron of hand-workers and artisans. Worshipped in Memphis, he
+  perhaps owed his importance more to the political prominence of that
+  town than to anything else. He was early identified with an ancient
+  but obscure god Tenen, and further with the sepulchral deity Sokaris.
+  He is represented either as a closely enshrouded figure whose
+  protruding hands grasp a composite sceptre, the whole standing on a
+  pedestal within a shrine; or else as a misshapen dwarf.
+
+  SAKHMI, a lion-headed goddess of war and strife, whose name signifies
+  the mighty. She was worshipped at Latopolis (Esna), but also at a late
+  date as a member of the Memphite triad, with Ptah as husband and
+  Nefertem (Iphthimis) as son: often, too, confounded with Ubasti.
+
+  SETH (Egyptian Set, Sth or Sts), by the Greeks called Typhon, was
+  depicted as an animal [HRG] that has been compared with the jerboa by
+  some, and with the okapi by others, but which the Egyptians themselves
+  occasionally conceived to be nothing but a badly drawn ass. In
+  historic times his cult was celebrated at Tanis and Ombos. He regained
+  a certain prestige as god of the Hyksos rulers, and two Pharaohs of
+  the XIXth Dynasty derived their name Sethos (Seti) from him. But,
+  generally speaking, he was abominated as a power of evil, and his
+  figure was often obliterated on the monuments. He is named in similes
+  as a great warrior, and as such and "son of Nut" he is identified with
+  the Syrian Baal.
+
+4. _The Divine Cult._--In the midst of every town rose the temple of the
+local god, a stately building of stone, strongly contrasting with the
+mud and plaster houses in which even the wealthiest Egyptians dwelt. It
+was called the "house of the god" [HRGs], and in it the deity was
+supposed to reside, attended by his "servants" [HRGs] the priests. There
+was indeed a certain justification for this contention, even when a
+contrary theory assigned to the divinity a place in the sky, as in the
+case of the lunar divinity Thoth; for in the inmost sanctuary stood a
+statue of the god, which served as his representative for the purposes
+of the cult. Originally each temple was dedicated to one god only; but
+it early became usual to associate with him a mate of the opposite sex,
+besides a third deity who might be represented either as a second wife
+or as a child. As examples of such triads, as they are called, may be
+mentioned that of Thebes, consisting of Ammon, Mut and Chons, father,
+mother and child; and as typical of the other kind, where a god was
+accompanied by two goddesses, that of Elephantine, consisting of Khnum,
+Satis and Anukis. The needs of the god were much the same as those of
+mortals; no more than they could he dispense with food and drink,
+clothes for his apparel, ointment for his limbs, and music and dancing
+to rejoice his heart. The only difference was that the divine statue was
+half-consciously recognized as a lifeless thing that required carefully
+regulated rites and ceremonies to enable it to enjoy the good things
+offered to it. Early every morning the officiating priest proceeded to
+the holy of holies, after the preliminaries of purification had cleansed
+him from any miasma that might interfere with the efficacy of the rites.
+Then with the prescribed gestures, and reciting appropriate formulae all
+the while, he broke the seal upon the door of the shrine, loosed the
+bolts, and at last stood face to face with the god. There followed a
+series of prostrations and adorations, culminating in the offering of a
+small image of Maat, the goddess of Truth. This seems to have been the
+psychological moment of the entire service: hitherto the statue had been
+at best a god in _posse_; now the symbolical act placed him in
+possession of all his faculties, he was a god in truth, and could
+participate like any mortal in the food and luxuries that his servants
+put before him. The daily ceremony closed with ablutions, anointings and
+a bountiful feast of bread, geese, beer and oxen; having taken his fill
+of these, the god returned to his shrine until the next morning, when
+the ritual was renewed. The words that accompanied the manual gestures
+are, in the rituals that have come down to us, wholly dominated by the
+myth of Osiris: it is often hard to discern much connexion between the
+acts and the formulae recited, but the main thought is clearly that the
+priest represents Horus, the pious son of the dead divinity Osiris. That
+this conception is very old is proved by the fact that even in the
+Pyramid texts "the eye of Horus" is a synonym for all offerings: an
+ancient tale of which only shreds have reached us related how Seth had
+torn the eye of Horus from him, though not before he himself had
+suffered a still more serious mutilation; and by some means, we know not
+how, the restoration of the eye was instrumental in bringing about the
+vindication of Osiris. As to the manual rites of the daily cult, all
+that can here be said is that incense, purifications and anointings with
+various oils played a large part; the sacrifices consisted chiefly of
+slaughtered oxen and geese; burnt offerings were a very late innovation.
+
+At an early date the rites practised in the various temples were
+conformed to a common pattern. This holds good not only for the daily
+ritual, but also for many festivals that were celebrated on the same day
+throughout the whole length of the land. Such were the calendrical
+feasts, called "the beginnings of the seasons," and including, for
+example, the monthly and half-monthly festivals, that of the New Year
+and that of the rising of Sirius (Sothis). But there were also local
+feast days like that of Neith in Sais (Hdt. ii. 62) or that of Ammon in
+southern Opi (Luxor). These doubtless had a more individual character,
+and often celebrated some incident supposed to have occurred in the
+lifetime of the god. Sometimes, as in the case of the feast of Osiris in
+Abydos, a veritable drama would be enacted, in which the whole history
+of the god, his sufferings and final triumph were represented in mimic
+form. At other times the ceremonial was more mysterious and symbolical,
+as in the feast of the raising of the Ded-column [HRG] when a column of
+the kind was drawn by cords into an upright position. But the most
+common feature of these holy days was the procession of the god, when he
+was carried on the shoulders of the priests in his divine boat far
+beyond the precincts of his temple; sometimes, indeed, even to another
+town, where he paid a visit to the god of the place. These occasions
+were public holidays, and passed amid great rejoicings. The climax was
+reached when at a given moment the curtains of the shrine placed on the
+boat were withdrawn, and the god was revealed to the eyes of the
+awe-struck multitude. Music and dancing formed part of the festival
+rites.
+
+
+  Temples.
+
+As with the rites and ceremonies, so also the temples were early
+modelled upon a common type. Lofty enclosure walls, adorned with scenes
+from the victorious campaigns of the Pharaoh, shut off the sacred
+buildings from the surrounding streets. A small gateway between two
+massive towers or pylons gave admittance to a spacious forecourt open to
+the sky, into which the people were allowed to enter at least on feast
+days. Farther on, separated from the forecourt by smaller though still
+massive pylons, lay a hypostyle hall, so called from its covered
+colonnades; this hall was used for all kinds of processions. Behind the
+hypostyle hall, to which a second similar one might or might not be
+added, came the holy of holies, a dark narrow chamber where the god
+dwelt; none but the priests were admitted to it. All around lay the
+storehouses that contained the treasures of the god and the
+appurtenances of the divine ritual. The temples of the earliest times
+were of course far more primitive than this: from the pictures that are
+all that is now left to indicate their nature, they seem to have been
+little more than huts or sheds in which the image of the god was kept.
+One temple of a type different from that above described has survived at
+Abusir, where it has been excavated by German explorers. It was a
+splendid edifice dedicated to the sun-god Re by a king of the Vth
+Dynasty, and was probably a close copy of the famous temple of
+Heliopolis. The most conspicuous feature was a huge obelisk on a broad
+superstructure [HRG]: the obelisk always remained closely connected with
+the solar worship, and probably took the place of the innermost shrine
+and statue of other temples. The greater part of the sanctuary was left
+uncovered, as best befitted a dwelling-place of the sun. Outside its
+walls there was a huge brick model of the solar bark in which the god
+daily traversed the heavens.
+
+
+  Power of the priests.
+
+As the power of the Pharaohs increased, the maintenance of the cult
+became one of the most important affairs of state. The most illustrious
+monarchs prided themselves no less on the buildings they raised in
+honour of the gods than on the successful wars they waged: indeed the
+wars won a religious significance through the gradual elevation of the
+god of the capital to god of the nation, and a large part of the spoils
+was considered the rightful perquisite of the latter. Countless were the
+riches that the kings heaped upon the gods in the hope of being requited
+with long life and prosperity on the throne of the living. It became the
+theory that the temples were the gifts of the Pharaoh to his fathers the
+gods, and therefore in the scenes of the cult that adorn the inner walls
+it is always he who is depicted as performing the ceremonies. As a
+matter of fact the priesthoods were much more independent than was
+allowed to appear. Successive grants of land placed no small portion of
+the entire country in their hands, and the administration of the temple
+estates gave employment to a large number of officials and serfs. In the
+New Kingdom the might of the Theban god Ammon gradually became a serious
+menace to the throne: in the reign of Rameses III. he could boast of
+more than 80,000 dependants, and more than 400,000 cattle. It is not
+surprising that a few generations later the high priests of Ammon
+supplanted the Pharaohs altogether and founded a dynasty of their own.
+
+At no period did the priests form a caste that was quite distinctly
+separated from the laity. In early times the feudal lords were
+themselves the chief priests of the local temples. Under them stood a
+number of subordinate priests, both professional and lay. Among the
+former were the _kher-heb_, a learned man entrusted with the conduct of
+the ceremonies, and the "divine fathers," whose functions are obscure.
+The lay priests were divided into four classes that undertook the
+management of the temple in alternate months; their collective name was
+the "hour-priesthood." Perhaps it was to them that the often recurring
+title _oueb_, "the pure," should properly be restricted, though strict
+rules as to personal purity, dress and diet were demanded of all
+priests. The personnel of the temple was completed by various
+subordinate officials, doorkeepers, attendants and slaves. In the New
+Kingdom the leading priests were more frequently mere clerics than
+theretofore, though for instance the high priest of Ammon was often at
+the same time the vizier of southern Egypt. In some places the highest
+priests bore special names, such as the _Ouer maa_, "the Great Seer," of
+Re in Heliopolis, or the _Khorp himet_, "chief artificer," of the
+Memphite Ptah. Women could also hold priestly rank, though apparently in
+early times only in the service of goddesses; "priestess of Hathor" is a
+frequent title of well-born ladies in the Old Kingdom. At a later date
+many wealthy dames held the office of "musicians" (_shemat_) in the
+various temples. In the service of the Theban Ammon two priestesses
+called "the Adorer of the God" and the "Wife of the God" occupied very
+influential positions, and towards the Saite period it was by no means
+unusual for the king to secure these offices for his daughters and so to
+strengthen his own royal title.
+
+5. _The Dead and their Cult._--While the worship of the gods tended
+more and more to become a monopoly of the state and the priests, and
+provided no adequate outlet for the religious cravings of the people
+themselves, this deficiency was amply supplied by the care which they
+bestowed upon their dead: the Egyptians stand alone among the nations of
+the world in the elaborate precautions which they took to secure their
+own welfare beyond the tomb. The belief in immortality, or perhaps
+rather the incapacity to grasp the notion of complete annihilation, is
+traceable from the very earliest times: the simplest graves of the
+prehistoric period, when the corpses were committed to the earth in
+sheepskins and reed mats, seldom lack at least a few poor vases or
+articles of toilet for use in the hereafter. In proportion as the
+prosperity of the land increased, and the advance of civilization
+afforded the technical means, so did these primitive burials give place
+to a more lavish funereal equipment. Tombs of brick with a single
+chamber were succeeded by tombs of stone with several chambers, until
+they really merited the name of "houses of eternity" that the Egyptians
+gave to them. The conception of the tomb as the residence of the dead is
+the fundamental notion that underlies all the ritual observances in
+connexion with the dead, just as the idea of the temple as the
+dwelling-place of the god is the basis of the divine cult. The
+parallelism between the attitude of the Egyptians towards the dead and
+their attitude towards the gods is so striking that it ought never to be
+lost sight of: nothing can illustrate it better than the manner in which
+the Osirian doctrines came to permeate both kinds of cult.
+
+
+  Tombs.
+
+The general scheme of Egyptian tombs remained the same throughout the
+whole of the dynastic period, though there were many variations of
+detail. By preference they were built in the Western desert, the Amente,
+near the place where the sun was seen to go to rest, and which seemed
+the natural entrance to the nether world. A deep pit led down to the
+sepulchral chamber where the dead man was deposited amid the funereal
+furniture destined for his use; and no device was neglected that might
+enable him to rest here undisturbed. This aim is particularly
+conspicuous in the pyramids, the gigantic tombs which the Pharaohs of
+the Old Kingdom constructed for themselves: the passages that lead to
+the burial chamber were barred at intervals by vast granite blocks, and
+the narrow opening that gave access to them was hidden from view beneath
+the stone casing of the pyramid sides. Quite separate from this part of
+the tomb lay the rooms employed for the cult of the dead: their walls
+were often adorned with pictures from the earthly life of the deceased,
+which it was hoped he might still continue to enjoy after death. The
+innermost chamber was the chapel proper: on its western side was
+sculptured an imitation door for the dead man to pass through, when he
+wished to participate in the offerings brought by pious relatives. It
+was of course only the few who could afford elaborate tombs of the kind:
+the poor had to make shift with an unpretentious grave, in which the
+corpse was placed enveloped only by a few rags or enclosed in a rough
+wooden coffin.
+
+
+  Embalming and burial.
+
+The utmost care was taken to preserve the body itself from decay. Before
+the time of the Middle Kingdom it became usual for the rich to have
+their bodies embalmed. The intestines were removed and placed in four
+vases (the so-called Canopic jars) in which they were supposed to enjoy
+the protection of the four sons of Horus, the man-headed Mesti, the
+ape-headed Hapi, the jackal Duamutef and the falcon Kebhsenuf. The
+corpse was treated with natron and asphalt, and wound in a copious
+swathing of linen bandage, with a mask of linen and stucco on the face.
+The "mummy" thus prepared was then laid on its side like a sleeper, the
+head supported by a head-rest, in a sarcophagus of wood or stone. The
+operations in connexion with the mummy grow more and more elaborate
+towards the end of the Pharaonic period: already in the New Kingdom the
+wealthiest persons had their mummies laid in several coffins, each of
+which was gaudily painted with mythological scenes and inscriptions. The
+costliest process of embalmment lasted no less than seventy days. Many
+superstitious rites had to be observed in the course of the process: a
+late book has preserved to us the magical formulae that were repeated by
+the wise _kher-heb_ priest (who in the necropolis performed the
+functions of taricheutes, "embalmer"), as each bandage was applied.
+
+A large number of utensils, articles of furniture and the like were
+placed in the burial-chamber for the use of the dead--jars, weapons,
+mirrors, and even chairs, musical instruments and wigs. In the early
+times statuettes of servants, representing them as engaged in their
+various functions (brewers, bakers, &c.), were included for the same
+purpose; they were supposed to perform their menial functions for their
+deceased lord in the future life. In the Middle Kingdom these are
+gradually replaced by small models of the mummy itself, and the belief
+arose that when their owner was called upon to perform any distasteful
+work in the nether world, they would answer to his name and do the task
+for him. The later _ushebti_-figures, little statuettes of wood, stone
+or faience, of which several hundreds are often found in a single tomb,
+are confused survivals of both of the earlier classes of statuettes.
+Still more important than all such funereal objects are the books that
+were placed in the grave for the use of the dead: in the pyramids they
+are written on the walls of the sepulchral chamber and the passages
+leading to it; in the Middle Kingdom usually inscribed on the inner
+sides of the sarcophagus; in later times contained in rolls of papyrus.
+The Pyramid texts and the _Book of the Dead_ are the most important of
+these, and teach us much about the dangers and needs that attended the
+dead man beyond the tomb, and about the manner in which it was thought
+they could be counteracted.
+
+The burial ceremony itself must have been an imposing spectacle. In many
+cases the mummy had to be conveyed across the Nile, and boats were gaily
+decked out for this purpose. On the western bank a stately procession
+conducted the deceased to his last resting-place. At the door of the
+tomb the final ceremonies were performed; they demanded a considerable
+number of actors, chief among whom were the _sem_-priest and the
+_kher-heb_ priest. It was a veritable drama that was here enacted, and
+recalled in its incidents the story of Osiris, the divine prototype of
+all successive generations of the Egyptian dead.
+
+
+  The soul.
+
+  However carefully the preliminary rites of embalmment and burial might
+  have been performed, however sumptuous the tomb wherein the dead man
+  reposed, he was nevertheless almost entirely at the mercy of the
+  living for his welfare in the other world: he was as dependent on a
+  continued cult on the part of the surviving members of his family as
+  the gods were dependent on the constant attendance of their priests.
+  That portion of a man's individuality which required, even after
+  death, food and drink, and the satisfaction of sensuous needs, was
+  called by the Egyptians the _ka_, and represented in hieroglyphs by
+  the uplifted hands [HRG]. This _ka_ was supposed to be born together
+  with the person to whom it belonged, and on the very rare occasions
+  when it is depicted, wears his exact semblance. The conception of this
+  psychical entity is too vaguely formulated by the Egyptians and too
+  foreign to modern thought to admit of exact translation: of the many
+  renderings that have been proposed, perhaps "double" is the most
+  suitable. At all events the _ka_ has to be distinguished from the
+  soul, the _bai_ (in hieroglyphs [HRG] or [HRG]), which was of more
+  tangible nature, and might be descried hovering around the tomb in the
+  form of a bird or in some other shape; for it was thought that the
+  soul might assume what shape it would, if the funerary rites had been
+  duly attended to. The gods had their _ka_ and _bai_, and the forms
+  attributed to the latter are surprising; thus we read that the soul of
+  the sky Nun is Re, that of Osiris the Goat of Mendes, the souls of
+  Sobk are crocodiles, and those "of all the gods are snakes"; similarly
+  the soul of Ptah was thought to dwell in the Apis bull, so that each
+  successive Apis was during its lifetime the reincarnation of the god.
+  Other parts of a man's being to which at given moments and in
+  particular contexts the Egyptians assigned a certain degree of
+  separate existence are the "name" [HRG] _ran_, the "shadow" [HRG],
+  _khaibet_, and the "corpse" [HRG], _khat_.
+
+It was, however, the _ka_ alone to which the cult of the dead was
+directly addressed. This cult was a positive duty binding on the
+children of a dead man, and doubtless as a rule discharged by them with
+some regularity and conscientiousness; at least, on feast-days offerings
+would be brought to the tomb, and the ceremonies of purification and
+opening the mouth of the deceased would be enacted. But there could be
+little guarantee that later generations would perpetuate the cult. It
+therefore became usual under the Old Kingdom for the wealthiest persons
+to make testamentary dispositions by which certain other persons agreed
+for a consideration to observe the required rites at stated periods:
+they received the name of "servants of the _ka_," and stood in the same
+relation to the deceased as the priests to the gods. Or again, contracts
+might be made with a neighbouring temple, the priesthood of which bound
+itself to reserve for the contracting party some portion of the
+offerings that had already been used for the divine cult. There is
+probably a superstitious reason for the preference shown by the dead for
+offerings of this kind; no wish is commoner than that one may receive
+"bread and beer that had gone up on to the altar of the local god," or
+"with which the god had been sated"; something of the divine sanctity
+still clung about such offerings and made them particularly desirable.
+In spite of all the precautions they took and the contracts they made,
+the Egyptians could never quite rid themselves of the dread that their
+tombs might decay and their cult be neglected; and they sought therefore
+to obtain by prayers and threats what they feared they might lose
+altogether. The occasional visitor to the tomb is reminded by its
+inscriptions of the many virtues of the dead man while he yet lived, and
+is charged, if he be come with empty hands, at least to pronounce the
+funerary formula; it will indeed cost him nothing but "the breath of his
+mouth"! Against the would-be desecrator the wrath of the gods is
+invoked: "with him shall the great god reckon there where a reckoning is
+made."
+
+The funerary customs that have been described are meaningless except on
+the supposition that the tomb was the regular dwelling-place of the
+dead. But just as the Egyptians found no contradiction between the view
+of the temple as the residence of the god and the conception of him as a
+cosmic deity, so too they often attributed to the dead a continued
+existence quite apart from the tomb. According to a widely-spread
+doctrine of great age the deceased Egyptian was translated to the
+heavens, where he lived on in the form of a star. This theme is
+elaborated with great detail in the Pyramid texts, where it is the dead
+king to whom this destiny is promised. It was perhaps only a restricted
+aristocracy who could aspire to such high honour: the [HRG] _ikh_, or
+"glorified being," who has his place in the sky seems often to hold an
+intermediate position between the gods and the rank and file of the
+dead. But in a few early passages the required qualification appears to
+be rather moral integrity than exalted station. The life of the dead man
+in the sky is variously envisaged in different texts: at one moment he
+is spoken of as accompanying the sun-god in his celestial bark, at
+another as a mighty king more powerful than Re himself; the crudest
+fancy of all pictures him as a hunter who catches the stars and gods,
+and cooks and eats them. According to another conception that persisted
+in the imagination of the Egyptians longer than any of the ideas just
+mentioned, the home of the dead in the heavens was a fertile region not
+very different from Egypt itself, intersected by canals and abounding in
+corn and fruit; this place was called the Sokhet Earu or "field of
+Reeds."
+
+Even in the oldest texts these beliefs are blended inextricably with the
+Osirian doctrines. It is not so much as king of the dead that Osiris
+here appears, but every deceased Egyptian was regarded as himself an
+Osiris, as having undergone all the indignities inflicted upon the god,
+but finally triumphant over the powers of death and evil impersonated by
+Seth. This notion became so popular, that beside it all other views of
+the dead sink into insignificance; it permeates the funerary cult in all
+its stages, and from the Middle Kingdom onwards the dead man is
+regularly called "the Osiris so-and-so," just as though he were
+completely identical with the god. One incident of the tale of Osiris
+acquired a deep ethical meaning in connexion with the dead. It was
+related how Seth had brought an accusation against Osiris in the great
+judgment hall of Heliopolis, and how the latter, helped by the skilful
+speaker Thoth, had emerged from the ordeal acquitted and triumphant. The
+belief gradually grew up that every dead man would have to face a
+similar trial before he could be admitted to a life of bliss in the
+other world. A well-known vignette in the _Book of the Dead_ depicts the
+scene. In a shrine sits Osiris, the ruler and judge of the dead,
+accompanied by forty-two assessors; and before him stands the balance on
+which the heart of the deceased man is to be weighed against Truth;
+Thoth stands behind and registers the result. The words that accompany
+this picture are still more remarkable: they form a long negative
+confession, in which the dead man declares that he has sinned neither
+against man nor against the gods. Not all the sins named are equally
+heinous according to modern conceptions; many of them deal with petty
+offences against religious usages that seem to us but trifling. But it
+is clear that by the time this chapter was penned it was believed that
+no man could attain to happiness in the hereafter if he had not been
+upright, just and charitable in his earthly existence. The date at which
+these conceptions became general is not quite certain, but it can hardly
+be later than the Middle Kingdom, when the dead man has the epithet
+"justified" appended to his name in the inscriptions of his tomb.
+
+It was but a natural wish on the part of the Egyptians that they should
+desire to place their tombs near the traditional burying-place of
+Osiris. By the time of the XIIth Dynasty it was thought that this lay in
+Abydos, the town where the kings of the earliest times had been
+interred. But it was only in a few cases that such a wish could be
+literally fulfilled. It therefore became customary for those who
+possessed the means to dedicate at least a tombstone in the
+neighbourhood of "the staircase of the great god," as the sacred spot
+was called. And those who had found occasion to visit Abydos in their
+lifetime took pleasure in recalling the part that they had there taken
+in the ceremonies of Osiris. Such pilgrims doubtless believed that the
+pious act would stand to their credit when the day of death arrived.
+
+6. _Magic._--Among the rites that were celebrated in the temples or
+before the statues of the dead were many the mystical meaning of which
+was but imperfectly understood, though their efficacy was never doubted.
+Symbolical or imitative acts, accompanied by spoken formulae of set form
+and obscure content, accomplished, by some peculiar virtues of their
+own, results that were beyond the power of human hands and brain. The
+priests and certain wise men were the depositaries of this mysterious
+but highly useful art, that was called _hik_ or "magic"; and one of the
+chief differences between gods and men was the superior degree in which
+the former were endowed with magical powers. It was but natural that the
+Egyptians should wish to employ magic for their own benefit or
+self-gratification, and since religion put no veto on the practice so
+long as it was exercised within legal bounds, it was put to a widespread
+use among them. When magicians made figures of wax representing men whom
+they desired to injure, this was of course an illegal act like any
+other, and the law stepped in to prevent it: one papyrus that has been
+preserved records the judicial proceedings taken in such a case in
+connexion with the harem conspiracy against Rameses III.
+
+One of the chief purposes for which magic was employed was to avert
+diseases. Among the Egyptians, as in other lands, illnesses were
+supposed to be due to evil spirits or the ghosts of dead men who had
+taken up their abode in the body of the sufferer, and they could only be
+driven thence by charms and spells. But out of these primitive notions
+arose a real medical science: when the ailment could be located and its
+nature roughly determined, a more materialistic view was taken of it;
+and many herbs and drugs that were originally used for some
+superstitious reason, when once they had been found to be actually
+effective, easily lost their magical significance and were looked upon
+as natural specifics. It is extremely hard to draw any fixed line in
+Egypt between magic and medicine; but it is curious to note that simple
+diagnoses and prescriptions were employed for the more curable diseases,
+while magical formulae and amulets are reserved for those that are
+harder to cope with, such as the bites of snakes and the stings of
+scorpions.
+
+The formulae recited for such purposes are not purely cabalistic, though
+inasmuch as mystery is of the very essence of magic, foreign words and
+outlandish names occur in them by preference. Often the magician relates
+some mythical case where a god had been afflicted with a disease similar
+to that of the patient, but had finally recovered: a number of such
+tales were told of Horus, who was usually healed by some device of his
+mother Isis, she being accounted as a great enchantress. The mere
+recitation of such similar cases with their happy issue was supposed to
+be magically effective; for almost unlimited power was supposed to be
+inherent in mere words. Often the demon is directly invoked, and
+commanded to come forth. At other times the gods are threatened with
+privations or even destruction if they refuse to aid the magician: the
+Egyptians seem to have found little impiety in such a use of the divine
+name, though to us it would seem the utmost degree of profanity when,
+for instance, a magician declares that if his spell prove ineffective,
+he "will cast fire into Mendes and burn up Osiris."
+
+The verbal spells were always accompanied by some manual performance,
+the tying of magical knots or the preparation of an amulet. In these
+acts particular significance was attached to certain numbers: a
+sevenfold knot, for example, was more efficacious than others. Often the
+formula was written on a strip of rag or a scrap of papyrus and tied
+round the neck of the person for whom it was intended. Beads and all
+kinds of amulets could be infused with magical power so as to be potent
+phylacteries to those who wore them.
+
+In conclusion, it must be emphasized that in Egypt magic stands in no
+contrast or opposition to religion, at least as long as it was
+legitimately used. The religious rites and ceremonies are full of it.
+When a pretence was made of opening, with an iron instrument, the mouth
+of the divine statue, to the accompaniment of recited formulae, this can
+hardly be termed anything but magic. Similarly, the potency attributed
+to _ushebti_-figures and the copies of the _Book of the Dead_ deposited
+in the tombs is magical in quality. What has been considered under this
+heading, however, is the use that the same principles of magic were put
+to by men in their own practical life and for their own advantage.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--An excellent list of books and articles on the various
+  topics connected with Egyptian Religion will be found in H. O. Lange's
+  article on the subject in P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, _Lehrbuch
+  der Religionsgeschichte_ (Tübingen, 1905), vol. i. pp. 172-245. Among
+  general works may be especially recommended A. Erman, _Die ägyptische
+  Religion_ (Berlin, 1905); and chapters 2 and 3 in G. Maspero,
+  _Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'Orient, les origines_, vol. i.
+  (Paris, 1895).     (A. H. G.)
+
+D. _Egyptian Language and Writing.--Decipherment._--Although attempts
+were made to read Egyptian hieroglyphs so far back as the 17th century,
+no promise of success appeared until the discovery of the Rosetta stone
+in 1799 by the French engineers attached to Napoleon's expedition to
+Egypt. This tablet was inscribed with three versions, in hieroglyphic,
+demotic and Greek, of a long decree of the Egyptian priests in honour of
+Ptolemy V., Epiphanes and his wife Cleopatra. The Greek and demotic
+versions were still almost perfect, but most of the hieroglyphic text
+had been broken away with the top of the tablet; portions of about half
+of the lines remained, but no single line was complete. In 1802 J. D.
+Akerblad, a Swedish orientalist attached to the embassy in Paris,
+identified the proper names of persons which occurred in the demotic
+text, being guided to them by the position of their equivalents in the
+Greek. These names, all of them foreign, were written in an alphabet of
+a limited number of characters, and were therefore analysed with
+comparative ease.
+
+The hieroglyphic text upon the Rosetta stone was too fragmentary to
+furnish of itself the key to the decipherment. But the study of this
+with the other scanty monuments and imperfect copies of inscriptions
+that were available enabled the celebrated physicist Thomas Young
+(1773-1829) to make a beginning. In an article completed in 1819 and
+printed (over the initials I. J.) in the supplement to the 4th, 5th and
+6th editions of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (vol. iv., 1824), he
+published a brief account of Egyptian research, with five plates
+containing the "rudiments of an Egyptian vocabulary." It appears that
+Young could place the hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek texts of the
+Rosetta stone very correctly parallel; but he could not accurately break
+up the Egyptian sentences into words, much less could he attribute to
+the words their proper sounds. Yet he recognized correctly the names of
+Apis and Re, with many groups for words such as "assembly," "good,"
+"name," and important signs such as those which distinguish feminine
+words. In a bad copy of another monument he rightly guessed the royal
+name of Berenice in its cartouche by the side of that of Ptolemy, which
+was already known from its occurrence on the Rosetta stone. He
+considered that these names must be written in phonetic characters in
+the hieroglyphic as in demotic, but he failed to analyse them correctly.
+It was clear, however, that with more materials and perseverance such
+efforts after decipherment must eventually succeed.
+
+Meanwhile J. F. Champollion "le Jeune" (see CHAMPOLLION; and Hartleben,
+_Champollion, sein Leben und sein Werk_, Berlin, 1906) had devoted his
+energies whole-heartedly since 1802, when he was only eleven years old,
+to preparing himself for the solution of the Egyptian problem, by wide
+linguistic and historical studies, and above all by familiarizing
+himself with every scrap of Egyptian writing which he could find. By
+1818 he made many equations between the demotic and the hieroglyphic
+characters, and was able to transcribe the demotic names of Ptolemy and
+Cleopatra into hieroglyphics. At length, in January 1822, a copy of the
+hieroglyphic inscription on the Bankes obelisk, which had long been
+fruitlessly in the hands of Young, reached the French savant. On the
+base of this obelisk was engraved a Greek inscription in honour of
+Ptolemy Euergetes II. and Cleopatra; of the two cartouches on the
+obelisk one was of Ptolemy, the other was easily recognized as that of
+Cleopatra, spelt nearly as in Champollion's experimental transcript of
+the demotic name, only more fully. This discovery, and the recognition
+of the name Alexander, gave fourteen alphabetic signs, including
+homophones, with ascertained values. Starting from these, by the
+beginning of September Champollion had analysed a long series of
+Ptolemaic and Roman cartouches. His next triumph was on the 14th of
+September, when he read the names of the ancient Pharaohs Rameses and
+Tethmosis in some drawings just arrived from Egypt, proving that his
+alphabetic characters were employed, in conjunction with syllabic signs,
+for spelling native names; this gave him the assurance that his
+discovery touched the essential nature of the Egyptian writing and not
+merely, as had been contended, a special cipher for the foreign words
+which might be quite inapplicable to the rest of the inscriptions. His
+progress continued unchecked, and before the end of the year the
+connexion of ancient Egyptian and Coptic was clearly established.
+Subsequently visits to the museums of Italy and an expedition to Egypt
+in 1828-1829 furnished Champollion with ample materials. The _Précis du
+système hiéroglyphique_ (1st ed. 1823, 2nd ed. 1828) contained the
+philological results of his decipherments down to a certain point. But
+his MS. collections were vast, and his illness after the strenuous
+labours of the expedition and his early death in 1832 left all in
+confusion. The _Grammaire égyptienne_ and _Dictionnaire égyptien_,
+edited from these MSS. by his brother, precious as they were, must be a
+very imperfect register of the height of his attainments. In his last
+years he was able to translate long texts in hieroglyphic and in
+hieratic of the New Kingdom and of the later periods with some
+accuracy, and his comprehension of demotic was considerable. Champollion
+outdistanced all his competitors from the first, and had practically
+nothing to thank them for except material to work on, and too often that
+had been intentionally withheld from him. In eleven years he broke
+ground in all directions; if the ordinary span of life had been allowed
+him, with twenty or thirty more years of labour he might have brought
+order into the chaos of different ages and styles of language and
+writing; but, as it was, the task of co-ordination remained to be done
+by others. For one year, before his illness incapacitated him,
+Champollion held a professorship in Paris; but of his pupils and
+fellow-workers, F. P. Salvolini, insincere and self-seeking, died young,
+and Ippolito Rosellini (1800-1843) showed little original power. From
+1832 to 1837 there was a pause in the march of Egyptology, and it seemed
+as if the young science might be overwhelmed by the storm of doubts and
+detraction that was poured upon it by the enemies of Champollion. Then,
+however, Lepsius in Germany and Samuel Birch in England took up the
+thread where the master had dropped it, and E. de Rougé, H. Brugsch,
+François Joseph Chabas and a number of lesser lights quickly followed.
+Brugsch (q.v.) was the author of a hieroglyphic and demotic dictionary
+which still holds the field, and from time to time carried forward the
+study of demotic by a giant's stride. De Rougé (d. 1872) in France was a
+brilliant translator of hieroglyphic texts and the author of an
+important grammatical work. Chabas (1817-1882) especially addressed
+himself to the reading of the hieratic texts of the New Kingdom. By such
+labours after forty years the results attained by Champollion in
+decipherment were entirely superseded. Yet, while the values of the
+signs were for the most part well ascertained, and the meanings of most
+works fixed with some degree of accuracy, few grammatical rules had as
+yet been established, the varieties of the language at different periods
+had not been defined, and the origins of the hieroglyphs and of their
+values had not been investigated beyond the most obvious points. At this
+time a rare translator of Egyptian texts in all branches was arising in
+G. Maspero (q.v.), while E. Revillout addressed himself with success to
+the task of interpreting the legal documents of demotic which had been
+almost entirely neglected for thirty years. But the honour of
+inaugurating an epoch marked by greater precision belongs to Germany.
+The study of Coptic had begun in Europe early in the 17th century, and
+reached a high level in the work of the Dane Georg Zoega (1755-1809) at
+the end of the 18th century. In 1835, too late for Champollion to use
+it, Amadeo Peyron (1785-1870) of Turin published a Coptic lexicon of
+great merit which is still standard, though far from satisfying the
+needs of scholars of the present day. In 1880 Ludwig Stern (_Koptische
+Grammatik_) admirably classified the grammatical forms of Coptic. The
+much more difficult task of recovering the grammar of Egyptian has
+occupied thirty years of special study by Adolf Erman and his school at
+Berlin, and has now reached an advanced stage. The greater part of
+Egyptian texts after the Middle Kingdom having been written in what was
+even then practically a dead language, as dead as Latin was to the
+medieval monks in Italy who wrote and spoke it, Erman selected for
+special investigation those texts which really represented the growth of
+the language at different periods, and, as he passed from one epoch to
+another, compared and consolidated his results.
+
+  The _Neuägyptische Grammatik_ (1880) dealt with texts written in the
+  vulgar dialect of the New Kingdom (Dyns. XVIII. to XX.). Next
+  followed, in the _Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und
+  Alterthumskunde_, studies on the Old Kingdom inscription of Una, and
+  the Middle Kingdom contracts of Assiut, as well as on an "Old Coptic"
+  text of the 3rd century A.D. At this point a papyrus of stories
+  written in the popular language of the Middle Kingdom provided Erman
+  with a stepping-stone from Old Egyptian to the Late Egyptian of the
+  _Neuägyptische Grammatik_, and gave the connexions that would bind
+  solidly together the whole structure of Egyptian grammar (see _Sprache
+  des Papyrus Westcar_, 1889). The very archaic pyramid texts enabled
+  him to sketch the grammar of the earliest known form of Egyptian
+  (_Zeitschrift d. Deutsch. Morgenl. Gesellschaft_, 1892), and in 1894
+  he was able to write a little manual of Egyptian for beginners
+  (_Ägyptische Grammatik_, 2nd ed., 1902), centring on the language of
+  the standard inscriptions of the Middle and New Kingdoms, but
+  accompanying the main sketch with references to earlier and later
+  forms. Of the work of Erman's pupils we may mention G. Steindorff's
+  little _Koptische Grammatik_ (1894, ed. 1904), improving greatly on
+  Stern's standard work in regard to phonology and the relationship of
+  Coptic forms to Egyptian, and K. Sethe's _Das Ägyptische Verbum_
+  (1899). The latter is an extensive monograph on the verb in Egyptian
+  and Coptic by a brilliant and laborious philologist. Owing to the very
+  imperfect notation of sound in the writing, the highly important
+  subject of the verbal roots and verbal forms was perhaps the obscurest
+  branch of Egyptian grammar when Sethe first attacked it in 1895. The
+  subject has been reviewed by Erman, _Die Flexion des ägyptischen
+  Verbums_ in the _Sitzungsberichte_ of the Berlin Academy, 1900. The
+  Berlin school, having settled the main lines of the grammar, next
+  turned its attention to lexicography. It has devised a scheme, founded
+  on that for the Latin Thesaurus of the Berlin Academy, which almost
+  mechanically sorts the whole number of occurrences of every word in
+  any text examined. Scholars in England, America and Denmark, as well
+  as in Germany, have taken part in this great enterprise, and though
+  the completion of it may be far off, the collections of classified
+  material already made are very valuable for consultation.[11] At
+  present Egyptologists depend on Heinrich Brugsch's admirable but
+  somewhat antiquated _Wörterbuch_ and on Levi's useful but entirely
+  uncritical _Vocabolario_. Though demotic has not yet received serious
+  attention at Berlin, the influence of that great school has made
+  itself felt amongst demotists, especially in Switzerland, Germany,
+  America and England. The death of Heinrich Brugsch in 1895 was a very
+  severe blow to demotic studies; but it must be admitted that his
+  brilliant gifts lay in other directions than exact grammatical
+  analysis. Apart from their philological interest, as giving the
+  history of a remarkable language during a period of several thousand
+  years, the grammatical studies of the last quarter of the 19th century
+  and afterwards are beginning to bear fruit in regard to the exact
+  interpretation of historical documents on Egyptian monuments and
+  papyri. Not long ago the supposed meaning of these was extracted
+  chiefly by brilliant guessing, and the published translations of even
+  the best scholars could carry no guarantee of more than approximate
+  exactitude, where the sense depended at all on correct recognition of
+  the syntax. Now the translator proceeds in Egyptian with some of the
+  sureness with which he would deal with Latin or Greek. The meaning of
+  many words may be still unknown, and many constructions are still
+  obscure; but at least he can distinguish fairly between a correct text
+  and a corrupt text. Egyptian writing lent itself only too easily to
+  misunderstanding, and the writings of one period were but half
+  intelligible to the learned scribes of another. The mistaken readings
+  of the old inscriptions by the priests at Abydos (Table of Abydos),
+  when attempting to record the names of the kings of the 1st Dynasty on
+  the walls of the temple of Seti I., are now admitted on all sides; and
+  no palaeographer, whether his field be Greek, Latin, Arabic, Persian
+  or any other class of MSS., will be surprised to hear that the
+  Egyptian papyri and inscriptions abound in corruptions and mistakes.
+  The translator of to-day can, if he wishes, mark where certainty ends
+  and mere conjecture begins, and it is to be hoped that advantage will
+  be taken more widely of this new power. The Egyptologist who has long
+  lived in the realm of conjecture is too prone to consider any series
+  of guesses good enough to serve as a translation, and forgets to
+  insert the notes of interrogation which would warn workers in other
+  fields from implicit trust.
+
+_Language and Writing._--The history of the Egyptian language is
+evidenced by documents extending over a very long range of time. They
+begin with the primitive inscriptions of the Ist Dynasty (not later than
+3300 B.C.) and end with the latest Coptic compositions of about the 14th
+century A.D. The bulk of the hieroglyphic inscriptions are written in a
+more or less artificial literary language; but in business documents,
+letters, popular tales, &c., the scribes often adhered closely to the
+living form of the tongue, and thus reveal its progressive changes.
+
+The stages of the language are now distinguished as follows:--
+
+_Old Egyptian._--This is properly the language of the Old Kingdom. In it
+we have (a) the recently discovered inscriptions of the Ist Dynasty, too
+brief and concise to throw much light on the language of that time; and
+the great collections of spells and ritual texts found inscribed in the
+Pyramids of the Vth and VIth Dynasties, which must even then have been
+of high antiquity, though they contain later additions made in the same
+style. (b) A few historical texts and an abundance of short inscriptions
+representing the language of the IVth, Vth and VIth Dynasties. The
+ordinary _literary language_ of the later monuments is modelled on Old
+Egyptian. It is often much affected by contemporary speech, but
+preserves in the main the characteristics of the language of the Old
+Kingdom.
+
+_Middle and Late Egyptian._--These represent the vulgar speech of the
+Middle and New Kingdoms respectively. The former is found chiefly in
+tales, letters, &c., written in hieratic on papyri of the XIIIth Dynasty
+to the end of the Middle Kingdom; also in some inscriptions of the
+XVIIIth Dynasty. Late Egyptian is seen in hieratic papyri of the XVIIIth
+to the XXIst Dynasties. The spelling of Late Egyptian is very
+extraordinary, full of false etymologies, otiose signs, &c., the old
+orthography being quite unable to adapt itself neatly to the profoundly
+modified language; nevertheless, this clumsy spelling is expressive, and
+the very mistakes are instructive as to the pronunciation.
+
+_Demotic._--Demotic Egyptian seems to represent approximately the vulgar
+speech of the Saite period, and is written in the "demotic" character,
+which may be traced back to the XXVIth Dynasty, if not to a still
+earlier time. With progressive changes, this form of the language is
+found in documents reaching down to the fall of Paganism in the 4th
+century A.D.[12] Under the later Ptolemies and the Roman rule documents
+in Greek are more abundant than in demotic, and the language of the
+ruling classes must have begun to penetrate the masses deeply.
+
+_Coptic._--This, in the main, represents the popular language of early
+Christian Egypt from the 3rd to perhaps the 10th century A.D., when the
+growth of Coptic as a literary language must have ceased. The Greek
+alphabet, reinforced by a few signs borrowed from demotic, rendered the
+spoken tongue so accurately that four distinct, though closely allied,
+dialects are readily distinguishable in Coptic MSS.; ample remains are
+found of renderings of the Scriptures into all these dialects. The
+distinctions between the dialects consist largely in pronunciation, but
+extend also to the vocabulary, word-formation and syntax. Such
+interchanges are found as _l_ for _r_, [Coptic: qima] (_k_, _ch_) for
+[Coptic: dandia] (_dj_), final _i_ for final _e_, _a_ for _e_, _a_ for
+_o_. Early in the 2nd century A.D., pagan Egyptians, or perhaps
+foreigners settled in Egypt, essayed, as yet unskilfully, to write the
+native language in Greek letters. This _Old Coptic_, as it is termed,
+was still almost entirely free from Greek loan-words, and its strong
+archaisms are doubtless accounted for by the literary language, even in
+its most "vulgar" forms, having moved more slowly than the speech of the
+people. Christian Coptic, though probably at first contemporary with
+some documents of Old Coptic, contrasts strongly with the latter. The
+monks whose task it was to perfect the adaptation of the alphabet to the
+dialects of Egypt and translate the Scriptures out of the Greek, flung
+away all pagan traditions. It is clear that the basis which they chose
+for the new literature was the simplest language of daily life in the
+monasteries, charged as it was with expressions taken from Greek,
+pre-eminently the language of patristic Christianity. There is evidence
+that the amount of stress on syllables, and the consequent length of
+vowels, varied greatly in spoken Coptic, and that the variation gave
+much trouble to the scribes; the early Christian writers must have taken
+as a model for each dialect the deliberate speech of grave elders or
+preachers, and so secured a uniform system of accentuation. The remains
+of Old Coptic, though very instructive in their marked peculiarities,
+are as yet too few for definite classification. The main divisions of
+Christian Coptic as recognized and named at present are: Sahidic
+(formerly called Theban), spoken in the upper Thebais; Akhmimic, in the
+neighbourhood of Akhmim, but driven out by Sahidic about the 5th
+century; Fayumic, in the Fayum (formerly named wrongly "Bashmuric," from
+a province of the Delta); Bohairic, the dialect of the "coast district"
+(formerly named "Memphite"), spoken in the north-western Delta. Coptic,
+much alloyed with Arabic, was spoken in Upper Egypt as late as the 15th
+century, but it has long been a dead language.[13] Sahidic and Bohairic
+are the most important dialects, each of these having left abundant
+remains; the former spread over the whole of Upper Egypt, and the latter
+since the 14th century has been the language of the sacred books of
+Christianity throughout the country, owing to the hierarchical
+importance of Alexandria and the influence of the ancient monasteries
+established in the north-western desert.
+
+The above stages of the Egyptian language are not defined with absolute
+clearness. Progress is seen from dynasty to dynasty or from century to
+century. New Egyptian shades off almost imperceptibly into demotic, and
+it may be hoped that gaps which now exist in the development will be
+filled by further discovery.
+
+Coptic is the only stage of the language in which the spelling gives a
+clear idea of the pronunciation. It is therefore the mainstay of the
+scholar in investigating or restoring the word-forms of the ancient
+language. Greek transcriptions of Egyptian names and words are valuable
+as evidence for the vocalization of Egyptian. Such are found from the
+6th century B.C. in the inscription of Abu Simbel, from the 5th in
+Herodotus, &c., and abound in Ptolemaic and later documents from the
+beginning of the 3rd century B.C. onwards. At first sight they may seem
+inaccurate, but on closer examination the Graecizing is seen to follow
+definite rules, especially in the Ptolemaic period. A few cuneiform
+transcriptions, reaching as far back as the XVIIIth Dynasty, give
+valuable hints as to how Egyptian was pronounced in the 15th century
+B.C. Coptic itself is of course quite inadequate to enable us to restore
+Old Egyptian. In it the Old Egyptian verbal forms are mostly replaced by
+periphrases; though the strong roots are often preserved entire, the
+weaker consonants and the [Hebrew: ts] have largely or entirely
+disappeared, so that the language appears as one of biliteral rather
+than triliteral roots. Coptic is strongly impregnated with Greek words
+adopted late; moreover, a certain number of Semitic loan-words flowed
+into Egyptian at all ages, and especially from the 16th century B.C.
+onwards, displacing earlier words. It is only by the most careful
+scrutiny, or the exercise of the most piercing insight, that the
+imperfectly spelled Egyptian has been made to yield up one grammatical
+secret after another in the light brought to bear upon it from Coptic.
+Demotic grammar ought soon to be thoroughly comprehensible in its forms,
+and the study of Late Egyptian should not stand far behind that of
+demotic. On the other hand, Middle Egyptian, and still more Old
+Egyptian, which is separated from Middle Egyptian by a wide gap, will
+perhaps always be to us little more than consonantal skeletons, the
+flesh and blood of their vocalization being for the most part
+irretrievably lost.[14]
+
+In common with the Semitic languages, the Berber languages of North
+Africa, and the Cushite languages of North-East Africa, Egyptian of all
+periods possesses grammatical gender, expressing masculine and feminine.
+Singularly few language groups have this peculiarity; and our own great
+Indo-European group, which possesses it, is distinguished from those
+above mentioned by having the neuter gender in addition. The
+characteristic triliteral roots of all the Semitic languages seemed to
+separate them widely from others; but certain traits have caused the
+Egyptian, Berber and Cushite groups to be classed together as three
+subfamilies of a Hamitic group, remotely related to the Semitic. The
+biliteral character of Coptic, and the biliteralism which was believed
+to exist in Egyptian, led philologists to suspect that Egyptian might be
+a surviving witness to that far-off stage of the Semitic languages when
+triliteral roots had not yet been formed from presumed original
+biliterals; Sethe's investigations, however, prove that the Coptic
+biliterals are themselves derived from Old Egyptian triliterals, and
+that the triliteral roots enormously preponderated in Egyptian of the
+earliest known form; that view is, therefore, no longer tenable. Many
+remarkable resemblances have been observed in the grammatical structure
+of the Berber and Cushite groups with Semitic (cf. H. Zimmern,
+_Vergleichende Grammatik d. semitischen Sprachen_, Berlin, 1898,
+especially pronouns and verbs); but the relationship must be very
+distant, and there are no ancient documents that can take back the
+history of any one of those languages more than a few centuries. Their
+connexion with Semitic and Egyptian, therefore, remains at present an
+obscure though probable hypothesis. On the other hand, Egyptian is
+certainly related to Semitic. Even before the triliterality of Old
+Egyptian was recognized, Erman showed that the so-called
+pseudo-participle had been really in meaning and in form a precise
+analogue of the Semitic perfect, though its original employment was
+almost obsolete in the time of the earliest known texts. Triliteralism
+is considered the most essential and most peculiar feature of Semitic.
+But there are, besides, many other resemblances in structure between the
+Semitic languages and Egyptian, so that, although the two vocabularies
+present few points of clear contact, there is reason to believe that
+Egyptian was originally a characteristic member of the Semitic family of
+languages. See Erman, "Das Verhältnis d. ägyptischen zu d. semitischen
+Sprachen" (_Zeitschrift d. deutschen morgenl. Gesellschaft_, 1892);
+Zimmern, _Vergl. Gram._, 1898; Erman, "Flexion d. ägyptischen Verbums"
+(_Sitzungsberichte d. Berl. Akad._, 1900). The Egyptians proper are not,
+and so far as we can tell never were, Semitic in physical feature. As a
+possible explanation of the facts, Erman supposes that a horde of
+conquering Semites, like the Arabs of a later day, imposed their
+language on the country, but disappeared, being weakened by the climate
+or absorbed by the native population. The latter acquired the Semitic
+language imperfectly from their conquerors; they expressed the verbal
+conjugations by periphrases, mispronounced the consonants, and so
+changed greatly the appearance of the vocabulary, which also would
+certainly contain a large proportion of native non-Semitic roots. Strong
+consonants gave place to weak consonants (as [Arabic: Qaaf] has done to
+[Arabic sign], in the modern Arabic of Egypt), and then the weak
+consonants disappearing altogether produced biliterals from the
+triliterals. Much of this must have taken place, according to the
+theory, in the prehistoric period; but the loss of weak consonants, of
+[ayin] and of one of two repeated consonants, and the development of
+periphrastic conjugations continued to the end. The typical Coptic root
+thus became biliteral rather than triliteral, and the verb, by means of
+periphrases, developed tenses of remarkable precision. Such verbal
+resemblances as exist between Coptic and Semitic are largely due to late
+exchanges with Semitic neighbours.
+
+  The following sketch of the Egyptian language, mainly in its earliest
+  form, which dates from some three or four thousand years B.C., is
+  founded upon Erman's works. It will serve to contrast with Coptic
+  grammar on the one hand and Semitic grammar on the other.
+
+  THE EGYPTIAN ALPHABET
+
+    [HRG: M17] = _l_; so conventionally transcribed since it unites two
+           values, being sometimes y but often [Hebrew: alef] (especially
+           at the beginning of words), and from the earliest times used in
+           a manner corresponding to the Arabic _hamza_, to indicate a
+           prosthetic vowel. Often lost.
+
+    [HRG: Z4] and [HRG: M17-M17] are frequently employed for _y_.
+
+    [HRG: G1] = '([Hebrew: alef]); easily lost or changes to _y_.
+
+    [HRG: D36] = '([Hebrew: ayin]); lost in Coptic. This rare sound, well
+           known in Semitic, occurs also in Berber and Cushite languages.
+
+    [HRG: G43] = _w_; often changes to _y_.
+
+    [HRG: D58] = _b_.
+
+    [HRG: Q3] = _p_.
+
+    [HRG: I9] = _f_.
+
+    [HRG: G17] = _m_.
+
+    [HRG: N35] = _n_.
+
+    [HRG] = _r_; often lost, or changes to _y_. _r_ and _l_ are
+           distinguished in later demotic and in Coptic.
+
+    [HRG] = _h_    } distinction lost in Coptic.
+    [HRG] = _[h.]_ }
+
+    [HRG] = _h_; in Coptic [Coptic: sai] (_sh_) or [Coptic: xai] (_kh_)
+           correspond to it.
+
+    [HRG] = _[h=]_; generally written with [HRG] (_[vs]_) in the Old
+           Kingdom, but [HRG] corresponds to _kh_ in Coptic.
+
+    [HRG] = _s_    } distinction lost at the end of the Old Kingdom.
+    [HRG] = _[/s]_ }
+
+    [HRG] = _[vs]_ (_sh_).
+
+    [HRG] = _q_; Coptic [Coptic: kappa].
+
+    [HRG] = _k_ } Coptic [Coptic: kappa]; or [Coptic: qima],
+                }    [Coptic: dandia], according to dialect.
+    [HRG] = _g_ } Coptic [Coptic: kappa]; or [Coptic: qima].
+
+    [HRG] = _[t=]_; often lost at the end of words.
+
+    [HRG] = _t_ ([theta]); often changes to _t_, otherwise Coptic
+           [Coptic: tau]; or [Coptic: dandia], [Coptic: qima].
+
+    [HRG] = _d_; in Coptic reduced to _t_.
+
+    [HRG] = _d_ (_z_); often changes to _d_, Coptic [Coptic: tau];
+           otherwise in Coptic [Coptic: dandia].
+
+
+  _ROOTS_
+
+  Egyptian roots consist of consonants and semi-consonants only, the
+  inflexion being effected by internal vowel-change and the addition of
+  consonants or vowels at the beginning or end. The Egyptian system of
+  writing, as opposed to the Coptic, showed only the consonantal
+  skeletons of words: it could not record internal vowel-changes; and
+  semi-consonants, even when radicals, were often omitted in writing.
+
+
+  _PERSONAL PRONOUNS_
+
+  Sing. 1. c. _iw_ (?) later _wi_.     Pl. 1. c. _n_.                Du.
+        2. m. _kw_.                        2. c. _tn_.               2. c. _tny_.
+           f. _tn_.
+        3. _m_. *_fy_, surviving only      3. m. _sn_, early lost,   3. c. _sny_.
+                       in a special                    except as
+                       verbal form.                    suffix.
+           f. _sy_.                           f. *_st_ surviving
+                                                       as 3. c.
+
+  From these are derived the suffixes, which are shortened forms
+  attached to nouns to express the possessor, and to verbs to express
+  the subject. In the latter case the verb was probably in the
+  participle, so that _sdmii-sn_, "they hear," is literally "hearing
+  are they." The singular suffixes are: (1) c. _-i_; (2) m. _-k_, f.
+  _-t_; (3) m. _-f_, f. _-s_;--the dual and plural have no special
+  forms.
+
+  Another series of absolute pronouns is: (2) m. _twt_, _tw_; f. _tmt_,
+  _tm_; (3) m. _swt_, _sw_; f. _stt_, _st_. Of these _twt_, _tmt_, &c.,
+  are emphatic forms.
+
+  Many of the above absolute pronouns were almost obsolete even in the
+  Old Kingdom. In ordinary texts some survive, especially as objects of
+  verbs, namely, _wi_, _tw_, _tn_, _sw_, _st_. The suffixes of all
+  numbers and persons except the dual were in full use throughout, to
+  Coptic; _sn_, however, giving way to a new suffix, _-w_, which
+  developed first in the New Kingdom.
+
+  Another absolute pronoun of the first person is _ink_, [Coptic: Anoch]
+  like Heb. [Hebrew: Anochi]. It is associated with a series for the
+  second and third persons: _nt-k_, _nt-t_, _nt-f_, _nt-sn_, &c.; but
+  from their history, use and form, it seems probable that the last are
+  of later formation, and are not to be connected with the Semitic
+  pronouns (chiefly of the 2nd person) resembling them.
+
+
+  _DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS_
+
+  There are several series based on m. _p_; f. _t_; pl. _n_; but _n_ as
+  a plural seems later than the other two. From them are developed a
+  weak demonstrative to which possessive suffixes can be attached,
+  producing the definite and possessive articles (_p'_, _t'_, _n'_,
+  "the," _p'y-f_, "his," _p'y-s_ "her," &c.) of Middle Egyptian and the
+  later language.
+
+
+  _NOUNS_
+
+  Two genders, m. (ending _w_, or nothing), f. (ending _t_). Three
+  numbers: singular, dual (m. _wi_, f. _ti_, gradually became obsolete),
+  plural (m. _w_; f. _wt_). No case-endings are recognizable, but
+  construct forms--to judge by Coptic--were in use. Masculine and
+  feminine nouns of instrument or material are formed from verbal roots
+  by prefixing _m_; e.g. _m·sdm·t_, "stibium," from _sdm_, "paint the
+  eye." Substantives and adjectives are formed from substantives and
+  prepositions by the addition of _y_ in the masculine; e.g. _n·t_,
+  "city," _nt·y_, "belonging to a city," "citizen"; _hr_, "upon," _hr·y_
+  (f. _hr·t_; pl. _hr·w)_, "upper." This is not unlike the Semitic
+  _nisbe_ ending _iy_, _ay_ (e.g. Ar. _beled_, "city," _beledi_,
+  "belonging to a city"). Adjectives follow the nouns they qualify.
+
+
+  _NUMERALS_
+
+  1, _w'_; 2, _sn_; 3, _hmt_; 4, _fdw_; 5, _dw'_; 6, _sis_ (or _sw'_ ?);
+  7, _sfh_; 8, _hmn_; 9, _psd_; 10, _mt_. 2, 6, 7, 8 and 9 (?) resemble
+  Semitic numerals. 20 and 30 (_m'b_) had special names; 40-90 were
+  named as if plurals of the units 4-9, as in Semitic. 100, _snt_; 1000,
+  _h'_; 10,000, _zb'_; 100,000, _hfnw_.
+
+
+  _VERBS_
+
+  The forms observable in hieroglyphic writing lead to the following
+  classification:--
+
+  STRONG VERBS.
+         Biliteral      Often showing traces of an original III. inf.;
+                                   in early times very rare.
+
+         Triliteral     Very numerous.
+
+                        { Generally formed by reduplication.
+         Quadriliteral  {   In Late Egyptian they were no longer
+         Quinqueliteral {   inflected, and were conjugated with the help
+                        {   of _iry_, "do."
+
+  WEAK VERBS.
+         II. geminatae  Properly triliterals, but, with the 2nd or 3rd
+                            radical alike, these coalesced in many forms
+                            where no vowel intervened, and gave the word
+                            the appearance of a biliteral.
+
+         III. gem.      Rare.
+
+         III. inf.      Numerous. III. _w_, and III. _i_ were
+                            unified early. Some very common verbs, "do,"
+                            "give," "come," "bring" are irregular.
+
+         IV. inf.       Partly derived from adjectival formations in
+                            _y_, from nouns and infinitives:--e.g. _s·ip_,
+                            inf. _sipt_; adj. _sipty_; verb (4 lit.),
+                            _sipty_.
+
+  Many verbs with weak consonants--I_y_, I_w_, II. inf. (_m[w]t_), and
+  those with [Hebrew: alef]--are particularly difficult to trace
+  accurately, owing to defective writing.
+
+  It seems that all the above classes may be divided into two main
+  groups, according to the form of the infinitive:--with masculine
+  infinitive the strong triliteral type, and with feminine infinitive
+  the type of the III. inf. The former group includes all except III.
+  inf., IV. inf., and the causative of the biliterals, which belong to
+  the second group.
+
+  It is probable that the verb had a special form denoting condition, as
+  in Arabic. There was a causative form prefixing _s_, and traces of
+  forms resembling _Pi'el_ and _Niphal_ are observed. Some roots are
+  reduplicated wholly or in part with a frequentative meaning, and there
+  are traces of gemination of radicals.
+
+  _Pseudo-Participle._--In very early texts this is the past indicative,
+  but more commonly it is used in sentences such as, _gm-n-f wi
+  'h'·kwi_, "he found me I stood," i.e. "he found me standing." The
+  indicative use was soon given up and the pseudo-participle was
+  employed only as predicate, especially indicating a state; e.g. _ntr·t
+  sm·ti_, "the goddess goes"; _iw-k wd'·ti_, "thou art prosperous." The
+  endings were almost entirely lost in New Egyptian. For early times
+  they stand thus:--
+
+    Sing. 3. masc.   _i_, late _w_.  Dual _wii_.   Pl. _w_.
+             fem.    _ti_.           _tiiw_            _ti_.
+          2. masc.   _ti_                              _tiwny_.
+             fem.    _ti_
+          1. c.      _kwi_.                            _wyn_.
+
+  The pseudo-participle seems, by its inflexion, to have been the
+  perfect of the original Semitic conjugation. The simplest form being
+  that of the 3rd person, it is best arranged like the corresponding
+  tense in Semitic grammars, beginning with that person. There is no
+  trace of the Semitic imperfect in Egyptian. The ordinary conjugation
+  is formed quite differently. The verbal stem is here followed by the
+  subject-suffix or substantive--_sdm-f_, "he hears"; _sdmw stn_,
+  "the king hears." It is varied by the addition of particles, &c., _n_,
+  _in_, _hr_, _tw_, thus:--
+
+  _sdm-f_, "he hears"; _sdm-w-f_, "he is heard" (_pl. sdm-ii-sn_, "they
+  are heard"); _sdm-tw-f_, "he is heard"; _sdm-n-f_, "he heard";
+  _sdm-n-tw-f_, "he was heard"; also, _sdm-in-f_, _sdm-hr-f_,
+  _sdm-k'-f_. Each form has special uses, generally difficult to
+  define, _sdm-f_ seems rather to be imperfect, _sdm-n-f_ perfect, and
+  generally to express the past. Later, _sdm-f_ is ordinarily expressed
+  by periphrases; but by the loss of _n_, _sdm-n-f_ became itself
+  _sdm-f_, which is the ordinary past in demotic. Coptic preserves
+  _sdm-f_ forms of many verbs in its causative (e.g. [Coptic: tanchof]
+  "cause him to live," from Egyptian _di·t·nh-f_), and, in its
+  periphrastic conjugation, the same forms of _wn_, "be," and _iry_,
+  "do." With _sdm-f_ (_sedmo-f_) was a more emphatic form (_esdomef_),
+  at any rate in the weak verbs.
+
+  The above, with the relative forms mentioned below, are supposed by
+  Erman to be derived from the participle, which is placed first for
+  emphasis: thus, _sdm·w stn_, "hearing is the king"; _sdm-f_, for
+  _sdm-fy_, "hearing he is." This Egyptian paraphrase of Semitic is
+  just like the Irish paraphrase of English, "It is hearing he is."
+
+  The _imperative_ shows no ending in the singular; in the plural it has
+  _y_, and later _w_; cf. Semitic imperative.
+
+  The _infinitive_ is of special importance on account of its being
+  preserved very fully in Coptic. It is generally of masculine form, but
+  feminine in III. inf. (as in Semitic), and in causatives of
+  biliterals.
+
+  There are relative forms of _sdm-f_ and _sdm-n-f_, respectively
+  _sdm·w-f_ (masc.), _sdm·t-n-f_ (fem.), &c. They are used when the
+  relative is the object of the relative sentence, or has any other
+  position than the subject. Thus _sdm·t-f_ may mean "she whom he
+  hears," "she who[se praises] he hears," "she [to] whom he hears
+  [someone speaking]," &c. There are close analogies between the
+  function of the relative particles in Egyptian and Semitic; and the
+  Berber languages possess a relative form of the verb.
+
+  _Participles_.--These are active and passive, perfect and imperfect,
+  in the old language, but all are replaced by periphrases in Coptic.
+
+  _Verbal Adjectives_.--There is a peculiar formation, _sdm·ty-fy_, "he
+  who shall hear," probably meaning originally "he is a hearer,"
+  _sdm·ty_ being an adjective in _y_ formed from a feminine (_t_) form
+  of the infinitive, which is occasionally found even in triliteral
+  verbs; the endings are: sing., masc. _ty-fy_, fem. _ty-sy_; pl., masc.
+  _ty-sn_, fem. _ty-st_. It is found only in Old Egyptian.
+
+  _Particles_.--There seems to be no special formation for adverbs, and
+  little use is made of adverbial expressions. Prepositions, simple and
+  compound, are numerous. Some of the commonest simple prepositions are
+  _n_ "for," _r_ "to," _m_ "in, from," _hr_ "upon." A few enclitic
+  conjunctions exist, but they are indefinite in meaning--_swt_ a vague
+  "but," _grt_ a vague "moreover," &c.
+
+  Coptic presents a remarkable contrast to Egyptian in the precision of
+  its periphrastic conjugation. There are two present tenses, an
+  imperfect, two perfects, a pluperfect, a present and a past
+  frequentative, and three futures besides future perfect; there are
+  also conjunctive and optative forms. The negatives of some of these
+  are expressed by special prefixes. The gradual growth of these new
+  forms can be traced through all the stages of Egyptian. Throughout the
+  history of the language we note an increasing tendency to periphrasis;
+  but there was no great advance towards _precision_ before demotic. In
+  demotic there are distinguishable a present tense, imperfect, perfect,
+  frequentative, future, future perfect, conjunctive and optative; also
+  present, past and future negatives, &c. The passive was extinct before
+  demotic; demotic and Coptic express it, clumsily it must be confessed,
+  by an impersonal "they," e.g. "they bore him" stands for "he was
+  born."
+
+  It is worth noting how, in other departments besides the verb, the
+  Egyptian language was far better adapted to practical ends during and
+  after the period of the Deltaic dynasties (XXII.-XXX.) than ever it
+  was before. It was both simplified and enriched. The inflexions
+  rapidly disappeared and little was left of the distinctions between
+  masculine and feminine, singular, dual and plural--except in the
+  pronouns. The dual number had been given up entirely at an earlier
+  date. The pronouns, both personal and demonstrative, retained their
+  forms very fully. As prefixes, suffixes and articles, they, together
+  with some auxiliary verbs, provided the principal mechanism of the
+  renovated language. An abundant supply of useful adverbs was gradually
+  accumulated, as well as conjunctions, so far as the functions of the
+  latter were not already performed by the verbal prefixes. These great
+  improvements in the language correspond to great changes in the
+  economic condition of the country; they were the result of active
+  trade and constant intercourse of all classes of Egyptians with
+  foreigners from Europe and Asia. Probably the best stage of Egyptian
+  speech was that which immediately preceded Coptic. Though Coptic is
+  here and there more exactly expressive than the best demotic, it was
+  spoilt by too much Greek, duplicating and too often expelling native
+  expressions that were already adequate for its very simple
+  requirements. Above all, it is clumsily pleonastic.
+
+
+  THE WRITING
+
+  The ancient Egyptian system of writing, so far as we know, originated,
+  developed and finally expired strictly within the limits of the Nile
+  Valley. The germ of its existence may have come from without, but, as
+  we know it, it is essentially Egyptian and intended for the expression
+  of the Egyptian language. About the 1st century B.C., however, the
+  semi-barbarous rulers of the Ethiopian kingdoms of Meroe and Napata
+  contrived the "Meroitic" alphabet, founded on Egyptian writing, and
+  comprising both a hieroglyphic and a cursive form (see ETHIOPIA). As
+  yet both of these kinds of Nubian writing are undeciphered. Egyptian
+  hieroglyphic was carried by conquest into Syria, certainly under the
+  XVIIIth Dynasty, and again under the XXVIth for the engraving of
+  Egyptian inscriptions; but in the earlier period the cuneiform
+  syllabary, and in the later the "Phoenician" alphabet, had obtained a
+  firm hold there, and we may be sure that no attempt was made to
+  substitute the Egyptian system for the latter. Cuneiform tablets in
+  Syria, however, seem almost confined to the period of the XVIIIth
+  Dynasty. Although it cannot be proved it seems quite possible that the
+  traders of Phoenicia and the Aegean adopted the papyrus and Egyptian
+  hieratic writing together, before the end of the New Kingdom, and
+  developed their "Phoenician" alphabet from the latter about 1000 B.C.
+  In very early times a number of systems of writing already reigned in
+  different countries forming a compact and not very large area--perhaps
+  from South Arabia to Asia Minor, and from Persia to Crete and Egypt.
+  Whether they all sprang from one common stock of picture-writing we
+  shall perhaps never know, nor can we as yet trace the influence which
+  one great system may have had on another, owing to the poverty of
+  documents from most of the countries concerned.
+
+  It is certain that in Egypt from the IVth Dynasty onwards the mode of
+  writing was essentially the same as that which was extinguished by the
+  fall of paganism in the 4th century A.D. Its elements in the
+  hieroglyphic form are pictorial, but each hieroglyph had one or more
+  well-defined functions, fixed by convention in such a manner that the
+  Egyptian language was expressed in writing word by word. Although a
+  picture sign may at times have embarrassed the skilled native reader
+  by offering a choice of fixed values or functions, it was never
+  intended to convey merely an idea, so as to leave to him the task of
+  putting the idea into his own words. How far this holds good for the
+  period before the IVth Dynasty it is difficult to say. The known
+  inscriptions of the earlier times are so brief and so limited in range
+  that the system on which they were written cannot yet be fully
+  investigated. As far back as the Ist Dynasty, phonograms (see below)
+  were in full use. But the spelling then was very concise: it is
+  possible that some of the slighter words, such as prepositions, were
+  omitted in the writing, and were intended to be supplied from the
+  context. As a whole, we gain the impression that a really distinct and
+  more primitive stage of hieroglyphic writing by a substantially vaguer
+  notation of words lay not far behind the time of the Ist Dynasty.
+
+  The employment of the signs are of three kinds: any given sign
+  represents either (1) a whole word or root; or (2) a sound as part of
+  a word; or (3) pictorially defines the meaning of a word the sound of
+  which has already been given by a sign or group of signs preceding.
+  The number of phonograms is very restricted, but some signs have all
+  these powers. For instance, [HRG: mn] is the conventional picture of a
+  draughtboard (shown in plan) with the draughtsmen (shown in elevation)
+  on its edge:--this sign (1) signifies the root _mn_, "set," "firm"; or
+  (2) in the group [HRG: mn:x], represents the same sound as part of the
+  root _mnh_, "good"; or (3) added to the group _snt_ (thus: [HRG:
+  z:n:t-mn]), shows that the meaning intended is "draught-board," or
+  "draughts," and not any of the other meanings of _snt_. Thus signs,
+  according to their employment, are said to be (1) "word-signs," (2)
+  "phonograms," or (3) "determinatives."
+
+  _Word-signs._--The word-sign value of a sign is, in the first place,
+  the name of the object it represents, or of some material, or quality,
+  or action, or idea suggested by it. Thus [HRG] is _hr_, "face"; [HRG],
+  a vase of ointment, is _mrh.t_, "ointment"; [HRG] is _wdb_, "turn."
+  Much investigation is still required to establish the origins of the
+  values of the signs; in some cases the connexion between the pictures
+  and the _primary_ values seems to be curiously remote. Probably all
+  the signs in the hieroglyphic signary can be employed in their primary
+  sense. The _secondary_ value expresses the consonantal root of the
+  name or other primary value, and any, or almost any, derivative from
+  that root: as when [HRG], a mat with a cake upon it, is not only
+  _htp_, an "offering-mat," but also _htp_ in the sense of
+  "conciliation," "peace," "rest," "setting" (of the sun), with many
+  derivatives. In the third place, some signs may be _transferred_ to
+  express another root having the same consonants as the first: thus
+  [HRG], the ear, by a play upon words can express not only _sdm_,
+  "hear," but also _sdm_, "paint the eyes."
+
+  _Phonograms._--Only a limited number of signs are found with this use,
+  but they are of the greatest importance. By searching throughout the
+  whole mass of normal inscriptions, earlier than the periods of Greek
+  and Roman rule when great liberties were taken with the writing,
+  probably no more than one hundred different phonograms can be found.
+  The number of those commonly employed in good writing is between
+  seventy and eighty. The most important phonograms are the _uniliteral_
+  or _alphabetic_ signs, twenty-four in number in the Old Kingdom and
+  without any homophones: later these were increased by homophones to
+  thirty. Of _biliteral_ phonograms--each expressing a combination of
+  two consonants--there were about fifty commonly used: some fifteen or
+  twenty were rarely used. As Egyptian roots seldom exceeded three
+  letters, there was no need for _triliteral_ phonograms to spell them.
+  There is, however, one triliteral phonogram, the eagle, [HRG], _tyw_,
+  or _tiu_ (?), used for the plural ending of adjectives in _y_ formed
+  from words ending in _t_ (whether radical or the feminine ending).
+
+  The phonetic values of the signs are derived from their word-sign
+  values and consist usually of the bare root, though there are rare
+  examples of the retention of a flexional ending; they often ignore
+  also the weaker consonants of the root, and on the same principle
+  reduce a repeated consonant to a single one, as when the hoe [HRG],
+  _hnn_, has the phonetic value _hn_. The history of some of the
+  alphabetic signs is still very obscure, but a sufficient number of
+  them have been explained to make it nearly certain that the values of
+  all were obtained on the same principles.[15] Some of the ancient
+  words from which the phonetic values were derived probably fell very
+  early into disuse, and may never be discoverable in the texts that
+  have come down to us. The following are among those most easily
+  explained:--
+
+    [HRG: i], reed flower, value _y_ and [Hebrew: alef]; from [HRGs:
+    i-A-Hn], _y'_, "reed."
+
+  (It seems as if the two values _y_ and [Hebrew: alef] were obtained
+  by choosing first one and then the other of the two semi-consonants
+  composing the name. They are much confused, and a conventional symbol
+  _l_ has to be adopted for rendering [HRG: i].)
+
+    [HRG: a], forearm,    value '([Hebrew: ayin]); from [HRGs: a:Z1],
+        '([Hebrew: ayin]), "hand."
+
+    [HRG: r], mouth,      value _r_; from [HRGs: r:Z1], _r_, "mouth."
+
+    [HRG: X], belly and teats,      value _h_; from [HRGs: X:t*Z1],
+        _h.t_, "belly." (The feminine ending is here, as usual,
+        neglected.)
+
+    [HRG: S], tank,       value _s_; from [HRGs: S:Z1], _s_,
+        "tank."
+
+    [HRG: q], slope of earth   value _q_; ''[HRGs: q-A-A-q], _q_'',
+        "slope," or brickwork, "height." (The doubled weak consonant is
+        here neglected.)
+
+    [HRG: d], hand,       value _d_; from [HRGs: d:t*Z1], _d.t_, "hand."
+
+    [HRG: D], cobra,      value _z_; from [HRGs: D:t*Z1], _z.t_, "cobra."
+
+  For some alphabetic signs more than one likely origin might be found,
+  while for others, again, no clear evidence of origin is yet
+  forthcoming.
+
+  It has already been explained that the writing expresses only
+  consonants. In the Graeco-Roman period various imperfect attempts were
+  made to render the vowels in foreign names and words by the
+  semi-vowels as also by [HRGs: a], the consonant [Hebrew: ayin] which
+  [HRGs: a] originally represented having been reduced in speech by that
+  time to the power of [Hebrew: alef], only. Thus, [Greek: Ptolemaios]
+  is spelt _Ptwrmys_, Antoninus, _'Nt'nynws_ or _Intnyns_, &c. &c. Much
+  earlier, throughout the New Kingdom, a special "syllabic" orthography,
+  in which the alphabetic signs for the consonants are generally
+  replaced by groups or single signs having the value of a consonant
+  followed by a semi-vowel, was used for foreign names and words, e.g.
+
+    [Hebrew: merkevet], "chariot," was written [HRGs:
+      m:a-r:Z1-k:A-b-W-ti-i-t:xt], in Coptic [Coptic: berechojt].
+
+    [Hebrew: migdal], "tower," was written [HRGs: m:a-k-ti-i-r:Z1],
+      [HRGs: m:a-g-A-d:y-r:Z1-niwt], [Coptic: mechtod].
+
+    [Hebrew: kinor], "harp," was written [HRGs: k-n:Z2-i-n-i-w-l:Z1-xt].
+
+    [Hebrew: hamath], "Hamath," was written [HRGs:
+      HA-A-mA-A-ti-i-qmA:xAst ].
+
+  According to W. Max Müller (_Asien und Europa_, 1893, chap, v.), this
+  represents an endeavour to express the vocalization; but, if so, it
+  was carried out with very little system. In practice, the semi-vowels
+  are generally negligible. This method of writing can be traced back
+  into the Middle Kingdom, if not beyond, and it greatly affected the
+  spelling of native words in New Egyptian and demotic.
+
+  _Determinatives._--Most signs can on occasion be used as
+  determinatives, but those that are very commonly employed as
+  phonograms or as secondary word-signs are seldom employed as
+  determinatives; and when they are so used they are often somewhat
+  differentiated. Certain generic determinatives are very common,
+  e.g.:--
+
+    [HRG: D54]; of motion.
+
+    [HRG: A24], [HRG: D40]; of acts involving force.
+
+    [HRG: A40]; of divinity.
+
+    [HRG: A1]; of a person or a man's name.
+
+    [HRG: pr]; of buildings.
+
+    [HRG: niwt]; of inhabited places.
+
+    [HRG: xAst]; of foreign countries.
+
+    [HRG: qmA]; club; of foreigners.
+
+    [HRG: A2]; of all actions of the mouth--eating and speaking,
+        likewise silence and hunger.
+
+    [HRG: N35B]; ripple-lines; of liquid.
+
+    [HRG: F27]; hide; of animals, also leather, &c.
+
+    [HRG: Hn]; of plants and fibres.
+
+    [HRG: N33:Z5]; of flesh.
+
+    [HRG: mDAt]; a sealed papyrus-roll; of books, teaching, law, and of
+        abstract ideas generally.
+
+  In the earliest inscriptions the use of determinatives is restricted
+  to the [HRG: A1], [HRG: B1], &c., after proper names, but it developed
+  immensely later, so that few words beyond the particles were written
+  without them in the normal style after the Old Kingdom.
+
+  Some few signs ideographic of a group of ideas are made to express
+  particular words belonging to that group by the aid of phonograms
+  which point out the special meaning. In such cases the ideogram is not
+  merely a determinative nor yet quite a word-sign. Thus [HRG: qmA-m] =
+  [HRG: a-A-m-qmA] "Semite," [HRG: qmA-nw] = [HRG: T-H-n:nw-qmA]
+  "Libyan," &c., but [HRG: qmA] cannot stand by itself for the name of
+  any particular foreign people. So also in monogram [HRG: Sm] is
+  _sm_ "go," [HRG: zb] is "conduct."
+
+  _Orthography._--The most primitive form of spelling in the
+  hieroglyphic system would be by one sign for each word, and the
+  monuments of the Ist Dynasty show a decided tendency to this mode.
+  Examples of it in later times are preserved in the royal cartouches,
+  for here the monumental style demanded special consciseness. Thus, for
+  instance, the name of Tethmosis III.--MN-HPR-R'--is spelled [HRG:
+  hrw-mn-xpr] (as R' is the name of the sun-god, with customary
+  deference to the deity it is written first though pronounced last). A
+  number of common words--prepositions, &c.--with only one consonant are
+  spelled by single alphabetic signs in ordinary writing. Word-signs
+  used singly for the names of objects are generally marked with | in
+  classical writing, as [HRG: Z91-ib:Z1], _ib_, "heart," [HRG: Hr:Z1],
+  _hr_, "face," &c.
+
+  But the use of bare word-signs is not common. Flexional consonants are
+  almost always marked by phonograms, except in very early times; as
+  when the feminine word [HRG: D] = _z.t_, "cobra," is spelled [HRG:
+  D:t*Z1]. Also, if a sign had more than one value, a phonogram would be
+  added to indicate which of its values was intended: thus [HRG: sw] in
+  [HRG: sw-w] is _sw_, "he," but in [HRG: sw:t] it is _stn_, "king."
+  Further, owing to the vast number of signs employed, to prevent
+  confusion of one with another in rapid writing they were generally
+  provided with "phonetic complements," a group being less easily
+  misread than a single letter. E.g. [HRG: wD], _wz_, "command," is
+  regularly written [HRG: wD-w], _wz_ (_w_); but [HRG: HD], _hz_,
+  "white," is written [HRG: HD-D], _hz_(_z_). This practice had the
+  advantage also of distinguishing determinatives from phonograms. Thus
+  the root or syllable _hn_ is regularly written [HRG: H-Hn:n] to avoid
+  confusion with the determinative [HRG: Hn]. Redundance in writing is
+  the rule; for instance, _b_ is often spelled [HRG: b-G26A-A]
+  (_b_)_b_'('). Biliteral phonograms are very rare as phonetic
+  complements, nor are two biliteral phonograms employed together in
+  writing the radicals of a word.
+
+  Spelling of words purely in phonetic or even alphabetic characters is
+  not uncommon, the determinative being generally added. Thus in the
+  pyramidal texts we find _hpr_, "become," written [HRG: xpr] in one
+  copy of a text, in another [HRG: x*p:r]. Such variant spellings are
+  very important for fixing the readings of word-signs. It is noteworthy
+  that though words were so freely spelled in alphabetic characters,
+  especially in the time of the Old Kingdom, no advance was ever made
+  towards excluding the cumbersome word-signs and biliteral phonograms,
+  which, by a judicious use of determinatives, might well have been
+  rendered quite superfluous.
+
+  _Abbreviations._--We find [HRG: anx-DA-s], strictly _'nh z_' _s_
+  standing for the ceremonial _viva! 'nh wz, snb_. "Life, Prosperity
+  and Health," and in course of time [HRG: mDAt] was used in accounts
+  instead of [HRG: dmD] _dmz_, "total."
+
+  _Monograms_ are frequent and are found from the earliest times. Thus
+  [HRG: Sm], [HRG: zb] mentioned above are monograms, the association of
+  [HRG: S] and [HRG: D54] having no pictorial meaning. Another common
+  monogram is [HRG: O10], i.e. [HRG: Hwt] and [HRG: G5] for _H·t-Hrw_
+  "Hathor." A word-sign may be compounded with its phonetic complement,
+  as [HRG: T5] _hz_ "white," or with its determinative, as [HRG: S14]
+  _hz_ "silver."
+
+  The table on the opposite page shows the uses of a few of the commoner
+  signs.
+
+  The decorative value of hieroglyphic was fully appreciated in Egypt.
+  The aim of the artist-scribe was to arrange his variously shaped
+  characters into square groups, and this could be done in great measure
+  by taking advantage of the different ways in which many words could be
+  spelt. Thus _hs_ could be written [HRG: H*Hz:z], _hsy_ [HRG: Hz-i-i],
+  _hs-f_ [HRG: Hz-z:f], _hs-n-f_ [HRG: Hz-n:f]. But some words in the
+  classical writing were intractable from this point of view. It is
+  obvious that the alphabetic signs played a very important part in the
+  formation of the groups, and many words could only be written in
+  alphabetic signs. A great advance was therefore made when several
+  homophones were introduced into the alphabet in the Middle and New
+  Kingdoms, partly as the result of the wearing away of old phonetic
+  distinctions, giving the choice between [HRG: z] and [HRG: s], [HRG:
+  t-T] and [HRG: ti], [HRG: m] and [HRG: M], [HRG: n] and [HRG: N],
+  [HRG: w] and [HRG: W]. In later times the number of homophones in use
+  increased greatly throughout the different classes, the tendency being
+  much helped by the habit of fanciful writing; but few of these
+  homophones found their way into the cursive script. Occasionally a
+  scribe of the old times indulged his fancy in "sportive" or
+  "mysterious" writing, either inventing new signs or employing old ones
+  in unusual meanings. Short sportive inscriptions are found in tombs of
+  the XIIth Dynasty; some groups are so written cursively in early
+  medical papyri, and certain religious inscriptions in the royal tombs
+  of the XIXth and XXth Dynasties are in secret writing. Fanciful
+  writing abounds on the temples of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods.
+
+
+  PALAEOGRAPHY
+
+  _Hieroglyphic._--The main division is into monumental or epigraphic
+  hieroglyphs and written hieroglyphs. The former may be rendered by the
+  sculptor or the painter in stone, on wood, &c., with great delicacy of
+  detail, or may be simply sunk or painted in outline. When finely
+  rendered they are of great value to the student investigating the
+  origins of their values. No other system of writing bears upon its
+  face so clearly the history of its development as the Egyptian; yet
+  even in this a vast amount of work is still required to detect and
+  disentangle the details. Monumental hieroglyphic did not cease till
+  the 3rd century A.D. (Temple of Esna). The written hieroglyphs, formed
+  by the scribe with the reed pen on papyrus, leather, wooden tablets,
+  &c., have their outlines more or less abbreviated, producing
+  eventually the cursive scripts hieratic and demotic. The written
+  hieroglyphs were employed at all periods, especially for religious
+  texts.
+
+  _Hieratic._--A kind of cursive hieroglyphic or hieratic writing is
+  found even in the Ist Dynasty. In the Middle Kingdom it is well
+  characterized, and in its most cursive form seems hardly to retain
+  any definable trace of the original hieroglyphic pictures. The style
+  varies much at different periods.
+
+    +------------+-------------+-----------------+-----------+----------+-----------------+
+    |    Sign.   | Description.|      Name.      | Word-sign | Phonetic |  Determinative  |
+    |            |             |                 |   Value.  |  Value.  |      Value.     |
+    +------------+-------------+-----------------+-----------+----------+-----------------+
+    | [HRG: Xrd] | child       |   hrd (khrod)   |           |          | youth           |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: Hr]  | face        |     hr (hor)    |    hr     |   [hr]   |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: ir]  | eye         |  ir.t (yori.t)  |    ir     |    ir    | see, &c.        |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: r]   | mouth       |      r (ro)     |    r      |    r     |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: a]   | forearm     |      '('ei)     |    '      |    '     | [action of hand |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |    or arm]      |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: D40] | arm with    | nht "be strong" |    nht    |          | violent action  |
+    |            |   stick     |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: A24] | man with    | nht "be strong" |    nht    |          | violent action  |
+    |            |   stick     |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: zmA] | lungs and   |        sm;      |    sm;    |          |                 |
+    |            |   windpipe  |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: ib]  | heart       |        ib       |           |          | heart           |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: nfr] | heart and   |        ?        |    nfr    |          |                 |
+    |            |   windpipe  |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: wr]  | sparrow     |        ?        |    sr     |          | evil, worthless-|
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |  ness, smallness|
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: zA]  | widgeon     |       s;.t      |    s;     |    s;    |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: in]  | bolti-fish  |       in.t      |    in     |    in    |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: Hw]  | tusk        | (1) ibh "tooth" |    bh     |    bh    | bite, &c.       |
+    |            |             | (2) hw "taste"  |    hw     |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: xt]  | cut branch  |        ht       |    ht     |   [ht]   | wood, tree      |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: zp]  | threshing-  |       sp.t      |    sp     |          |                 |
+    |            |   floor     |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: hrw] | sun         | (1) r' "sun"    |           |          | (1) sun         |
+    |            |             | (2) hrw "day"   |           |          | (2) division of |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |     time        |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: pr]  | chamber,    |        pr       |    pr     |          |                 |
+    |            |   house     |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: N17] | flat land   |         t'      |    t'     |    t'    | boundless hori- |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |  zon, eternity  |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: Hz]  | libation    |       hs.t      |    hs     |    hs    |                 |
+    |            |   vase      |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: wD]  | cord on     |        wz       |    wz     |    wz    |                 |
+    |            |   stick     |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: nb]  | basket      |       nb.t      |    nb     |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: k]   | looped      |        ?        |    k      |    k     |                 |
+    |            |   basket    |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: mA]  | sickle      |        ?        |    m'     |    m'    |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: U7]  | composite   |      [mr?]      |    mr     |    mr    | tillage         |
+    |            |   hoe       |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: U29] | fire-drill  |     z'.t(?)     |    z'     |    z'    |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: Sms] | attendant's | sms "follow"    |    sms    |          |                 |
+    |            |   equipment |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: T30] | knife       |        ds       |    ds     |          | cut, prick, cut-|
+    |            |             |                 |           |          | ting instrument |
+    +------------+-------------+-----------------+-----------+----------+-----------------+
+
+  _Demotic._--Widely varying degrees of cursiveness are at all periods
+  observable in hieratic; but, about the XXVIth Dynasty, which
+  inaugurated a great commercial era, there was something like a
+  definite parting between the uncial hieratic and the most cursive form
+  afterwards known as demotic. The employment of hieratic was
+  thenceforth almost confined to the copying of religious and other
+  traditional texts on papyrus, while demotic was used not only for all
+  business but also for writing literary and even religious texts in the
+  popular language. By the time of the XXVth Dynasty the cursive of the
+  conservative Thebais had become very obscure. A better form from Lower
+  Egypt drove this out completely in the time of Amasis II. and is the
+  true demotic. Before the Macedonian conquest the cursive ligatures of
+  the old demotic gave birth to new symbols which were carefully and
+  distinctly formed, and a little later an epigraphic variety was
+  engraved on stone, as in the case of the Rosetta stone itself. One of
+  the most characteristic distinctions of later demotic is the
+  minuteness of the writing.
+
+  Hieroglyphic is normally written from right to left, the signs facing
+  to the commencement of the line; hieratic and demotic follow the same
+  direction. But monumental hieroglyphic may also be written from left
+  to right, and is constantly so arranged for purposes of symmetry, e.g.
+  the inscriptions on the two jambs of a door are frequently turned in
+  opposite directions; the same is frequently done with the short
+  inscriptions scattered over a scene amongst the figures, in order to
+  distinguish one label from another.
+
+  In modern founts of type, the hieroglyphic signs are made to run from
+  left to right, in order to facilitate the setting where European text
+  is mixed with the Egyptian. The table on next page shows them in their
+  more correct position, in order to display more clearly their relation
+  to the hieratic and demotic equivalents.
+
+  Clement of Alexandria states that in the Egyptian schools the pupils
+  were first taught the "epistolographic" style of writing (i.e.
+  demotic), secondly the "hieratic" employed by the sacred scribes, and
+  finally the "hieroglyphic" (_Strom._ v. 657). It is doubtful whether
+  they classified the signs of the huge hieroglyphic syllabary with any
+  strictness. The only native work on the writing that has come to light
+  as yet is a fragmentary papyrus of Roman date which has a table in
+  parallel columns of hieroglyphic signs, with their hieratic
+  equivalents and words written in hieratic describing them or giving
+  their values or meanings. The list appears to have comprised about 460
+  signs, including most of those that occur commonly in hieratic. They
+  are to some extent classified. The bee [HRGs: bit] heads the list as a
+  royal sign, and is followed by figures of nobles and other human
+  figures in various attitudes, more or less grouped among themselves,
+  animals, reptiles and fishes, scorpion, animals again, twenty-four
+  alphabetic characters, parts of the human body carefully arranged from
+  [HRGs: tp] to [HRGs: D54], thirty-two in number, parts of animals,
+  celestial signs, terrestrial signs, vases. The arrangement down to
+  this point is far from strict, and beyond it is almost impossible to
+  describe concisely, though there is still a rough grouping of
+  characters according to resemblance of form, nature or meaning. It is
+  a curious fact that not a single bird is visible on the fragments, and
+  the trees and plants, which might easily have been collected in a
+  compact and well-defined section, are widely scattered. Why the
+  alphabetic characters are introduced where they are is a puzzle; the
+  order of these is:--[HRG Z91] [HRGs: r-H-kA-W] (?) [HRGs: wA] (?)
+  [HRGs: s] (?) [HRGs: z-Db] (?) [HRGs: Z91-b-Z91-S-SA] (?) [HRGs: k]
+  (?) [HRGs: xA-X-U29-p-a-g-x-t] (?) [HRGs: i-q].
+
+  Three others, [HRGs: XA-D] and [HRGs: f], had already occurred amongst
+  the fish and reptiles. There seems to be no logical aim in this
+  arrangement of the alphabetic characters and the series is incomplete.
+  Very probably the Egyptians never constructed a really systematic list
+  of hieroglyphs. In modern lists the signs are classified according to
+  the nature of the objects they depict, as human figures, plants,
+  vessels, instruments, &c. Horapollon's _Hieroglyphica_ may be cited as
+  a native work, but its author, if really an Egyptian, had no knowledge
+  of good writing. His production consists of two elaborate
+  complementary lists: the one describing sign-pictures and giving their
+  meanings, the other cataloguing ideas in order to show how they could
+  be expressed in hieroglyphic. Each seems to us to be made up of
+  curious but perverted reminiscences eked out by invention; but they
+  might some day prove to represent more truly the usages of mystics and
+  magicians in designing amulets, &c., at a time approaching the middle
+  ages.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE I. EARLIEST EGYPTIAN ART
+
+     1. TATOOED FEMALE, LIMESTONE SLAG.
+     2. 3. HEADS ON IVORY TUSKS.
+     4. 5. ANIMALS ON BONE COMBS.
+     6. IVORY HAWK.
+     7. LIMESTONE LION.
+     8. IVORY DOG AND GAZELLE.
+     9. IVORY HANDLE OF KNIFE.
+    10. 11. WHITE ON RED VASES; MEN AND ANIMALS.
+    12. SHIP ON A VASE.
+    13. SHIP ON A WALL PAINTING.
+    14. IVORY KING.
+    15. 16. ARCHAIC KING'S HEAD, STUDY IN LIMESTONE.
+    17. HEAD OF KHASEKHEM.]
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE II. EARLY EGYPTIAN ART.
+
+    18. LIMESTONE RELIEF.
+    19. ANIMALS ON SLATE PALETTE._Photo, Mansell._
+    20. CONQUEROR AS A BULL.
+    21. GAZELLES AND PALM, SLATE.
+    22. ANIMALS, SLATE.
+    23. KING NARMER, SLATE PALETTE.
+    24. IVORY TUSK, WITH ANIMALS.
+    25. IVORY WAND, WITH ANIMALS.
+    26. WOODEN PANELS OF HESI.
+    27. RAHOTP AND NEFERT.
+    28. WOODEN FIGURE.]
+
+    +---------------------+----------+-----------+---------------+---------------------+
+    |                     | Demotic. | Hieratic. | Hieroglyphic. |                     |                 |
+    +---------------------+----------+-----------+---------------+---------------------+
+    | _ent_, "who"        |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _nty_         |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _Perso_ ("Pharaoh") |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     | _Per<o <nh wz, snb_ |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _yôt_, "father"     |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _itf_         |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _'ônkh_, "live"     |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _<nh_         |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _ekh_, "know"       |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _rh_          |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _ahe_, "stand"      |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _<h<_         |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _eine_, "carry"     |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _in_          |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _ms_ (phon.)        |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _ms_          |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _s_ (alph.)         |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _s_           |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _s_ (alph.)         |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |      _[/s]_         |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _m_ (alph.)         |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _m_           |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _n_ (alph.)         |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _n_           |
+    +---------------------+----------+-----------+---------------+---------------------+
+
+  The early scribe's outfit, often carried slung over his shoulder, is
+  seen in the hieroglyph [HRG]. It consisted of frayed reed pens or
+  brushes, a small pot of water, and a palette with two circular
+  cavities in which black and red ink were placed, made of finely
+  powdered colour solidified with gum. In business and literary
+  documents red ink was used for contrast, especially in headings; in
+  demotic, however, it is very rarely seen. The pen became finer in
+  course of time, enabling the scribe to write very small. The split
+  reed of the Greek penman was occasionally adopted by the late demotic
+  scribes.
+
+  Egypt had long been bilingual when, in papyri of the 2nd century A.D.,
+  we begin to find transcripts of the Egyptian language into Greek
+  letters, the latter reinforced by a few signs borrowed from the
+  demotic alphabet: so written we have a magical text and a horoscope,
+  probably made by foreigners or for their use. The infinite superiority
+  of the Greek alphabet with its full notation of vowels was readily
+  seen, but piety and custom as yet barred the way to its full adoption.
+  The triumph of Christianity banished the old system once and for all;
+  even at the beginning of the 4th century the native Egyptian script
+  scarcely survived north of the Nubian frontier at Philae; a little
+  later it finally expired. The following eight signs, however, had been
+  taken over from demotic by the Copts:
+
+    [Coptic: shai] = _s_, from [HRG] _si_, dem. [sign], [SGN].
+
+    [Coptic: horee] = _h_, probably from [HRG] _hw_ (or [HRG] _hi_),
+      dem. [sign].
+
+    [Coptic: khai] (Boh.) = _h_, from [HRG] _hi_, dem. [SGN].
+
+    [Coptic: eksee] (Akhm.) = _h_, from [HRG], [HRG] _hy_, _ht_, dem.
+      [sign].
+
+    [Coptic: fai] = _f_, from [HRG] _f_, dem. [SGN].
+
+    [Coptic: cheema] = _c_ from [HRG] _k_ (or [HRG] _h_), dem.
+      [sign], [sign].
+
+    [Coptic: janja] = _g_, from [HRG] _di_ (or [HRG] _ti_), dem.
+      [sign], [sign].
+
+    [Coptic: tee] = _ti_, from [HRG] _dy·t_, dem. [SGN].
+
+  For origins of hieroglyphs, see Petrie's _Medum_ (1892); F. Ll.
+  Griffith, _A Collection of Hieroglyphs_ (1898); N. de G. Davies, _The
+  Mastaba of Ptahhetep and Akhethetep_, pt. i. (1900); M. A. Murray,
+  _Saqqara Mastabas_ (London, 1905); also Petrie and Griffith, _Two
+  Hieroglyphic Papyri from Tanis_ (London, 1889) (native sign-list); G.
+  Möller, _Hieratische Paläographie_ (Leipzig, 1909); Griffith,
+  _Catalogue of Demotic Papyri in the J. Rylands Collection_
+  (Manchester, 1909).     (F. Ll. G.)
+
+E. _Art and Archaeology._--In the following sections a general history
+of the characteristics of Ancient Egyptian art is first given, showing
+the variation of periods and essentials of style; and this is followed
+by an account of the use made of material products, of the tools and
+instruments employed, and of the monuments. For further details see also
+the separate topographical headings (for excavations, &c.), and the
+general articles on the various arts and art-materials (for references
+to Egypt); also PYRAMIDS; MUMMY, &c.
+
+
+_General Characteristics._
+
+The wide and complex subject of Egyptian art will be treated here in six
+periods: Prehistoric, Early Kings, Pyramid Kings, XIIth Dynasty,
+XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties, XXVIth Dynasty and later. In each age will be
+considered the (A) statuary, (B) reliefs, (C) painting.
+
+_Prehistoric._--The earliest civilized population of Egypt was highly
+skilled in mechanical accuracy and regularity, but had little sense of
+organic forms. They kept the unfinished treatment of the limbs and
+extremities which is so characteristic of most barbaric art; and the
+action was more considered than the form.
+
+(A) In the round there are in the earlier graves female figures of two
+races, the Bushman type and European, both probably representing
+servants or slaves. These have the legs always united, sloping to a
+point without feet (Plate I. fig. 1); the arms are only stumps. The face
+has a beaky nose and some indication of eyes. Upon the surface is
+colouring; red for the Bushman, with black whisker though female; white
+for the European type, with black tattoo patterns. Other female figures
+are modelled in a paste, upon a stick, and the black hair is sometimes
+made separately to fit on as a wig over the red head, showing that wigs
+were then used. Male figures are generally only heads in the earlier
+times. Tusks with carved heads (Plate I. figs. 2, 3) are the earliest,
+beginning at S.D. (sequence date) 33;[16] heads on the top of combs are
+found, from S.D. 42 to the close of such combs in the fifties. All of
+these heads show a high forehead and a pointed beard; and such
+expression as may be discovered is grave but not savage. In later times
+whole figures of ivory, stone and clay are found, with the legs united,
+and the arms usually joined to the body. A favourite way of indicating
+the eyes was by drilling two holes and inserting a white shell bead in
+each. The figures of animals (Plate I. figs. 4, 5) are quite as rude as
+the human figures: they only summarily indicate the mature, and often
+hardly express the genus. They are most usual on combs and pins; but
+sacred animals are also found. The lion is the most usual (Plate I. fig.
+7), but the legs are roughly marked, if at all: the leonine air is
+given, but the attitude is more distinct than the form. The hawk (Plate
+I. fig. 6) is modelled in block without any legs. The slate palettes in
+the form of animals are even more summary, and continually degraded
+until they lost all trace of their origin. There are also curious
+figures of animals chipped in flint, which show some character, but no
+detail.
+
+(B) Reliefs with animal figures belong to the later part of the
+prehistoric age. The relief is low, and the form hatched across with
+lines (Plate I. fig. 8), a style copied from drawing. There is more
+animation than in the round figures. At the close of this age the
+fashion of long processions of animals appears (Plate I. fig. 9); some
+character is shown in these, but no sense of action.
+
+(C) Drawing is found from the earliest civilization, done in white slip
+on red vases. Figures of men are very rare (Plate I. fig. 10); they have
+the body triangular, the waist being very narrow; the legs are two lines
+linked by a zigzag, as if to express that they move to and fro. The
+usual figures are goats and hippopotami; always having the body covered
+with cross lines to express the connexion of the outlines (Plate I. fig.
+11). This technique is in every way closely akin to that of the modern
+Kabyle. An entirely different mode is common at a later time when
+designs were painted in thin red colour on a light brown ware. The
+subjects of the earlier of these examples are imitations of cordage, of
+marbling, and of basket-work; later there are rows of men and animals,
+and ships (Plate I. figs. 12, 13), with various minor signs. The figures
+are never cross-hatched as in earlier drawing, but always filled in
+altogether. The fact that the ships have oars and not sails makes it
+probable that they were rather for the sea than for Nile traffic, and a
+starfish among the motives on such pottery also points to the sea
+connexion. The ulterior meaning of the decoration is probably religious
+and funereal, but the objects which are figured must have been familiar.
+
+  For this whole period see Jean Capart, _Débuts de l'art en Égypte_
+  (1904; trans. _Primitive Art in Ancient Egypt_).
+
+_The Early Kings._--The dynastic race wrought an entire transformation
+in the art of Egypt; in place of the clumsy and undetailed
+representations, there suddenly appears highly artistic work, full of
+character, action and anatomical detail.
+
+(A) The earliest statues of this age are the colossi of the god Min from
+Coptos; that they belong to the artistic race is evident from the
+spirited reliefs upon them (see below, B), but the figures were very
+rude, the legs and arms being joined all in the mass. The main example
+of this early art is a limestone head of a king (Plate I. figs. 15, 16),
+which is a direct study from life, to serve as a model. For the accuracy
+of the facial curves, and the grasp of character and type, it is equal
+to any later work; and in its entire absence of conventions and its pure
+naturalism there is no later sculpture so good: as Prof. A. Michaelis
+says, "it renders the race type with astounding keenness, and shows an
+excellent power of observation in the exact representation of the eyes."
+By the portrait, it is probably of King Narmer or some king related to
+him, that is, about the beginning of the Ist Dynasty. The ivory
+statuette of an aged king (Plate I. fig. 14) is probably slightly later.
+It shows the same subtle sense of character, and is unsurpassed in its
+reality. Many ivory figures of men, women and animals are known from
+Nekhen (Hieraconpolis) and Abydos; and they all show the same school of
+work, simple, dignified, observant, and with an air which places them on
+a higher plane of truthfulness and precision than later art. There is
+none of the mannerism of a long tradition, but a nobility pervades them
+which has no self-consciousness. The lower class of work of this age is
+shown by great numbers of glazed pottery figures both human and animal.
+Later in the IInd Dynasty, the head of Khasekhem (Plate I. fig. 17)
+shows the beginning of convention, but yet has a delicacy about the
+mouth which surpasses later works.
+
+(B) Reliefs abound at this age, and include the most important evidences
+of the development of the art. The earliest examples are those of
+animals (Plate II. fig. 18) and shells on the colossi of Coptos. They
+show a keen sense of form, and the stag's head, which is probably the
+earliest, already bears an artistic feeling wholly different to that of
+any of the prehistoric works (P.K. iii. iv.). The carvings on slate
+palettes appear to begin with work crudely accurate and forceful, the
+heavy limbs being ridged with tendons and muscles (Plate II. fig. 19),
+but there is more proportion, with the same massive strength (Plate II.
+fig. 20). Soon after, with a leap, the artist produced the first pure
+work of art that is known (Plate II. fig. 21), a design for its own sake
+without the tie of symbolism or history. The group of two long-necked
+gazelles facing a palm tree is of extraordinary refinement, and shows
+the artistic consciousness in every part; the symmetric rendering of the
+palm tree, reduced to fit the scale of the animals, the dainty grace of
+the smooth gazelles contrasted with the rugged stem, the delicacy of the
+long flowing curves and the fine indications of the joints, all show a
+sense of design which has rarely been equalled in the ceaseless
+repetitions of the tree and supporters motive during every age since.
+Passing the various palettes with hunting scenes and animals (Plate II.
+fig. 22), we come to the great historical carving of King Narmer (Plate
+II. fig. 23). Here the anatomy has reached its limits for such work; the
+precision of the muscles on the inner and outer sides of the leg, of the
+uniform grip in the left arm, and the tense muscle upholding the right
+arm, prove that the artist knew that part of his work perfectly. The
+large ceremonial mace-heads recording the _Sed_ festivals of the king
+Narmer and another, belong also to this school; but owing to their
+smaller size they have not such artistic detail. With them were found
+many reliefs in ivory, on tusks, wands and cylinders. The main motive in
+these is a long procession of animals (Plate II. figs. 24, 25) often
+grotesquely crowded; but there is much observation shown and the figures
+are expressive. No drawing of this age has survived.
+
+_The Pyramid Kings._--A different ideal appears in the pyramid times; in
+place of the naturalism of the earlier work there is more regularity,
+some convention, and the sense of a school in the style. The prevailing
+feeling is a noble spaciousness both in scale and in form, an equanimity
+based upon knowledge and character, a grandeur of conception expressed
+by severely simple execution. There is nothing superfluous, nothing
+common, nothing trivial. The smallest as well as the largest work seems
+complete, inevitable, immutable, without limitations of time, or labour
+or thought.
+
+(A) The statuette of Khufu or Cheops (Plate III. fig. 29) though only a
+minute figure in ivory, shows the character of immense energy and will;
+the face is an astonishing portrait to be expressed in a quarter of an
+inch. The life-size statue of Khafre or Chephren (Plate III. fig. 30) is
+a majestic work, serene and powerful; carved in hard diorite, yet
+unhesitating in execution. The muscular detail is full, but yet kept in
+harmony with the massive style of the figure. The private persons have
+entirely different treatment according to the character of their
+position. In place of the awful dignity of the kings there is the placid
+high-bred Princess Nofri (Plate II. fig. 27, Plate III. fig. 31), the
+calm conscientious dignitary Hemset (Plate III. fig. 32), the bustling,
+active, middle-class official, Ka-aper (Plate II. fig. 28, Plate III.
+fig. 33), and the kneeling figure of a servitor. The differences of
+character are very skilfully rendered in all the sculpture of this age.
+The whole figures are stiff in the earlier time, as the figure of Nes;
+then square and massive, but true in form, as Rahotp and Nofri (Plate
+II. fig. 27); and afterwards easier and less monumental, as Ka-aper
+(Plate II. fig. 28). The skill in beaten copper work is shown by the
+portrait of the Prince Mer-en-ra (Plate III. fig. 35).
+
+(B) The reliefs are quite equal to the statuary. The wooden panels of
+Hesi (Plate II. fig. 26) show the archaic style of great detail, with a
+bold, stark vigour of attitude. Later work is abundant in the
+tomb-sculptures of this age, with a fulness of variety and detail which
+makes them the most interesting of all branches of the art. The general
+effect cannot be judged without a large scene, but the figures of two
+men and an ox (Plate III. fig. 37) show the freshness and vigour of the
+style, which is even higher than this in some examples. The clear, noble
+spacing of the surface work is well shown by a group of offerings and
+inscribed titles (Plate III. fig. 36).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III. PYRAMID PERIOD.
+
+  29. IVORY OF CHEOPS.
+  30. DIORITE OF CHEPHREN.
+  31. LIMESTONE OF NEFERT.
+  32. HEMSET: LIMESTONE.
+  33. WOOD (see Fig. 28).
+  34. SCRIBE: LIMESTONE.
+  35. MER-EN-RA: COPPER.
+  36. LIMESTONE SLAB OF KHENT-ER-KA.
+  37. THE OXHERDS: LIMESTONE. Photo, Bonfils
+  38. GRANITE SPHINX.
+  39. AMENEMHË III.
+  40. 41. SENWOSRI I.: LIMESTONE RELIEFS: HOTEPA.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IV. 1400 B. C. TO ROMAN.
+
+  42. AMENOPHIS III.: GRANITE. Photo, Manseil.
+  43. QUEEN TAIA: LIMESTONE.
+  44. RAMESES II.: GRANITE. Photo, Anderson.
+  45. NEGRESS: EBONY.
+  46. QUEEN HATSHEPSUT.
+  47. KHA-EM-HAT.
+  48. SETI I.
+  49. PRINCESSES: FRESCO.
+  50. FOUR RACES OF MAN.
+  51. TUMBLER.
+  52. SCENE IN XXVI. DYNASTY.
+  53. PTOLEMAIC RELIEF.
+  54. MODELLED HEAD AND SKULL.]
+
+(C) Flat drawings of this age are rare. Some fine examples, such as the
+geese from Medum, show that such work kept pace with the reliefs; but
+most of the fresco-work has perished, and there are few instances of
+line drawing.
+
+_The XIIth Dynasty._--This age overlaps the previous in its style. The
+end of the last age was in the very degraded tomb work of the early XIth
+Dynasty.
+
+(A) The new style begins with the royal statues, which it seems we must
+attribute to the foreign kings from whom the XIIth Dynasty was
+descended. These statues were later appropriated by the Hyksos, and so
+came to be called by their name, which is a misnomer. The type of face
+(Plate III. fig. 38) is thick-featured, full of force, with powerful
+masses of facial muscle covering the skull. The style is very vigorous
+and impassioned, without any trace of relenting towards conventional
+work. The surfaces are not in the least subdued by a general breadth of
+style, as in the last period; but, on the contrary, revel in the full
+detail of variety. There is perhaps no age where nature is so little
+controlled by convention in either the living character or its
+sculptured expression. One of these kings might well be the founder of
+the IXth Dynasty, "Achthoes (Kheti), who did much injury to all the
+inhabitants," "Khuther Taurus the tyrant"; the expression is that of a
+Chlodwig or an Alboin. From this type evidently descended the milder and
+more civilized kings of the XIIth Dynasty, the resemblance being so
+strong that the fierce figures have even been identified with that
+dynasty by some. A good example is that of the statue of Amenemhat
+(Amenemhe) III. (Plate III. fig. 39). The style of the XIIth Dynasty may
+be summed up as clean, highly-finished work, strong in facial detail;
+but with neither the grandeur of the IVth nor the vivacity of the
+XVIIIth Dynasty. This passed in the XIIIth Dynasty into a graceful but
+weak manner, as in the statues of Sebkhotp (Sebek-hotep) III. and
+Neferhotp.
+
+(B) The relief work shows most clearly the rise of the new style. In the
+middle of the XIth Dynasty an entirely fresh treatment appears; the Old
+Kingdom work had died out in very bad sunk-reliefs, the fresh style
+(Plate III. fig. 41) was a low relief with sharp edges above the field.
+It was full of delicate variety in the surfaces, and of elaborated
+close-packed lines of hair and ornaments. By the time of the early XIIth
+Dynasty, this reached a perfection of refinement in the detail of facial
+curves, with an ostentatiously low relief (P.K. ix. i.), rather on the
+lines of modern French work; but the whole with clean, firm outlines,
+severely restrained in the expression, and without any trace of emotion.
+It is the work of a school, in which high training took the place of the
+reliance on nature. Sunk relief was also well used, as by Senusert
+(Senwosri) I. (Plate III. fig. 40). There was a steady decline during
+the XIIth Dynasty and onward, but the same tone was followed.
+
+(C) In some tombs painting only was used, and it followed the general
+character of the relief treatment, being more rigid, detailed, and
+scholastic than the older style.
+
+_The XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties._--The obvious, not to say superficial,
+character of this age has rendered it one of the most popular in
+Egyptian art. The older breadth, fulness, and vigour have vanished,
+those great qualities which stamp the immortal works of early times. The
+difference is much like that between the Parthenon and the Niobids, or
+between Jacopo Avanzi and Caracci. In this change is the whole
+difference between the art of character and the art of emotion; and
+though the emotional side is the more popular, as needing less thought
+to understand it, yet the unfailing canon is that in every age and land
+the true quality of art is proportionate to the expression of character
+as apart from transient emotion. This may perhaps apply to other arts as
+well as to sculpture and painting. If we accept frankly the emotional
+nature of this age, we may admire its graceful outlines, its vivacious
+manner, its romantic style, with an occasional sauciness which is
+amusing and attractive. It revelled in rich detail, and close masses of
+lines, as in wigs and ribbed dresses. It sported with a seductive Syrian
+type of face, especially under Amenophis (Amenhotep) III.; but we find
+the anatomy giving way to mere smoothness of surface, for the sake of
+contrast with the masses of detail. The romantic element increased,
+solemn funereal statues show husband and wife hand in hand; and it
+culminated under Akhenaton, who is seen kissing his wife in the chariot,
+or dancing her on his knee. An overwhelming naturalism swamped the older
+reserves of Egyptian art, and the expression of the postures, actions
+and familiarities of daily life, or the instantaneous attitudes of
+animals, became the _dernier cri_ of fashion. It was all charming and
+wonderful, but it was the end,--nothing could come after it. The XIXth
+Dynasty, at its best under Seti I., could only excel in high finish of
+smoothness and graceful curves; life, character, meaning, had vanished.
+And soon after, under Rameses II., mere mechanical copying, hard
+lifeless routine of stone-cutting, regardless of truth and of nature,
+dominated the whole.
+
+(A) In sculpture there is a certain baldness of style at first, as in
+the Amenophis I. at Turin or Mutnefert at Cairo. More fulness and
+richness of character succeeded, as in Tahutmes (Tethmosis) III. and
+Amenophis III. (Plate IV. fig. 42, British Museum). And the feeling of
+the age finds greater scope in private statues, many of which have a
+personal fascination about them, as in the seated figures at Cairo and
+Florence, and the freer work in wood, of which the ebony negress (Plate
+IV. fig. 45) is the best example. The burst of naturalism under
+Akhenaton resulted in some marvellous portraiture, of which the fragment
+of a queen's head (Plate IV. fig. 43) is perhaps the most brilliant
+instance; the fidelity in the delicate curves of the nose and around the
+mouth is enhanced by the touch of artistic convention in the facing of
+the lips. The only work of ability in the XIXth Dynasty is the black
+granite figure (Plate IV. fig. 44) of Rameses II. at Turin. The ordinary
+statuary of his reign is painfully stiff and poor, and there is no later
+work in the period worth notice.
+
+(B) The reliefs of the early XVIIIth Dynasty are closely like the scenes
+of the tombs in the pyramid age, but soon carving was superseded by the
+cheaper painting, and but few tombs in relief are known. The temples
+were the principal places for reliefs; and they steadily deteriorate
+from the first great example, Deir el Bahri (see ARCHITECTURE:
+_Egyptian_), down to the late Ramessides. The portraiture is strong and
+clear-cut (Plate IV. fig. 46), but somewhat mechanical and without
+muscular detail: the sameness is rather more than is probable. There is
+a good deal of repetition for mere effect, even in the fine work of
+Kha-em-hat (Plate IV. fig. 47), under Amenophis III. That the artists
+were conscious of their poverty of thought is shown by some precise
+imitations of the style of early monuments. On reaching the age of
+Akhenaton, the peculiar style of that school is obvious in every relief;
+the older conventions were deserted, and, for good or for bad, a new
+start from nature was attempted. After that the smooth finish of the
+Seti reliefs at Abydos (Plate IV. fig. 48) shows no life or observation;
+and only occasionally the artist triumphed over the stone-worker, as in
+the portrait of Bantanta at Memphis, which is precisely like another
+head of her found in Sinai. The innumerable reliefs of the XIXth-XXth
+Dynasty temples are only of historic interest, and are all despicable in
+comparison with earlier works.
+
+(C) Painting was the art most congenial to this age; the lightness of
+touch, abundance of incident, and even comedy, of the scenes are
+familiar in the frescoes in the British Museum. And under Akhenaton this
+was pervaded by an entire naturalism of posture, as seen in the two
+little princesses (Plate IV. fig. 49). Drawing continued to be the
+strong point of the art after the more laborious sculpture had lost all
+vitality. The tomb of Seti shows exquisitely firm line drawing; and the
+heads of four races (Plate IV. fig. 50), Western, Syrian, and two Negro,
+here show the unfailing line-work which has never been matched in later
+times. The artist habitually drew the long lines of whole limbs without
+a single hesitation or revoke; and the drawing of a tumbling girl (Plate
+IV. fig. 51) shows how credibly such contortions could be represented.
+The comic papyri of the XXth Dynasty have also a very strong sense of
+character, even through coarse drawing and some childish combinations.
+
+The subsequent centuries show continuous decline, and in whatever branch
+we compare the work, we see that each dynasty was poorer than that which
+preceded it. The XXVIth Dynasty is often looked on as a renaissance; but
+when we compare similar work we see that it was poorer than the XXIInd,
+as that was poorer than the XIXth. The alabaster statue of Amenardus of
+the XXVth is faulty in pose, and perfunctory in modelling; the
+resemblance between this and the head of her nephew Tirhaka is perhaps
+the best evidence of truthful work. After this there was a strong
+archaistic fashion, much like that under Hadrian; in both cases it may
+have arrested decay, but it did not lift the art up again. The work of
+this age can always be detected by the faulty jointing (Plate IV. fig.
+52) and muscular treatment. The elements are right enough, but there was
+not the vital sense to combine them properly. Hence the monstrous
+protuberances (Plate IV. fig. 53) on relief figures of this age; a fault
+which the Greek fell into in his decline, as shown in the Farnese
+Hercules.
+
+Portraiture, with its limited demand on imagination and lack of ideals,
+was the form of art which flourished latest. The Saitic heads in basalt
+show a school of close observation, with fair power of rendering the
+personal character; and even in Roman times there still were provincial
+artists who could model a face very truthfully, as is shown in one case
+in which the stucco head (Plate IV. fig. 54) from a coffin is here
+superposed on the view of the actual skull to show the accuracy of the
+work. The school of portrait-painting belongs entirely to Greek art, and
+is therefore not touched upon here. (See Edgar, _Catalogue of
+Graeco-Egyptian Coffins_, 48 plates, for this subject.)
+
+Lastly we must recognize the different schools of Egyptian sculpture
+which are as distinct as those of recent painting. The black-granite
+school in every age is the finest; its seat we do not know, but its
+vitality and finish always exceed those of contemporary works. The
+limestone school was probably the next best, to judge from the reliefs,
+but hardly any statues of this school have survived; it probably was
+seated at Memphis. The quartzite work from Jebel Ahmar near Cairo stands
+next, as often very fine design is found in this hard material. The red
+granite school of Assuan comes lower, the work being usually clumsy and
+with unfinished corners and details. And the lowest of all was the
+sandstone school of Silsila, which is always the worst. Broadly
+speaking, the Lower Egyptian was much better than the Upper Egyptian; a
+conclusion also evident in the art of the tombs done on the spot. But
+the secret of the black granite school, and its excellence, is the main
+problem unsolved in the history of the art.     (W. M. F. P.)
+
+
+_Tools and Material Products._
+
+_Tools_ (see Illustrations 1 to 111).--The history of tools is a very
+large subject which needs to be studied for all countries; the various
+details of form are too numerous to specify here, but the general
+outline of tools used in Egypt may be briefly stated under _general_ and
+_special_ types. The _general_ include tools for striking, slicing and
+scraping; the _special_ tools are for fighting, hunting, agriculture,
+building and thread-work.
+
+_Striking Tools._--The wooden mallet of club form (1) was used in the
+VIth and XIIth Dynasties; of the modern mason's form (2) in the XIIth
+and XVIIIth. The stone mace head was a sharp-edged disk (3), in the
+prehistoric from 31-40 sequence date; of the pear shape (4) from S.D.
+42, which was actually in use till the IVth Dynasty, and represented
+down to Roman time. The metal or stone hammer with a long handle was
+unknown till Greek or Roman times; but, for beating out metal,
+hemispherical stones (5) were held in the hand, and swung at arm's
+length overhead. Spherical hard stone hammers (6) were held in the hand
+for dressing down granite. The axe was at the close of the prehistoric
+age a square slab of copper (7) with one sharp edge; small projecting
+tails then appeared at each end of the back (8), and increased until the
+long tail for lashing on to the handle is more than half the length of
+the axe in an iron one of Roman (?) age (13). Flint axes were made in
+imitation of metal in the XIIth Dynasty (9). Battle-axes with rounded
+outline started as merely a sharp edge of metal (10) inserted along a
+stick (10, 11); they become semicircular (12) by the VIth Dynasty,
+lengthen to double their width in the XIIth, and then thin out to a
+waist in the middle by the XVIIIth Dynasty. Flint hoes (14) are common
+down to the XIIth Dynasty. Small copper hoes (15) with a hollow socket
+are probably of about the XXIInd Dynasty. Long iron picks (16), like
+those of modern navvies, were made by Greeks in the XXVIth Dynasty.
+
+_Slicing Tools._--The knife was originally a flint saw (17), having
+minute teeth; it must have been used for cutting up animals, fresh or
+dried, as the teeth break away on soft wood. The double-edged straight
+flint knife dates from S.D. 32-45. The single-edged knife (18) is from
+33-65. The flint knives of the time of Menes are finely curved (19),
+with a handle-notch; by the end of the IInd Dynasty they were much
+coarser (20) and almost straight in the back. In the XIth-XIIth Dynasty
+they were quite straight in the back (21), and without any handle-notch.
+The copper knives are all one-edged with straight back (22) down to the
+XVIIIth Dynasty, when two-edged symmetrical knives (23) become usual.
+Long thin one-edged knives of iron begin about 800 B.C. Various forms of
+one-edged iron knives, straight (24) and curved (25), belong to Roman
+times. A cutting-out knife, for slicing through textiles, began
+double-edged (26) in the Ist Dynasty, and went through many single-edged
+forms (27-29) until it died out in the XXth Dynasty (_Man_, 1901, 123).
+A small knife hinged on a pointed backing of copper (31) seems to have
+been made for hair curling and toilet purposes. Razors (30) are known of
+the XIIth Dynasty, and became common in the XVIIIth. A curious blade of
+copper (32), straight sided, and sharpened at both ends, belongs to the
+close of the prehistoric age. Shears are only known of Roman age and
+appear to have been an Italian invention: there is a type in Egypt with
+one blade detachable, so that each can be sharpened apart. Chisels of
+bronze began of very small size (33) at S.D. 38, and reached a full size
+at the close of the prehistoric age. In historic times the chisels are
+about 1 × ½, × 6 to 8 in. long (34). Small chisels set in wooden handles
+are found (35) of the XIIth and XVIIIth Dynasties. Ferrules first appear
+in the Assyrian iron of the 7th century B.C. The rise of stone work led
+to great importance of heavy chisels (36) for trimming limestone and
+Nubian sandstone; such chisels are usually round rods about ¾ in. thick
+and 6 in. long. The cutting edge was about ½ in. wide for flaking tools
+(36), which were not kept sharp, and 1 in. wide for facing tools (37)
+which had a good edge. In Greek times the iron chisels are shorter and
+merge into wedges (39). The socketed or mortising chisel (38) is unknown
+till the Italian bronze of the 8th century B.C., and the Naucratis iron
+of the 6th century. Adzes begin in S.D. 56, as plain slips of copper
+(40) 4 to 6 in. long, about 1 wide and 1/8th thick. The square end was
+rounded in the early dynastic times, and went through a series of
+changes down to the XIXth Dynasty. Adzes of iron are probably of Greek
+times. A fine instance of a handle about 4 ft. long is represented in
+the IIIrd Dynasty (P.M. XI.). The adze (41) was used not only for
+wood-work but also for dressing limestone.
+
+_Scraping Tools._--Flint scrapers are found from S.D. 40 and onward. The
+rectangular scraper (42) began in S.D. 63, and continued into the IInd
+Dynasty: the flake with rounded ends (43) was used from the Ist to the
+IVth Dynasty (P. Ab. i. xiv., xv.). Round scrapers were also made (44).
+Flint scrapers were used in dressing down limestone sculpture in the
+IIIrd Dynasty. Rasps of conical form (45), made of a sheet of bronze
+punched and coiled round, were common in the XVIIIth Dynasty, apparently
+as personal objects, possibly used for rasping dried bread. In the
+Assyrian iron tools of the 7th century B.C. the long straight rasp (46)
+is exactly of the modern type. The saw is first found as a notched
+bronze knife of the IIIrd Dynasty. Larger toothed saws (47) are often
+represented in the IVth-VIth Dynasty, as used by carpenters. There are
+no dated specimens till the Assyrian iron saws (48) of the 7th century
+B.C. Drills were of flint (49) for hard material and bead-making, of
+bronze for woodwork. In the Assyrian tools iron drills are of slightly
+twisted scoop form (50), and of centre-bit type with two scraping edges
+(51). In Roman times the modern V drill (52) is usual. The drill was
+worked by a stock with a loose cap (53), rotated by a drill bow, in the
+XIIth to Roman dynasties. The pump drill with cords twisted round it was
+in Roman use. The bow drill (56) was used as a fire drill to rotate wood
+(55) on wood (57); and the cap (54) for such use was of hard stone with
+a highly polished hollow. The drill brace appears to have been used by
+Assyrians in the 7th century B.C. Piercers of bronze tapering (58), to
+enlarge holes in leather, &c., were common in all ages.
+
+_Fighting Weapons._--The battle-axe has been described above with axes.
+The flint dagger (59) is found from S.D. 40-56. A very finely made
+copper dagger (60) with deep midrib is dated to between 55 and 60 S.D.
+Copper daggers with parallel ribbing (61) down the middle are common in
+the XIth-XIVth Dynasties; and in the XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties they are
+often shown in scenes and on figures. The falchion with a curved blade
+(62) belongs to the XVIIIth-XXth Dynasty. The rapier (63) or lengthened
+dagger is rarely found, and is probably of prehistoric Greek origin. The
+sword is of Greek and Roman age, always double-edged and of iron. The
+spear is not commonly found in Egypt, until the Greek age, but it is
+represented from the XIth Dynasty onward; it belonged to the Semitic
+people (L.D. ii. 133). The bow was always of wood, in one piece in the
+prehistoric and early times, also of two horns in the Ist Dynasty; but
+the compound bow of horn is rarely found, only as an importation, in the
+XVIIIth Dynasty. The arrow-heads of flint (64-66) and of bone (68-69)
+were pointed, and also square-ended (67) for hunting (P.R.T. ii. vi.;
+vii. A., 7; xxxiv.). The copper arrow-heads appear in the XIXth Dynasty,
+of blade form with tang (70); the triangular form (72), and leaf form
+with socket (71), are of the XXVIth Dynasty. Triangular iron arrows with
+tang are of the same age. Tangs show that the shaft was a reed, sockets
+show that it was of wood. Many early arrows (XIIth) have only hard wood
+points of conical form. The sling is rarely shown in the XIXth-XXth
+Dynasties; and the only known example is probably of the XXVIth.
+
+_Hunting Weapons._--The forked lance of flint was at first wide with
+slight hollow (73) from S.D. 32-43; then the hollow became a V notch
+(74) in 38 S.D. and onward. The lance was fixed in a wooden shaft for
+throwing, and held in by a check-cord from flying too far if it missed
+the animal (P.N. LXXIII.). The harpoon for fishing was at first of bone
+(75), and was imitated in copper (76, 77) from S.D. 36 onwards. The
+boomerang or throw-stick (78) was used from the Ist to the XXIInd
+Dynasty, and probably later. Fish-hooks of copper (79-82) are found from
+the Ist Dynasty to Roman times. A trap for animals' legs, formed by
+splints of palm stick radiating round a central hole, is figured in S.D.
+60, and one was found of probably the XXth Dynasty. Fishing nets were
+common in all historic times, and the lead sinkers (83) and stone
+sinkers (84) are often found under the XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties.
+
+_Agricultural Tools._--The hoe of wood (85) is the main tool from the
+late prehistoric time, and many have been found of the XVIIIth Dynasty.
+With the handle lengthened (86) and turned forward, this became the
+plough (87 is the hieroglyph, 88 the drawing, of a plough); this was
+always sloping, and never the upright post of the Italic type. The rake
+of wood (89) is usual in the XIIth and XVIIIth Dynasties. The fork (90),
+used for tossing straw, was common in the Old Kingdom, but none has been
+found. The sickle was of wood (92), with flints (91) inserted,
+apparently a copy of the ox-jaw and teeth. The notched flints for it are
+common from the Ist to the XVIIIth Dynasty. In Roman times the same
+principle was followed, by making an iron sickle with a deep groove, in
+which was inserted the cutting blade of steel (P.E. XXIX.).
+Shovel-boards, to hold in right (93) or left hand for scraping up the
+grain in winnowing, are usual in the XVIIIth Dynasty, and are figured in
+use in the Old Kingdom Pruning knives with curved blades (94) are
+Italic, and were made of iron by the Romans. Corn grinders were flat
+oval stones, with a smaller one lying cross-ways (95), and slid from end
+to end. Such were used from the Old Kingdom down to late times. In the
+Roman period a larger stone was used, with a rectangular slab (96)
+sliding on it, in which a long trough held the grain and let it slip out
+below for grinding. The quern with rotary motion is late Roman, and
+still used by Arabs. The large circular millstones of Roman age worked
+by horse-power are usually made from slices of granite columns.
+
+_Building Tools._--The adze described above was used for dressing blocks
+of limestone. The brick-mould was an open frame, with one side prolonged
+into a handle (97), exactly as the modern mould. The plasterers' floats
+(98) were entirely cut out of wood. The mud rake for mixing mortar is
+rather narrower than the modern form. The square (99) and plummet (100,
+101) have remained unchanged since the XIXth Dynasty. For dressing flat
+surfaces three wooden pegs (102) of equal length were used; a string was
+stretched between the tops of two, and the third peg was set on the
+point to be tested and tried against the string.
+
+_Thread-Work._--Stone spindle whorls (103) are common in the prehistoric
+age; wooden ones were usual, of a cylindrical form (104) in the XIIth,
+and conical (105) in the XVIIIth Dynasty. The thread was secured by a
+spiral notch in the stick. In Roman times an iron hook on the top held
+the thread (106) as in modern spindles. Needles of copper were made in
+the prehistoric, as early as S.D. 48, and very delicate ones by S.D. 71.
+Gold needles are found of the Ist Dynasty. Fine ones of bronze are
+common in the XVIIIth Dynasty, and some with two eyes at right angles,
+one above the other, to carry two different threads. The copper bodkin
+is found in S.D. 70. Netters are common, of rib bones, pointed (107);
+the thread was wound round them. Long netting needles were probably
+brought in by the dynastic people as they figure in the hieroglyphs.
+Finely-made ones are found in the XVIIIth Dynasty and later. Reels were
+also commonly used for net making, of pottery (108) or even pebbles
+(109) with a groove chipped around. The flint vase-grinders were used in
+the early dynasties (110), and also sandstone grinders for hollowing
+larger vases (111).
+
+_Stone-Work._--In the prehistoric ages stone building was unknown, but
+many varieties of stones were used for carving into vases, amulets and
+ornaments. The stone vases were at first of cylindrical forms, with a
+foot, and ears for hanging. These are worked in brown basalt, syenite,
+porphyry, alabaster and limestone. In the second prehistoric
+civilization barrel-shaped vases became usual; and to the former
+materials were added slate, grey limestone and breccia. Serpentine
+appears later, and diorite towards the close of the prehistoric ages.
+Flat dishes were used in earlier times; gradually deeper forms appear,
+and lastly the deep bowl with turned-in edge belongs to the close of the
+prehistoric time and continued common in the earlier dynasties (P.D.P.
+19). This stone-work was usually formed on the outside with rotary
+motion, but sometimes the vase was rotated upon the grinder (Q. H. 17).
+The interior was ground out by cutters (figs. 110, 111) fixed in the end
+of a stick and revolved with a weight on the top, as shown in scenes on
+the tombs of the Vth Dynasty. The cutters were sometimes flints of a
+crescent shape (P. Ab. ii. liii. 24), but more usually grinders blocks
+of quartzite sandstone (26-34), and occasionally of diorite (Q. H.
+xxxii. lxii.). These blocks were fed with sand and water to give the
+bite on the stone (P. Ab. i. 26). The outsides of the vases were
+entirely wrought by handwork, with the polishing lines crossing
+diagonally. Probably the first forming was done by chipping and
+hammer-dressing, as in later times; the final facing of the hard stones
+was doubtless by means of emery in block or powder, as emery grinding
+blocks are found.
+
+In the early dynasties the hard stones were still worked, and the Ist
+dynasty was the most splendid age for vases, bowls, and dishes of the
+finest stones. The royal tombs have preserved an enormous quantity of
+fragments, from which five hundred varied forms have been drawn (P.R.T.
+ii. xlvi.-liii. 6). The materials are quartz crystal, basalt, porphyry,
+syenite, granite, volcanic ash, various metamorphics, serpentine, slate,
+dolomite marble, alabaster, many coloured marbles, saccharine marble,
+grey and white limestones. The most splendid vase is one from Nekhen
+(Hieraconpolis), of syenite, 2 ft. across and 16 in. high, hollowed so
+as to be marvellously light and highly polished (Q.H. xxxvii). Another
+branch of stone-work, surface carving, was early developed by the
+artistic dynastic race. The great palettes of slate covered with
+elaborate reliefs are probably all of the pre-Menite kings; the most
+advanced of them having the figure of Narmer, who preceded Menes. Other
+carving full of detail is on the great mace-heads of Narmer and the
+Scorpion king, where scenes of ceremonials are minutely engraved in
+relief. In the Ist Dynasty the large tombstones of the kings are of bold
+work, but the smaller stones of private graves vary much in the style,
+many being very coarse. All of this work was by hammer-dressing and
+scraping. The scrapers seem to have always been of copper.
+
+The earliest use of stone in buildings is in the tomb of King Den (Ist
+Dynasty), where some large flat blocks of red granite seem to have been
+part of the construction. The oldest stone chamber known is that of
+Khasekhemui (end of the IInd Dynasty). This is of blocks of limestone
+whose faces follow the natural cleavages, and only dressed where
+needful; part is hammer-dressed, but most of the surfaces are
+adze-dressed. The adze was of stone, probably flint, and had a short
+handle (P.R.T. ii. 13). The same king also wrought granite with
+inscriptions in relief. In the close of the IIIrd Dynasty a great
+impetus was given to stone-work, and the grandest period of refined
+masonry is at the beginning of the IVth Dynasty under Cheops. The tombs
+of Medum under Snefru are built with immense blocks of limestone of 20
+and 33 tons weight. The dressing of the face between the hieroglyphs was
+done partly with copper and partly with flint scrapers (P.M. 27). The
+most splendid masonry is that of the Great Pyramid of Cheops. The blocks
+of granite for the roofing are 56 in number, of an average weight of 54
+tons each. These were cut from the water-worn rocks at the Cataract--the
+soundest source for large masses, as any incipient flaws are well
+exposed by wear. The blocks were quarried by cleavage; a groove was run
+along the line intended, and about 2 ft. apart holes about 4 in. wide
+were jumped downward from it in the intended plane; this prevented a
+skew fracture (P.T. 93). In shallower masses a groove was run, and then
+holes, apparently for wedges, were sunk deeper in the course of it;
+whether wetted wood was used for the expansive force is not known, but
+it is probable, as no signs are visible of crushing the granite by hard
+wedges. The facing of the cloven surfaces was done by hammer-dressing,
+using rounded masses of quartzose hornstone, held in the hand without
+any handle. In order to get a hold for moving the blocks without
+bruising the edges, projecting lumps or bosses were left on the faces,
+about 6 or 8 in. across and 1 or 2 in. thick. After the block was in
+place the boss was struck off and the surface dressed and polished (P.T.
+78, 82). In the pyramid of Cheops the blocks were all faced before
+building; but the later granite temple of Chephren and the pyramid of
+Mycerinus (Menkaura, Menkeure) show a system of building with an excess
+of a few inches left rough on the outer surface, which was dressed away
+when in position (P.T. 110, 132).
+
+The flatness of faces of stone or rock (both granite and limestone) was
+tested by placing a true-plane trial plate, smeared with red ochre,
+against the dressed surface, as in modern engineering. The contact being
+thus reddened showed where the face had to be further dressed away; and
+this process was continued until the ochre touched points not more than
+an inch apart all over the joint faces, many square feet in area. On
+stones too large for facing-plates a diagonal draft was run, so as to
+avoid any wind in the plane (P.T. 83).
+
+The cutting of granite was not only by cleavage and hammer dressing, but
+also by cutting with harder materials than quartz such as emery. Long
+saws of copper were fed with emery powder, and used to saw out blocks
+as much as 7½ ft. long (P.T. Plate XIV.). In other cases the very deep
+scores in the sides of the saw-cut suggest that fixed cutting points
+were inserted in the copper saws; and this would be parallel to the
+saw-cuts in the very hard limestone of the Palace of Tiryns, in which a
+piece of a copper saw has been broken, and where may be yet found large
+chips of emery, too long and coarse to serve as a powder, but suited for
+fixed teeth. A similar method was common for circular holes, which were
+cut by a tube, either with powder or fixed teeth. These tubular drills
+were used from the IVth Dynasty down to late times, in all materials
+from alabaster up to carnelian. The resulting cores are more regular
+than those of modern rock-drilling.
+
+Limestone in the Great Pyramid, as elsewhere, was dressed by chopping it
+with an adze, a tool used from prehistoric to Roman times for all soft
+stones and wood. This method was carried on up to the point of getting
+contact with the facing-plate at every inch of the surface; the cuts
+cross in various directions. For removing rock in reducing a surface to
+a level, or in quarrying, cuts were made with a pick, forming straight
+trenches, and the blocks were then broken out between these. In
+quarrying the cuts are generally 4 or 5 in. wide, just enough for the
+workman's arm to reach in; for cutting away rock the grooves are 20 in.
+wide, enough to stand in, and the squares of rock about 9 ft. wide
+between the grooves (P.T. 100). The accuracy of the workmanship in the
+IVth Dynasty is astonishing. The base of the pyramid of Snefru had an
+average variation of 6 in. on 5765 and 10' of squareness. But,
+immediately after, Cheops improved on this with a variation of less than
+6 in. on 9069 in. and 12" of direction. Chephren fell off, having 1.5
+error on 8475, and 33" of variation; and Mycerinus (Menkeure) had 3 in.
+error on 4154 and 1' 50" variation of direction (P.M. 6; P.T. 39, 97,
+111). Of perhaps later date the two south pyramids of Dahshur show
+errors of 3.7 on 7459 and 1.1 on 2065 in., and variation of direction of
+4' and 10' (P.S. 28, 30). The above smallest error of only 1 in 16,000
+in lineal measure, and 1 in 17,000 of angular measure, is that of the
+rock-cutting for the foundation of Khufu, and the masonry itself (now
+destroyed) was doubtless more accurate. The error of flatness of the
+joints from a straight line and a true square is but 1/100th in. on 75
+in. length; and the error of level is only 1/50th in. along a course, or
+about 10" on a long length (P.T. 44). We have entered thus fully on the
+details of this period, as it is the finest age for workmanship in every
+respect. But in the XIIth Dynasty the granite sarcophagus of Senwosri
+II. is perhaps the finest single piece of cutting yet known; the
+surfaces of the granite are all dull-ground, the errors from straight
+lines and parallelism are only about 1/200th inch (P. 1, 3).
+
+In later work we may note that copper scrapers were used for facing the
+limestone work in the VIth, the XIIth and the XVIIIth Dynasties. In the
+latter age granite surfaces were ground, hieroglyphs were chipped out
+and polished by copper tools fed with emery; outlines were graved by a
+thick sheet of copper held in the hand, and sawed to and fro with emery.
+Corners of signs and intersections of lines were first fixed by minute
+tube-drill holes, into which the hand tool butted, so that it should not
+slip over the outer surface.
+
+The marking out of work was done by fine black lines; and supplemental
+lines at a fixed distance from the true one were put in to guard against
+obliteration in course of working (P.T. 92); similarly in building a
+brick pyramid the axis was marked, and there were supplemental marks two
+cubits to one side (P.K. 14). When cutting a passage in the rock a rough
+drift-way was first made, the roof was smoothed, a red axis line was
+drawn along it, and then the sides were cut parallel to the axis. For
+setting out a mastaba with sloping sides, on an irregular foundation at
+different levels, hollow corner walls were built outside the place of
+each corner; the distances of the faces at the above-ground level were
+marked on the inner faces of the walls; the above-ground level was also
+marked; then sloping lines at the intended angle of the face were drawn
+downward from the ground-level measures, and each face was set out so as
+to lie in the plane thus defined by two traces at the ends (P.M.
+VIII.).
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Egyptian Tools.
+
+  _Note._ _The objects are drawn to a scale of 1/6 unless otherwise
+     described._
+
+  MALLETS 1 2
+  MACES 3 4
+  HAMMERS 5 6
+  AXES 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
+  HOES 14 15
+  PICK 16
+  FLINT KNIVES 17 18 19 20 21
+  METAL KNIVES 22 23 24 25
+  CUTTING-OUT KNIVES 26 27 28 29
+  RAZORS 30 31 32
+  CHISELS 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
+  ADZES 40 41
+  SCRAPERS 42 44 45 46
+  SAWS 47 (1/30) 48
+  BORERS 49 50 51 52 53 (1/10) 54 55 (1/10) 56 57 58]
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Egyptian Tools.
+
+  _Note._ _The objects are drawn to a scale of 1/6 unless otherwise
+     described._
+
+  FIGHTING 59 60 61 62 (1/12) 63 (1/12) 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72
+  HUNTING 73 74 75 76 77 78 (1/10) 79 80 81 82 83 84
+  AGRICULTURE all 1/20 85 86 87 88 89 90 (1/20) 91 92 (1/10) 93 94
+              95 (1/12) 96 (1/12)
+  BUILDING 97 98 99 100 101
+  THREAD WORK 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
+  VASE GRINDING 110 111]
+
+_Metal-Work._--Copper was wrought into pins, a couple of inches long,
+with loop heads, as early as the oldest prehistoric graves, before the
+use of weaving, and while pottery was scarcely developed. The use of
+harpoons and small chisels of copper next arose, then broad flaying
+knives, needles and adzes, lastly the axe when the metal was commoner.
+On these prehistoric tools, when in fine condition, the original
+highly-polished surface remains. It shows no trace of grinding lines or
+attrition, nor yet of the blows of a hammer. Probably it was thus highly
+finished by beating between polished stone hammers which were almost
+flat on the face. Most likely the forms of the tools were cast to begin
+with, and then finished and polished by fine hammering. A series of
+moulds for casting in the XIIth Dynasty show that the forms were carved
+out in thick pieces of pottery, and then lined with fine ashy clay. The
+mould was single, so that one side of the tool was the open face of
+metal. As early as the pyramid times solid casting by _cire perdue_ was
+already used for figures: but the copper statues of Pepi and his son
+seem, by their thinness and the piecing together of the parts, to have
+been entirely hammered out. The portraiture in such hammer work is
+amazingly life-like. By the time of the XIIth Dynasty, and perhaps
+earlier, _cire perdue_ casting over an ash core became usual. This was
+carried out most skilfully, the metal being often not 1/50th in. thick,
+and the core truly centred in the mould. Casting bronze over iron rods
+was also done, to gain more stiffness for thin parts.
+
+In gold work the earliest jewelry, that of King Zer of the Ist Dynasty,
+shows a perfect mastery of working hollow balls with minute threading
+holes, and of soldering with no trace of excess nor difference of
+colour. Thin wire was hammered out, but there is no ancient instance of
+drawn wire. Castings were not trimmed by filing or grinding, but by
+small chisels and hammering (P.R.T. ii. 17). In the XIIth Dynasty the
+soldering of the thin cells for the _cloisonnée_ inlaid pectorals, on to
+the base plate, is a marvellous piece of delicacy; every cell has to be
+perfectly true in form, and yet all soldered, apparently simultaneously,
+as the heat could not be applied to successive portions (M.D. i.). Such
+work was kept up in the XVIIIth and XXVIth Dynasties. There is nothing
+distinctive in later jewelry different from Greek and Roman work
+elsewhere.
+
+_Glaze and Glass._--From almost the beginning of the prehistoric age
+there are glazed pottery beads found in the graves: and glazing on
+amulets of quartz or other stones begins in the middle of the
+prehistoric. Apparently then glazing went together with the working of
+the copper ores, and probably accidental slags in the smelting gave the
+first idea of using glaze intentionally. The development of glazing at
+the beginning of the dynasties was sudden and effective. Large tiles, a
+foot in length, were glazed completely all over, and used to line the
+walls of rooms; they were retained in place by deep dovetails and ties
+of copper wire. Figures of glazed ware became abundant; a kind of
+visiting card was made with the figure of a man and his titles to
+present in temples which he visited; and glazed ornaments and toggles
+for fastening dresses were common (P. Ab. ii.). Further, besides thus
+using glaze on a large scale, differently coloured glazes were used, and
+even fused together. A piece of a large tile, and part of a glazed vase,
+have the royal titles and name of Menes, originally in violet inlay in
+green glaze. There was no further advance in the art until the great
+variety of colours came into use about 4000 years later. In the XIIth
+Dynasty a very thin smooth glaze was used, which became rather thicker
+in the XVIIIth. The most brilliant age of glazes was under Amenophis
+III. and his son Akhenaton. Various colours were used; beside the old
+green and blue, there were purple, violet, red, yellow and white. And a
+profusion of forms is shown by the moulds and actual examples, for
+necklaces, decorations, inlay in stone and applied reliefs on vases.
+Under Seti II. cartouches of the king in violet and white glaze are
+common; and under Rameses III. there were vases with relief figures,
+with painted figures, and tiles with coloured reliefs of captives of
+many races. The latter development of glazing was in thin delicate
+apple-green ware with low relief designs, which seem to have originated
+under Greek influence at Naucratis. The Roman glaze is thick and coarse,
+but usually of a brilliant Prussian blue, with dark purple and
+apple-green; and high reliefs of wreaths, and sometimes figures, are
+common.
+
+Though glaze begins so early, the use of the glassy matter by itself
+does not occur till the XVIIIth Dynasty; the earlier reputed examples
+are of stone or frit. The first glass is black and white under Tethmosis
+(Tahutmes) III. It was not fused at a high point, but kept in a pasty
+state when working. The main use of it was for small vases; these were
+formed upon a core of sandy paste, which was modelled on a copper rod,
+the rod being the core for the neck. Round this core threads of glass
+were wound of various colours; the whole could be reset in the furnace
+to soften it for moulding the foot or neck, or attaching handles, or
+dragging the surface into various patterns. The colours under later
+kings were as varied as those of the glazes. Glass was also wheel-cut in
+patterns and shapes under Akhenaton. In later times the main work was in
+mosaics of extreme delicacy. Glass rods were piled together to form a
+pattern in cross-section. The whole was then heated until it perfectly
+adhered, and the mass was drawn out lengthways so as to render the
+design far more minute, and to increase the total length for cutting up.
+The rod was then sliced across, and the pieces used for inlaying.
+Another use of coloured glass was for cutting in the shapes of
+hieroglyphs for inlaying in wooden coffins to form inscriptions. Glass
+amulets were also commonly placed upon Ptolemaic mummies. Blown glass
+vessels are not known until late Greek and Roman times, when they were
+of much the same manufacture as glass elsewhere. The supposed figures of
+glass-blowers in early scenes are really those of smiths, blowing their
+fires by means of reeds tipped with clay. The variegated glass beads
+belonging to Italy were greatly used in Egypt in Roman times, and are
+like those found elsewhere. A distinctively late Egyptian use of glass
+was for weights and vase-stamps, to receive an impress stating the
+amount of the weight or measure. The vase-stamps often state the name of
+the contents (always seeds or fruits), probably not to show what was in
+them, but to show for what kind of seed the vessel was a true measure.
+These measure stamps bear names dating them from A.D. 680 to about 950.
+The large weights of ounces and pounds are disks or cuboid blocks; they
+are dated from 720 to 785 for the lesser, and to A.D. 915 for larger,
+weights. The greater number are, however, small weights for testing gold
+and silver coins of later caliphs from A.D. 952 to 1171. The system was
+not, however, Arab, as there are a few Roman vase-stamps and weights. Of
+other medieval glass may be noted the splendid glass vases for lamps,
+with Arab inscriptions fused in colours on the outsides. No enamelling
+was ever done by Egyptians, and the few rare examples are all of Roman
+age due to foreign work.
+
+The manufacture of glass is shown by examples in the XVIIIth Dynasty.
+The blue or green colour was made by fritting together silica, lime,
+alkaline carbonate and copper carbonate; the latter varied from 3% in
+delicate blues to 20% in deep purple blues. The silica was needed quite
+pure from iron, in order to get the rich blues, and was obtained from
+calcined quartz pebbles; ordinary sand will only make a green frit.
+These materials were heated in pans in the furnace so as to combine in a
+pasty, half-fused condition. The coloured frit thus formed was used as
+paint in a wet state, and also used to dissolve in glass or to fuse over
+a surface in glazing. The brown tints often seen in glazed objects are
+almost always the result of the decomposition of green glazes containing
+iron. The blue glazes, on the other hand, fade into white. The essential
+colouring materials are, for blue, copper; green, copper and iron;
+purple, cobalt; red, haematite; white, tin. An entirely clear colourless
+glass was made in the XVIIIth Dynasty, but coloured glass was mainly
+used. After fusing a panful of coloured glass, it was sampled by taking
+pinches out with tongs; when perfectly combined it was left to cool in
+the pan, as with modern optical glass. When cold the pan was chipped
+away, and the cake of glass broken up into convenient pieces, free of
+sediment and of scum. A broken lump would then be heated to softness in
+the furnace; rolled out under a bar of metal, held diagonally across the
+roll; and when reduced to a rod of a quarter of an inch thick, it was
+heated and pulled out into even rods about an eighth of an inch thick.
+These were used to wind round glass vases, to form lips, handles, &c.;
+and to twist together for spiral patterns. Glass tube was similarly
+drawn out. Beads were made by winding thin threads of glass on copper
+wires, and the greater contraction of the copper freed the bead when
+cold. The coiling of beads can always be detected by (1) the little
+tails left at the ends, (2) the streaks, (3) the bubbles, seen with a
+magnifier. Roman glass beads are always drawn out, and nicked off hot,
+with striation lengthways; except the large opaque variegated beads
+which are coiled. Modern Venetian beads are similarly coiled. In the
+XXIIIrd Dynasty beads of a rich transparent Prussian blue glass were
+made, until the XXVIth. About the same time the eyed beads, with white
+and brown eyes in a blue mass, also came in (P.A. 25-27, Plate XIII.).
+
+_Pottery_ (see fig. 112).--The earliest style of pottery is entirely
+hand made, without any rotary motion; the form being built up with a
+flat stick inside and the hand outside, and finally scraped and
+burnished in a vertical direction. The necks of vases were the first
+part finished with rotation, at the middle and close of the prehistoric
+age. Fully turned forms occur in the Ist Dynasty; but as late as the
+XIIth Dynasty the lower part of small vases is usually trimmed with a
+knife. In the earlier part of the prehistoric age there was a soft brown
+ware with haematite facing, highly burnished. This was burnt mouth-down
+in the oven, and the ashes on the ground reduced the red haematite to
+black magnetic oxide of iron; some traces of carbonyl in the ash helped
+to rearrange the magnetite as a brilliant mirror-like surface of intense
+black. The lower range of jars in the oven had then black tops, while
+the upper ranges were entirely red. A favourite decoration was by lines
+of white clay slip, in crossing patterns, figures of animals, and,
+rarely, men. This is exactly of the modern Kabyle style in Algeria, and
+entirely disappeared from Egypt very early in the prehistoric age. Being
+entirely hand made, various oval, doubled and even square forms were
+readily shaped.
+
+The later prehistoric age is marked by entirely different pottery, of a
+hard pink-brown ware, often with white specks in it, without any applied
+facing beyond an occasional pink wash, and no polishing. It is decorated
+with designs in red line, imitating cordage and marbling, and drawings
+of plants, ostriches and ships. The older red polished ware still
+survived in a coarse and degraded character, and both kinds together
+were carried on into the next age (P.D.P.).
+
+The early dynastic pottery not only shows the decadent end of the
+earlier forms, but also new styles, such as grand jars of 2 or 3 ft.
+high which were slung in cordage, and which have imitation lines of
+cordage marked on them. Large ring-stands also were brought in, to
+support jars, so that the damp surfaces should not touch the dusty
+ground. The pyramid times show the great jars reduced to short rough
+pots, while a variety of forms of bowls are the most usual types
+(P.R.T.; P.D.; P. Desh.)
+
+In the XIIth Dynasty a hard thin drab ware was common, like the modern
+_qulleh_ water flasks. Drop-shaped jars with spherical bases are
+typical, and scrabbled patterns of incised lines. Large jars of light
+brown pottery were made for storing liquids and grain, with narrow necks
+which just admit the hand (P.K.).
+
+The XVIIIth Dynasty used a rather softer ware, decorated at first with a
+red edge or band around the top, and under Tethmosis (Tahutmes) III.
+black and red lines were usual. Under Amenophis III. blue frit paint was
+freely used, in lines and bands around vases; it spread to large
+surfaces under Amenophis IV., and continued in a poor style into the
+Ramesside age. In the latter part of the XVIIIth and the XIXth Dynasties
+a thick hard light pottery, with white specks and a polished drab-white
+facing, was generally used for all fine purposes. The XIXth and XXth
+Dynasties only show a degradation of the types of the XVIIIth; and even
+through to the XXVth Dynasty there is no new movement (P.K.; P.I.; P.A.;
+P.S.T.).
+
+The XXVIth Dynasty was largely influenced by Greek amphorae imported
+with wine and oil. The native pottery is of a very fine paste, smooth
+and thin, but poor in forms. Cylindrical cups, and jars with cylindrical
+necks and no brim, are typical. The small necks and trivial handles
+begin now, and are very common in Ptolemaic times (P.T. ii.).
+
+The great period of Roman pottery is marked by the ribbing on the
+outsides. The amphorae began to be ribbed about A.D. 150, and then
+ribbing extended to all the forms. The ware is generally rather rough,
+thick and brown for the amphorae, thin and red for smaller vessels. At
+the Constantine age a new style begins, of hard pink ware, neatly made,
+and often with "start-patterns" made by a vibrating tool while the
+vessel rotated: this was mainly used for bowls and cups (P.E.). Of the
+later pottery of Arab times we have no precise knowledge.
+
+The abbreviations used above refer to the following sources of
+information:--
+
+  M.D. Morgan,  _Dahshur_;
+  P.A. Petrie,  _Tell el Amarna_;
+  P. Ab.   "    _Abydos_;
+  P.D.     "    _Dendereh_;
+  P. Desh. "    _Deshasheh_;
+  P.D.P.   "    _Diospolis Parva_;
+  P.E.     "    _Ehnasya_;
+  P.I.     "    _Illahun_;
+  P.K.     "    _Kahun_;
+  P.M.     "    _Medum_;
+  P.N.     "    _Naqada_;
+  P.R.T.   "    _Royal Tombs_;
+  P.S.     "    _Season in Egypt_;
+  P.S.T.   "    _Six Temples_;
+  P.T.     "    _Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh_;
+  P.T. ii. "    _Tanis, ii._;
+  Q.H. Quibell, _Hieraconpolis_.    (W. M. F. P.)
+
+_Monuments._--The principal monuments that are yet remaining to
+illustrate the art and history of Egypt may be best taken in historical
+order. Of the prehistoric age there are many rock carvings, associated
+with others of later periods: they principally remain on the sandstone
+rocks about Silsila, and their age is shown by the figures of ostriches
+which were extinct in later times. One painted tomb was found at Nekhen
+(Hieraconpolis), now in the Cairo Museum; the brick walls were
+colour-washed and covered with irregular groups of men, animals and
+ships, painted with red, black and green. The cemeteries otherwise only
+contain graves, cut in gravel or brick lined, and formerly roofed with
+poles and brushwood. The Ist to IIIrd Dynasties have left at Abydos
+large forts of brickwork, remains of two successive temples, and the
+royal tombs (see ABYDOS). Elsewhere are but few other monuments; at Wadi
+Maghara in Sinai is a rock sculpture of Semerkhet of the Ist Dynasty in
+perfect state, at Giza is a group of tombs of a prince and retinue of
+the Ist Dynasty, and at Giza and Bet Khallaf are two large brick
+mastabas with extensive passages closed by trap-doors, of kings of the
+IIIrd Dynasty. The main structure of this age is the step-pyramid of
+Sakkara, which is a mastaba tomb with eleven successive coats of
+masonry, enlarging it to about 350 by 390 ft. and 200 ft. high. In the
+interior is sunk in the rock a chamber 24 × 23 ft. and 77 ft. high, with
+a granite sepulchre built in the floor of it, and various passages and
+chambers branching from it. The doorway of one room (now in Berlin
+Museum) was decorated with polychrome glazed tiles with the name of King
+Neterkhet. The complex original work and various alterations of it need
+thorough study, but it is now closed and research is forbidden.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 112.--Principal Types of Pottery of Ancient Egypt.
+  (Scale 1:20.)
+
+  EARLY PREHISTORIC 7000-6000 B.C.
+  LATER PREHISTORIC 6000-5000 B.C.
+  I^ST DYNASTY 4800-4500 B.C.
+  IV^TH-VI^TH DYNASTY 4000-3300 B.C.
+  XII^TH DYNASTY 2800-2500 B.C.
+  XVIII^TH DYNASTY 1500-1350 B.C.
+  XIX^TH DYNASTY 1300-1100 B.C.
+  XXVI^TH DYNASTY 700-500 B.C.]
+
+The IVth to VIth Dynasties are best known by the series of pyramids (see
+PYRAMID) in the region of Memphis. Beyond these tombs, and the temples
+attached to them, there are very few fixed monuments; of Cheops and Pepi
+I. there are temple foundations at Abydos (q.v.), and a few blocks on
+other sites; of Neuserre (Raenuser) there is a sun temple at Abusir; and
+of several kings there were tablets in Sinai, now in the Cairo Museum. A
+few tablets of the IXth Dynasty have been found at Sakkara, and a tomb
+of a prince at Assiut. Of the XIth Dynasty is the terrace-temple of
+Menthotp III. recently excavated at Thebes: also foundations of this
+king and of Sankhkere at Abydos. In the XIIth Dynasty there is the
+celebrated red granite obelisk of Heliopolis, one of a pair erected by
+Senwosri (Senusert) I. in front of his temple which has now vanished.
+Another large obelisk of red granite, 41 ft. high, remains in the Fayum.
+The most important pictorial tombs of Beni Hasan belong to this age; the
+great princes appear to have largely quarried stone for their palaces,
+and to have cut the quarry in the form of a regular chamber, which
+served for the tomb chapel. These great rock chambers were covered with
+paintings, which show a large range of the daily life and civilization.
+The pyramids and temples of Senwosri II. and III. and Amenemhe III.
+remain at Illahun, Dahshur and Hawara. The latter was the celebrated
+Labyrinth, which has been entirely quarried away, so that only banks of
+chips and a few blocks remain. At the first of these sites is the most
+perfect early town, of which hundreds of houses still remain. Of
+Senwosri III. there are the forts and temples above the second cataract
+at Semna and Kumma. Of the Hyksos age there are the scanty remains of a
+great fortified camp at Tell el-Yehudia.
+
+In the XVIIIth to XXth Dynasties we reach the great period of monuments.
+Of Amasis (Aahmes) and Amenophis I. there are but fragments left in
+later buildings; and of the latter a great quantity of sculpture has
+been recovered at Karnak. The great temple of Karnak had existed since
+the XIth Dynasty or earlier, but the existing structure was begun under
+Tethmosis (Tahutmes) I., and two of the great pylons and one obelisk of
+his remain in place. He also built the simple and dignified temple of
+Medinet Habu at Thebes, which was afterward overshadowed by the
+grandiose work of Rameses III. The next generation--Tethmosis II. and
+Hatshepsut--added to their father's work; they also built another pylon
+and some of the existing chambers at Karnak, set up the great obelisks
+there and carved some colossi. The obelisks are exquisitely cut in red
+granite, each sign being sawn in shape by copper tools fed with emery,
+and the whole finished with a perfection of proportion and delicacy not
+seen on other granite work. One obelisk being overthrown and broken we
+can examine the minute treatment of the upper part, which was nearly a
+hundred feet from the ground. The principal monument of this period is
+the temple of Deir el Bahri, the funeral temple of Hatshepsut, on which
+she recorded the principal event of her reign, the expedition to Punt.
+The erasures of her name by Tethmosis III., and reinsertions of names
+under later kings, the military scenes, and the religious groups showing
+the sacred kine of Hathor, all add to the interest of the remarkable
+temple. It stands on three successive terraces, rising to the base of
+the high limestone cliffs behind it. The rock-cut shrine at Speos
+Artemidos, and the temple of Serabit in Sinai are the only other large
+monuments of this queen yet remaining. Tethmosis III. was one of the
+great builders of Egypt, and much remains of his work, at about forty
+different sites. The great temple of Karnak was largely built by him;
+most of the remaining chambers are his, including the beautiful
+botanical walls showing foreign plants. Of his work at Heliopolis there
+remain the obelisks of London and New York; and from Elephantine is the
+obelisk at Sion House. On the Nubian sites his work may still be seen at
+Amada, Ellesia, Ibrim, Semna and in Sinai at Serabit el Khadem. Of
+Amenophis II. and Tethmosis IV. there are no large monuments, they being
+mainly known by additions at Karnak. The well known stele of the sphinx
+was cut by the latter king, to commemorate his dream there and his
+clearing of the sphinx from sand. Amenophis III. has left several large
+buildings of his magnificent reign. At Karnak the temple had a new front
+added as a great pylon, which was later used as the back of the hall of
+columns by Seti I. But three new temples at Karnak, that of Month
+(Mentu), of Mut and a smaller one, all are due to this reign, as well as
+the long avenue of sphinxes before the temple of Khons; these indicate
+that the present Ramesside temple of Khons has superseded an earlier one
+of this king. The great temple of Luxor was built to record the divine
+origin of the king as son of Ammon; and on the western side of Thebes
+the funerary temple of Amenophis was an immense pile, of which the two
+colossi of the Theban plain still stand before the front of the site,
+where yet lies a vast tablet of sandstone 30 ft. high. The other
+principal buildings are the temples of Sedenga and of Solib in Nubia.
+Akhenaton has been so consistently eclipsed by the later kings who
+destroyed his work, that the painted pavement and the rock tablets of
+Tell el Amarna are the only monuments of his still in position, beside a
+few small inscriptions. Harmahib (Horemheb) resumed the work at Karnak,
+erecting two great pylons and a long avenue of sphinxes. The rock temple
+at Silsila and a shrine at Jebel Adda are also his.
+
+In the XIXth Dynasty the great age of building continued, and the
+remains are less destroyed than the earlier temples, because there were
+subsequently fewer unscrupulous rulers to quarry them away. Seti I.
+greatly extended the national temple of Karnak by his immense hall of
+columns added in front of the pylon of Amenophis III. His funerary
+temple at Kurna is also in a fairly complete condition. The temple of
+Abydos is celebrated owing to its completeness, and the perfect
+condition of its sculptures, which render it one of the most interesting
+buildings as an artistic monument; and the variety of religious subjects
+adds to its importance. The very long reign and vanity of Rameses II.
+have combined to leave his name at over sixty sites, more widely spread
+than that of any other king. Yet very few great monuments were
+originated by him; even the Ramesseum, his funerary temple, was begun by
+his father. Additions, appropriations of earlier works and scattered
+inscriptions are what mark this reign. The principal remaining buildings
+are part of a court at Memphis, the second temple at Abydos, and the six
+Nubian temples of Bet el-Wali, Jerf Husein, Wadi es-Sebua, Derr, and the
+grandest of all--the rock-cut temple of Abu Simbel, with its
+neighbouring temple of Hathor. Mineptah has left few original works; the
+Osireum at Abydos is the only one of which much remains, his funerary
+temple having been destroyed as completely as he destroyed that of
+Amenophis III. The celebrated Israel stele from this temple is his
+principal inscription. The rock shrines at Silsila are of small
+importance. There is no noticeable monument of the dozen troubled years
+of the end of the dynasty.
+
+The XXth Dynasty opened with the great builder Rameses III. Probably he
+did not really exceed other kings in his activity; but as being the last
+of the building kings at the western side of Thebes, his temple has
+never been devastated for stone by the claims of later work. The whole
+building of Medinet Habu is about 500 ft. long and 160 wide, entirely
+the work of one reign. The sculptures of it are mainly occupied with the
+campaigns of the king against the Libyans, the Syrians and the negroes,
+and are of the greatest importance for the history of Egypt and of the
+Mediterranean lands. Another large work was the clearance and rebuilding
+of much of the city of Tell el Yehudia, the palace hall of which
+contained the celebrated coloured tiles with figures of captives. At
+Karnak three temples, to Ammon, Khonsu and Mut, all belong to this
+reign. The blighted reigns of the later Ramessides and the priest-kings
+did not leave a single great monument, and they are only known by
+usurpations of the work of others. The Tanite kings of the XXIst Dynasty
+rebuilt the temple of their capital, but did little else. The XXIInd
+Dynasty returned to monumental work. Sheshonk I. added a large wall at
+Karnak, covered with the record of his Judaean war. Osorkon (Uasarkon)
+I. built largely at Bubastis, and Osorkon II. added the great granite
+pylon there, covered with scenes of his festival; but at Thebes these
+kings only inscribed previous monuments. The Ethiopian (XXVth) dynasty
+built mainly in their capital under Mount Barkal, and Shabako and
+Tirhaka (Tahrak) also left chapels and a pylon at Thebes; and the latter
+added a great colonnade leading up to the temple of Karnak, of which one
+column is still standing.
+
+Of the Saite kings there are very few large monuments. Their work was
+mainly of limestone and built in the Delta, and hence it has been
+entirely swept away. The square fort of brickwork at Daphnae (q.v.) was
+built by Psammetichus I. Of Apries (Haa-ab-ra, Hophra) an obelisk and
+two monolith shrines are the principal remains. Of Amasis (Aahmes) II.
+five great shrines are known; but the other kings of this age have only
+left minor works. The Persians kept up Egyptian monuments. Darius I.
+quarried largely, and left a series of great granite decrees along his
+Suez canal; he also built the great temple in the oasis of Kharga.
+
+The XXXth Dynasty renewed the period of great temples. Nekhtharheb built
+the temple of Behbet, now a ruinous heap of immense blocks of granite.
+Beside other temples, now destroyed, he set up the great west pylon of
+Karnak, and the pylon at Kharga. Nekhtnebf built the Hathor temple and
+great pylon at Philae, and the east pylon of Karnak, beside temples
+elsewhere, now vanished. Religious building was continued under the
+Ptolemies and Romans; and though the royal impulse may not have been
+strong, yet the wealth of the land under good government supplied means
+for many places to rebuild their old shrines magnificently. In the Fayum
+the capital was dedicated to Queen Arsinoe, and doubtless Ptolemy
+rebuilt the temple, now destroyed. At Sharona are remains of a temple of
+Ptolemy I. Dendera is one of the most complete temples, giving a noble
+idea of the appearance of such work anciently. The body of the temple is
+of Ptolemy XIII., and was carved as late as the XVIth (Caesarion), and
+the great portico was in building from Augustus to Nero. At Coptos was a
+screen of the temple of Ptolemy I. (now at Oxford), and a chapel still
+remains of Ptolemy XIII. Karnak was largely decorated; a granite cella
+was built under Philip Arrhidaeus, covered with elaborate carving; a
+great pylon was added to the temple of Khonsu by Ptolemy III.; the inner
+pylon of the Ammon-temple was carved by Ptolemy VI. and IX.; and granite
+doorways were added to the temples of Month and Mut by Ptolemy II. At
+Luxor the entire cella was rebuilt by Alexander. At Medinet Habu the
+temple of Tethmosis III. had a doorway built by Ptolemy X., and a
+forecourt by Antoninus. The smaller temple was built under Ptolemy X.
+and the emperors. South of Medinet Habu a small temple was built by
+Hadrian and Antoninus. At Esna the great temple was rebuilt and
+inscribed during a couple of centuries from Titus to Decius. At El Kab
+the temple dates from Ptolemy IX. and X. The great temple of Edfu, which
+has its enclosure walls and pylon complete, and is the most perfect
+example remaining, was gradually built during a century and a half from
+Ptolemy III. to XI. The monuments of Philae begin with the wall of
+Nekhtnebf. Ptolemy II. began the great temple, and the temple of
+Arhesnofer (Arsenuphis) is due to Ptolemy IV., that of Asclepius to
+Ptolemy V., that of Hathor to Ptolemy VI., and the great colonnades
+belong to Ptolemy XIII. and Augustus. The beautiful little riverside
+temple, called the "kiosk," was built by Augustus and inscribed by
+Trajan; and the latest building was the arch of Diocletian.
+
+Farther south, in Nubia, the temples of Dabod and Dakka were built by
+the Ethiopian Ergamenes, contemporary of Ptolemy IV.; and the temple of
+Dendur is of Augustus. The latest building of the temple style is the
+White Monastery near Suhag. The external form is that of a great temple,
+with windows added along the top; while internally it was a Christian
+church. The modern dwellings in it have now been cleared out, and the
+interior admirably preserved and cleaned by a native Syrian architect.
+
+Beside the great monuments, which we have now noticed, the historical
+material is found on several other classes of remains. These are: (1)
+The royal tombs, which in the Vth, VIth, XVIIIth, XIXth and XXth
+Dynasties are fully inscribed; but as the texts are always religious and
+not historical, they are less important than many other remains. (2) The
+royal coffins and wrappings, which give information by the added
+graffiti recording their removals; (3) Royal tablets, which are of the
+highest value for history, as they often describe or imply historical
+events; (4) Private tombs and tablets, which are in many cases
+biographical. (5) Papyri concerning daily affairs which throw light on
+history; or which give historic detail, as the great papyrus of Rameses
+III., and the trials under Rameses X. (6) The added inscriptions on
+buildings by later restorers, and alterations of names for
+misappropriation. (7) The statues which give the royal portraits, and
+sometimes historical facts. (8) The _ostraca_, or rough notes of work
+accounts, and plans drawn on pieces of limestone or pottery. (9) The
+scarabs bearing kings' names, which under the Hyksos and in some other
+dark periods, are our main source of information. (10) The miscellaneous
+small remains of toilet objects, ornaments, weapons, &c., many of which
+bear royal names.
+
+  Every object and monument with a royal name will be found catalogued
+  under each reign in Petrie's _History of Egypt_, 3 vols., the last
+  editions of each being the fullest.     (W. M. F. P.)
+
+F. _Chronology._--1. _Technical._--The standard year of the Ancient
+Egyptians consisted of twelve months of thirty days[17] each, with five
+epagomenal days, in all 365 days. It was thus an effective compromise
+between the solar year and the lunar month, and contrasts very
+favourably with the intricate and clumsy years of other ancient systems.
+The leap-year of the Julian and Gregorian calendars confers the immense
+benefit of a fixed correspondence to the seasons which the Egyptian year
+did not possess, but the uniform length of the Egyptian months is
+enviable even now. The months were grouped under three seasons of four
+months each, and were known respectively as the first, second, third and
+fourth month [HRGs: N12:Z1], [HRGs: N12:two], [HRGs: N12:three], [HRGs:
+N12:four] of [HRGs: SA-x:t-hrw] (i'h·t) "inundation" or "verdure,"
+[HRGs: pr:r-t:hrw] _pr·t_ (_pro_) "seed-time," "winter," and [HRGs:
+S:N35B-hrw] _smw (shôm)_ "harvest," "summer," the [HRGs:
+Z93-Z92-Hr:r-w-rnp-t:Z1] "five (days) over the year" being outside these
+seasons and the year itself, according to the Egyptian expression, and
+counted either at the beginning or at the end of the year. Ultimately
+the Egyptians gave names to the months taken from festivals celebrated
+in them, in order as follows:--Thoth, Paophi, Athyr, Choiak, Tobi,
+Mechir, Phamenoth, Pharmuthi, Pachons, Payni, Epiphi, Mesore, the
+epagomenal days being then called "the short year." In Egypt the
+agricultural seasons depend more immediately on the Nile than on the
+solar movements; the first day of the first month of inundation, i.e.
+nominally the beginning of the rise of the Nile, was the beginning of
+the year, and as the Nile commences to rise very regularly at about the
+date of the annual heliacal rising of the conspicuous dog-star Sothis
+(Sirius) (which itself follows extremely closely the slow retrogression
+of the Julian year), the primitive astronomers found in the heliacal
+rising of Sothis as observed at Memphis (on July 19 Julian) a very
+correct and useful starting-point for the seasonal year. But the year of
+365 days lost one day in four years of the Sothic or Julian year, so
+that in 121 Egyptian years New Year's day fell a whole month too early
+according to the seasons, and in 1461 years a whole year was lost. This
+"Sothic period" or era of 1460 years, during which the Egyptian New
+Year's day travelled all round the Sothic year, is recorded by Greek and
+Roman writers at least as early as the 1st century B.C. The epagomenal
+days appear on a monument of the Vth Dynasty and in the very ancient
+Pyramid texts. They were considered unlucky, and perhaps this accounts
+for the curious fact that, although they are named in journals and in
+festival lists, &c., where precise dating was needed, no known monument
+or legal document is dated in them. It is, however, quite possible that
+by the side of the year of 365 days a shorter year of 360 was employed
+for some purposes. Lunar months were observed in the regulation of
+temples, and lunar years, &c., have been suspected. To find uniformity
+in any department in Egyptian practice would be exceptional. By the
+decree of Canopus, Ptolemy III. Euergetes introduced through the
+assembly of priests an extra day every fourth year, but this reform had
+no acceptation until it was reimposed by Augustus with the Julian
+calendar. Whether any earlier attempt was made to adjust the civil to
+the solar or Sothic year in order to restore the festivals to their
+proper places in the seasons temporarily or otherwise, is a question of
+great importance for chronology, but at present it remains unanswered.
+Probably neither the Sothic nor any other era was employed by the
+ancient Egyptians, who dated solely by regnal years (see below). An
+inscription of Rameses II. at Tanis is dated in the 400th year of the
+reign of the god Seth of Ombos, probably with reference to some
+religious ordinance during the rule of the Seth-worshipping Hyksos;
+Rameses II. may well have celebrated its quater-centenary, but it is
+wrong to argue from this piece of evidence alone that an era of Seth was
+ever observed.
+
+From the Middle Kingdom onward to the Roman period, the dates upon
+Egyptian documents are given in regnal years. On the oldest monuments
+the years in a reign were not numbered consecutively but were named
+after events; thus in the Ist Dynasty we find "the year of smiting the
+Antiu-people," in the beginning of the IIIrd Dynasty "the year of
+fighting and smiting the people of Lower Egypt." But under the IInd
+Dynasty there was a census of property for taxation every two years, and
+the custom, continuing (with some irregularities) for a long time,
+offered a uniform mode of marking years, whether current or past. Thus
+such dates are met with as "the year of the third time of numbering" of
+a particular king, the next being designated as "the year after the
+third time of numbering." Under the Vth Dynasty this method was so much
+the rule that the words "of numbering" were commonly omitted. It would
+seem that in the course of the next dynasty the census became annual
+instead of biennial, so that the "times" agreed with the actual years of
+reign; thenceforward their consecutive designation as "first time,"
+"second time," for "first year," "second year," was as simple as it well
+could be, and lasted unchanged to the fall of paganism. The question
+arises from what point these regnal dates were calculated. Successive
+regnal years might begin (1) on the anniversary of the king's accession,
+or (2) on the calendrical beginning in each year (normally on the first
+day of the nominal First month of inundation, i.e. 1st Thoth in the
+later calendar). In the latter case there would be a further
+consideration: was the portion of a calendar year following the
+accession of the new king counted to the last year of the outgoing king,
+or to the first year of the new king? In Dynasties I., IV.-V., XVIII.
+there are instances of the first mode (1), in Dynasties II., VI. (?),
+XII., XXVI. and onwards they follow the second (2). It may be that the
+practice was not uniform in all documents even of the same age. In
+Ptolemaic times not only were Macedonian dates sometimes given in Greek
+documents, but there were certainly two native modes of dating current;
+down to the reign of Euergetes there was a "fiscal" dating in papyri,
+according to which the year began in Paophi, besides a civil dating
+probably from Thoth; later, all the dates in papyri start from Thoth.
+
+The Macedonian year is found in early Ptolemaic documents. The fixed
+year of the Canopic decree under Euergetes (with 1st Thoth on Oct. 22)
+was never adopted. Augustus established an "Alexandrian" era with the
+fixed Julian year, retaining the Egyptian months, with a sixth
+epagomenal day every fourth year. The capture of Alexandria having taken
+place on the 1st of August 30 B.C., the era began nominally in 30 B.C.,
+but it was not actually introduced till some years later, from which
+time the 1st Thoth corresponded with the 29th of August in the Julian
+year. The vague "Egyptian" year, however, continued in use in native
+documents for some centuries along with the Alexandrian "Ionian" year.
+The era of Diocletian dates from the 29th of August 284, the year of his
+reforms; later, however, the Christians called it the era of the Martyrs
+(though the persecution was not until 302), and it survived the Arab
+conquest. The dating by indictions, i.e. Roman tax-censuses, taking
+place every fifteenth year, probably originated in Egypt, in A.D. 312,
+the year of the defeat of Maxentius. The indictions began in Payni of
+the fixed year, when the harvest had been secured.
+
+  See F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
+  Chronologie_, Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1906), and the bibliography in the
+  following section.
+
+2. _Historical._[18]--As to absolute chronology, the assigning of a
+regnal year to a definite date B.C. is clear enough (except in
+occasional detail) from the conquest by Alexander onwards. Before that
+time, in spite of successive efforts to establish a chronology, the
+problem is very obscure. The materials for reconstructing the absolute
+chronology are of several kinds: (1) Regnal dates as given on
+contemporary monuments may indicate the _lengths of individual reigns_,
+but not with accuracy, as they seldom reach to the end of a reign and do
+not allow for co-regencies. Records of the time that has elapsed between
+two regnal dates in the reigns of different kings are very helpful; thus
+stelae from the Serapeum recording the ages of the Apis bulls with the
+dates of their birth and death have fixed the chronology of the XXVIth
+Dynasty. Traditional evidence for the lengths of reigns exists in the
+Turin Papyrus of kings and in Manetho's history; unfortunately the
+papyrus is very fragmentary and preserves few reign-lengths entire, and
+Manetho's evidence seems very untrustworthy, being known only from late
+excerpts. (2) The duration of a period may be calculated by
+_generations_ or the probable average lengths of reigns, but such
+calculations are of little value, and the succession of generations even
+when the evidence seems to be full is particularly difficult to
+ascertain in Egyptian, owing to adoptions and the repetition of the same
+name even in one family of brothers and sisters. (3) _Synchronisms_ in
+the histories of other countries furnish reliable dates--Greek, Persian,
+Babylonian and Biblical dates for the XXVIth Dynasty, Assyrian for the
+XXVth; less precise are the Biblical date of Rehoboam, contemporary with
+the invasion of Shishak (Sheshonk) in the XXIInd Dynasty, and the date
+of the Babylonian and Assyrian kings contemporary with Amenhotp IV. in
+the XVIIIth Dynasty. The last, about 1400 B.C., is the earliest point to
+which such coincidences reach. (4) _Astronomical data_, especially the
+heliacal risings of Sothis recorded by dates of their celebration in the
+vague year. These are easily calculated on the assumption first that the
+observations were correctly made, secondly that the calendrical dates
+are in the year of 365 days beginning on 1st Thoth, and thirdly that
+this year subsequently underwent no readjustment or other alteration
+before the reign of Euergetes. The assumption may be a reasonable one,
+and if the results agree with probabilities as deduced from the rest of
+the evidence it is wise to adopt it; if on the other hand the other
+evidence seems in any serious degree contrary to those results it may be
+surmised that the assumption is faulty in some particular. The harvest
+date referred to below helps to show that the first part of the
+assumption is justified.
+
+  +---------+---------------+--------+----------+------+--------+------+
+  |Dynasty. |  Meyer 1887   |Petrie  |  Meyer   |Sethe |Breasted|Petrie|
+  |         |(minimum date).|1894 &c.|1904-1908.|1905. |  1906. |1906. |
+  +---------+---------------+--------+----------+------+--------+------+
+  |      I. | }             |  4777  |  3315    | 3360 |  3400  | 5510 |
+  |     II. | }   3180      |  4514  |          | 3110 |        | 5247 |
+  |    III. | }             |  4212  |  2895    | 2810 |  2980  | 4945 |
+  |     IV. |     2830      |  3998  |  2840    | 2720 |  2900  | 4731 |
+  |      V. |               |  3721  |  2680    | 2630 |  2750  | 4454 |
+  |     VI. |     2530      |  3503  |  2540    | 2480 |  2625  | 4206 |
+  |    VII. |               |  3322  |          | 2300 |  2475  | 4003 |
+  |   VIII. |               |  3252  |          |      |        | 3933 |
+  |     IX. |               |  3106  |  2360    |      |  2445  | 3787 |
+  |      X. |               |  3006  |          |      |        | 3687 |
+  |     XI. |               |  2821  |  2160    | 2100 |  2160  | 3502 |
+  |    XII. |     2130      |  2778  |  2000    | 2000 |  2000  | 3459 |
+  |   XIII. |     1930      |  2565  |  1791    |      |  1788  | 3246 |
+  |    XIV. |               |  2112  |          |      |        | 2793 |
+  |     XV. |     1780      |        |  1680[*] |      |        | 2533 |
+  |    XVI. |               |  1928  |          |      |        | 2249 |
+  |   XVII. |               |  1738  |          |      |        | 1731 |
+  |  XVIII. |     1530      |  1587  |  1580    |      |  1580  | 1580 |
+  |    XIX. |     1320      |  1327  |  1321    |      |  1350  | 1323 |
+  +---------+---------------+--------+----------+------+--------+------+
+    [*] Meyer makes XIII. overlap XV. (Hyksos), and XIV. (Xoite),
+    contemporary with XVI. (Hyksos) and XVII. (Theban).
+
+The duration of the reigns in several dynasties is fairly well known
+from the incontrovertible evidence of contemporary monuments. The XXVIth
+Dynasty, which lasted 139 years, is particularly clear, and synchronisms
+fix its regnal dates to the years B.C. within an error of one or two
+years at most. The lengths of several reigns in the XIIth, XVIIIth and
+XIXth Dynasties are known, and the sum total for the XIIth Dynasty is
+preserved better than any other in the Turin Papyrus, which was written
+under the XIXth Dynasty. The succession and number of the kings are also
+ascertained for other dynasties, together with many regnal dates, but
+very serious gaps exist in the records of the Egyptian monuments, the
+worst being between the XIIth and the XVIIIth Dynasties, between the
+XIth and the VIth, and at Dynasties I.-III. For the chronology before
+the time of the XXVIth Dynasty Herodotus's history is quite worthless.
+Manetho alone of all authorities offers a complete chronology from the
+1st Dynasty to the XXXth. In the case of the six kings of the XXVIth
+Dynasty, Africanus, the best of his excerptors, gives correct figures
+for five reigns, but attributes six instead of sixteen years to Necho;
+the other excerptors have wrong numbers throughout. For the XIXth
+Dynasty Manetho's figures are wrong wherever we can check them; the
+names, too, are seriously faulty. In the XVIIIth Dynasty he has too many
+names and few are clearly identifiable, while the numbers are
+incomprehensible. In the XIIth Dynasty the number of the kings is
+correct and many of the names can be justified, but the reign-lengths
+are nearly, if not quite, all wrong. The summations of years for the
+Dynasties XII. and XVIII. are likewise wrong. It seems, therefore, that
+the known texts of Manetho, serviceable as they have been in the
+reconstruction of Egyptian history, cannot be employed as a serious
+guide to the early chronology, since they are faulty wherever we can
+check them, even in the XXVIth Dynasty whose kings were so celebrated
+among the Greeks. There remain the astronomical data. Of these, the
+Sothic date furnished by a calendar in the Ebers Papyrus of the 9th year
+of Amenophis I. (when interpreted on the assumption stated above), and
+another at Elephantine of an uncertain year of Tethmosis III., tally
+well with each other (1550-1546, 1474-1470 B.C.) and with the Babylonian
+synchronism (not yet accurately determined) under Amenhotp IV.
+(Akhenaton). Another Sothic date of the 7th year of Senwosri III. on a
+Berlin papyrus from Kahun, similarly interpreted (1882-1878 B.C.), gives
+for the XIIth Dynasty a range from 2000 to 1788 B.C. This (discovered by
+L. Borchardt in 1899) seems to offer a welcome ray, piercing the
+obscurity of early Egyptian chronology; guided by it the historian Ed.
+Meyer, and K. Sethe have framed systems of chronology in close agreement
+with each other, reaching back to the 1st Dynasty at about 3400 B.C. To
+Meyer is further due a calculation that the Egyptian calendar was
+introduced in 4241-4238 B.C.[19] Their results in general have been
+adopted by the "Berlin school," including Erman, Steindorff (in
+Baedeker's _Egypt_) and Breasted in America. Nevertheless many
+Egyptologists are unwilling to accept the new chronology, the chief
+obstacle being that it allows so short an interval for the six dynasties
+between the XIIth and the XVIIIth. If the XIIth Dynasty ended about 1790
+B.C. and the XVIIIth began about 1570 B.C., taking what seems to be the
+utmost interval that it permits, 220 years have to contain a crowd of
+kings of whom nearly 100 are already known by name from monuments and
+papyri, while fresh names are being added annually to the long list; the
+shattered fragments of the last columns in the Turin Papyrus show space
+for 150 or perhaps 180 kings of this period, apparently without reaching
+the XVIIth Dynasty. An estimate of 160 to 200 kings would therefore not
+be excessive. The dates that have come down to us are very few; the only
+ones known from the Hyksos period are of a 12th and a 33rd year. In the
+Turin Papyrus two reign-lengths of less than a year, seven others of
+less than five years each, one of ten years and one of thirteen seem
+attributable to the XIIIth and XIVth Dynasties. Probably most of the
+reigns were short, as Manetho also decidedly indicates. It is possible
+that the compiler of the Turin Papyrus, who excluded contemporary reigns
+in the period between the VIth and the XIIth Dynasties, here admitted
+such; nor is a correspondingly large number of kings in so short a
+period without analogies in history. Professor Petrie, however, thinks
+it best, while accepting the evidence of the Sirius date, to suppose
+further that a whole Sothic period of 1460 years had passed in the
+interval, making a total of 1650 years for the six dynasties in place of
+220 years. This, however, seems greatly in excess of probability, and
+several Egyptologists familiar with excavation are willing to accept
+Meyer's figures on archaeological grounds. To the present writer it
+seems that Meyer's chronology provides a convenient working theory, but
+involves such an improbability in regard to the interval between the
+XIIth and the XVIIIth Dynasties that the interpretation of the Sothic
+date on which it is founded must be viewed with suspicion until clear
+facts are found to corroborate it. Corroboration has been sought by
+Mahler, Sethe and Petrie in the dates of new moons, of warlike and other
+expeditions, and of high Nile, but their evidence so far is too vague
+and uncertain to affect the question seriously. It is remarkable that no
+records of eclipses are known from Egyptian documents. The interesting
+date of the harvest at El Bersha, quoted by Meyer in Breasted,
+_Records_, i. p. 48, confirms the Sothic date for the XIIth Dynasty in
+some measure, but it belongs to the same age, and therefore its evidence
+would be equally vitiated with the other by any subsequent alteration in
+the Egyptian calendar. Before the discovery of the Kahun Sothic date,
+Professor Petrie put the end of the XIIth Dynasty at 2565 B.C.; in 1884
+even Meyer had suggested 1930 B.C. as its _minimum_ date, thus allowing
+400 years at the least for the period from the XIIIth Dynasty to the
+XVIIth.
+
+  +----------+-----------+-------+------------+----------+---------+
+  | Dynasty. | Wiedemann | Meyer |   Petrie   | Breasted | Maspero |
+  |          |   1884.   | 1884. | 1905-1906. |   1906.  |  1904.  |
+  +----------+-----------+-------+------------+----------+---------+
+  |     XIX. |   1490    |  1320 |(1328), 1322|   1350   |         |
+  |      XX. |   1280    |  1180 |    1202    |   1200   |         |
+  |     XXI. |   1100    |  1060 |    1102    |   1090   |         |
+  |    XXII. |    975    |   930 |     952    |    945   |         |
+  |   XXIII. |    810    |       |     755    |    745   |         |
+  |    XXIV. |    720    |       |     721    |    718   |         |
+  |     XXV. |    715    |   728 |     715    |    712   |         |
+  |    XXVI. |    664    |   663 |     664    |    663   |         |
+  |   XXVII. |    525    |   525 |     525    |    525   |    425  |
+  |  XXVIII. |    415    |       |     405    |          | c. 405  |
+  |    XXIX. |    408    |       |     399    |          |    399  |
+  |     XXX. |    387    |       |     378    |          |    380  |
+  |   Ochus  |    350    |       |     342    |          |    342  |
+  +----------+-----------+-------+------------+----------+---------+
+
+Beyond the XIIth Dynasty estimates must again be vague. The spacing of
+the years on the Palermo stone has given rise to some calculations for
+the early dynasties. Others are grounded on the dates of certain
+operations which are likely to have taken place at particular seasons
+of the year so that they can be roughly calculated on the Sothic basis,
+others on Manetho's figures, average lengths of reigns, evidence of the
+Turin Papyrus, &c.
+
+Table I. page 79 shows the chronology of the first nineteen dynasties,
+according to recent authorities, before and after the discovery of the
+Kahun Sothic date.
+
+The dates of the earlier dynasties in this table are always intended to
+be only approximate; for instance, Meyer in 1904 allowed an error of 100
+years either of excess or deficiency in the dates he assigned to the
+dynasties from the Xth upwards.
+
+The other dynasties are dated as in Table II. by different authorities.
+
+  See Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, Bd. i. (Stuttgart, 1884),
+  _Geschichte des alten Ägyptens_ (1887), _Ägyptische Chronologie_
+  (_Abhandl._ of Prussian Academy) (Berlin, 1904, with the supplement
+  _Nachträge zur ägypt. Chronologie_, ib. 1907); K. Sethe, "Beiträge zur
+  ältesten Geschichte Ägyptens" (in his _Untersuchungen_, Bd. iii.)
+  (Leipzig, 1905); J. H. Breasted, _Ancient Records of Egypt_,
+  "Historical Documents," vol. i. (Chicago, 1906); W. M. F. Petrie, _A
+  History of Egypt_, vol. i. (London, 1884), vol. iii. (1905),
+  _Researches in Sinai_ (London, 1906); G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne
+  des peuples de l'orient_ (Paris, 1904); A. Wiedemann, _Ägyptische
+  Geschichte_ (Gotha, 1884); articles by Mahler and others in the
+  _Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache and Orientalistische
+  Literaturzeitung_ (recent years).     (F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+III. HISTORY
+
+1. _From the Earliest Times to the Moslem Conquest._
+
+In the absence of a strict chronology, the epochs of Pharaonic history
+are conveniently reckoned in dynasties according to Manetho's scheme,
+and these dynasties are grouped into longer periods:--the Old Kingdom
+(Dynasties I. to VIII.), including the Earliest Dynasties (I. to III.)
+and the Pyramid Period (Dynasties IV. to VI.); the Middle Kingdom
+(Dynasties IX. to XVII.), including the Heracleopolite Dynasties (IX. to
+X.) and the Hyksos Period (Dynasties XV. to XVII.); the New Empire
+(Dynasties XVIII. to XX.); the Deltaic Dynasties (Dynasties XXI. to
+XXXI.), including the Saite and Persian Periods (Dynasties XXVI. to
+XXXI.). The conquest by Alexander ushers in the Hellenistic age,
+comprising the periods of Ptolemaic and Roman rule.
+
+_The Prehistoric Age._--One of the most striking features of recent
+Egyptology is the way in which the earliest ages of the civilization,
+before the conventional Egyptian style was formed, have been illustrated
+by the results of excavation. Until 1895 there seemed little hope of
+reaching the records of those remote times, although it was plain that
+the civilization had developed in the Nile valley for many centuries
+before the IVth Dynasty, beyond which the earliest known monuments
+scarcely reached. Since that year, however, there has been a steady flow
+of discoveries in prehistoric and early historic cemeteries, and, partly
+in consequence of this, monuments already known, such as the annals of
+the Palermo stone, have been made articulate for the beginnings of
+history in Egypt.
+
+It is probable that certain rudely chipped flints, so-called eoliths, in
+the alluvial gravels (formed generally at the mouth of wadis opening on
+to the Nile) at Thebes and elsewhere, are the work of primitive man; but
+it has been shown that such are produced also by natural forces in the
+rush of torrents. On the surface of the desert, at the borders of the
+valley, palaeolithic implements of well-defined form are not uncommon,
+and bear the marks of a remote antiquity. In some cases they appear to
+lie where they were chipped on the sites of flint factories. Geologists
+and anthropologists are not yet agreed on the question whether the
+climate and condition of the country have undergone large changes since
+these implements were deposited. As yet none have been found in such
+association with animal remains as would help in deciding their age, nor
+have any implements been discovered in rock-shelters or in caves.
+
+Of neolithic remains, arrowheads and other implements are found in some
+numbers in the deserts. In the Fayum region, about the borders of the
+ancient Lake of Moeris and beyond, they are particularly abundant and
+interesting in their forms. But their age is uncertain; some may be
+contemporary with the advanced culture of the XIIth Dynasty in the Nile
+valley. Definite history on the other hand has been gained from the
+wonderful series of "prehistoric" cemeteries excavated by J. de Morgan,
+Petrie, Reisner and others on the desert edgings of the cultivated
+alluvium. The succession of archaeological types revealed in them has
+been tabulated by Petrie in his _Diospolis Parva_; and the detailed
+publication of Reisner's unusually careful researches is bringing much
+new light on the questions involved, amongst other things showing the
+exact point at which the "prehistoric" series merges into the Ist
+Dynasty, for, as might be surmised, in many cases the prehistoric
+cemeteries continued in use under the earliest dynasties. The finest
+pottery, often painted but all hand-made without the wheel, belongs to
+the prehistoric period; so also do the finest flint implements, which,
+in the delicacy and exactitude of their form and flaking, surpass all
+that is known from other countries. Metal seems to be entirely absent
+from the earliest type of graves, but immediately thereafter copper
+begins to appear (bronze is hardly to be found before the XIIth
+Dynasty). The paintings on the vases show boats driven by oars and sails
+rudely figured, and the boats bear emblematic standards or ensigns. The
+cemeteries are found throughout Upper and Middle Egypt, but as yet have
+not been met with in the Delta or on its borders. This might be
+accounted for by the inhabitants of Lower Egypt having practised a
+different mode of disposing of the dead, or by their cemeteries being
+differently placed.
+
+Tradition, mythology and later customs make it possible to recover a
+scrap of the political history of that far-off time. Menes, the founder
+of the Ist Dynasty, united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. In
+the prehistoric period, therefore, these two realms were separate. The
+capital of Upper Egypt was Nekheb, now represented by the ruins of El
+Kab, with the royal residence across the river at Nekhen
+(Hieraconpolis); that of Lower Egypt was at Buto (Puto or Dep) in the
+marshes, with the royal residence in the quarter called Pe. Nekhêbi,
+goddess of El Kab, represented the Upper or Southern Kingdom, which was
+also under the tutelage of the god Seth, the goddess Buto and the god
+Horus similarly presiding over the Lower Kingdom. The royal god in the
+palace of each was a hawk or Horus. The spirits of the deceased kings
+were honoured respectively as the jackal-headed spirits of Nekhen and
+the hawk-headed spirits of Pe. As we hear also of the "spirits of On" it
+is probable that Heliopolis was at one time capital of a kingdom. In
+after days the prehistoric kings were known as "Worshippers of Horus"
+and in Manetho's list they are the [Greek: nekues] "Dead," and [Greek:
+hêrôes] "Heroes," being looked upon as intermediate between the divine
+dynasties and those of human kings. It is impossible to estimate the
+duration of the period represented by the prehistoric cemeteries; that
+the two kingdoms existed throughout unchanged is hardly probable.
+
+According to the somatologist Elliott Smith, the most important change
+in the physical character of the people of Upper Egypt, in the entire
+range of Egyptian archaeology, took place at the beginning of the
+dynastic period; and he accounts for this by the mingling of the Lower
+with the Upper Egyptian population, consequent on the uniting of the two
+countries under one rule. From remains of the age of the IVth Dynasty he
+is able to define to some extent the type of the population of Lower
+Egypt as having a better cranial and muscular development than that of
+Upper Egypt, probably through immigration from Syria. The advent of the
+dynasties, however, produced a quickening rather than a dislocation in
+the development of civilization.
+
+It is doubtful whether we possess any writing of the prehistoric age. A
+few names of the kings of Lower Egypt are preserved in the first line of
+the Palermo stone, but no annals are attached to them. Petrie considers
+that one of the kings buried at Abydos, provisionally called Nar-mer and
+whose real name may be Mer or Beza, preceded Menes; of him there are
+several inscribed records, notably a magnificent carved and inscribed
+slate palette found at Hieraconpolis, with figures of the king and his
+vizier, war-standards and prisoners. To identify him with Bezau
+(Boethos) of the IInd Dynasty runs counter to much archaeological
+evidence. Sethe places him next after Menes and some would identify him
+with that king. Another inscribed palette may be pre-dynastic; it
+perhaps mentions a king named "Scorpion."
+
+
+  The earliest dynasties.
+
+_The Old Kingdom._--The names of a number of kings attributable to the
+Ist Dynasty are known from their tombs at Abydos. Unfortunately, they
+are almost exclusively Horus titles [HRG: tyw-O33], in place of the
+personal names by which they were recorded in the lists of Abydos and
+Manetho; some, however, of the latter are found, and prove that the
+scribes of the New Kingdom were unable to read them correctly. Important
+changes and improvements took place in the writing even during the Ist
+Dynasty. The personal name of Menes [HRG: mn] is given by one only of
+many relics of a king whose Horus-name was Aha, "the Fighter." Doubts
+have been expressed about the identification with Menes, but it is
+strongly corroborated by the very archaic style of the remains. The name
+of Aha (Menes) was found in two tombs, one at Nagada north of Thebes and
+nearly opposite the road to the Red Sea, the other at Abydos. Manetho
+makes the Ist Dynasty Thinite, this being the capital of the nome in
+which Abydos lay. Upper Egypt always had precedence over Lower Egypt,
+and it seems clear that Menes came from the former and conquered the
+latter. According to tradition he founded Memphis which lay on the
+frontier of his conquest; probably he resided there as well as at
+Abydos; at any rate relics of one of the later kings of the Ist Dynasty
+have already been recognized in its vast necropolis. Of the eight kings
+of the Ist Dynasty, three--the fifth, sixth and seventh in the Ramesside
+list of Abydos--are positively identified by tomb-remains from Abydos,
+and others are scarcely less certain. Two of the kings have also left
+tablets at the copper and turquoise mines of Wadi Maghara in Sinai. The
+royal tombs are built of brick, but one of them, that of Usaphais, had
+its floor of granite from Elephantine. They must have been filled with
+magnificent furniture and provisions of every kind, including annual
+record-tablets of the reigns, carved in ivory and ebony. From a fragment
+on the Palermo stone it is clear that material existed as late as the
+Vth Dynasty for a brief note of the height of the Nile and other
+particulars in each year of the reign of these kings.
+
+The IInd Dynasty of Manetho appears to have been separated from the Ist
+even on the Palermo stone; it also was Thinite, and the tombs of several
+of its nine (?) kings were found at Abydos. The IIIrd Dynasty is given
+as Memphite by Manetho. Two of the kings built huge mastaba-tombs at Bêt
+Khallaf near Abydos, but the architect and learned scribe Imhotp
+designed for one of these two kings, named Zoser, a second and mightier
+monument at Memphis, the great step-pyramid of Sakkara. In Ptolemaic
+times Imhotp was deified, and the traditional importance of Zoser is
+shown by a forged grant of the Dodecaschoenus to the cataract god Khnûm,
+purporting to be from his reign, but in reality dating from the
+Ptolemaic age. With Snefru, at the end of this dynasty, we reach the
+beginning of Egyptian history as it was known before the recent
+discoveries. Monuments and written records are henceforth more numerous
+and important, and the Palermo annals show a fuller scale of record. The
+events in the three years that are preserved include a successful raid
+upon the negroes, and the construction of ships and gates of cedar-wood
+which must have been brought from the forests of the Lebanon. Snefru
+also set up a tablet at Wadi Maghara in Sinai. He built two pyramids,
+one of them at Medum in steps, the other, probably in the perfected
+form, at Dahshur, both lying between Memphis and the Fayum.
+
+
+  The pyramid period.
+
+Pyramids did not cease to be built in Egypt till the New Kingdom; but
+from the end of the IIIrd to the VIth Dynasty is pre-eminently the time
+when the royal pyramid in stone was the chief monument left by each
+successive king. Zoser and Snefru have been already noticed. The
+personal name enclosed in a cartouche [HRG] is henceforth the commonest
+title of the king. We now reach the IVth Dynasty containing the famous
+names of Cheops (q.v.), Chephren (Khafrê) and Mycerinus (Menkeurê),
+builders respectively of the Great, the Second and the Third Pyramids of
+Giza. In the best art of this time there was a grandeur which was never
+again attained. Perhaps the noblest example of Egyptian sculpture in the
+round is a diorite statue of Chephren, one of several found by Mariette
+in the so-called Temple of the Sphinx. This "temple" proves to be a
+monumental gate at the lower end of the great causeway leading to the
+plateau on which the pyramids were built. A king Dedefrê, between Cheops
+and Chephren, built a pyramid at Abu-Roash. Shepseskaf is one of the
+last in the dynasty. Tablets of most of these kings have been found at
+the mines of Wadi Maghara. In the neighbourhood of the pyramids there
+are numerous mastabas of the court officials with fine sculpture in the
+chapels, and a few decorated tombs from the end of this centralized
+dynasty of absolute monarchs are known in Upper Egypt. A tablet which
+describes Cheops as the builder of various shrines about the Great
+Sphinx has been shown to be a priestly forgery, but the Sphinx itself
+may have been carved out of the rock under the splendid rule of the IVth
+Dynasty.
+
+The Vth Dynasty is said to be of Elephantine, but this must be a
+mistake. Its kings worshipped Re, the sun, rather than Horus, as their
+ancestor, and the title [HRG: zA-hrw] "son of the Sun" began to be
+written by them before the cartouche containing the personal name, while
+another "solar" cartouche, containing a name compounded with Re,
+followed the title [HRG: sw:t-bit:t] "king of Upper and Lower Egypt."
+Sahure and the other kings of the dynasty built magnificent temples with
+obelisks dedicated to Re, one of which, that of Neuserre at Abusir, has
+been thoroughly explored. The marvellous tales of the Westcar Papyrus,
+dating from the Middle Kingdom, narrate how three of the kings were born
+of a priestess of Re. The pyramids of several of the kings are known.
+The early ones are at Abusir, and the best preserved of the pyramid
+temples, that of Sahure, excavated by the German Orient-Gesellschaft, in
+its architecture and sculptured scenes has revealed an astonishingly
+complete development of art and architecture as well as of warlike
+enterprise by sea and land at this remote period; the latest pyramid
+belonging to the Vth Dynasty, that of Unas at Sakkara, is inscribed with
+long ritual and magical texts. Exquisitely sculptured tombs of this time
+are very numerous at Memphis and are found throughout Upper Egypt. Of
+work in the traditional temples of the country no trace remains,
+probably because, being in limestone, it has all perished. The annals of
+the Palermo stone were engraved and added to during this dynasty; the
+chief events recorded for the time are gifts and endowments for the
+temples. Evidently priestly influence was strong at the court.
+Expeditions to Sinai and Puoni (Punt) are commemorated on tablets.
+
+The VIth Dynasty if not more vigorous was more articulate; inscribed
+tombs are spread throughout the country. The most active of its kings
+was the third, named Pepi or Phiops, from whose pyramid at Sakkara the
+capital, hitherto known as "White Walls," derived its later name of
+Memphis (MN-NFR, Mempi); a tombstone from Abydos celebrates the activity
+of a certain Una during the reigns of Pepi and his successor in
+organizing expeditions to the Sinai peninsula and south Palestine, and
+in transporting granite from Elephantine and other quarries. Herkhuf,
+prince of Elephantine and an enterprising leader of caravans to the
+south countries both in Nubia and the Libyan oases, flourished under
+Merenre and Pepi II. called Neferkere. On one occasion he brought home a
+dwarf dancer from the Sudan, described as being like one brought from
+Puoni in the time of the fifth-dynasty king Assa; this drew from the
+youthful Pepi II. an enthusiastic letter which was engraved in full upon
+the façade of Herkhuf's tomb. The reign of the last-named king, begun
+early, lasted over ninety years, a fact so long remembered that even
+Manetho attributes to him ninety-four years; its length probably caused
+the ruin of the dynasty. The local princelings and monarchs had been
+growing in culture, wealth and power, and after Pepi II. an ominous gap
+in the monuments, pointing to civil war, marks the end of the Old
+Kingdom. The VIIth and VIIIth Dynasties are said to have been Memphite,
+but of them no record survives beyond some names of kings in the lists.
+
+
+  Heracleopolite period.
+
+_The Middle Kingdom._--The long Memphite rule was broken by the IXth and
+Xth Dynasties, of Heracleopolis Magna (Hês) in Middle Egypt. Kheti or
+Achthoës was apparently a favourite name with the kings, but they are
+very obscure. They may have spread their rule by conquest over Upper
+Egypt and then overthrown the Memphite dynasty. The chief monuments of
+the period are certain inscribed tombs at Assiut; it appears that one of
+the kings, whose praenomen was Mikerê, supported by a fleet and army
+from Upper Egypt, and especially by the prince of Assiut, was restored
+to his paternal city of Heracleopolis, from which he had probably been
+driven out; his pyramid, however, was built in the old royal necropolis
+at Memphis. Later the princes of Thebes asserted their independence and
+founded the XIth Dynasty, which pushed its frontiers northwards until
+finally it occupied the whole country. Its kings were named Menthotp,
+from Mont, one of the gods of Thebes; others, perhaps sub-kings, were
+named Enyotf (Antef). They were buried at Thebes, whence the coffins of
+several were obtained by the early collectors of the 19th century.
+Nibhôtp Menthotp I. probably established his rule over all Egypt. The
+funerary temple of Nebheprê Menthotp III., the last but one of these
+kings, has been excavated by the Egypt Exploration Fund at Deir el
+Bahri, and must have been a magnificent monument. His successor
+Sankhkerê Menthotp IV. is known to have sent an expedition by the Red
+Sea to Puoni.
+
+The XIIth Dynasty is the central point of the Middle Kingdom, to which
+the decline of the Memphite and the rise of the Heracleopolite dynasty
+mark the transition, while the growth of Thebes under the XIth Dynasty
+is its true starting-point. Monuments of the XIIth Dynasty are abundant
+and often of splendid design and workmanship, whereas previously there
+had been little produced since the VIth Dynasty that was not half
+barbarous. Although not much of the history of the XIIth Dynasty is
+ascertained, the Turin Papyrus and many dated inscriptions fix the
+succession and length of reign of the eight kings very accurately. The
+troubled times that the kingdom had passed through taught the long-lived
+monarchs the precaution of associating a competent successor on the
+throne. The nomarchs and the other feudal chiefs were inclined to
+strengthen themselves at the expense of their neighbours; a firm hand
+was required to hold them in check and distribute the honours as they
+were earned by faithful service. The tombs of the most favoured and
+wealthy princes are magnificent, particularly those of certain families
+in Middle Egypt at Beni Hasan, El Bersha, Assiut and Deir Rifa, and it
+is probable that each had a court and organization within his nome like
+that of the royal palace in miniature. Eventually, in the reigns of
+Senwosri III. and Amenemhê III., the succession of strong kings appears
+to have centralized all authority very completely. The names in the
+dynasty are Amenemhê (Ammenemes) and Senwosri (formerly read Usertesen
+or Senusert). The latter seems to be the origin of the Sesostris (q.v.)
+and Sesoosis of the legends. Amenemhê I., the first king, whose
+connexion with the previous dynasty is not known, reigned for thirty
+years, ten of them being in partnership with his son Senwosri I. He had
+to fight for his throne and then reorganize the country, removing his
+capital or residence from Thebes to a central situation near Lisht about
+25 m. south of Memphis. His monuments are widespread in Egypt, the
+quarries and mines in the desert as far as Sinai bear witness to his
+great activity, and we know of an expedition which he made against the
+Nubians. The "Instructions of Amenemhê to his son Senwosri," whether
+really his own or a later composition, refer to these things, to his
+care for his subjects, and to the ingratitude with which he was
+rewarded, an attempt on his life having been made by the trusted
+servants in his own palace. The story of Sinûhi is the true or realistic
+history of a soldier who, having overheard the secret intelligence of
+Amenemhê's death, fled in fear to Palestine or Syria and there became
+rich in the favour of the prince of the land; growing old, however, he
+successfully sued for pardon from Senwosri and permission to return and
+die in Egypt.
+
+Senwosri I. was already the executive partner in the time of the
+co-regency, warring with the Libyans and probably in the Sudan. After
+Amenemhê's death he fully upheld the greatness of the dynasty in his
+long reign of forty-five years. The obelisk of Heliopolis is amongst his
+best-known monuments, and the damming of the Lake of Moeris (q.v.) must
+have been in progress in his reign. He built a temple far up the Nile at
+Wadi Halfa and there set up a stela commemorating his victories over the
+tribes of Nubia. The fine tombs of Ameni at Beni Hasan and of Hepzefa at
+Assiut belong to his reign. The pyramids of both father and son are at
+Lisht.
+
+Amenemhê II. was buried at Dahshur; he was followed by Senwosri II.,
+whose pyramid is at Illahun at the mouth of the Fayum. In his reign were
+executed the fine paintings in the tomb of Khnemhotp at Beni Hasan,
+which include a remarkable scene of Semitic Bedouins bringing eye-paint
+to Egypt from the eastern deserts. In Manetho he is identified with
+Sesostris (see above), but Senwosri I., and still more Senwosri III.,
+have a better claim to this distinction. The latter warred in Palestine
+and in Nubia, and marked the south frontier of his kingdom by a statue
+and stelae at Semna beyond the Second Cataract. Near his pyramid was
+discovered the splendid jewelry of some princesses of his family (see
+JEWELRY ad init.). The tomb of Thethotp at El Bersha, celebrated for the
+scene of the transport of a colossus amongst its paintings, was finished
+in this reign.
+
+Amenemhê III. completed the work of Lake Moeris and began a series of
+observations of the height of the inundation at Semna which was
+continued by his successors. In his long reign of forty-six years he
+built a pyramid at Dahshur, and at Hawara near the Lake of Moeris
+another pyramid together with the Labyrinth which seems to have been an
+enormous funerary temple attached to the pyramid. His name was
+remembered in the Fayum during the Graeco-Roman period and his effigy
+worshipped there as Pera-marres, i.e. Pharaoh Marres (Marres being his
+praenomen graecized). Amenemhê IV.'s reign was short, and the dynasty
+ended with a queen Sebeknefru (Scemiophris), whose name is found in the
+scanty remains of the Labyrinth. The XIIth Dynasty numbered eight rulers
+and lasted for 213 years. Great as it was, it created no empire outside
+the Nile valley, and its most imposing monument, which according to the
+testimony of the ancients rivalled the pyramids, is now represented by a
+vast stratum of chips.
+
+The history of the following period down to the rise of the New Empire
+is very obscure. Manetho gives us the XIIIth (Diospolite) Dynasty, the
+XIVth (Xoite from Xois in Lower Egypt), the XVth and XVIth (Hyksos) and
+the XVIIth (Diospolite), but his names are lost except for the Hyksos
+kings. The Abydos tablet ignores all between the XIIth and XVIIIth
+Dynasties. The Turin Papyrus preserves many names on its shattered
+fragments, and the monuments are for ever adding to the list, but it is
+difficult to assign them accurately to their places. The Hyksos names
+can in some cases be recognized by their foreign aspect, the peculiar
+style of the scarabs on which they are engraved or by resemblances to
+those recorded in Manetho. The kings of the XVIIth Dynasty too are
+generally recognizable by the form of their name and other
+circumstances. Manetho indicates marvellous crowding for the XIIIth and
+XIVth Dynasties, but it seems better to suggest a total duration of 300
+or 400 years for the whole period than to adopt Meyer's estimate of
+about 210 years (see above, Chronology).
+
+Amongst the kings of the XIIIth Dynasty (including perhaps the XIVth),
+not a few are represented by granite statues of colossal size and fine
+workmanship, especially at Thebes and Tanis, some by architectural
+fragments, some by graffiti on the rocks about the First Cataract. Some
+few certainly reigned over all Egypt. Sebkhotp (Sekhotp, [Greek:
+Sochôtês]) is a favourite name, no doubt to be connected with the god of
+the Fayum. Several of the Theban kings named Antef (Enyotf) must be
+placed here rather than in the XIth Dynasty. A decree of one of them
+degrading a monarch who had sided with his enemies was found at Coptos
+engraved on a doorway of Senwosri I.
+
+
+  The Hyksos period.
+
+In its divided state Egypt would fall an easy prey to the foreigner.
+Manetho says that the Hyksos (q.v.) gained Egypt without a blow. Their
+domination must have lasted a considerable time, the Rhind mathematical
+papyrus having been copied in the thirty-third year of a king Apophis.
+The monuments and scarabs of the Hyksos kings are found throughout Upper
+and Lower Egypt; those of Khian somehow spread as far as Crete and
+Bagdad. The Hyksos, in whom Josephus recognized the children of Israel,
+worshipped their own Syrian deity, identifying him with the Egyptian god
+Seth, and endeavoured to establish his cult throughout Egypt to the
+detriment of the native gods. It is to be hoped that definite light may
+one day be forthcoming on the whole of this critical episode which had
+such a profound effect on the character and history of the Egyptian
+people. The spirited overthrow of the Hyksos ushered in the glories in
+arms and arts which marked the New Empire. The XVIIth Dynasty probably
+began the struggle, at first as semi-independent kinglets at Thebes.
+Seqenenrê is here a leading name; the mummy of the third Seqenenrê, the
+earliest in the great find of royal mummies at Deir el Bahri, shows the
+head frightfully hacked and split, perhaps in a battle with the Hyksos.
+
+
+  XVIIIth Dynasty.
+
+  Queen Hatshepsut.
+
+_The New Empire._--The epithet "new" is generally attached to this
+period, and "empire" instead of "kingdom" marks its wider power. The
+glorious XVIIIth Dynasty seems to have been closely related to the
+XVIIth. Its first task was to crush the Hyksos power in the north-east
+of the Delta; this was fully accomplished by its founder Ahmosi
+(dialectically Ahmasi, Amosis or Amasis I.) capturing their great
+stronghold of Avaris. Amasis next attacked them in S.W. Palestine, where
+he captured Sharuhen after a siege of three years. He fought also in
+Syria and in Nubia, besides overcoming factious opposition in his own
+land. The principal source for the history of this time is the
+biographical inscription at El Kab of a namesake of the king, Ahmosi son
+of Abana, a sailor and warrior whose exploits extend to the reign of
+Tethmosis I. Amenophis I. (Amenhotp), succeeding Amasis, fought in Libya
+and Ethiopia. Tethmosis I. (c. 1540 B.C.) was perhaps of another family,
+but obtained his title to the throne through his wife Ahmosi. After some
+thirty years of settled rule uninterrupted by revolt, Egypt was now
+strong and rich enough to indulge to the full its new taste for war and
+lust of conquest. It had become essentially a military state. The whole
+of the administration was in the hands of the king with his vizier and
+other court officials; no trace of the feudalism of the Middle Kingdom
+survived. Tethmosis thoroughly subdued Cush, which had already been
+placed under the government of a viceroy. This province of Cush extended
+from Napata just below the Fourth Cataract on the south to El Kab in the
+north, so that it included the first three nomes of Upper Egypt, which
+agriculturally were not greatly superior to Nubia. Turning next to
+Syria, Tethmosis carried his arms as far as the Euphrates. It is
+possible that his predecessor had also reached this point, but no record
+survives to prove it. These successful campaigns were probably not very
+costly, and prisoners, plunder and tribute poured in from them to enrich
+Egypt. Tethmosis I. made the first of those great additions to the
+temple of the Theban Ammon at Karnak by which the Pharaohs of the Empire
+rendered it by far the greatest of the existing temples in the world.
+The temple of Deir el Bahri also was designed by him. Towards the end of
+his reign, his elder sons being dead, Tethmosis associated Hatshepsut,
+his daughter by Ahmosi, with himself upon the throne. Tethmosis I. was
+the first of the long line of kings to be buried in the Valley of the
+Tombs of the Kings of Thebes. At his death another son Tethmosis II.
+succeeded as the husband of his half-sister, but reigned only two or
+three years, during which he warred in Nubia and placed Tethmosis III.,
+his son by a concubine Esi, upon the throne beside him (c. 1500 B.C.).
+After her husband's death the ambitious Hatshepsut assumed the full
+regal power; upon her monuments she wears the masculine garb and aspect
+of a king though the feminine gender is retained for her in the
+inscriptions. On some monuments of this period her name appears alone,
+on others in conjunction with that of Tethmosis III., while the latter
+again may appear without the queen's; but this extraordinary woman must
+have had a great influence over her stepson and was the acknowledged
+ruler of Egypt. Tethmosis, to judge by the evidence of his mummy and the
+chronology of his reign, was already a grown man, yet no sign of the
+immense powers which he displayed later has come down to us from the
+joint reign. Hatshepsut cultivated the arts of peace. She restored the
+worship in those temples of Upper and Lower Egypt which had not yet
+recovered from the religious oppression and neglect of the Hyksos. She
+completed and decorated the temple of Deir el Bahri, embellishing its
+walls with scenes calculated to establish her claims, representing her
+divine origin and upbringing under the protection of Ammon, and her
+association on the throne by her human father. The famous sculptures of
+the great expedition by water to Puoni, the land of incense on the
+Somali coast, are also here, with many others. At Karnak Hatshepsut
+laboured chiefly to complete the works projected in the reigns of
+Tethmosis I. and II., and set up two obelisks in front of the entrance
+as it then was. One of these, still standing, is the most brilliant
+ornament of that wonderful temple. A date of the twenty-second year of
+her reign has been found at Sinai, no doubt counted from the beginning
+of the co-regency with Tethmosis I. Not much later, in his twenty-second
+year, Tethmosis III. is reigning alone in full vigour. While she lived,
+the personality of the queen secured the devotion of her servants and
+held all ambitions in check. Not long after her death there was a
+violent reaction. Prejudice against the rule of a woman, particularly
+one who had made her name and figure so conspicuous, was probably the
+cause of this outbreak, and perhaps sought justification in the fact
+that, however complete was her right, she had in some degree usurped a
+place to which her stepson (who was also her nephew) had been appointed.
+Her cartouches began to be defaced or her monuments hidden up by other
+buildings, and the same rage pursued some of her most faithful servants
+in their tombs. But the beauty of the work seems to have restrained the
+hand of the destroyer. Then came the religious fanaticism of Akhenaton,
+mutilating all figures of Ammon and all inscriptions containing his
+name; this made havoc of the exquisite monuments of Hatshepsut; and the
+restorers of the XIXth Dynasty, refusing to recognize the legitimacy of
+the queen, had no scruples in replacing her names by those of the
+associate kings Tethmosis I., II. or III. These acts of vandalism took
+place throughout Egypt, but in the distant mines of Sinai the cartouches
+of Hatshepsut are untouched. In the royal lists of Seti I. and Rameses
+II. Hatshepsut has no place, nor is her reign referred to on any later
+monument.[20]
+
+
+  Wars of Tethmosis III.
+
+The immense energy of Tethmosis III. now found its outlet in war. Syria
+had revolted, perhaps on Hatshepsut's death, but by his twenty-second
+year the monarch was ready to lead his army against the rebels. The
+revolt, headed by the city of Kadesh on the Orontes, embraced the whole
+of western Syria. The movements of Tethmosis in this first campaign,
+including a battle with the Syrian chariots and infantry at Megiddo and
+the capture of that city, were chronicled from day to day, and an
+extract from this chronicle is engraved on the walls of the sanctuary of
+Karnak, together with a brief record of the subsequent expeditions. In a
+series of five carefully planned campaigns he consolidated his
+conquests in southern Syria and secured the ports of Phoenicia (q.v.).
+Kadesh fell in the sixth campaign. In the next year Tethmosis revisited
+the Phoenician ports, chastised the rebellious and received the tribute
+of Syria, all the while preparing for further advance, which did not
+take place until another year had gone by. Then, in the thirty-third
+year of his reign, he marched through Kadesh, fought his way to
+Carchemish, defeated the forces that opposed him there and crossed over
+the Euphrates into the territory of the king of Mitanni. He set up a
+tablet by the side of that of Tethmosis I. and turned southward,
+following the river as far as Niy. Here he stayed to hunt a herd of 120
+elephants, and then, marching westwards, received the tribute of
+Naharina and gifts from the Hittites in Asia Minor and from the king of
+Babylon. In all he fought seventeen campaigns in Syria until the spirit
+of revolt was entirely crushed in a second capture of Kadesh. The wars
+in Libya and Ethiopia were of less moment. In the intervals of war
+Tethmosis III. proved to be a wonderfully efficient administrator, with
+his eye on every corner of his dominions. The Syrian expeditions
+occupied six months in most of his best years, but the remaining time
+was spent in activity at home, repressing robbery and injustice,
+rebuilding and adorning temples with the labour of his captives and the
+plunder and tribute of conquered cities, or designing with his own hand
+the gorgeous sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Ammon. In his later
+years some expeditions took place into Nubia. Tethmosis died in the
+fifty-fourth year of his reign. His mummy, found in the _cachette_ at
+Deir el Bahri, is said to be that of a very old man. He was the greatest
+Pharaoh in the New Empire, if not in all Egyptian history.
+
+
+  Amenophis III.
+
+Tethmosis III. was succeeded by his son Amenophis II., whom he had
+associated on the throne at the end of his reign. One of the first acts
+of the new king was to lead an army into Syria, where revolt was again
+rife; he reached and perhaps crossed the Euphrates and returned home to
+Thebes with seven captive kings of Tikhsi and much spoil. The kings he
+sacrificed to Ammon and hanged six bodies on the walls, while the
+seventh was carried south to Napata and there exposed as a terror to the
+Ethiopians. Amenophis reigned twenty-six years and left his throne to
+his son Tethmosis IV., who is best remembered by a granite tablet
+recording his clearance of the Great Sphinx. He also warred in northern
+Syria and in Cush. His son Amenophis III., c. 1400 B.C., was a mighty
+builder, especially at Thebes, where his reign marks a new epoch in the
+history of the great temples, Luxor being his creation, while avenues of
+rams, pylons, &c., were added on a vast scale to Karnak. He married a
+certain Taia, who, though apparently of humble parentage, was held in
+great honour by her husband as afterwards by her son. Amenophis III.
+warred in Ethiopia, but his sway was long unquestioned from Napata to
+the Euphrates. Small objects with his name and that of Taia are found on
+the mainland and in the islands of Greece. Through the fortunate
+discovery of cuneiform tablets deposited by his successor in the
+archives at Tell el-Amarna, we can see how the rulers of the great
+kingdoms beyond the river, Mitanni, Assyria and even Babylonia,
+corresponded with Amenophis, gave their daughters to him in marriage,
+and congratulated themselves on having his friendship. The king of
+Cyprus too courted him; while within the empire the descendants of the
+Syrian dynasts conquered by his father, having been educated in Egypt,
+ruled their paternal possessions as the abject slaves of Pharaoh. A
+constant stream of tribute poured into Egypt, sufficient to defray the
+cost of all the splendid works that were executed. Amenophis caused a
+series of large scarabs unique in their kind to be engraved with the
+name and parentage of his queen Taia, followed by varying texts
+commemorating like medals the boundaries of his kingdom, his secondary
+marriage with Gilukhipa, daughter of the king of Mitanni, the formation
+of a sacred lake at Thebes, a great hunt of wild cattle, and the number
+of lions the king slew in the first ten years of his reign. The colossi
+known to the Greeks by the name of the Homeric hero Memnon, which look
+over the western plain of Thebes, represent this king and were placed
+before the entrance of his funerary temple, the rest of which has
+disappeared. His palace lay farther south on the west bank, built of
+crude brick covered with painted stucco. Towards the end of his reign of
+thirty-six years, Syria was invaded by the Hittites from the north and
+the people called the Khabiri from the eastern desert; some of the
+kinglets conspired with the invaders to overthrow the Egyptian power,
+while those who remained loyal sent alarming reports to their sovereign.
+
+
+  Amenophis IV.
+
+Amenophis IV., son of Amenophis III. and Taia, was perhaps the most
+remarkable character in the long line of the Pharaohs. He was a
+religious fanatic, who had probably been high priest of the sun-god at
+Heliopolis, and had come to view the sun as the visible source of life,
+creation, growth and activity, whose power was demonstrated in foreign
+lands almost as clearly as in Egypt. Thrusting aside all the
+multitudinous deities of Egypt and all the mythology even of Heliopolis,
+he devoted himself to the cult of the visible sun-disk, applying to it
+as its chief name the hitherto rare word Aton, meaning "sun"; the
+traditional divine name Harakht (Horus of the horizon), given to the
+hawk-headed sun-god of Heliopolis, was however allowed to subsist and a
+temple was built at Karnak to this god. The worship of the other gods
+was officially recognized until his fifth year, but then a sweeping
+reform was initiated by which apparently the new cult alone was
+permitted. Of the old deities Ammon represented by far the wealthiest
+and most powerful interests, and against this long favoured deity the
+Pharaoh hurled himself with fury. He changed his own name from Amenhotp,
+"Ammon is satisfied," to Akhenaton, "pious to Aton," erased the name and
+figure of Ammon from the monuments, even where it occurred as part of
+his own father's name, abandoned Thebes, the magnificent city of Ammon,
+and built a new capital at El Amarna in the plain of Hermopolis, on a
+virgin site upon the edge of the desert. This with a large area around
+he dedicated to Aton in the sixth year, while splendid temples, palaces,
+houses and tombs for his god, for himself and for his courtiers were
+rising around him; apparently also this "son of Aton" swore an oath
+never to pass beyond the boundaries of Aton's special domain. There are
+signs also that the polytheistic word "gods" was obliterated on many of
+the monuments, but other divine names, though almost entirely excluded
+from Akhenaton's work, were left untouched where they already existed.
+In all local temples the worship of Aton was instituted. The confiscated
+revenues of Ammon and the tribute from Syria and Cush provided ample
+means for adorning Ekhaton (Akhetaton), "the horizon of Aton," the new
+capital, and for richly rewarding those who adopted the Aton teaching
+fervently. But meanwhile the political needs of the empire were
+neglected; the dangers which threatened it at the end of the reign of
+Amenophis III. were never properly met; the dynasts in Syria were at war
+amongst themselves, intriguing with the great Hittite advance and with
+the Khabiri invaders. Those who relied on Pharaoh and remained loyal as
+their fathers had done sent letter after letter appealing for aid
+against their foes. But though a general was despatched with some
+troops, he seems to have done more harm than good in misjudging the
+quarrels. At length the tone of the letters becomes one of despair, in
+which flight to Egypt appears the only resource left for the adherents
+of the Egyptian cause. Before the end of the reign Egyptian rule in
+Syria had probably ceased altogether. Akhenaton died in or about the
+seventeenth year of his reign, c. 1350 B.C. He had a family of
+daughters, who appeared constantly with him in all ceremonies, but no
+son. Two sons-in-law followed him with brief reigns; but the second,
+Tutenkhaton, soon changed his name to Tutenkhamûn, and, without
+abandoning Ekhaton entirely, began to restore to Karnak its ancient
+splendour, with new monuments dedicated to Ammon. Akhenaton's reform had
+not reached deep amongst the masses of the population; they probably
+retained all their old religious customs and superstitions, while the
+priesthoods throughout the country must have been fiercely opposed to
+the heretic's work, even if silenced during his lifetime by force and
+bribes. One more adherent of his named Ay, a priest, ruled for a short
+time, but now Aton was only one of many gods. At length a general named
+Harmahib, who had served under Akhenaton, came to the throne as a
+whole-hearted supporter of the old religion; soon Aton and his royal
+following suffered the fate that they had imposed upon Ammon; their
+monuments were destroyed and their names and figures erased, while those
+of Ammon were restored. From the time of Rameses II. onwards the years
+of the reigns of the heretics were counted to Harmahib, and Akhenaton
+was described as "that criminal of Akhetaton." Harmahib had to bring
+order as a practical man into the long-neglected administration of the
+country and to suppress the extortions of the official classes by severe
+measures. His laws to this end were engraved on a great stela in the
+temple of Karnak, of which sufficient remains to bear witness to his
+high aims, while the prosperity of the succeeding reigns shows how well
+he realized the necessities of the state. He probably began also to
+re-establish the prestige of Egypt by military expeditions in the
+surrounding countries.
+
+
+  XIXth Dynasty.
+
+  Rameses II.
+
+Harmahib appears to have legitimated his rule by marriage to a royal
+princess, but it is probable that Rameses I., who succeeded as founder
+of the XIXth Dynasty, was not closely related to him. Rameses in his
+brief reign of two years planned and began the great colonnaded hall of
+Karnak, proving that he was a man of great ideas, though probably too
+old to carry them out; this task he left to his son Seti I., who reigned
+one year with his father and on the latter's death was ready at once to
+subdue the Bedouin Shasu, who had invaded Palestine and withheld all
+tribute. This task was quickly accomplished and Seti pushed onward to
+the Lebanon. Here cedars were felled for him by the Syrian princes, and
+the Phoenicians paid homage before he returned home in triumph. The
+Libyans had also to be dealt with, and afterwards Seti advanced again
+through Palestine, ravaged the land of the Amorites and came into
+conflict with the Hittites. The latter, however, were now firmly
+established in the Orontes valley, and a treaty with Mutallu, the king
+of Kheta, reigning far away in Cappadocia, probably ended the wars of
+Seti. In his ninth year he turned his attention to the gold mines in the
+eastern desert of Nubia and improved the road thither. Meanwhile the
+great work at Karnak projected by his father was going forward, and
+throughout Egypt the injuries done to the monuments by Akhenaton were
+thoroughly repaired; the erased inscriptions and figures were restored,
+not without many blunders. Seti's temple at Abydos and his galleried
+tomb in the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings stand out as the most
+splendid examples of their kind in design and in decoration. Rameses II.
+succeeded at an early age and reigned sixty-seven years, during which he
+finished much that was begun by Seti and filled all Egypt and Nubia with
+his own monuments, some of them beautiful, but most, necessarily
+entrusted to inferior workmen, of coarse execution. The excavation of
+the rock temple of Abu Simbel and the completion of the great hall of
+Karnak were his greatest achievements in architecture. His wars began in
+his second year, their field comprising the Nubians, the Libyans, the
+Syrians and the Hittites. In his fifth year, near Kadesh on the Orontes,
+his army was caught unprepared and divided by a strong force of chariots
+of the Hittites and their allies, and Rameses himself was placed in the
+most imminent danger; but through his personal courage the enemy was
+kept at bay till reinforcements came up and turned the disaster into a
+victory. The incidents of this episode were a favourite subject in the
+sculptures of his temples, where their representation was accompanied by
+a poetical version of the affair and other explanatory inscriptions.
+Kadesh, however, was not captured, and after further contests, in his
+twenty-first year Rameses and the Hittite king Khattusil (Kheta-sar)
+made peace, with a defensive alliance against foreign aggression and
+internal revolt (see HITTITES). Thanks to Winckler's discoveries, the
+cuneiform text of this treaty from Boghaz Keui can now be compared with
+the hieroglyphic text at Karnak. In the thirty-fourth year, c. 1250
+B.C., Khattusil with his friend or subject the king of Kode came from
+his distant capital to see the wonders of Egypt in person, bringing one
+of his daughters to be wife of the splendid Pharaoh. Rameses II. paid
+much attention to the Delta, which had been neglected until the days of
+Seti I., and resided there constantly; the temple of Tanis must have
+been greatly enlarged and adorned by him; a colossus of the king placed
+here was over 90 ft. in height, exceeding in scale even the greatest of
+the Theban colossi which he had erected in his mortuary temple of the
+Ramesseum. Towards the end of the long reign the vigilance and energy of
+the old king diminished. The military spirit awakened in the struggle
+with the Hyksos had again departed from the Egyptian nation; mercenaries
+from the Sudan, from Libya and from the northern nations supplied the
+armies, while foreigners settled in the rich lands of the Delta and
+harried the coasts. It was a time too when the movements of the nations
+that so frequently occurred in the ancient world were about to be
+particularly active. Mineptah, c. 1225 B.C., succeeding his father
+Rameses II., had to fight many battles for the preservation of his
+kingdom and empire. Apparently most of the fighting was finished by the
+fifth year of his reign; in his mortuary temple at Thebes he set up a
+stela of that date recording a great victory over the Libyan immigrants
+and invaders, which rendered the much harried land of Egypt safe. The
+last lines picture this condition with the crushing of the surrounding
+tribes. Libya was wasted, the Hittites pacified, Canaan, Ashkelon
+(Ascalon), Gezer, Yenoam sacked and plundered: "Israel is desolated, his
+seed is not, Khor (Palestine) has become a widow (without protector) for
+Egypt." The Libyans are accompanied by allies whose names, Sherden,
+Shekelesh, Ekwesh, Lukku, Teresh, suggest identifications with
+Sardinians, Sicels, Achaeans, Lycians and Tyrseni or Etruscans. The
+Sherden had been in the armies of Rameses II., and are distinguished by
+their remarkable helmets and apparently body armour of metal. The Lukku
+are certainly the same as the Lycians. Probably they were all sea-rovers
+from the shores and islands of the Mediterranean, who were willing to
+leave their ships and join the Libyans in raids on the rich lands of
+Egypt. Mineptah was one of the most unconscionable usurpers of the
+monuments of his predecessors, including those of his own father, who,
+it must be admitted, had set him the example. The coarse cutting of his
+cartouches contrasts with the splendid finish of the Middle Kingdom work
+which they disfigure. It may be questioned whether it was due to a wave
+of enthusiasm amongst the priests and people, leading them to rededicate
+the monuments in the name of their deliverer, or a somewhat insane
+desire of the king to perpetuate his own memory in a singularly
+unfortunate manner. Mineptah, the thirteenth son in the huge family of
+Rameses, must have been old when he ascended the throne; after his first
+years of reign his energies gave way, and he was followed by a quick
+succession of inglorious rulers, Seti II., the queen Tuosri, Amenmesse,
+Siptah; the names of the last two were erased from their monuments.
+
+
+  XXth Dynasty.
+
+A great papyrus written after the death of Rameses III. and recording his
+gifts to the temples briefly reviews the conditions of these troublous
+times. "The land of Egypt was in the hands of chiefs and rulers of towns,
+great and small slaying each other; afterwards a certain Syrian made
+himself chief; he made the whole land tributary before him; he united his
+companions and plundered their property (i.e. of the other chiefs). They
+made the gods like men, and no offerings were presented in the temples.
+But when the gods inclined themselves to peace ... they established their
+son Setenkhot (Setnekht) to be ruler of every land." Of the Syrian
+occupation we know nothing further. Setenkhot, c. 1200 B.C., had a very
+short reign and was not counted as legitimate, but he established a
+lasting dynasty (probably by conciliating the priesthood). He was father
+of Rameses III., who revived the glories of the empire. The dangers that
+menaced Egypt now were similar to those which Mineptah had to meet at his
+accession. Again the Libyans and the "peoples of the sea" were acting in
+concert. The latter now comprised Peleset (the Cretans, ancestors of the
+Philistines), Thekel, Shekelesh, Denyen (Danaoi?) and Weshesh; they had
+invaded Syria from Asia Minor, reaching the Euphrates, destroying the
+Hittite cities and progressing southwards, while their ships gathered
+plunder from the coasts of the Delta. This fleet joined the Libyan
+invaders, but was overthrown with heavy loss by the Egyptians, in whose
+ranks there actually served many Sherden and Kehaka, Sardinian and Libyan
+mercenaries. Egypt itself was thus clear of enemies; but the chariots and
+warriors of the Philistines and their associates were advancing through
+Syria, their families and goods following in ox-carts, and their ships
+accompanying them along the shore. Rameses led out his army and fleet
+against them and struck them so decisive a blow that the migrating swarm
+submitted to his rule and paid him tribute. In his eleventh year another
+Libyan invasion had to be met, and his suzerainty in Palestine forcibly
+asserted. His vigour was equal to all these emergencies and the later
+years of his reign were spent in peace. Rameses III., however, was not a
+great ruler. He was possessed by the spirit of decadence, imitative
+rather than originating. It is evident that Rameses II. was the model to
+which he endeavoured to conform, and he did not attempt to preserve
+himself from the weakening influences of priestcraft. To the temples he
+not only restored the property which had been given to them by former
+kings, but he also added greatly to their wealth; the Theban Ammon
+naturally received by far the greatest share, more than those of all the
+other gods together. The land held in the name of different deities is
+estimated at about 15% of the whole of Egypt; various temples of Ammon
+owned two-thirds of this, Re of Heliopolis and Ptah of Memphis being the
+next in wealth. His palace was at Medinet Habu on the west bank of Thebes
+in the south quarter; and here he built a great temple to Ammon, adorned
+with scenes from his victories and richly provided with divine offerings.
+Although Egypt probably was prosperous on the whole, there was
+undoubtedly great distress amongst certain portions of the population. We
+read in a papyrus of a strike of starving labourers in the Theban
+necropolis who would not work until corn was given to them, and
+apparently the government storehouse was empty at the time, perhaps in
+consequence of a bad Nile. Shortly before the death of the old king a
+plot in the harem to assassinate him, and apparently to place one of his
+sons on the throne, was discovered and its investigation ordered, leading
+after his death to the condemnation of many high-placed men and women.
+Nine kings of the name of Rameses now followed each other ingloriously in
+the space of about eighty years to the end of the XXth Dynasty, the power
+of the high priests of Ammon ever growing at their expense. At this time
+the Theban necropolis was being more systematically robbed than ever
+before. Under Rameses IX. an investigation took place which showed that
+one of the royal tombs before the western cliffs had been completely
+ransacked and the mummies burnt. Three years later the Valley of the
+Tombs of the Kings was attacked and the sepulchres of Seti I. and Rameses
+II. were robbed.
+
+
+  The Deltaic Dynasties; Libyan period.
+
+The authority of the last king of the XXth Dynasty, Rameses XII., was
+shadowy. Hrihor, the high priest in his reign, gradually gathered into
+his own hands all real power, and succeeded him at Thebes, c. 1100 B.C.,
+while a prince at Tanis named Smendes (Esbentêti) founded a separate
+dynasty in the Delta (Dynasty XXI.). From this period dates a remarkable
+papyrus containing the report of an envoy named Unamûn, sent to Syria by
+Hrihor to obtain cedar timber from Byblus. He took with him an image of
+Ammon to bestow life and health on the prince of Byblus, but apparently
+no other provision for the journey or for the negotiations beyond a
+letter of recommendation to Smendes and a little gold and silver.
+Smendes had trading ships in the Phoenician ports, but even his
+influence was not greater than that of other commercial or pirate
+centres, while Hrihor was of no account except in so far as he might pay
+well for the cedar wood he required. Unamûn was robbed on the voyage,
+the prince of Byblus rebuffed him, and when at last the latter agreed to
+provide the timber it was only in exchange for substantial gifts hastily
+sent for from Egypt (including rolls of papyrus) and the promise of more
+to follow. The prince, however, seems to have acknowledged to some
+extent the divinity of Ammon and the debt owed by Phoenicia to Egyptian
+culture, and pitied the many misfortunes of Unamûn. The narrative shows
+the feebleness of Egypt abroad. The Tanite line of kings generally had
+the over-lordship of the high priests of Thebes; the descendants of
+Hrihor, however, sometimes by marriage with princesses of the other
+line, could assume cartouches and royal titles, and in some cases
+perhaps ruled the whole of Egypt. Ethiopia may have been ruled with the
+Thebais, but the records of the time are very scanty. Syria was wholly
+lost to Egypt. The mummies from the despoiled tombs of the kings were
+the object of much anxious care to the kings of this dynasty; after
+being removed from one tomb to another, they were finally deposited in a
+shaft near the temple of Deir el Bahri, where they remained for nearly
+three thousand years, until the demand for antiquities at last brought
+the plunderer once more to their hiding-place; eventually they were all
+secured for the Cairo museum, where they may now be seen.
+
+Libyan soldiers had long been employed in the army, and their military
+chiefs settled in the large towns and acquired wealth and power, while
+the native rulers grew weaker and weaker. The Tanite dynasty may have
+risen from a Libyan stock, though there is nothing to prove it; the
+XXIInd Dynasty are clearly from their names of foreign extraction, and
+their genealogy indicates distinctly a Libyan military origin in a
+family of rulers of Heracleopolis Magna, in Middle Egypt. Sheshonk
+(Shishak) I., the founder of the dynasty, c. 950 B.C., seems to have
+fixed his residence at Bubastis in the Delta, and his son married the
+daughter of the last king of the Tanite dynasty. Heracleopolis seems
+henceforth for several centuries to have been capital of Middle Egypt,
+which was considered as a more or less distinct province. Sheshonk
+secured Thebes, making one of his sons high priest of Ammon, and whereas
+Solomon appears to have dealt with a king of Egypt on something like an
+equal footing, Sheshonk re-established Egyptian rule in Palestine and
+Nubia, and his expedition in the fifth year of Rehoboam subdued Israel
+as well as Judah, to judge by the list of city names which he inscribed
+on the wall of the temple of Karnak. Osorkon I. inherited a prosperous
+kingdom from his father, but no further progress was made. It required a
+strong hand to curb the Libyan chieftains, and divisions soon began to
+show themselves in the kingdom. The XXIInd Dynasty lasted through many
+generations; but there were rival kings, and M. Legrain thinks that he
+has proof that the XXIIIrd Dynasty was contemporaneous with the end of
+the XXIInd. The kings of the XXIIIrd Dynasty had little hold upon the
+subject princes, who spent the resources of the country in feuds amongst
+themselves. A native kingdom had meanwhile been established in Ethiopia.
+Our first knowledge of it is at this moment, when the Ethiopian king
+Pankhi already held the Thebais. The energetic prince of Sais, Tefnakht,
+followed by most of the princes of the Delta, subdued most of Middle
+Egypt, and by uniting these forces threatened the Ethiopian border.
+Heracleopolis Magna, however, with its petty king Pefteuaubasti, held
+out against Tefnakht, and Pankhi coming to its aid not only drove
+Tefnakht out of Middle Egypt, but also captured Memphis and received the
+submission of the princes and chiefs; in all these included four "kings"
+and fourteen other chiefs. According to Diodorus the Ethiopian state was
+theocratic, ruled through the king by the priests of Ammon. The account
+is probably exaggerated; but even in Pankhi's record the piety of the
+king, especially towards Ammon, is very marked.
+
+
+  Ethiopian Dynasty.
+
+The XXIVth Dynasty consisted of a single Saite king named Bocchoris
+(Bekerrinf), son of Tefnachthus, apparently the above Tefnakht. Another
+Ethiopian invader, Shabako (Sabacon), is said to have burnt Bocchoris
+alive. The Ethiopian rule of the XXVth Dynasty was now firmly
+established, and the resources of the two countries together might have
+been employed in conquest in Syria and Phoenicia; but at this very time
+the Assyrian empire, risen to the highest pitch of military greatness,
+began to menace Egypt. The Ethiopian could do no more than encourage or
+support the Syrians in their fight for freedom against Sargon and
+Sennacherib. Shabako was followed by Shebitku and Shebitku by Tirhaka
+(Tahrak, Taracos). Tirhaka was energetic in opposing the Assyrian
+advance, but in 670 B.C. Esarhaddon defeated his army on the border of
+Egypt, captured Memphis with the royal harem and took great spoil. The
+Egyptian resistance to the Assyrians was probably only half-hearted; in
+the north especially there must have been a strong party against the
+Ethiopian rule. Tirhaka laboured to propitiate the north country, and
+probably rendered the Ethiopian rule acceptable throughout Egypt.
+Notwithstanding, the Assyrian king entrusted the government and
+collection of tribute to the native chiefs; twenty princes in all are
+enumerated in the records, including one Assyrian to hold the key of
+Egypt at Pelusium. Scarcely had Esarhaddon withdrawn before Tirhaka
+returned from his refuge in the south and the Assyrian garrisons were
+massacred. Esarhaddon promptly prepared a second expedition, but died on
+the way to Egypt in 668 B.C.; his son Assur-bani-pal sent it forward,
+routed Tirhaka and reinstated the governors. At the head of these was
+Necho (Niku), king of Sais and Memphis, father of Psammetichus, the
+founder of the XXVIth Dynasty. We next hear that correspondence with
+Tirhaka was intercepted, and that Necho, together with Pekrûr of Psapt
+(at the entrance to the Wadi Tumilat) and the Assyrian governor of
+Pelusium, was taken to Nineveh in chains to answer the charge of
+treason. Whatever may have occurred, it was deemed politic to send Necho
+back loaded with honours and surrounded by a retinue of Assyrian
+officials. Upper Egypt, however, was loyal to Tirhaka, and even at
+Memphis the burial of an Apis bull was dated by the priests as in his
+reign. Immediately afterwards he died. His nephew Tandamane, received by
+the Upper country with acclamations, besieged and captured Memphis,
+Necho being probably slain in the encounter. But in 661 (?)
+Assur-bani-pal drove the Ethiopian out of Lower Egypt, pursued him up
+the Nile and sacked Thebes. This was the last and most tremendous
+visitation of the Assyrian scourge.
+
+
+  XXVIth Dynasty.
+
+Psammetichus (Psammêtk), 664-610 B.C., the son of Necho, succeeded his
+father as a vassal of Assyria in his possessions of Memphis and Sais,
+allied himself with Gyges, king of Lydia, and aided by Ionian and Carian
+mercenaries, extended and consolidated his power.[21] By the ninth year
+of his reign he was in full possession of Thebes. Assur-bani-pal's
+energies throughout this crisis were entirely occupied with revolts
+nearer home, in Babylon, Elam and Arabia. The Assyrian arms again
+triumphed everywhere, but at the cost of complete exhaustion. Under the
+firm and wise rule of Psammetichus, Egypt recovered its prosperity after
+the terrible losses inflicted by internal wars and the decade of
+Assyrian invasions. The revenue went up by leaps and bounds.
+Psammetichus guarded the frontiers of Egypt with three strong garrisons,
+placing the Ionian and Carian mercenaries especially at the Pelusiac
+Daphnae in the N.E., from which quarter the most formidable enemy was
+likely to appear. The Assyrians did not move against him, but a great
+Scythian horde, destroying all before it in its southward advance, is
+said by Herodotus to have been turned back by presents and entreaties.
+Diplomacy backed up by vigorous preparations may have deterred the
+Scythians from the dangerous enterprise of crossing the desert to Egypt.
+Before his death Psammetichus had advanced into southern Palestine and
+captured Azotus.
+
+When Psammetichus began to reign the situation of Egypt was very
+different from what it had been under the Empire. The development of
+trade in the Mediterranean and contact with new peoples and new
+civilizations in peace and war had given birth to new ideas among the
+Egyptians and at the same time to a loss of confidence in their own
+powers. The Theban supremacy was gone and the Delta was now the wealthy
+and progressive part of Egypt; piety increased amongst the masses,
+unenterprising and unwarlike, but proud of their illustrious antiquity.
+Thebes and Ammon and the traditions of the Empire savoured too much now
+of the Ethiopian; the priests of the Memphite and Deltaic dynasty
+thereupon turned deliberately for their models to the times of the
+ancient supremacy of Memphis, and the sculptures and texts on tomb and
+temple had to conform as closely as possible to those of the Old
+Kingdom. In other than religious matters, however, the Egyptians were
+inventing and perhaps borrowing. To enumerate a few examples of this
+which are already definitely known: we find that the forms of legal and
+business documents became more precise; the mechanical arts of casting
+in bronze on a core and of moulding figures and pottery were brought to
+the highest pitch of excellence; and portraiture in the round on its
+highest plane was better than ever before and admirably lifelike,
+revealing careful study of the external anatomy of the individual.
+
+Psammetichus died in the fifty-fourth year of his reign and was
+succeeded by his son Necho, 610-594 B.C. Taking advantage of the
+helpless state of the Assyrians, whose capital was assailed by the Medes
+and the Babylonians, the new Pharaoh prepared an expedition to recover
+the ancient possessions of the Empire in Syria. Josiah alone, faithful
+to the king of Assyria, opposed him with his feeble force at Megiddo and
+was easily overcome and slain. Necho went forward to the Euphrates, put
+the land to tribute, and, in the case of Judah at any rate, filled the
+throne with his own nominee (see JEHOIAKIM). The fall of Nineveh and the
+division of the spoil gave to Nabopolasser, king of Babylon, the
+inheritance of the Assyrians in the west, and he at once despatched his
+son Nebuchadrezzar to fight Necho. The Babylonian and Egyptian forces
+met at Carchemish (605), and the rout of the latter was so complete that
+Necho relinquished Syria and might have lost Egypt as well had not the
+death of Nabopolasser recalled the victor to Babylon. Herodotus relates
+that in Necho's reign a Phoenician ship despatched from Egypt actually
+circumnavigated Africa, and the attempt was made to complete a canal
+through the Wadi Tumilat, which connected the Mediterranean and Red Seas
+by way of the Lower Egyptian Nile. (See SUEZ.) The next king,
+Psammetichus II., 594-589 B.C., according to one account made an
+expedition to Syria or Phoenicia, and apparently sent a mercenary force
+into Ethiopia as far as Abu Simbel. Pharaoh Hophra (Apries), 589-570
+B.C., fomented rebellion against the Babylonian suzerainty in Judah, but
+accomplished little there. Herodotus, however, describes his reign as
+exceedingly prosperous. The mercenary troops at Elephantine mutinied and
+attempted to desert to Ethiopia, but were brought back and punished.
+Later, however, a disastrous expedition sent to aid the Libyans against
+the Greek colony of Cyrene roused the suspicion and anger of the native
+soldiery at favours shown to the mercenaries, who of course had taken no
+part in it. Amasis (Ahmosi) II. was chosen king by the former (570-525
+B.C.), and his swarm of adherents overcame the Greek troops in Apries'
+pay (see AMASIS). None the less Amasis employed Greeks in numbers, and
+cultivated the friendship of their tyrants. His rule was confined to
+Egypt (and perhaps Cyprus), but Egypt itself was very prosperous. At the
+beginning of his long reign of forty-four years he was threatened by
+Nebuchadrezzar; later he joined the league against Cyrus and saw with
+alarm the fall of his old enemy. A few months after his death, 525 B.C.,
+the invading host of the Persians led by Cambyses reached Egypt and
+dethroned his son Psammetichus III.
+
+
+  The Persian period, XXVIIth Dynasty.
+
+Cambyses at first conciliated the Egyptians and respected their
+religion; but, perhaps after the failure of his expedition into
+Ethiopia, he entirely changed his policy, and his memory was generally
+execrated. He left Egypt so completely crushed that the subsequent
+usurpation of the Persian throne was marked by no revolt in that
+quarter. Darius, 521-486 B.C., proved himself a beneficent ruler, and in
+a visit to Egypt displayed his consideration for the religion of the
+country. In the Great Oasis he built a temple to Ammon. The annual
+tribute imposed on the satrapy of Egypt and Cyrene was heavy, but it was
+probably raised with ease. The canal from the Nile to the Red Sea was
+completed or repaired, and commerce flourished. Documents dated in the
+thirty-fourth and thirty-fifth years of Darius are not uncommon, but
+apparently at the very end of his reign, some years after the disaster
+of Marathon, Egypt was induced to rebel. Xerxes, 486-467 B.C., who put
+down the revolt with severity, and his successor Artaxerxes, 466-425
+B.C., like Cambyses, were hateful to the Egyptians. The disorders which
+marked the accession of Artaxerxes gave Egypt another opportunity to
+rebel. Their leaders were Inaros the Libyan of Marea and the Egyptian
+Amyrtaeus. Aided by an Athenian force, Inaros slew the satrap Achaemenes
+at the battle of Papremis and destroyed his army; but the garrison of
+Memphis held out, and a fresh host from Persia raised the siege and in
+turn besieged the Greek and Egyptian forces on the island of Papremis.
+At last, after two years, having diverted the river from its channel,
+they captured and burnt the Athenian ships and quickly ended the
+rebellion. The reigns of Xerxes II. and Darius II. are marked by no
+recorded incident in Egypt until a successful revolt about 405 B.C.
+interrupted the Persian domination.
+
+Monuments of the Persian rule in Egypt are exceedingly scanty. The
+inscriptions of Pefteuauneit, priest of Neith at Sais, and from his
+position the native authority who was most likely to be consulted by
+Cambyses and Darius, tells of his relations with these two kings. For
+the following reigns Egyptian documents hardly exist, but some papyri
+written in Aramaic have been found at Elephantine and at Memphis. Those
+from the former locality show that a colony of Jews with a temple
+dedicated to Yahweh (Jehovah) had established themselves at that
+garrison and trading post (see ASSUAN). Herodotus visited Egypt in the
+reign of Artaxerxes, about 440 B.C. His description of Egypt, partly
+founded on Hecataeus, who had been there about fifty years earlier, is
+the chief source of information for the history of the Saite kings and
+for the manners of the times, but his statements prove to be far from
+correct when they can be checked by the scanty native evidence.
+     (F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+  Dynasties XXVIII.-XXXI.
+
+Amyrtaeus (Amnertais) of Sais, perhaps a son of Pausiris and grandson of
+the earlier Amyrtaeus, revolted from Darius II. c. 405 B.C., and Egypt
+regained its independence for about sixty years. The next king Nefeuret
+(Nepherites I.) was a Mendesian and founded the XXIXth Dynasty. After
+Hakor and Nefeuret II. the sovereignty passed to Dynasty XXX., the last
+native Egyptian line. Monuments of all these kings are known, and art
+flourished particularly under the Mendesian kings Nekhtharheb
+(Nectanebes or Nectanebus I.) and Nekhtnebf (Nectanebes II.). The former
+came to the throne when a Persian invasion was imminent, 378 B.C. Hakor
+had already formed a powerful army, largely composed of Greek
+mercenaries. This army Nekhtharheb entrusted to the Athenian Chabrias.
+The Persians, however, succeeded in causing his recall and in gaining
+the services of his fellow-countryman Iphicrates. The invading army
+consisted of 200,000 barbarians under Pharnabazus and 20,000 Greeks
+under Iphicrates. After the Egyptians had experienced a reverse,
+Iphicrates counselled an immediate advance on Memphis. His advice was
+not followed by Pharnabazus; the Egyptian king collected his forces and
+won a pitched battle near Mendes. Pharnabazus retreated and Egypt was
+free.
+
+Nekhtharheb was succeeded by Tachos or Teos, whose short reign was
+occupied by a war with Persia, in which the king of Egypt secured the
+services of a body of Greek mercenaries under the Spartan king Agesilaus
+and a fleet under the Athenian general Chabrias. He entered Phoenicia
+with every prospect of success, but having offended Agesilaus he was
+dethroned in a military revolt which gave the crown to Nekhtnebf or
+Nectanebes II., the last native king of Egypt. At this moment a revolt
+broke out. The prince of Mendes almost succeeded in overthrowing the new
+king. Agesilaus defeated the rival pretender and left Nekhtnebf
+established on the throne. But the opportunity of a decisive blow
+against Persia was lost. The new king, Artaxerxes III. Ochus, determined
+to reduce Egypt. A first expedition was defeated by the Greek
+mercenaries of Nekhtnebf, but a second, commanded by Ochus himself,
+subdued Egypt with no further resistance than that of the Greek garrison
+of Pelusium. Nekhtnebf, instead of endeavouring to relieve them,
+retreated to Memphis and fled thence to Ethiopia, 340 (?) B.C. Thus
+miserably fell the monarchy of the Pharaohs, after an unexampled
+duration of 3000 years, or as some think far longer. More than 2000
+years have since passed, and though Egypt has from time to time been
+independent, not one native prince has sat on the throne of the
+Pharaohs. "There shall be no more a prince of the land of Egypt" (Ezek.
+xxx. 13) was prophesied in the days of Apries as the final state of the
+land.
+
+Ochus treated his conquest barbarously. From this brief re-establishment
+of Persian dominion (counted by Manetho as Dynasty XXXI.) no document
+survives except one papyrus that appears to be dated in the reign of
+Darius III.
+
+  See J. H. Breasted, _A History of Egypt from the Earliest Times to the
+  Persian Conquest_ (New York and London, 1905); _A History of the
+  Ancient Egyptians_ (New York and London, 1908); _Ancient Records of
+  Egypt: Historical Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian
+  Conquest, collected, edited and translated_ (5 vols., Chicago,
+  1906-1907); W. M. F. Petrie, _A History of Egypt_ (from the earliest
+  times to the XXXth Dynasty) (3 vols., London, 1899-1905); E. A. W.
+  Budge, _A History of Egypt_, vols. i-vii. (London, 1902); G. Maspero,
+  _Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'orient_ (6th ed., 1904), _The Dawn
+  of Civilization, The Struggle of the Nations, The Passing of the
+  Empires_ (London, 1904, &c.); P. E. Newberry and J. Garstang, _A Short
+  History of Ancient Egypt_ (London, 1904); G. Steindorff, _Die
+  Blütezeit des Pharaonenreiches_ (Dyn. XVIII.) (Bielefeld and Leipzig,
+  1900); H. Winckler, _The Tell el Amarna Letters_ (Berlin, London and
+  New York, 1896).
+
+_The Conquest by Alexander._--When, in 332 B.C., after the battle of
+Issus, Alexander entered Egypt, he was welcomed as a deliverer. The
+Persian governor had not forces enough to oppose him, and he nowhere
+experienced even the show of resistance. He visited Memphis, founded
+Alexandria, and went on pilgrimage to the oracle of Ammon (Oasis of
+Siwa). The god declared him to be his son, renewing thus an old Egyptian
+convention or belief; Olympias was supposed to have been in converse
+with Ammon, even as the mothers of Hatshepsut and Amenophis III. are
+represented in the inscriptions of the Theban temples to have received
+the divine essence. At this stage of his career the treasure and tribute
+of Egypt were of great importance to the Macedonian conqueror. He
+conciliated the inhabitants by the respect which he showed for their
+religion; he organized the government of the natives under two officers,
+who must have been already known to them (of these Petisis, an Egyptian,
+soon resigned his share into the charge of his colleague Doloaspis, who
+bears a Persian name.) But Alexander designed his Greek foundation of
+Alexandria to be the capital, and entrusted the taxation of Egypt and
+the control of its army and navy to Greeks. Early in 331 B.C. he was
+ready to depart, and led his forces away to Phoenicia. A granite gateway
+to the temple of Khnum at Elephantine bears his name in hieroglyphic,
+and demotic documents are found dated in his reign.
+
+_The Ptolemaic Period._--On the division of Alexander's dominions in 323
+B.C., Egypt fell to Ptolemy the son of Lagus, the founder of the
+Ptolemaic dynasty (see PTOLEMIES). Under these rulers the rich kingdom
+was heavily taxed to supply the sinews of war and to support every kind
+of lavish expenditure. Officials, and the higher ones were nearly all
+Greeks, were legion, but the whole system was so judiciously worked that
+there was little discontent amongst the patient peasantry. During the
+reign of Philadelphus the land gained from the bed of the lake of Moeris
+was assigned to veteran soldiers; the great armies of the Ptolemies were
+rewarded or supported by grants of farm lands, and men of Macedonian,
+Greek and Hellenistic extraction were planted in colonies and garrisons
+or settled themselves in the villages throughout the country. Upper
+Egypt, farthest from the centre of government, was probably least
+affected by the new influences, though the first Ptolemy established the
+Greek colony of Ptolemais to be its capital. Intermarriages, however,
+gradually had their effect; after the revolt of the natives in the reign
+of Ptolemy V., we find the Greek and Egyptian elements closely
+intermingled. Ptolemy I. had established the cult of the Memphite
+Serapis in a Graeco-Egyptian form, affording a common ground for native
+and Hellenistic worshippers. The greater number of the temples to the
+native deities in Upper Egypt and in Nubia (to 50 m. south of the
+Cataract, within the Dodecaschoenus) were built under the Ptolemies. No
+serious effort was made to extend the Ptolemaic rule into Ethiopia, and
+Ergamenes, the Hellenizing king of Ethiopia, was evidently in alliance
+with Philopator; in the next reign two native kings, probably supported
+by Ethiopia, reigned in succession at Thebes. That famous city lost all
+except its religious importance under the Ptolemies; after the
+"destruction" or dismantling by Lathyrus it formed only a series of
+villages. The population of Egypt in the time of Ptolemy I. is put at
+7,000,000 by Diodorus, who also says that it was greater then than it
+ever was before; at the end of the dynasty, in his own day, it was not
+much less though somewhat diminished. Civil wars and revolts must have
+greatly injured both Upper and Lower Egypt. It is remarkable that, while
+the building and decoration of temples continued in the reigns of
+Ptolemy Auletes and the later Ptolemies and Cleopatra, papyri of those
+times whether Greek or Egyptian are scarcely to be found.
+
+
+  Christianity.
+
+_The Roman Period._--In 30 B.C. Augustus took Egypt as the prize of
+conquest. He treated it as a part of his personal domain, free from any
+interference by the senate. In the main lines the Ptolemaic organization
+was preserved, but Romans were gradually introduced into the highest
+offices. On Egypt Rome depended for its supplies of corn; entrenched
+there, a revolting general would be difficult to attack, and by simply
+holding back the grain ships could threaten Rome with starvation. No
+senator therefore was permitted to take office or even to set foot in
+the country without the emperor's special leave, and by way of
+precaution the highest position, that of prefect, was filled by a Roman
+of equestrian rank only. As the representative of the emperor, this
+officer assumed the place occupied by the king under the old order,
+except that his power was limited by the right of appeal to Caesar. The
+first prefect, Cornelius Gallus, tamed the natives of Upper Egypt to the
+new yoke by force of arms, and meeting ambassadors from Ethiopia at
+Philae, established a nominal protectorate of Rome over the frontier
+district, which had been abandoned by the later Ptolemies. The third
+prefect, Gaius Petronius, cleared the neglected canals for irrigation;
+he also repelled an invasion of the Ethiopians and pursued them far up
+the Nile, finally storming the capital of Napata. But no attempt was
+made to hold Ethiopia. In succeeding reigns much trouble was caused by
+jealousies and quarrels between the Greeks and the Jews, to whom
+Augustus had granted privileges as valuable as those accorded to the
+Greeks. Aiming at the spice trade, Aelius Gallus, the second prefect of
+Egypt under Augustus, had made an unsuccessful expedition to conquer
+Arabia Felix; the valuable Indian trade, however, was secured by
+Claudius for Egypt at the expense of Arabia, and the Red Sea routes were
+improved. Nero's reign especially marks the commencement of an era of
+prosperity which lasted about a century. Under Vespasian the Jewish
+temple at Leontopolis in the Delta, which Onias had founded in the reign
+of Ptolemy Philometor, was closed; worse still, a great Jewish revolt
+and massacre of the Greeks in the reign of Trajan resulted, after a
+stubborn conflict of many months with the Roman army under Marcius
+Livianus Turbo, in the virtual extermination of the Jews in Alexandria
+and the loss of all their privileges. Hadrian, who twice visited Egypt
+(A.D. 130, 134), founded Antinoë in memory of his drowned favourite.
+From this reign onwards buildings in the Graeco-Roman style were erected
+throughout the country. A new Sothic cycle began in A.D. 139. Under
+Marcus Aurelius a revolt of the Bucolic or native troops recruited for
+home service was taken up by the whole of the native population and was
+suppressed only after several years of fighting. The Bucolic war caused
+infinite damage to the agriculture of the country and marks the
+beginning of its rapid decline under a burdensome taxation. The province
+of Africa was now of equal importance with Egypt for the grain supply of
+the capital. Avidius Cassius, who led the Roman forces in the war,
+usurped the purple, and was acknowledged by the armies of Syria and
+Egypt. On the approach of Marcus Aurelius, the adherents of Cassius slew
+him, and the clemency of the emperor restored peace. After the downfall
+of the house of the Antonines, Pescennius Niger, who commanded the
+forces in Egypt, was proclaimed emperor on the death of Pertinax (A.D.
+193). Severus overthrew his rival (A.D. 194) and, the revolt having been
+a military one, did not punish the province; in 202 he gave a
+constitution to Alexandria and the nome capitals. In his reign the
+Christians of Egypt suffered the first of their many persecutions. When
+Christianity was planted in the country we do not know, but it must very
+early have gained adherents among the learned Jews of Alexandria, whose
+school of thought was in some respects ready to welcome it. From them it
+rapidly passed to the Greeks. Ultimately the new religion spread to the
+Egyptians; their own creed was worn out, and they found in Christianity
+a doctrine of the future life for which their old belief had made them
+not unready; while the social teaching of Christianity came with special
+fitness to a subject race. The history of the Coptic Version has yet to
+be written. It presents some features of great antiquity, and, unlike
+all others, has the truly popular character of being written in the
+three dialects of the language. Side by side there grew up an
+Alexandrian church, philosophic, disputative, ambitious, the very centre
+of Christian learning, and an Egyptian church, ascetic, contemplative,
+mystical. The two at length influenced one another; still we can
+generally trace the philosophic teachers to a Greek origin, the mystics
+to an Egyptian.
+
+Caracalla, in revenge for an affront, massacred all the men capable of
+bearing arms in Alexandria. His granting of the Roman citizenship to all
+Egyptians in common with the other provincials was only to extort more
+taxes. Under Decius, A.D. 250, the Christians again suffered from
+persecution. When the empire broke up in the weak reign of Gallienus,
+the prefect Aemilianus, who took the surname Alexander or Alexandrinus,
+was made emperor by the troops at Alexandria, but was conquered by the
+forces of Gallienus. In his brief reign of only a few months he had
+driven back an invasion of the Blemmyes. This predatory tribe, issuing
+from Nubia, was long to be the terror of Upper Egypt. Zenobia, queen of
+Palmyra, after an unsuccessful invasion, on a second attempt conquered
+Egypt, which she added to her empire, but lost it when Aurelian made war
+upon her (A.D. 272). The province was, however, unsettled, and the
+conquest of Palmyra was followed in the same year by the suppression of
+a revolt in Egypt (A.D. 273). Probus, who had governed Egypt for
+Aurelian and Tacitus, was subsequently chosen by the troops to succeed
+Tacitus, and is the first governor of this province who obtained the
+whole of the empire. He expelled the Blemmyes, who were dominating the
+whole of the Thebaid. Diocletian invited the Nobatae to settle in the
+Dodecaschoenus as a barrier against their incursions, and subsidized
+both Blemmyes and Nobatae. The country, however, was still disturbed,
+and in A.D. 296 a formidable revolt broke out, led by Achilleus, who as
+emperor took the name Domitius Domitianus. Diocletian, finding his
+troops unable to determine the struggle, came to Egypt, captured
+Alexandria and put his rival to death (296). He then reorganized the
+whole province, and the well-known "Pompey's Pillar" was set up by the
+grateful and repentant Alexandrians to commemorate his gift to them of
+part of the corn tribute.
+
+The Coptic era of Diocletian or of the Martyrs dates from the accession
+of Diocletian (A.D. 284). The edict of A.D. 303 against the Christians,
+and those which succeeded it, were rigorously carried out in Egypt,
+where Paganism was still strong and face to face with a strong and
+united church. Galerius, who succeeded Diocletian in the government of
+the East, implacably pursued his policy, and this great persecution did
+not end until the persecutor, perishing, it is said, of the dire malady
+of Herod and Philip II. of Spain, sent out an edict of toleration (A.D.
+311).
+
+By the edict of Milan (A.D. 313), Constantine, with the agreement of his
+colleague Licinius, acknowledged Christianity as having at least equal
+rights with other religions, and when he gained sole power he wrote to
+all his subjects advising them, like him, to become Christians (A.D.
+324). The Egyptian Church, hitherto free from schism, was now divided by
+a fierce controversy, in which we see two Greek parties, rather than a
+Greek and an Egyptian, in conflict. The council of Nicaea was called
+together (A.D. 325) to determine between the Orthodox and the party of
+the Alexandrian presbyter Arius. At that council the native Egyptian
+bishops were chiefly remarkable for their manly protest against
+enforcing celibacy on the clergy. The most conspicuous controversialist
+on the Orthodox side was the young Alexandrian deacon Athanasius, who
+returned home to be made archbishop of Alexandria (A.D. 326). After
+being four times expelled by the Arians, and once by the emperor Julian,
+he died, A.D. 373, at the moment when an Arian persecution began. So
+large a proportion of the population had taken religious vows that under
+Valens it became necessary to abolish the privilege of monks which
+exempted them from military service. The reign of Theodosius I.
+witnessed the overthrow of Arianism, and this was followed by the
+suppression of Paganism, against which a final edict was promulgated
+A.D. 390. In Egypt, the year before, the temple of Serapis at Alexandria
+had been captured after much bloodshed by the Christian mob and turned
+into a church. Generally the Coptic Christians were content to build
+their churches within the ancient temples, plastering over or effacing
+the sculptures which were nearest to the ground and in the way of the
+worshippers. They do not seem to have been very zealous in the work of
+destruction; the native religion was already dead and they had no fear
+of it. The prosperity of the church was the sign of its decay, and
+before long we find persecution and injustice disgracing the seat of
+Athanasius. Cyril, the patriarch of Alexandria (A.D. 415), expelled the
+Jews from the capital with the aid of the mob, and by the murder of the
+beautiful philosopher Hypatia marked the lowest depth to which ignorant
+fanaticism could descend. A schism now produced lengthened civil war and
+alienated Egypt from the empire. The distinction between religion and
+politics seemed to be lost, and the government grew weaker and weaker.
+The system of local government by citizens had now entirely disappeared.
+Offices, with new Byzantine names, were now almost hereditary in the
+wealthy land-owning families. The Greek rulers of the Orthodox faith
+were unable to protect the tillers of the soil, and these being of the
+Monophysite persuasion and having their own church and patriarch, hated
+the Orthodox patriarch (who from the time of Justinian onwards was
+identical with the prefect) and all his following. Towards the middle of
+the 5th century, the Blemmyes, quiet since the reign of Diocletian,
+recommenced their incursions, and were even joined in them by the
+Nobatae. These tribes were twice brought to account severely for their
+misdoings, but not effectually checked. It was in these circumstances
+that Egypt fell without a conflict when attacked by Chosroës (A.D. 616).
+After ten years of Persian dominion the success of Heraclius restored
+Egypt to the empire, and for a time it again received a Greek governor.
+The Monophysites, who had taken advantage of the Persian occupation,
+were persecuted and their patriarch expelled. The Arab conquest was
+welcomed by the native Christians, but with it they ceased to be the
+Egyptian nation. Their language is still used in their churches, but it
+is no longer spoken, and its literature, which is wholly ecclesiastical,
+has been long unproductive.
+
+The decline of Egypt was due to the purely military government of the
+Romans, and their subsequent alliance with the Greek party of
+Alexandria, which never represented the country. Under weak emperors,
+the rest of Egypt was exposed to the inroads of savages, and left to
+fall into a condition of barbarism. Ecclesiastical disputes tended to
+alienate both the native population and the Alexandrians. Thus at last
+the country was merely held by armed force, and the authority of the
+governor was little recognized beyond the capital, except where
+garrisons were stationed. There was no military spirit in a population
+unused to arms, nor any disinclination to be relieved from an arbitrary
+and persecuting rule. Thus the Moslem conquest was easy.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Hellenistic Period._--See the special articles
+  ALEXANDRIA, &c., and especially PTOLEMIES; J. P. Mahaffy, _The Empire
+  of the Ptolemies_ (London, 1895), _A History of Egypt under_ _the
+  Ptolemaic Dynasty_ (London, 1899); A. Bouché-Leclercq, _Histoire des
+  Lagides_ (4 vols., Paris, 1903- ); E. A. W. Budge, _A History of
+  Egypt_, vols. vii.-viii. (London, 1902); J. G. Milne, _A History of
+  Egypt under Roman Rule_ (London, 1898); E. Gibbon, _Decline and Fall
+  of the Roman Empire_ (edited by J. B. Bury) (London, 1900). The
+  administration and condition of Egypt under the Ptolemaic and Roman
+  rules are abundantly illustrated in recently discovered papyri, see
+  especially the English publications of B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt
+  (_Memoirs of the Graeco-Roman Branch of the Egypt Exploration Fund_)
+  and F. G. Kenyon (British Museum Catalogues); also Mr Kenyon's annual
+  summaries in the _Archaeological Report of the Egypt Exploration
+  Fund_. An ample selection of the Greek inscriptions from Egypt is to
+  be found in W. Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci inscriptiones selectae_
+  (2 vols., Leipzig, 1903-1905).     (R. S. P.; F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+2. _Mahommedan Period._
+
+(1) _Moslem Conquest of Egypt._--In accordance with the scheme of
+universal conquest conceived by the founder of Islam, an army of some
+4000 men was towards the end of the year A.D. 639 sent against Egypt
+under the command of 'Amr (see 'AMR-IBN-EL-ASS), by the second caliph,
+Omar I., who had some doubt as to the expediency of the enterprise. The
+commander marched from Syria through El-'Arish, easily took Farama or
+Pelusium, and thence proceeded to Bilbeis, where he was delayed for a
+month; having captured this place, he proceeded to a point on the Nile
+called Umm Dunain, the siege of which also occasioned him some
+difficulty. After taking it, he crossed the Nile to the Fayum. On the
+6th of June of the following year (640) a second army of 12,000 men,
+despatched by Omar, arrived at Heliopolis (On). 'Amr recrossed the river
+and joined it, but presently was confronted by a Roman army, which he
+defeated at the battle of Heliopolis (July 640); this victory was
+followed by the siege of Babylon, which after some futile attempts at
+negotiation was taken partly by storm and partly by capitulation on Good
+Friday, the 6th of April 641. 'Amr next proceeded in the direction of
+Alexandria, which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on the 8th
+of November 641, under which it was to be occupied by the Moslems on the
+29th of September of the following year. The interval was spent by him
+in founding the city Fostat (Fustat), near the modern Cairo, and called
+after the camp (_Fossatum_) occupied by him while besieging Babylon; and
+in reducing those coast towns that still offered resistance. The Thebaid
+seems to have surrendered with scarcely any opposition.
+
+The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched from the Roman
+empire appears to have been due to the treachery of the governor of
+Egypt, Cyrus, patriarch of Alexandria, and the incompetence of the
+generals of the Roman forces. The former, called by the Arabs Mukaukis
+(Muqauqis) from his Coptic name Pkauchios, had for ten years before the
+arrival of 'Amr maintained a fierce persecution of the Jacobite sect, to
+which the bulk of the Copts belonged. During the siege of Babylon he had
+been recalled and exiled, but after the death of Heraclius had been
+reinstated as patriarch by Heraclonas, and been welcomed back to
+Alexandria with general rejoicing in September 641. Since Alexandria
+could neither have been stormed nor starved out by the Arabs, his
+motives for surrendering it, and with it the whole of Egypt, have been
+variously interpreted, some supposing him to have been secretly a
+convert to Islam. The notion that the Arab invaders were welcomed and
+assisted by the Copts, driven to desperation by the persecution of
+Cyrus, appears to be refuted by the fact that the invaders treated both
+Copts and Romans with the same ruthlessness; but the dissensions which
+prevailed in the Christian communities, leading to riots and even civil
+war in Alexandria and elsewhere, probably weakened resistance to the
+common enemy. An attempt was made in the year 645 with a force under
+Manuel, commander of the Imperial forces, to regain Alexandria for the
+Byzantine empire; the city was surprised, and held till the summer of
+646, when it was again stormed by 'Amr. In 654 a fleet was equipped by
+Constans with a view to an invasion, but it was repulsed, and partly
+destroyed by storm. From that time no serious effort was made by the
+Eastern Empire to regain possession of the country. And it would appear
+that at the time of the attempt by Manuel the Arabs were actually
+assisted by the Copts, who at the first had found the Moslem lighter
+than the Roman yoke.
+
+
+  Terms of capitulation.
+
+A question often debated by Arabic authors is whether Egypt was taken by
+storm or capitulation, but, so far as the transference of the country
+was accomplished by the first taking of Alexandria, there seems no doubt
+that the latter view is correct. The terms were those on which conquered
+communities were ordinarily taken under Moslem protection. In return for
+a tribute of money (_jizyah_) and food for the troops of occupation
+(_daribat-al-ta'am_), the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were to be
+excused military service, and to be left free in the observance of their
+religion and the administration of their affairs.
+
+From 639 to 968 Egypt was a province of the Eastern Caliphate, and was
+ruled by governors sent from the cities which at different times ranked
+as capitals. Like other provinces of the later Abbasid Caliphate its
+rulers were, during this period, able to establish quasi-independent
+dynasties, such being those of the Tulunids who ruled from 868 to 905,
+and the Ikshidis from 935-969. In 969 the country was conquered by
+Jauhar for the Fatimite caliph Mo'izz, who transferred his capital from
+Mahdia (q.v.) in the Maghrib to Cairo. This dynasty lasted till 1171,
+when Egypt was again embodied in the Abbasid empire by Saladin, who,
+however, was himself the founder of a quasi-independent dynasty called
+the Ayyubites or Ayyubids, which lasted till 1252. The Ayyubites were
+followed by the Mameluke dynasties, usually classified as Bahri from
+1252-1382, and Burji from 1382-1517; these sovereigns were nominally
+under the suzerainty of Abbasid caliphs, who were in reality instruments
+of the Mameluke sultans, and resided at Cairo. In 1517 Egypt became part
+of the Ottoman empire and was governed by pashas sent from
+Constantinople, whose influence about 1707 gave way to that of officials
+chosen from the Mamelukes who bore the title Sheik al-balad. After the
+episode of the French occupation, government by pashas was restored;
+Mehemet Ali (appointed pasha in 1805) obtained from the Porte in 1841
+the right to bequeath the sovereignty to his descendants, one of whom,
+Ismail Pasha, received the title Khedive, which is still held by Mehemet
+Ali's descendants.
+
+(2) The following is a list of the governors of Egypt in these
+successive periods:--
+
+    (a) _During the undivided Caliphate._
+
+  'Amr-ibn-el-Ass, A.H. 18-24 (A.D. 639-645).
+  'Abdallah b. Sa'd b. Abi Sarh, 24-36 (645-656).
+  Qais b. Sa'd b. 'Ubadah, 36 (657-658).
+  Mahommed b. Abu Bekr, 37-38 (658).
+  Ashtar Malik b. al-Harith (appointed, but never governed).
+  'Amr-ibn-el-Ass, 38-43 (658-663).
+  'Utbah b. Abu Sofian, 43-44 (664-665).
+  'Utbah b. 'Amir, 44-45 (665).
+  Maslama b. Mukhallad, 45-62 (665-682).
+  Sa'id b. Yazid b. 'Alqamah, 62-64 (682-684).
+  Abdarrahman b. 'Utbah b. Jahdam, 64-65 (684).
+  Abdalaziz ('Abd al-'Aziz) b. Merwan, 65-86 (685-705).
+  'Abdallah b. 'Abd al-Malik, 86-90 (705-708).
+  Qurrah b. Sharik al-'Absi, 90-96 (709-714).
+  'Abd al-Malik b. Rifa'ah al-Fahmi, 96-99 (715-717).
+  Ayyub b. Shurahbil al-Asbahi, 99-101 (717-720).
+  Bishr b. Safwan al-Kalbi, 101-102 (720-721).
+  Hanzalah b. Safwan, 102-105 (721-724).
+  Mahommed b. 'Abd al-Malik, 105 (724).
+  Hurr b. Yusuf, 105-108 (724-727).
+  Hafs b. al-Walid, 108 (727).
+  'Abd al-Malik b. Rifa'ah, 109 (727).
+  Walid b. Rifa'ah, 109-117 (727-735).
+  'Abd al-Rahman b. Khalid, 117-118 (735).
+  Hanzalah b. Safwan, 118-124 (735-742).
+  Hafs b. al-Walid, 124-127 (742-745).
+  Hassan b. 'Atahiyah al-Tu'jibi, 127 (745).
+  Hafs b. al-Walid, 127 (745).
+  Hautharah b. Suhail al-Bahili, 128-131 (745-749).
+  Mughirah b. 'Ubaidallah al-Fazari, 131-132 (749).
+  'Abd al-Malik b. Marwan al-Lakhmi, 132 (750).
+  Salih b. 'Ali, 133 (750-751).
+  Abu 'Aun 'Abdalmalik b. Yazid, 133-136 (751-753).
+  Salih b. 'Ali, 136-137 (753-755)--second time.
+  Abu 'Aun, 137-141 (755-758)--second time.
+  Musa b. Ka'b b. 'Uyainah al-Tamimi, 141 (758-759).
+  Mahommed b. al-Ash'ath b. 'Uqbah al-Khuza i, 141-143 (759-760).
+  Humaid b. Qahtabah b. Shabib al-Ta'i, 143-144 (760-762).
+  Yazid b. Hatim b. Kabisah al-Muhallabi, 144-152 (762-769).
+  'Abdallah b. 'Abdarrahman b. Moawiya b. Hudaij, 152-155 (769-772).
+  Mahommed b. Abdarrahman b. Moawiya b. Hudaij, 155 (772).
+  Musa b. 'Ulayy b. Rabah al-Lakhmi, 155-161 (772-778).
+  'Isa b. Luqman b. Mahommed al-Jumahi, 161-162 (778).
+  Wadih, 162 (779).
+  Mansur b. Yazid b. Mansur al-Ru'aini, 162 (779).
+  Abu Salih Yahya b. Dawud b. Mamdud, 162-164 (779-780).
+  Salim b. Sawadah al-Tamimi, 164 (780-781).
+  Ibrahim b. Salih b. 'Ali, 165-167 (781-784).
+  Musa b. Mus'ab b. al-Rabi al-Khath'ami, 167-168 (784-785).
+  Usamah b. 'Amr b. 'Alqamah al-Ma'afiri, 168 (785).
+  al Fadl b. Salih b. 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 168-169 (785-786).
+  'Ali b. Sulaiman b. 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 169-171 (786-787).
+  Musa b. 'Isa b. Musa al-'Abbasi, 171-172 (787-789).
+  Maslamah b. Yahya b. Qurrah al-Bajili, 172-173 (789-790).
+  Mahommed b. Zuhair al-Azdi, 173 (790).
+  Dawud b. Yazid b. Hatim al-Muhallabi, 174-175 (790).
+  Musa b. 'Isa al-'Abbasi, 175-176 (790-792).
+  Ibrahim b. Salih, 176 (792).
+  Salih b. Ibrahim, 176 (792).
+  Abdallah b. al-Musayyib b. Zuhair al Dabbi, 176-177 (792-793).
+  Ishaq b. Sulaiman b. 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 177-178 (793-794).
+  Harthamah b. A'yan, 178 (794-795).
+  'Obaidallah b. al-Mahdi, 179 (795).
+  Musa b. 'Isa al-'Abbasi, 179-180 (795-796).
+  'Obaidallah b. al-Mahdi, 180-181 (796-797)--second time.
+  Isma'il b. Salih b. 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 181-182 (797-798).
+  Isma'il b. 'Isa b. Musa al-'Abbasi, 182-183 (798).
+  Laith b. al-Fadl al-Abiwardi, 183-187 (798-803).
+  Ahmad b. Isma'il b. 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 187-189 (803-805).
+  'Obaidallah b. Mahommed b. Ibrahim al-'Abbasi, 189-190 (805-806).
+  Husain b. Jamil, 190-192 (806-808).
+  Malik b. Dalham b. 'Isa al-Kalbi, 192-193 (808).
+  Hasan b. al-Tahtah, 193-194 (808-809).
+  Hatim b. Harthamah b. A'yan, 194-195 (809-811).
+  Jabir b. al-Ash'ath b. Yahya al-Ta'i, 195-196 (811-812).
+  'Abbad b. Mahommed b. Hayyan al-Balkhi, 196-198 (812-813).
+  Mottalib b. 'Abdallah b. Malik al-Khuza'i, 198 (813-814).
+  'Abbas b. Musa b. 'Isa al-'Abbasi, 198-199 (814).
+  Mottalib b. 'Abdallah, 199-200 (814-816)--second time.
+  Sari b. al-Hakam b. Yusuf, 200-201 (816).
+  Sulaiman b. Ghalib b. Jibril al-Bajili, 201 (816-817).
+  Sari b. al-Hakam, 201-205 (817-820).
+  Abu Nasr Mahommed b. al-Sari, 205 (820-821).
+  'Obaidallah b. al-Sari, 205-211 (821-826).
+  'Abdallah b. Tahir, 211-213 (826-829).
+  Mahommed b. Harun (al-Mo'tasim), 213-214 (829).
+  'Umair b. Al-Walid al-Tamimi al-Badhaghisi, 214 (829).
+  'Isa b. Yazid, 214 (829).
+  'Abduyah b. Jabalah, 215-216 (830-831).
+  'Isa b. Mansur b. Musa al-Rafi'i, 216-217 (831-832).
+  Nasr b. Abdallah Kaidar al-Safadi, 217-219 (832-834).
+  Muzaffar b. Kaidar, 219 (834).
+  Musa b. Abi'l-'Abbas Thabit al-Hanafi, 219-224 (834-839).
+  Malik b. Kaidar al Safadi, 224-226 (839-841).
+  'Ali b. Yahya abu l-Hasan al-Armani, 226-228 (841-842).
+  'Isa b. Mansur al-Rafi'i, 229-233 (843-847).
+  Harthamah b. al-Nadir al-Jabali, 233-234 (848-849).
+  Hatim b. Harthamah, 234 (849).
+  'Ali b. Yahya, 234-235 (849-850).
+  Ishaq b. Yahya al-Khatlani, 235-236 (850-851).
+  'Abd al-Wahid b. Yahya b. Mansur, 236-238 (851-852).
+  'Anbasa b. Ishaq b. Shamir, 238-242 (852-856).
+  Yazid b. 'Abdallah b. Dinar, 242-253 (856-867).
+  Muzahim b. Khaqan al-Turki, 253-254 (867-868).
+  Ahmad b. Muzahim b. Khaqan, 254 (868).
+  Urjuz b. Ulugh Tarkhan al-Turki, 254 (868).
+
+  _Tulunid house._
+
+  Ahmad b. Tulun, 254-270 (868-884).
+  Khomaruya b. Ahmad, 270-282 (884-896).
+  Jaish b. Khomaruya, 282 (896).
+  Harun b. Khomaruya, 283-292 (896-904).
+  Shaiban b. Ahmad, 292 (905).
+  'Isa b. Mahommed al-Naushari, 292 (905).
+  Mahommed b. 'Ali al-Khalanji, 292-293 (905-906).
+  'Isa al-Naushari, 293-297 (906-910)--second time.
+  Takin b. Abdallah al-Khazari, 297-302 (910-915).
+  Dhuka al-Rumi, 303-307 (915-919).
+  Takin b. 'Abdallah, 307-309 (919-921)--second time.
+  Abu Qabus Mahmud b. Hamal, 309 (921).
+  Hilal b. Badr, 309-311 (921-923).
+  Ahmad b. Kaighlagh, 311 (923).
+  Takin b. Abdallah, 311-321 (923-933)--third time.
+  Mahommed b. Takin, 321 (933).
+
+  _Ikshidi house._
+
+  Mahommed b. Tughj al-Ikshid, 321 (933).
+  [Ahmad b. Kaighlagh, 321-322 (933-934)].
+  Mahommed b. Tughj, 323-334 (934-946)--second time.
+  Unjur b. al-Ikshid, 334-349 (946-961).
+  'Ali b. al-Ikshid, 349-355 (961-966).
+  Kafur b. Abdallah al-Ikshidi, 355-357 (966-968).
+  Abu'l-Fawaris Ahmad b. 'Ali b. al-Ikshid, 357 (968).
+
+    _(b) Fatimite Caliphs_, 357-567 (969-1171).
+
+  Mo'izz Abu Tamim Ma'add (or li-din allah), 357-365 (969-975).
+  'Aziz Abu Mansur Nizar (al-'Aziz billah), 365-386 (975-996).
+  Hakim [Abu 'Ali Mansur], 386-411 (996-1020).
+  Zahir [Abu'l-Hasan 'Ali], 411-427 (1020-1035).
+  Mostansir [Abu Tamim Ma'add], 427-487 (1035-1094).
+  Mosta'li [Abu'l-Qasim Ahmad], 487-495 (1094-1101).
+  Amir [Abu 'Ali Mansur], 495-524 (1101-1130).
+  Hafiz [Abu'l-Maimun 'Abd al-Majid], 524-544 (1130-1149).
+  Zafir [Abu'l-Mansur Isma'il], 544-549 (1149-1154).
+  Fa'iz [Abu'l-Qasim 'Isa], 549-555 (1154-1160).
+  'Adid [Abu Mahommed 'Abdallah], 555-567 (1160-1171).
+
+    _(c) Ayyubite Sultans_, 564-648 (1169-1250).
+
+  Malik al-Nasir Salah al-din Yusuf b. Ayyub (SALADIN), 564-589
+    (1169-1193).
+  Malik al-'Aziz 'Imad al-din Othman, 589-595 (1193-1198).
+  Malik al-Mansur Mahommed, 595-596 (1198-1199).
+  Malik al-'Adil Saif al-din Abu Bakr, 596-615 (1199-1218).
+  Malik AL-KAMIL Mahommed, 615-635 (1218-1238).
+  Malik al-'Adil II. Saif al-din Abu Bakr, 635-637 (1238-1240).
+  Malik al-Salih Najm al-din Ayyub, 637-647 (1240-1249).
+  Malik al-Mo'azzam Turanshah, 647-648 (1249-1250).
+  Malik al-Ashraf Musa, 648-650 (1250-1252).
+
+    _(d) Bahri Mamelukes_, 648-792 (1250-1390).
+
+  Shajar al-durr, 648 (1250).
+  Malik al-Mo'izz 'Izz al-din Aibek, 648-655 (1250-1257).
+  Malik al-Mansur Nureddin 'Ali, 655-657 (1257-1259).
+  Malik al-Mozaffar Saif al-din KOTUZ, 657-658 (1259-1260).
+  Malik al-Zahir [Rukn al-din (Rukneddin) BIBARS Bundukdari],
+  658-676 (1260-1277).
+  Malik al-Sa'id Nasir al-din Barakah Khan, 676-678 (1277-1279).
+  Malik al-'Adil Badr al-din Salamish, 678 (1279).
+  Malik al-Mansur Saif al-din QALA'UN, 678-689 (1279-1290).
+  Malik al-Ashraf [Salah al-din KHALIL], 689-693 (1290-1293).
+  Malik al-Nasir [Nasir al-din Mahommed], 693-694 (1293-1294).
+  Malik al-'Adil [Zain al-din KITBOGA], 694-696 (1294-1296).
+  Mansur [Husam al-din LAJIN], 696-698 (1296-1298).
+  NASIR MAHOMMED (again), 698-708 (1298-1308).
+  Mozaffar [Rukn al-din Bibars Jashengir], 708-709 (1308-1310).
+  Nasir Mahommed (third time), 709-741 (1310-1341).
+  Mansur [Saif al-din ABU BAKR], 741-742 (1341).
+  Ashraf [Ala'u 'l-din KUCHUK], 742 (1341-1342).
+  Nasir [Shihab al-din Ahmad], 742-743 (1342).
+  Salih 'Imad al-din Isma'il], 743-746 (1342-1345).
+  Kamil [Saif al-din SHA'BAN], 746-747 (1345-1346).
+  Mozaffar [Saif al-din HAJJI], 747-748 (1346-1347).
+  Nasir [Nasir al-din Hasan], 748-752 (1347-1351).
+  Salih [Salah al-din Salih], 752-755 (1351-1354).
+  Nasir [Hasan] (again), 755-762 (1354-1361).
+  Mansur [Salah al-din Mahommed], 762-764 (1361-1363).
+  Ashraf [Nasir al-din Sha'ban], 764-778 (1363-1377).
+  Mansur ['Ala'u 'l-din 'Ali], 778-783 (1377-1381).
+  Salih [Salah al-din Hajji, 783-784 (1381-1382).
+  Barkuk or Barquq (see below), 784-791 (1382-1389).
+  Hajji again, with title of Mozaffar, 791-792 (1389-1390).
+
+    _(e) Burji Mamelukes_, 784-922 (1382-1517).
+
+  Zahir [Saif al-din Barquq], 784-801 (1382-1398) [interrupted by Hajji,
+     791-792].
+  Nasir [Nasir al-din FARAJ], 801-808 (1398-1405).
+  Mansur ['Izz al-din Abdalaziz ('Abd al-'Aziz)], 808-809 (1405-1406).
+  Nasir Faraj (again), 809-815 (1406-1412).
+  'Adil Mosta'in (Abbasid caliph), 815 (1412).
+  Mu'ayyad [Sheikh], 815-824 (1412-1421).
+  Mozaffar [Ahmad], 824 (1421).
+  Zahir [Saif al-din Tatar], 824 (1421).
+  Salih [Nasir al-din Mahommed], 824-825 (1421-1422).
+  Ashraf [Saif al-din Barsbai], 825-842 (1422-1438).
+  'Aziz [Jamal al-din Yusuf], 842 (1438).
+  Zahir [Saif al-din Jakmak], 842-857 (1438-1453).
+  Mansur [Fakhr al-din Othman], 857 (1453).
+  Ashraf [Saif al-din Inal], 857-865 (1453-1461).
+  Mu'ayyad [Shihab al-din Ahmad], 865 (1461).
+  Zahir [Saif al-din Khoshkadam], 865-872 (1461-1467).
+  Zahir [Saif al-din Yelbai or Bilbai], 872 (1467).
+  Zahir [Timurbogha], 872-873 (1467-1468).
+  Ashraf [Saif al-din (KAIT BEY)], 873-901 (1468-1495).
+  Nasir [Mahommed], 901-904 (1495-1498).
+  Zahir [Kansuh], 904-905 (1498-1499).
+  Ashraf [Janbalat or Jan Belat], 905-906 (1499-1501).
+  'Adil Tumanbey, 906 (1501).
+  Ashraf [Kansuh Ghuri], 906-922 (1501-1516).
+  Ashraf [Tumanbey], 922 (1516-1517).
+
+    _(f) Turkish Governors after the Ottoman Conquest._
+
+  Khair Bey, 923 (1517).
+  Mustafa Pasha, 926 (1520).
+  Ahmad, 929 (1523).
+  Qasim, 930 (1524).
+  Ibrahim, 931 (1525).
+  Suleiman, 933 (1527).
+  Dawud, 945 (1538).
+  'Ali, 956 (1549).
+  Mahommed, 961 (1554).
+  Iskandar, 963 (1556).
+  'Ali al-Khadim, 968 (1561).
+  Mustafa, 969 (1561).
+  'Ali al-Sufi, 971 (1563).
+  Mahmud, 973 (1566).
+  Sinan, 975 (1567).
+  Hosain, 980 (1573).
+  Masih, 982 (1575).
+  Hasan al-Khadim, 988 (1580).
+  Ibrahim, 991 (1583).
+  Sinan, 992 (1584).
+  Uwais, 994 (1585).
+  Hafiz Ahmad, 999 (1591).
+  Kurt, 1003 (1595).
+  Sayyid Mahommed, 1004 (1596).
+  Khidr, 1006 (1598).
+  'Ali al-Silahdar, 1009 (1601).
+  Ibrahim, 1012 (1604).
+  Mahommed al-Kurji, 1013 (1605).
+  Hasan, 1014 (1605).
+  Mahommed al-Sufi, 1016 (1607).
+  Ahmad al-Daftardar, 1022 (1613).
+  Mustafa Lafakli, 1026 (1617).
+  Ja'far, 1027 (1618).
+  Mustafa, 1028 (1619).
+  Hosain, 1028 (1619).
+  Mahommed, 1031 (1622).
+  Ibrahim, 1031 (1622).
+  Mustafa, 1032 (1623).
+  'Ali, 1032 (1623).
+  Mustafa, 1032 (1624).
+  Bairam, 1036 (1626).
+  Mahommed, 1037 (1627).
+  Musa, 1040 (1631).
+  Khalil al-Bustanji, 1041 (1631).
+  Ahmad al-Kurji, 1042 (1633).
+  Hosain, 1045 (1636).
+  Mahommed b. Ahmad, 1047 (1638).
+  Mustafa al-Bustanji, 1049 (1639).
+  Maqsud, 1050 (1641).
+  Suyan Bey, 1054 (1644).
+  Ayyub, 1055 (1645).
+  Mahommed b. Haidar, 1057 (1647).
+  Ahmad, 1058 (1648).
+  'Abd al-Rahman, 1061 (1651).
+  Mahommed al-Silahdar, 1062 (1652).
+  Ghazi, 1066 (1655).
+  Omar, 1067 (1652).
+  Ahmad, 1077 (1666).
+  Ibrahim, 1078 (1667).
+  Hosain, 1085 (1674).
+  Hasan al-Janbalat, 1087 (1676).
+  Othman, 1091 (1680).
+  Hasan al-Silahdar, 1099 (1688).
+  Ahmad, 1101 (1690).
+  'Ali Qilij, 1102 (1691).
+  Isma'il, 1107 (1696).
+  Hosain, 1109 (1697).
+  Qara Mahommed or Ahmad, 1111 (1699).
+  Mahommed Rami, 1116 (1704).
+  'Ali Muslim, 1118 (1706).
+  Hosain Ketkhuda, 1119 (1707).
+  Ibrahim Qabudan, 1121 (1709).
+  Khalil, 1122 (1710).
+  Wali, 1123 (1711).
+  'Abidin, 1127 (1715).
+  'Ali Izmirli, 1129 (1717).
+  Rajab, 1130 (1718).
+  Mahommed al-Bashimi, 1132 (1720).
+  'Ali, 1138 (1728).
+  Bakir, 1141 (1729).
+  'Abdallah Kuburlu, 1142 (1729).
+  Mahommed Silahdar, 1144 (1732).
+  Othman Halabi, 1146 (1733).
+  Bakir, 1148 (1735).
+  Mustafa, 1149 (1736).
+  Sulaiman b. al-'Azim, 1152 (1739).
+  'Ali Hakim Oghlu, 1153 (1740).
+  Yahya, 1154 (1741).
+  Mahommed Yedkeshi,  1156 (1743).
+  Mahommed Raghib, 1158 (1745).
+  Ahmad Kuruzir, 1161 (1748).
+  Sharif 'Abdallah, 1163 (1750).
+  Mahommed Amin, 1166 (1753).
+  Mustafa, 1166 (1753).
+  'Ali Hakim Oghlu, 1169 (1756).
+  Mahommed Sa'id, 1171 (1758).
+  Mustafa, 1173 (1759).
+  Ahmad Kamil, 1174 (1761).
+  Bakir, 1175 (1761).
+  Hasan, 1176 (1761).
+  Hamzah, 1179 (1765).
+  Mahommed Raqim, 1181 (1767).
+  Mahommed Urflu, 1182 (1768).
+  Ahmad, 1183 (1770).
+  Qara Khalil, 1184 (1770).
+  Mustafa Nabulsi, 1188 (1774).
+  Ibrahim 'Arabgirli, 1189 (1775).
+  Mahommed 'Izzet, 1190 (1776).
+  Isma'il, 1193 (1779).
+  Mahommed Malik, 1195 (1781).
+  Sharif 'Ali Qassab, 1196 (1782).
+  Mahommed Silahdar, 1198 (1783).
+  Mahommed Yeyen, 1200 (1785).
+  'Abidin Sharif, 1201 (1787).
+  Isma'il Tunisi, 1203 (1788).
+  Salih Qaisarli, 1209 (1794).
+  Abu Bakr Tarabulsi,  1211 (1796).
+
+    _French Occupation._
+
+  Khosrev, 1216 (1802).
+  Tahir, 1218 (1803).
+  Ali Jaza'irli' or Tarabulsi, 1218 (1803).
+  Khorshid, 1219 (1804).
+
+    _(g) Hereditary Pashas (later Khedives), from 1220 (from 1805)._
+
+  Mehemet 'Ali, 1220-1264 (1805-1848).
+  Ibrahim, 1264 (1848).
+  'Abbas I., 1264-1270 (1848-1854).
+  Sa'id, 1270-1280 (1854-1863).
+  Isma'il 1280-1300 (1863-1882).
+  Tewfik, 1300-1309 (1882-1892).
+  Abbas II., 1309 (1892).
+
+(3) _Period under Governors sent from the Metropolis of the eastern
+Caliphate._--The first governor of the newly acquired province was the
+conqueror 'Amr, whose jurisdiction was presently restricted to Lower
+Egypt; Upper Egypt, which was divided into three provinces, being
+assigned to Abdallah b. Sa'd, on whom the third caliph conferred the
+government of Lower Egypt also, 'Amr being recalled, owing to his
+unwillingness to extort from his subjects as much money as would satisfy
+the caliph. In the troubles which overtook the Islamic empire with the
+accession of Othman, Egypt was greatly involved, and it had to be
+reconquered from the adherents of Ali for Moawiya (Mo'awiyah) by 'Amr,
+who in A.H. 38 was rewarded for his services by being reinstated as
+governor, with the right to appropriate the surplus revenue instead of
+sending it as tribute to the metropolis. In the confusion which followed
+on the death of the Omayyad caliph Yazid the Egyptian Moslems declared
+themselves for Abdallah b. Zobair, but their leader was defeated in a
+battle near Ain Shams (December 684) by Merwan b. Hakam (Merwan I.), who
+had assumed the Caliphate, and the conqueror's son Abd al-'Aziz was
+appointed governor. They also declared themselves against the usurper
+Merwan II. in 745, whose lieutenant al-Hautharah had to enter Fostat at
+the head of an army. In 750 Merwan II. himself came to Egypt as a
+fugitive from the Abbasids, but found that the bulk of the Moslem
+population had already joined with his enemies, and was defeated and
+slain in the neighbourhood of Giza in July of the same year. The Abbasid
+general, Salih b. Ali, who had won the victory, was then appointed
+governor.
+
+
+  Coptic revolt.
+
+During the period that elapsed between the Moslem conquest and the end
+of the Omayyad dynasty the nature of the Arab occupation had changed
+from what had originally been intended, the establishment of garrisons,
+to systematic colonization. Conversions of Copts to Islam were at first
+rare, and the old system of taxation was maintained for the greater part
+of the first Islamic century. This was at the rate of a dinar per
+_feddan_, of which the proceeds were used in the first place for the pay
+of the troops and their families, with about half the amount in kind for
+the rations of the army. The process by which the first of these
+contributions was turned into coin is still obscure; it is clear that
+the corn when threshed was taken over by certain public officials who
+deducted the amount due to the state. In general the system is well
+illustrated by the papyri forming the Schott-Reinhardt collection at
+Heidelberg (edited by C.H. Becker, 1906), which contain a number of
+letters on the subject from Qurrah b. Sharik, governor from A.H. 90 to
+96. The old division of the country into districts (_nomoi_) is
+maintained, and to the inhabitants of these districts demands are
+directly addressed by the governor of Egypt, while the head of the
+community, ordinarily a Copt, but in some cases a Moslem, is responsible
+for compliance with the demand. An official called "receiver" (_qabbal_)
+is chosen by the inhabitants of each district to take charge of the
+produce till it is delivered into the public magazines, and receives 5%
+for his trouble. Some further details are to be found in documents
+preserved by the archaeologist Maqrizi, from which it appears that the
+sum for which each district was responsible was distributed over the
+unit in such a way that artisans and tradesmen paid at a rate similar to
+that which was enforced on those employed in agriculture. It is not
+known at what time the practice of having the amount due settled by the
+community was altered into that according to which it was settled by the
+governor, or at what time the practice of deducting from the total
+certain expenses necessary for the maintenance of the community was
+abandoned. The researches of Wellhausen and Becker have made it clear
+that the difference which is marked in later Islam between a poll-tax
+(_jizyah_) and a land-tax (_kharaj_) did not at first exist: the papyri
+of the 1st century know only of the jizyah, which, however, is not a
+poll-tax but a land-tax (in the main). The development of the poll-tax
+imposed on members of tolerated cults seems to be due to various causes,
+chief of them the acquisition of land by Moslems, who were not at first
+allowed to possess any, the conversion of Coptic landowners to Islam,
+and the enforcement (towards the end of the 1st century of Islam) of the
+poll-tax on monks. The treasury could not afford to lose the land-tax,
+which it would naturally forfeit by the first two of the above
+occurrences, and we read of various expedients being tried to prevent
+this loss. Such were making the Christian community to which the
+proselyte had belonged pay as much as it had paid when his lands
+belonged to it, making proselytes pay as before their conversion, or
+compelling them to abandon their lands on conversion. Eventually the
+theory spread that all land paid land-tax, whereas members of tolerated
+sects paid a personal tax also; but during the evolution of this
+doctrine the relations between conquerors and conquered became more and
+more strained, and from the time when the control of the finance was
+separated from the administration of the country (A.D. 715) complaints
+of extortion became serious; under the predecessor of Qurrah, 'Abdallah
+b. 'Abd al-Malik, the country suffered from famine, and under this ruler
+it was unable to recover. Under the finance minister Obaidallah b.
+Habhab (720-734) the first government survey by Moslems was made,
+followed by a census; but before this time the higher administrative
+posts had been largely taken out of the hands of Copts and filled with
+Arabs. The resentment of the Copts finally expressed itself in a revolt,
+which broke out in the year 725, and was suppressed with difficulty. Two
+years after, in order that the Arab element in Egypt might be
+strengthened, a colony of North Arabians (Qaisites) was sent for and
+planted near Bilbeis, reaching the number of 3000 persons; this
+immigration also restored the balance between the two branches of the
+Arab race, as the first immigrants had belonged almost exclusively to
+the South Arabian stock. Meanwhile the employment of the Arabic language
+had been steadily gaining ground, and in 706 it was made the official
+language of the bureaux, though the occasional use of Greek for this
+purpose is attested by documents as late as the year 780. Other revolts
+of the Copts are recorded for the year 739 and 750, the last year of
+Omayyad domination. The outbreaks in all cases are attributed to
+increased taxation.
+
+The Abbasid period was marked at its commencement by the erection of a
+new capital to the north of Fostat, bearing the name _'Askar_ or "camp."
+Apparently at this time the practice of farming the taxes began, which
+naturally led to even greater extortion than before; and a fresh rising
+of the Copts is recorded for the fourth year of Abbasid rule. Governors,
+as will be seen from the list, were frequently changed. The three
+officials of importance whose nomination is mentioned by the historians
+in addition to that of the governor were the commander of the bodyguard,
+the minister of finance and the judge. Towards the beginning of the 3rd
+Islamic century the practice of giving Egypt in fief to a governor was
+resumed by the caliph Mamun, who bestowed this privilege on 'Abdallah b.
+Tahir, who in 827 was sent to recover Alexandria, which for some ten
+years had been held by exiles from Spain. 'Abdallah b. Tahir decided to
+reside at Bagdad, sending a deputy to Egypt to govern for him; and this
+example was afterwards followed. In 828, when Mamun's brother Motasim
+was feudal lord, a violent insurrection broke out in the Hauf,
+occasioned, as usual, by excessive taxation; it was partly quelled in
+the next year by Motasim, who marched against the rebels with an army of
+4000 Turks. The rebellion broke out repeatedly in the following years,
+and in 831 the Copts joined with the Arabs against the government; the
+state of affairs became so serious that the caliph Mamun himself visited
+Egypt, arriving at Fostat in February 832; his general Afshin fought a
+decisive battle with the rebels at Basharud in the Hauf region, at which
+the Copts were compelled to surrender; the males were massacred and the
+women and children sold as slaves.
+
+
+  Turkish governors appointed.
+
+This event finally crushed the Coptic nation, which never again made
+head against the Moslems. In the following year the caliph Motasim, who
+surrounded himself with a foreign bodyguard, withdrew the stipends of
+the Arab soldiers in Egypt; this measure caused some of the Arab tribes
+who had been long settled in Egypt to revolt, but their resistance was
+crushed, and the domination of the Arab element in the country from this
+time gave way to that of foreign mercenaries, who, belonging to one
+nation or another, held it for most of its subsequent history. Egypt was
+given in fief to a Turkish general Ashnas (Ashinas), who never visited
+the country, and the rule of individuals of Turkish origin prevailed
+till the rise of the Fatimites, who for a time interrupted it. The
+presence of Turks in Egypt is attested by documents as early as 808.
+While the governor was appointed by the feudal lord, the finance
+minister continued to be appointed by the caliph. On the death of Ashnas
+in 844 Egypt was given in fief to another Turkish general Itakh, but in
+850 this person fell out of favour, and the fief was transferred to
+Montasir, son of the caliph Motawakkil. In 856 it was transferred from
+him to the vizier Fath b. Khaqan, who for the first time appointed a
+Turkish governor. The chief places in the state were also filled with
+Turks. The period between the rise of the Abbasids and the
+quasi-independent dynasties of Egypt was marked by much religious
+persecution, occasioned by the fanaticism of some of the caliphs, the
+victims being generally Moslem sectarians. (For Egypt under Motawakkil
+see CALIPHATE, § c. par. 10.)
+
+The policy of these caliphs also led to severe measures being taken
+against any members of the Alid family or adherents of their cause who
+were to be found in Egypt.
+
+
+  Tulunid Dynasty.
+
+In the year 868 Egypt was given in fief to a Turkish general Bayikbeg,
+who sent thither as his representative his stepson Ahmad b. Tulun, the
+first founder of a quasi-independent dynasty. This personage was himself
+the son of a Turk who, originally sent as a slave to Bagdad, had risen
+to high rank in the service of the caliphs. Ahmad b. Tulun spent some of
+his early life in Tarsus, and on his return distinguished himself by
+rescuing his caravan, which conveyed treasure belonging to the caliph,
+from brigands who attacked it; he afterwards accompanied the caliph
+Mosta'in into exile, and displayed some honourable qualities in his
+treatment of the fallen sovereign. He found a rival in Egypt in the
+person of Ibn al-Modabbir, the finance minister, who occupied an
+independent position, and who started the practice of surrounding
+himself with an army of his own slaves or freedmen; of these Ibn Tulun
+succeeded in depriving the finance minister, and they formed the nucleus
+of an army by which he eventually secured his own independence.
+Insurrections by adherents of the Alids gave him the opportunity to
+display his military skill; and when in 870 his stepfather died, by a
+stroke of luck the fief was given to his father-in-law, who retained
+Ahmad in the lieutenancy, and indeed extended his authority to
+Alexandria, which had till that time been outside it. The enterprise of
+a usurper in Syria in the year 872 caused the caliph to require the
+presence of Ahmad in that country at the head of an army to quell it;
+and although this army was not actually employed for the purpose, it was
+not disbanded by Ahmad, who on his return founded a fresh city called
+Kata'i', "the fiefs," S.E. of modern Cairo, to house it. On the death of
+Ahmad's father-in-law in the same year, when Egypt was given in fief to
+the caliph's brother Mowaffaq (famous for his defeat of the Zanj), Ahmad
+secured himself in his post by extensive bribery at headquarters; and in
+the following year the administration of the Syrian frontier was
+conferred on him as well. By 875 he found himself strong enough to
+refuse to send tribute to Bagdad, preferring to spend the revenues of
+Egypt on the maintenance of his army and the erection of great
+buildings, such as his famous mosque; and though Mowaffaq advanced
+against him with an army, the project of reducing Ahmad to submission
+had to be abandoned for want of means. In 877 and 878 Ahmad advanced
+into Syria and obtained the submission of the chief cities, and at
+Tarsus entered into friendly relations with the representatives of the
+Byzantine emperor. During his absence his son 'Abbas revolted in Egypt;
+on the news of his father's return he fled to Barca, whence he
+endeavoured to conquer the Aghlabite dominions in the Maghrib; he was,
+however, defeated by the Aghlabite ruler, and returned to Barca, where
+he was again defeated by his father's forces and taken prisoner.
+
+In 882 relations between Ahmad and Mowaffaq again became strained, and
+the former conceived the bold plan of getting the caliph Mo'tamid into
+his power, which, however, was frustrated by Mowaffaq's vigilance; but
+an open rupture was the result, as Mowaffaq formally deprived Ahmad of
+his lieutenancy, while Ahmad equally formally declared that Mowaffaq had
+forfeited the succession. A revolt that broke out at Tarsus caused Ahmad
+to traverse Syria once more in 883, but illness compelled him to return,
+and on the 10th of May 884 he died at his residence in Kata'i'. He was
+the first to establish the claim of Egypt to govern Syria, and from his
+time Egypt grew more and more independent of the Eastern caliphate. He
+appears to have invented the fiction which afterwards was repeatedly
+employed, by which the money spent on mosque-building was supposed to
+have been furnished by discoveries of buried treasure.
+
+He was succeeded by his son Khomaruya, then twenty years of age, who
+immediately after his accession had to deal with an attempt on the part
+of the caliph to recover Syria; this attempt failed chiefly through
+dissensions between the caliph's officers, but partly through the
+ability of Khomaruya's general, who succeeded in winning a battle after
+his master had run away from the field. By 886 Mowaffaq found it
+expedient to grant Khomaruya the possession of Egypt, Syria, and the
+frontier towns for a period of thirty years, and ere long, owing to the
+disputes of the provincial governors, Khomaruya found it possible to
+extend his domain to the Euphrates and even the Tigris. On the death of
+Mowaffaq in 891 the Egyptian governor was able to renew peaceful
+relations with the caliphs, and receive fresh confirmation in his
+possessions for thirty years. The security which he thereby gained gave
+him the opportunity to indulge his taste for costly buildings, parks and
+other luxuries, of which the chroniclers give accounts bordering on the
+fabulous. After the marriage of his daughter to the caliph, which was
+celebrated at enormous expense, an arrangement was made giving the
+Tulunid sovereign the viceroyalty of a region extending from Barca on
+the west to Hit on the east; but tribute, ordinarily to the amount of
+300,000 dinars, was to be sent to the metropolis. His realm enjoyed
+peace till his death in 896, when he fell a victim to some palace
+intrigue at Damascus.
+
+His son and successor Abu'l-'Asakir Jaish was fourteen years old at his
+accession, and being without adequate guidance soon revealed his
+incompetence, which led to his being murdered after a reign of six
+months by his troops, who gave his place to his brother Harun, who was
+of about the same age. In the eight years of his government the Tulunid
+empire contracted, owing to the revolts of the deputies which Harun was
+unable to quell, though in 898 he endeavoured to secure a new lease of
+the sovereignty in Egypt and Syria by a fresh arrangement with the
+caliph, involving an increase of tribute. The following years witnessed
+serious troubles in Syria caused by the Carmathians, which called for
+the intervention of the caliph, who at last succeeded in defeating these
+fanatics; the officer Mahommed b. Solaiman, to whom the victory was due,
+was then commissioned by the caliph to reconquer Egypt from the
+Tulunids, and after securing the allegiance of the Syrian prefects he
+invaded Egypt by sea and land at once. Before the arrival of these
+troops Harun had met his death at the hands of an assassin, or else in
+an affray, and his uncle Shaiban, who was placed on the throne, found
+himself without the means to collect an army fit to grapple with the
+invaders. Fostat was taken by Mahommed b. Solaiman after very slight
+resistance, at the beginning of 905, and after the infliction of severe
+punishment on the inhabitants Egypt was once more put under a deputy,
+'Isa al-Naushari, appointed directly by the caliph.
+
+The old régime was not restored without an attempt made by an adherent
+of the Tulunids to reconquer Egypt ostensibly for their benefit, and for
+a time the caliph's viceroy had to quit the capital. The vigorous
+measures of the authorities at Bagdad speedily quelled this rebellion,
+and the Tulunid palace at Kata'i' was then destroyed in order that there
+might be nothing to remind the Egyptians of the dynasty. In the middle
+of the year 914 Egypt was invaded for the first time by a Fatimite force
+sent by the caliph al-Mahdi 'Obaidallah, now established at Kairawan.
+The Mahdi's son succeeded in taking Alexandria, and advancing as far as
+the Fayum; but once more the Abbasid caliph sent a powerful army to
+assist his viceroy, and the invaders were driven out of the country and
+pursued as far as Barca; the Fatimite caliph, however, continued to
+maintain active propaganda in Egypt. In 919 Alexandria was again seized
+by the Mahdi's son, afterwards the caliph al-Qa'im, and while his forces
+advanced northward as far as Ushmunain (Eshmunain) he was reinforced by
+a fleet which arrived at Alexandria. This fleet was destroyed by a far
+smaller one sent by the Bagdad caliph to Rosetta; but Egypt was not
+freed from the invaders till the year 921, when reinforcements had been
+repeatedly sent from Bagdad to deal with them. The extortions
+necessitated by these wars for the maintenance of armies and the
+incompetence of the viceroys brought Egypt at this time into a miserable
+condition; and the numerous political crises at Bagdad prevented for a
+time any serious measures being taken to improve it. After a struggle
+between various pretenders to the viceroyalty, in which some pitched
+battles were fought, Mahommed b. Tughj, son of a Tulunid prefect of
+Damascus, was sent by the caliph to restore order; he had to force his
+entrance into the country by an engagement with one of the pretenders,
+Ibn Kaighlagh, in which he was victorious, and entered Fostat in August
+935.
+
+
+  Ikshidite Dynasty.
+
+Mahommed b. Tughj was the founder of the Ikshidi dynasty, so called from
+the title Ikshid, conferred on him at his request by the caliph shortly
+after his appointment to the governorship of Egypt; it is said to have
+had the sense of "king" in Ferghana, whence this person's ancestors had
+come to enter the service of the caliph Motasim. He had himself served
+under the governor of Egypt, Takin, whose son he displaced, in various
+capacities, and had afterwards held various governorships in Syria. One
+of the historians represents his appointment to Egypt as effected by
+bribery and even forgery. He united in his person the offices of
+governor and minister of finance, which had been separate since the time
+of the Tulunids. He endeavoured to replenish the treasury not only by
+extreme economy, but by inflicting fines on a vast scale on persons who
+had held offices under his predecessor and others who had rendered
+themselves suspect. The disaffected in Egypt kept up communications with
+the Fatimites, against whom the Ikshid collected a vast army, which,
+however, had first to be employed in resisting an invasion of Egypt
+threatened by Ibn Raiq, an adventurer who had seized Syria; after an
+indecisive engagement at Lajun the Ikshid decided to make peace with Ibn
+Raiq, undertaking to pay him tribute. The favour afterwards shown to Ibn
+Raiq at Bagdad nearly threw the Ikshid into the arms of the Fatimite
+caliph, with whom he carried on a friendly correspondence, one letter of
+which is preserved. He is even said to have given orders to substitute
+the name of the Fatimite caliph for that of the Abbasid in public
+prayer, but to have been warned of the unwisdom of this course. In 941,
+after the death of Ibn Raiq, the Ikshid took the opportunity of invading
+Syria, which the caliph permitted him to hold with the addition of the
+sacred cities of Mecca and Medina, which the Tulunids had aspired to
+possess. He is said at this time to have started (in imitation of Ahmad
+Ibn Tulun) a variety of vexatious enactments similar to those afterwards
+associated with the name of Hakim, e.g. compelling his soldiers to dye
+their hair, and adding to their pay for the purpose.
+
+In the year 944 he was summoned to Mesopotamia to assist the caliph, who
+had been driven from Bagdad by Tuzun and was in the power of the
+Hamdanids; and he proposed, though unsuccessfully, to take the caliph
+with him to Egypt. At this time he obtained hereditary rights for his
+family in the government of that country and Syria. The Hamdanid Saif
+addaula shortly after this assumed the governorship of Aleppo, and
+became involved in a struggle with the Ikshid, whose general, Kafur, he
+defeated in an engagement between Homs and Hamah (Hamath). In a later
+battle he was himself defeated by the Ikshid, when an arrangement was
+made permitting Saif addaula to retain most of Syria, while a prefect
+appointed by the Ikshid was to remain in Damascus. The Buyid ruler, who
+was now supreme at Bagdad, permitted the Ikshid to remain in possession
+of his viceroyalty, but shortly after receiving this confirmation he
+died at Damascus in 946.
+
+The second of this dynasty was the Ikshid's son Unjur, who had been
+proclaimed in his father's time, and began his government under the
+tutelage of the negro Kafur. Syria was immediately overrun by Saif
+addaula, but he was defeated by Kafur in two engagements, and was
+compelled to recognize the overlordship of the Egyptian viceroy. At the
+death of Unjur in 961 his brother Abu'l-Hasan 'Ali was made viceroy with
+the caliph's consent by Kafur, who continued to govern for his chief as
+before. The land was during this period threatened at once by the
+Fatimites from the west; the Nubians from the south, and the Carmathians
+from the east; when the second Ikshidi died in 965, Kafur at first made
+a pretence of appointing his young son Ahmad as his successor, but
+deemed it safer to assume the viceroyalty himself, setting an example
+which in Mameluke times was often followed. He occupied the post little
+more than three years, and on his death in 968 the aforementioned Ahmad,
+called Abu'l-Fawaris, was appointed successor, under the tutelage of a
+vizier named Ibn Furat, who had long served under the Ikshidis. The
+accession of this prince was followed by an incursion of the Carmathians
+into Syria, before whom the Ikshidi governor fled into Egypt, where he
+had for a time to undertake the management of affairs, and arrested Ibn
+Furat, who had proved himself incompetent.
+
+The administration of Ibn Furat was fatal to the Ikshidis and momentous
+for Egypt, since a Jewish convert, Jacob, son of Killis, who had been in
+the Ikshid's service, and was ill-treated by Ibn Furat, fled to the
+Fatimite sovereign, and persuaded him that the time for invading Egypt
+with a prospect of success had arrived, since there was no one in Fostat
+capable of organizing a plan of defence, and the dissensions between the
+Buyids at Bagdad rendered it improbable that any succour would arrive
+from that quarter. The Fatimite caliph Mo'izz li-din allah was also in
+correspondence with other residents in Egypt, where the Alid party from
+the beginning of Abbasid times had always had many supporters; and the
+danger from the Carmathians rendered the presence of a strong government
+necessary. The Fatimite general Jauhar (variously represented as of
+Greek, Slav and Sicilian origin), who enjoyed the complete confidence of
+the Fatimite sovereign, was placed at the head of an army of 100,000
+men--if Oriental numbers are to be trusted--and started from Rakkada at
+the beginning of March 969 with the view of seizing Egypt.
+
+Before his arrival the administration of affairs had again been
+committed to Ibn Furat, who, on hearing of the threatened invasion, at
+first proposed to treat with Jauhar for the peaceful surrender of the
+country; but though at first there was a prospect of this being carried
+out, the majority of the troops at Fostat preferred to make some
+resistance, and an advance was made to meet Jauhar in the neighbourhood
+of Giza. He had little difficulty in defeating the Egyptian army, and on
+the 6th of July 969 entered Fostat at the head of his forces. The name
+of Mo'izz was immediately introduced into public prayer, and coins were
+struck in his name. The Ikshidi governor of Damascus, a cousin of
+Abu'l-Fawaris Ahmad, endeavoured to save Syria, but was defeated at
+Ramleh by a general sent by Jauhar and taken prisoner. Thus the Ikshidi
+Dynasty came to an end, and Egypt was transferred from the Eastern to
+the Western caliphate, of which it furnished the metropolis.
+
+(4) _The Fatimite period_ begins with the taking of Fostat by Jauhar,
+who immediately began the building of a new city, al-Kahira or Cairo, to
+furnish quarters for the army which he had brought. A palace for the
+caliph and a mosque for the army were immediately constructed, the
+latter still famous as al-Azhar, and for many centuries the centre of
+Moslem learning. Almost immediately after the conquest of Egypt, Jauhar
+found himself engaged in a struggle with the Carmathians (q.v.), whom
+the Ikshidi prefect of Damascus had pacified by a promise of tribute;
+this promise was of course not held binding by the Fatimite general
+(Ja'far b. Falah) by whom Damascus was taken, and the Carmathian leader
+al-Hasan b. Ahmad al-A'sam received aid from Bagdad for the purpose of
+recovering Syria to the Abbasids. The general Ja'far, hoping to deal
+with this enemy independently of Jauhar, met the Carmathians without
+waiting for reinforcements from Egypt, and fell in battle, his army
+being defeated. Damascus was taken by the Carmathians, and the name of
+the Abbasid caliph substituted for that of Mo'izz in public worship.
+Hasan al-A'sam advanced from Damascus through Palestine to Egypt,
+encountering little resistance on the way; and in the autumn of 971
+Jauhar found himself besieged in his new city. By a timely sortie,
+preceded by the administration of bribes to various officers in the
+Carmathian host, Jauhar succeeded in inflicting a severe defeat on the
+besiegers, who were compelled to evacuate Egypt and part of Syria.
+
+Meanwhile Mo'izz had been summoned to enter the palace that had been
+prepared for him, and after leaving a viceroy to take charge of his
+western possessions he arrived in Alexandria on the 31st of May 973, and
+proceeded to instruct his new subjects in the particular form of
+religion (Shi'ism) which his family represented. As this was in origin
+identical with that professed by the Carmathians, he hoped to gain the
+submission of their leader by argument; but this plan was unsuccessful,
+and there was a fresh invasion from that quarter in the year after his
+arrival, and the caliph found himself besieged in his capital. The
+Carmathians were gradually forced to retreat from Egypt and then from
+Syria by some successful engagements, and by the judicious use of
+bribes, whereby dissension was sown among their leaders. Mo'izz also
+found time to take some active measures against the Byzantines, with
+whom his generals fought in Syria with varying fortune. Before his death
+he was acknowledged as caliph in Mecca and Medina, as well as Syria,
+Egypt and North Africa as far as Tangier.
+
+In the reign of the second Egyptian Fatimite 'Aziz billah, Jauhar, who
+appears to have been cashiered by Mo'izz, was again employed at the
+instance of Jacob b. Killis, who had been raised to the rank of vizier,
+to deal with the situation in Syria, where a Turkish general Aftakin had
+gained possession of Damascus, and was raiding the whole country; on the
+arrival of Jauhar in Syria the Turks called the Carmathians to their
+aid, and after a campaign of many vicissitudes Jauhar had to return to
+Egypt to implore the caliph himself to take the field. In August 977
+'Aziz met the united forces of Aftakin and his Carmathian ally outside
+Ramleh in Palestine and inflicted a crushing defeat on them, which was
+followed by the capture of Aftakin; this able officer was taken to
+Egypt, and honourably treated by the caliph, thereby incurring the
+jealousy of Jacob b. Killis, who caused him, it is said, to be poisoned.
+This vizier had the astuteness to see the necessity of codifying the
+doctrines of the Fatimites, and himself undertook this task; in the
+newly-established mosque of el-Azhar he got his master to make provision
+for a perpetual series of teachers and students of his manual. It would
+appear, however, that a large amount of toleration was conceded by the
+first two Egyptian Fatimites to the other sects of Islam, and to other
+communities. Indeed at one time in 'Aziz's reign the vizierate of Egypt
+was held by a Christian, Jesus, son of Nestorius, who appointed as his
+deputy in Syria a Jew, Manasseh b. Abraham. These persons were charged
+by the Moslems with unduly favouring their co-religionists, and the
+belief that the Christians of Egypt were in league with the Byzantine
+emperor, and even burned a fleet which was being built for the Byzantine
+war, led to some persecution. Aziz attempted without success to enter
+into friendly relations with the Buyid ruler of Bagdad, 'Adod addaula,
+who was disposed to favour the 'Alids, but caused the claim of the
+Fatimites to descend from 'Ali to be publicly refuted. He then tried to
+gain possession of Aleppo, as the key to 'Irak, but this was prevented
+by the intervention of the Byzantines. His North African possessions
+were maintained and extended by 'Ali, son of Bulukkin, whom Mo'izz had
+left as his deputy; but the recognition of the Fatimite caliph in this
+region was little more than nominal.
+
+His successor _Abu 'Ali al-Mansur_, who reigned under the title
+_al-Hakim bi'amr allah_, came to the throne at the age of eleven, being
+the son of 'Aziz by a Christian mother. He was at first under the
+tutelage of the Slav Burjuwan, whose policy it was to favour the Turkish
+element in the army as against the Maghribine, on which the strength of
+the Fatimites had till then rested; his conduct of affairs was vigorous
+and successful, and he concluded a peace with the Greek emperor. After a
+few years' regency he was assassinated at the instance of the young
+sovereign, who at an early age developed a dislike for control and
+jealousy of his rights as caliph. He is branded by historians as the
+Caligula of the East, who took a delight in imposing on his subjects a
+variety of senseless and capricious regulations, and persecuting
+different sections of them by cruel and arbitrary measures. It is
+observable that some of those with which Hakim is credited are also
+ascribed to Ibn Tulun and the Ikshid (Mahommed b. Tughj). He is perhaps
+best remembered by his destruction of the church of the Holy Sepulchre
+at Jerusalem (1010), a measure which helped to provoke the Crusades, but
+was only part of a general scheme for converting all Christians and Jews
+in his dominions to his own opinions by force. A more reputable
+expedient with the same end in view was the construction of a great
+library in Cairo, with ample provision for students; this was modelled
+on a similar institution at Bagdad. It formed part of the great palace
+of the Fatimites, and was intended to be the centre of their propaganda.
+At times, however, he ordered the destruction of all Christian churches
+in Egypt, and the banishment of all who did not adopt Islam. It is
+strange that in the midst of these persecutions he continued to employ
+Christians in high official positions. His system of persecution was not
+abandoned till in the last year of his reign (1020) he thought fit to
+claim divinity, a doctrine which is perpetuated by the Druses (q.v.),
+called after one Darazi, who preached the divinity of Hakim at the time;
+the violent opposition which this aroused among the Moslems probably led
+him to adopt milder measures towards his other subjects, and those who
+had been forcibly converted were permitted to return to their former
+religion and rebuild their places of worship. Whether his disappearance
+at the beginning of the year 1021 was due to the resentment of his
+outraged subjects, or, as the historians say, to his sister's fear that
+he would bequeath the caliphate to a distant relative to the exclusion
+of his own son, will never be known. In spite of his caprices he appears
+to have shown competence in the management of external affairs;
+enterprises of pretenders both in Egypt and Syria were crushed with
+promptitude; and his name was at times mentioned in public worship in
+Aleppo and Mosul.
+
+His son _Abu'l-Hasan 'Ali_, who succeeded him with the title _al-Zahir
+li'i'zaz din allah_, was sixteen years of age at the time, and for four
+years his aunt Sitt al-Mulk acted as regent; she appears to have been an
+astute but utterly unscrupulous woman. After her death the caliph was in
+the power of various ministers, under whose management of affairs Syria
+was for a time lost to the Egyptian caliphate, and Egypt itself raided
+by the Syrian usurpers, of whom one, Salih b. Mirdas, succeeded in
+establishing a dynasty at Aleppo, which maintained itself after Syria
+and Palestine had been recovered for the Fatimites by Anushtakin
+al-Dizbari at the battle of Ukhuwanah in 1029. His career is said to
+have been marked by some horrible caprices similar to those of his
+father. After a reign of nearly sixteen years he died of the plague.
+
+His successor, _Abu Tamim Ma'add_, who reigned with the title
+_al-Mostansir_, was also an infant at the time of his accession, being
+little more than seven years of age. The power was largely in the hands
+of his mother, a negress, who promoted the interests of her kinsmen at
+court, where indeed even in Hakim's time they had been used as a
+counterpoise to the Maghribine and Turkish elements in the army. In the
+first years of this reign affairs were administered by the vizier
+al-Jarjara'i, by whose mismanagement Aleppo was lost to the Fatimites.
+At his death in 1044 the chief influence passed into the hands of Abu
+Sa'd, a Jew, and the former master of the queen-mother, and at the end
+of four years he was assassinated at the instance of another Jew
+(Sadakah, perhaps Zedekiah, b. Joseph al-Falahi), whom he had appointed
+vizier. In this reign Mo'izz b. Badis, the 4th ruler of the dependent
+Zeirid dynasty which had ruled in the Maghrib since the migration of the
+Fatimite Mo'izz to Egypt, definitely abjured his allegiance (1049) and
+returned to Sunnite principles and subjection to the Bagdad caliphate.
+The Zeirids maintained Mahdia (see ALGIERS), while other cities of the
+Maghrib were colonized by Arab tribes sent thither by the Cairene
+vizier. This loss was more than compensated by the enrolment of Yemen
+among the countries which recognized the Fatimite caliphate through the
+enterprise of one 'Ali b. Mahommed al-Sulaihi, while owing to the
+disputes between the Turkish generals who claimed supremacy at Bagdad,
+Mostansir's name was mentioned in public prayer at that metropolis on
+the 12th of January 1058, when a Turkish adventurer Basasiri was for a
+time in power. The Egyptian court, chiefly owing to the jealousy of the
+vizier, sent no efficient aid to Basasiri, and after a year Bagdad was
+retaken by the Seljuk Toghrul Beg, and the Abbasid caliph restored to
+his rights. In the following years the troubles in Egypt caused by the
+struggles between the Turkish and negro elements in Mostansir's army
+nearly brought the country into the dominion of the Abbasids. After
+several battles of various issue the Turkish commander Nasir addaula b.
+Hamdan got possession of Cairo, and at the end of 1068 plundered the
+caliph's palace; the valuable library which had been begun by Hakim was
+pillaged, and an accidental fire caused great destruction. The caliph
+and his family were reduced to destitution, and Nasir addaula began
+negotiations for restoring the name of the Abbasid caliph in public
+prayer; he was, however, assassinated before he could carry this out,
+and his assassin, also a Turk, appointed vizier. Mostansir then summoned
+to his aid Badr al-Jamali, an Armenian who had displayed competence in
+various posts which he had held in Syria, and this person early in 1074
+arrived in Cairo accompanied by a bodyguard of Armenians; he contrived
+to massacre the chiefs of the party at the time in possession of power,
+and with the title Amir al-Juyush ("prince of the armies") was given by
+Mostansir complete control of affairs. The period of internal
+disturbances, which had been accompanied by famine and pestilence, had
+caused usurpers to spring up in all parts of Egypt, and Badr was
+compelled practically to reconquer the country. During this time,
+however, Syria was overrun by an invader in league with the Seljuk Malik
+Shah, and Damascus was permanently lost to the Fatimites; other cities
+were recovered by Badr himself or his officers. He rebuilt the walls of
+Cairo, of more durable material than that which had been employed by
+Jauhar--a measure rendered necessary partly by the growth of the
+metropolis, but also by the repeated sieges which it had undergone since
+the commencement of Fatimite rule. The time of Mostansir is otherwise
+memorable for the rise of the Assassins (q.v.), who at the first
+supported the claims of his eldest son Nizar to the succession against
+the youngest Ahmed, who was favoured by the family of Badr. When Badr
+died in 1094 his influence was inherited by his son al-Afdal Shahinshah,
+and this, at the death of Mostansir in the same year, was thrown in
+favour of _Ahmed_, who succeeded to the caliphate with the title
+_al-Mosta'li billah_.
+
+
+  The Crusades.
+
+Mosta'li's succession was not carried through without an attempt on the
+part of Nizar to obtain his rights, the title which he chose being
+_al-Mostafa lidin allah_; for a time he maintained himself in
+Alexandria, but the energetic measures of his brother soon brought the
+civil war to an end. The beginning of this reign coincided with the
+beginning of the Crusades, and al-Afdal made the fatal mistake of
+helping the Franks by rescuing Jerusalem from the Ortokids, thereby
+facilitating its conquest by the Franks in 1099. He endeavoured to
+retrieve his error by himself advancing into Palestine, but he was
+defeated in the neighbourhood of Ascalon, and compelled to retire to
+Egypt. Many of the Palestinian possessions of the Fatimites then
+successively fell into the hands of the Franks. After a reign of seven
+years Mosta'li died and the caliphate was given by al-Afdal to an infant
+son, aged five years at the time, who was placed on the throne with the
+title _al-Amir biahkam allah_, and for twenty years was under the
+tutelage of al-Afdal. He made repeated attempts to recover the Syrian
+and Palestinian cities from the Franks, but with poor success. In 1118
+Egypt was invaded by Baldwin I., who burned the gates and the mosques of
+Farama, and advanced to Tinnis, whence illness compelled him to retreat.
+In August 1121 al-Afdal was assassinated in a street of Cairo, it is
+said, with the connivance of the caliph, who immediately began the
+plunder of his house, where fabulous treasures were said to be amassed.
+The vizier's offices were given to one of the caliph's creatures,
+Mahommed b. Fatik al-Bata'ihi, who took the title _al-Ma'mun_. His
+external policy was not more fortunate than that of his predecessor, as
+he lost Tyre to the Franks, and a fleet equipped by him was defeated by
+the Venetians. On the 4th of October 1125 he with his followers was
+seized and imprisoned by order of the Caliph Amir, who was now resolved
+to govern by himself, with the assistance of only subordinate officials,
+of whom two were drawn from the Samaritan and Christian communities. The
+vizier was afterwards crucified with his five brothers. The caliph's
+personal government appears to have been incompetent, and to have been
+marked by extortions and other arbitrary measures. He was assassinated
+in October 1129 by some members of the sect who believed in the claims
+of Nizar, son of Mostansir.
+
+The succeeding caliph, _Abu'l-Maimun 'Abd al-Majid_, who took the title
+_al-Hafiz lidin allah_, was not the son but the cousin of the deceased
+caliph, and of ripe age, being about fifty-eight years old at the time;
+for more than a year he was kept in prison by the new vizier, a son of
+al-Afdal, whom the army had placed in the post; but towards the end of
+1131 this vizier fell by the hand of assassins, and the caliph was set
+free. The reign of Hafiz was disturbed by the factions of the soldiery,
+between which several battles took place, ending in the subjection of
+the caliph for a time to various usurpers, one of these being his own
+son Hasan, who had been provoked to rebel by the caliph nominating a
+younger brother as his successor. For some months the caliph was under
+this son's control; but the latter, who aimed at conciliating the
+people, speedily lost his popularity with the troops, and his father was
+able to get possession of his person and cause him to be poisoned
+(beginning of 1135).
+
+His son _Abu'l-Mansur Isma'il_, who was seventeen years old at the time
+of Hafiz's death, succeeded him with the title _al-Zafir lia'da allah_.
+From this reign to the end of the Fatimite period we have the journals
+of two eminent men, Usamah b. Muniqdh and Umarah of Yemen, which throw
+light on the leading characters. The civil dissensions of Egypt were
+notorious at the time. The new reign began by an armed struggle between
+two commanders for the post of vizier, which in January 1150 was decided
+in favour of the Amir Ibn Sallar. This vizier was presently assassinated
+by the direction of his stepson 'Abbas, who was raised to the vizierate
+in his place. This event was shortly followed by the loss to the
+Fatimites of Ascalon, the last place in Syria which they held; its loss
+was attributed to dissensions between the parties of which the garrison
+consisted. Four years later (April 1154) the caliph was murdered by his
+vizier 'Abbas, according to Usamah, because the caliph had suggested to
+his favourite, the vizier's son, to murder his father; and this was
+followed by a massacre of the brothers of Zafir, followed by the raising
+of his infant son _Abu'l-Qasim 'Isa_ to the throne.
+
+The new caliph, who was not five years old, received the title _al-Fa'iz
+binasr allah_, and was at first in the power of 'Abbas. The women of the
+palace, however, summoned to their aid Tala'i' b. Ruzzik, prefect of
+Ushmunain, at whose arrival in Cairo the troops deserted 'Abbas, who was
+compelled to flee into Syria, taking his son and Usamah with him. 'Abbas
+was killed by the Franks near Ascalon, his son sent in a cage to Cairo
+where he was executed, while Usamah escaped to Damascus.
+
+
+  Frankish invasion.
+
+  Saladin.
+
+The infant Fa'iz, who had been permanently incapacitated by the scenes
+of violence which accompanied his accession, died in 1160. Tala'i' chose
+to succeed him a grandson of Zafir, who was nine years of age, and
+received the title _al-'Adid lidin allah_. Tala'i', who had complete
+control of affairs, introduced the practice of farming the taxes for
+periods of six months instead of a year, which led to great misery, as
+the taxes were demanded twice. His death was brought on by the rigour
+with which he treated the princesses, one of whom, with or without the
+connivance of the caliph, organized a plot for his assassination, and he
+died in September 1160. His son Ruzzik inherited his post and maintained
+himself in it for more than a year, when another prefect of Upper Egypt,
+Shawar b. Mujir, brought a force to Cairo, before which Ruzzik fled, to
+be shortly afterwards captured and beheaded. Shawar's entry into Cairo
+was at the beginning of 1163; after nine months he was compelled to flee
+before another adventurer, an officer in the army named Dirgham.
+Shawar's flight was directed to Damascus, where he was favourably
+received by the prince Nureddin, who sent with him to Cairo a force of
+Kurds under Asad al-din Shirguh. At the same time Egypt was invaded by
+the Franks, who raided and did much damage on the coast. Dirgham was
+defeated and killed, but a dispute then arose between Shawar and his
+Syrian allies for the possession of Egypt. Shawar, being unable to cope
+with the Syrians, demanded help of the Frankish king of Jerusalem
+Amalric (Amauri) I., who hastened to his aid with a large force, which
+united with Shawar's and besieged Shirguh in Bilbeis for three months;
+at the end of this time, owing to the successes of Nureddin in Syria,
+the Franks granted Shirguh a free passage with his troops back to Syria,
+on condition of Egypt being evacuated (October 1164). Rather more than
+two years later Shirguh persuaded Nureddin to put him at the head of
+another expedition to Egypt, which left Syria in January 1167, and,
+entering Egypt by the land route, crossed the Nile at Itfih (Atfih), and
+encamped at Giza; a Frankish army hastened to Shawar's aid. At the
+battle of Babain (April 11th, 1167) the allies were defeated by the
+forces commanded by Shirguh and his nephew Saladin, who was presently
+made prefect of Alexandria, which surrendered to Shirguh without a
+struggle. Saladin was soon besieged by the allies in Alexandria; but
+after seventy-five days the siege was raised, Shirguh having made a
+threatening movement on Cairo, where a Frankish garrison had been
+admitted by Shawar. Terms were then made by which both Syrians and
+Franks were to quit Egypt, though the garrison of Cairo remained; the
+hostile attitude of the Moslem population to this garrison led to
+another invasion at the beginning of 1168 by King Amalric, who after
+taking Bilbeis advanced to Cairo. The caliph, who up to this time
+appears to have left the administration to the viziers, now sent for
+Shirguh, whose speedy arrival in Egypt caused the Franks to withdraw.
+Reaching Cairo on the 6th of January 1169, he was soon able to get
+possession of Shawar's person, and after the prefect's execution, which
+happened some ten days later, he was appointed vizier by the caliph.
+After two months Shirguh died of indigestion (23rd of March 1169), and
+the caliph appointed Saladin as successor to Shirguh; the new vizier
+professed to hold office as a deputy of Nureddin, whose name was
+mentioned in public worship after that of the caliph. By appropriating
+the fiefs of the Egyptian officers and giving them to his Kurdish
+followers he stirred up much ill-feeling, which resulted in a
+conspiracy, of which the object was to recall the Franks with the view
+of overthrowing the new régime; but this conspiracy was revealed by a
+traitor and crushed. Nureddin loyally aided his deputy in dealing with
+Frankish invasions of Egypt, but the anomaly by which he, being a
+Sunnite, was made in Egypt to recognize a Fatimite caliph could not long
+continue, and he ordered Saladin to weaken the Fatimite by every
+available means, and then substitute the name of the Abbasid for his in
+public worship. Saladin and his ministers were at first afraid lest this
+step might give rise to disturbances among the people; but a stranger
+undertook to risk it on the 17th of September 1171, and the following
+Friday it was repeated by official order; the caliph himself died during
+the interval, and it is uncertain whether he ever heard of his
+deposition. The last of the Fatimite caliphs was not quite twenty-one
+years old at the time of his death.
+
+(5) _Ayyubite Period._--Saladin by the advice of his chief Nureddin
+cashiered the Fatimite judges and took steps to encourage the study of
+orthodox theology and jurisprudence in Egypt by the foundation of
+colleges and chairs. On the death of the ex-caliph he was confirmed in
+the prefecture of Egypt as deputy of Nureddin; and on the decease of the
+latter in 1174 (12th of April) he took the title sultan, so that with
+this year the Ayyubite period of Egyptian history properly begins.
+During the whole of it Damascus rather more than Cairo counted as the
+metropolis of the empire. The Egyptian army, which was motley in
+character, was disbanded by the new sultan, whose troops were Kurds.
+Though he did not build a new metropolis he fortified Cairo with the
+addition of a citadel, and had plans made for a new wall to enclose both
+it and the double city; this latter plan was never completed, but the
+former was executed after his death, and from this time till the French
+occupation of Egypt the citadel of Cairo was the political centre of the
+country. It was in 1183 that Saladin's rule over Egypt and North Syria
+was consolidated. Much of Saladin's time was spent in Syria, and his
+famous wars with the Franks belong to the history of the Crusades and to
+his personal biography. Egypt was largely governed by his favourite
+Karakush, who lives in popular legend as the "unjust judge," though he
+does not appear to have deserved that title.
+
+Saladin at his death divided his dominions between his sons, of whom
+'Othman succeeded to Egypt with the title _Malik al-Aziz 'Imal al-ain_.
+The division was not satisfactory to the heirs, and after three years
+(beginning of 1196) the Egyptian sultan conspired with his uncle Malik
+al-'Adil to deprive Saladin's son al-Afdal of Damascus, which had fallen
+to his lot. The war between the brothers was continued with intervals of
+peace, during which al-'Adil repeatedly changed sides: eventually he
+with al-'Aziz besieged and took Damascus, and sent al-Afdal to Sarkhad,
+while al-'Adil remained in possession of Damascus. On the death of
+al-'Aziz on the 29th of November 1198 in consequence of a hunting
+accident, his infant son Mahommed was raised to the throne with the
+title _Malik al-Mansur Nasir al-din_, and his uncle al-Afdal sent for
+from Sarkhad to take the post of regent or Atabeg. So soon as al-Afdal
+had got possession of his nephew's person, he started on an expedition
+for the recovery of Damascus: al-'Adil not only frustrated this, but
+drove him back to Egypt, where on the 25th of January 1200 a battle was
+fought between the armies of the two at Bilbeis, resulting in the defeat
+of al-Afdal, who was sent back to Sarkhad, while al-'Adil assumed the
+regency, for which after a few months he substituted the sovereignty,
+causing his nephew to be deposed. He reigned under the title _Malik
+al-'Adil Saif al-din_. His name was Abu Bakr.
+
+Though the early years of his reign were marked by numerous disasters,
+famine, pestilence and earthquake, of which the second seems to have
+been exceedingly serious, he reunited under his sway the whole of the
+empire which had belonged to his brother, and his generals conquered for
+him parts of Mesopotamia and Armenia, and in 1215 he got possession of
+Yemen. He followed the plan of dividing his empire between his sons, the
+eldest Mahommed, called _Malik al-Kamil_, being his viceroy in Egypt,
+while al-Mu'azzam 'Isa governed Syria, al-Ashraf Musa his eastern and
+al-Malik al-Auhad Ayyub his northern possessions. His attitude towards
+the Franks was at the first peaceful, but later in his reign he was
+compelled to adopt more strenuous measures. His death occurred at Alikin
+(1218), a village near Damascus, while the Franks were besieging
+Damietta--the first operation of the Fifth Crusade--which was defended
+by al-Kamil, to whom his father kept sending reinforcements. The efforts
+of al-Kamil after his accession to the independent sovereignty were
+seriously hindered by the endeavour of an amir named Ahmed b. Mashtub to
+depose him and appoint in his place a brother called al-Fa'iz Sabiq
+al-din Ibrahim: this attempt was frustrated by the timely interposition
+of al-Mu'azzam 'Isa, who came to Egypt to aid his brother in February
+1219, and compelled al-Fa'iz to depart for Mosul. After a siege of
+sixteen and a half months Damietta was taken by the Franks on Tuesday
+the 6th of November 1219; al-Kamil thereupon proclaimed the Jihad, and
+was joined at his fortified camp, afterwards the site of Mansura, by
+troops from various parts of Egypt, Syria and Mesopotamia, including the
+forces of his brothers 'Isa and Musa. With these allies, and availing
+himself of the advantages offered by the inundation of the Nile,
+al-Kamil was able to cut off both the advance and the retreat of the
+invaders, and on the 31st of August 1221 a peace was concluded, by which
+the Franks evacuated Egypt.
+
+For some years the dominions of al-'Adil remained divided between his
+sons: when the affairs of Egypt were settled, al-Kamil determined to
+reunite them as before, and to that end brought on the Sixth Crusade.
+Various cities in Palestine and Syria were yielded to Frederick II. as
+the price of his help against the son of Mu'azzam 'Isa, who reigned at
+Damascus with the title of Malik al-Nasir. About 1231-32 Kamil led a
+confederacy of Ayyubite princes against the Seljuk Kaikobad into Asia
+Minor, but his allies mistrusted him and victory rested with Kaikobad
+(see SELJUKS). Before Kamil's death he was mentioned in public prayer at
+Mecca as lord of Mecca (Hejaz), Yemen, Zabid, Upper and Lower Egypt,
+Syria and Mesopotamia.
+
+At his death (May 8th, 1238) at Damascus, his son Abu Bakr was appointed
+to succeed with the title _Malik al-'Adil Saif al-din_; but his elder
+brother Malik al-Salih Najm al-din Ayyub, having got possession of
+Damascus, immediately started for Egypt, with the view of adding that
+country to his dominions: meanwhile his uncle Isma'il, prince of Hamath,
+with the prince of Homs, seized Damascus, upon hearing which the troops
+of Najm al-din deserted him at Nablus, when he fell into the hands of
+Malik al-Nasir, prince of Kerak, who carried him off to that city and
+kept him a prisoner there for a time; after which he was released and
+allowed to return to Nablus. On the 31st of May 1240 the new sultan was
+arrested at Bilbeis by his own amirs, who sent for Najm al-din to
+succeed him; and on the 19th of June of the same year Najm al-din
+entered Cairo as sultan, and imprisoned his brother in the citadel,
+where he died in 1248. Meanwhile in 1244 Jerusalem had been finally
+wrested from the Franks. The administration of Najm al-din is highly
+praised by Ibn Khallikan, who lived under it. He made large purchases of
+slaves (Mamelukes) for his army, and when the inhabitants of Cairo
+complained of their lawlessness, he built barracks for them on the
+island of Roda (Rauda), whence they were called Bahri or Nile Mamelukes,
+which became the name of the first dynasty that originated from them.
+Much of his time was spent in campaigns in Syria, where the other
+Ayyubites allied themselves against him with the Crusaders, whereas he
+accepted the services of the Khwarizmians: eventually he succeeded in
+recovering most of the Syrian cities. His name is commemorated by the
+town of Salihia, which he built in the year 1246 as a resting-place for
+his armies on their marches through the desert from Egypt to Palestine.
+In 1249 he was recalled from the siege of Homs by the news of the
+invasion of Egypt by Louis IX. (the Seventh Crusade), and in spite of
+illness he hastened to Ushmum Tanna, in the neighbourhood of Damietta,
+which he provisioned for a siege. Damietta was taken on the 6th of June
+1249, owing to the desertion of his post by the commander Fakhr ud-din,
+and the Banu Kinanah, to whom the defence of the place had been
+entrusted: fifty-four of their chieftains were afterwards executed by
+the sultan for this proceeding. On the 22nd of November the sultan died
+of disease at Mansura, but his death was carefully concealed by the
+amirs Lajin and Aktai, acting in concert with the Queen Shajar al-durr,
+till the arrival from Syria of the heir to the throne, _Turanshah_, who
+was proclaimed some four months later. At the battle of Fariskur, 6th of
+April 1250, the invaders were utterly routed and the French king fell
+into the hands of the Egyptian sultan. The Egyptian authorities now
+resolved to raze Damietta, which, however, was rebuilt shortly after.
+The sultan, who himself had had no share in the victory, advanced after
+it from Mansura to Fariskur, where his conduct became menacing to the
+amirs who had raised him to the throne, and to Shajar al-durr; she in
+revenge organized an attack upon him which was successful, fire, water,
+and steel contributing to his end.
+
+(6) _Period of Bahri Mamelukes._--The dynasties that succeeded the
+Ayyubites till the conquest of Egypt by the Ottomans bore the title
+Dynasties of the Turks, but are more often called Mameluke dynasties,
+because the sultans were drawn from the enfranchised slaves who
+constituted the court, and officered the army. The family of the fourth
+of these sovereigns, Ka'a'un (Qala'un), reigned for 110 years, but
+otherwise no sultan was able to found a durable dynasty: after the death
+of a sultan he was usually succeeded by an infant son, who after a short
+time was dethroned by a new usurper.
+
+After the death of the Sultan Turanshah, his step-mother at first was
+raised to the vacant throne, when she committed the administration of
+affairs to the captain of the retainers, Aibek; but the rule of a queen
+caused scandal to the Moslem world, and Shajar al-durr gave way to this
+sentiment by marrying Aibek and allowing the title sultan to be
+conferred on him instead of herself. For policy's sake, however, Aibek
+nominally associated with himself on the throne a scion of the Ayyubite
+house, Malik al-Ashraf Musa, who died in prison (1252 or 1254). Aibek
+meanwhile immediately became involved in war with the Ayyubite Malik
+al-Nasir, who was in possession of Syria, with whom the caliph induced
+him after some indecisive actions to make peace: he then successfully
+quelled a mutiny of Mamelukes, whom he compelled to take refuge with the
+last Abbasid caliph Mostasim in Bagdad and elsewhere. On the 10th of
+April 1257 Aibek was murdered by his wife Shajar al-durr, who was
+indignant at his asking for the hand of another queen: but Aibek's
+followers immediately avenged his death, placing on the throne his
+infant son _Malik al-Mansur_, who, however, was almost immediately
+displaced by his guardian _Kotuz_, on the plea that the Mongol danger
+necessitated the presence of a grown man at the head of affairs. In 1260
+the Syrian kingdom of al-Nasir was destroyed by Hulaku (Hulagu), the
+great Mongol chief, founder of the Ilkhan Dynasty (see MONGOLS), who,
+having finally overthrown the caliph of Bagdad (see CALIPHATE, sect. c.
+§ 37), also despatched a threatening letter to Kotuz; but later in the
+same year Syria was invaded by Kotuz, who defeated Hulagu's lieutenant
+at the battle of 'Ain Jalut (3rd of September 1260), in consequence of
+which event the Syrian cities all rose against the Mongols, and the
+Egyptian sultan became master of the country with the exception of such
+places as were still held by the Crusaders.
+
+
+  Rule of Bibars.
+
+  Abbasid caliphate revived.
+
+Before Kotuz had reigned a year he was murdered at Salihia by his
+lieutenant Bibars (October 23rd, 1260), who was piqued, it is said, at
+the governorship of Aleppo being withheld from him. The sovereignty was
+seized by this person with the title of _Malik al-Qahir_, presently
+altered to _al-Zahir_. He had originally been a slave of Malik al-Salih,
+had distinguished himself at the battle after which Louis IX. was
+captured, and had helped to murder Turanshah. Sultan Bibars, who proved
+to be one of the most competent of the Bahri Mamelukes, made Egypt the
+centre of the Moslem world by re-establishing in theory the Abbasid
+caliphate, which had lapsed through the taking of Bagdad by Hulagu,
+followed by the execution of the caliph. Bibars recognized the claim of
+a certain Abu'l-Qasim Ahmed to be the son of Zahir, the 35th Abbasid
+caliph, and installed him as Commander of the Faithful at Cairo with the
+title _al-Mostansir billah_. Mostansir then proceeded to confer on
+Bibars the title sultan, and to address to him a homily, explaining his
+duties. This document is preserved in the MS. life of Bibars, and
+translated by G. Weil. The sultan appears to have contemplated restoring
+the new caliph to the throne of Bagdad: the force, however, which he
+sent with him for the purpose of reconquering Irak was quite
+insufficient for the purpose, and Mostansir was defeated and slain. This
+did not prevent Bibars from maintaining his policy of appointing an
+Abbasid for the purpose of conferring legitimacy on himself; but he
+encouraged no further attempts at re-establishing the Abbasids at
+Bagdad, and his principle, adopted by successive sultans, was that the
+caliph should not leave Cairo except when accompanying the sultan on an
+expedition.
+
+The reign of Bibars was spent largely in successful wars against the
+Crusaders, from whom he took many cities, notably Safad, Caesarea and
+Antioch; the Armenians, whose territory he repeatedly invaded, burning
+their capital Sis; and the Seljukids of Asia Minor. He further reduced
+the Isma'ilians or Assassins, whose existence as a community lasted on
+in Syria after it had nearly come to an end in Persia. He made Nubia
+tributary, therein extending Moslem arms farther south than they had
+been extended by any previous sultan. His authority was before his death
+recognized all over Syria (with the exception of the few cities still in
+the power of the Franks), over Arabia, with the exception of Yemen, on
+the Euphrates from Birah to Kerkesia (Circesium) on the Chaboras
+(Khabur), whilst the amirs of north-western Africa were tributary to
+him. His successes were won not only by military and political ability,
+but also by the most absolute unscrupulousness, neither flagrant perjury
+nor the basest treachery being disdained. He was the first sultan who
+acknowledged the equal authority of the four schools of law, and
+appointed judges belonging to each in Egypt and Syria; he was thus able
+to get his measures approved by one school when condemned by another.
+
+
+  Kala'un.
+
+On the 1st of July 1277 Bibars died, and the events that followed set an
+example repeatedly followed during the period of the Mamelukes. The
+sultan's son _Malik al-Sa'id_ ascended the throne; but within little
+more than two years he was compelled to abdicate in favour of his
+father-in-law _Kala'un_, a Mameluke who had risen high in the former
+sovereign's service. The accession of Kala'un was also marked by an
+attempt on the part of the governor of Damascus to form Syria into an
+independent kingdom, an attempt frequently imitated on similar
+occasions. The Syrian forces were defeated at the battle of Jazurah
+(April 26th, 1280) and Kala'un resumed possession of the country; but
+the disaffected Syrians entered into relations with the Mongols, who
+proceeded to invade Syria, but were finally defeated by Kala'un on the
+30th of October 1281 under the walls of Homs (Emesa).
+
+The conversion to Islam of Nikudar Ahmad, the third of the Ilkhan rulers
+of Persia, and the consequent troubles in the western Mongol empire, let
+to a suspension of hostilities between Egypt and the Ilkhans (see
+PERSIA: _History_, § B), though the latter did not cease to agitate in
+Europe for a renewal of the Crusades, with little result. Kala'un,
+without pursuing any career of active conquest, did much to consolidate
+his dominions, and especially to extend Egyptian commerce, for which
+purpose he started passports enabling merchants to travel with safety
+through Egypt and Syria as far as India. After the danger from the
+Mongols had ceased, however, Kala'un directed his energies towards
+capturing the last places that remained in the hands of the Franks, and
+proceeded to take Markab, Latakia, and Tripoli (April 26th, 1289). In
+1290 he planned an attack on Acre, but died (November 10th) in the
+middle of all his preparations. Under Kala'un we first hear of the
+Burjite Mamelukes, who owe their name to the citadel (Burj) of Cairo,
+where 3700 of the whole number of 12,000 Mamelukes maintained by this
+sovereign were quartered. He also set an example, frequently followed,
+of the practice of dismissing all non-Moslems from government posts:
+this was often done by his successors with the view of conciliating the
+Moslems, but it was speedily found that the services of the Jewish and
+Christian clerks were again required. He further founded a hospital for
+clinical research on a scale formerly unknown.
+
+
+  Malik al-Nasir.
+
+  Mongol Wars.
+
+  Decline of the Bahri power.
+
+Kala'un was followed by his son _Khalil_ (_Malik al-Ashraf Salah
+al-din_), who carried out his father's policy of driving the Franks out
+of Syria and Palestine, and proceeded with the siege of Acre, which he
+took (May 18th, 1291) after a siege of forty-three days. The capture and
+destruction of this important place were followed by the capture of
+Tyre, Sidon, Haifa, Athlit and Beirut, and thus Syria was cleared of the
+Crusaders. He also planned an expedition against the prince of Lesser
+Armenia, which was averted by the surrender of Behesna, Marash and Tell
+Hamdun. The disputes between his favourite, the vizier Ibn al-Sa'lus,
+and his viceroy Baidara, led to his being murdered by the latter
+(December 12th, 1293), who was proclaimed sultan, but almost immediately
+fell a victim to the vengeance of the deceased sultan's party, who
+placed a younger son of Kala'un, _Mahommed Malik al-Nasir_, on the
+throne. This prince had the singular fortune of reigning three times,
+being twice dethroned: he was first installed on the 14th of December
+1293, when he was nine years old, and the affairs of the kingdom were
+undertaken by a cabinet, consisting of a vizier ('Alam al-din Sinjar), a
+viceroy (Kitboga), a war minister (Husam al-din Lajin al-Rumi), a
+prefect of the palace (Rokneddin Bibars Jashengir) and a secretary of
+state (Rokneddin Bibars Mansuri). This cabinet naturally split into
+rival camps, in consequence of which Kitboga, himself a Mongol, with the
+aid of other Mongols who had come into Egypt after the battle of Homs,
+succeeded in ousting his rivals, and presently, with the aid of the
+surviving assassins of the former sultan, compelling Malik al-Nasir to
+abdicate in his favour (December 1st, 1294). The usurper was, however,
+able to maintain himself for two years only, famine and pestilence which
+prevailed in Egypt and Syria during his reign rendering him unpopular,
+while his arbitrary treatment of the amirs also gave offence. He was
+dethroned in 1296, and one of the murderers of Khalil, Husam al-din
+_Lajin_, son-in-law of the sultan Bibars and formerly governor of
+Damascus, installed in his palace (November 26th, 1296). It had become
+the practice of the Egyptian sultans to bestow all offices of importance
+on their own freedmen (Mamelukes) to the exclusion of the older amirs,
+whom they could not trust so well, but who in turn became still more
+disaffected. Husam al-din fell a victim to the jealousy of the older
+amirs whom he had incensed by bestowing arbitrary power on his own
+Mameluke Mengutimur, and was murdered on the 16th of January 1299. His
+short reign was marked by some fairly successful incursions into
+Armenia, and the recovery of the fortresses Marash and Tell Hamdun,
+which had been retaken by the Armenians. He also instituted a fresh
+survey and division of land in Egypt and Syria, which occasioned much
+discontent. After his murder the deposed sultan Malik al-Nasir, who had
+been living in retirement at Kerak, was recalled by the army and
+reinstated as sultan in Cairo (February 7th, 1299), though still only
+fourteen years of age, so that public affairs were administered not by
+him, but by Salar the viceroy, and Bibars Jashengir, prefect of the
+palace. The 7th Ilkhan, Ghazan Mahmud, took advantage of the disorder in
+the Mameluke empire to invade Syria in the latter half of 1299, when his
+forces inflicted a severe defeat on those of the new sultan, and seized
+several cities, including the capital Damascus, of which, however, they
+were unable to storm the citadel; in 1300, when a fresh army was
+collected in Egypt, the Mongols evacuated Damascus and made no attempt
+to secure their other conquests. The fear of further Mongolian invasion
+led to the imposition of fresh taxes in both Egypt and Syria, including
+one of 33% on rents, which occasioned many complaints. The invasion did
+not take place till 1303, when at the battle of Marj al-Saffar (April
+20th) the Mongols were defeated. This was the last time that the Ilkhans
+gave the Egyptian sultans serious trouble; and in the letter written in
+the sultan's name to the Ilkhan announcing the victory, the former
+suggested that the caliphate of Bagdad should be restored to the titular
+Abbasid caliph who had accompanied the Egyptian expedition, a suggestion
+which does not appear to have led to any actual steps being taken. The
+fact that the Mongols were in ostensible alliance with Christian princes
+led to a renewal by the sultan of the ordinances against Jews and
+Christians which had often been abrogated, as often renewed and again
+fallen into abeyance; and their renewal led to missions from various
+Christian princes requesting milder terms for their co-religionists. The
+amirs Salar and Bibars having usurped the whole of the sultan's
+authority, he, after some futile attempts to free himself of them, under
+the pretext of pilgrimage to Mecca, retired in March 1309 to Kerak,
+whence he sent his abdication to Cairo; in consequence of which, on the
+5th of April 1309, _Bibars Jashengir_ was proclaimed sultan, with the
+title _Malik al-Mozaffar_. This prince was originally a freedman of
+Kala'un, and was the first Circassian who ascended the throne of Egypt.
+Before the year was out the new sultan had been rendered unpopular by
+the occurrence of a famine, and Malik al-Nasir was easily able to induce
+the Syrian amirs to return to his allegiance, in consequence of which
+Bibars in his turn abdicated, and Malik al-Nasir re-entered Cairo as
+sovereign on the 5th of March 1310. He soon found the means to execute
+both Bibars and Salar, while other amirs who had been eminent under the
+former régime fled to the Mongols. The relations between their Ilkhan
+and the Egyptian sultan continued strained, and the 8th Ilkhan Oeljeitu
+(1304-1316) addressed letters to Philip the Fair and the English king
+Edward I. (answered by Edward II. in 1307), desiring aid against Malik
+al-Nasir; and for many years the courts of the sultan and the Ilkhan
+continued to be the refuge of malcontents from the other kingdom.
+Finally in 1322 terms of peace and alliance were agreed on between the
+sultan and Abu Sa'id the 9th Ilkhan. The sultan also entered into
+relations with the Mongols of the Golden Horde and in 1319 married a
+daughter of the reigning prince Uzbeg Khan (see MONGOLS: _Golden
+Horde_). Much of Malik al-Nasir's third administration was spent in
+raids into Nubia, where he endeavoured to set up a creature of his own
+as sovereign, in attempts at bringing the Bedouins of south-eastern
+Egypt into subordination, and in persecuting the Nosairis, whose heresy
+became formidable about this time. Like other Egyptian sultans he made
+considerable use of the Assassins, 124 of whom were sent by him into
+Persia to execute Kara Sonkor, at one time governor of Damascus, and one
+of the murderers of Malik al-Ashraf; but they were all outwitted by the
+exile, who was finally poisoned by the Ilkhan in recompense for a
+similar service rendered by the Egyptian sultan. For a time Malik
+al-Nasir was recognized as suzerain in north Africa, the Arabian Irak,
+and Asia Minor, but he was unable to make any permanent conquests in any
+of these countries. He brought Medina, which had previously been
+governed by independent sherifs, to acknowledge his authority. His
+diplomatic relations were more extensive than those of any previous
+sultan, and included Bulgarian, Indian, and Abyssinian potentates, as
+well as the pope, the king of Aragon and the king of France. He appears
+to have done his utmost to protect his Christian subjects, incurring
+thereby the reproaches of the more fanatical Moslems, especially in the
+year 1320 when owing to incendiarism in Cairo there was danger of a
+general massacre of the Christian population. His internal
+administration was marked by gross extravagance, which led to his
+viziers being forced to practise violent extortion for which they
+afterwards suffered. He paid considerable attention to sheep-breeding
+and agriculture, and by a canal which he had dug from Fuah to Alexandria
+not only assisted commerce but brought 100,000 feddans under
+cultivation. His taste for building and street improvement led to the
+beautifying of Cairo, and his example was followed by the governors of
+other great cities in the empire, notably Aleppo and Damascus. He paid
+exceptionally high prices for Mamelukes, many of whom were sold by their
+Mongol parents to his agents, and accustomed them to greater luxury than
+was usual under his predecessors. In 1315 he instituted a survey of
+Egypt, and of the twenty-four parts into which it was divided ten were
+assigned to the sultan and fourteen to the amirs and the army. He took
+occasion to abolish a variety of vexatious imposts, and the new budget
+fell less heavily on the Christians than the old. Among the literary
+ornaments of his reign was the historian and geographer Isma'il Abulfeda
+(q.v.), to whom Malik al-Nasir restored the government of Hamath, which
+had belonged to his ancestors, and even gave the title sultan. He died
+on the 7th of June 1341. The son, _Abu Bakr_, to whom he had left the
+throne, was able to maintain himself only a few months on it, being
+compelled to abdicate on the 4th of August 1341 in favour of his infant
+brother _Kuchuk_; the revolution was brought about by Kausun, a powerful
+Mameluke of the preceding monarch. This person's authority was, however,
+soon overthrown by a party formed by the Syrian prefects, and on the
+11th of January _Malik al-Nasir Ahmad_, an elder son of the former
+sultan of the same title, was installed in his place, though he did not
+actually arrive in Cairo till the 6th of November, being unwilling to
+leave Kerak, where he had been living in retirement. After a brief
+sojourn in Cairo he speedily returned thither, thereby forfeiting his
+throne, which was conferred by the amirs on his brother _Isma'il
+al-Malik al-Salih_ (June 27th, 1342). This sultan was mainly occupied
+during his short reign with besieging and taking Kerak, whither Ahmad
+had taken refuge, and himself died on the 3rd of August 1345, when
+another son of Malik al-Nasir, named _Sha'ban_, was placed on the
+throne. The constant changes of sultan led to great disorder in the
+provinces, and many of the subject principalities endeavoured to shake
+off the Egyptian yoke. Sha'ban proved no more competent than his
+predecessors, being given to open debauchery and profligacy, an example
+followed by his amirs; and fresh discontent led to his being deposed by
+the Syrian amirs, when his brother _Hajji_ was proclaimed sultan in his
+place (September 18th, 1346). Hajji was deposed and killed on the 10th
+of December 1347, and another infant son of Malik al-Nasir, _Hasan_, who
+took his father's title, was proclaimed, the real power being shared by
+three amirs, Sheikhun, Menjek and Yelbogha Arus. During this reign
+(1348-1349) Egypt was visited by the "Black Death," which is said to
+have carried off 900,000 of the inhabitants of Cairo and to have raged
+as far south as Assuan. Towards the beginning of 1351 the sultan got rid
+of his guardians and attempted to rule by himself; but though successful
+in war, his arbitrary measures led to his being dethroned on the 21st of
+August 1351 by the amirs, who proclaimed his brother Salih with the
+title of _Malik al-Salih_. He too was only fourteen years of age. The
+power was contested for by various groups of amirs, whose struggles
+ended with the deposition of the sultan Salih on the 20th of October
+1354, and the reinstatement of his brother _Hasan_, who was again
+dethroned on the 16th of March 1361 by an amir Yelbogha, whom he had
+offended, and who, having got possession of the sultan's person,
+murdered him. The next day a son of the dethroned sultan Hajji was
+proclaimed sultan with the title _Malik al-Mansur_. On the 29th of May
+1363 this sultan was also dethroned on the ground of incompetence, and
+his place was given to another grandson of Malik al-Nasir, _Sha'ban_,
+son of Hosain, then ten years old. The amir Yelbogha at first held all
+real power and is said to have acquired a degree of authority which no
+other subject ever held. During this reign, on the 8th of October 1365,
+a landing was effected at Alexandria by a Frankish fleet under Peter I.
+of Cyprus, which presently took possession of the city; the Franks were
+speedily compelled to embark again after plundering the city, for which
+compensation was afterwards demanded by Yelbogha from the Christian
+population of Egypt and Syria. Alexandria was further made the seat of a
+viceroy, having previously only had a prefect. On the 11th of December
+1366 Yelbogha was himself attacked by the sultan, captured and slain.
+His successor in the office of first minister was a mere tool in the
+hands of his Mamelukes, who compelled him to institute and depose
+governors, &c., at their pleasure. In 1374 the Egyptians raided Cilicia
+and captured Leo VI., prince of Lesser Armenia, which now became an
+Egyptian province with a Moslem governor. On the 15th of March 1377 the
+sultan was murdered by the Mamelukes, owing to his refusing a largess of
+money which they demanded. The infant son of the late sultan _'Ali_, a
+lad of eight years, was proclaimed with the title _Malik al-Mansur_; the
+power was in the hands of the ministers Kartai and Ibek, the latter of
+whom overthrew the former with the aid of his own Mamelukes, Berekeh and
+Barkuk. An insurrection in Syria which spread to Egypt presently caused
+the fall of Ibek, and led to the occupation of the highest posts by the
+Circassian freedmen Berekeh and Barkuk, of whom the latter ere long
+succeeded in ousting the former and usurping the sultan's place; on the
+19th of May 1381, when the sultan 'Ali died, his place was given to an
+infant brother Hajji, but on the 26th of November 1382, _Barkuk_ set
+this child aside and had himself proclaimed sultan (with the title
+_Malik al-Zahir_), thereby ending the Bahri dynasty and commencing that
+of the Circassians. For a short period, however, Hajji was restored,
+when on the 1st of June 1389 Cairo was taken by Yelbogha, governor of
+Damascus, and Barkuk expelled; Hajji reigned at first under the
+guardianship of Yelbogha, who was then overthrown by Mintash; Barkuk,
+who had been relegated to Kerak, succeeded in again forming a party, and
+in a battle fought at Shakhab, January 1390, succeeded in gaining
+possession of the person of the sultan Hajji, and on the 21st of January
+he was again proclaimed sultan in Cairo.
+
+
+  Timur in Syria.
+
+  Wars with European Powers.
+
+(7) _Period of Burji Mamelukes._--Barkuk presently entered into
+relations with the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I., and by slaying an envoy of
+Timur incurred the displeasure of the world-conqueror; and in 1394 led
+an army into Syria with the view of restoring the Jelairid Ilkhan Ahmad
+to Bagdad (as Barkuk's vassal), and meeting the Mongol invasion. Barkuk,
+however, died (June 20th, 1399) before Timur had time to invade Syria.
+According to the custom that had so often proved disastrous, a young son
+of Barkuk, _Faraj_, then aged thirteen, was appointed sultan under the
+guardianship of two amirs. Incursions were immediately made by the
+Ottoman sultan into the territory of Egyptian vassals at Derendeh and
+Albistan (Ablestin), and Malatia was besieged by his forces. Timur, who
+was at this time beginning his campaign against Bayezid, turned his
+attention first to Syria, and on the 30th of October 1400 defeated the
+Syrian amirs near Aleppo, and soon got possession of the city and the
+citadel. He proceeded to take Hamah, Homs (Emesa) and other towns, and
+on the 20th of December started for Damascus. An endeavour was made by
+the Egyptian sultan to relieve Damascus, but the news of an insurrection
+in Cairo caused him to retire and leave the place to its fate. In the
+first three months of 1401 the whole of Northern Syria suffered from
+Timur's marauders. In the following year (September 29th, 1402) Timur
+who had in the interval inflicted a crushing defeat on the Ottoman
+sultan, sent to demand homage from Faraj, and his demand was readily
+granted, together with the delivery of the princes who had sought refuge
+from Timur in Egyptian territory. The death of Timur in February 1405
+restored Egyptian authority in Syria, which, however, became a
+rendezvous for all who were discontented with the rule of Faraj and his
+amirs, and two months after Timur's death was in open rebellion against
+Faraj. Although Faraj succeeded in defeating the rebels, he was
+compelled by insubordination on the part of his Circassian Mamelukes to
+abdicate (September 20th, 1405), when his brother _Abd al-al-'aziz_ was
+proclaimed with the title _Malik al-Mansur_; after two months this
+prince was deposed, and Faraj, who had been in hiding, recalled. Most of
+his reign was, however, occupied with revolts on the part of the Syrian
+amirs, to quell whom he repeatedly visited Syria; the leaders of the
+rebels were the amirs Newruz and Sheik Mahmudi, afterwards sultan. Owing
+to disturbances and misgovernment the population of Egypt and Syria is
+said to have shrunk to a third in his time, and he offended public
+sentiment not only by debauchery, but by having his image stamped on his
+coins. On the 23rd of May 1412, after being defeated and shut up in
+Damascus, he was compelled by Sheik Mahmudi to abdicate, and an Abbasid
+caliph, Mosta'in, was proclaimed sultan, only to be forced to abdicate
+on the 6th of November of the same year in _Sheik's_ favour, who took
+the title _Malik al-Mu'ayyad_, his colleague Newruz having been
+previously sent to Syria, where he was to be autocrat by the terms of
+their agreement. In the struggle which naturally followed between the
+two, Newruz was shut up in Damascus, defeated and slain. Sheik himself
+invaded Asia Minor and forced the Turkoman states to acknowledge his
+suzerainty. After the sultan's return they soon rebelled, but were again
+brought into subjection by Sheik's son Ibrahim; his victories excited
+the envy of his father, who is said to have poisoned him. Sheik himself
+died a few months after the decease of his son (January 13th, 1421), and
+another infant son, _Ahmad_, was proclaimed with the title _Malik
+al-Mozaffar_, the proclamation being followed by the usual dissensions
+between the amirs, ending with the assumption of supreme power by the
+amir _Tatar_, who, after defeating his rivals, on the 29th of August
+1421 had himself proclaimed sultan with the title _Malik al-Zahir_.
+This usurper, however, died on the 30th of November of the same year,
+leaving the throne to an infant son _Mohammed_, who was given the title
+_Malik al-Salih_; the regular intrigues between the amirs followed,
+leading to his being dethroned on the following 1st of April 1422, when
+the amir appointed to be his tutor, _Barsbai_, was proclaimed sultan
+with the title _Malik al-Ashraf_. This sultan avenged the attacks on
+Alexandria repeatedly made by Cyprian ships, for he sent a fleet which
+burned Limasol, and another which took Famagusta (August 4th, 1425), but
+failed in the endeavour to annex the island permanently. An expedition
+sent in the following year (1426) succeeded in taking captive the king
+of Cyprus, who was brought to Cairo and presently released for a ransom
+of 200,000 dinars, on condition of acknowledging the suzerainty of the
+Egyptian sultan and paying him an annual tribute. Barsbai appears to
+have excelled his predecessors in the invention of devices for exacting
+money from merchants and pilgrims, and in juggling with the exchange.
+This led to a naval demonstration on the part of the Venetians, who
+secured better terms for their trade, and to the seizure of Egyptian
+vessels by the king of Aragon and the prince of Catalonia. In a census
+made during Barsbai's reign, it was found that the total number of towns
+and villages in Egypt had sunk to 2170, whereas in the 4th century A.H.
+it had stood at 10,000. Much of Barsbai's attention was occupied with
+raids into Asia Minor, where the Dhu 'l-Kadiri Turkomans frequently
+rebelled, and with wars against Kara Yelek, prince of Amid, and Shah
+Rokh, son of Timur. Barsbai died on the 7th of June 1438. In accordance
+with the custom of his predecessors he left the throne to a son still in
+his minority, _Abu'l-Mahasin Yusuf_, who took the title _Malik
+al-'Aziz_, but as usual after a few months he was displaced by the
+regent _Jakmak_, who on the 9th of September 1438 was proclaimed sultan
+with the title _Malik al-Zahir_. In the years 1442-1444 this sultan sent
+three fleets against Rhodes, where the third effected a landing, but was
+unable to make any permanent conquest. In consequence of a lengthy
+illness Jakmak abdicated on the 1st of February 1453, when his son
+_'Othman_ was proclaimed sultan with the title _Malik al-Mansur_. Though
+not a minor, he had no greater success than the sons of the usurpers who
+preceded him, being dethroned after six weeks (March 15th, 1453) in
+favour of the amir _Inal al-'Ala'i_, who took the title _Malik
+al-Ashraf_. His reign was marked by friendly relations with the Ottoman
+sultan Mahommed II., whose capture of Constantinople (1453) was the
+cause of great rejoicings in Egypt, but also by violent excesses on the
+part of the Mamelukes, who dictated the sultan's policy. On his death on
+the 26th of February 1461 his son _Ahmad_ was proclaimed sultan with the
+title _Malik al-Mu'ayyad_; he had the usual fate of sultans' sons,
+earned in his case by an attempt to bring the Mamelukes under
+discipline; he was compelled to abdicate on the 28th of June 1461, when
+the amir _Khoshkadam_, who had served as a general, was proclaimed
+sultan. Unlike the other Mameluke sovereigns, who were Turks or
+Circassians, this man had originally been a Greek slave.
+
+
+  Early relations with Turkey.
+
+In his reign (1463) there began the struggle between the Egyptian and
+the Ottoman sultanates which finally led to the incorporation of Egypt
+in the Ottoman empire. The dispute began with a struggle over the
+succession in the principality of Karaman, where the two sultans
+favoured rival candidates, and the Ottoman sultan Mahommed II. supported
+the claim of his candidate with force of arms, obtaining as the price of
+his assistance several towns in which the suzerainty of the Egyptian
+sultan had been acknowledged. Open war did not, however, break out
+between the two states in Khoshkadam's time. This sultan is said to have
+taken money to permit innocent persons to be ill-treated or executed. He
+died on the 9th of October 1467, when the Atabeg _Yelbai_ was selected
+by the Mamelukes to succeed him, and was proclaimed sultan with the
+title of _Malik al-Zahir_. This person, proving incompetent, was deposed
+by a revolution of the Mamelukes on the 4th of December 1467, when the
+Atabeg _Timurbogha_ was proclaimed with the title _Malik al-Zahir_. In
+a month's time, however, there was another palace revolution, and the
+new Atabeg _Kait Bey_ or _Kaietbai_ (January 31st, 1468) was proclaimed
+sultan, the dethroned Timurbogha being, however, permitted to go free
+whither he pleased. Much of Kait Bey's reign was spent in struggles with
+Uzun Hasan, prince of Diarbekr, and Shah Siwar, chief of the
+Dhu'l-Kadiri Turkomans. He also offended the Ottoman sultan Bayezid II.
+by entertaining his brother Jem, who was afterwards poisoned in Europe.
+Owing to this, and also to the fact that an Indian embassy to the
+Ottoman sultan was intercepted by the agents of Kait Bey, Bayezid II.
+declared war against Egypt, and seized Adana, Tarsus and other places
+within Egyptian territory; extraordinary efforts were made by Kait Bey,
+whose generals inflicted a severe defeat on the Ottoman invaders. In
+1491, however, after the Egyptians had repeatedly defeated the Ottoman
+troops, Kait Bey made proposals of peace which were accepted, the keys
+of the towns which the Ottomans had seized being restored to the
+Egyptian sultan. Kait Bey endeavoured to assist his co-religionists in
+Spain who were threatened by King Ferdinand, by threatening the pope
+with reprisals on Syrian Christians, but without effect. As the
+consequence of a palace intrigue, which Kait Bey was too old to quell,
+on the 7th of August 1496, a day before his death, his son _Mahommed_
+was proclaimed sultan with the title _Malik al-Nasir_; this was in order
+to put the supreme power into the hands of the Atabeg Kansuh, since the
+new sultan was only fourteen years old. An attempt of the Atabeg to oust
+the new sultan, however, failed. After a reign of little more than two
+years, filled mainly with struggles between rival amirs, _Malik
+al-Nasir_ was murdered (October 31st, 1498), and his uncle and vizier
+_Kansuh_ proclaimed sultan with the title _Malik al-Zahir_. His reign
+only lasted about twenty months; on the 30th of June 1500 he was
+dethroned by Tumanbey, who caused _Jan Belat_, the Atabeg, to be
+proclaimed sultan. A few months later _Tumanbey_, at the suggestion of
+Kasrawah, governor of Damascus, whom he had been sent to reduce to
+subjection, ousted Jan Belat, and was himself proclaimed sultan with the
+title _Malik al-'Adil_ (January 25th, 1501). His reign lasted only one
+hundred days, when he was displaced by _Kansuh al-Ghuri_ (April 20th,
+1501). His reign was remarkable for a naval conflict between the
+Egyptians and the Portuguese, whose fleet interfered with the pilgrim
+route from India to Mecca, and also with the trade between India and
+Egypt; Kansuh caused a fleet to be built which fought naval battles with
+the Portuguese with varying results.
+
+
+  The Turkish conquest.
+
+In 1515 there began the war with the Ottoman sultan Selim I. which led
+to the close of the Mameluke period, and the incorporation of Egypt and
+its dependencies in the Ottoman empire (see TURKEY: _History_). Kansuh
+was charged by Selim with giving the envoys of the Safawid Isma'il
+passage through Syria on their way to Venice to form a confederacy
+against the Turks, and with harbouring various refugees. The actual
+declaration of war was not made by Selim till May 1515, when the Ottoman
+sultan had made all his preparations; and at the battle of Merj Dabik,
+on the 24th of August 1515, Kansuh was defeated by the Ottoman forces
+and fell fighting. Syria passed quickly into the possession of the
+Turks, whose advent was in many places welcome as meaning deliverance
+from the Mamelukes. In Cairo, when the news of the defeat and death of
+the Egyptian sultan arrived, the governor who had been left by Kansuh,
+_Tumanbey_, was proclaimed sultan (October 17th, 1516). On the 20th of
+January 1517 Cairo was taken by the Ottomans, and Selim shortly after
+declared sultan of Egypt. Tumanbey continued the struggle for some
+months, but was finally defeated, and after being captured and kept in
+prison seventeen days was executed on the 15th of April 1517.
+
+(8) _The Turkish Period._--The sultan Selim left with his viceroy Khair
+Bey a guard of 5000 janissaries, but otherwise made few changes in the
+administration of the country. The register by which a great portion of
+the land was a fief of the Mamelukes was left unchanged, and it is said
+that a proposal made by the sultan's vizier to appropriate these estates
+was punished with death. The Mameluke amirs were to be retained in
+office as heads of twelve sanjaks into which Egypt was divided; and
+under the next sultan, Suleiman I., two chambers were created, called
+respectively the Greater and the Lesser Divan, in which both the army
+and the ecclesiastical authorities were represented, to aid the pasha by
+their deliberations. Six regiments altogether were constituted by the
+conqueror Selim for the protection of Egypt; to these Suleiman added a
+seventh, of Circassians. As will be seen from the tables, it was the
+practice of the Porte to change the governor of Egypt at very short
+intervals--after a year or even some months. The third governor, Ahmad
+Pasha, hearing that orders for this execution had come from
+Constantinople, endeavoured to make himself an independent ruler and had
+coins struck in his own name. His schemes were frustrated by two of the
+amirs whom he had imprisoned and who, escaping from their confinement,
+attacked him in his bath and killed him. In 1527 the first survey of
+Egypt under the Ottomans was made, in consequence of the official copy
+of the former registers having perished by fire; yet this new survey did
+not come into use until 1605. Egyptian lands were divided in it into
+four classes--the sultan's domain, fiefs, land for the maintenance of
+the army, and lands settled on religious foundations.
+
+
+  Troubles with the army.
+
+It would seem that the constant changes in the government caused the
+army to get out of control at an early period of the Ottoman occupation,
+and at the beginning of the 11th Islamic century mutinies became common;
+in 1013 (1604) the governor Ibrahim Pasha was murdered by the soldiers,
+and his head set on the Bab Zuwela. The reason for these mutinies was
+the attempt made by successive pashas to put a stop to the extortion
+called _Tulbah_, a forced payment exacted by the troops from the
+inhabitants of the country by the fiction of debts requiring to be
+discharged, which led to grievous ill-usage. In 1609 something like
+civil war broke out between the army and the pasha, who had on his side
+some loyal regiments and the Bedouins. The soldiers went so far as to
+choose a sultan, and to divide provisionally the regions of Cairo
+between them. They were defeated by the governor Mahommed Pasha, who on
+the 5th of February 1610 entered Cairo in triumph, executed the
+ringleaders, and banished many others to Yemen. The contemporary
+historian speaks of this event as a second conquest of Egypt for the
+Ottomans. A great financial reform was now effected by Mahommed Pasha,
+who readjusted the burdens imposed on the different communities of Egypt
+in accordance with their means. With the troubles that beset the
+metropolis of the Ottoman empire, the governors appointed thence came to
+be treated by the Egyptians with continually decreasing respect. In July
+1623 there came an order from the Porte dismissing Mustafa Pasha and
+appointing 'Ali Pasha governor in his place. The officers met and
+demanded from the newly-appointed governor's deputy the customary
+gratuity; when this was refused they sent letters to the Porte declaring
+that they wished to have Mustafa Pasha and not 'Ali Pasha as governor.
+Meanwhile 'Ali Pasha had arrived at Alexandria, and was met by a
+deputation from Cairo telling him that he was not wanted. He returned a
+mild answer; and, when a rejoinder came in the same style as the first
+message, he had the leader of the deputation arrested and imprisoned.
+Hereupon the garrison of Alexandria attacked the castle and rescued the
+prisoner; whereupon 'Ali Pasha was compelled to embark. Shortly after a
+rescript arrived from Constantinople confirming Mustafa Pasha in the
+governorship. Similarly in 1631 the army took upon themselves to depose
+the governor Musa Pasha, in indignation at his execution of Kitas Bey,
+an officer who was to have commanded an Egyptian force required for
+service in Persia. The pasha was ordered either to hand over the
+executioners to vengeance or to resign his place; as he refused to do
+the former he was compelled to do the latter, and presently a rescript
+came from Constantinople, approving the conduct of the army and
+appointing one Khalil Pasha as Musa's successor. Not only was the
+governor unsupported by the sultan against the troops, but each new
+governor regularly inflicted a fine upon his outgoing predecessor, under
+the name of money due to the treasury; and the outgoing governor would
+not be allowed to leave Egypt till he had paid it. Besides the
+extortions to which this practice gave occasion the country suffered
+greatly in these centuries from famine and pestilence. The latter in the
+spring of 1619 is said to have carried off 635,000 persons, and in 1643
+completely desolated 230 villages.
+
+
+  Rise of the Beys.
+
+By the 18th century the importance of the pasha was quite superseded by
+that of the beys, and two offices, those of Sheik al-Balad and Amir
+al-Hajj, which were held by these persons, represented the real headship
+of the community. The process by which this state of affairs came about
+is somewhat obscure, owing to the want of good chronicles for the
+Turkish period of Egyptian history. In 1707 the Sheik al-Balad, Qasim
+Iywaz, is found at the head of one of two Mameluke factions, the
+Qasimites and the Fiqarites, between whom the seeds of enmity were sown
+by the pasha of the time, with the result that a fight took place
+between the factions outside Cairo, lasting eighty days. At the end of
+that time Qasim Iywaz was killed and the office which he had held was
+given to his son Isma'il. Isma'il held this office for sixteen years,
+while the pashas were constantly being changed, and succeeded in
+reconciling the two factions of Mamelukes. In 1724 this person was
+assassinated through the machinations of the pasha, and Shirkas Bey, of
+the opposing faction, elevated to the office of Sheik al-Balad in his
+place. He was soon driven from his post by one of his own faction called
+Dhu'l-Fiqar, and fled to Upper Egypt. After a short time he returned at
+the head of an army, and some engagements ensued, in the last of which
+Shirkas Bey met his end by drowning; Dhu'l-Fiqar was himself
+assassinated in 1730 shortly after this event. His place was filled by
+Othman Bey, who had served as his general in this war. In 1743 Othman
+Bey, who had governed with wisdom and moderation, was forced to fly from
+Egypt by the intrigues of two adventurers, Ibrahim and Ridwan Bey, who,
+when their scheme had succeeded, began a massacre of beys and others
+thought to be opposed to them; they then proceeded to govern Egypt
+jointly, holding the two offices mentioned above in alternate years. An
+attempt made by one of the pashas to rid himself of these two persons by
+a _coup d'état_ signally failed owing to the loyalty of their armed
+supporters, who released Ibrahim and Ridwan from prison and compelled
+the pasha to fly to Constantinople. An attempt made by a subsequent
+pasha in accordance with secret orders from Constantinople was so far
+successful that some of the beys were killed. Ibrahim and Ridwan
+escaped, and compelled the pasha to resign his governorship and return
+to Constantinople. Ibrahim shortly afterwards fell by the hand of an
+assassin who had aspired to occupy one of the vacant beyships himself,
+which was conferred instead on 'Ali, who as 'Ali Bey was destined to
+play an important part in the history of Egypt. The murder of Ibrahim
+Bey took place in 1755, and his colleague Ridwan perished in the
+disputes that followed upon it.
+
+
+  'Ali Bey.
+
+'Ali Bey, who had first distinguished himself by defending a caravan in
+Arabia against bandits, set himself the task of avenging the death of
+his former master Ibrahim, and spent eight years in purchasing Mamelukes
+and winning other adherents. He thereby excited the suspicions of the
+Sheik al-Balad Khalil Bey, who organized an attack upon him in the
+streets of Cairo, in consequence of which he fled to Upper Egypt. Here
+he met one Salh Bey, who had injuries to avenge on Khalil Bey, and the
+two organized a force with which they returned to Cairo and defeated
+Khalil, who was forced to fly to Tanta, where for a time he concealed
+himself; eventually, however, he was discovered, sent to Alexandria and
+finally strangled. The date of 'Ali Bey's victory was 1164 A.H. (A.D.
+1750), and after it he was made Sheik al-Balad. In that capacity he
+executed the murderer of his former master Ibrahim; but the resentment
+which this act aroused among the beys caused him to leave his post and
+fly to Syria, where he won the friendship of the governor of Acre, Zahir
+b. Omar, who obtained for him the goodwill of the Porte and
+reinstatement in his post as Sheik al-Balad. In 1766, after the death of
+his supporter the grand vizier Raghib Pasha, he was again compelled to
+fly from Egypt to Yemen, but in the following year he was told that his
+party at Cairo was strong enough to permit of his return. Resuming his
+office he raised eighteen of his friends to the rank of bey, among them
+Ibrahim and Murad, who were afterwards at the head of affairs, as well
+as Mahommed Abu'l-Dhahab, who was closely connected with the rest of
+'Ali Bey's career. He appears to have done his utmost to bring Egyptian
+affairs into order, and by very severe measures repressed the brigandage
+of the Bedouins of Lower Egypt. He appears to have aspired to found an
+independent monarchy, and to that end endeavoured to disband all forces
+except those which were exclusively under his own control. In 1769 a
+demand came to 'Ali Bey for a force of 12,000 men to be employed by the
+Porte in the Russian war. It was suggested, however, at Constantinople
+that 'Ali would employ this force when he collected it for securing his
+own independence, and a messenger was sent by the Porte to the pasha
+with orders for his execution. 'Ali, being apprised by his agents at the
+metropolis of the despatch of this messenger, ordered him to be waylaid
+and killed; the despatches were seized and read by 'Ali before an
+assembly of the beys, who were assured that the order for execution
+applied to all alike, and he urged them to fight for their lives. His
+proposals were received with enthusiasm by the beys whom he had created.
+Egypt was declared independent and the pasha given forty-eight hours to
+quit the country. Zahir Pasha of Acre, to whom was sent official
+information of the step taken by 'Ali Bey, promised his aid and kept his
+word by compelling an army sent by the pasha of Damascus against Egypt
+to retreat.
+
+The Porte was not able at the time to take active measures for the
+suppression of 'Ali Bey, and the latter endeavoured to consolidate his
+dominions by sending expeditions against marauding tribes, both in north
+and south Egypt, reforming the finance, and improving the administration
+of justice. His son-in-law, Abu'l-Dhahab, was sent to subject the
+Hawwarah, who had occupied the land between Assuan and Assiut, and a
+force of 20,000 was sent to conquer Yemen. An officer named Isma'il Bey
+was sent with 8000 to acquire the eastern shore of the Red Sea, and one
+named Hasan Bey to occupy Jidda. In six months the greater part of the
+Arabian peninsula was subject to 'Ali Bey, and he appointed as sherif of
+Mecca a cousin of his own, who bestowed on 'Ali by an official
+proclamation the titles Sultan of Egypt and Khakan of the Two Seas. He
+then, in virtue of this authorization, struck coins in his own name
+(1185 A.H.) and ordered his name to be mentioned in public worship.
+
+His next move turned out fatally. Abu'l-Dhahab was sent with a force of
+30,000 men in the same year (A.D. 1771) to conquer Syria; and agents
+were sent to negotiate alliances with Venice and Russia. Abu'l-Dhahab's
+progress through Palestine and Syria was triumphant. Reinforced by 'Ali
+Bey's ally Zahir, he easily took the chief cities, ending with Damascus;
+but at this point he appears to have entered into secret negotiations
+with the Porte, by which he undertook to restore Egypt to Ottoman
+suzerainty. He then proceeded to evacuate Syria, and marched with all
+the forces he could collect to Upper Egypt, occupying Assiut in April
+1772. Having collected some additional troops from the Bedouins, he
+marched on Cairo. Isma'il Bey was sent by 'Ali Bey with a force of 3000
+to check his advance; but at Basatin Isma'il with his troops joined
+Abu'l-Dhahab. 'Ali Bey intended at first to defend himself so long as
+possible in the citadel at Cairo; but receiving information to the
+effect that his friend Zahir of Acre was still willing to give him
+refuge, he left Cairo for Syria (8th of April 1772), one day before the
+entrance of Abu'l-Dhahab.
+
+At Acre 'Ali's fortune seemed to be restored. A Russian vessel anchored
+outside the port, and, in accordance with the agreement which he had
+made with the Russian empire, he was supplied with stores and
+ammunition, and a force of 3000 Albanians. He sent one of his officers,
+'Ali Bey al-Tantawi, to recover the Syrian towns evacuated by
+Abu'l-Dhahab, and now in the possession of the Porte. He himself took
+Jaffa and Gaza, the former of which he gave to his friend Zahir of
+Acre. On the 1st of February 1773 he received information from Cairo
+that Abu'l-Dhahab had made himself Sheik al-Balad, and in that capacity
+was practising unheard-of extortions, which were making Egypt with one
+voice call for the return of 'Ali Bey. He accordingly started for Egypt
+at the head of an army of 8000 men, and on the 19th of April met the
+army of Abu'l-Dhahab at Salihia. 'Ali's forces were successful at the
+first engagement; but when the battle was renewed two days later he was
+deserted by some of his officers, and prevented by illness and wounds
+from himself taking the conduct of affairs. The result was a complete
+defeat for his army, after which he declined to leave his tent; he was
+captured after a brave resistance, and taken to Cairo, where he died
+seven days later.
+
+After 'Ali Bey's death Egypt became once more a dependency of the Porte,
+governed by Abu'l-Dhahab as Sheik al-Balad with the title pasha. He
+shortly afterwards received permission from the Porte to invade Syria,
+with the view of punishing 'Ali Bey's supporter Zahir, and left as his
+deputies in Cairo Isma'il Bey and Ibrahim Bey, who, by deserting 'Ali at
+the battle of Salihia, had brought about his downfall. After taking many
+cities in Palestine Abu'l-Dhahab died, the cause being unknown; and
+Murad Bey (another of the deserters at Salihia) brought his forces back
+to Egypt (26th of May 1775).
+
+Isma'il Bey now became Sheik al-Balad, but was soon involved in a
+dispute with Ibrahim and Murad, who after a time succeeded in driving
+Isma'il out of Egypt and establishing a joint rule (as Sheik al-Balad
+and Amir al-Hajj respectively) similar to that which had been tried
+previously. The two were soon involved in quarrels, which at one time
+threatened to break out into open war; but this catastrophe was averted,
+and the joint rule was maintained till 1786, when an expedition was sent
+by the Porte to restore Ottoman supremacy in Egypt. Murad Bey attempted
+to resist, but was easily defeated; and he with Ibrahim decided to fly
+to Upper Egypt and await the trend of events. On the 1st of August 1782
+the Turkish commander entered Cairo, and, after some violent measures
+had been taken for the restoration of order, Isma'il Bey was again made
+Sheik al-Balad and a new pasha installed as governor. In January 1791 a
+terrible plague began to rage in Cairo and elsewhere in Egypt, to which
+Isma'il Bey and most of his family fell victims. Owing to the need for
+competent rulers Ibrahim and Murad Bey were sent for from Upper Egypt
+and resumed their dual government. These two persons were still in
+office when Bonaparte entered Egypt.
+
+  _Moslem Authorities._--Arabic literature being cosmopolitan, and
+  Arabic authors accustomed to travel from place to place to collect
+  traditions and obtain oral instruction from contemporary authorities,
+  or else to enjoy the patronage of Maecenates, the literary history of
+  Egypt cannot be dissociated from that of the other Moslem countries in
+  which Arabic was the chief literary vehicle. Hence the list of authors
+  connected with Egypt, which occupies pages 161-275 of Suyuti's work,
+  _Husn al-muhadarah fi akhbari Misr wal-Qahirah_ (Cairo, 1321 A.H.),
+  contains the names of persons like Mutanabbi, who stayed there for a
+  short time in the service of some patron; Abu Tammam, who lived there
+  before he acquired fame as a poet; 'Umara of Yemen, who came there at
+  a mature age to spend some years in the service of Fatimite viziers;
+  each of whom figures in lists of authors belonging to some other
+  country also. So long as the centre of the Islamic world was not in
+  Egypt, the best talent was attracted elsewhere; but after the fall of
+  Bagdad, Cairo became the chief seat of Islamic learning, and this
+  rank, chiefly owing to the university of Azhar, it has ever since
+  continued to maintain. The following composed special histories of
+  Egypt: Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam, d. 257 A.H.; 'Abd al-Rahim b. Yunus, d. 347;
+  Mahommed b. Yusuf al-Kindi, d. somewhat later; Ibn Zulaq, d. 387; 'Izz
+  al-Mulk Mahommed al-Musabbihi, d. 420; Mahommed b. Salamah al-Qoda'i,
+  d. 454; Jamal al-din 'Ali al-Qifti, d. 568; Jamal al-din al-Halabi, d.
+  623; 'Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, d. 629; Mahommed b. 'Abd al-Aziz
+  al-Idrisi (history of Upper Egypt), d. 649; his son Ja'far (history of
+  Cairo), d. 676; Ibn Sa'id, d. 685; Ibrahim b. Wasif Shah; Ibn
+  al-Mutawwaj, d. 703; Mahommed b. Dani'al, d. 710; Ja'far b. Tha'lab
+  Kamal al-din al-Adfu'i (history of Upper Egypt), d. 730; 'Abd al-Qarun
+  al-Halabi, d. 735; Ibn Habib, d. 779; Ibn Duqmaq, d. 790; Ibn Tughan,
+  Shihab al-din al-Auhadi, d. 790; Ibn al-Mulaqqin, d. 806; Maqrizi,
+  Taqiyy al-din Ahmad, d. 840; Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani, d. 852;
+  al-Sakhawi, d. 902; Abu'l-Mahasin b. Taghribirdi, d. 874; Jalal al-din
+  al-Suyuti, d. 911; Ibn Zunbul al-Rammal; Ibn Iyas, d. after 928;
+  Mahommed b. Abi Surur, d. after 1017; Zain al-din al Karami, d. 1033;
+  'Abd al-Rahman Jabarti, d. after 1236. Of many of the Mameluke
+  sultans there are special chronicles preserved in various European and
+  Oriental libraries. The works of many of the authors enumerated are
+  topographical and biographical as well as purely historical. To these
+  there should be added the Survey of Egypt, called _al-tuhfah
+  al-saniyyah_ of Ibn Ji'an, belonging to the time of Kait Bey; the
+  treatise on the Egyptian constitution called _Zubdat Kashf
+  al-Mamalik_, by Khalil al-Zahiri, of the same period; and the
+  encyclopaedic work on the same subject called _Subh al-Insha_, by
+  al-Qalqashandi, d. 821.
+
+  Arabic poetry is in the main encomiastic and personal, and from the
+  beginning of the Omayyad period sovereigns and governors paid poets to
+  celebrate their achievements; of those of importance who are connected
+  with Egypt we may mention Nusaib, encomiast of 'Abd al-Aziz b. Merwan,
+  d. 180; the greater Nashi (Abu l-Abbas 'Abdallah), d. 293; Ibn
+  Tabataba, d. 345; Abu'l-Raqa'maq, encomiast of al-Mo'izz, d. 399;
+  Sari' al-Dila ('Ali b. 'Abd al-Wahid), encomiast of the Fatimite
+  al-Zahir, d. 412; Sanajat al-dauh (Mahommed b. al-Qasim), encomiast of
+  Hakim; 'Ali b. 'Abbad al-Iskandari, encomiast of the vizier al-Afdal,
+  executed by Hafiz; Ibn Qalaqis al-Iskandari, encomiast of the
+  Ayyubites, d. 607; Muhaddhab b. Mameti, encomiast of the Ayyubites, d.
+  616; Ibn Sana' al-Mulk, encomiast of the Ayyubites, d. 658; Ibn
+  al-Munajjim, d. 626; Ibn Matruh, encomiast of the Ayyubites, d. 654;
+  Baha' al-din Zuhair, encomiast of al-Salih, d. 656; Ibn 'Ammar, d.
+  675; al-Mi'mar, d. 749; Ibn Nubatah, d. 768; Ibn Abi Hajalah, d. 776;
+  Burhan al-din al-Qirati, d. 801; Ibn Mukanis, d. 864; Ibn Hijjah
+  al-Hamawi, d. 837. Poets distinguished for special lines are al-Hakim
+  b. Dani' al, d. 608, author of the Shadow-play; and al-Busiri
+  (Mahommed b. Sa'id), d. 694, author of the ode in praise of the
+  prophet called Burdah. The poets of Egypt are reckoned with those of
+  Syria in the _Yatimah_ of Tha' alibi; a special work upon them was
+  written by Ibn Fadl allah (d. 740); and a list of poets of the 11th
+  century is given by Khafaji in his _Raihanat al-alibba_.
+
+  The needs of the Egyptian court produced a number of elegant
+  letter-writers, of whom the most famous were 'Abd al-Rahim b. 'Ali
+  al-Baisani, ordinarily known as al-Qadi' al-Fadil, d. 596, secretary
+  of state to Saladin and other Ayyubite sultans; 'Imad al-din
+  al-Ispahani, d. 597, also secretary of state and official chronicler;
+  and Ibn 'Abd al-Zahir, d. 692, secretary of state to Bibars I. and
+  succeeding sultans; he was followed by his son Fath al-din, to whom
+  the title "Secret writer" was first given.
+
+  In the subject of law Egypt boasts that the Imam Shafi'i, founder of
+  one of the schools, resided at Fostat from 195 till his death in 204;
+  his system, though displaced for a time by that invented by the
+  Fatimites, and since the Turkish conquest by the Hanifite system, has
+  always been popular in Egypt: in Ayyubite times it was dominant,
+  whereas in Mameluke times all four systems were officially recognized.
+  The eminent jurists who flourished in Moslem Egypt form a very lengthy
+  list. Among the Egyptian traditionalists the most eminent is
+  Daraqutni, d. 385.
+
+  Among Egyptian mystics the most famous as authors are the poet Ibn
+  al-Farid, d. 632, and Abd al-Wahhab Sha rani, d. 973. Abu'l-Hasan
+  al-Shadhili (d. 656) is celebrated as the founder of the Shadhili
+  order; but there were many others of note. The dictionary of
+  physicians, compiled in the 7th century, enumerates nearly sixty men
+  of science who resided in Egypt; the best-known among them are Sa'id
+  b. Bitriq, Moses Maimonides and Ibn Baitar. Of Egyptian miscellaneous
+  writers two of the most celebrated are Ibn Daqiq al'-id, d. 702, and
+  Jalal al-din Suyuti.
+
+  _European Authorities._--For the Moslem conquest, A. J. Butler, _The
+  Arab Conquest of Egypt_ (Oxford, 1902); for the period before the
+  Fatimites, Wüstenfeld, "Die Statthalter von Ägypten," in _Abhandlungen
+  der königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen_, vols.
+  xx. and xxi.; for the Fatimite period, Wüstenfeld, "Geschichte der
+  Fatimiden-Chalifen," ibid. vols. xxvi. and xxvii.; for the Ayyubite
+  period, Ibn Khallikan's _Biographical Dictionary_, translated by M'G.
+  de Slane (London, 1842-1871); for the Mameluke period, Weil,
+  _Geschichte der Chalifen_, vols. iv. and v. (also called _Geschichte
+  des Abbasidenchalifats in Ägypten_), (Stuttgart, 1860-1862); Sir W.
+  Muir, _The Mameluke or Slave Dynasty of Egypt_ (London, 1896); for the
+  Turkish period, G. Zaidan, _History of Modern Egypt_ (Arabic), vol.
+  ii. (Cairo, 1889). See also Maqrizi, _Description topographique et
+  historique de l'Égypte_, translated by Bouriant (Paris, 1895, &c.); C.
+  H. Becker, _Beiträge zur Geschichte Ägyptens_ (Strassburg, 1902).
+       (D. S. M.*)
+
+
+  Battle of the Nile.
+
+(9) _From the French Occupation to the Rise of Mehemet Ali._--The
+ostensible object of the French expedition to Egypt was to reinstate the
+authority of the Sublime Porte, and suppress the Mamelukes; and in the
+proclamation printed with the Arabic types brought from the Propaganda
+press, and issued shortly after the taking of Alexandria, Bonaparte
+declared that he reverenced the prophet Mahomet and the Koran far more
+than the Mamelukes reverenced either, and argued that all men were equal
+except so far as they were distinguished by their intellectual and moral
+excellences, of neither of which the Mamelukes had any great share. In
+future all posts in Egypt were to be open to all classes of the
+inhabitants; the conduct of affairs was to be committed to the men of
+talent, virtue, and learning; and in proof of the statement that the
+French were sincere Moslems the overthrow of the papal authority in Rome
+was alleged. That there might be no doubt of the friendly feeling of the
+French to the Porte, villages and towns which capitulated to the
+invaders were required to hoist the flags of both the Porte and the
+French republic, and in the thanksgiving prescribed to the Egyptians for
+their deliverance from the Mamelukes, prayer was to be offered for both
+the sultan and the French army. It does not appear that the proclamation
+convinced many of the Egyptians of the truth of these professions. After
+the battle of Ambabah, at which the forces of both Murad Bey and Ibrahim
+Bey were dispersed, the populace readily plundered the houses of the
+beys, and a deputation was sent from al-Azhar to Bonaparte to ascertain
+his intentions; these proved to be a repetition of the terms of his
+proclamation, and, though the combination of loyalty to the French with
+loyalty to the sultan was unintelligible, a good understanding was at
+first established between the invaders and the Egyptians. A municipal
+council was established in Cairo, consisting of persons taken from the
+ranks of the sheiks, the Mamelukes and the French; and presently
+delegates from Alexandria and other important towns were added. This
+council did little more than register the decrees of the French
+commander, who continued to exercise dictatorial power. The destruction
+of the French fleet at the battle of the Nile, and the failure of the
+French forces sent to Upper Egypt (where they reached the first
+cataract) to obtain possession of the person of Murad Bey, shook the
+faith of the Egyptians in their invincibility; and in consequence of a
+series of unwelcome innovations the relations between conquerors and
+conquered grew daily more strained, till at last, on the occasion of the
+introduction of a house tax, an insurrection broke out in Cairo on the
+22nd of October 1798, of which the headquarters were in the Moslem
+university of Azhar. On this occasion the French general Dupuy,
+lieutenant-governor of Cairo, was killed. The prompt measures of
+Bonaparte, aided by the arrival from Alexandria of General J. B. Kléber,
+quickly suppressed this rising; but the stabling of the French cavalry
+in the mosque of Azhar gave great and permanent offence. In consequence
+of this affair, the deliberative council was suppressed, but on the 25th
+of December a fresh proclamation was issued, reconstituting the two
+divans which had been created by the Turks; the special divan was to
+consist of 14 persons chosen by lot out of 60 government nominees, and
+was to meet daily. The general divan was to consist of functionaries,
+and to meet on emergencies.
+
+In consequence of despatches which reached Bonaparte on the 3rd of
+January 1799, announcing the intention of the Porte to invade the
+country with the object of recovering it by force, Bonaparte resolved on
+his Syrian expedition, and appointed governors for Cairo, Alexandria,
+and Upper Egypt, to govern during his absence. From that ill-fated
+expedition he returned at the beginning of June. Advantage had been
+taken of this opportunity by Murad Bey and Ibrahim Bey to collect their
+forces and attempt a joint attack on Cairo, but this Bonaparte arrived
+in time to defeat, and in the last week of July he inflicted a crushing
+defeat on the Turkish army that had landed at Aboukir, aided by the
+British fleet commanded by Sir Sidney Smith. Shortly after his victory
+Bonaparte left Egypt, having appointed Kléber to govern in his absence,
+which he informed the sheiks of Cairo was not to last more than three
+months. Kléber himself regarded the condition of the French invaders as
+extremely perilous, and wrote to inform the French republic of the
+facts. A double expedition shortly after Bonaparte's departure was sent
+by the Porte for the recovery of Egypt, one force being despatched by
+sea to Damietta, while another under Yusuf Pasha took the land route
+from Damascus by al-Arish. Over the first some success was won, in
+consequence of which the Turks agreed to a convention (signed January
+24, 1800), by virtue of which the French were to quit Egypt. The Turkish
+troops advanced to Bilbeis, where they were received by the sheiks from
+Cairo, and the Mamelukes also returned to that city from their
+hiding-places. Before the preparations for the departure of the French
+were completed, orders came to Sir Sidney Smith from the British
+government, forbidding the carrying out of the convention unless the
+French army were treated as prisoners of war; and when these were
+communicated to Kléber he cancelled the orders previously given to the
+troops, and proceeded to put the country in a state of defence. His
+departure with most of the army to attack the Turks at Mataria led to
+riots in Cairo, in the course of which many Christians were slaughtered;
+but the national party were unable to get possession of the citadel, and
+Kléber, having defeated the Turks, was soon able to return to the
+capital. On the 14th of April he bombarded Bulak, and proceeded to
+bombard Cairo itself, which was taken the following night. Order was
+soon restored, and a fine of twelve million francs imposed on the
+rioters. Murad Bey sought an interview with Kléber and succeeded in
+obtaining from him the government of Upper Egypt. He died shortly
+afterwards and was succeeded by Osman Bey al-Bardisi.
+
+On the 14th of June Kléber was assassinated by a fanatic named Suleiman
+of Aleppo, said to have been incited to the deed by a Janissary refugee
+at Jerusalem, who had brought letters to the sheiks of the Azhar, who,
+however, refused to give him any encouragement. Three of these,
+nevertheless, were executed by the French as accessories before the
+fact, and the assassin himself was impaled, after torture, in spite of a
+promise of pardon having been made to him on condition of his naming his
+associates. The command of the army then devolved on General J. F.
+(Baron de) Menou (1750-1810), a man who had professed Islam, and who
+endeavoured to conciliate the Moslem population by various measures,
+such as excluding all Christians (with the exception of one Frenchman)
+from the divan, replacing the Copts who were in government service by
+Moslems, and subjecting French residents to taxes. Whatever popularity
+might have been gained by these measures was counteracted by his
+declaration of a French protectorate over Egypt, which was to count as a
+French colony.
+
+
+  French evacuation.
+
+In the first weeks of March 1801 the English, under Sir R. Abercromby,
+effected a landing at Aboukir, and proceeded to invest Alexandria, where
+on the 21st they were attacked by Menou; the French were repulsed, but
+the English commander was mortally wounded in the action. On the 25th
+fresh reinforcements arrived under Husain, the Kapudan Pasha, or high
+admiral; and a combined English and Turkish force was sent to take
+Rosetta. On the 30th of May, General A. D. Belliard, who had been left
+in charge at Cairo, was assailed on two sides by the British forces
+under General John Hely Hutchinson (afterwards 2nd earl of Donoughmore),
+and the Turkish under Yusuf Pasha; after negotiations Belliard agreed to
+evacuate Cairo and to sail with his 13,734 troops to France. On the 30th
+of August, Menou at Alexandria was compelled to accept similar
+conditions, and his force of 10,000 left for Europe in September. This
+was the termination of the French occupation of Egypt, of which the
+chief permanent monument was the _Description de l'Égypte_, compiled by
+the French savants who accompanied the expedition. Further than this,
+"it brought to the attention of a few men in Egypt a keen sense of the
+great advantage of an orderly government, and a warm appreciation of the
+advance that science and learning had made in Europe" (Hajji Browne,
+_Bonaparte in Egypt and the Egyptians of to-day_, 1907, p. 268).
+
+
+  British, Turks and Mamelukes.
+
+Soon after the evacuation of Egypt by the French, the country became the
+scene of more severe troubles, in consequence of the attempts of the
+Turks to destroy the power of the Mamelukes. In defiance of promises to
+the British government, orders were transmitted from Constantinople to
+Husain Pasha, the Turkish high admiral, to ensnare and put to death the
+principal beys. Invited to an entertainment, they were, according to the
+Egyptian contemporary historian al-Jabarti, attacked on board the
+flag-ship; Sir Robert Wilson and M. F. Mengin, however, state that they
+were fired on, in open boats, in the Bay of Aboukir. They offered an
+heroic resistance, but were overpowered, and some killed, some made
+prisoners; among the last was Osman Bey al-Bardisi, who was severely
+wounded. General Hutchinson, informed of this treachery, immediately
+assumed threatening measures against the Turks, and in consequence the
+killed, wounded and prisoners were given up to him. At the same time
+Yusuf Pasha arrested all the beys in Cairo, but was shortly compelled by
+the British to release them. Such was the beginning of the disastrous
+struggle between the Mamelukes and the Turks.
+
+Mahommed Khosrev was the first Turkish governor of Egypt after the
+expulsion of the French. The form of government, however, was not the
+same as that before the French invasion, for the Mamelukes were not
+reinstated. The pasha, and through him the sultan, endeavoured on
+several occasions either to ensnare them or to beguile them into
+submission; but these efforts failing, Mahommed Khosrev took the field,
+and a Turkish detachment 7000 strong was despatched against them to
+Damanhur, whither they had descended from Upper Egypt, and was defeated
+by a small force under al-Alfi; or, as Mengin says, by 800 men commanded
+by al-Bardisi, when al-Alfi had left the field. Their ammunition and
+guns fell into the hands of the Mamelukes.
+
+In March 1803 the British evacuated Alexandria, and Mahommed Bey al-Alfi
+accompanied them to England to consult respecting the means to be
+adopted for restoring the former power of the Mamelukes, who meanwhile
+took Minia and interrupted communication between Upper and Lower Egypt.
+About six weeks after, the Arnaut (or Albanian) soldiers in the service
+of Khosrev tumultuously demanded their pay, and surrounded the house of
+the defterdar (or finance minister), who in vain appealed to the pasha
+to satisfy their claims. The latter opened fire from the artillery of
+his palace on the insurgent soldiery in the house of the defterdar,
+across the Ezbekia. The citizens of Cairo, accustomed to such
+occurrences, immediately closed their shops, and every man who possessed
+any weapon armed himself. The tumult continued all the day, and the next
+morning a body of troops sent out by the pasha failed to quell it.
+Tahir, the commander of the Albanians, then repaired to the citadel,
+gained admittance through an embrasure, and, having obtained possession
+of it, began to cannonade the pasha over the roofs of the intervening
+houses, and then descended with guns to the Ezbekia and laid close siege
+to the palace. On the following day Mahommed Khosrev made good his
+escape, with his women and servants and his regular troops, and fled to
+Damietta by the river. This revolt marks the beginning in Egypt of the
+breach between the Albanians and Turks, which ultimately led to the
+expulsion of the latter, and of the rise to power of the Albanian
+Mehemet Ali (q.v.), who was destined to rule the country for nearly
+forty years and be the cause of serious European complications.
+
+
+  First appearance of Mehemet Ali.
+
+Tahir Pasha assumed the government, but in twenty-three days he met with
+his death from exactly the same cause as that of the overthrow of his
+predecessor. He refused the pay of certain of the Turkish troops, and
+was immediately assassinated. A desperate conflict ensued between the
+Albanians and Turks; and the palace was set on fire and plundered. The
+masters of Egypt were now split into these two factions, animated with
+the fiercest animosity against each other. Mehemet Ali, then in command
+of an Albanian regiment, became the head of the former, but his party
+was the weaker, and he therefore entered into an alliance with the
+Mameluke leaders Ibrahim Bey and 'Osman Bey al-Bardisi. A certain Ahmed
+Pasha, who was about to proceed to a province in Arabia, of which he had
+been appointed governor, was raised to the important post of pasha of
+Egypt, through the influence of the Turks and the favour of the sheiks;
+but Mehemet Ali, who with his Albanians held the citadel, refused to
+assent to their choice; the Mamelukes moved over from El-Giza, whither
+they had been invited by Tahir Pasha, and Ahmed Pasha betook himself to
+the mosque of al-Zahir, which the French had converted into a fortress.
+He was compelled to surrender by the Albanians; the two chiefs of the
+Turks who killed Tahir Pasha were taken with him and put to death, and
+he himself was detained a prisoner. In consequence of the alliance
+between Mehemet Ali and al-Bardisi, the Albanians gave the citadel over
+to the Mamelukes; and soon after, these allies marched against Khosrev
+Pasha, who having been joined by a considerable body of Turks, and being
+in possession of Damietta, was enabled to offer an obstinate resistance.
+After much loss on both sides, he was taken prisoner and brought to
+Cairo; but he was treated with respect. The victorious soldiery sacked
+the town of Damietta, and were guilty of the barbarities usual with them
+on such occasions.
+
+
+  The Mamelukes and Ali Pasha.
+
+A few days later, Ali Pasha Jazairli landed at Alexandria with an
+imperial firman constituting him pasha of Egypt, and threatened the
+beys, who now were virtual masters of Upper Egypt, as well as of the
+capital and nearly the whole of Lower Egypt. Mehemet Ali and al-Bardisi
+therefore descended to Rosetta, which had fallen into the hands of a
+brother of Ali Pasha, and having captured the town and its commander,
+al-Bardisi purposed to proceed against Alexandria; but the troops
+demanded arrears of pay which it was not in his power to give, and the
+pasha had cut the dyke between the lakes of Aboukir and Mareotis, thus
+rendering the approach to Alexandria more difficult. Al-Bardisi and
+Mehemet Ali therefore returned to Cairo. The troubles of Egypt were now
+increased by an insufficient inundation, and great scarcity prevailed,
+aggravated by the taxation to which the beys were compelled to resort in
+order to pay the troops; while murder and rapine prevailed in the
+capital, the riotous soldiery being under little or no control.
+Meanwhile, Ali Pasha, who had been behaving with violence towards the
+Franks in Alexandria, received a _hatt-i-sherif_ from the sultan, which
+he sent by his secretary to Cairo. It announced that the beys should
+live peaceably in Egypt, with an annual pension each of fifteen purses
+(a "purse" = 500 piastres) and other privileges, but that the government
+should be in the hands of the pasha. To this the beys assented, but with
+considerable misgivings; for they had intercepted letters from Ali to
+the Albanians, endeavouring to alienate them from their side to his own.
+Deceptive answers were returned to these, and Ali was induced by them to
+advance towards Cairo at the head of 3000 men. The forces of the beys,
+with the Albanians, encamped near him at Shalakan, and he fell back on a
+place called Zufeyta. They next seized his boats conveying soldiers,
+servants, and his ammunition and baggage; and, following him, they
+demanded wherefore he brought with him so numerous a body of men, in
+opposition to usage and to their previous warning. Finding they would
+not allow his troops to advance, forbidden himself to retreat with them
+to Alexandria, and being surrounded by the enemy, he would have hazarded
+a battle, but his men refused to fight. He therefore went to the camp of
+the beys, and his army was compelled to retire to Syria. In the hands of
+the beys Ali Pasha again attempted treachery. A horseman was seen to
+leave his tent one night at full gallop; he was the bearer of a letter
+to Osman Bey Hasan, the governor of Kine. This offered a fair pretext to
+the Mamelukes to rid themselves of a man proved to be a perfidious
+tyrant. He was sent under a guard of forty-five men towards the Syrian
+frontier; and about a week after, news was received that in a skirmish
+with some of his own soldiers he had fallen mortally wounded.
+
+The death of Ali Pasha produced only temporary tranquillity; in a few
+days (February 12, 1804) the return of Mahommed Bey al-Alfi (called the
+Great) from England was the signal for fresh disturbances, which, by
+splitting the Mamelukes into two parties, accelerated their final
+overthrow. An ancient jealousy existed between al-Alfi and the other
+most powerful bey, al-Bardisi. The latter was now supreme among the
+Mamelukes, and this fact considerably heightened their old enmity. While
+the guns of the citadel, those at Old Cairo, and even those of the
+palace of al-Bardisi, were thrice fired in honour of al-Alfi,
+preparations were immediately begun to oppose him. His partisans were
+collected opposite Cairo, and al-Alfi the Less held Giza; but treachery
+was among them; Husain Bey (a relative of al-Alfi) was assassinated by
+emissaries of al-Bardisi, and Mehemet Ali, with his Albanians, gained
+possession of Giza, which was, as usual, given over to the troops to
+pillage. In the meanwhile al-Alfi the Great embarked at Rosetta, and not
+apprehending opposition, was on his way to Cairo, when a little south of
+the town of Manuf he encountered a party of Albanians, and with
+difficulty made his escape. He gained the eastern branch of the Nile,
+but the river had become dangerous, and he fled to the desert. There he
+had several hairbreadth escapes, and at last secreted himself among a
+tribe of Arabs at Ras al-Wadi. A change in the fortune of al-Bardisi,
+however, favoured his plans for the future. That chief, in order to
+satisfy the demands of the Albanians for their pay, gave orders to levy
+heavy contributions from the citizens of Cairo; and this new oppression
+roused them to rebellion. The Albanians, alarmed for their safety,
+assured the populace that they would not allow the order to be executed;
+and Mehemet Ali himself caused a proclamation to be made to that effect.
+Thus the Albanians became the favourites of the people, and took
+advantage of their opportunity. Three days later (March 12th, 1804) they
+beset the house of the aged Ibrahim Bey, and that of al-Bardisi, both of
+whom effected their escape with difficulty. The Mamelukes in the citadel
+directed a fire of shot and shell on the houses of the Albanians which
+were situated in the Ezbekia; but, on hearing of the flight of their
+chiefs, they evacuated the place; and Mehemet Ali, on gaining possession
+of it, once more proclaimed Mahommed Khosrev pasha of Egypt. For one day
+and a half he enjoyed the title; the friends of the late Tahir Pasha
+then accomplished his second degradation,[22] and Cairo was again the
+scene of terrible enormities, the Albanians revelling in the houses of
+the Mameluke chiefs, whose hareems met with no mercy at their hands.
+These events were the signal for the reappearance of al-Alfi.
+
+The Albanians now invited Ahmed Pasha Khorshid to assume the reins of
+government, and he without delay proceeded from Alexandria to Cairo. The
+forces of the partisans of al-Bardisi were ravaging the country a few
+miles south of the capital and intercepting the supplies of corn by the
+river; a little later they passed to the north of Cairo and successively
+took Bilbeis and Kalyub, plundering the villages, destroying the crops,
+and slaughtering the herds of the inhabitants. Cairo was itself in a
+state of tumult, suffering severely from a scarcity of grain, and the
+heavy exactions of the pasha to meet the demands of his turbulent
+troops, at that time augmented by a Turkish detachment. The shops were
+closed, and the unfortunate people assembled in great crowds, crying "Ya
+Latif! Ya Latif!" ("O Gracious [God]!") Al-Alfi and Osman Bey Hasan had
+professed allegiance to the pasha; but they soon after declared against
+him, and they were now approaching from the south; and having repulsed
+Mehemet Ali, they took the two fortresses of Tura. These Mehemet Ali
+speedily retook by night with 4000 infantry and cavalry; but the
+enterprise was only partially successful. On the following day the other
+Mamelukes north of the metropolis actually penetrated into the suburbs;
+but a few days later were defeated in a battle fought at Shubra, with
+heavy loss on both sides. This reverse in a measure united the two great
+Mameluke parties, though their chiefs remained at enmity. Al-Bardisi
+passed to the south of Cairo, and the Mamelukes gradually retreated
+towards Upper Egypt. Thither the pasha despatched three successive
+expeditions (one of which was commanded by Mehemet Ali), and many
+battles were fought, but without decisive result.
+
+At this period another calamity befell Egypt; about 3000 Delis (Kurdish
+troops) arrived in Cairo from Syria. These troops had been sent for by
+Khorshid in order to strengthen himself against the Albanians; and the
+events of this portion of the history afford sad proof of their ferocity
+and brutal enormities, in which they far exceeded the ordinary Turkish
+soldiers and even the Albanians. Their arrival immediately recalled
+Mehemet Ali and his party from the war, and instead of aiding Khorshid
+was the proximate cause of his overthrow.
+
+Cairo was ripe for revolt; the pasha was hated for his tyranny and
+extortion, and execrated for the deeds of his troops, especially those
+of the Delis: the sheiks enjoined the people to close their shops, and
+the soldiers clamoured for pay. At this juncture a firman arrived from
+Constantinople conferring on Mehemet Ali the pashalic of Jedda; but the
+occurrences of a few days raised him to that of Egypt.
+
+
+  Struggle between Khorshid and Mehemet Ali.
+
+On the 12th of Safar 1220 (May 12th, 1805) the sheiks, with an immense
+concourse of the inhabitants, assembled in the house of the kadi; and
+the ulema, amid the prayers and cries of the people, wrote a full
+statement of the heavy wrongs which they had endured under the
+administration of the pasha. The ulema, in answer, were desired to go to
+the citadel; but they were apprised of treachery; and on the following
+day, having held another council at the house of the kadi, they
+proceeded to Mehemet Ali and informed him that the people would no
+longer submit to Khorshid. "Then whom will ye have?" said he. "We will
+have _thee_," they replied, "to govern us according to the laws; for we
+see in thy countenance that thou art possessed of justice and goodness."
+Mehemet Ali seemed to hesitate, and then complied, and was at once
+invested. On this, a bloody struggle began between the two pashas.
+Khorshid, being informed of the insurrection, immediately prepared to
+stand a siege in the citadel. Two chiefs of the Albanians joined his
+party, but many of his soldiers deserted. Mehemet Ali's great strength
+lay in the devotion of the citizens of Cairo, who looked on him as a
+deliverer from their afflictions; and great numbers armed themselves,
+advising constantly with Mehemet Ali, having the sayyid Omar and the
+sheiks at their head, and guarding the town at night. On the 19th of the
+same month Mehemet Ali began to besiege Khorshid. After the siege had
+continued many days, Khorshid gave orders to cannonade and bombard the
+town; and for six days his commands were executed with little
+interruption, the citadel itself also lying between two fires. Mehemet
+Ali's position at this time was very critical: his troops became
+mutinous for their pay; the silahdar, who had commanded one of the
+expeditions against the Mamelukes, advanced to the relief of Khorshid;
+and the latter ordered the Delis to march to his assistance. The firing
+ceased on the Friday, but began again on the eve of Saturday and lasted
+until the next Friday. On the day following (May 28th) news came of the
+arrival at Alexandria of a messenger from Constantinople. The ensuing
+night in Cairo presented a curious spectacle; many of the inhabitants,
+believing that this envoy would put an end to their miseries, fired off
+their weapons as they paraded the streets with bands of music. The
+silahdar, imagining the noise to be a fray, marched in haste towards the
+citadel, while its garrison sallied forth and began throwing up
+entrenchments in the quarter of Arab al-Yesar, but were repulsed by the
+armed inhabitants and the soldiers stationed there; and during all this
+time the cannonade and bombardment from the citadel, and on it from the
+batteries on the hill, continued unabated.
+
+
+  Mehemet Ali granted the pashalic.
+
+The envoy brought a firman confirming Mehemet Ali and ordering Khorshid
+to go to Alexandria, there to await further orders; but this he refused
+to do, on the ground that he had been appointed by a _hatt-i-sherif_.
+The firing ceased on the following day, but the troubles of the people
+were rather increased than assuaged; murders and robberies were daily
+committed by the soldiery, the shops were all shut and some of the
+streets barricaded. While these scenes were being enacted, al-Alfi was
+besieging Damanhur, and the other beys were returning towards Cairo,
+Khorshid having called them to his assistance; but Mehemet Ali forced
+them to retreat.
+
+Soon after this, a squadron under the command of the Turkish high
+admiral arrived at Aboukir Bay, with despatches confirming the firman
+brought by the former envoy, and authorizing Mehemet Ali to continue to
+discharge the functions of governor. Khorshid at first refused to yield;
+but at length, on condition that his troops should be paid, he evacuated
+the citadel and embarked for Rosetta.
+
+
+  First massacre of the Mamelukes.
+
+Mehemet Ali now possessed the title of Governor of Egypt, but beyond the
+walls of Cairo his authority was everywhere disputed by the beys, who
+were joined by the army of the silahdar of Khorshid; and many Albanians
+deserted from his ranks. To replenish his empty coffers he was also
+compelled to levy exactions, principally from the Copts. An attempt was
+made to ensnare certain of the beys, who were encamped north of Cairo.
+On the 17th of August 1805 the dam of the canal of Cairo was to be cut,
+and some chiefs of Mehemet Ali's party wrote, informing them that he
+would go forth early on that morning with most of his troops to witness
+the ceremony, inviting them to enter and seize the city, and, to deceive
+them, stipulating for a certain sum of money as a reward. The dam,
+however, was cut early in the preceding night, without any ceremony. On
+the following morning, these beys, with their Mamelukes, a very numerous
+body, broke open the gate of the suburb al-Husainia, and gained
+admittance into the city from the north, through the gate called Bab
+el-Futuh. They marched along the principal street for some distance,
+with kettle-drums behind each company, and were received with apparent
+joy by the citizens. At the mosque called the Ashrafia they separated,
+one party proceeding to the Azhar and the houses of certain sheiks, and
+the other continuing along the main street, and through the gate called
+Bab Zuwela, where they turned up towards the citadel. Here they were
+fired on by some soldiers from the houses; and with this signal a
+terrible massacre began. Falling back towards their companions, they
+found the bye-streets closed; and in that part of the main thoroughfare
+called Bain al-Kasrain they were suddenly placed between two fires. Thus
+shut up in a narrow street, some sought refuge in the collegiate mosque
+Barkukia, while the remainder fought their way through their enemies and
+escaped over the city-wall with the loss of their horses. Two Mamelukes
+had in the meantime succeeded, by great exertions, in giving the alarm
+to their comrades in the quarter of the Azhar, who escaped by the
+eastern gate called Bab al-Ghoraib. A horrible fate awaited those who
+had shut themselves up in the Barkukia. Having begged for quarter and
+surrendered, they were immediately stripped nearly naked, and about
+fifty were slaughtered on the spot; and about the same number were
+dragged away, with every brutal aggravation of their pitiful condition,
+to Mehemet Ali. Among them were four beys, one of whom, driven to
+madness by Mehemet Ali's mockery, asked for a drink of water; his hands
+were untied that he might take the bottle, but he snatched a dagger from
+one of the soldiers, rushed at the pasha, and fell covered with wounds.
+The wretched captives were then chained and left in the court of the
+pasha's house; and on the following morning the heads of their comrades
+who had perished the day before were skinned and stuffed with straw
+before their eyes. One bey and two others paid their ransom and were
+released; the rest, without exception, were tortured and put to death in
+the course of the ensuing night. Eighty-three heads (many of them those
+of Frenchmen and Albanians) were stuffed and sent to Constantinople,
+with a boast that the Mameluke chiefs were utterly destroyed. Thus ended
+Mehemet Ali's first massacre of his too confiding enemies.
+
+The beys, after this, appear to have despaired of regaining their
+ascendancy; most of them retreated to Upper Egypt, and an attempt at
+compromise failed. Al-Alfi offered his submission on the condition of
+the cession of the Fayum and other provinces; but this was refused, and
+that chief gained two successive victories over the pasha's troops, many
+of whom deserted to him.
+
+At length, in consequence of the remonstrances of the English, and a
+promise made by al-Alfi of 1500 purses, the Porte consented to reinstate
+the twenty-four beys and to place al-Alfi at their head; but this
+measure met with the opposition of Mehemet Ali and the determined
+resistance of the majority of the Mamelukes, who, rather than have
+al-Alfi at their head, preferred their present condition; for the enmity
+of al-Bardisi had not subsided, and he commanded the voice of most of
+the other beys. In pursuance of the above plan, a squadron under Salih
+Pasha, shortly before appointed high admiral, arrived at Alexandria on
+the 1st of July 1806 with 3000 regular troops and a successor to Mehemet
+Ali, who was to receive the pashalik of Salonica. This wily chief
+professed his willingness to obey the commands of the Porte, but stated
+that his troops, to whom he owed a vast sum of money, opposed his
+departure. He induced the ulema to sign a letter, praying the sultan to
+revoke the command for reinstating the beys, persuaded the chiefs of the
+Albanian troops to swear allegiance to him, and sent 2000 purses
+contributed by them to Constantinople. Al-Alfi was at that time
+besieging Damanhur, and he gained a signal victory over the pasha's
+troops; but the dissensions of the beys destroyed their last chance of a
+return to power. Al-Alfi and his partisans were unable to pay the sum
+promised to the Porte; Salih Pasha received plenipotentiary powers from
+Constantinople, in consequence of the letter from the ulema; and, on the
+condition of Mehemet Ali's paying 4000 purses to the Porte, it was
+decided that he should continue in his post, and the reinstatement of
+the beys was abandoned. Fortune continued to favour the pasha. In the
+following month al-Bardisi died, aged forty-eight years; and soon after,
+a scarcity of provisions excited the troops of al-Alfi to revolt. That
+bey very reluctantly raised the siege of Damanhur, being in daily
+expectation of the arrival of an English army; and at the village of
+Shubra-ment he was attacked by a sudden illness, and died on the 30th of
+January 1807, at the age of fifty-five. Thus was the pasha relieved of
+his two most formidable enemies; and shortly after he defeated Shahin
+Bey, with the loss to the latter of his artillery and baggage and 300
+men killed or taken prisoners.
+
+
+  The British expedition of 1807.
+
+On the 17th of March 1807 a British fleet appeared off Alexandria,
+having on board nearly 5000 troops, under the command of General A.
+Mackenzie Fraser; and the place, being disaffected towards Mehemet Ali,
+opened its gates to them. Here they first heard of the death of al-Alfi,
+upon whose co-operation they had founded their chief hopes of success;
+and they immediately despatched messengers to his successor and to the
+other beys, inviting them to Alexandria. The British resident, Major
+Missett, having represented the importance of taking Rosetta and
+Rahmanieh, to secure supplies for Alexandria, General Fraser, with the
+concurrence of the admiral, Sir John Duckworth, detached the 31st
+regiment and the Chasseurs Britanniques, accompanied by some field
+artillery under Major-General Wauchope and Brigadier-General Meade, on
+this service; and these troops entered Rosetta without encountering any
+opposition; but as soon as they had dispersed among the narrow streets,
+the garrison opened a deadly fire on them from the latticed windows and
+the roofs of the houses. They effected a retreat on Aboukir and
+Alexandria, after a very heavy loss of 185 killed and 281 wounded,
+General Wauchope and three officers being among the former, and General
+Meade and nineteen officers among the latter. The heads of the slain
+were fixed on stakes on each side of the road crossing the Ezbekia in
+Cairo.
+
+Mehemet Ali, meanwhile, was conducting an expedition against the beys in
+Upper Egypt, and he had defeated them near Assiut, when he heard of the
+arrival of the British. In great alarm lest the beys should join them,
+especially as they were far north of his position, he immediately sent
+messengers to his rivals, promising to comply with all their demands if
+they should join in expelling the invaders; and this proposal being
+agreed to, both armies marched towards Cairo on opposite sides of the
+river.
+
+To return to the unfortunate British expedition. The possession of
+Rosetta being deemed indispensable, Brigadier-Generals Sir William
+Stewart and Oswald were despatched thither with 2500 men. For thirteen
+days a cannonade of the town was continued without effect; and on the
+20th of April, news having come in from the advanced guard at Hamad of
+large reinforcements to the besieged, General Stewart was compelled to
+retreat; and a dragoon was despatched to Lieutenant-colonel Macleod,
+commanding at Hamad, with orders to fall back. The messenger, however,
+was unable to penetrate to the spot; and the advanced guard, consisting
+of a detachment of the 31st, two companies of the 78th, one of the 35th,
+and De Roll's regiment, with a picquet of dragoons, the whole mustering
+733 men, was surrounded, and, after a gallant resistance, the survivors,
+who had expended all their ammunition, became prisoners of war. General
+Stewart regained Alexandria with the remainder of his force, having
+lost, in killed, wounded and missing, nearly 900 men. Some hundreds of
+British heads were now exposed on stakes in Cairo, and the prisoners
+were marched between these mutilated remains of their countrymen.
+
+
+  Final massacre of the Mamelukes.
+
+The beys became divided in their wishes, one party being desirous of
+co-operating with the British, the other with the pasha. These delays
+proved ruinous to their cause; and General Fraser, despairing of their
+assistance, evacuated Alexandria on the 14th of September. From that
+date to the spring of 1811 the beys from time to time relinquished
+certain of their demands; the pasha on his part granted them what before
+had been withheld; the province of the Fayum, and part of those of Giza
+and Beni-Suef, were ceded to Shahin; and a great portion of the Sa'id,
+on the condition of paying the land-tax, to the others. Many of them
+took up their abode in Cairo, but tranquillity was not secured; several
+times they met the pasha's forces in battle and once gained a signal
+victory. Early in the year 1811, the preparations for an expedition
+against the Wahhabis in Arabia being complete, all the Mameluke beys
+then in Cairo were invited to the ceremony of investing Mehemet Ali's
+favourite son, Tusun, with a pelisse and the command of the army. As on
+the former occasion, the unfortunate Mamelukes fell into the snare. On
+the 1st of March, Shahin Bey and the other chiefs (one only excepted)
+repaired with their retinues to the citadel, and were courteously
+received by the pasha. Having taken coffee, they formed in procession,
+and, preceded and followed by the pasha's troops, slowly descended the
+steep and narrow road leading to the great gate of the citadel; but as
+soon as the Mamelukes arrived at the gate it was suddenly closed before
+them. The last of those to leave before the gate was shut were Albanians
+under Salih Kush. To these troops their chief now made known the pasha's
+orders to massacre all the Mamelukes within the citadel; therefore,
+having returned by another way, they gained the summits of the walls and
+houses that hem in the road in which the Mamelukes were confined, and
+some stationed themselves upon the eminences of the rock through which
+that road is partly cut. Thus securely placed, they began a heavy fire
+on their victims; and immediately the troops who closed the procession,
+and who had the advantage of higher ground, followed their example. Of
+the betrayed chiefs, many were laid low in a few moments; some,
+dismounting, and throwing off their outer robes, vainly sought, sword in
+hand, to return, and escape by some other gate. The few who regained the
+summit of the citadel experienced the same fate as the rest, for no
+quarter was given. Four hundred and seventy Mamelukes entered the
+citadel; and of these very few, if any, escaped. One of these is said to
+have been a bey. According to some, he leapt his horse from the
+ramparts, and alighted uninjured, though the horse was killed by the
+fall; others say that he was prevented from joining his comrades, and
+discovered the treachery while waiting without the gate. He fled and
+made his way to Syria. This massacre was the signal for an
+indiscriminate slaughter of the Mamelukes throughout Egypt, orders to
+this effect being transmitted to every governor; and in Cairo itself the
+houses of the beys were given over to the soldiery. During the two
+following days the pasha and his son Tusun rode about the streets and
+tried to stop the atrocities; but order was not restored until 500
+houses had been completely pillaged. The heads of the beys were sent to
+Constantinople.
+
+A remnant of the Mamelukes fled to Nubia, and a tranquillity was
+restored to Egypt to which it had long been unaccustomed. In the year
+following the massacre the unfortunate exiles were attacked by Ibrahim
+Pasha, the eldest son of Mehemet Ali, in the fortified town of Ibrim, in
+Nubia. Here the want of provisions forced them to evacuate the place; a
+few who surrendered were beheaded, and the rest went farther south and
+built the town of New Dongola (correctly Dunkulah), where the venerable
+Ibrahim Bey died in 1816, at the age of eighty. As their numbers
+thinned, they endeavoured to maintain their little power by training
+some hundreds of blacks; but again, on the approach of Ismail, another
+son of the pasha of Egypt, sent with an army in 1820 to subdue Nubia and
+Sennar, some returned to Egypt and settled in Cairo, while the rest,
+amounting to about 100 persons, fled in dispersed parties to the
+countries adjacent to Sennar.
+
+  See A. A Paton, _History of the Egyptian Revolution_ (2 vols., 2nd
+  ed., enlarged 1870); and FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS.
+       (E. S. P.; S. L.-P.; D. S. M.*)
+
+
+3. _Modern History._
+
+  Wars in Arabia.
+
+(1) _Rule of Mehemet Ali._--Mehemet Ali was now undisputed master of
+Egypt, and his efforts henceforth were directed primarily to the
+maintenance of his practical independence. The suzerainty of the sultan
+he acknowledged, and at the reiterated commands of the Porte he
+despatched in 1811 an army of 8000 men, including 2000 horse, under the
+command of his son Tusun, a youth of sixteen, against the Wahhabis
+(q.v.). After a successful advance, this force met with a serious
+repulse at the pass of Jedeida, near Safra, and retreated to Yembo'
+(Yambu). In the following year Tusun, having received reinforcements,
+again assumed the offensive, and captured Medina after a prolonged
+siege. He next took Jidda and Mecca, defeating the Wahhabis beyond the
+latter place and capturing their general. But some mishaps followed, and
+Mehemet Ali, who had determined to conduct the war in person, left Egypt
+for that purpose in the summer of 1813. In Arabia he encountered serious
+obstacles from the nature of the country and the harassing mode of
+warfare adopted by his adversaries. His arms met with various fortunes;
+but on the whole his forces proved superior to those of the enemy. He
+deposed and exiled the sharif of Mecca, and after the death of the
+Wahhabi leader Saud II. he concluded in 1815 a treaty with Saud's son
+and successor, Abdullah. Hearing of the escape of Napoleon from
+Elba--and fearing danger to Egypt from the plans of France or Great
+Britain--Mehemet Ali returned to Cairo by way of Kosseir and Kena. He
+reached the capital on the day of the battle of Waterloo. His return was
+hastened by reports that the Turks, whose cause he was upholding in
+Arabia, were treacherously planning an invasion of Egypt.
+
+During Mehemet Ali's absence in Arabia his representative at Cairo had
+completed the confiscation, begun in 1808, of almost all the lands
+belonging to private individuals, who were forced to accept instead
+inadequate pensions. By this revolutionary method of land
+"nationalization" Mehemet Ali became proprietor of nearly all the soil
+of Egypt, an iniquitous measure against which the Egyptians had no
+remedy. The attempt which in this year (1815) the pasha made to
+reorganize his troops on European lines led, however, to a formidable
+mutiny in Cairo. Mehemet Ali's life was endangered, and he sought refuge
+by night in the citadel, while the soldiery committed many acts of
+plunder. The revolt was reduced by presents to the chiefs of the
+insurgents, and Mehemet Ali ordered that the sufferers by the
+disturbances should receive compensation from the treasury. The project
+of the _Nizam Gedid_ (New System), as the European system was called,
+was, in consequence of this mutiny, abandoned for a time.
+
+Tusun returned to Egypt on hearing of the military revolt at Cairo, but
+died in 1816 at the early age of twenty. Mehemet Ali, dissatisfied with
+the treaty concluded with the Wahhabis, and with the non-fulfilment of
+certain of its clauses, determined to send another army to Arabia, and
+to include in it the soldiers who had recently proved unruly. This
+expedition, under his eldest son Ibrahim Pasha, left in the autumn of
+1816. The war was long and arduous, but in 1818 Ibrahim captured the
+Wahhabi capital of Deraiya. Abdullah, their chief, was made prisoner,
+and with his treasurer and secretary was sent to Constantinople, where,
+in spite of Ibrahim's promise of safety, and of Mehemet Ali's
+intercession in their favour, they were put to death. At the close of
+the year 1819, Ibrahim returned to Cairo, having subdued all present
+opposition in Arabia.
+
+Meanwhile the pasha had turned his attention to the improvement of the
+manufactures of Egypt, and engaged very largely in commerce. He created
+for himself a monopoly in the chief products of the country, to the
+further impoverishment of the people, and set up and kept going for
+years factories which never paid. But some of his projects were sound.
+The work of digging (1819-1820) the new canal of Alexandria, called the
+Mahmudiya (after the reigning sultan of Turkey), was specially
+important. The old canal had long fallen into decay, and the necessity
+of a safe channel between Alexandria and the Nile was much felt. Such
+was the object of the canal then excavated, and it answered its purpose;
+but the sacrifice of life was enormous (fully 20,000 workmen perished),
+and the labour of the unhappy fellahin was forced. Another notable fact
+in the economic progress of the country was the development of the
+cultivation of cotton in the Delta in 1822 and onwards. The cotton grown
+had been brought from the Sudan by Maho Bey, and the organization of the
+new industry--from which in a few years Mehemet Ali was enabled to
+extract considerable revenues--was entrusted to a Frenchman named Jumel.
+
+
+  Conquest of the Sudan begun.
+
+In 1820 Mehemet Ali ordered the conquest of the eastern Sudan to be
+undertaken. He first sent an expedition westward (Feb. 1820) which
+conquered and annexed the oasis of Siwa. Among the pasha's reasons for
+wishing to extend his rule southward were the desire to capture the
+valuable caravan trade then going towards the Red Sea, and to secure the
+rich gold mines which he believed to exist in Sennar. He also saw in the
+campaign a means of getting rid of the disaffected troops, and of
+obtaining a sufficient number of captives to form the nucleus of the new
+army. The forces destined for this service were led by Ismail, then the
+youngest son of Mehemet Ali; they consisted of between 4000 and 5000
+men, Turks and Arabs, and left Cairo in July 1820. Nubia at once
+submitted, the Shagia Arabs immediately beyond the province of Dongola
+were worsted, the remnant of the Mamelukes dispersed, and Sennar reduced
+without a battle. Mahommed Bey, the defterdar, with another force of
+about the same strength, was then sent by Mehemet Ali against Kordofan
+with a like result, but not without a hard-fought engagement. In October
+1822 Ismail was, with his retinue, burnt to death by Nimr, the _mek_
+(king) of Shendi; and the defterdar, a man infamous for his cruelty,
+assumed the command of those provinces, and exacted terrible retribution
+from the innocent inhabitants. Khartum was founded at this time, and in
+the following years the rule of the Egyptians was largely extended and
+control obtained of the Red Sea ports of Suakin and Massawa (see SUDAN:
+_History_).
+
+In 1824 a native rebellion of a religious character broke out in Upper
+Egypt headed by one Ahmad, an inhabitant of Es-Salimiya, a village
+situated a few miles above Thebes. He proclaimed himself a prophet, and
+was soon followed by between 20,000 and 30,000 insurgents, mostly
+peasants, but some of them deserters from the "Nizam Gedid," for that
+force was yet in a half-organized state, and in part declared for the
+impostor. The insurrection was crushed by Mehemet Ali, and about
+one-fourth of Ahmad's followers perished, but he himself escaped and was
+never after heard of. Few of these unfortunates possessed any other
+weapon than the long staff (_nebbut_) of the Egyptian peasant; still
+they offered an obstinate resistance, and the combat in which they were
+defeated resembled a massacre. This movement was the last internal
+attempt to destroy the pasha's authority.
+
+
+  Sufferings of the fellahin.
+
+The fellahin, a patient, long-suffering race save when stirred by
+religious fanaticism, submitted to the kurbash, freely used by the
+Turkish and Bashi Bazuk tax-gatherers employed by Mehemet Ali to enforce
+his system of taxation, monopolies, corvée and conscription. Under this
+régime the resources of the country were impoverished, while the
+finances fell into complete and incomprehensible chaos.
+
+A vivid picture of the condition to which Egypt was reduced is painted
+in the report drawn up in 1838 by the British consul-general, Colonel
+Campbell:--
+
+  "The government (he wrote), possessing itself of the necessaries of
+  life at prices fixed by itself, disposes of them at arbitrary prices.
+  The fellah is thus deprived of his harvest and falls into arrears with
+  his taxes, and is harassed and bastinadoed to force him to pay his
+  debts. This leads to deterioration of agriculture and lessens the
+  production. The pasha having imposed high taxes has caused the high
+  prices of the necessaries of life. It would be difficult for a
+  foreigner now coming to Egypt to form a just idea of the actual state
+  of the country as compared with its former state. In regard to the
+  general rise in prices, all the ground cultivated under the Mamelukes
+  was employed for producing food--wheat, barley, beans, &c.--in immense
+  quantities. The people reared fowls, sheep, goats, &c., and the prices
+  were one-sixth, or even one-tenth, of those at present. This continued
+  until Mehemet Ali became viceroy in 1805. From that period until the
+  establishment of monopolies prices have gradually increased; but the
+  great increase has chiefly taken place since 1824, when the pasha
+  established his regular army, navy and factories."
+
+The conclusion in 1838 of a commercial treaty with Turkey, negotiated by
+Sir Henry Bulwer (Lord Dalling), struck a death-blow to the system of
+monopolies, though the application of the treaty to Egypt was delayed
+for some years. The picture of Egypt under Mehemet Ali is nevertheless
+not complete without regard being had to the beneficent side of his
+rule. Public order was rendered perfect; the Nile and the highways were
+secure to all travellers, Christian or Moslem; the Bedouin tribes were
+won over to peaceful pursuits, and genuine efforts were made to promote
+education and the study of medicine. To European merchants, on whom he
+was dependent for the sale of his exports, Mehemet Ali showed much
+favour, and under his influence the port of Alexandria again rose into
+importance. It was also under Mehemet Ali's encouragement that the
+overland transit of goods from Europe to India via Egypt was resumed.
+
+
+  Ibrahim in the Morea.
+
+Mehemet Ali was fully conscious that the empire which he had so
+laboriously built up might at any time have to be defended by force of
+arms against his master Sultan Mahmud II., whose whole policy had been
+directed to curbing the power of his too ambitious valis, and who was
+under the influence of the personal enemies of the pasha of Egypt,
+notably of Khosrev, the grand vizier, who had never forgiven his
+humiliation in Egypt in 1803. Mahmud also was already planning reforms
+borrowed from the West, and Mehemet Ali, who had had plenty of
+opportunity of observing the superiority of European methods of warfare,
+was determined to anticipate the sultan in the creation of a fleet and
+an army on modern lines, partly as a measure of precaution, partly as an
+instrument for the realization of yet wider schemes of ambition. Before
+the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence in 1821 he had already
+expended much time and energy in organizing a fleet and in training,
+under the supervision of French instructors, native officers and
+artificers; though it was not till 1829 that the opening of a dockyard
+and arsenal at Alexandria enabled him to build and equip his own
+vessels. By 1823, moreover, he had succeeded in carrying out the
+reorganization of his army on European lines, the turbulent Turkish and
+Albanian elements being replaced by negroes and fellahin.[23] His
+foresight was rewarded by the invitation of the sultan to help him in
+the task of subduing the Greek insurgents, offering as reward the
+pashaliks of the Morea and of Syria. Mehemet Ali had already, in 1821,
+been appointed governor of Crete, which he had occupied with a small
+Egyptian force. In the autumn of 1824 a fleet of sixty Egyptian
+war-ships carrying a large force of disciplined troops concentrated in
+Suda Bay, and, in the following March, Ibrahim as commander-in-chief
+landed in the Morea. But for the action of European powers the
+intervention of Mehemet Ali would have been decisive. His naval
+superiority wrested from the Greeks the command of the sea, on which the
+fate of the insurrection ultimately depended, while on land the Greek
+irregular bands were everywhere routed by Ibrahim's disciplined troops.
+The history of the events that led up to the battle of Navarino and the
+liberation of Greece is told elsewhere (see NAVARINO and GREEK
+INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF); the withdrawal of the Egyptians from the Morea
+was ultimately due to the action of Admiral Sir Edward Codrington, who
+early in August 1828 appeared before Alexandria and induced the pasha,
+by no means sorry to have a reasonable excuse, by a threat of
+bombardment, to sign a convention undertaking to recall Ibrahim and his
+army.
+
+
+  The Syrian campaigns.
+
+Before the final establishment of the new kingdom of Greece, the Eastern
+question had late in 1831 entered into a new and more perilous phase,
+owing to the revolt of Mehemet Ali against the sultan on pretext of
+chastising the ex-slave Abdullah, pasha of Acre, for refusing to send
+back Egyptian fugitives from the effects of Mehemet Ali's "reforms." The
+true reason was the refusal of Sultan Mahmud to hand over Syria
+according to agreement, and Mehemet Ali's determination to obtain at all
+hazards what had been from time immemorial an object of ambition to the
+rulers of Egypt. For ten years from this date the relations of sultan
+and pasha remained in the forefront of the questions which agitated the
+diplomatic world. It was not only the very existence of the Ottoman
+empire that seemed to be at stake, but Egypt itself had become more than
+ever an object of attention, to British statesmen especially, and in the
+issue of the struggle were involved the interests of Great Britain in
+the two routes to India by the Isthmus of Suez and the valley of the
+Euphrates. The diplomatic and military history of this period will be
+found sketched in the article on Mehemet Ali. Here it will suffice to
+say that the victorious career of Ibrahim, who once more commanded in
+his father's name, beginning with the storming of Acre on the 27th of
+May 1832, and culminating in the rout and capture of Reshid Pasha at
+Konia on the 21st of December, was arrested by the intervention of
+Russia. As the result of endless discussions between the representatives
+of the powers, the Porte and the pasha, the convention of Kutaya was
+signed on the 14th of May 1833, by which the sultan agreed to bestow on
+Mehemet Ali the pashaliks of Syria, Damascus, Aleppo and Itcheli,
+together with the district of Adana. The announcement of the pasha's
+appointment had already been made in the usual way in the annual firman
+issued on the 3rd of May. Adana, reserved for the moment, was bestowed
+on Ibrahim under the style of _muhassil_, or collector of the crown
+revenues, a few days later.
+
+Mehemet Ali now ruled over a virtually independent empire, subject only
+to a moderate tribute, stretching from the Sudan to the Taurus
+Mountains. But though he was hailed, especially in France, as the
+pioneer of European civilization in the East, the unsound foundations of
+his authority were not long in revealing themselves. Scarcely a year
+from the signing of the convention of Kutaya the application by Ibrahim
+of Egyptian methods of government, notably of the monopolies and
+conscription, had driven Syrians, Druses and Arabs, who had welcomed him
+as a deliverer, into revolt. The unrest was suppressed by Mehemet Ali in
+person, and the Syrians were terrorized and disarmed. But their
+discontent encouraged Sultan Mahmud to hope for revenge, and a renewal
+of the conflict was only staved off by the anxious efforts of the
+powers. At last, in the spring of 1839, the sultan ordered his army,
+concentrated under Reshid in the border district of Bìr on the
+Euphrates, to advance over the Syrian frontier. Ibrahim, seeing his
+flank menaced, attacked it at Nezib on the 24th of June. Once more the
+Ottomans were utterly routed. Six days later, before the news reached
+Constantinople, Mahmud died. Once more the Ottoman empire lay at the
+feet of Mehemet Ali; but the powers were now more prepared to meet a
+contingency which had been long foreseen. Their intervention was prompt;
+and the dubious attitude of France, which led to her exclusion from the
+concert and encouraged Mehemet Ali to resist, only led to his obtaining
+less favourable terms. (See MEHEMET ALI.)
+
+
+  Mehemet Ali's authority confined to Egypt.
+
+The end was reached early in 1841. New firmans were issued which
+confined the pasha's authority to Egypt, the Sinai peninsula and certain
+places on the Arabian side of the Red Sea, and to the Sudan. The most
+important of these documents are dated the 13th of February 1841. The
+government of the pashalik of Egypt was made hereditary in the family of
+Mehemet Ali.[24] A map showing the boundaries of Egypt accompanied the
+firman granting Mehemet Ali the pashalik, a duplicate copy being
+retained by the Porte. The Egyptian copy is supposed to have been lost
+in a fire which destroyed a great part of the Egyptian archives. The
+Turkish copy has never been produced and its existence now appears
+doubtful. The point is of importance, as in 1892 and again in 1906
+boundary disputes arose between Turkey and Egypt (see below). Various
+restrictions were laid upon Mehemet Ali, emphasizing his position of
+vassalage. He was forbidden to maintain a fleet, and his army was not to
+exceed 18,000 men. The pasha was no longer a figure in European
+politics, but he continued to occupy himself with his improvements, real
+or imaginary, in Egypt. The condition of the country was deplorable; in
+1842 a murrain of cattle was followed by a destructive Nile flood; in
+1843 there was a plague of locusts, whole villages were depopulated.
+Meantime the uttermost farthing was wrung from the wretched fellahin,
+while they were forced to the building of magnificent public works by
+unpaid labour. In 1844-1845 there was some improvement in the condition
+of the country as a result of financial reforms the pasha was compelled
+to execute. Mehemet Ali, who had been granted the honorary rank of grand
+vizier in 1842, paid a visit to Stamboul in 1846, where he became
+reconciled to his old enemy Khosrev Pasha, whom he had not seen since he
+spared his life at Cairo in 1803. In 1847 Mehemet Ali laid the
+foundation stone of the great barrage across the Nile at the beginning
+of the Delta. He was barely persuaded from ordering the barrage to be
+built with stone from the pyramids! Towards the end of 1847 the aged
+pasha's mind began to give way, and by the following June he was no
+longer capable of administering the government. In September 1848
+Ibrahim was acknowledged by the Porte as ruler of the pashalik, but he
+died in the November following. Mehemet Ali survived another eight
+months, dying on the 2nd of August 1849, aged eighty. He had done a
+great work in Egypt; the most permanent being the weakening of the tie
+binding the country to Turkey, the starting of the great cotton
+industry, the recognition of the advantages of European science, and the
+conquest of the Sudan.     (F. R. C.)
+
+
+  Abbas I. and Said Pasha.
+
+(2) _From the Death of Mehemet Ali to the British Occupation._--On
+Ibrahim's death in November 1848 the government of Egypt fell to his
+nephew Abbas I (q.v.), the son of Tusun. Abbas put an end to the system
+of commercial monopolies, and during his reign the railway from
+Alexandria to Cairo was begun at the instigation of the British
+government. Opposed to European ways, Abbas lived in great seclusion,
+and after a reign of less than six years he was murdered (July 1854) by
+two of his slaves. He was succeeded by his uncle Said Pasha, the
+favourite son of Mehemet Ali, who lacked the strength of mind or
+physical health needed to execute the beneficent projects which he
+conceived. His endeavour, for instance, to put a stop to the slave
+raiding which devastated the Sudan provinces was wholly ineffectual. He
+had a genuine regard for the welfare of the fellahin, and a land law of
+1858 secured to them an acknowledgment of freehold as against the crown.
+The pasha was much under French influence, and in 1856 was induced to
+grant to Ferdinand de Lesseps a concession for the construction of the
+Suez Canal. Lord Palmerston was opposed to this project, and the British
+opposition delayed the ratification of the concession by the Porte for
+two years. To the British Said also made concessions--one to the Eastern
+Telegraph Company, and another (1854) allowing the establishment of the
+Bank of Egypt. He also began the national debt by borrowing £3,293,000
+from Messrs Frühling & Göschen, the actual amount received by the pasha
+being £2,640,000. In January 1863 Said Pasha died and was succeeded by
+his nephew Ismail, a son of Ibrahim Pasha.
+
+
+  Ismail's megalomania
+
+The reign of Ismail (q.v.), from 1863 to 1879, was for a while hailed as
+introducing a new era into modern Egypt. In spite of his vast schemes of
+reform and the _éclat_ of his Europeanizing innovations, his oriental
+extravagance led to bankruptcy, and his reign is historically important
+simply for its compelling European intervention in the internal affairs
+of Egypt. Yet in its earlier years much was done which seemed likely to
+give Ismail a more important place in history. In 1866 he was granted by
+the sultan a firman--obtained on condition of the increase of the
+tribute from £376,000 to £720,000--by which the succession to the throne
+of Egypt was made to descend "to the eldest of thy male children and in
+the same manner to the eldest sons of thy successors," instead of, after
+Turkish law, to the eldest male of the family. In the following year
+another firman bestowed upon him the title of _khedive_ in lieu of that
+of _vali_, borne by Mehemet Ali and his immediate successors. In 1873 a
+further firman placed the khedive in many respects in the position of an
+independent sovereign. Ismail re-established and improved the
+administrative system organized by Mehemet Ali, and which had fallen
+into decay under Abbas's indolent rule; he caused a thorough remodelling
+of the customs system, which was in an anarchic state, to be made by
+English officials; in 1865 he established the Egyptian post office; he
+reorganized the military schools of his grandfather, and gave some
+support to the cause of education. Railways, telegraphs, lighthouses,
+the harbour works at Suez, the breakwater at Alexandria, were carried
+out by some of the best contractors of Europe. Most important of all,
+the Suez Canal was opened in 1869. But the funds required for these
+public works, as well as the actual labour, were remorselessly extorted
+from a poverty-stricken population.
+
+  A striking picture of the condition of the people at this period is
+  given by Lady Duff Gordon in _Last Letters from Egypt_. Writing in
+  1867 she said: "I cannot describe the misery here now--every day some
+  new tax. Every beast, camel, cow, sheep, donkey and horse is made to
+  pay. The fellaheen can no longer eat bread; they are living on
+  barley-meal mixed with water, and raw green stuff, vetches, | &c. The
+  taxation makes life almost impossible: a tax on every crop, on every
+  animal first, and again when it is sold in the market; on every man,
+  on charcoal, on butter, on salt.... The people in Upper Egypt are
+  running away by wholesale, utterly unable to pay the new taxes and do
+  the work exacted. Even here (Cairo) the beating for the year's taxes
+  is awful."
+
+
+  Steps leading to the deposition of Ismail.
+
+In the years that followed the condition of things grew worse. Thousands
+of lives were lost and large sums expended in extending Ismail's
+dominions in the Sudan (q.v.) and in futile conflicts with Abyssinia. In
+1875 the impoverishment of the fellah had reached such a point that the
+ordinary resources of the country no longer sufficed for the most urgent
+necessities of administration; and the khedive Ismail, having repeatedly
+broken faith with his creditors, could not raise any more loans on the
+European market. The taxes were habitually collected many months in
+advance, and the colossal floating debt was increasing rapidly. In these
+circumstances Ismail had to realize his remaining assets, and among them
+sold 176,602 Suez Canal shares to the British government for
+£3,976,582[25] (see BEACONSFIELD). This comparatively small financial
+operation brought about the long-delayed crisis and paved the way for
+the future prosperity of Egypt, for it induced the British government to
+inquire more carefully into the financial condition of the country. In
+December 1875 Mr Stephen Cave, M.P., and Colonel (afterwards Sir John)
+Stokes, R.E., were sent to Egypt to inquire into the financial
+situation; and Mr Cave's report, made public in April 1876, showed that
+under the existing administration national bankruptcy was inevitable.
+Other commissions of inquiry followed, and each one brought Ismail more
+under European control. The establishment of the Mixed Tribunals in
+1876, in place of the system of consular jurisdiction in civil actions,
+made some of the courts of justice international. The Caisse de la
+Dette, instituted in May 1876 as a result of the Cave mission, led to
+international control over a large portion of the revenue. Next came (in
+November 1876) the mission of Mr (afterwards Lord) Goschen and M.
+Joubert on behalf of the British and French bondholders, one result
+being the establishment of Dual Control, i.e. an English official to
+superintend the revenue and a French official the expenditure of the
+country. Another result was the internationalization of the railways and
+the port of Alexandria. Then came (May 1878) a commission of inquiry of
+which the principal members were Sir Rivers Wilson, Major Evelyn Baring
+(afterwards Lord Cromer) and MM. Kremer-Baravelli and de Blignières. One
+result of that inquiry was the extension of international control to the
+enormous landed property of the khedive. Driven to desperation, Ismail
+made a virtue of necessity and accepted, in September 1878, in lieu of
+the Dual Control, a constitutional ministry, under the presidency of
+Nubar Pasha (q.v.), with Rivers Wilson as minister of finance and de
+Blignières as minister of public works. Professing to be quite satisfied
+with this arrangement, he pompously announced that Egypt was no longer
+in Africa, but a part of Europe; but before seven months had passed he
+found his constitutional position intolerable, got rid of his irksome
+cabinet by means of a secretly-organized military riot in Cairo, and
+reverted to his old autocratic methods of government. England and France
+could hardly sit still under this affront, and decided to administer
+chastisement by the hand of the suzerain power, which was delighted to
+have an opportunity of asserting its authority. On the 26th of June 1879
+Ismail suddenly received from the sultan a curt telegram, addressed to
+him as ex-khedive of Egypt, informing him that his son Tewfik was
+appointed his successor. Taken unawares, he made no attempt at
+resistance, and Tewfik was at once proclaimed khedive.
+
+
+  Re-establishment of Dual Control.
+
+  Arabi and the revolt of 1882.
+
+After a short period of inaction, when it seemed as if the change might
+be for the worse, England and France summoned up courage to look the
+situation boldly in the face, and, in November 1879, re-established the
+Dual Control in the persons of Major Baring and M. de Blignières. For
+two years the Dual Control governed Egypt, and initiated the work of
+progress that England was to continue alone. Its essential defect was
+what might be called insecurity of tenure. Without any efficient means
+of self-protection and coercion at its disposal, it had to interfere
+with the power, privileges and perquisites of a class which had long
+misgoverned the country. This class, so far as its civilian members were
+concerned, was not very formidable, because these were not likely to go
+beyond the bounds of intrigue and passive resistance; but it contained a
+military element who had more courage, and who had learned their power
+when Ismail employed them for overturning his constitutional ministry.
+Among the mutinous soldiers on that occasion was a fellah officer
+calling himself Ahmed Arabi the Egyptian. He was not a man of
+exceptional intelligence or remarkable powers of organization, but he
+was a fluent speaker, and could exercise some influence over the masses
+by a rude kind of native eloquence. Behind him were a group of men, much
+abler than himself, who put him forward as the figurehead of a party
+professing to aim at protecting the Egyptians from the grasping tyranny
+of their Turkish and European oppressors. The movement began among the
+Arab officers, who complained of the preference shown to the officers of
+Turkish origin; it then expanded into an attack on the privileged
+position and predominant influence of foreigners, many of whom, it must
+be confessed, were of a by no means respectable type; finally, it was
+directed against all Christians, foreign and native.[26] The government,
+being too weak to suppress the agitation and disorder, had to make
+concessions, and each concession produced fresh demands. Arabi was first
+promoted, then made under-secretary for war, and ultimately a member of
+the cabinet. The danger of a serious rising brought the British and
+French fleets in May 1882 to Alexandria, and after a massacre (11th of
+June) had been perpetrated by the Arab mob in that city, the British
+admiral bombarded the forts (11th of July 1882). The leaders of the
+national movement prepared to resist further aggression by force. A
+conference of ambassadors was held in Constantinople, and the sultan was
+invited to quell the revolt; but he hesitated to employ his troops
+against Mussulmans who were professing merely to oppose Christian
+aggression.
+
+(3) _Egypt occupied by the British._--At last the British government
+determined to employ armed force, and invited France to co-operate. The
+French government declined, and a similar invitation to Italy met with a
+similar refusal. England therefore, having to act alone, landed troops
+at Ismailia under Sir Garnet Wolseley, and suppressed the revolt by the
+battle of Tell-el-Kebir on the 13th of September 1882. The khedive, who
+had taken refuge in Alexandria, returned to Cairo, and a ministry was
+formed under Sherif Pasha, with Riaz Pasha as one of its leading
+members. On assuming office, the first thing it had to do was to bring
+to trial the chiefs of the rebellion. Had the khedive and Riaz been
+allowed a free hand, Arabi and his colleagues would have found little
+mercy. Thanks to the intervention of the British government, their lives
+were spared. Arabi pleaded guilty, was sentenced to death, the sentence
+being commuted by the khedive to banishment; and Riaz resigned in
+disgust. This solution of the difficulty was brought about by Lord
+Dufferin, then British ambassador at Constantinople, who had been sent
+to Egypt as high commissioner to adjust affairs and report on the
+situation. One of his first acts, after preventing the application of
+capital punishment to the ringleaders of the revolt, was to veto the
+project of protecting the khedive and his government by means of a
+Praetorian guard recruited from Asia Minor, Epirus, Austria and
+Switzerland, and to insist on the principle that Egypt must be governed
+in a truly liberal spirit. Passing in review all the departments of the
+administration, he laid down the general lines on which the country was
+to be restored to order and prosperity, and endowed, if possible, with
+the elements of self-government for future use.
+
+
+  Sir Evelyn Baring appointed consul-general, 1884.
+
+The laborious task of putting these general indications into a practical
+shape fell to Sir Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer), who arrived as
+consul-general and diplomatic agent, in succession to Sir Edward Malet,
+in January 1884. At that moment the situation was singularly like that
+which had existed on two previous occasions: firstly, when Ismail was
+deposed; and secondly, when the Dual Control had undermined the existing
+authority without having any power to enforce its own. For the third
+time in little more than three years the existing authority had been
+destroyed and a new one had to be created. But there was one essential
+difference: the power that had now to reorganize the country possessed
+in the British army of occupation a support sufficient to command
+respect. Without that support Sir Evelyn Baring could have done little
+or nothing; with it he did perhaps more than any other single man could
+have done. His method may be illustrated by an old story long current in
+Cairo. Mehemet Ali was said to have appointed as _mudir_ or governor in
+a turbulent district a young and inexperienced Turk, who asked, "But how
+am I to govern these people?" "Listen," replied the pasha; "buy the
+biggest and heaviest _kurbash_ you can find; hang it up in the centre of
+the _mudirieh_, well within your reach, and you will very seldom require
+to use it." The British army of occupation was Sir Evelyn's _kurbash_;
+it was well within his reach, as all the world knew, and its simple
+presence sufficed to prevent disorder and enforce obedience. He had one
+other advantage over previous English reformers in Egypt: his position
+towards France was more independent. The Dual Control had been abolished
+by a khedivial decree of 18th January 1883, and replaced by an English
+financial adviser. France naturally objected; but having refused to
+co-operate with England in suppressing the revolt, she could not
+reasonably complain that her offer of co-operation in the work of
+reorganization was declined. But though Dual Control was at an end, the
+Caisse de la Dette remained, and this body was to prove a constant clog
+on the financial measures of the Egyptian government.
+
+
+  The Policy of evacuation.
+
+At first the intention of the British government was simply to restore
+the power of the khedive, to keep his highness for some time in the
+right path by friendly advice, and to withdraw the British troops as
+soon as possible. As Lord Granville explained in a circular to the
+powers, the position of England in Egypt imposed on her "the duty of
+giving advice with the object of securing that the order of things to be
+established shall be of a satisfactory character and possess the
+elements of stability and progress." But there was to be no embarking on
+a general scheme of reforms, which would increase unnecessarily the
+responsibilities of the protecting power and necessitate the indefinite
+prolongation of the military occupation. So far, therefore, as the
+British government had a definite policy in Egypt, it was a _politique
+de replâtrage_. Even this policy was not strictly adhered to. Mr
+Gladstone's cabinet was as unstable as the public opinion it sought to
+conciliate. It had its hot fits and its cold fits, and it gave orders
+now to advance and now to retreat. In the long run circumstances proved
+too strong for it, and it had to undertake a great deal more than it
+originally intended. Each little change in the administration engendered
+a multitude of others, so that the modest attempts at reform were found
+to be like the letting out of water. A tiny rill gradually became a
+boisterous stream, and the boisterous stream grew into a great river,
+which spread to all sections of the administration and ended by
+inundating the whole country.
+
+
+  The Sudan question.
+
+Of the numerous questions awaiting solution, the first to claim
+immediate attention was that of the Sudan. The British government had
+begun by excluding it from the problem, and by declaring that for events
+in these outlying territories it must not be held responsible. In that
+sphere of activity, therefore, the Egyptian government might do as it
+thought fit. The principle of limited liability which this attitude
+assumed was soon found to be utterly untenable. The Sudan was an
+integral part of the khedive's dominions, and caused, even in ordinary
+times, a deficit of £200,000 to the Egyptian treasury. At that moment
+it was in a state of open rebellion, stirred up by a religious fanatic
+who proclaimed himself a mahdi of Islam. An army of 10,000 men under an
+English officer, Colonel William Hicks, formerly of the Bombay army,
+otherwise Hicks Pasha, had been sent to suppress the revolt, and had
+been annihilated in a great battle fought on the 5th of November 1883,
+near Obeid. The Egyptian government wished to make a new attempt to
+recover the lost province, and the idea was certainly very popular among
+the governing class, but Sir Evelyn Baring vetoed the project on the
+ground that Egypt had neither soldiers nor money to carry it out. In
+vain the khedive and his prime minister, Sherif Pasha, threatened to
+resign, and the latter actually carried out his threat. The British
+representative remained firm, and it was decided that the Sudan should
+be, for the moment at least, abandoned to its fate. Nubar, though as
+strongly opposed to the abandonment policy as Sherif, consented to take
+his place and accepted somewhat reluctantly the new régime, which he
+defined as "the administration of Egypt under the government of Baring."
+By this time the Mahdi was master of the greater part of the Sudan, but
+Khartum and some other fortified points still held out. The efforts made
+to extricate the garrisons, including the mission of General Gordon, the
+fall of Khartum, and the Nile Expedition under Lord Wolseley, are
+described below separately in the section of this article dealing with
+the military operations. The practical result was that the khedive's
+authority was limited to the Nile valley north of Wadi Halfa.
+
+
+  Internal reorganization
+
+With the internal difficulties Sir Evelyn Baring had been struggling
+bravely ever since his appointment, trying to evolve out of the
+ever-changing policy and contradictory orders of the British government
+some sort of coherent line of action, and to raise the administration to
+a higher standard. For two or three years it seemed doubtful whether he
+would succeed. All over Egypt there was a feeling of unrest, and the
+well-meant but not very successful efforts of the British to improve the
+state of things were making them very unpopular. The introduction of
+English officials and English influence into all the administrative
+departments was resented by the native officials, and the action of the
+irrigation officers in preventing the customary abuses of the
+distribution of water was resented by the great landowners, who had
+been, from time immemorial, in the habit of taking as much as they
+wanted, to the detriment of the fellahin. Even these latter, who gained
+most by the reforms, considered that they had good reason to complain,
+for the defeat of Arabi and the re-establishment of order had enabled
+the Christian money-lenders to return and insist on the payment of
+claims, which were supposed to have been extinguished by the rebellion.
+Worst of all, the government was drifting rapidly towards insolvency,
+being quite unable to fulfil its obligations to the bondholders and meet
+the expenses of administration. All departments were being starved, and
+even the salaries of poorly paid officials were in arrear. To free
+itself from its financial difficulties the government adopted a heroic
+remedy which only created fresh troubles. On the advice of Lord
+Northbrook, who was sent out to Cairo in September 1884 to examine the
+financial situation, certain revenues which should have been paid into
+the Caisse for the benefit of the bondholders were paid into the
+treasury for the ordinary needs of the administration. Immediately the
+powers protested against this infraction of the law of liquidation, and
+the Caisse applied for a writ to the Mixed Tribunals. In this way the
+heroic remedy failed, and to the internal difficulties were added
+international complications.
+
+Fortunately for Egypt, the British government contrived to solve the
+international difficulty by timely concessions to the powers, and
+succeeded in negotiating the London Convention of March 1885, by which
+the Egyptian government was relieved from some of the most onerous
+stipulations of the law of liquidation, and was enabled to raise a loan
+of £9,000,000 for an annual payment of £135,000. After paying out of the
+capital the sums required for the indemnities due for the burning of
+Alexandria and the deficits of the years 1882 and 1883, it still had a
+million sterling, and boldly invested it in the improvement of
+irrigation. The investment proved most remunerative, and helped very
+materially to save the country from bankruptcy and internationalism. The
+danger of being again subjected to the evils of an international
+administration was very great, for the London Convention contained a
+stipulation to the effect that if Egypt could not pay her way at the end
+of two years, another international commission would be appointed.
+
+To obviate this catastrophe the British reformers set to work most
+energetically. Already something in the way of retrenchment and reform
+had been accomplished. The public accounts had been put in order, and
+the abuses in the collection of the land tax removed. The constant drain
+of money and men for the Sudan had been stopped. A beginning had been
+made for creating a new army to replace the one that had been disbanded
+and to allow of a portion of the British garrison being withdrawn. In
+this work Sir Evelyn Wood had shown much sound judgment as well as great
+capacity for military organization, and had formed an efficient force
+out of very unpromising material (see the section above on the _Egyptian
+Army_). His colleague in the department of public works, Sir Colin
+Scott-Moncrieff, had been not less active. By mitigating the hardships
+of the _corvée_, and improving the irrigation system, on which the
+prosperity of the country mainly depends, he had conferred enormous
+benefits on the fellahin, and had laid the foundation of permanent
+budgetary equilibrium for the future. Not less active was Sir Edgar
+Vincent, the financial adviser, who kept a firm hold on the
+purse-strings and ruthlessly cut down expenditure in all departments
+except that of irrigation (see § Finance).
+
+The activity of the British officials naturally produced a certain
+amount of discontent and resistance on the part of their Egyptian
+colleagues, and Lord Granville was obliged to declare very plainly that
+such resistance could not be tolerated. Writing (January 1884) to Sir
+Evelyn Baring, he said:
+
+  "It should be made clear to the Egyptian Ministers and Governors of
+  Provinces that the responsibility which for the time rests on England
+  obliges H.M. Government to insist on the adoption of the policy which
+  they recommend; and that it will be necessary that those Ministers and
+  Governors who do not follow this course should cease to hold their
+  offices."
+
+
+  Relations between British and native officials.
+
+Nubar Pasha, who continued to be prime minister, resisted occasionally.
+What he chiefly objected to was direct interference in the provincial
+administration and the native tribunals, and he succeeded for a time in
+preventing such interference. Sir Benson Maxwell and Mr Clifford Lloyd,
+who had been sent out to reform the departments of justice and the
+interior, after coming into conflict with each other were both recalled,
+and the reforming activity was for a time restricted to the departments
+of war, public works and finance. Gradually the tension between natives
+and foreigners relaxed, and mutual confidence was established.
+Experience had evolved the working principle which was officially
+formulated at a much later period: "Our task is not to rule the
+Egyptians, but as far as possible to teach the Egyptians to rule
+themselves.... European initiative suggests measures to be executed by
+Egyptian agency, while European supervision controls the manner in which
+they are executed." If that principle had been firmly laid down and
+clearly understood at the beginning, a good deal of needless friction
+would have been avoided.
+
+
+  International problems.
+
+The international difficulty remained. The British position in Egypt was
+anomalous, and might easily give rise to international complications.
+The sultan might well protest against the military occupation of a
+portion of his empire by foreign troops. It was no secret that France
+was ready to give him diplomatic support, and other powers might adopt a
+similar attitude. Besides this, the British government was anxious to
+terminate the occupation as soon as possible. With a view to
+regularizing the situation and accelerating the evacuation, Sir Henry
+Drummond Wolff was sent to Constantinople in August 1885 on a special
+mission. On the 24th of October of that year he concluded a preliminary
+convention by which an Ottoman and a British high commissioner, acting
+in concert with the khedive, should reorganize the Egyptian army,
+tranquillize the Sudan by pacific means, and consider what changes might
+be necessary in the civil administration. When the two commissioners
+were assured of the security of the frontier and the good working and
+stability of the Egyptian government, they should present reports to
+their respective governments, and these should consult as to the
+conclusion of a convention regulating the withdrawal of the English
+troops. Mukhtar Pasha and Sir Henry Drummond Wolfe were appointed
+commissioners, and their joint inquiry lasted till the end of 1886, when
+the former presented his report and the latter went home to report
+orally. The remaining stipulations of the preliminary convention were
+duly carried out. Sir Henry Drummond Wolff proceeded to Constantinople
+and signed on the 22nd of May 1887 the definitive convention, according
+to which the occupation should come to an end in three years, but
+England should have a right to prolong or renew it in the event of
+internal peace or external security being seriously threatened. The
+sultan authorised the signature of this convention, but under pressure
+of France and Russia he refused to ratify it. Technically, therefore,
+the preliminary convention still remains in force, and in reality the
+Ottoman commissioner continued to reside in Cairo till the close of
+1908.
+
+
+  Progress of reform.
+
+The steadily increasing prosperity of the country during the years 1886
+and 1887 removed the danger of national bankruptcy and international
+interference, and induced Sir Evelyn Baring to widen the area of
+administrative reforms. In the provinces the local administration and
+the methods of dispensing justice were still scandalously
+unsatisfactory, and this was the field to which the British
+representative next directed his efforts. Here he met with unexpected
+opposition on the part of the prime minister, Nubar Pasha, and a
+conflict ensued which ended in Nubar's retirement in June 1888. Riaz
+Pasha took his place, and remained in office till May 1891. During these
+three years the work of reform and the prosperity of the country made
+great progress. The new Egyptian army was so far improved that it gained
+successes over the forces of the Mahdi; the burden of the national debt
+was lightened by a successful conversion; the _corvée_ was
+abolished;[27] the land tax was reduced 30% in the poorest provinces,
+and in spite of this and other measures for lightening the public
+burdens, the budgetary surplus constantly increased; the quasi-judicial
+special commissions for brigandage, which were at once barbarous and
+inefficient, were abolished; the native tribunals were improved, and Mr
+(afterwards Sir John) Scott, an Indian judge of great experience and
+sound judgment, was appointed judicial adviser to the khedive. This
+appointment was opposed by Riaz Pasha, and led to his resignation on the
+plea of ill-health. His successor, Mustafa Pasha Fehmi, continued the
+work and co-operated cordially with the English officials. The very
+necessary reform of the native tribunals was then taken seriously in
+hand. The existing procedure was simplified and accelerated; the working
+of the courts was greatly improved by a carefully organized system of
+inspection and control; the incompetent judges were eliminated and
+replaced by men of better education and higher moral character; and for
+the future supply of well-qualified judges, barristers, and law
+officials, an excellent school of law was established. Later on the
+reforming activity was extended to prisons, public health, and
+education, and has attained very satisfactory results.
+
+
+  Accession of Abbas.
+
+In January 1892 the khedive Tewfik, who had always maintained cordial
+relations with Sir Evelyn Baring, died suddenly, and was succeeded by
+his son, Abbas Hilmi, a young man without political experience, who
+failed at first to understand the peculiar situation in which a khedive
+ruling under British protection is necessarily placed. Aspiring to
+liberate himself at once from foreign control, he summarily dismissed
+Mustafa Pasha Fehmi (15th January 1893), whom he considered too amenable
+to English influence, and appointed in his place Fakhri Pasha, who was
+not a _persona grata_ at the British Agency. Such an incident, which
+might have constituted a precedent for more important acts of a similar
+kind, could hardly be overlooked by the British representative. He had
+always maintained that what Egypt most required, and would require for
+many years to come, was an order of things which would render
+practically impossible any return to that personal system of government
+which had well-nigh ruined the country. In this view the British agent
+was warmly supported by Lord Rosebery, then secretary of state for
+foreign affairs. The young khedive was made therefore to understand that
+he must not make such changes in the administration without a previous
+agreement with the representative of the protecting power; and a
+compromise was effected by which Fakhri Pasha retired, and the post of
+premier was confided once more to Riaz. With this compromise the
+friction between the khedive and Sir Evelyn Baring, who had now become
+Lord Cromer, did not end. For some time Abbas Hilmi clung to his idea of
+liberating himself from all control, and secretly encouraged a
+nationalist and anti-British agitation in the native press; but he
+gradually came to perceive the folly, as well as the danger to himself,
+of such a course, and accordingly refrained from giving any overt
+occasion for complaint or protest. In like manner the relations between
+the British officials and their Egyptian colleagues gradually became
+more cordial, so that it was found possible at last to reform the local
+administration in the provinces according to the recommendations of Mr
+(afterwards Sir) Eldon Gorst, who had been appointed adviser to the
+ministry of the interior. Nubar Pasha, it is true, who succeeded Riaz as
+prime minister in April 1894, objected to some of Mr Gorst's
+recommendations, and in November 1895 resigned. He was succeeded by
+Mustafa Fehmi, who had always shown a conciliatory spirit, and who had
+been on that account, as above stated, summarily dismissed by the
+khedive in January 1893. After his reinstatement the Anglo-Egyptian
+condominium worked without serious friction.
+
+
+  Fashoda.
+
+The success of the Anglo-Egyptian condominium, and the consequent
+economic and financial prosperity of Egypt proper, rendered it possible,
+during 1896-1898, to recover from the Mahdists the Sudanese provinces
+(see _Military Operations_), and to delimit in that part of Africa, in
+accordance with Anglo-Egyptian interests, the respective spheres of
+influence of Great Britain and France. The arrangement was not effected
+without serious danger of a European conflict. Taking advantage of the
+temporary weakness of Egypt, the French government formed the project of
+seizing the Upper Nile valley and uniting her possessions in West Africa
+with those at the entrance to the Red Sea. With this object a small
+force under Major Marchand was sent from the French Congo into the
+Bahr-el-Ghazal, with orders to occupy Fashoda on the Nile; whilst a
+Franco-Abyssinian Expedition was despatched from the eastward, to join
+hands with Major Marchand. The small force from the French Congo reached
+its destination, and a body of Abyssinian troops, accompanied by French
+officers, appeared for a short time a little higher up the river; but
+the grand political scheme was frustrated by the victorious advance of
+an Anglo-Egyptian force under General Kitchener and the resolute
+attitude of the British government. Major Marchand had to retire from
+Fashoda, and as a concession to French susceptibilities he was allowed
+to retreat by the Abyssinian route. By an agreement signed by Lord
+Salisbury and the French ambassador on the 21st of March 1899, and
+appended to Art. IV. of the Anglo-French convention of June 14th, 1898,
+which dealt with the British and French spheres of influence in the
+region of the Niger, France was excluded from the basin of the Nile, and
+a line marking the respective spheres of influence of the two countries
+was drawn on the map from the northern frontier of the Congo Free State
+to the southern frontier of the Turkish province of Tripoli.
+
+
+  The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
+
+The administration of the Sudan (q.v.) was organized on the basis of an
+agreement between the British and Egyptian governments signed on the
+19th of January 1899. According to that agreement the British and
+Egyptian flags are used together, and the supreme military and civil
+command is vested in a governor-general, who is appointed by the khedive
+on the recommendation of the British government, and who cannot be
+removed without the British government's consent. Neither consular
+jurisdiction, nor that of the mixed tribunals, was permitted, the Sudan
+being made absolutely free of the international fetters which bound
+Egypt. Sir Reginald Wingate, the sirdar of the Egyptian army (in which
+post he succeeded Lord Kitchener at the close of 1899) was named
+governor-general, and in the work of regeneration of the country, the
+officials, British, Egyptian and Sudanese, had the cordial co-operation
+of the majority of the inhabitants.
+
+
+  Egypt's growing prosperity.
+
+The growing prosperity of Egypt in the opening years of the 20th century
+was very marked, and is reflected in the annual reports on the country
+supplied to the British foreign office by Lord Cromer. Thus, in 1901 he
+was able to declare that "the foundations on which the well-being and
+material prosperity of a civilized community should rest have been
+laid.... The institution of slavery is virtually defunct. The _corvée_
+has been practically abolished. Law and order everywhere reign supreme.
+The _curbash_ is no longer employed as an instrument of government." So
+little danger to internal peace was apprehended that during this year
+Arabi Pasha, who had been in exile in Ceylon since 1882, was permitted
+to return to Egypt. This happy condition had been brought about largely
+as the result of giving fiscal reform, accompanied by substantial relief
+to the taxpayers, the first place in the government's programme, and
+with the abolition of octroi duties in 1902 disappeared the last of the
+main defects in the fiscal system as existing at the time of the British
+occupation. In these conditions the machinery of government, despite its
+many imperfections and anomalies, worked smoothly. Land increased in
+value as irrigation schemes were completed, and European capital was
+increasingly eager to find employment in the country. The bulk of the
+fellahin enjoyed a material prosperity to which they had been strangers
+for centuries. In the midst of this return of plenty Lord Cromer (in his
+report for 1903) sounded a note of warning:--
+
+  "As regards moral progress (he wrote), all that can be said is that it
+  must necessarily be slower than advance in a material direction. I
+  hope and believe, however, that some progress is being made. In any
+  case the machinery which will admit of progress has been created. The
+  schoolmaster is abroad.... Every possible facility and every
+  encouragement are afforded for the Egyptians to advance along the path
+  of moral improvement. More than this no government can do. It remains
+  for the Egyptians to take advantage of the opportunities offered to
+  them."
+
+
+  The Anglo-French understanding of 1904.
+
+The facilities enjoyed by the British and Egyptian governments for
+securing the material if not the moral development of Egypt were greatly
+enlarged in 1904, as the result of the understanding then come to
+between France and Great Britain. The natural irritation in France
+arising from the British occupation of the Nile valley, and the
+non-fulfilment of the pledge to withdraw the British garrison from
+Egypt, which had grown less acute with the passing of years, flamed out
+afresh at the time of the Fashoda crisis, while the Anglo-Boer war of
+1899-1902 led to another access of irritation against England. During
+1903 a great change came over public opinion on both sides of the
+Channel, with the result that the statesmen of both countries were
+enabled to complete negotiations settling many points in dispute between
+the two nations. On the 8th of April 1904 a declaration was signed by
+the representatives of France and Great Britain which virtually
+recognized the dominant position of France in Morocco and of Britain in
+Egypt. The chief provisions concerning Egypt were:--
+
+  "His Britannic Majesty's government declare that they have no
+  intention of altering the political status of Egypt.
+
+  "The government of the French Republic, for their part, declare that
+  they will not obstruct the action of Great Britain in that country by
+  asking that a limit of time be fixed for the British occupation, or in
+  any other manner.
+
+  "His Britannic Majesty's government, for their part, will respect the
+  rights which France, in virtue of treaties, conventions and usage,
+  enjoys in Egypt."
+
+Similar declarations and engagements were made by Germany, Austria and
+Italy. Annexed to the Anglo-French agreement was the text of a proposed
+khedivial decree altering the relations between Egypt and the foreign
+bondholders. With the consent of the powers this decree (promulgated on
+the 28th of November 1904) came into operation on the 1st of January
+1905. The combined effect of the declaration and the khedivial decree
+was great. The first-named put an end to an anomalous situation and gave
+a practically valid sanction to the presence of Britain in Egypt,
+removing all ground for the reproach that Great Britain was not
+respecting its international obligations. In effect it was a European
+recognition that Britain was the protecting power in Egypt. It put a
+period to a question which had long embittered the relations between
+England and France, and locally it caused the cessation of the
+systematic opposition of the French agents in Cairo to everything
+tending to strengthen the British position--however beneficial to Egypt
+the particular scheme opposed might be. Scarcely less important were the
+results of the khedivial decree. By it Egypt achieved in effect
+financial independence. The power of the Caisse de la Dette, which had
+virtually controlled the execution of the international agreements
+concerning the finances, was swept away, together with almost all the
+other financial fetters binding Egypt. The Railway and Port of
+Alexandria Board ceased to exist. For the first time since 1875 Egypt
+was free to control her own revenue. In return she pledged the greater
+part of the land tax to the service of the debt. The functions of the
+Caisse were restricted to the receipt of the funds necessary for this
+service. It was entirely deprived of its former power to interfere in
+the machinery of government. Moreover, some £10,000,000, being
+accumulated surpluses in the hands of the Caisse after meeting the
+charges of the debt, were handed over to the Egyptian treasury. The
+Egyptian government was henceforth free to take full advantage of the
+financial prosperity of the country.
+
+
+  Evils of the Capitulations.
+
+In one respect the Anglo-French agreement made no alteration--it left
+untouched the extra-territoriality enjoyed by Europeans in Egypt in
+virtue of the treaties with Turkey, i.e. the system of Capitulations.
+One of the anomalies under that system had, it is true, been got rid of,
+for, as has been stated, consular jurisdiction in civil matters had been
+replaced in 1876 by that of the Mixed Tribunals. In criminal cases,
+however, foreign consuls still exercised jurisdiction, but the main evil
+of the Capitulations régime was the absence of any proper machinery for
+enacting laws applicable to the whole of the inhabitants of Egypt. No
+change could be made in any law applicable to Europeans without the
+unanimous consent of fifteen foreign powers--a state of affairs wholly
+incompatible with the condition of Egypt in the 20th century, "an
+oriental country which has assimilated a very considerable portion of
+European civilization and which is mainly governed by European methods."
+It was, however, far easier to acknowledge that the Capitulations régime
+was defective and had outlived its time than to devise a remedy and get
+all the nations interested to accept it. The solution favoured by Lord
+Cromer (vide Blue-books, _Egypt No. 1_ (1906), pp. 1-8, and _Egypt No.
+1_ (1907), pp. 10-26) was the creation of a council--distinct from the
+existing native legislative council and assembly--composed of Europeans,
+which should have the power to pass legislation which when promulgated
+by the Egyptian government, with the assent of the British government,
+would bind all foreigners resident in Egypt. Every reservation for the
+benefit of British subjects should enure for the benefit of subjects of
+other powers. The jurisdiction exercised by consuls in civil and
+criminal affairs Lord Cromer proposed should cease _pari passu_ with the
+provision by the Egyptian government, under the powers conferred by the
+treaty required to set up the new council, of courts having competence
+to deal with such matters, various safeguards being introduced to
+prevent injustice in criminal cases. As to civil cases the proposal was
+to make permanent the Mixed Tribunals, hitherto appointed for
+quinquennial periods (so that if not reappointed consular jurisdiction
+in civil cases would revive).
+
+
+  The pan-Islamic movement.
+
+While the removal of ancient jealousies among the European powers
+interested in Egypt helped to smooth the path pursued by the Egyptian
+administration under the guiding hand of Great Britain, the intrigues of
+the Turks and the danger of a revival of Moslem fanaticism threatened
+during 1905-1906 to disturb the peace of the country. A party had also
+arisen, whose best-known leader was Mustafa Kamel Pasha (1874-1908),
+which held that Egypt was ready for self-government and which saw in the
+presence of the British a hindrance to the attainment of their ideal.
+This "national" party lent what weight it had to the pan-Islamic
+agitation which arose in the summer and autumn of 1905, regardless of
+the fact that a pan-Islamic triumph meant the re-assertion of direct
+Turkish rule in Egypt and the end of the liberty the Egyptians enjoyed.
+The pan-Islamic press, allowed full licence by the Cairo authorities,
+spread abroad rumours that the Egyptian government intended to construct
+fortifications in the Sinai peninsula with the design of menacing the
+railway, under construction by Turkey, from Damascus to Mecca. This
+baseless report led to what is known as the Taba incident (see below).
+This incident inflamed the minds of many Egyptians, and almost all the
+opposition elements in the country were united by the appeal to
+religious fanaticism, of which the incident was partly the effect and
+partly the cause. The inflammatory writing of the newspapers indicated,
+encouraged by many persons holding high positions both inside and
+outside Egypt, created, by every process of misrepresentation, an
+anti-Christian and anti-European feeling among the mass of the people.
+After more than a quarter of a century of just rule, i.e. since the
+accession of Tewfik, the tyranny of the Turkish system was apt to be
+forgotten, while the appeal to rally in support of their khalif found a
+response in the hearts of many Egyptians. The feeling entertained by
+large numbers even of the educated class of Egyptians was strikingly
+illustrated by the terms of an anonymous letter received by Lord Cromer
+in May 1906. The writer, probably a member of the Ulema class,
+addressing the British agent as the reformer of Egypt, said:--
+
+  " ... He must be blind who sees not what the English have wrought in
+  Egypt; the gates of justice stand open to the poor; the streams flow
+  through the land and are not stopped by order of the strong; the poor
+  man is lifted up and the rich man pulled down, the hand of the
+  oppressor and the briber is struck when outstretched to do evil. Our
+  eyes see these things and they know from whom they come.... While
+  peace is in the land the spirit of Islam sleeps.... But it is said,
+  'There is war between England and Abdul Hamid Khan.' If that be so a
+  change must come. The words of the Imam are echoed in every heart, and
+  every Moslem hears only the cry of the Faith.... Though the Khalif
+  were hapless as Bayezid, cruel as Murad, or mad as Ibrahim, he is the
+  shadow of God, and every Moslem must leap up at his call.... You will
+  say, 'The Egyptian is more ungrateful than a dog, which remembers the
+  hand that fed him. He is foolish as the madman who pulls down the
+  roof-tree of his house upon himself.' It may be so to worldly eyes,
+  but in the time of danger to Islam the Moslem turns away from the
+  things of this world and thirsts only for the service of his Faith,
+  even though he looks in the face of death...."
+
+
+  Denshawai.
+
+To establish confidence in the minds of the Egyptian public that the
+authorities could maintain order and tranquillity, it was determined to
+increase permanently the strength of the British garrison. An incident
+occurred in June 1906 which illustrated the danger which might arise if
+anything happened to beget the idea that the protecting power had
+weakened its hold. While mounted infantry of the British army were
+marching from Cairo to Alexandria, five officers went (on the 13th of
+June) to the village of Denshawai to shoot pigeons.[28] An attack was
+made on the party by the villagers. The officers were told by their
+guide that they might shoot, but the villagers had not given permission
+and were incensed at the shooting of their pigeons by other officers in
+the previous year. A premeditated attack was made on the officers; a gun
+seized from one of them went off and slightly injured four natives--one
+a woman. The attack had been preceded by a trifling fire at a threshing
+floor, either accidentally caused (but not by the officers' shots) or
+lit as a signal for the assault. Captain S. C. Bull of the 6th Dragoons
+received serious injuries and died a few hours later, and two other
+officers were seriously injured. A number of persons were arrested and
+tried by a special tribunal created in 1895 to deal with offences
+against the army of occupation. On the 27th of the same month four of
+the ringleaders were sentenced to death, others received various terms
+of imprisonment,[29] and seven were sentenced to fifty lashes. The
+executions and floggings were carried out the next day at the scene of
+the outrage and in the presence of some five hundred natives. The
+quieting effect that this drastic action might have had was marred by
+the fact that certain members of the British parliament called in
+question the justice of the sentences--passed unanimously by a court of
+which the best English and the best native judge were members. For a
+time there was considerable ferment in Egypt. The Anglo-Egyptian
+authorities received, however, the firm support of Sir Edward Grey, the
+foreign secretary in the liberal administration formed in December 1905.
+As far as responsible statesmen were concerned the change of government
+in Great Britain made no difference in the conduct of Egyptian affairs.
+
+
+  The Taba incident.
+
+The Taba incident, to which reference has been made, arose in the
+beginning of 1906 over the claim of the sultan of Turkey to jurisdiction
+in the Sinai peninsula. The origin of the dispute dated back, however,
+to 1892, when Abbas Hilmi became khedive. Mehemet Ali and his successors
+up to and including Tewfik had not only administered the Sinai peninsula
+but certain posts on the Hejaz or Arabian side of the gulf of Akaba. The
+firman of investiture issued by the sultan on the occasion of the
+succession of Abbas differed, however, from the text of former firmans,
+the intention being, apparently, to exclude Egypt from the
+administration of the Sinai peninsula. The British government intervened
+and after considerable pressure upon Turkey obtained a telegram (dated
+the 8th of April 1892) from the grand vizier in which it was declared
+that the _status quo_ was maintained in the Sinai peninsula, but that
+the sultan resumed possession of the posts in the Hejaz heretofore
+garrisoned by Egypt. To this last course Great Britain raised no
+objection. As officially stated by the British government at the time,
+the eastern frontier of the Sinai peninsula was taken to be a line
+running in a south-easterly direction from Rafa, a place on the
+Mediterranean, east of El Arish, to the head of the gulf of Akaba. The
+fort of Akaba and other posts farther east Egypt abandoned. So matters
+rested until in 1905 in consequence of lawlessness among the Bedouins of
+the peninsula a British official was appointed commandant and inspector
+of the peninsula and certain administrative measures taken. The report
+was spread by pan-Islamic agents that the intention of the Egyptian
+government was to construct fortifications on the frontier near Akaba,
+to which place the Turks were building a branch railway from the
+Damascus-Mecca line. In January 1906 the sultan complained to the
+British ambassador at Constantinople of Egyptian encroachments on
+Turkish territory, whereupon the khedive asked that the frontier should
+be delimited, a request which Turkey rejected. A small Egyptian force
+was then directed to occupy Taba, a port near Akaba but on the western
+side of the gulf. Before this force could reach Taba that place had been
+seized by the Turkish commandant at Akaba. A period of considerable
+tension ensued, the Turks removing the boundary posts at Rafa and
+sending strong reinforcements to the frontier. The British government
+intervened on behalf of the khedive and consistently maintained that the
+Rafa-Akaba line must be the frontier. In April a conference was held
+between the khedive and Mukhtar Pasha, the Ottoman commissioner. It then
+appeared that Turkey was unwilling to recognize the British
+interpretation of the telegram of the 8th of April 1892. Turkey claimed
+that the peninsula of Sinai consisted only of the territory south of a
+straight line from Akaba to Suez, and that Egyptian territory north of
+that line was traced from Rafa to Suez. As a compromise Mukhtar Pasha
+suggested as the frontier a line drawn direct from Rafa to Ras Mahommed
+(the most southern point of the Sinai peninsula), which would have left
+the whole of the gulf of Akaba in Turkish territory. In other words the
+claim of the Porte was, to quote Lord Cromer:--
+
+  "to carry the Turkish frontier and strategical railways to Suez on the
+  banks of the canal; or that if the Ras Mahommed line were adopted, the
+  Turkish frontier would be advanced to the neighbourhood of Nekhl, i.e.
+  within easy striking distance of Egypt, and that ... the gulf of Akaba
+  ... would practically become a _mare clausum_ in the possession of
+  Turkey and a standing menace to the security of the trade route to the
+  East."
+
+Such proposals could not be entertained by Great Britain; and as the
+sultan remained obstinate the British ambassador on the 3rd of May
+presented a note to the Porte requiring compliance with the British
+proposals within ten days. The Turkish ambassador in London was informed
+by Sir Edward Grey, foreign secretary, that if it were found that
+Turkish suzerainty in Egypt were incompatible with the rights of the
+British government to interfere in Egyptian affairs, and with the
+British occupation, the British position in Egypt would be upheld by the
+whole force of the empire. Thereupon the sultan gave way and agreed (on
+the 14th of May) that the line of demarcation should start at Rafa and
+run towards the south-east "in an approximately straight line as far as
+a point on the gulf of Akaba at least 3 m. distant from Akaba."[30] The
+Turkish troops were withdrawn from Taba, and the delimitation of the
+frontier was undertaken by a joint Turco-Egyptian commission. An
+agreement was signed on the 1st of October finally settling the frontier
+line.
+
+With the ending of this dispute and the strengthening of the British
+garrison in Egypt a demonstration was given of the ability of the
+protecting power to maintain its position. At the same time
+encouragement was given to that section of Egyptian society which sought
+the reform of various Moslem institutions without injury to the
+principles underlying the faith of Islam: a more truly national movement
+than that of the agitators who clamoured for parliamentary government.
+
+
+  Resignation of Lord Cromer.
+
+In April 1907, a few days after the appearance of his report for 1906,
+in which the "Nationalist" and pan-Islamic movements were shown to be
+detrimental to the welfare of Egypt, Lord Cromer resigned his post of
+British agent and consul-general. His resignation, dictated by reasons
+of health, was described by Sir Edward Grey as "the greatest personal
+loss which the public service of this country (Britain) could suffer."
+Lord Cromer's work was in a sense complete. He left the country in a
+state of unexampled material prosperity, free from the majority of the
+international fetters with which it was bound when he took up his task
+in 1883, and with the legitimate expectation that the work he had done
+would endure. The magnitude of the task he had accomplished is shown by
+the preceding pages, and it need only be added that the transformation
+effected in Egypt and the Sudan, during his twenty-four years' occupancy
+of the British Agency, was carried out in every department under his
+guidance and inspiration. Lord Cromer was succeeded by Sir Eldon Gorst,
+who had served in Egypt eighteen years under him, and was at the time of
+his appointment to Cairo an assistant under secretary of state for
+foreign affairs.
+
+Notwithstanding, or, rather, as a consequence of, the unexampled
+material prosperity of the country, 1907 was a year of severe financial
+crisis, due to over-trading, excessive credit and the building mania
+induced by the rapid economic progress of Egypt, and aggravated by the
+unfavourable monetary conditions existing in America and Europe during
+the latter part of the year. Though the crisis had results disastrous to
+the speculators, the position of the fellahin was hardly affected; the
+cotton crop was marketed with regularity and at an average price higher
+than that of 1906, while public revenue showed a satisfactory increase.
+The noisy "Nationalist" agitation which was maintained during this
+period of financial stringency reacted unfavourably on public order.
+Although the degree of insecurity prevailing in the provinces was
+greatly exaggerated--serious crime in 1907 being less than in the
+preceding year--an increasing number of crimes were left untraced to
+their authors. The release of the Denshawai prisoners in January 1908
+and the death of Mustafa Kamel in the following month had a quieting
+effect on the public mind; while the fact that in the elections
+(December 1907) for the legislative council and the general assembly
+only 5% of the electors went to the polls, afforded a striking
+commentary alike on the appreciation of the average Egyptian of the
+value of parliamentary institutions and of the claims of the
+"Nationalist" members of the assembly to represent the Egyptian people.
+The "Nationalists" were, too, divided into many warring
+sections--Mahommed Bey Ferid, chosen as successor to Mustafa Kamel, had
+to contend with the pretensions of several other "leaders." The khedive,
+moreover, markedly abstained from any association with the agitation of
+the Nationalists, who viewed with disfavour his highness's personal
+friendship with Sir Eldon Gorst. The agitators gained their chief
+strength from the support accorded them by certain Radical politicians
+in England. A number of members of the council and assembly visited
+England in July 1908 and were received by Sir Edward Grey, who gave them
+assurances that Great Britain would always strive to remedy the
+legitimate grievances of Egyptians.
+
+The establishment of constitutional rule in Turkey in the summer of 1908
+excited the hopes of the Egyptian Nationalists, and a deputation was
+sent to Constantinople to confer with the Young Turk committee. From the
+Young Turks, however, the deputation received no encouragement for their
+agitation and returned with the advice to work in co-operation with the
+British. In view of the rumours current, Sir Eldon Gorst, in the form of
+an interview in _El Mokattam_, a widely read native paper, restated
+(October 1908) the British view as to the occupation of the country and
+the demand for a parliament. Great Britain, he declared, had no
+intention of proclaiming a protectorate over Egypt; on the other hand,
+recent events in Turkey in no way affected the question of
+self-government in Egypt. It would be folly to think of introducing
+unrestricted parliamentary government at present, the conditions for its
+successful working not existing. The "wild and foolish" agitation on
+this question only served to confirm the impression that the Egyptians
+were not yet fit to govern themselves. At the same time steps were being
+taken to give them a much greater part in the management of local
+affairs. If the Egyptians showed that the existing institutions and the
+new provincial councils could do useful work, it would prove the best
+argument for extending their powers. Sir Eldon Gorst's statements were
+approved by the British government.
+
+In November 1908 Mustafa Fehmi, who had been premier since 1895,
+resigned, and was succeeded by Boutros Pasha, a Copt of marked ability,
+who had been for several years foreign minister. Boutros incurred the
+enmity of the "Nationalists" and was murdered in February 1910.
+     (D. M. W.; F. R. C.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--D. A. Cameron, _Egypt in the Nineteenth Century_
+  (London, 1898), a clear and useful summary of events up to 1882; E.
+  Dicey, _The Story of the Khedivate_ (London, 1902); J. C. McCoan,
+  _Egypt under Ismail_ (London, 1899); P. Mouriez, _Histoire de
+  Méhémet-Ali_ (4 vols., Paris, 1855-1858); L. Bréhier, _L'Égypte de
+  1789 à 1900_ (Paris, 1901); C. de Freycinet, _La Question d'Égypte_
+  (Paris, 1905). See also MEHEMET ALI.
+
+  For the period immediately preceding and during the British occupation
+  the standard authority is Lord Cromer's _Modern Egypt_ (2 vols.,
+  London, 1908). In this invaluable work the history of Egypt from 1875
+  to 1892 and that of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan from 1882 to 1907 is
+  treated fully. Lord Cromer's annual reports (1888-1906) to the British
+  government on the affairs of Egypt should also be consulted. Next in
+  interest are Alfred (Lord) Milner's _England in Egypt_ (11th ed.,
+  London, 1904), and Sir A. Colvin's _The Making of Modern Egypt_
+  (London, 1906). Consult also _Khedives and Pashas_ (London, 1884), by
+  C. F. Moberly Bell (published anonymously); D. M. Wallace, _Egypt and
+  the Egyptian Question_ (London, 1883); W. S. Blunt, _Secret History of
+  the English Occupation of Egypt_ (2nd ed., London, 1907), a partisan
+  record; C. v. Malortie, _Egypt_, _Native Rulers and Foreign
+  Interference_, 2 vols. (London, 1883); O. Borelli, _Choses politiques
+  d'Égypte_, 1883-1895 (Paris, 1895); H. Resener, _Ägypten unter
+  englischer Okkupation_ (Berlin, 1896). Morley's _Life of Gladstone_
+  and Fitzmaurice's _Life of Granville_ throw considerable light on the
+  inner history of the period 1880-1893. See further the historical
+  works cited in SUDAN: _Anglo-Egyptian_, and those given at the end of
+  the first section of this article.
+
+  For military operations 1882-1899 see C. Royle, _The Egyptian
+  Campaigns 1882 to 1899_, revised ed. (London, 1900); H. Brackenbury,
+  _Narrative of the Advance of the River Column of the Nile
+  Expeditionary Force_ (Edinburgh, 1885); Sir W. F. Butler, _Campaign of
+  the Cataracts_ (London, 1887); Count A. E. W. Gleichen, _With the
+  Camel Corps up the Nile_ (London, 1888); _Gordon's Last Journal_
+  (London, 1885); Sir C. W. Wilson, _From Korti to Khartum_ (Edinburgh,
+  1886); J. Grant, _Cassell's History of the War in the Soudan_, 6 vols.
+  (London, 1885 et seq.); "An Officer," _Sudan Campaigns_ 1896-1899
+  (London, 1899); G. W. Steevens, _With Kitchener to Khartum_
+  (Edinburgh, 1898); W. S. Churchill, _The River War_, new edition
+  (London, 1902).
+
+  Bibliographical notes for each section of this article are given in
+  their several places. The following bibliographies may be consulted:
+  Ibrahim Hilmi, _Literature of Egypt and the Soudan_, 2 vols. (London,
+  1886-1888); H. Jolowicz, _Bibliotheca aegyptiaca_ (Leipzig, 1858;
+  supplement, 1861); M. Hartmann, _The Arabic Press of Egypt_ (London,
+  1899).     (F. R. C.)
+
+
+MILITARY OPERATIONS OF 1882-1885.
+
+  Bombardment of Alexandria.
+
+In February 1879 a slight outbreak of discharged officers and soldiers
+occurred at Cairo, which led to the despatch of British and French ships
+to Alexandria. On the 26th of June of that year Ismail Pasha was removed
+from Egypt, and Tewfik assumed the khediviate, becoming practically the
+_protégé_ of the two western powers. On the 1st of February 1881 a more
+serious disturbance arose at Cairo from the attempt to try three
+colonels, Ahmed Arabi, Ali Fehmy, and Abd-el-Al, who had been arrested
+as the ringleaders of the military party. The prisoners were released by
+force, and proceeded to dictate terms to the khedive. Again British and
+French warships were despatched to Alexandria, and were quickly
+withdrawn, their presence having produced no apparent impression. It
+soon became clear that the khedive was powerless, and that the military
+party, headed by Arabi, threatened to dominate the country. The "dual
+note," communicated to the khedive on the 6th of January 1881, contained
+an intimation that Great Britain and France were prepared to afford
+material support if necessary; but the fall of Gambetta's ministry
+produced a reaction, and both governments proceeded to minimize the
+meaning of their language. The khedive was practically compelled to form
+a government in which Arabi was minister of war and Mahmud Sami premier,
+and Arabi took steps to extend his influence throughout his army. The
+situation now became critically serious: for the third time ships were
+sent to Alexandria, and on the 25th of May 1882 the consuls-general of
+the two powers made a strong representation to Mahmud Sami which
+produced the resignation of the Egyptian ministry, and a demand, to
+which the khedive yielded, by the military party for the reinstatement
+of Arabi. The attitude of the troops in Alexandria now became
+threatening; and on the 29th the British residents pointed out that they
+were "absolutely defenceless." This warning was amply justified by the
+massacres of the 11th of June, during which more than one hundred
+persons, including an officer and two seamen, were killed in the streets
+of Alexandria, almost under the guns of the ships in harbour. It was
+becoming clear that definite action would have to be taken, and on the
+15th the channel squadron was ordered to Malta. By the end of June
+twenty-six warships, representing the navies of Great Britain, France,
+Germany, Italy, Austria, Russia, the United States, Spain, Greece and
+Turkey, lay off the port of Alexandria, and large numbers of refugees
+were embarked. The order received by Admiral Sir Beauchamp Seymour
+(afterwards Lord Alcester) on the 3rd of July was as follows:--
+
+  "Prevent any attempt to bar channel into port. If work is resumed on
+  earthworks, or fresh guns mounted, inform military commander that you
+  have orders to prevent it; and if not immediately discontinued,
+  destroy earthworks and silence batteries if they open fire, having
+  given sufficient notice to population, shipping and foreign
+  men-of-war."
+
+On the 9th the admiral received a report that working parties had been
+seen in Fort Silsileh "parbuckling two smoothbore guns--apparently
+32-pounders--towards their respective carriages and slides, which were
+facing in the direction of the harbour." Fort Silsileh was an old work
+at the extreme east of the defences of Alexandria, and its guns do not
+bear on the harbour. On the 10th an ultimatum was sent to Toulba Pasha,
+the military commandant, intimating that the bombardment would commence
+at sunrise on the following morning unless "the batteries on the isthmus
+of Ras-el-Tin and the southern shore of the harbour of Alexandria" were
+previously surrendered "for the purpose of disarming." The fleet
+prepared for action, and the bearer of the reply, signed by the
+president of the council, and offering to dismount three guns in the
+batteries named, only succeeded in finding the flagship late at night.
+This proposal was rejected, and at 7 A.M. on the 11th of July the
+"Alexandra" opened fire and the action became general. The attacking
+force was disposed in three groups: (1) the "Alexandra," "Sultan" and
+"Superb," outside the reef, to engage the Ras-el-Tin and the earthworks
+under weigh; (2) the "Monarch," "Invincible" and "Penelope," inside the
+harbour, to engage the Meks batteries; and (3) the "Inflexible" and
+"Temeraire," to take up assigned stations outside the reef and to
+co-operate with the inshore squadron. The gunboats "Beacon," "Bittern,"
+"Condor," "Cygnet" and "Decoy" were to keep out of fire at first and
+seek opportunities of engaging the Meks batteries. Meks fort was
+silenced by about 12.45 P.M., and a party from the "Invincible" landed
+and disabled the guns. As the fire delivered under weigh was not
+effective, the offshore squadron anchored at about 10.30 A.M., and
+succeeded in silencing Fort Ras-el-Tin at about 12.30 P.M., and Fort
+Adda, by the explosion of the main magazine, at 1.35 P.M. The
+"Inflexible" weighed soon after 8 A.M. and engaged Ras-el-Tin,
+afterwards attacking Forts Pharos and Adda. The "Condor," followed by
+the "Beacon," "Bittern" and "Decoy," engaged Fort Marabout soon after 8
+A.M. till 11 A.M., when the gunboats were recalled. After the works were
+silenced, the ships moved in closer, with a view to dismount the
+Egyptian guns. The bombardment ceased at 5 P.M.; but a few rounds were
+fired by the "Inflexible" and "Temeraire" on the morning of the 12th at
+the right battery in Ras-el-Tin lines.
+
+  The bombardment of the forts of Alexandria is interesting as a gauge
+  of the effect to be expected from the fire of ships under specially
+  favourable conditions. The Egyptians at different times during the day
+  brought into action about 33 R.M.L. guns (7-in. to 10-in.), 3 R.B.L.
+  guns (40 prs.), and 120 S.B. guns (6.5-in. and 10-in.), with a few
+  mortars. These guns were disposed over a coast-line of about 10 sea
+  miles, and were in many cases indifferently mounted. The Egyptian
+  gunners had been little trained, and many of them had never once
+  practised with rifled ordnance. Of seventy-five hits on the hulls of
+  the ships only five can with certainty be ascribed to projectiles from
+  rifled guns, and thirty were unquestionably due to the old
+  smoothbores, which were not provided with sights. The total loss
+  inflicted was 6 killed and 27 wounded. The British ships engaged fired
+  1741 heavy projectiles (7-in. to 16-in.) and 1457 light (7-prs. to
+  64-prs.), together with 33,493 machine-gun and rifle bullets. The
+  result was comparatively small. About 8 rifled guns and 19 smoothbores
+  were dismounted or disabled and 4 and 1 temporarily put out of action
+  respectively. A considerable portion of this injury was inflicted,
+  after the works had been silenced, by the deliberate fire of the
+  ships. As many as twenty-eight rifled guns and 140 smoothbores would
+  have opened fire on the following day. The Egyptians made quite as
+  good a stand as could be expected, but were driven from their guns,
+  which they were unable to use with adequate effect; and the
+  bombardment of Alexandria confirms previous experience that the fire
+  of ships cannot really compete with that of well-mounted and
+  well-handled guns on shore.
+
+In the afternoon of the 12th, fires, which were the work of
+incendiaries, began to break out in the best quarters of Alexandria; and
+the town was left to murder and pillage till the following day, when a
+party of bluejackets and marines was landed at about 3 P.M.
+
+
+  British expedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley.
+
+  Tell-el-Kebir.
+
+Military intervention being now imperatively demanded, a vote of credit
+for £2,300,000 was passed in the British House of Commons on the 27th of
+July. Five days later the French government failed to secure a similar
+vote, and Great Britain was left to deal with the Egyptian question
+alone. An expeditionary force detailed from home stations and from Malta
+was organized in two divisions, with a cavalry division, corps troops,
+and a siege train, numbering in all about 25,000 men. An Indian
+contingent numbering about 7000 combatants, complete in all arms and with
+its own transport, was prepared for despatch to Suez. General Sir Garnet
+Wolseley was appointed commander-in-chief, with Lieutenant-General Sir J.
+Adye as chief of the staff. The plan of operations contemplated the
+seizure of Ismailia as the base for an advance on Cairo, Alexandria and
+its suburbs to be held defensively, and the Egyptian forces in the
+neighbourhood to be occupied by demonstrations. The expeditionary force
+having rendezvoused at Alexandria, means were taken by Rear-Admiral
+Hoskins and Sir W. Hewett for the seizure of the Suez canal. Under orders
+from the former, Captain Fairfax, R.N., occupied Port Said on the night
+of 19th August, and Commander Edwards, R.N., proceeded down the canal,
+taking possession of the _gares_ and dredgers, while Captain Fitzroy,
+R.N., occupied Ismailia after slight opposition. Before nightfall on the
+20th of August the canal was wholly in British hands. Meanwhile, leaving
+Sir E. Hamley in command at Alexandria, Sir G. Wolseley with the bulk of
+the expeditionary force arrived at Port Said on the 20th of August, a
+naval demonstration having been made at Abukir with a view to deceive the
+enemy as to the object of the great movement in progress. The advance
+from Ismailia now began. On the 21st Major-General Graham moved from
+Ismailia with about 800 men and a small naval force, occupying Nefiche,
+the junction with the Suez line, at 1.30 A.M. without opposition. On the
+22nd he made a reconnaissance towards Suez, and on the 23rd another to
+El-Magfar, 4 m. from Nefiche. It now appeared that the enemy had dammed
+the sweet-water canal and blocked the railway at Tell-el-Mahuta, where
+entrenchments had been thrown up and resistance seemed to be
+contemplated. At 4 A.M. on the 24th Sir Garnet Wolseley advanced with 3
+squadrons of cavalry, 2 guns, and about 1000 infantry, placed under the
+orders of Lieutenant-General Willis. The enemy showed in force, estimated
+at 7000 with 12 guns, and a somewhat desultory action ensued.
+Reinforcements from Ismailia were ordered up, and the British cavalry,
+operating on the right, helped to check the enemy's attack, which showed
+little vigour. At night the troops, now reinforced by the Guards Brigade,
+an infantry battalion, 2 cavalry regiments and 10 guns, bivouacked on the
+ground. Early on the morning of the 25th the advance was continued to
+Tell-el-Mahuta, which the enemy evacuated, while the mounted troops and
+horse artillery pressed on to Mahsama, capturing the Egyptian camp, with
+7 guns and large quantities of ammunition and supplies. On the same
+evening Major-General Graham, with about 1200 marines (artillery and
+light infantry), reached Mahsama, and on the following day he occupied
+Kassassin without opposition. The advance guard had now outrun its
+communications and was actually short of food, while a considerable force
+was distributed at intervals along the line Ismailia-Kassassin. The
+situation on the 27th tempted attack by an enterprising enemy, and
+Major-General Graham's force, consisting of a squadron of the 19th
+Hussars, the York and Lancaster Regiment, the duke of Cornwall's Light
+Infantry, the Marine Artillery Battalion and two R.H.A. guns, short of
+ammunition, was in danger of being overwhelmed by vastly superior numbers
+from Tell-el-Kebir. On the 28th Major-General Graham's troops were
+attacked, and after repulsing the enemy, made a general advance about
+6.45 P.M. The cavalry, summoned by heliograph from Mahsama, co-operated,
+and in a moonlight charge inflicted considerable loss. The British
+casualties amounted to 14 killed and 83 wounded. During the lull which
+followed the first action of Kassassin, strenuous efforts were made to
+bring up supplies and troops and to open up railway communication to the
+front. On the 9th of September the Egyptians again attacked Kassassin,
+but were completely repulsed by 9 A.M., with a loss of 4 guns, and were
+pursued to within extreme range of the guns of Tell-el-Kebir. The British
+casualties were 3 killed and 78 wounded. The three following days were
+occupied in concentrating troops at Kassassin for the attack on
+Tell-el-Kebir, held by about 38,000 men with 60 guns. The Egyptian
+defences consisted of a long line of trench (2½ m.) approximately at
+right angles to the railway and the sweet-water canal. At 11 P.M. on the
+12th of September the advance of about 15,000 men commenced; the 1st
+division, under Lieutenant-General Willis, was on the right, and the 2nd
+division, under Lieutenant-General Hamley, was on the left. Seven
+batteries of artillery, under Brigadier-General Goodenough, were placed
+in the centre. The cavalry, under Major-General Drury Lowe, was on the
+right flank, and the Indian contingent, under Major-General Macpherson,
+starting one hour later, was ordered to move south of the sweet-water
+canal. The night was moonless, and the distance to be covered about 6¼ m.
+The ground was perfectly open, slightly undulating, and generally firm
+gravel. The conditions for a night march were thus ideal; but during the
+movement the wings closed towards each other, causing great risk of an
+outbreak of firing. The line was, however, rectified, and after a halt
+the final advance began. By a fortunate accident the isolated outwork was
+just missed in the darkness by the left flank of the 2nd Division;
+otherwise a premature alarm would have been given, which must have
+changed all the conditions of the operation. At dawn the Highland Brigade
+of the 2nd Division struck the enemy's trenches, and carried them after a
+brief struggle. The 1st Division attacked a few minutes later, and the
+cavalry swept round the left of the line of entrenchments, cutting down
+any fugitives who attempted resistance and reaching the enemy's camp in
+rear. The Indian contingent, on the south of the canal, co-operated,
+intercepting the Egyptians at the canal bridge. The opposition
+encountered at some points was severe, but by 6 A.M. all resistance was
+at an end. The British loss amounted to 58 killed, 379 wounded and 22
+missing; nearly 2000 Egyptians were killed, and more than 500 wounded
+were treated in hospital. An immediate pursuit was ordered, and the
+Indian contingent, under Major-General Macpherson, reached Zagazig, while
+the cavalry, under Major-General Drury Lowe, occupied Belbeis and pushed
+on to Cairo, 65 m. from Tell-el-Kebir, next day. On the evening of the
+14th the 10,000 troops occupying Abbasia barracks, and 5000 in the
+citadel of Cairo, surrendered. On the 15th General Sir Garnet Wolseley,
+with the brigade of Guards under H.R.H. the duke of Connaught, entered
+the city.
+
+The prompt following up of the victory at Tell-el-Kebir saved Cairo from
+the fate of Alexandria and brought the rebellion to an end. The Egyptian
+troops at Kafr Dauar, Abukir and Rosetta surrendered without opposition,
+and those at Damietta followed on the 23rd of September, after being
+threatened with attack. On the 25th the khedive entered Cairo, where a
+review of the British troops was held on the 30th. The expeditionary
+force was now broken up, leaving about 10,000 men, under Major-General
+Sir A. Alison, to maintain the authority of the khedive. In twenty-five
+days, from the landing at Ismailia to the occupation of Cairo, the
+rebellion was completely suppressed, and the operations were thus
+signally successful.
+
+
+  The Sudan question.
+
+The authority of the khedive and the maintenance of law and order now
+depended absolutely on the British forces left in occupation. Lord
+Dufferin, who had been sent to Cairo to draw up a project of
+constitutional reforms, advocated the re-establishment of a native army,
+not to exceed 5000 to 6000 men, with a proportion of British officers,
+for purely defence purposes within the Delta; and on the 13th of
+December 1882 Sir Evelyn Wood left England to undertake the organization
+of this force, with the title of sirdar. Lord Dufferin further advised
+the formation of a gendarmerie, which "should be in a great measure a
+mounted force and empowered with a semi-military character" (despatch of
+January 1st, 1883). The strength of this military police force was fixed
+at 4400 men with 2562 horses, and Baker Pasha (General Valentine Baker)
+was entrusted with its formation, with the title of inspector-general.
+
+In a despatch of the 6th of February 1883 Lord Dufferin dealt with the
+Sudan, and stated that Egypt "could hardly be expected to acquiesce" in
+a policy of withdrawal from her Southern territories. At the same time
+he pointed out that,
+
+  "Unhappily, Egyptian administration in the Sudan had been almost
+  uniformly unfortunate. The success of the present mahdi in raising the
+  tribes and extending his influence over great tracts of country was a
+  sufficient proof of the government's inability either to reconcile the
+  inhabitants to its rule or to maintain order. The consequences had
+  been most disastrous. Within the last year and a half the Egyptians
+  had lost something like 9000 men, while it was estimated that 40,000
+  of their opponents had perished."
+
+Moreover, to restore tranquillity in the Sudan,
+
+  "the first step necessary was the construction of a railway from
+  Suakin to Berber, or what, perhaps, would be more advisable, to
+  Shendi, on the Nile. The completion of this enterprise would at once
+  change all the elements of the problem."
+
+
+  Disaster to Hicks Pasha.
+
+The immense responsibilities involved were most imperfectly understood
+by the British government. Egyptian sovereignty in the Sudan dates from
+1820, when Mehemet Ali sent a large force into the country, and
+ultimately established his authority over Sennar and Kordofan. In 1865
+Suakin and Massawa were assigned to Egyptian rule by the sultan, and in
+1870 Sir Samuel Baker proceeded up the Nile to the conquest of the
+Equatorial provinces, of which General Gordon was appointed
+governor-general in 1874. In the same year Darfur and Harrar were
+annexed, and in 1877 Gordon became governor-general of the Sudan, where,
+with the valuable assistance of Gessi Pasha, he laboured to destroy the
+slave trade and to establish just government. In August 1879 he returned
+to Cairo, and was succeeded by Raouf Pasha. Misrule and oppression in
+every form now again prevailed throughout the Sudan, while the slave
+traders, exasperated by Gordon's stern measures, were ready to revolt.
+The authority of Egypt was represented by scattered garrisons of armed
+men, badly officered, undisciplined and largely demoralized. In such
+conditions a leader only was required to ensure widespread and dangerous
+rebellion. A leader appeared in the person of Mahommed Ahmed, born in
+1848, who had taken up his abode on Abba Island, and, acquiring great
+reputation for sanctity, had actively fomented insurrection. In August
+1881 a small force sent by Raouf Pasha to arrest Mahommed Ahmed was
+destroyed, and the latter, proclaiming himself the mahdi, stood forth as
+the champion of revolt. Thus, at the time when the Egyptian army was
+broken up at Tell-el-Kebir, the Sudan was already in flames. On the 7th
+of June 1882, 6000 men under Yusef Pasha, advancing from Fashoda, were
+nearly annihilated by the mahdists. Payara and Birket in Kordofan
+quickly fell, and a few days before the battle of Tell-el-Kebir was
+fought, the mahdi, with a large force, was besieging El Obeid. That town
+was captured, after an obstinate defence, on the 17th of January 1883,
+by which time almost the whole of the Sudan south of Khartum was in open
+rebellion, except the Bahr-el-Ghazal and the Equatorial provinces, where
+for a time Lupton Bey and Emin Pasha were able to hold their own.
+Abd-el-Kader, who had succeeded Raouf, telegraphed to Cairo for 10,000
+additional troops, and pointed out that if they were not sent at once
+four times this number would be required to re-establish the authority
+of the government in the Sudan. After gaining some small successes,
+Abd-el-Kader was superseded by Suliman Niagi on the 20th of February
+1883, and on the 26th of March Ala-ed-din Pasha was appointed
+governor-general. Meanwhile 5000 men, who had served in the Egyptian
+army, were collected and forcibly despatched to Khartum via Suakin. In
+March 1883 Colonel William Hicks, late of the Bombay army, who in
+January had been appointed by the khedive chief of the staff of the army
+of the Sudan, found himself at Khartum with nine European officers and
+about 10,000 troops of little military value. The reconquest of the
+Sudan having been determined upon, although Sir E. Malet reported that
+the Egyptian government could not supply the necessary funds, and that
+there was great risk of failure, Colonel Hicks, who had resigned his
+post on the 23rd of July, and had been appointed commander-in-chief,
+started from Khartum on 9th September, with a total force of about
+10,000 men, including non-combatants, for Kordofan. On the 22nd of May
+Sir E. Malet had informed Sherif Pasha that,
+
+  "although Colonel Hicks finds it convenient to communicate with Lord
+  Dufferin or with me, it must not be supposed that we endorse in any
+  way the contents of his telegrams.... Her Majesty's government are in
+  no way responsible for his operations in the Sudan, which have been
+  undertaken under the authority of His Highness's government."
+
+Colonel Hicks was fully aware of the unfitness of his rabble forces for
+the contemplated task, and on the 5th of August he telegraphed: "I am
+convinced it would be best to keep the two rivers and province of
+Sennar, and wait for Kordofan to settle itself." Early in November the
+force from Khartum was caught by the mahdists short of water at Kashgil,
+near El Obeid, and was almost totally destroyed, Colonel Hicks, with all
+his European officers, perishing. Sinister rumours having reached Cairo,
+Sir E. Baring (Lord Cromer), who had succeeded Sir E. Malet, telegraphed
+that "if Colonel Hicks's army is destroyed, the Egyptian government will
+lose the whole of the Sudan, unless some assistance from the outside is
+given," and advised the withdrawal to some post on the Nile. On the
+following day Lord Granville replied: "We cannot lend English or Indian
+troops; if consulted, recommend abandonment of the Sudan within certain
+limits"; and on the 25th he added that "Her Majesty's government can do
+nothing in the matter which would throw upon them the responsibilities
+for operations in the Sudan." In a despatch of the 3rd of December Sir
+E. Baring forcibly argued against British intervention in the affairs of
+the Sudan, and on the 13th of December Lord Granville telegraphed that
+"Her Majesty's government recommend the ministers of khedive to come to
+an early decision to abandon all territory south of Assuan, or, at
+least, of Wadi Halfa." On the 4th of January 1884 Sir E. Baring was
+directed to insist upon the policy of evacuation, and on the 18th
+General Gordon left London to assist in its execution.
+
+
+  Defeat of General Baker.
+
+The year 1883 brought a great accession of power to the mahdi, who had
+captured about 20,000 rifles, 19 guns and large stores of ammunition. On
+the Red Sea littoral Osman Digna, a slave dealer of Suakin, appointed
+amir of the Eastern Sudan, raised the local tribes and invested Sinkat
+and Tokar. On the 16th of October and the 4th of November Egyptian
+reinforcements intended for the former place were destroyed, and on the
+2nd of December a force of 700 men was annihilated near Tamanieb. On the
+23rd of December General Valentine Baker, followed by about 2500 men,
+gendarmerie, blacks, Sudanese and Turks, with 10 British officers,
+arrived at Suakin to prepare for the relief of Sinkat and Tokar. The
+khedive appears to have been aware of the risks to be incurred, and in a
+private letter he informed the general that "I rely upon your prudence
+and ability not to engage the enemy except under the most favourable
+circumstances." The tragedy of Kashgil was repeated on the 4th of
+February 1884, when General Baker's heterogeneous force, on the march
+from Trinkitat to Tokar, was routed at El Teb by an inferior body of
+tribesmen. Of 3715 men, 2375, with 11 European officers, were killed.
+Suakin was now in danger, and on the 6th of February British bluejackets
+and marines were landed for the defence of the town.
+
+
+  British expedition under Sir G. Graham: battles of El Teb and Tamanieb.
+
+Two expeditions in the Sudan led by British officers having thus ended
+in disaster, and General Gordon with Lieutenant-Colonel J. D. Stewart
+having reached Khartum on the 18th of February, the policy of British
+non-intervention in regard to Sudan affairs could no longer be
+maintained. Public opinion in England was strongly impressed by the fact
+that the Egyptian garrisons of Tokar and Sinkat were perishing within
+striking distance of the Red Sea littoral. A British force about 4400
+strong, with 22 guns, made up of troops from Egypt and from units
+detained on passage from India, was rapidly concentrated at Suakin and
+placed under the orders of Major-General Sir G. Graham, with
+Major-Generals Sir R. Buller and J. Davis as brigadiers. News of the
+fall of Sinkat, where the starving garrison, under Tewfik Bey, made a
+gallant sortie and was cut to pieces, reached Suakin on the 12th of
+February. On the 24th General Graham's force disembarked at Trinkitat
+and received information of the surrender of Tokar. At 8 A.M. on the
+29th the force advanced towards Tokar in square, and came under fire at
+11.20 A.M. from the enemy entrenched at El Teb. The tribesmen made
+desperate efforts to rush the square, but were repulsed, and the
+position was taken by 2 P.M. The cavalry, 10th and 19th Hussars, under
+Brigadier-General Sir H. Stewart, became involved in a charge against an
+unbroken enemy, and suffered somewhat severely. The total British loss
+was 34 killed and 155 wounded; that of the tribesmen was estimated at
+1500 killed. On the following day Tokar was reached, and on the 2nd of
+March the force began its return to Suakin, bringing away about 700
+people belonging to the late garrison and the civil population, and
+destroying 1250 rifles and a quantity of ammunition found in a
+neighbouring village. On the 9th of March the whole force was back at
+Suakin, and on the evening of the 11th an advance to Tamai began, and
+the force bivouacked and formed a zeriba in the evening. Information was
+brought by a native that the enemy had assembled in the Khor Ghob, a
+deep ravine not far from the zeriba. At about 8.30 A.M. on the 13th the
+advance began in echelon of brigade squares from the left. The left and
+leading square (2nd Brigade) moved towards the khor, approaching at a
+point where a little ravine joined it. The enemy showing in front, the
+leading face of the square was ordered to charge up to the edge of the
+khor. This opened the square, and a mass of tribesmen rushed in from the
+small ravine. The brigade was forced back in disorder, and the naval
+guns, which had been left behind, were temporarily captured. After a
+severe hand-to-hand struggle, in which the troops behaved with great
+gallantry, order was restored and the enemy repulsed, with the aid of
+the fire from the 1st Brigade square and from dismounted cavalry. The
+1st Brigade square, having a sufficient field of fire, easily repelled
+all attempts to attack, and advancing as soon as the situation had been
+restored, occupied the village of Tamai. The British loss was 109 killed
+and 104 wounded; of the enemy nearly 2000 were killed. On the following
+day the force returned to Suakin.
+
+Two heavy blows had now been inflicted on the followers of Osman Digna,
+and the road to Berber could have been opened, as General Graham and
+Brigadier-General Sir H. Stewart suggested. General Gordon, questioned
+on the point, telegraphed from Khartum, on the 7th of March, that he
+might be cut off by a rising at Shendi, adding, "I think it, therefore,
+most important to follow up the success near Suakin by sending a small
+force to Berber." He had previously, on the 29th of February, urged that
+the Suakin-Berber road should be opened up by Indian troops. This, and
+General Gordon's proposal to send 200 British troops to Wadi Halfa, was
+opposed by Sir E. Baring, who, realizing soon afterwards the gravity of
+the situation, telegraphed on the 16th of March:--
+
+  "It has now become of the utmost importance not only to open the road
+  between Suakin and Berber, but to come to terms with the tribes
+  between Berber and Khartum."
+
+The government refused to take this action, and Major-General Graham's
+force was employed in reconnaissances and small skirmishes, ending in
+the destruction of the villages in the Tamanieb valley on 27th March. On
+the 28th the whole force was reassembled at Suakin, and was then broken
+up, leaving one battalion to garrison the town.
+
+
+  Entanglement of General Gordon at Khartum.
+
+The abrupt disappearance of the British troops encouraged the tribesmen
+led by Osman Digna, and effectually prevented the formation of a native
+movement, which might have been of great value. The first attempt at
+intervention in the affairs of the Sudan was made too late to save
+Sinkat and Tokar. It resulted only in heavy slaughter of the tribesmen,
+which afforded no direct or indirect aid to General Gordon or to the
+policy of evacuation. The public announcement of the latter was a grave
+mistake, which increased General Gordon's difficulties, and the
+situation at Khartum grew steadily worse. On the 24th of March Sir E.
+Baring telegraphed:--
+
+  "The question now is, how to get General Gordon and Colonel Stewart
+  away from Khartum.... Under present circumstances, I think an effort
+  should be made to help General Gordon from Suakin, if it is at all a
+  possible military operation.... We all consider that, however
+  difficult the operations from Suakin may be, they are more practicable
+  than any operations from Korosko and along the Nile."
+
+A telegram from General Gordon, received at Cairo on the 19th of April,
+stated that
+
+  "We have provisions for five months and are hemmed in.... Our position
+  will be much strengthened when the Nile rises.... Sennar, Kassala and
+  Dongola are quite safe for the present."
+
+At the same time he suggested "an appeal to the millionaires of America
+and England" to subscribe money for the cost of "2000 or 3000 nizams"
+(Turkish regulars) to be sent to Berber. A cloud now settled down upon
+Khartum, and subsequent communications were few and irregular. The
+foreign office and General Gordon appeared to be somewhat at cross
+purposes. The former hoped that the garrisons of the Sudan could be
+extricated without fighting. The latter, judging from the tenor of some
+of his telegrams, believed that to accomplish this work entailed the
+suppression of the mahdi's revolt, the strength of which he at first
+greatly underestimated. He had pressed strongly for the employment of
+Zobeir as "an absolute necessity for success" (3rd of March); but this
+was refused, since Sir H. Gordon advised at this time that it would be
+dangerous. On the 9th of March General Gordon proposed, "if the
+immediate evacuation of Khartum is determined upon irrespective of
+outlying towns," to send down the "Cairo _employés_" and the garrison to
+Berber with Lieutenant-Colonel J. D. Stewart, to resign his commission,
+and to proceed with the stores and the steamers to the equatorial
+provinces, which he would consider as placed under the king of the
+Belgians. On the 13th of March Lord Granville gave full power to General
+Gordon to "evacuate Khartum and save that garrison by conducting it
+himself to Berber without delay," and expressed a hope that he would not
+resign his commission.
+
+
+  Relief expedition: question of route.
+
+By the end of March 1884 Sir E. Baring and the British officers in Egypt
+were convinced that force would have to be employed, and the growing
+danger of General Gordon, with the grave national responsibility
+involved, began to be realized in Great Britain. Sir Henry Gordon,
+however, who was in personal communication with Mr Gladstone, considered
+that his brother was in no peril, and for some time disbelieved in the
+need for a relief expedition. Meanwhile it was at least necessary to
+evolve some plan of action, and on the 8th of April the adjutant-general
+addressed a memorandum to the secretary of state for war detailing the
+measures required for placing 6500 British troops "in the neighbourhood
+of Shendi." The battle of the routes began much earlier, and was
+continued for some months. Practically the choice lay between the Nile
+and the Suakin-Berber road. The first involved a distance of 1650 m.
+from Cairo along a river strewn with cataracts, which obstructed
+navigation to all but small boats, except during the period of high
+water. So great was this obstruction that the Nile had never been a
+regular trade route to the Sudan. The second entailed a desert march of
+about 250 m., of which one section, Obak-Bir Mahoba (52 m.), was
+waterless, and the rest had an indifferent water supply (except at
+Ariab, about half-way to Berber), capable, however, of considerable
+development. From Berber the Nile is followed (210 m.) to Khartum. This
+was an ancient trade route with the Sudan, and had been used without
+difficulty by the reinforcements sent to Hicks Pasha in 1883, which were
+accompanied by guns on wheels. The authorities in Egypt, headed by
+General Stephenson, subsequently supported by the Admiral Lord John Hay,
+who sent a naval officer to examine the river as far as Dongola, were
+unanimous in favour of the Suakin-Berber route. From the first
+Major-General Sir A. Clarke, then inspector-general of fortifications,
+strongly urged this plan, and proposed to begin at once a metre gauge
+railway from Suakin, to be constructed by Indian labour under officers
+skilled in laying desert lines. Some preliminary arrangements were made,
+and on the 14th of June the government sanctioned certain measures of
+preparation at Suakin. On the other side were the adjutant-general (Lord
+Wolseley) and a small number of officers who had taken part in the Red
+River expedition of 1870. The memorandum of the adjutant-general above
+referred to was based on the hypothesis that Khartum could not hold out
+beyond the 15th of November, and that the expedition should reach Berber
+by the 20th of October. Steamers were to be employed in such reaches as
+proved practicable, but the force was to be conveyed in special
+whale-boats, by which "the difficulty of transport is reduced to very
+narrow limits." The mounted force was to consist of 400 men on native
+horses and 450 men on horses or camels. The question of routes continued
+to be the subject of animated discussion, and on the 29th of July a
+committee of three officers who had served in the Red River expedition
+reported:--
+
+  "We believe that a brigade can easily be conveyed in small boats from
+  Cairo to Dongola in the time stated by Lord Wolseley; and, further,
+  that should it be necessary to send a still larger force by water to
+  Khartum, that operation will present no insuperable difficulties."
+
+
+  Lord Wolseley sent out; Nile route adopted.
+
+This most inconclusive report, and the baseless idea that the adoption
+of the Nile route would involve no chance of bloodshed, which the
+government was anxious to avoid, seem to have decided the question. On
+the 8th of August the secretary of state for war informed General
+Stephenson that "the time had arrived when some further measures for
+obtaining accurate information as to his (General Gordon's) position,
+and, if necessary, for tendering him assistance, should be adopted."
+General Stephenson still urged the Suakin-Berber route, and was informed
+on the 26th of August that Lord Wolseley would be appointed to take over
+the command in Egypt for the purposes of the expedition, for which a
+vote of credit had been taken in the House of Commons on the 5th of
+August. On the 9th of September Lord Wolseley arrived at Cairo, and the
+plan of operations was somewhat modified. A camel corps of 1100 men
+selected from twenty-eight regiments at home was added, and the
+"fighting force to be placed in line somewhere in the neighbourhood of
+Shendi" was fixed at 5400. The construction of whale-boats began on the
+12th of August, and the first batch arrived at Wadi Halfa on the 14th of
+October, and on the 25th the first boat was hauled through the second
+cataract. The mounted forces proceeded up the banks, and the first
+half-battalion embarked at Gemai, 870 m. from Khartum, on the 5th of
+November, ten days before the date to which it had been assumed General
+Gordon could hold out. In a straggling procession the boats worked their
+way up to Korti, piloted by Canadian _voyageurs_. The labour was very
+great, and the troops, most of whom were having their first lesson in
+rowing, bore the privations of their unaccustomed conditions with
+admirable cheerfulness. By the 25th of December 2220 men had reached
+Korti, of whom about 800 only had been conveyed by the whale-boats, the
+last of which did not arrive till the 27th of January. Beyond Korti lay
+the very difficult section of the river to Abu Hamed, which was quite
+unknown. Meanwhile news of the loss of the "Abbas" and of the murder of
+Colonel J. D. Stewart and his party on the 18th of September had been
+received. A letter from Gordon, dated the 4th of November and received
+on the 17th of November, stated that his steamers would await the
+expedition at Metemma, and added, "We can hold out forty days with ease;
+after that it will be difficult." In his diary, on the 13th of December,
+when his difficulties had become extreme, he noted that "if the
+expeditionary force does not come in ten days, the town may fall."
+
+
+  Stewart's Desert Column; battle of Abu Klea wells.
+
+  Failure of relief expedition.
+
+It was clear at Korti that something must be done at once; and on the
+13th of December 1100 men, with 2200 camels, under General Sir H.
+Stewart, were despatched to occupy Jakdul wells, 96 m. on the desert
+route to Metemma. Stewart returned on the 5th of January, and started
+again on the 8th, with orders to establish a fort at Abu Klea and to
+occupy Metemma. The Desert Column, 1800 men, with 2880 camels in poor
+condition and 153 horses, found the enemy in possession of Abu Klea
+wells on the 16th, and was desperately attacked on the 17th. The want
+of homogeneity of the force, and the unaccustomed tactics imposed upon
+the cavalry, somewhat hampered the defence, and the square was broken at
+the left rear corner. Driven back upon the camels in the centre, the
+troops fought hand to hand with the greatest gallantry. Order was
+quickly restored, and the attack was repulsed, with a loss of 74 killed
+and 94 wounded. At least 1100 of the enemy were killed. The wells being
+occupied and a zeriba formed, the column started on the evening of the
+18th. The wrong road was taken, and great confusion occurred, during the
+night, but at dawn this was rectified; and after forming a rough fort
+under fire, by which General Sir H. Stewart was fatally wounded, an
+advance was made at 3 P.M. The square was again heavily attacked, but
+the Arabs could not get to close quarters and in the evening a bivouac
+was formed on the Nile. The British losses on this day were 23 killed
+and 98 wounded. The Desert Column was now greatly exhausted. On the 20th
+the village of Gubat was occupied; and on the following day Sir C.
+Wilson, on whom the command had devolved, advanced against Metemma,
+which was found too strong to assault. On this day General Gordon's four
+steamers arrived; and on the morning of the 24th Sir C. Wilson, with 20
+British soldiers in red coats and about 280 Sudanese, started in the
+"Bordein" and "Telahawiyeh" for Khartum. The "Bordein" grounded on the
+following day, and again on the 26th, by which twenty-four hours were
+lost. At 11 A.M. on the 28th Khartum was sighted, and it soon became
+clear that the town was in the hands of the enemy. After reconnoitring
+farther, the steamers turned and proceeded down stream under a heavy
+fire, the Sudanese crews showing signs of disaffection. The
+"Telahawiyeh" was wrecked on the 29th of January and the "Bordein" on
+the 31st, Sir C. Wilson's party being rescued on the 4th of February by
+Lord C. Beresford in the "Safieh," which had come up from Gubat on
+receipt of news carried there by Lieutenant Stuart Wortley in a
+row-boat. Khartum had been taken and General Gordon killed on the
+morning of the 26th of January 1885, having thus held out thirty-four
+days beyond the date when he had expected the end. The garrison had been
+reduced to starvation; and the arrival of twenty British soldiers, with
+orders to return at once, could not have affected the situation. The
+situation of the Desert Column and of its transport was most imperfectly
+understood at Korti, where impossible plans were formed. Fortunately
+Major-General Sir R. Buller, who arrived at Gubat on the 11th of
+February, decided upon withdrawal, thus averting impending disaster, and
+by the 16th of March the Desert Column had returned to Korti.
+
+The advance from Korti of the River Column, under Major-General Earle,
+began on the 28th of December, and great difficulties of navigation were
+encountered. On the 10th of February an action was fought at Kirbekan
+with about 800 of the enemy, entailing a loss of 10 killed, including
+Major-General Earle, and 47 wounded. The column, now commanded by
+Brigadier-General Brackenbury, continued its slow advance, and on the
+morning of the 24th of February it was about 26 m. below Abu Hamed, a
+point where the Korosko desert route strikes the Nile, 350 m. from
+Khartum. Here it received orders to retire, and it reached Korti on the
+8th of March.
+
+
+  Suakin operations.
+
+The verbal message received from General Gordon on the 30th of December
+1884 rendered the extreme danger of the position at Khartum painfully
+apparent, and the secretary of state for war, acting on Sir E. Baring's
+advice, offered to make an active demonstration from Suakin. To this
+proposal Lord Wolseley demurred, but asked that ships of war should be
+sent to Suakin, and that "marines in red coats should be frequently
+landed and exercised." Lord Hartington replied that the government did
+not consider that a demonstration of this kind could be effective, and
+again suggested stronger measures. On the 8th of January 1885 Lord
+Wolseley repeated that "the measures you propose will not assist my
+operations against Khartum," adding:--
+
+  "I have from first endeavoured to impress on government that I am
+  strong enough to relieve Khartum, and believe in being able to send a
+  force, when returning by way of Berber, to Suakin, to open road and
+  crush Osman Digna."
+
+On this very day the small Desert Column started from Korti on its
+hazardous mission to the relief of a town fully 270 m. distant, held by
+a starving garrison, and invested by 30,000 fighting men, mostly armed
+with good rifles. Before reaching the Nile the Desert Column had lost
+300 men and was unable to take Metemma, while its transport had
+completely broken down. On the 8th of February Lord Wolseley
+telegraphed, "The sooner you can now deal with Osman Digna the better,"
+and recommended the despatch of Indian troops to Suakin, to "co-operate
+with me in keeping road to Berber open." On the 11th of February, the
+day on which Sir R. Buller most wisely decided to withdraw the Desert
+Column from a position of extreme danger, it was determined at Korti
+that the River Column should proceed to attack Berber, and Lord Wolseley
+accepted the proposal of the government to make a railway from Suakin,
+telegraphing to Lord Harrington:--
+
+  "By all means make railway by contract to Berber, or as far as you
+  can, during summer. It will be invaluable as a means of supply, and I
+  recommend it being begun immediately. Contract to be, if possible, for
+  so much per ton military stores and supplies and men carried, per
+  mile."
+
+
+  Battle of Hashin.
+
+Every effort was now concentrated upon sending an expeditionary force to
+Suakin, and before the end of March about 13,000 men, including a
+brigade from India and a field battery from New South Wales, with nearly
+7000 camels and 1000 mules, were there assembled. Lieutenant-General Sir
+G. Graham was placed in command of this force, with orders to break down
+the power of Osman Digna and to press the construction of the railway
+towards Berber. The troops at Suakin, on arrival, were much harassed by
+small night attacks, which ceased as soon as the scattered camps were
+drawn together. On the 19th of March Sir G. Graham, with the cavalry
+brigade and the infantry of the Indian contingent, reconnoitred as far
+as Hashin, finding the country difficult on account of the dense mimosa
+scrub. The enemy occupied the hills and fired upon the cavalry. On the
+20th Sir G. Graham, with about 9000 men, again advanced to Hashin, and
+Dehilbat hill was taken by the Berkshire regiment and the Royal Marines.
+A squadron of the 9th Royal Lancers, which was dismounted in the thick
+bush, was driven back with the loss of 9 men; but elsewhere the Arabs
+never succeeded in closing, and the troops returned to Suakin in the
+afternoon, leaving the East Surrey regiment in a zeriba covering some
+low hills near Hashin village. The total British loss was 9 killed and
+39 wounded.
+
+
+  McNeill's zeriba.
+
+On the 22nd of March a force, consisting of two British and three Indian
+battalions, with a naval brigade, a squadron of lancers, two companies
+of engineers, and a large convoy of camels carrying water and supplies,
+under Major-General Sir J. McNeill, started from Suakin for Tamai, with
+orders to form a half-way zeriba. The advance was much impeded by the
+dense bush, and the force halted at Tofrik, about 6 m. out, at 10.30
+A.M. A native had brought information that the enemy intended to attack
+while the zeriba was being formed, and this actually occurred. The force
+was caught partly unprepared soon after 2.30 P.M., and severe fighting
+took place. The enemy were repulsed in about twenty minutes, the naval
+brigade, the Berkshire regiment, the Royal Marines, and the 15th Sikhs
+showing the greatest gallantry. The casualties, including those among
+non-combatants, were 150 killed, 148 missing, and 174 wounded. More than
+500 camels were killed. The tribesmen lost more than 1000 killed. As
+soon as firing was heard at Suakin, Sir G. Graham, with two battalions
+of Guards and a battery of horse artillery, started for Tofrik, but
+returned on being assured that reinforcements were not required. On the
+24th and 26th convoys proceeding in square to Tofrik were attacked, the
+enemy being repulsed without difficulty. On the 2nd of April a force
+exceeding 7000 men, with 14 guns and 1600 transport animals, started
+from Suakin at 4.30 A.M., and bivouacked twelve hours later at Tesela
+Hill. Next morning an advance was made towards Tamai, and a number of
+huts in the Khor Ghob were burned. The force then returned to Suakin.
+The railway was now pushed on without interruption, reaching Otao on the
+30th. On the night of the 6th of May a combined movement was made from
+Suakin and Otao, which resulted in the surprise and break-up of a force
+of the enemy under Mahommed Sardun, and the capture of a large number of
+sheep and goats. The moral effect of this operation was marked, and
+large numbers of tribesmen placed themselves unconditionally at the
+disposal of Sir G. Graham. A great native movement could now have been
+organized, which would have kept the route to Berber and enabled the
+railway to be rapidly pushed forward.
+
+
+  Political and military situation at end of operations.
+
+Meanwhile many communications had passed between the war office and Lord
+Wolseley, who at first believed that Berber could be taken before the
+summer. In a long despatch of the 6th of March he discussed the general
+situation, and pointed out that although the force at his disposal "was
+amply sufficient" for raising the siege of Khartum and defeating the
+mahdi, the conditions were changed by the fall of the town. It was now
+"impossible ... to undertake any offensive operations until about the
+end of the summer," when twelve additional British battalions, four
+strong squadrons of British cavalry, and two R.H.A. batteries, together
+with a large extension of the Wadi Halfa railway, eleven steamers, and
+three hundred more whale-boats, would be required. He considered it
+necessary to hold Dongola, and he reported that he was "distributing
+this army along the left bank of the Nile, on the open reach of water"
+between the Hannek cataract and Abu Dom, opposite Merawi. On the 30th of
+March Lord Wolseley quitted the army and proceeded to Cairo. A cloud
+having arisen on the frontiers of Afghanistan, the withdrawal of the
+troops from the Sudan was ordered on the 11th of May. On the formation
+of Lord Salisbury's cabinet, the new secretary of state for war, Mr W.
+H. Smith, inquired whether the retirement could be arrested, but
+Major-General Sir R. Buller reported that the difficulties of
+reoccupation would be great, and that if Dongola was to be held, a fresh
+expedition would be required. On the 22nd of June, before the British
+rearguard had left Dongola, the mahdi died. The withdrawal of the Suakin
+force began on the 17th of May, and the friendly tribes, deprived of
+support, were compelled to make terms with Osman Digna, who was soon
+able to turn his attention to Kassala, which capitulated in August,
+nearly at the same time as Sennar.
+
+The failure of the operations in the Sudan had been absolute and
+complete, and the reason is to be sought in a total misconception of the
+situation, which caused vacillation and delay, and in the choice of a
+route by which, having regard to the date of the decision, the relief of
+General Gordon and Khartum was impossible. (G. S. C.)
+
+
+MILITARY OPERATIONS IN EGYPT AND THE SUDAN, 1885 TO 1896
+
+The operations against Mahdism during the eleven years from the end of
+the Nile expedition and the withdrawal from the Sudan to the
+commencement of the Dongola campaign will be more easily understood if,
+instead of narrating them in one chronological sequence, the operations
+in each province are considered separately. The mahdi, Mahommed Ahmed,
+died at Omdurman on the 22nd of June 1885. He was succeeded by the
+principal khalifa, Abdullah el Taaisha, a Baggara Arab, who for the next
+thirteen years ruled the Sudan with despotic power. Cruel, vicious,
+unscrupulous and strong, the country groaned beneath his oppression. He
+removed all possible rivals, concentrated at Omdurman a strong military
+force composed of men of his own tribe, and maintained the ascendancy of
+that tribe over all others. As the British troops retired to Upper
+Egypt, his followers seized the evacuated country, and the khalifa
+cherished the idea, already formulated by the mahdi, of the conquest of
+Egypt, but for some years he was too much occupied in quelling risings,
+massacring the Egyptians in the Sudan, and fighting Abyssinia, to move
+seriously in the matter.
+
+_Upper Egypt._--Mahommed el Kheir, dervish amir of Dongola, however,
+advanced towards the frontier in the autumn of 1885, and at the end of
+November came in touch with the frontier field force, a body of some
+3000 men composed in nearly equal parts of British and Egyptian troops.
+A month of harassing skirmishes ensued, during which the Egyptian troops
+showed their mettle at Mograka, where 200 of them held the fort against
+a superior number of dervishes, and in combats at Ambigol, Kosha and
+Firket. Sir Frederick Stephenson, commanding the British army of
+occupation in Egypt, then concentrated the frontier field force at
+Firket, and attacked the main body of the enemy at Ginnis on the 30th of
+December 1885, completely defeating it and capturing two guns and twenty
+banners. It was here the new Egyptian army received its baptism of fire
+and acquitted itself very creditably. Although checked, the dervishes
+were not discouraged, and continued to press upon the frontier in
+frequent raids, and thus in many bloody skirmishes the fighting
+qualities of the Egyptian troops were developed. In April 1886 the
+frontier was drawn back to Wadi Halfa, a fortified camp at the northern
+end of the desolate defile, Batn-el-Hagar, through which the Nile
+tumbles amid black, rocky hills in a succession of rapids, and debouches
+on a wide plain. The protection of the frontier was now left in the
+hands of the Egyptian army, a British force remaining at Assuan, 200 m.
+to the north, as a reserve in case of emergency, and two years later
+even this precaution was deemed unnecessary.
+
+In October 1886 Wad en Nejumi, the amir who had defeated Hicks Pasha in
+Kordofan three years before, and led the assault at Khartum when General
+Gordon was slain in January 1885, replaced Mahommed el Kheir as
+"commander of the force for the conquest of Egypt," and brought large
+reinforcements to Dongola. An advanced column under Nur-el-Kanzi
+occupied Sarras in April 1887, was attacked by the Egyptian force under
+Colonel H. Chermside on the 28th of that month, and after a stubborn
+resistance was defeated with great loss. Nur-el-Kanzi was killed and ten
+standards taken.
+
+
+  Battle of Toski.
+
+The troubles in Darfur and with Abyssinia (q.v.) induced the khalifa to
+reduce the garrisons of the north; nevertheless, the dervishes
+reoccupied Sarras, continued active in raids and skirmishes, and
+destroyed the railway south of Sarras, which during the Nile expedition
+of 1884 and 1885 had been carried as far as Akasha. It was not until May
+1889 that an invasion of the frontier on a large scale was attempted. At
+this time the power and prestige of the khalifa were at their height:
+the rebellions in Darfur and Kordofan had been stamped out, the
+anti-mahdi was dead, and even the dervish defeat by the Abyssinians had
+been converted by the death of King John and the capture of his body
+into a success. It was therefore an opportune time to try to sweep the
+Turks and the British into the sea. On the 22nd of June Nejumi was at
+Sarras with over 6000 fighting men and 8000 followers. On the 2nd of
+July Colonel J. Wodehouse headed off a part of this force from the river
+at Argin, and, after a sharp action, completely defeated it, killing
+900, among whom were many important amirs, and taking 500 prisoners and
+12 banners, with very small loss to his own troops. A British brigade
+was on its way up stream, but the sirdar, who had already arrived to
+take the command in person, decided not to wait for it. The Egyptian
+troops, with a squadron of the 20th Hussars, concentrated at Toski, and
+thence, on the 3rd of August, General Grenfell, with slight loss, gained
+a decisive victory. Wad en Nejumi, most of his amirs, and more than 1200
+Arabs were killed; 4000 prisoners and 147 standards were taken, and the
+dervish army practically destroyed. No further serious attempts were
+made to disturb the frontier, of which the most southerly outpost was at
+once advanced to Sarras.
+
+The escape from Omdurman of Father Ohrwalder and of two of the captive
+nuns in December 1891, of Father Rossignoli in October 1894, and of
+Slatin Bey in February 1895, revealed the condition of the Sudan to the
+outside world, threw a vivid light on the rule of the khalifa, and
+corroborated information already received of the discontent which
+existed among the tribes with the oppression and despotism under which
+they lived.
+
+_The Eastern Sudan._--In 1884 Colonel Chermside, governor of the Red Sea
+littoral, entered into arrangements with King John of Abyssinia for the
+relief of the beleaguered Egyptian garrisons. Gera, Amadib, Senhit and
+Gallabat were, in consequence, duly succoured, and their garrisons and
+Egyptian populations brought away to the coast by the Abyssinians in
+1885. Unfortunately famine compelled the garrison of Kassala to
+capitulate on the 30th of July of that year, and Osman Digna hurried
+there from Tamai to raise a force with which to meet the Abyssinian
+general, Ras Alula, who was preparing for its relief. By the end of
+August Osman Digna had occupied Kufit, in the Barea country, with 10,000
+men and entrenched himself. On the 23rd of September Ras Alula attacked
+him there with an equal number of men and routed him with great
+slaughter. Over 3000 dervishes with their principal amirs, except Osman
+Digna, lay dead on the field, and many more were killed in the pursuit.
+The Abyssinians lost 40 officers and 1500 men killed, besides many more
+wounded. Instead of marching on to Kassala, Ras Alula, who at this time
+was much offended by the transfer of Massawa by the Egyptians to Italy,
+made a triumphant entry into Asmara, and absolutely refused to make any
+further efforts to extricate Egyptian garrisons from the grip of the
+khalifa. Meanwhile Osman Digna, who had fled from Kufit to Kassala,
+wreaked his vengeance upon the unhappy captives at Kassala.
+
+
+  Handub.
+
+  Battle of Afafit.
+
+In the neighbourhood of Suakin there were many tribes disaffected to the
+khalifa's cause, and in the autumn of 1886 Colonel H. Kitchener, who was
+at the time governor of the Red Sea littoral, judiciously arranged a
+combination of them to overthrow Osman Digna, with the result that his
+stronghold at Tamai was captured on the 7th of October, 200 of his men
+killed, and 50 prisoners, 17 guns and a vast store of rifles and
+ammunition captured. For about a year there was comparative quiet. Then
+at the end of 1887 Osman Digna again advanced towards Suakin, but his
+force at Taroi was routed by the "Friendlies," and he fell back on
+Handub. Kitchener unsuccessfully endeavoured to capture Osman Digna on
+the 17th of January 1888, but in the attack was himself severely
+wounded, and was shortly after invalided. Later in the year Osman Digna
+collected a large force and besieged Suakin. In December the sirdar
+arrived with reinforcements from Cairo, and on the 20th sallied out and
+attacked the dervishes in their trenches at Gemaiza, clearing the whole
+line and inflicting considerable loss on the enemy, who retired towards
+Handub, and the country was again fairly quiet for a time. During 1889
+and 1890 Tokar became the centre of dervish authority, while Handub
+continued to be occupied for the khalifa. In January 1891 Osman Digna
+showed signs of increased activity, and Colonel (afterwards Sir Charles)
+Holled Smith, then governor of the Red Sea littoral, attacked Handub
+successfully on the 27th and occupied it, then seized Trinkitat and Teb,
+and on the 19th of February fought the decisive action of Afafit,
+occupied Tokar, and drove Osman Digna back to Temrin with a loss of 700
+men, including all his chief amirs. This action proved the final blow to
+the dervish power in the neighbourhood of Suakin, for although raiding
+continued on a small scale, the tribes were growing tired of the
+khalifa's rule and refused to support Osman Digna.
+
+In the spring of 1891 an agreement was made between England and Italy by
+which the Italian forces in Eritrea were at liberty, if they were able,
+to capture and occupy Kassala, which lay close to the western boundary
+of their new colony, on condition that they restored it to Egypt at a
+future day when required to do so. Three years passed before they
+availed themselves of this agreement. In 1893 the dervishes, 12,000
+strong, under Ahmed Ali, invaded Eritrea, and were met on the 29th of
+December at Agordat by Colonel Arimondi with 2000 men of a native force.
+Ahmed Ali's force was completely routed and himself killed, and in the
+following July Colonel Baratieri, with 2500 men, made a fine forced
+march from Agordat, surprised and captured Kassala on the 17th of that
+month, and continued to hold it for three years and a half.
+
+  _The Abyssinian Frontier._--On the Abyssinian frontier Ras Adal was in
+  command of a considerable force of Abyssinians early in 1886, and in
+  June of that year he invaded Gallabat and defeated the dervishes on
+  the plain of Madana; the dervish amir Mahommed Wad Ardal was killed
+  and his camp captured. In the following year the amir Yunis ed Dekeim
+  made two successful raids into Abyssinian territory, upon which Ras
+  Adal collected an enormous army, said to number 200,000 men, for the
+  invasion of the Sudan. The khalifa sent the amir Hamdan Abu Angar, a
+  very skilful leader, with an army of over 80,000 men against him. Abu
+  Angar entered Abyssinia and, in August 1887, attacked Ras Adal in the
+  plain of Debra Sin and, after a prolonged battle, defeated the
+  Abyssinians, captured their camp, and marched on Gondar, the ancient
+  capital of Abyssinia, which he sacked, and then returned into
+  Gallabat. King John, the negus of Abyssinia, burning to avenge this
+  defeat, marched, in February 1889, with an enormous army to Gallabat,
+  where the amir Zeki Tumal commanded the khalifa's forces, some 60,000
+  strong, and had strongly fortified the town and the camp. On the 9th
+  of March 1889 the Abyssinians made a terrific onslaught, stormed and
+  burnt the town, and took thousands of prisoners. A small party of
+  dervishes still held a zeriba when King John was struck by a stray
+  bullet. The Abyssinians decided to retire, fighting ceased, and they
+  moved off with their prisoners and the wounded negus. That night the
+  king died, and the greater part of the army having gone ahead with the
+  prisoners, a party of Arabs pursued the rearguard, which consisted of
+  the king's bodyguard, routed them, and captured the king's body, which
+  was sent to Omdurman to confirm the report of a brilliant victory sent
+  by Zeki Tumal to the khalifa. Internal strife prevented the new negus
+  of Abyssinia from prosecuting the war, which thus, in spite of the
+  Abyssinian success, resulted in the increased prestige of the khalifa.
+  From this time, however, the dervishes ceased to trouble the
+  Abyssinians.
+
+  _Darfur and Kordofan._--On the outbreak of the mahdi's rebellion
+  Slatin Bey was governor of the province, and when Madibbo, the
+  insurgent sheikh of Rizighat, attacked and occupied Shakka and was
+  following up his success, Slatin twice severely defeated him, and,
+  having concentrated his forces at El Fasher, repulsed the enemy again
+  at Om Shanga. Mahdism, however, spread over Darfur in spite of
+  Slatin's efforts to stay it. He fought no fewer than twenty-seven
+  actions in various parts of his province, but his own troops, in
+  course of time, became infected with the new faith and deserted him.
+  He was obliged to surrender at Dara in December 1883, and was a
+  prisoner, first at Obeid and then at Omdurman, until he escaped in
+  1895. In January 1884 Zogal, the new dervish amir of the province,
+  attacked El Fasher, where Said Bey Guma and an Egyptian garrison 1000
+  strong with 10 guns was still holding out, and captured it. He also
+  reduced the Jebel Marra district, where the loyal hill-people gave him
+  some trouble.
+
+  After the death of the mahdi in 1885, Madibbo revolted against the
+  khalifa, but was defeated by Karamalla, the dervish amir of the
+  Bahr-el-Ghazal, and was caught and executed. A war then sprang up
+  between Karamalla and Sultan Yusef, who had succeeded Zogal as amir of
+  Darfur. Yusef was joined in 1887 by Sultan Zayid, the black ruler of
+  Jebel Marra, and Karamalla's trusted general, Ketenbur, was defeated
+  with great slaughter at El Towaish on the 29th of June 1887. Osman wad
+  Adam (Ganu), amir of Kordofan, was sent by the khalifa to Karamalla's
+  assistance. He forced back the Darfurians near Dara on the 26th of
+  December, routed Zayid in a second battle, entered El Fasher, and, in
+  1888, became complete master of the situation, the two sultans being
+  killed. The Darfurian chiefs then allied themselves with Abu Gemaiza,
+  sheikh of the Masalit Arabs, who had proclaimed himself "Khalifa
+  Osman," and was known as the anti-mahdi. The revolt assumed large
+  proportions, and became the more dangerous to Abdullah, the khalifa,
+  by reason of its religious character, wild rumours spreading over the
+  country and reaching to Egypt and Suakin of the advent to power of an
+  opposition mahdi. Abu Gemaiza attacked a portion of Osman Adam's
+  force, under Abd-el-Kader, at Kebkebia, 30 m. from El Fasher, and
+  almost annihilated it on the 16th of October 1888; and a week later
+  another large force of Osman Adam met with the same fate at the same
+  place. Instead of following up his victories, Abu Gemaiza retired to
+  Dar Tama to augment his army, to which thousands flocked as the news
+  of his achievements spread far and wide. He again advanced to El
+  Fasher in February 1889, but was seized with smallpox. His army,
+  however, under Fiki Adam, fought a fierce battle close to El Fasher on
+  the 22nd, which resulted in its defeat and dispersion, and Abu Gemaiza
+  himself dying the following day, the movement collapsed.
+
+  In 1891 Darfur and Kordofan were again disturbed, and Sultan Abbas
+  succeeded in turning the dervishes out of the Jebel Marra district.
+  Two years later a saint of Sokoto, Abu Naal Muzil el Muhan, collected
+  many followers and for a time threatened the khalifa's power, but the
+  revolt gradually died out.
+
+  _The Bahr-el-Ghazal._--The first outbreak in favour of Mahdism in the
+  Bahr-el-Ghazal took place at Liffi in August 1882, when the Dinka
+  tribe, under Jango, revolted and was defeated by Lupton Bey with
+  considerable slaughter at Tel Gauna, and again in 1883 near Liffi. In
+  September of that year Lupton's captain, Rufai Aga, was massacred with
+  all his men at Dembo, and Lupton, short of ammunition, was forced to
+  retire to Dem Suliman, where he was completely cut off from Khartum.
+  After gallantly fighting for eighteen months he was compelled by the
+  defection of his troops to surrender on the 21st of April 1884 to
+  Karamalla, the dervish amir of the province. He died at Omdurman in
+  1888.
+
+  In 1890 the Shilluks in the neighbourhood of Fashoda rose against the
+  khalifa, and the dervish amir of Gallabat, Zeki Tumal, was engaged for
+  two years in suppressing the rebellion. He got the upper hand in 1892,
+  and was recalled to oppose an Italian force said to be advancing from
+  Massawa; but on reporting that it was impossible to invade Eritrea, as
+  the khalifa wished him to do, he was summoned to Omdurman and put to
+  death. The country then relapsed into its original barbarous
+  condition, and dervish influence was nominal only. In 1892 the Congo
+  State expedition established posts up to the seventh parallel of north
+  latitude. In 1893 the dervish amir, Abu Mariam, fought with the Dinka
+  tribe and was killed and his force destroyed, the fugitives taking
+  refuge in Shakka. In the following year the Congo expedition
+  established further posts, and in consequence the khalifa sent 3000
+  men, under the amir Khatem Musa, from Shakka to reoccupy the
+  Bahr-el-Ghazal. The Belgians at Liffi retired before him, and he
+  entered Faroga. Famine and disease broke out in Khatem Musa's camp in
+  1895, and a retreat was made towards Kordofan.
+
+  _Equatoria._--In the Equatorial Province, which extended from the
+  Albert Nyanza to Lado, Emin Bey, who had a force of 1300 Egyptian
+  troops and 3000 irregulars, distributed among many stations, held out,
+  hoping for reinforcements. In March 1885, however, Amadi fell to the
+  dervishes, and on the 18th of April Karamalla arrived near Lado, the
+  capital, and sent to inform Emin of the fall of Khartum. Emin and
+  Captain Casati, an Italian, moved south to Wadelai, giving up the
+  northern posts, and opened friendly relations with Kabarega, king of
+  Unyoro. On the 26th of February 1886 Emin received despatches from
+  Cairo via Zanzibar, from which he learned all that had occurred during
+  the previous three years, and that "he might take any step he liked,
+  should he decide to leave the country." He determined to remain where
+  he was and "hold together, as long as possible, the remnant of the
+  last ten years." His troops were in a mutinous state, wishing to go
+  north rather than south, as Emin had ordered them to do, and
+  unsuccessfully endeavoured to carry him with them by force.
+
+  His communications to Europe through Zanzibar led to the relief
+  expedition under H. M. Stanley, which went to his rescue by way of the
+  Congo in 1887, and after encountering incredible dangers and
+  experiencing innumerable sufferings, met with Emin and Casati at
+  Nsabé, on the Albert Nyanza, on the 29th of April 1888. Stanley went
+  back in May to pick up his belated rearguard, leaving Mounteney
+  Jephson and a small escort to accompany Emin round his province. The
+  southern garrisons decided to go with Emin, but the troops at Labore
+  mutinied, and a general revolt broke out, headed by Fadl-el-Maula,
+  governor of Fabbo. On arriving at Dufile in August 1888, Emin and
+  Jephson were made prisoners by the Egyptian mutineers. In the meantime
+  the arrival of Stanley at Lake Albert had caused rumours, which
+  quickly spread to Omdurman, of a great invading white pasha, with the
+  result that in July the khalifa sent up the river three steamers and
+  six barges, containing 4000 troops, to oppose this new-comer. In
+  October Omar-Saleh, the Mahdist commander, took Rejaf and sent
+  messengers to Dufile to summon Emin to surrender; but on the 15th of
+  November the mutineers released both Emin and Jephson, who returned to
+  Lake Albert with some 600 refugees, and joined Stanley in February
+  1889. The expedition arrived at Zanzibar at the end of the year.
+
+  Emin's mutinous troops kept the dervishes at bay between Wadelai and
+  Rejaf, and eventually severely defeated them, driving them back to
+  Rejaf. They did not, however, follow up their victory, and under the
+  leadership of Fadl-el-Maula Bey remained about Wadelai, while the
+  dervishes strengthened their post at Rejaf. In 1893 Fadl-el-Maula Bey
+  and many of his men took service with Baert of the Congo State
+  expedition. The bey was killed fighting the dervishes at Wandi in
+  January 1894, and the remnant of his men eventually were found by
+  Captain Thruston from Uganda on the 23rd of March 1894 at Mahagi, on
+  the Albert Nyanza, whither they had drifted from Wadelai in search of
+  supplies. They were enlisted by Thruston and brought back under the
+  British flag to Uganda.
+
+  In consequence of the Franco-Congolese Treaty of 1894, Major
+  Cunningham and Lieutenant Vandeleur were sent from Uganda to Dufile,
+  where they planted the British flag on the 15th of January 1895.
+
+
+SUDAN OPERATIONS, 1896-1900
+
+  Dongola campaign, 1896.
+
+The wonderful progress--political, economical and social--which Egypt
+had made during British occupation, so ably set forth in Sir Alfred
+Milner's _England in Egypt_ (published in 1892), together with the
+revelation in so strong a light of the character of the khalifa's
+despotism in the Sudan and the miserable condition of his misgoverned
+people, as detailed in the accounts of their captivity at Omdurman by
+Father Ohrwalder and Slatin Bey (published in 1892 and 1896), stirred
+public opinion in Great Britain, and brought the question of the
+recovery of the Sudan into prominence. A change of ministry took place
+in 1895, and Lord Salisbury's cabinet, which had consistently assailed
+the Egyptian policy of the old, was not unwilling to consider whether
+the flourishing condition of Egyptian finance, the prosperity of the
+country and the settled state of its affairs, with a capable and proved
+little army ready to hand, did not warrant an attempt being made to
+recover gradually the Sudan provinces abandoned by Egypt in 1885 on the
+advice of Mr Gladstone's government.
+
+Such being the condition of public and official sentiment, the crushing
+defeat of the Italians by the Abyssinians at the battle of Adowa on the
+1st of March 1896, and the critical state of Kassala--held by Italy at
+British suggestion, and now closely invested by the dervishes--made it
+not only desirable but necessary to take immediate action.
+
+On the 14th of March 1896 Major-General Sir H. Kitchener, who succeeded
+Sir Francis Grenfell as sirdar of the Egyptian army in 1892, received
+orders to reoccupy Akasha, 50 m. south of Sarras, and to carry the
+railway on from Sarras. Subsequent operations were to depend upon the
+amount of resistance he encountered. On the 20th of March Akasha was
+occupied without opposition by an advanced column of Egyptian troops
+under Major J. Collinson, who formed an entrenched camp there. The
+reserves of the Egyptian army were called out, and responded with
+alacrity. The troops were concentrated at Wadi Halfa; the railway
+reconstruction, under Lieutenant E. P. Girouard, R.E., pushed southward;
+and a telegraph line followed the advance. At the commencement of the
+campaign the Egyptian army, including reserves, consisted of 16
+battalions of infantry, of which 6 were Sudanese, 10 squadrons of
+cavalry, 5 batteries of artillery, 3 companies of garrison artillery,
+and 8 companies of camel corps, and it possessed 13 gunboats for river
+work. Colonel H. M. L. Rundle was chief of the staff; Major F. R.
+Wingate was head of the intelligence department, with Slatin Bey as his
+assistant; and Colonel A. Hunter was in command of Sarras, and south.
+The 1st battalion of the North Staffordshire regiment moved up from
+Cairo to join the Egyptian army.
+
+In the meantime the advance to Akasha had already relieved the pressure
+at Kassala, Osman Digna having withdrawn a considerable force from the
+investing army and proceeded with it to Suakin. To meet Osman Digna's
+movement Lieutenant-Colonel G. E. Lloyd, the Suakin commandant, advanced
+to the Taroi Wells, 19 m. south of Suakin, on the 15th of April to
+co-operate with the "Friendlies," and with Major H. M. Sidney, advancing
+with a small force from Tokar. His cavalry, under Major M. A. C. B.
+Fenwick, went out to look for Sidney's force, and were surprised by a
+large number of dervishes. Fenwick, with some 40 officers and men,
+seized an isolated hill and held it through the night, repulsing the
+dervishes, who were the same night driven back with such heavy loss in
+attacking Lloyd's zeriba that they retired to the hills, and comparative
+quiet again reigned at Suakin. At the end of May an Indian brigade
+arrived for garrison duty, and the Egyptian troops were released for
+service on the Nile.
+
+The dervishes first came in contact with the Egyptian cavalry on the
+Nile near Akasha, on the 1st of May, and were repulsed. The army
+concentrated at Akasha early in June, and on the 6th Kitchener moved to
+the attack of Firket 16 m. away, where the amir Hamuda, with 3000 men,
+was encamped. The attack was made in two columns: one, under Colonel
+Hunter, marching along the river-bank, approached Firket from the north;
+while the other, under Major Burn-Murdoch, making a detour through the
+desert, approached it from the south. The co-operation of the two
+columns was admirably timed, and on the morning of the 7th the dervish
+camp was surrounded, and, after a sharp fight, Hamuda and many amirs and
+about 1000 men were killed, and 500 prisoners taken. The dash and
+discipline of the Egyptian troops in this victory were a good augury for
+the future.
+
+By the end of June the railway was advanced beyond Akasha, and
+headquarters were at Kosha, 10 m. farther south. Cholera and fever were
+busy both with the North Staffordshire regiment at Gemai, whither they
+had been moved on its approach, and with the Egyptian troops at the
+front, and carried off many officers and men. The railway reached Kosha
+early in August; the cholera disappeared, and stores were collected and
+arrangements steadily made for a farther advance. The North
+Staffordshire moved up to the front, and in September the army moved on
+Kerma, which was found to be evacuated, the dervishes having crossed the
+river to Hafir. There they were attacked by the gunboats and Kitchener's
+artillery from the opposite bank, and forced to retire, with their
+commander, Wad Bishara, seriously wounded. Dongola was bombarded by the
+gunboats and captured by the army on the 23rd of September. Bishara and
+his men retreated, but were pursued by the Egyptians until the retreat
+became a hopeless rout. Guns, small arms and ammunition, with large
+stores of grain and dates, were captured, many prisoners taken, while
+hundreds surrendered voluntarily, among them a brother of the amir Wad
+en Nejumi. The dervish Dongola army had practically ceased to exist.
+Debba was seized on the 3rd October, Korti and Merawi occupied soon
+after, and the principal sheiks came in and submitted to the sirdar. The
+Dongola campaign was over, and the province recovered to Egypt. The
+Indian brigade at Suakin returned to India, and was replaced by
+Egyptians. The North Staffordshire returned to Cairo. The work of
+consolidation began, and preparations were made for a farther advance
+when everything should be ready.
+
+
+  The Sudan campaign, 1897.
+
+The railway up the right bank of the Nile was continued to Kerma, in
+order to evade the difficulties of the 3rd cataract; but the sirdar had
+conceived the bold project of cutting off the great angle of the Nile
+from Wadi Halfa to Abu Hamed, involving nearly 600 m. of navigation and
+including the 4th cataract, by constructing a railway across the Nubian
+desert, and so bringing his base at Wadi Halfa within a few hours of his
+force, when it should have advanced to Abu Hamed, instead of ten days.
+Early in 1897 this new line of railway was commenced from Wadi Halfa
+across the great Nubian desert 230 m. to Abu Hamed. The first-mentioned
+line reached Kerma in May, and by July the second had advanced 130 m.
+into the desert towards Abu Hamed, when it became necessary, before it
+was carried farther, to secure that terminus by an advance from Merawi.
+
+In the meantime the khalifa was not idle. He occupied Abu Klea wells and
+Metemma; recalled the amir Ibrahim Khalil, with 4000 men, from the
+Ghezira; brought to Omdurman the army of the west under Mahmud--some
+10,000 men; entrusted the line of the Atbara--Ed Darner, Adarama, Asubri
+and El Fasher--to Osman Digna; constructed defences in the Shabluka
+gorge; and personally superintended the organization and drill of the
+forces gathered at Omdurman, and the collection of vast stores of food
+and supplies of camels for offensive expeditions.
+
+Towards the end of June the chief of the Jaalin tribe, Abdalla wad Said,
+who occupied Metemma, angered by the khalifa, made his submission to
+Kitchener and asked for support, at the same time foolishly sending a
+defiant letter to the khalifa. The sirdar sent him rifles and ammunition
+across the desert from Korti; but before they arrived, Mahmud's army,
+sent by the khalifa, swept down on Metemma on the 1st of July and
+massacred Abdalla wad Said and his garrison.
+
+On the 29th of July, after several reconnaissances, Major-General
+Hunter, with a flying column, marched up the Nile from near Merawi to
+Abu Hamed, 133 m. distant, along the edge of the Monassir desert. He
+arrived on the 7th of August and captured it by storm, the dervishes
+losing 250 killed and 50 prisoners. By the end of the month the gunboats
+had surmounted the 4th cataract and reached Abu Hamed. Berber was found
+to be deserted, and occupied by Hunter on the 5th of September, and in
+the following month a large force was entrenched there. The khalifa,
+fearing an attack on Omdurman, moved Osman Digna from Adarama to Shendi.
+In the 23rd of October Hunter, with a flying column lightly equipped,
+left Berber for Adarama, which he burned on the 2nd of November, and
+after reconnoitring for 40 m. up the Atbara, returned to Berber. The
+Nile was falling, and Kitchener decided to keep the gunboats above the
+impassable rapid at Um Tuir, 4 m. north of the confluence of the Atbara
+with the Nile, where he constructed a fort. The gunboats made repeated
+reconnaissances up the river, bombarding Metemma with effect. The
+railway reached Abu Hamed on the 4th of November, and was pushed rapidly
+forward along the right bank of the Nile towards Berber.
+
+The forces of the khalifa remaining quiet, the sirdar visited Kassala
+and negotiated with the Italian General Caneva for its restoration to
+Egypt. The Italians were anxious to leave it; and on Christmas day 1897
+Colonel (afterwards General Sir Charles) Parsons, with an Egyptian force
+from Suakin, took it formally over, together with a body of Arab
+irregulars employed by the Italians. These troops were at once
+despatched to capture the dervish posts at Asabri and El Fasher, which
+they did with small loss.
+
+
+  Sudan campaign, 1898.
+
+On his return from Kassala to Berber the sirdar received information of
+an intended advance of the khalifa northward. He at once ordered a
+concentration of Egyptian troops towards Berber, and telegraphed to
+Cairo for a British brigade. By the end of January the concentration was
+complete, and the British brigade, under Major-General Gatacre, was at
+Dakhesh, south of Abu Hamed. Disagreement among the khalifa's generals
+postponed the dervish advance and gave Kitchener much-needed time. But
+at the end of February, Mahmud crossed the Nile to Shendi with some
+12,000 fighting men, and with Osman Digna advanced along the right bank
+of the Nile to Aliab, where he struck across the desert to Nakheila, on
+the Atbara, intending to turn Kitchener's left flank at Berber. The
+sirdar took up a position at Ras el Hudi, on the Atbara. His force
+consisted of Gatacre's British brigade (1st Warwicks, Lincolns,
+Seaforths and Camerons) and Hunter's Egyptian division (3 brigades under
+Colonels Maxwell, MacDonald and Lewis respectively), Broadwood's
+cavalry, Tudway's camel corps and Long's artillery. The dervish army
+reached Nakheila on the 20th of March, and entrenched themselves there
+in a formidable zeriba. After several reconnaissances in which fighting
+took place with Mahmud's outposts, it was ascertained from prisoners
+that their army was short of provisions and that great leakage was going
+on. Kitchener, therefore, did not hurry. He sent his flotilla up the
+Nile and captured Shendi, the dervish depôt, on the 27th of March. On
+the 4th of April he advanced to Abadar. A final reconnaissance was made
+on the 5th. On the following day he bivouacked at Umdabia, where he
+constructed a strong zeriba, which was garrisoned by an Egyptian
+battalion, and on the night of the 7th he marched to the attack of
+Mahmud's zeriba, which, after an hour's bombardment on the morning of
+the 8th of April, was stormed with complete success. Mahmud and several
+hundred dervishes were captured, 40 amirs and 3000 Arabs killed, and
+many more wounded; the rest escaped to Gedaref. The sirdar's casualties
+were 80 killed and 472 wounded.
+
+Preparations were now made for the attack on the khalifa's force at
+Omdurman; and in the meantime the troops were camped in the
+neighbourhood of Berber, and the railway carried on to the Atbara. At
+the end of July reinforcements were forwarded from Cairo; and on the
+24th of August the following troops were concentrated for the advance at
+Wad Hamad, above Metemma, on the western bank of the 6th
+cataract:--British division, under Major-General Gatacre, consisting of
+1st Brigade, commanded by Colonel A. G. Wauchope (1st Warwicks,
+Lincolns, Seaforths and Camerons), and 2nd Brigade, commanded by Colonel
+the Hon. N. G. Lyttelton (1st Northumberlands and Grenadier Guards, 2nd
+Lancashire and Rifle Brigade); Egyptian division, under Major-General
+Hunter, consisting of four brigades, commanded by Colonels MacDonald,
+Maxwell, Lewis and Collinson; mounted troops--21st Lancers, camel corps,
+and Egyptian cavalry; artillery, under Colonel Long, 2 British
+batteries, 5 Egyptian batteries, and 20 machine guns; detachment of
+Royal Engineers. The flotilla, under Commander Keppel, R.N., consisted
+of 10 gunboats and 5 transport steamers. The total strength was nearly
+26,000 men.
+
+
+  Battle of Omdurman.
+
+While the army moved along the west bank of the river, a force of Arab
+irregulars or "Friendlies" marched along the east bank, under command of
+Major Stuart-Wortley and Lieutenant Wood, to clear it of the enemy as
+far as the Blue Nile; and on the 1st of September the gunboats bombarded
+the forts on both sides of the river and breached the great wall of
+Omdurman. Kitchener met with no opposition; and on the 1st of September
+the army bivouacked in zeriba at Egeiga, on the west bank of the Nile,
+within 4 m. of Omdurman. Here, on the morning of the 2nd of September,
+the khalifa's army, 40,000 strong, attacked the zeriba, but was repulsed
+with slaughter. Kitchener then moved out and marched towards Omdurman,
+when he was again twice fiercely attacked on the right flank and rear,
+MacDonald's brigade bearing the brunt. MacDonald distinguished himself
+by his tactics, and completely repulsed the enemy. The 21st Lancers
+gallantly charged a body of 2000 dervishes which was unexpectedly met in
+a khor on the left flank, and drove them westward, the Lancers losing a
+fifth of their number in killed and wounded. The khalifa was now in full
+retreat, and the sirdar, sending his cavalry in pursuit, marched into
+Omdurman. The dervish loss was over 10,000 killed, as many wounded, and
+5000 prisoners. The khalifa's black flag was captured and sent home to
+Queen Victoria. The British and Egyptian casualties together were under
+500. The European prisoners of the khalifa found in Omdurman--Charles
+Neufeld, Joseph Ragnotti, Sister Teresa Grigolini, and some 30
+Greeks--were released; and on Sunday the 4th of September the sirdar,
+with representatives from every regiment, crossed the river to Khartum,
+where the British and Egyptian flags were hoisted, and a short service
+held in memory of General Gordon, near the place where he met his death.
+
+The results of the battle of Omdurman were the practical destruction of
+the khalifa's army, the extinction of Mahdism in the Sudan, and the
+recovery of nearly all the country formerly under Egyptian authority.
+
+The khalifa fled with a small force to Obeid in Kordofan. The British
+troops were quickly sent down stream to Cairo, and the sirdar, shortly
+afterwards created Lord Kitchener of Khartum, was free to turn his
+attention to the reduction of the country to some sort of order.
+
+
+  Captain Marchand at Fashoda.
+
+He had first, however, to deal with a somewhat serious matter--the
+arrival of a French expedition at Fashoda, on the White Nile, some 600
+m. above Khartum. He started for the south on the 10th of September,
+with 5 gunboats and a small force, dispersed a body of 700 dervishes at
+Reng on the 15th, and four days later arrived at Fashoda, to find the
+French Captain Marchand, with 120 Senegalese soldiers, entrenched there
+and the French flag flying. He arranged with Marchand to leave the
+political question to be settled by diplomacy, and contented himself
+with hoisting the British and Egyptian flags to the south of the French
+flag, and leaving a gunboat and a Sudanese battalion to guard them. He
+then steamed up the river and established a post at Sobat; and after
+sending a gunboat up the Bahr-el-Ghazal to establish another post at
+Meshra-er-Rek, he returned to Omdurman. The French expedition had
+experienced great difficulties in the swampy region of the
+Bahr-el-Ghazal, and had reached Fashoda on the 10th of July. It had been
+attacked by a dervish force on the 25th of August, and was expecting
+another attack when Kitchener arrived and probably saved it from
+destruction. The Fashoda incident was the subject of important
+diplomatic negotiations, which at one time approached an acute phase;
+but ultimately the French position was found to be untenable, and on the
+11th of December Marchand and his men returned to France by the Sobat,
+Abyssinia and Jibuti. In the following March the spheres of interest of
+Great Britain and France in the Nile basin were defined by a declaration
+making an addition to Article IV. of the Niger convention of the
+previous year.
+
+During the sirdar's absence from Omdurman Colonel Hunter commanded an
+expedition up the Blue Nile, and by the end of September had occupied
+and garrisoned Wad Medani, Sennar, Karkoj and Roseires. In the meantime
+Colonel Parsons marched with 1400 men from Kassala on the 7th of
+September, to capture Gedaref. He encountered 4000 dervishes under the
+amir Saadalla outside the town, and after a desperate fight, in which he
+lost 50 killed and 80 wounded, defeated them and occupied the town on
+the 22nd. The dervishes left 500 dead on the field, among whom were four
+amirs. Having strongly entrenched himself, Parsons beat off, with heavy
+loss to the dervishes, two impetuous attacks made on the 28th by Ahmed
+Fedil. But the garrison of Gedaref suffered from severe sickness, and
+Colonel Collinson was sent to their aid with reinforcements from
+Omdurman. He steamed up the Blue Nile and the Rahad river to
+Ain-el-Owega, whence he struck across the desert, reaching Gedaref on
+the 21st of October, to find that Ahmed Fedil had gone south with his
+force of 5000 men towards Roseires. Colonel Lewis, who was at Karkoj
+with a small force, moved to Roseires, where he received reinforcements
+from Omdurman, and on the 26th of December caught Ahmed Fedil's force as
+it was crossing the Blue Nile at Dakheila, and after a very severe fight
+cut it up. The dervish loss was 500 killed, while the Egyptians had 24
+killed and 118 wounded. Two thousand five hundred fighting men
+surrendered later, and the rest escaped with Ahmed Fedil to join the
+khalifa in Kordofan.
+
+
+  Operations in the Sudan, 1899.
+
+On the 25th of January 1899 Colonel Walter Kitchener was despatched by
+his brother, in command of a flying column of 2000 Egyptian troops and
+1700 Friendlies, which had been concentrated at Faki Kohi, on the White
+Nile, some 200 m. above Khartum, to reconnoitre the khalifa's camp at
+Sherkela, 130 m. west of the river, in the heart of the Baggara country
+in Kordofan, and if possible to capture it. The position was found to be
+a strong one, occupied by over 6000 men; and as it was not considered
+prudent to attack it with an inferior force at such a distance from the
+river base, the flying column returned. No further attempt was made to
+interfere with the khalifa in his far-off retreat until towards the end
+of the year, when, good order having been generally established
+throughout the rest of the Sudan, it was decided to extend it to
+Kordofan.
+
+
+  Death of the khalifa.
+
+In the autumn of 1899 the khalifa was at Jebel Gedir, a hill in southern
+Kordofan, about 80 m. from the White Nile, and was contemplating an
+advance. Lord Kitchener concentrated 8000 men at Kaka, on the river, 380
+m. south of Khartum, and moved inland on the 20th of October. On
+arriving at Fongor it was ascertained that the khalifa had gone north,
+and the cavalry and camel corps having reconnoitred Jebel Gedir, the
+expedition returned. On the 13th November the amir Ahmed Fedil debouched
+on the river at El Alub, but retired on finding Colonel Lewis with a
+force in gunboats. Troops and transport were then concentrated at Faki
+Kohi, and Colonel Wingate sent with reinforcements from Khartum to take
+command of the expedition and march to Gedid, where it was anticipated
+the khalifa would be obliged to halt. A flying column, comprising a
+squadron of cavalry, a field battery, 6 machine guns, 6 companies of the
+camel corps, and a brigade of infantry and details, in all 3700 men,
+under Wingate, left Faki Kohi on the 21st of November. The very next day
+he encountered Ahmed Fedil at Abu Aadel, drove him from his position
+with great loss, and captured his camp and a large supply of grain he
+was convoying to the khalifa. Gedid was reached on the 23rd, and the
+khalifa was ascertained to be at Om Debreikat. Wingate marched at
+midnight of the 24th, and was resting his troops on high ground in front
+of the khalifa's position, when at daybreak of the 25th his picquets
+were driven in and the dervishes attacked. They were repulsed with great
+slaughter, and Wingate advancing, carried the camp. The khalifa Abdullah
+el Taaisha, unable to rally his men, gathered many of his principal
+amirs around him, among whom were his sons and brothers, Ali Wad Helu,
+Ahmed Fedil, and other well-known leaders, and they met their death
+unflinchingly from the bullets of the advancing Sudanese infantry. Three
+thousand men and 29 amirs of importance, including Sheik-ed-din, the
+khalifa's eldest son and intended successor, surrendered. The dervish
+loss in the two actions was estimated at 1000 killed and wounded, while
+the Egyptian casualties were only 4 killed and 29 wounded. Thus ended
+the power of the khalifa and of Mahdism.
+
+On the 19th of January 1900 Osman Digna, who had been so great a
+supporter of Mahdism in the Eastern Sudan, and had always shown great
+discretion in securing the safety of his own person, was surrounded and
+captured at Jebel Warriba, as he was wandering a fugitive among the
+hills beyond Tokar.
+
+  The reconquest of Dongola and the Sudan provinces during the three
+  years from March 1896 to December 1898, considering the enormous
+  extent and difficulties of the country, was achieved at an
+  unprecedentedly small cost, while the main item of expenditure--the
+  railway--remains a permanent benefit to the country. The figures
+  are:--
+
+    Railways     £E.1,181,372
+    Telegraphs         21,825
+    Gunboats          154,934
+    Military          996,223
+                 ------------
+    Total        £E.2,354,354
+
+  Towards this expense the British government gave a grant-in-aid of
+  £800,000, and the balance was borne by the Egyptian treasury. The
+  railway, delayed by the construction of the big bridge over the
+  Atbara, was opened to the Blue Nile opposite Khartum, 187 m. from the
+  Atbara, at the end of 1899.     (R. H. V.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] By the Greek and Roman geographers Egypt was usually assigned to
+    Libya (Africa), but by some early writers the Nile was thought to
+    mark the division between Libya and Asia. The name occurs in Homer as
+    [Greek: Aigyptos], but is of doubtful origin.
+
+  [2] A vivid description of Cairo during the prevalence of plague in
+    1835 will be found in A. W. Kinglake's _Eothen_.
+
+  [3] A _kantar_ equals 99 lb.
+
+  [4] To the ministry of public instruction was added in 1906 a
+    department of agriculture and technical instruction.
+
+  [5] The place of publication is London unless otherwise stated.
+
+  [6] The figures of the debt are always given in £ sterling. The
+    budget figures are in £E. (pounds Egyptian), equal to £1, 0s. 6d.
+
+  [7] _Egypt_, No. 1 (1905), p. 20.
+
+  [8] Similar mortality, though on a smaller scale, recurred in 1889,
+    when Sudanese battalions coming from Suakin were detained temporarily
+    in Cairo.
+
+  [9] Formerly transcribed _hau_ or "heap"-problems.
+
+  [10] Clepsydras inscribed in hieroglyphic are found soon after the
+    Macedonian conquest.
+
+  [11] Annual reports of the progress of the work are printed in the
+    _Sitzungsberichte_ of the Berlin Academy of Sciences; see also Erman,
+    _Zur ägyptischen Sprachforschung_, ib. for 1907, p. 400, showing the
+    general trend of the results.
+
+  [12] In the temple of Philae, where the worship of Isis was permitted
+    to continue till the reign of Justinian, Brugsch found demotic
+    inscriptions with dates to the end of the 5th century.
+
+  [13] The Arabic dialects, which gradually displaced Coptic as
+    Mahommedanism supplanted Christianity, adopted but few words of the
+    old native stock.
+
+  [14] In the articles referring to matters of Egyptology in this
+    edition, Graecized forms of Old Egyptian names, where they exist, are
+    commonly employed; in other cases names are rendered by their actual
+    equivalents in Coptic or by analogous forms. Failing all such means,
+    recourse is had to the usual conventional renderings of hieroglyphic
+    spelling, a more precise transcription of the consonants in the
+    latter being sometimes added.
+
+  [15] It seems that "acrophony" (giving to a sign the value of the
+    first letter of its name) was indulged in only by priests of the
+    latest age, inventing fantastic modes of writing their "vain
+    repetitions" on the temple walls.
+
+  [16] In the prehistoric age when absolute dating is out of reach a
+    "sequence dating" by means of the sequence of types in pottery,
+    tools, &c., has been proposed in Petrie's _Diospolis Parva_, pp. 4 et
+    sqq. The earliest prehistoric graves yet known are placed at S.D. 30,
+    and shortly before S.D. 80 the period of the first historic dynasty
+    is entered.
+
+  [17] Ten-day periods as subdivisions of the month can be traced as
+    far back as the Middle Kingdom. The day consisted of twenty-four
+    hours, twelve of day (counted from sunrise to sunset) and twelve of
+    night; it began at sunrise.
+
+  [18] For the "sequence" dating (S.D.) used by archaeologists for the
+    prehistoric period see above (§ Art and Archaeology, ad init. note).
+
+  [19] Reisner (_Early Dynastic Cemeteries_, p. 126), from his work in
+    the prehistoric cemeteries, believes that Egypt was too uncivilized
+    at that early date to have performed this scientific feat.
+
+  [20] The history of Hatshepsut has been very obscure, and the
+    mutilations of her cartouches have been variously accounted for.
+    Recent discoveries by M. Legrain at Karnak and Prof. Petrie at Sinai
+    have limited the field of conjecture. The writer has followed M.
+    Naville's guidance in his biography of the queen (in T. M. Davis,
+    _The Tomb of Hatshopsîtû_, London, 1906, pp. 1 et seq.), made with
+    very full knowledge of the complicated data.
+
+  [21] This, it may be remarked, is the time vaguely represented by the
+    Dodecarchy of Herodotus.
+
+  [22] Khosrev Pasha afterwards filled several of the highest offices
+    at Constantinople. He died on the 1st of February 1855. He was a
+    bigot of the old school, strongly opposed to the influences of
+    Western civilization, and consequently to the assistance of France
+    and Great Britain in the Crimean War.
+
+  [23] The work was carried out under the supervision of the Frenchman,
+    Colonel Sève, who had turned Mahommedan and was known in Islam as
+    Suleiman Pasha. The effectiveness of the new force was first tried in
+    the suppression of a revolt of the Albanians in Cairo (1823) by six
+    disciplined Sudanese regiments; after which Mehemet Ali was no more
+    troubled with military _émeutes_.
+
+  [24] THE DYNASTY OF MEHEMET ALI.
+
+                               (i.) Mehemet Ali,
+                               b. 1769, d. 1849.
+                                      |
+         +-------------+----------+---+-------+--------------+-------------+
+         |             |          |           |              |             |
+   (ii.) Ibrahim,   Tusun,      Ismail,   (iv.) Said,   Abdul Halim,   Mehemet Ali,
+      b. 1789,     b. 1796,     b. 1798,    b. 1823,      b. 1831,     the Younger,
+      d. 1848.     d. 1816.     d. 1822.    d. 1863.      d. 1894.      and other
+         |             |                      |                         children.
+         |      (iii.) Abbas I.,            Tusun
+         |      b. 1813, d. 1854.          d. 1876.
+         |             |
+         |         El Hami.
+         |             |
+         |          Amina (married the Khedive Tewfik).
+         |
+     +---+-----------+--------------------+
+     |               |                    |
+    Ahmed,   (v.) Ismail (Khedive),  Mustapha Fazil,
+   d. 1858.    b. 1830, d. 1895.       d. 1875.
+                     |
+                  +--+-------------+-------------+------------+
+                  |                |             |            |
+             (vi.) Tewfik,   Hussein Kamil.   Hassan.   8 other children.
+           b. 1853, d. 1892.
+                  |
+                  +------------------+------------+
+                  |                  |            |
+           (vii.) Abbas II.,   Mehemet Ali.   2 daughters.
+               b. 1874.
+                  |
+                  +----------------+--------------+
+                  |                |              |
+            Mahommed Abdul,   Abdul Kader,   4 daughters.
+               b. 1890.         b. 1902.
+
+  [25] Part of this money was devoted to an expedition sent against
+    Abyssinia in 1876 to avenge losses sustained in the previous year.
+    The new campaign was, however, equally unsuccessful.
+
+  [26] Lord Cromer, writing in 1905, declared that the movement "was,
+    in its essence, a genuine revolt against misgovernment," and "was not
+    essentially anti-European" (vide _Egypt No. 1_, 1905, p. 2).
+
+  [27] Except in so far as it was necessary to call out men to guard
+    the banks of the Nile in the season of high flood.
+
+  [28] The Egyptians keep large numbers of pigeons, which are allowed
+    to be shot only by permission of the village omdeh (head-man). After
+    the occurrence here related, officers were prohibited from shooting
+    pigeons in any circumstances.
+
+  [29] On the 8th of January 1908, the anniversary of the khedive's
+    accession, the whole of the Denshawai prisoners were pardoned and
+    released. For the Denshawai incident see the British parliamentary
+    papers, _Egypt No. 3_ and _Egypt No. 4_ of 1906.
+
+  [30] See _Egypt No. 2_ (1906), Correspondence respecting the
+    Turco-Egyptian Frontier in the Sinai Peninsula (with a map).
+
+
+
+
+EHRENBERG, CHRISTIAN GOTTFRIED (1795-1876), German naturalist, was born
+at Delitzsch in Saxony on the 19th of April 1795. After studying at
+Leipzig and Berlin, where he took the degree of doctor of medicine in
+1818, he was appointed professor of medicine in the university of Berlin
+(1827). Meanwhile in 1820 he was engaged in a scientific exploration
+conducted by General von Minutoli in Egypt. They investigated parts of
+the Libyan desert, the Nile valley and the northern coasts of the Red
+Sea, where Ehrenberg made a special study of the corals. Subsequently
+parts of Syria, Arabia and Abyssinia were examined. Some results of
+these travels and of the important collections that had been made were
+reported on by Humboldt in 1826; and afterwards Ehrenberg was enabled to
+bring out two volumes _Symbolae physicae_ (1828-1834), in which many
+particulars of the mammals, birds, insects, &c., were made public. Other
+observations were communicated to scientific societies. In 1829 he
+accompanied Humboldt through eastern Russia to the Chinese frontier. On
+his return he gave his attention to microscopical researches. These had
+an important bearing on some of the infusorial earths used for polishing
+and other economic purposes; they added, moreover, largely to our
+knowledge of the microscopic organisms of certain geological formations,
+especially of the chalk, and of the modern marine and freshwater
+accumulations. Until Ehrenberg took up the study it was not known that
+considerable masses of rock were composed of minute forms of animals or
+plants. He demonstrated also that the phosphorescence of the sea was due
+to organisms. He continued until late in life to investigate the
+microscopic organisms of the deep sea and of various geological
+formations. He died in Berlin on the 27th of June 1876.
+
+  PUBLICATIONS.--_Die Infusionsthierchen als vollkommene Organismen_ (2
+  vols. fol., Leipzig, 1838); _Mikrogeologie_ (2 vols. fol., Leipzig,
+  1854); and "Fortsetzung der mikrogeologischen Studien," in _Abhandl.
+  der k. Akad. der Wissenschaft_ (Berlin, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+EHRENBREITSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on
+the right bank of the Rhine, facing Coblenz, with which it is connected
+by a railway bridge and a bridge of boats, on the main line of railway
+Frankfort-on-Main-Cologne. Pop. (including the garrison) 5300. It has an
+Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, a Capuchin monastery,
+tanneries, soap-works and a considerable trade in wine. Above the town,
+facing the mouth of the Mosel, on a rock 400 ft. high, lies the
+magnificent fortress of Ehrenbreitstein, considered practically
+impregnable. The sides towards the Rhine and the south and south-east
+are precipitous, and on the south side, on which is the winding
+approach, strongly defended. The central fort or citadel is flanked by a
+double line of works with three tiers of casemate batteries. The works
+towards the north and north-east end in a separate outlying fort. The
+whole forms a part of the system of fortifications which surround
+Coblenz.
+
+The site of the castle is said to have been occupied by a Roman fort
+built in the time of the emperor Julian. In the rith century the castle
+was held by a noble named Erembert, from whom it is said to have derived
+its name. In the 12th century it came into the possession of Archbishop
+Hillin (de Fallemagne) of Trier, who strengthened the defences in 1153.
+These were again extended by Archbishop Henry II. (de Fénétrange) in
+1286, and by Archbishop John II. of Baden in 1481. In 1631 it was
+surrendered by the archbishop elector Philip Christopher von Soetern to
+the French, but was recovered by the Imperialists in 1637 and given to
+the archbishop elector of Cologne. It was restored to the elector of
+Trier in 1650, but was not strongly fortified until 1672. In 1688 the
+French bombarded it in vain, but in 1759 they took it and held it till
+1762. It was again blockaded in 1795, 1796 and 1797, in vain; but in
+1799 they starved it into surrender, and at the peace of Lunéville in
+1801 blew it up before evacuating it. At the second peace of Paris the
+French paid 15,000,000 francs to the Prussian government for its
+restoration, and from 1816 to 1826 the fortress was reconstructed by
+General E. L. Aster (1778-1855).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 9, Slice 1, by Various
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 9 SL 1 ***
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+***** This file should be named 32860-8.txt or 32860-8.zip *****
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 9, Slice 1, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 9, Slice 1
+       "Edwardes" to "Ehrenbreitstein"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: June 17, 2010 [EBook #32860]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 9 SL 1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber's note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME IX SLICE I<br /><br />
+Edwardes to Ehrenbreitstein</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">EDWARDES, SIR HERBERT BENJAMIN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">EGER</a> (town of Austria)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">EDWARDS, AMELIA ANN BLANDFORD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">EGER</a> (town of Hungary)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">EDWARDS, BELA BATES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">EGERIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">EDWARDS, BRYAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">EGERTON, SIR PHILIP DE MALPAS GREY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">EDWARDS, GEORGE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">EGG, AUGUSTUS LEOPOLD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">EDWARDS, HENRY THOMAS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">EGG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">EDWARDS, JONATHAN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">EGGENBERG, HANS ULRICH VON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">EDWARDS, LEWIS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">EGGER, ÉMILE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">EDWARDS, RICHARD</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">EGGLESTON, EDWARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">EDWARDS, THOMAS CHARLES</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">EGHAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">EDWARDSVILLE</a> (Illinois, U.S.A.)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">EGIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">EDWARDSVILLE</a> (Pennsylvania, U.S.A)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">EGLANTINE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">EDWIN</a> (king of Northumbria)</td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">EGLINTON, EARLS OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">EDWIN, JOHN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">EGMONT, EARLS OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">EDWY</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">EGMONT LAMORAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">EECKHOUT, GERBRAND VAN DEN</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">EGOISM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">EEL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">EGORIEVSK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">EFFENDI</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">EGREMONT, EARLS OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">EFFIGIES, MONUMENTAL</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">EGREMONT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">EGAN, PIERCE</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">EGRESS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">EGBO</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">EGYPT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">EGEDE, HANS</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">EHRENBERG, CHRISTIAN GOTTFRIED</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">EGER, AQIBA</a></td>  <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">EHRENBREITSTEIN</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1" id="page1"></a>1</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARDES, SIR HERBERT BENJAMIN<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> (1819-1868),
+English soldier-statesman in India, was born at Frodesley in
+Shropshire on the 12th of November 1819. His father was
+Benjamin Edwardes, rector of Frodesley, and his grandfather
+Sir John Edwardes, baronet, eighth holder of a title conferred
+on one of his ancestors by Charles I. in 1644. He was educated
+at a private school and at King&rsquo;s College, London. Through
+the influence of his uncle, Sir Henry Edwardes, he was nominated
+in 1840 to a cadetship in the East India Company; and on his
+arrival in India, at the beginning of 1841, he was posted as
+ensign in the 1st Bengal Fusiliers. He remained with this
+regiment about five years, during which time he mastered the
+lessons of his profession, obtained a good knowledge of Hindustani,
+Hindi and Persian, and attracted attention by the political
+and literary ability displayed in a series of letters which appeared
+in the <i>Delhi Gazette</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In November 1845, on the breaking out of the first Sikh War,
+Edwardes was appointed aide-de-camp to Sir Hugh (afterwards
+Viscount) Gough, then commander-in-chief in India. On the
+18th of December he was severely wounded at the battle of
+Mudki. He soon recovered, however, and fought by the side
+of his chief at the decisive battle of Sobraon (February 10, 1846).
+He was soon afterwards appointed third assistant to the commissioners
+of the trans-Sutlej territory; and in January 1847
+was named first assistant to Sir Henry Lawrence, the resident
+at Lahore. Lawrence became his great exemplar and in later
+years he was accustomed to attribute to the influence of this
+&ldquo;father of his public life&rdquo; whatever of great or good he had
+himself achieved. He took part with Lawrence in the suppression
+of a religious disturbance at Lahore in the spring of 1846, and
+soon afterwards assisted him in reducing, by a rapid movement
+to Jammu, the conspirator Imam-ud-din. In the following
+year a more difficult task was assigned him&mdash;the conduct of an
+expedition to Bannu, a district on the Waziri frontier, in which
+the people would not tolerate the presence of a collector, and
+the revenue had consequently fallen into arrear. By his rare
+tact and fertility of resource, Edwardes succeeded in completely
+conquering the wild tribes of the valley without firing a shot, a
+victory which he afterwards looked back upon with more satisfaction
+than upon others which brought him more renown. His
+fiscal arrangements were such as to obviate all difficulty of
+collection for the future. In the spring of 1848, in consequence
+of the murder of Mr vans Agnew and Lieutenant Anderson at
+Multan, by order of the diwan Mulraj, and of the raising of the
+standard of revolt by the latter, Lieutenant Edwardes was
+authorized to march against him. He set out immediately with
+a small force, occupied Leiah on the left bank of the Indus, was
+joined by Colonel van Cortlandt, and, although he could not
+attack Multan, held the enemy at bay and gave a check at the
+critical moment to their projects. He won a great victory over
+a greatly superior Sikh force at Kinyeri (June 18), and received
+in acknowledgment of his services the local rank of major. In the
+course of the operations which followed near Multan, Edwardes
+lost his right hand by the explosion of a pistol in his belt. On
+the arrival of a large force under General Whish the siege of
+Multan was begun, but was suspended for several months in
+consequence of the desertion of Shere Singh with his army and
+artillery. Edwardes distinguished himself by the part he took
+in the final operations, begun in December, which ended with
+the capture of the city on the 4th of January 1849. For his
+services he received the thanks of both houses of parliament,
+was promoted major by brevet, and created C.B. by special
+statute of the order. The directors of the East India Company
+conferred on him a gold medal and a good service pension of
+£100 per annum.</p>
+
+<p>After the conclusion of peace Major Edwardes returned to
+England for the benefit of his health, married during his stay
+there, and wrote and published his fascinating account of the
+scenes in which he had been engaged, under the title of <i>A Year
+on the Punjab Frontier in 1848-1849</i>. His countrymen gave
+him fitting welcome, and the university of Oxford conferred
+on him the degree of D.C.L. In 1851 he returned to India and
+resumed his civil duties in the Punjab under Sir Henry Lawrence.
+In November 1853 he was entrusted with the responsible post
+of commissioner of the Peshawar frontier, and this he held when
+the Mutiny of 1857 broke out. It was a position of enormous
+difficulty, and momentous consequences were involved in the
+way the crisis might be met. Edwardes rose to the height of
+the occasion. He saw as if by inspiration the facts and the needs,
+and by the prompt measures which he adopted he rendered a
+service of incalculable importance, by effecting a reconciliation
+with Afghanistan, and securing the neutrality of the amir and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page2" id="page2"></a>2</span>
+the frontier tribes during the war. So effective was his procedure
+for the safety of the border that he was able to raise a large force
+in the Punjab and send it to co-operate in the siege and capture
+of Delhi. In 1859 Edwardes once more went to England, his
+health so greatly impaired by the continual strain of arduous
+work that it was doubtful whether he could ever return to India.
+During his stay he was created K.C.B., with the rank of brevet
+colonel; and the degree of LL.D. was conferred upon him by
+the university of Cambridge. Early in 1862 he again sailed for
+India, and was appointed commissioner of Umballa and agent
+for the Cis-Sutlej states. He had been offered the governorship
+of the Punjab, but on the ground of failing health had
+declined it. In February 1865 he was compelled to finally
+resign his post and return to England. A second good service
+pension was at once conferred on him; in May 1866 he was
+created K.C. of the Star of India; and early in 1868 was promoted
+major-general in the East Indian Army. He had been for some
+time engaged on a life of Sir Henry Lawrence, and high expectations
+were formed of the work; but he did not live to complete
+it, and after his death it was put into the hands of Mr Herman
+Merivale. He died in London on the 23rd of December 1868.
+Great in council and great in war, he was singularly beloved by
+his friends, generous and unselfish to a high degree, and a man
+of deep religious convictions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Memorials of the Life and Letters of Sir Herbert Benjamin
+Edwardes</i>, by his wife (2 vols., London, 1886); T. R. E. Holmes,
+<i>Four Soldiers</i> (London, 1889); J. Ruskin, <i>Bibl. pastorum</i>, iv. &ldquo;A
+Knight&rsquo;s Faith&rdquo; (1885), passages from the life of Edwardes.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARDS, AMELIA ANN BLANDFORD<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> (1831-1892), English
+author and Egyptologist, the daughter of one of Wellington&rsquo;s
+officers, was born in London on the 7th of June 1831. At a very
+early age she displayed considerable literary and artistic talent.
+She became a contributor to various magazines and newspapers,
+and besides many miscellaneous works she wrote eight novels,
+the most successful of which were <i>Debenham&rsquo;s Vow</i> (1870) and
+<i>Lord Brackenbury</i> (1880). In the winter of 1873-1874 she visited
+Egypt, and was profoundly impressed by the new openings for
+archaeological research. She learnt the hieroglyphic characters,
+and made a considerable collection of Egyptian antiquities. In
+1877 she published <i>A Thousand Miles up the Nile</i>, with illustrations
+by herself. Convinced that only by proper scientific
+investigations could the wholesale destruction of Egyptian
+antiquities be avoided, she devoted herself to arousing public
+opinion on the subject, and ultimately, in 1882, was largely
+instrumental in founding the Egypt Exploration Fund, of which
+she became joint honorary secretary with Reginald Stuart Poole.
+For the business of this Fund she abandoned her other literary
+work, writing only on Egyptology. In 1889-1890 she went on a
+lecturing tour in the United States. The substance of her
+lectures was published in volume form in 1891 as <i>Pharaohs,
+Fellahs, and Explorers</i>. She died at Weston-super-Mare,
+Somerset, on the 15th of April 1892, bequeathing her valuable
+collection of Egyptian antiquities to University College, London,
+together with a sum to found a chair of Egyptology. Miss
+Edwards received, shortly before her death, a civil list pension
+from the British government.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARDS, BELA BATES<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1802-1852), American man of
+letters, was born at Southampton, Massachusetts, on the 4th of
+July 1802. He graduated at Amherst College in 1824, was a
+tutor there in 1827-1828, graduated at Andover Theological
+Seminary in 1830, and was licensed to preach. From 1828 to
+1833 he was assistant secretary of the American Education
+Society (organized in Boston in 1815 to assist students for the
+ministry), and from 1828 to 1842 was editor of the society&rsquo;s
+organ, which after 1831 was called the <i>American Quarterly
+Register</i>. He also founded (in 1833) and edited the <i>American
+Quarterly Observer</i>; in 1836-1841 edited the <i>Biblical Repository</i>
+(after 1837 called the <i>American Biblical Repository</i>) with which
+the <i>Observer</i> was merged in 1835; and was editor-in-chief of the
+<i>Bibliotheca Sacra</i> from 1844 to 1851. In 1837 he became professor
+of Hebrew at Andover, and from 1848 until his death was
+associate professor of sacred literature there. He died at Athens,
+Georgia, on the 20th of April 1852. Among his numerous
+publications were <i>A Missionary Gazetteer</i> (1832), <i>A Biography of
+Self Taught Men</i> (1832), a once widely known <i>Eclectic Reader</i>
+(1835), a translation, with Samuel Harvey Taylor (1807-1871), of
+Kuhner&rsquo;s <i>Schulgrammatik der Griechischen Sprache</i> and <i>Classical
+Studies</i> (1844), essays in ancient literature and art written in
+collaboration with Barnas Sears and C. C. Felton.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Edwards&rsquo; <i>Addresses and Sermons</i>, with a memoir by Rev.
+Edwards A. Park, were published in two volumes at Boston in 1853.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARDS, BRYAN<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1743-1800), English politician and
+historian, was born at Westbury, Wiltshire, on the 21st of May
+1743. His father died in 1756, when his maintenance and education
+were undertaken by his maternal uncle, Zachary Bayly, a
+wealthy merchant of Jamaica. About 1759 Bryan went to
+Jamaica, and joined his uncle, who engaged a private tutor to
+complete his education, and when Bayly died his nephew
+inherited his wealth, succeeding also in 1773 to the estate of
+another Jamaica resident named Hume. Edwards soon became
+a leading member of the colonial assembly of Jamaica, but in a
+few years he returned to England, and in 1782 failed to secure a
+seat in parliament as member for Chichester. He was again in
+Jamaica from 1787 to 1792, when he settled in England as a West
+India merchant, making in 1795 another futile attempt to enter
+parliament, on this occasion as the representative of Southampton.
+In 1796, however, he became member of parliament
+for Grampound, retaining his seat until his death at Southampton
+on the 15th or 16th of July 1800. In general Edwards was a
+supporter of the slave trade, and was described by William Wilberforce
+as a powerful opponent. By his wife, Martha, daughter
+of Thomas Phipps of Westbury, he left an only son, Hume.</p>
+
+<p>In 1784 Edwards wrote <i>Thoughts on the late Proceedings of
+Government respecting the Trade of the West India Islands with the
+United States of America</i>, in which he attacked the restrictions
+placed by the government upon trade with the United States.
+In 1793 he published in two volumes his great work, <i>History,
+Civil and Commercial, of the British Colonies in the West Indies</i>,
+and in 1797 published his <i>Historical Survey of the French Colony
+in the Island of St Domingo</i>. In 1801 a new edition of both these
+works with certain additions was published in three volumes
+under the title of <i>History of the British Colonies in the West Indies</i>.
+This has been translated into German and parts of it into French
+and Spanish, and a fifth edition was issued in 1819. When
+Mungo Park returned in 1796 from his celebrated journey in
+Africa, Edwards, who was secretary of the Association for
+Promoting the Discovery of the Interior Parts of Africa, drew up
+from Park&rsquo;s narrative an account of his travels, which was
+published by the association in their <i>Proceedings</i>, and when
+Park wrote an account of his journeys he availed himself of
+Edwards&rsquo; assistance. Edwards also wrote some poems and
+some other works relating to the history of the West Indies.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>He left a short sketch of his life which was prefixed to the edition
+of the <i>History of the West Indies</i>, published in 1801.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARDS, GEORGE<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1693-1773), English naturalist, was
+born at Stratford, Essex, on the 3rd of April 1693. In his early
+years he travelled extensively over Europe, studying natural
+history, and gained some reputation for his coloured drawings of
+animals, especially birds. In 1733, on the recommendation of
+Sir Hans Sloane, he was appointed librarian to the Royal College
+of Physicians in London. In 1743 he published the first volume
+of his <i>History of Birds</i>, the fourth volume of which appeared in
+1751, and three supplementary volumes, under the title <i>Gleanings
+of Natural History</i>, were issued in 1758, 1760 and 1764. The
+two works contain engravings and descriptions of more than 600
+subjects in natural history not before described or delineated.
+He likewise added a general index in French and English, which
+was afterwards supplied with Linnaean names by Linnaeus
+himself, with whom he frequently corresponded. About 1764 he
+retired to Plaistow, Essex, where he died on the 23rd of July
+1773. He also wrote <i>Essays of Natural History</i> (1770) and
+<i>Elements of Fossilogy</i> (1776).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARDS, HENRY THOMAS<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (1837-1884), Welsh divine,
+was born on the 6th of September 1837 at Llan ym Mawddwy,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page3" id="page3"></a>3</span>
+Merioneth, where his father was vicar. He was educated at
+Westminster and at Jesus College, Oxford (B.A., 1860), and after
+teaching for two years at Llandovery went to Llangollen as his
+father&rsquo;s curate. He became vicar of Aberdare in 1866 and of
+Carnarvon in 1869. Here he began his lifelong controversy with
+Nonconformity, especially as represented by the Rev. Evan Jones
+(Calvinistic Methodist) and Rev. E. Herber Evans (Congregationalist).
+In 1870 he fought in vain for the principle of all-round
+denominationalism in the national education system, and
+in the same year addressed a famous letter to Mr Gladstone on
+&ldquo;The Church of the Cymry,&rdquo; pointing out that the success of
+Nonconformity in Wales was largely due to &ldquo;the withering effect
+of an alien episcopate.&rdquo; One immediate result of this was the
+appointment of the Welshman Joshua Hughes (1807-1889) to
+the vacant see of St Asaph. Edwards became dean of Bangor in
+1876 and at once set about restoring the cathedral, and he
+promoted a clerical education society for supplying the diocese
+with educated Welsh-speaking clergy. He was a popular preacher
+and an earnest patriot; his chief defect was a lack of appreciation
+of the theological attainments of Nonconformity, and a Welsh
+commentary on St Matthew, which he had worked at for many
+years and published in two volumes in 1882, was severely
+handled by a Bangor Calvinistic Methodist minister. Edwards
+suffered from overwork and insomnia and a Mediterranean
+cruise in 1883 failed to restore his health; and he died by his own
+hand on the 24th of May 1884 at Ruabon.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See V. Morgan, <i>Welsh Religious Leaders in the Victorian Era</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARDS, JONATHAN<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1703-1758), American theologian
+and philosopher, was born on the 5th of October 1703 at East
+(now South) Windsor, Connecticut. His earliest known ancestor
+was Richard Edwards, Welsh by birth, a London clergyman in
+Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign. His father Timothy Edwards (1669-1758),
+son of a prosperous merchant of Hartford, had graduated at
+Harvard, was minister at East Windsor, and eked out his salary
+by tutoring boys for college. His mother, a daughter of the Rev.
+Solomon Stoddard, of Northampton, Mass., seems to have been
+a woman of unusual mental gifts and independence of character.
+Jonathan, the only son, was the fifth of eleven children. The boy
+was trained for college by his father and by his elder sisters, who
+all received an excellent education. When ten years old he wrote
+a semi-humorous tract on the immateriality of the soul; he was
+interested in natural history, and at the age of twelve wrote a
+remarkable essay on the habits of the &ldquo;flying spider.&rdquo; He
+entered Yale College in 1716, and in the following year became
+acquainted with Locke&rsquo;s <i>Essay</i>, which influenced him profoundly.
+During his college course he kept note books labelled &ldquo;The Mind,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Natural Science&rdquo; (containing a discussion of the atomic
+theory, &amp;c.), &ldquo;The Scriptures&rdquo; and &ldquo;Miscellanies,&rdquo; had a grand
+plan for a work on natural and mental philosophy, and drew up
+for himself rules for its composition. Even before his graduation
+in September 1720 as valedictorian and head of his class, he
+seems to have had a well formulated philosophy. The two years
+after his graduation he spent in New Haven studying theology.
+In 1722-1723 he was for eight months stated supply of a small
+Presbyterian church in New York city, which invited him to
+remain, but he declined the call, spent two months in study at
+home, and then in 1724-1726 was one of the two tutors at Yale,
+earning for himself the name of a &ldquo;pillar tutor&rdquo; by his steadfast
+loyalty to the college and its orthodox teaching at the time when
+Yale&rsquo;s rector (Cutler) and one of her tutors had gone over to the
+Episcopal Church.</p>
+
+<p>The years 1720 to 1726 are partially recorded in his diary and
+in the resolutions for his own conduct which he drew up at this
+time. He had long been an eager seeker after salvation and was
+not fully satisfied as to his own &ldquo;conversion&rdquo; until an experience
+in his last year in college, when he lost his feeling that the
+election of some to salvation and of others to eternal damnation
+was &ldquo;a horrible doctrine,&rdquo; and reckoned it &ldquo;exceedingly
+pleasant, bright and sweet.&rdquo; He now took a great and new joy
+in the beauties of nature, and delighted in the allegorical interpretation
+of the Song of Solomon. Balancing these mystic
+joys is the stern tone of his Resolutions, in which he is almost
+ascetic in his eagerness to live earnestly and soberly, to waste no
+time, to maintain the strictest temperance in eating and drinking.
+On the 15th of February 1727 he was ordained minister at
+Northampton and assistant to his grandfather, Solomon
+Stoddard. He was a student minister, not a visiting pastor, his
+rule being thirteen hours of study a day. In the same year he
+married Sarah Pierrepont, then aged seventeen, daughter of
+James Pierrepont (1659-1714), a founder of Yale, and through her
+mother great-granddaughter of Thomas Hooker. Of her piety
+and almost nun-like love of God and belief in His personal love for
+her, Edwards had known when she was only thirteen, and had
+written of it with spiritual enthusiasm; she was of a bright and
+cheerful disposition, a practical housekeeper, a model wife and
+the mother of his twelve children. Solomon Stoddard died on the
+11th of February 1729, leaving to his grandson the difficult task
+of the sole ministerial charge of one of the largest and wealthiest
+congregations in the colony, and one proud of its morality, its
+culture and its reputation.</p>
+
+<p>In 1731 Edwards preached at Boston the &ldquo;Public Lecture&rdquo;
+afterwards published under the title <i>God Glorified in Man&rsquo;s
+Dependence</i>. This was his first public attack on Arminianism.
+The leading thought was God&rsquo;s absolute sovereignty in the
+work of redemption: that while it behoved God to create
+man holy, it was of His &ldquo;good pleasure&rdquo; and &ldquo;mere and
+arbitrary grace&rdquo; that any man was now made holy, and that
+God might deny this grace without any disparagement to any
+of His perfections. In 1733 a revival of religion began in
+Northampton, and reached such intensity in the winter of 1734
+and the following spring as to threaten the business of the
+town. In six months nearly three hundred were admitted to the
+church. The revival gave Edwards an opportunity of studying
+the process of conversion in all its phases and varieties, and he
+recorded his observations with psychological minuteness and
+discrimination in <i>A Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of
+God in the Conversion of Many Hundred Souls in Northampton</i>
+(1737). A year later he published <i>Discourses on Various Important
+Subjects</i>, the five sermons which had proved most effective
+in the revival, and of these none, he tells us, was so immediately
+effective as that on the <i>Justice of God in the Damnation of Sinners</i>,
+from the text, &ldquo;That every mouth may be stopped.&rdquo; Another
+sermon, published in 1734, on the <i>Reality of Spiritual Light</i> set
+forth what he regarded as the inner, moving principle of the
+revival, the doctrine of a &ldquo;special&rdquo; grace in the immediate and
+supernatural divine illumination of the soul. In the spring of
+1735 the movement began to subside and a reaction set in. But
+the relapse was brief, and the Northampton revival, which had
+spread through the Connecticut valley and whose fame had
+reached England and Scotland, was followed in 1739-1740 by the
+Great Awakening, distinctively under the leadership of Edwards.
+The movement met with no sympathy from the orthodox leaders
+of the church. In 1741 Edwards published in its defence <i>The
+Distinguishing Marks of a Work of the Spirit of God</i>, dealing
+particularly with the phenomena most criticized, the swoonings,
+outcries and convulsions. These &ldquo;bodily effects,&rdquo; he insisted,
+were not &ldquo;distinguishing marks&rdquo; of the work of the Spirit of God;
+but so bitter was the feeling against the revival in the more
+strictly Puritan churches that in 1742 he was forced to write a
+second apology, <i>Thoughts on the Revival in New England</i>, his main
+argument being the great moral improvement of the country.
+In the same pamphlet he defends an appeal to the emotions, and
+advocates preaching terror when necessary, even to children,
+who in God&rsquo;s sight &ldquo;are young vipers ... if not Christ&rsquo;s.&rdquo; He
+considers &ldquo;bodily effects&rdquo; incidentals to the real work of God,
+but his own mystic devotion and the experiences of his wife
+during the Awakening (which he gives in detail) make him think
+that the divine visitation usually overpowers the body, a view in
+support of which he quotes Scripture. In reply to Edwards,
+Charles Chauncy anonymously wrote <i>The Late Religious Commotions
+in New England Considered</i> (1743), urging conduct as the
+sole test of conversion; and the general convention of Congregational
+ministers in the Province of Massachusetts Bay protested
+&ldquo;against disorders in practice which have of late obtained in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page4" id="page4"></a>4</span>
+various parts of the land.&rdquo; In spite of Edwards&rsquo;s able pamphlet,
+the impression had become widespread that &ldquo;bodily effects&rdquo;
+were recognized by the promoters of the Great Awakening as the
+true tests of conversion. To offset this feeling Edwards<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> preached
+at Northampton during the years 1742 and 1743 a series of
+sermons published under the title of <i>Religious Affections</i> (1746), a
+restatement in a more philosophical and general tone of his ideas
+as to &ldquo;distinguishing marks.&rdquo; In 1747 he joined the movement
+started in Scotland called the &ldquo;concert in prayer,&rdquo; and in the
+same year published <i>An Humble Attempt to Promote Explicit
+Agreement and Visible Union of God&rsquo;s People in Extraordinary
+Prayer for the Revival of Religion and the Advancement of Christ&rsquo;s
+Kingdom on Earth</i>. In 1749 he published a memoir of David
+Brainerd; the latter had lived in his family for several months,
+had been constantly attended by Edwards&rsquo;s daughter Jerusha, to
+whom he had been engaged to be married, and had died at
+Northampton on the 7th of October 1747; and he had been a
+case in point for the theories of conversion held by Edwards,
+who had made elaborate notes of Brainerd&rsquo;s conversations and
+confessions.</p>
+
+<p>In 1748 there had come a crisis in his relations with his congregation.
+The Half-Way Covenant adopted by the synods of 1657 and
+1662 had made baptism alone the condition to the civil privileges
+of church membership, but not of participation in the sacrament
+of the Supper. Edwards&rsquo;s grandfather and predecessor, Solomon
+Stoddard, had been even more liberal, holding that the Supper
+was a converting ordinance and that baptism was a sufficient
+title to all the privileges of the church. As early as 1744 Edwards,
+in his sermons on the Religious Affections, had plainly intimated
+his dislike of this practice. In the same year he had published in
+a church meeting the names of certain young people, members of
+the church, who were suspected of reading improper books,<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and
+also the names of those who were to be called as witnesses in the
+case. But witnesses and accused were not distinguished on this list,
+and the congregation was in an uproar. A great many, fearing a
+scandal, now opposed an investigation which all had previously
+favoured. Edwards&rsquo;s preaching became unpopular; for four years
+no candidate presented himself for admission to the church; and
+when one did in 1748, and was met with Edwards&rsquo;s formal but
+mild and gentle tests, as expressed in the <i>Distinguishing Marks</i>
+and later in <i>Qualifications for Full Communion</i> (1749) the
+candidate refused to submit to them; the church backed him
+and the break was complete. Even permission to discuss his
+views in the pulpit was refused him. The ecclesiastical council
+voted by 10 to 9 that the pastoral relation be dissolved. The
+church by a vote of more than 200 to 23 ratified the action of the
+council, and finally a town meeting voted that Edwards should
+not be allowed to occupy the Northampton pulpit, though he did
+this on occasion as late as May 1755. He evinced no rancour or
+spite; his &ldquo;Farewell Sermon&rdquo; was dignified and temperate; nor
+is it to be ascribed to chagrin that in a letter to Scotland after his
+dismissal he expresses his preference for Presbyterian to Congregational
+church government. His position at the time was
+not unpopular throughout New England, and it is needless to
+say that his doctrine that the Lord&rsquo;s Supper is not a cause of
+regeneration and that communicants should be professing
+Christians has since (very largely through the efforts of his pupil
+Joseph Bellamy) become a standard of New England Congregationalism.</p>
+
+<p>Edwards with his large family was now thrown upon the
+world, but offers of aid quickly came to him. A parish in Scotland
+could have been procured, and he was called to a Virginia church.
+He declined both, to become in 1750 pastor of the church in
+Stockbridge and a missionary to the Housatonic Indians. To
+the Indians he preached through an interpreter, and their interests
+he boldly and successfully defended by attacking the whites
+who were using their official position among them to increase
+their private fortunes. In Stockbridge he wrote the <i>Humble
+Relation</i>, also called <i>Reply to Williams</i> (1752), which was an
+answer to Solomon Williams (1700-1776), a relative and a bitter
+opponent of Edwards as to the qualifications for full communion;
+and he there composed the treatises on which his reputation
+as a philosophical theologian chiefly rests, the essay on <i>Original
+Sin</i>, the <i>Dissertation concerning the Nature of True Virtue</i>, the
+<i>Dissertation concerning the End for which God created the World</i>,
+and the great work on the Will, written in four months and a
+half, and published in 1754 under the title, <i>An Inquiry into the
+Modern Prevailing Notions Respecting that Freedom of the Will
+which is supposed to be Essential to Moral Agency</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In 1757, on the death of President Burr, who five years before
+had married Edwards&rsquo;s daughter Esther, he reluctantly accepted
+the presidency of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton
+University), where he was installed on the 16th of February
+1758. Almost immediately afterwards he was inoculated for
+smallpox, which was raging in Princeton and vicinity, and,
+always feeble, he died of the inoculation on the 28th of March
+1758. He was buried in the old cemetery at Princeton. He
+was slender and fully six feet tall, and with his oval, gentle,
+almost feminine face looked the scholar and the mystic.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Edwardean System.</i>&mdash;It is difficult to separate Edwards&rsquo;s
+philosophy from his theology, except as the former is contained in
+the early notes on the Mind, where he says that matter exists only
+in idea; that space is God; that minds only are real; that in metaphysical
+strictness there is no being but God; that entity is the
+greatest and only good; and that God as infinite entity, wherein
+the agreement of being with being is absolute, is the supreme excellency,
+the supreme good. It seems certain that these conclusions
+were independent of Berkeley and Malebranche, and were not drawn
+from Arthur Collier&rsquo;s <i>Clavis universalis</i> (1713), with which they have
+much in common, but were suggested, in part at least, by Locke&rsquo;s
+doctrine of ideas, Newton&rsquo;s theory of colours, and Cudworth&rsquo;s
+Platonism, with all of which Edwards was early familiar. But they
+were never developed systematically, and the conception of the
+material universe here contended for does not again explicitly reappear
+in any of his writings. The fundamental metaphysical
+postulate that being and God are ultimately identical remained,
+however, the philosophical basis of all his thinking, and reverence
+for this being as the supreme good remained the fundamental disposition
+of his mind. That he did not interpret this idea in a Spinozistic
+sense was due to his more spiritual conception of &ldquo;being&rdquo;
+and to the reaction on his philosophy of his theology. The theological
+interest, indeed, came in the end to predominate, and
+philosophy to appear as an instrument for the defence of Calvinism.
+Perhaps the best criticism of Edwards&rsquo;s philosophy as a whole is that,
+instead of being elaborated on purely rational principles, it is mixed
+up with a system of theological conceptions with which it is never
+thoroughly combined, and that it is exposed to all the disturbing
+effects of theological controversy. Moreover, of one of his most
+central convictions, that of the sovereignty of God in election, he
+confesses that he could give no account.</p>
+
+<p>Edwards&rsquo;s reputation as a thinker is chiefly associated with his
+treatise on the Will, which is still sometimes called &ldquo;the one large
+contribution that America has made to the deeper philosophic
+thought of the world.&rdquo; The aim of this treatise was to refute the
+doctrine of free-will, since he considered it the logical, as distinguished
+from the sentimental, ground of most of the Arminian objections to
+Calvinism. He defines the will as that by which the &ldquo;mind chooses
+anything.&rdquo; To act voluntarily, he says, is to act electively. So far
+he and his opponents are agreed. But choice, he holds, is not
+arbitrary; it is determined in every case by &ldquo;that motive which as
+it stands in the view of the mind is the strongest,&rdquo; and that motive
+is strongest which presents in the immediate object of volition the
+&ldquo;greatest apparent good,&rdquo; that is, the greatest degree of agreeableness
+or pleasure. What this is in a given case depends on a multitude
+of circumstances, external and internal, all contributing to form
+the &ldquo;cause&rdquo; of which the voluntary act and its consequences are
+the &ldquo;effect.&rdquo; Edwards contends that the connexion between cause
+and effect here is as &ldquo;sure and perfect&rdquo; as in the realm of physical
+nature and constitutes a &ldquo;moral necessity.&rdquo; He reduces the
+opposite doctrine to three assumptions, all of which he shows to be
+untenable: (1) &ldquo;a self-determining power in the will&rdquo;; (2) &ldquo;indifference,... that
+the mind previous to the act of volition (is)
+in equilibrio&rdquo;; (3) &ldquo;contingence ... as opposed to ... any fixed
+and certain connexion (of the volition) with some previous ground
+or reason for its existence.&rdquo; Although he denies liberty to the will in
+this sense&mdash;indeed, strictly speaking, neither liberty nor necessity,
+he says, is properly applied to the will, &ldquo;for the will itself is
+not an agent that has a will&rdquo;&mdash;he nevertheless insists that the
+subject willing is a free moral agent, and argues that without the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page5" id="page5"></a>5</span>
+determinate connexion between volition and motive which he asserts
+and the libertarians deny, moral agency would be impossible.
+Liberty, he holds, is simply freedom from constraint, &ldquo;the power
+... that any one has to do as he pleases.&rdquo; This power man possesses.
+And that the right or wrong of choice depends not on the
+cause of choice but on its nature, he illustrates by the example of
+Christ, whose acts were necessarily holy, yet truly virtuous, praiseworthy
+and rewardable. Even God Himself, Edwards here maintains,
+has no other liberty than this, to carry out without constraint
+His will, wisdom and inclination.</p>
+
+<p>There is no necessary connexion between Edwards&rsquo;s doctrine of
+the motivation of choice and the system of Calvinism with which it is
+congruent. Similar doctrines have more frequently perhaps been
+associated with theological scepticism. But for him the alternative
+was between Calvinism and Arminianism, simply because of the
+historical situation, and in the refutation of Arminianism on the
+assumptions common to both sides of the controversy, he must be
+considered completely successful. As a general argument his
+account of the determination of the will is defective, notably in his
+abstract conception of the will and in his inadequate, but suggestive,
+treatment of causation, in regard to which he anticipates in important
+respects the doctrine of Hume. Instead of making the motive to
+choice a factor within the concrete process of volition, he regards
+it as a cause antecedent to the exercise of a special mental faculty.
+Yet his conception of this faculty as functioning only in and through
+motive and character, inclination and desire, certainly carries us a
+long way beyond the abstraction in which his opponents stuck, that
+of a bare faculty without any assignable content. Modern psychology
+has strengthened the contention for a fixed connexion between
+motive and act by reference to subconscious and unconscious processes
+of which Edwards, who thought that nothing could affect the
+mind which was unperceived, little dreamed; at the same time,
+at least in some of its developments, especially in its freer use of
+genetic and organic conceptions, it has rendered much in the older
+forms of statement obsolete, and has given a new meaning to the
+idea of self-determination, which, as applied to an abstract power,
+Edwards rightly rejected as absurd.</p>
+
+<p>Edwards&rsquo;s controversy with the Arminians was continued in the
+essay on <i>Original Sin</i>, which was in the press at the time of his
+death. He here breaks with Augustine and the Westminster Confession
+by arguing, consistently with his theory of the Will, that
+Adam had no more freedom of will than we have, but had a special
+endowment, a supernatural gift of grace, which by rebellion against
+God was lost, and that this gift was withdrawn from his descendants,
+not because of any fictitious imputation of guilt, but because of their
+real participation in his guilt by actual identity with him in his
+transgression.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Dissertation on the Nature of True Virtue</i>, posthumously
+published, is justly regarded as one of the most original works on
+ethics of the 18th century, and is the more remarkable as reproducing,
+with no essential modification, ideas on the subject written in the
+author&rsquo;s youth in the notes on the Mind. Virtue is conceived as the
+beauty of moral qualities. Now beauty, in Edwards&rsquo;s view, always
+consists in a harmonious relation in the elements involved, an agreement
+of being with being. He conceives, therefore, of virtue, or
+moral beauty, as consisting in the cordial agreement or consent to
+intelligent being. He defines it as benevolence (good-will), or rather
+as a disposition to benevolence, towards being in general. This
+disposition, he argues, has no regard primarily to beauty in the
+object, nor is it primarily based on gratitude. Its first object is being,
+&ldquo;simply considered,&rdquo; and it is accordingly proportioned, other
+things being equal, to the object&rsquo;s &ldquo;degree of existence.&rdquo; He
+admits, however, benevolent being as a second object, on the ground
+that such an object, having a like virtuous propensity, &ldquo;is, as it
+were, enlarged, extends to, and in some sort comprehends being in
+general.&rdquo; In brief, since God is the &ldquo;being of beings&rdquo; and comprehends,
+in the fullest extent, benevolent consent to being in
+general, true virtue consists essentially in a supreme love to God.
+Thus the principle of virtue&mdash;Edwards has nothing to say of
+&ldquo;morality&rdquo;&mdash;is identical with the principle of religion. From this
+standpoint Edwards combats every lower view. He will not admit
+that there is any evidence of true virtue in the approbation of virtue
+and hatred of vice, in the workings of conscience or in the exercises
+of the natural affections; he thinks that these may all spring from
+self-love and the association of ideas, from &ldquo;instinct&rdquo; or from a
+&ldquo;moral sense of a secondary kind&rdquo; entirely different from &ldquo;a sense
+or relish of the essential beauty of true virtue.&rdquo; Nor does he recognize
+the possibility of a natural development of true virtue out of
+the sentiments directed on the &ldquo;private systems&rdquo;; on the contrary,
+he sets the love of particular being, when not subordinated to being
+in general, in opposition to the latter and as equivalent to treating
+it with the greatest contempt. All that he allows is that the perception
+of natural beauty may, by its resemblance to the primary
+spiritual beauty, quicken the disposition to divine love in those
+who are already under the influence of a truly virtuous temper.</p>
+
+<p>Closely connected with the essay on Virtue is the boldly speculative
+<i>Dissertation on the End for which God Created the World</i>. As,
+according to the doctrine of virtue, God&rsquo;s virtue consists primarily
+in love to Himself, so His final end in creation is conceived to be,
+not as the Arminians held, the happiness of His creatures, but His
+own glory. Edwards supposes in the nature of God an original
+disposition to an &ldquo;emanation&rdquo; of His being, and it is the excellency
+of this divine being, particularly in the elect, which is, in his view,
+the final cause and motive of the world.</p>
+
+<p>Edwards makes no attempt to reconcile the pantheistic element
+in his philosophy with the individuality implied in moral
+government. He seems to waver between the opinion that finite
+individuals have no independent being and the opinion that they
+have it in an infinitesimal degree; and the conception of &ldquo;degrees
+of existence&rdquo; in the essay on Virtue is not developed to elucidate
+the point. His theological conception of God, at any rate, was not
+abstractly pantheistic, in spite of the abstractness of his language
+about &ldquo;being,&rdquo; but frankly theistic and trinitarian. He held the
+doctrine of the trinitarian distinctions indeed to be a necessity of
+reason. His <i>Essay on the Trinity</i>, first printed in 1903, was long
+supposed to have been withheld from publication because of its
+containing Arian or Sabellian tendencies. It contains in fact nothing
+more questionable than an attempted deduction of the orthodox
+Nicene doctrine, unpalatable, however, to Edwards&rsquo;s immediate
+disciples, who were too little speculative to appreciate his statement
+of the subordination of the &ldquo;persons&rdquo; in the divine &ldquo;oeconomy,&rdquo;
+and who openly derided the doctrine of the eternal generation of the
+Son as &ldquo;eternal nonsense&rdquo;; and this perhaps was the original
+reason why the essay was not published.</p>
+
+<p>Though so typically a scholar and abstract thinker on the one
+hand and on the other a mystic, Edwards is best known to the
+present generation as a preacher of hell fire. The particular reason
+for this seems to lie in a single sermon preached at Enfield, Connecticut,
+in July 1741 from the text, &ldquo;Their foot shall slide in due
+time,&rdquo; and commonly known from its title, <i>Sinners in the Hands of
+an Angry God</i>. The occasion of this sermon is usually overlooked.
+It was preached to a congregation who were careless and loose in
+their lives at a time when &ldquo;the neighbouring towns were in great
+distress for their souls.&rdquo; A contemporary account of it says that
+in spite of Edwards&rsquo;s academic style of preaching, the assembly was
+&ldquo;deeply impressed and bowed down, with an awful conviction of
+their sin and danger. There was such a breathing of distress and
+weeping, that the preacher was obliged to speak to the people and
+desire silence, that he might be heard.&rdquo; Edwards preached other
+sermons of this type, but this one was the most extreme. The
+style of the imprecatory sermon, however, was no more peculiar
+to him than to his period. He was not a great preacher in the
+ordinary meaning of the word. His gestures were scanty, his voice
+was not powerful, but he was desperately in earnest, and he held
+his audience whether his sermon contained a picturesque and detailed
+description of the torments of the damned, or, as was often
+the case, spoke of the love and peace of God in the heart of man.
+He was an earnest, devout Christian, and a man of blameless life.
+His insight into the spiritual life was profound. Certainly the most
+able metaphysician and the most influential religious thinker of
+America, he must rank in theology, dialectics, mysticism and philosophy
+with Calvin and Fénelon, Augustine and Aquinas, Spinoza
+and Novalis; with Berkeley and Hume as the great English philosophers
+of the 18th century; and with Hamilton and Franklin as
+the three American thinkers of the same century of more than
+provincial importance.</p>
+
+<p>Edwards&rsquo;s main aim had been to revivify Calvinism, modifying
+it for the needs of the time, and to promote a warm and vital Christian
+piety. The tendency of his successors was&mdash;to state the matter
+roughly&mdash;to take some one of his theories and develop it to an
+extreme. Of his immediate followers Joseph Bellamy is distinctly
+Edwardean in the keen logic and in the spirit of his <i>True Religion
+Delineated</i>, but he breaks with his master in his theory of general
+(not limited) atonement. Samuel Hopkins laid even greater stress
+than Edwards on the theorem that virtue consists in disinterested
+benevolence; but he went counter to Edwards in holding that unconditional
+resignation to God&rsquo;s decrees, or more concretely, willingness
+to be damned for the glory of God, was the test of true regeneration;
+for Edwards, though often quoted as holding this doctrine,
+protested against it in the strongest terms. Hopkins, moreover,
+denied Edwards&rsquo;s identity theory of original sin, saying that our
+sin was a result of Adam&rsquo;s and not identical with it; and he went
+much further than Edwards in his objection to &ldquo;means of grace,&rdquo;
+claiming that the unregenerate were more and more guilty for
+continual rejection of the gospel if they were outwardly righteous
+and availed themselves of the means of grace. Stephen West (1735-1819),
+too, out-Edwardsed Edwards in his defence of the treatise on
+the <i>Freedom of the Will</i>, and John Smalley (1734-1820) developed
+the idea of a natural (not moral) inability on the part of man to obey
+God. Emmons, like Hopkins, considered both sin and holiness
+&ldquo;exercises&rdquo; of the will. Timothy Dwight (1752-1847) urged the
+use of the means of grace, thought Hopkins and Emmons pantheistic,
+and boldly disagreed with their theory of &ldquo;exercises,&rdquo; reckoning
+virtue and sin as the result of moral choice or disposition, a
+position that was also upheld by Asa Burton (1752-1836), who
+thought that on regeneration the disposition of man got a new relish
+or &ldquo;taste.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Jonathan Edwards</span><a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> the younger (1745-1801), second son of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page6" id="page6"></a>6</span>
+the philosopher, born at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 26th
+of May 1745, also takes an important place among his followers.
+He lived in Stockbridge in 1751-1755 and spoke the language of the
+Housatonic Indians with ease, for six months studied among the
+Oneidas, graduated at Princeton in 1765, studied theology at
+Bethlehem, Connecticut, under Joseph Bellamy, was licensed to preach
+in 1766, was a tutor at Princeton in 1766-1769, and was pastor
+of the White Haven Church, New Haven, Connecticut, in 1769-1795,
+being then dismissed for the nominal reason that the church could
+not support him, but actually because of his opposition to the
+Half-Way Covenant as well as to slavery and the slave trade. He
+preached at Colebrook, Connecticut, in 1796-1799 and then became
+president of Union College, Schenectady, New York, where he died
+on the 1st of August 1801. His studies of the Indian dialects were
+scholarly and valuable. He edited his father&rsquo;s incomplete <i>History
+of the Work of Redemption</i>, wrote in answer to Stephen West, <i>A
+Dissertation Concerning Liberty and Necessity</i> (1797), which defended
+his father&rsquo;s work on the Will by a rather strained interpretation,
+and in answer to Chauncy on universal salvation formulated what
+is known as the &ldquo;Edwardean,&rdquo; New England or Governmental
+theory of the atonement in <i>The Necessity of the Atonement and its
+Consistency with Free Grace in Forgiveness</i> (1785). His collected
+works were edited by his grandson Tryon Edwards in two volumes,
+with memoir (Andover, 1842). His place in the Edwardean theology
+is principally due to his defence against the Universalists
+of his father&rsquo;s doctrine of the atonement, namely, that Christ&rsquo;s
+death, being the equivalent of the eternal punishment of sinners,
+upheld the authority of the divine law, but did not pay any debt,
+and made the pardon of all men a possibility with God, but not a
+necessity.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;There have been various editions of Edwards&rsquo;s
+works. His pupil, Samuel Hopkins, in 1765 published two volumes
+from manuscript containing eighteen sermons and a memoir; the
+younger Jonathan Edwards with Dr Erskine published an edition
+in 4 volumes (1744 sqq.), and Samuel Austin in 1808 edited an
+edition in 8 volumes. In 1829 Sereno E. Dwight, a great-grandson
+of Edwards, published the <i>Life and Works</i> in 10 volumes, the first
+volume containing the memoir, which is still the most complete and
+was the standard until the publication (Boston, 1889) of <i>Jonathan
+Edwards</i>, by A. V. G. Allen, who attempts to &ldquo;distinguish what he
+(Edwards) meant to affirm from what he actually teaches.&rdquo; In
+1865 the Rev. Alexander B. Grosart edited from original manuscripts
+<i>Selections from the Unpublished Writings of Jonathan Edwards
+of America</i> (Edinburgh, 1865, printed for private circulation). This
+was the only part of a complete edition planned by Grosart that ever
+appeared. It contained the important Treatise on Grace, Annotations
+on the Bible, Directions for Judging of Persons&rsquo; Experiences,
+and Sermons, the last for the most part merely in outline. E. C.
+Smyth published from a copy <i>Observations Concerning the Scripture
+Oeconomy of the Trinity and Covenant of Redemption</i> (New York,
+1880), a careful edition from the manuscript of the essay on the
+Flying Spider (in the <i>Andover Review</i>, January 1890) and &ldquo;Some
+Early Writings of Jonathan Edwards,&rdquo; with specimens from the
+manuscripts (in <i>Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society</i>,
+October, 1895). In 1900 on the death of Prof. Edwards A. Park,
+the entire collection of Edwards&rsquo;s manuscripts loaned to him by
+Tryon Edwards was transferred to Yale University. Professor
+Park, like Mr Grosart before him, had been unable to accomplish
+the great task of editing this mass of manuscript. &ldquo;A Study of the
+Manuscripts of Jonathan Edwards&rdquo; was published by F. B. Dexter
+in the <i>Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society</i>, series 2,
+vol. xv. (Boston, 1902), and in the same volume of the <i>Proceedings</i>
+appeared &ldquo;A Study of the Shorthand Writings of Jonathan
+Edwards,&rdquo; by W. P. Upham. The long sought for essay on the
+Trinity was edited (New York, 1903) with valuable introduction and
+appendices by G. P. Fisher under the title, <i>An Unpublished Essay
+of Edwards&rsquo;s on the Trinity</i>. The only other edition of Edwards
+(in whole or in part) of any importance is <i>Selected Sermons of Jonathan
+Edwards</i> (New York, 1904), edited by H. N. Gardiner, with brief
+biographical sketch and annotations on seven sermons, one of which
+had not previously been published.</p>
+
+<p>For estimates of Edwards consult: <i>The Volume of the Edwards
+Family Meeting at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, September 6-7, <span class="sc">a.d.</span>
+1870</i> (Boston, 1871); <i>Jonathan Edwards, a Retrospect, Being the
+Addresses Delivered in Connecticut with the Unveiling of a Memorial
+in the First Church of Christ in Northampton, Massachusetts, on the
+One Hundred and Fiftieth Anniversary of his Dismissal from the
+Pastorate of that Church</i>, edited by H. N. Gardiner (Boston, 1901);
+<i>Exercises Commemorating the Two Hundredth Anniversary of the
+Birth of Jonathan Edwards, held at Andover Theological Seminary,
+October 4-5, 1903</i> (Andover, 1904); and among the addresses delivered
+at Stockbridge in October 1903, John De Witt, &ldquo;Jonathan
+Edwards: A Study,&rdquo; in the <i>Princeton Theological Review</i> (January,
+1904). Also H. C. King, &ldquo;Edwards as Philosopher and Theologian,&rdquo;
+in <i>Hartford Theological Seminary Record</i>, vol. xiv. (1903),
+pp. 23-57; H. N. Gardiner, &ldquo;The Early Idealism of Jonathan
+Edwards,&rdquo; in the <i>Philosophical Review</i>, vol. ix. (1900), pp. 573-596;
+E. C. Smyth, <i>American Journal of Theology</i>, vol. i. (1897), pp. 960-964;
+Samuel P. Hayes, &ldquo;An Historical Study of the Edwardean Revivals,&rdquo;
+in <i>American Journal of Psychology</i>, vol. xiii. (1902), pp. 550
+ff.; J. H. MacCracken, &ldquo;Philosophical Idealism of Edwards&rdquo; in
+<i>Philosophical Review</i>, vol. xi. (1902), pp. 26-42, suggesting that
+Edwards did not know Berkeley, but Collier, and the same author&rsquo;s
+<i>Jonathan Edwards&rsquo; Idealismus</i> (Halle, 1899); F. J. E. Woodbridge,
+&ldquo;Jonathan Edwards,&rdquo; in <i>Philosophical Review</i>, vol. xiii. (1904),
+pp. 393-408; W. H. Squires, <i>Jonathan Edwards und seine Willenslehre</i>
+(Leipzig, 1901); Samuel Simpson, &ldquo;Jonathan Edwards, A
+Historical Review,&rdquo; in <i>Hartford Seminary Record</i>, vol. xiv. (1903),
+pp. 3-22; and <i>The Edwardean, a Quarterly Devoted to the History of
+Thought in America</i> (Clinton, New York, 1903-1904), edited by
+W. H. Squires, of which only four parts appeared, all devoted to
+Edwards and all written by Squires.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. N. G.; R. We.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Edwards recognized the abuse of impulses and impressions,
+opposed itinerant and lay preachers, and defended a well-ordered
+and well-educated clergy.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> These were probably not fiction like <i>Pamela</i>, as Sir Leslie
+Stephen suggested, for Edwards listed several of Richardson&rsquo;s
+novels for his own reading, and considered <i>Sir Charles Grandison</i>
+a very moral and excellent work.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Besides the younger Jonathan many of Edwards&rsquo;s descendants
+were great, brilliant or versatile men. Among them were: his
+son Pierrepont (1750-1826), a brilliant but erratic member of the
+Connecticut bar, tolerant in religious matters and bitterly hated by
+stern Calvinists, a man whose personal morality resembled greatly
+that of Aaron Burr; his grandsons, William Edwards (1770-1851),
+an inventor of important leather rolling machinery; Aaron Burr the
+son of Esther Edwards; Timothy Dwight (1752-1817), son of Mary
+Edwards, and his brother Theodore Dwight, a Federalist politician,
+a member, the secretary and the historian of the Hartford Convention;
+his great-grandsons, Tryon Edwards (1809-1894) and
+Sereno Edwards Dwight, theologian, educationalist and author;
+and his great-great-grandsons, Theodore William Dwight, the
+jurist, and Timothy Dwight, second of that name to be president
+of Yale.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARDS, LEWIS<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1809-1887), Welsh Nonconformist
+divine, was born in the parish of Llanbadarn Fawr, Cardiganshire,
+on the 27th of October 1809. He was educated at
+Aberystwyth and at Llangeitho, and then himself kept school
+in both these places. He had already begun to preach for the
+Calvinistic Methodists when, in December 1830, he went to
+London to take advantage of the newly-opened university.
+In 1832 he settled as minister at Laugharne in Carmarthenshire,
+and the following year went to Edinburgh, where a special
+resolution of the senate allowed him to graduate at the end of
+his third session. He was now better able to further his plans
+for providing a trained ministry for his church. Previously,
+the success of the Methodist preachers had been due mainly to
+their natural gifts. Edwards made his home at Bala, and there,
+in 1837, with David Charles, his brother-in-law, he opened a
+school, which ultimately became the denominational college
+for north Wales. He died on the 19th of July 1887.</p>
+
+<p>Edwards may fairly be called one of the makers of modern
+Wales. Through his hands there passed generation after generation
+of preachers, who carried his influence to every corner of
+the principality. By fostering competitive meetings and by
+his writings, especially in <i>Y Traethodydd</i> (&ldquo;The Essayist&rdquo;),
+a quarterly magazine which he founded in 1845 and edited for
+ten years, he did much to inform and educate his countrymen
+on literary and theological subjects. A new college was built
+at Bala in 1867, for which he raised £10,000. His chief publication
+was a noteworthy book on <i>The Doctrine of the Atonement</i>, cast
+in the form of a dialogue between master and pupil; the treatment
+is forensic, and emphasis is laid on merit. It was due to him
+that the North and South Wales Calvinistic Methodist Associations
+united to form an annual General Assembly; he was its
+moderator in 1866 and again in 1876. He was successful in
+bringing the various churches of the Presbyterian order into
+closer touch with each other, and unwearying in his efforts to
+promote education for his countrymen.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Bywyd a Llythyrau y Parch</i>, (<i>i.e.</i> Life and Letters of the Rev.)
+<i>Lewis Edwards, D.D.</i>, by his son T. C. Edwards.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARDS, RICHARD<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (c. 1523-1566), English musician and
+playwright, was born in Somersetshire, became a scholar of
+Corpus Christi College, Oxford, in 1540, and took his M.A. degree
+in 1547. He was appointed in 1561 a gentleman of the chapel
+royal and master of the children, and entered Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn in
+1564, where at Christmas in that year he produced a play which
+was acted by his choir boys. On the 3rd of September 1566
+his play, <i>Palamon and Arcite</i>, was performed before Queen
+Elizabeth in the Hall of Christ Church, Oxford. Another
+play, <i>Damon and Pithias</i>, tragic in subject but with scenes of
+vulgar farce, entered at Stationers&rsquo; Hall in 1567-8, appeared
+in 1571 and was reprinted in 1582; it may be found in Dodsley&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page7" id="page7"></a>7</span>
+<i>Old Plays</i>, vol. i., and <i>Ancient British Drama</i>, vol. i. It is written
+in rhymed lines of rude construction, varying in length and
+neglecting the <i>caesura</i>. A number of the author&rsquo;s shorter pieces
+are preserved in the <i>Paradise of Dainty Devices</i>, first published
+in 1575, and reprinted in the <i>British Bibliographer</i>, vol. iii.;
+the best known are the lines on May, the <i>Amantium Irae</i>, and
+the <i>Commendation of Music</i>, which has the honour of furnishing
+a stanza to <i>Romeo and Juliet</i>. The <i>Historie of Damocles and
+Dionise</i> is assigned to him in the 1578 edition of the <i>Paradise</i>.
+Sir John Hawkins credited him with the part song &ldquo;In going to
+my lonely bed&rdquo;; the words are certainly his, and probably
+the music. In his own day Edwards was highly esteemed. The
+fine poem, &ldquo;The Soul&rsquo;s Knell,&rdquo; is supposed to have been written
+by him when dying.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Grove&rsquo;s Dict. of Music</i> (new edition); the <i>Shakespeare Soc.
+Papers</i>, vol. ii. art. vi.; Ward, <i>English Dram. Literature</i>, vol. i.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARDS, THOMAS CHARLES<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (1837-1900), Welsh Nonconformist
+divine and educationist, was born at Bala, Merioneth,
+on the 22nd of September 1837, the son of Lewis Edwards (<i>q.v.</i>).
+His resolve to become a minister was deepened by the revival of
+1858-1859. After taking his degrees at London (B.A. 1861, M.A.
+1862), he matriculated at St Alban Hall, Oxford, in October
+1862, the university having just been opened to dissenters. He
+obtained a scholarship at Lincoln College in 1864, and took a
+first class in the school of Literae Humaniores in 1866. He was
+especially influenced by Mark Pattison and Jowett, who counselled
+him to be true to the church of his father, in which he had already
+been ordained. Early in 1867 he became minister at Windsor
+Street, Liverpool, but left it to become first principal of the
+University College of Wales at Aberystwyth, which had been
+established through the efforts of Sir Hugh Owen and other
+enthusiasts. The college was opened with a staff of three professors
+and twenty-five students in October 1872, and for some
+years its career was chequered enough. Edwards, however,
+proved a skilful pilot, and his hold on the affection of the Welsh
+people enabled him to raise the college to a high level of efficiency.
+When it was destroyed by fire in 1885 he collected £25,000 to
+rebuild it; the remainder of the necessary £40,000 being given by
+the government (£10,000) and by the people of Aberystwyth
+(£5000). In 1891 he gave up what had been the main work of
+his life to accept an undertaking that was even nearer his heart,
+the principalship of the theological college at Bala. A stroke of
+paralysis in 1894 fatally weakened him, but he continued at
+work till his death on the 22nd of March 1900. The Calvinistic
+Methodist Church of Wales bestowed on him every honour in their
+possession, and he received the degree of D.D. from the universities
+of Edinburgh (1887) and Wales (1898). His chief works were a
+<i>Commentary on 1 Corinthians</i> (1885), the <i>Epistle to the Hebrews</i>
+(&ldquo;Expositor&rsquo;s Bible&rdquo; series, 1888), and <i>The God-Man</i> (&ldquo;Davies
+Lecture,&rdquo; 1895).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARDSVILLE,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Madison
+county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the south-western part of the state, on
+Cahokia Creek, about 18 m. N.E. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 3561;
+(1900) 4157 (573 foreign-born); (1910) 5014. Edwardsville is
+served by the Toledo, St Louis &amp; Western, the Wabash, the
+Litchfield &amp; Madison, and the Illinois Terminal railways, and is
+connected with St Louis by three electric lines. It has a Carnegie
+library. The city&rsquo;s principal manufactures are carriages, ploughs,
+brick, machinery, sanitary ware and plumber&rsquo;s goods. Bituminous
+coal is extensively mined in the vicinity. Adjoining
+Edwardsville is the co-operative village Leclaire (unincorporated),
+with the factory of the N.O. Nelson Manufacturing Co., makers of
+plumber&rsquo;s supplies, brass goods, sanitary fixtures, &amp;c.; the
+village was founded in 1890 by Nelson O. Nelson (b. 1844), and
+nearly all of the residents are employed by the company of which
+he is the head; they share to a certain extent in its profits, and are
+encouraged to own their own homes. The company supports a
+school, Leclaire Academy, and has built a club-house, bowling
+alleys, tennis-courts, base-ball grounds, &amp;c. The first settlement
+on the site of Edwardsville was made in 1812, and in 1815 the
+town was laid out and named in honour of Ninian Edwards
+(1775-1833), the governor of the Illinois Territory (1809-1818),
+and later United States senator (1818-1824) and governor of
+the state of Illinois (1826-1830). Edwardsville was incorporated
+in 1819 and received its present charter in 1872.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWARDSVILLE,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania,
+U.S.A., on the north branch of the Susquehanna river,
+adjoining Kingston and close to the north-western limits of
+Wilkes-Barre (on the opposite side of the river), in the north-eastern
+part of the state; the official name of the post office is
+Edwardsdale. Pop. (1890), 3284; (1900), 5165, of whom 2645
+were foreign-born; (1910 census), 8407. It is served by the electric
+line of the Wilkes-Barre &amp; Wyoming Valley Traction Co. Coal
+mining and brewing are the chief industries. Edwardsville was
+incorporated in 1884.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWIN,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> <span class="sc">Aeduini</span> or <span class="sc">Edwine</span> (585-633), king of Northumbria,
+was the son of Ella of Deira. On the seizure of Deira by Æthelfrith
+of Bernicia (probably 605), Edwin was expelled and is said
+to have taken refuge with Cadfan, king of Gwynedd. After the
+battle of Chester, in which Æthelfrith defeated the Welsh,
+Edwin fled to R&oelig;dwald, the powerful king of East Anglia, who
+after some wavering espoused his cause and defeated and slew
+Æthelfrith at the river Idle in 617. Edwin thereupon succeeded
+to the Northumbrian throne, driving out the sons of Æthelfrith.
+There is little evidence of external activity on the part of Edwin
+before 625. It is probable that the conquest of the Celtic kingdom
+of Elmet, a district in the neighbourhood of the modern Leeds,
+ruled over by a king named Cerdic (Ceredig) is to be referred to
+this period, and this may have led to the later quarrel with
+Cadwallon, king of Gwynedd. Edwin seems also to have annexed
+Lindsey to his kingdom by 625. In this year he entered upon
+negotiations with Eadbald of Kent for a marriage with his sister
+Æthelberg. It was made a condition that Christianity should be
+tolerated in Northumbria, and accordingly Paulinus was consecrated
+bishop by Justus in 625, and was sent to Northumbria
+with Æthelberg. According to Bede, Edwin was favourably
+disposed towards Christianity owing to a vision he had seen at the
+court of R&oelig;dwald, and in 626 he allowed Eanfled, his daughter
+by Æthelberg, to be baptized. On the day of the birth of his
+daughter, the king&rsquo;s life had been attempted by Eomer, an
+emissary of Cwichelm, king of Wessex. Preserved by the devotion
+of his thegn Lilla, Edwin vowed to become a Christian if victorious
+over his treacherous enemy. He was successful in the ensuing
+campaign, and abstained from the worship of the gods of his race.
+A letter of Pope Boniface helped to decide him, and after consulting
+his friends and counsellors, of whom the priest Coifi
+afterwards took a prominent part in destroying the temple at
+Goodmanham, he was baptized with his people and nobles at
+York, at Easter 627. In this town he granted Paulinus a see,
+built a wooden church and began one of stone. Besides York,
+Yeavering and Maelmin in Bernicia, and Catterick in Deira, were
+the chief scenes of the work of Paulinus. It was the influence of
+Edwin which led to the conversion of Eorpwald of East Anglia.
+Bede notices the peaceful state of Britain at this time, and relates
+that Edwin was preceded on his progresses by a kind of standard
+like that borne before the Roman emperors. In 633 Cadwallon of
+North Wales and Penda of Mercia rose against Edwin and slew
+him at Hatfield near Doncaster. His kinsman Osric succeeded in
+Deira, and Eanfrith the son of Æthelfrith in Bernicia. Bede tells
+us that Edwin had subdued the islands of Anglesey and Man, and
+the <i>Annales Cambriae</i> record that he besieged Cadwallon (perhaps
+in 632) in the island of Glannauc (Puffin Island). He was definitely
+recognized as overlord by all the other Anglo-Saxon kings of his
+day except Eadbald of Kent.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Bede, <i>Hist. Eccl.</i> (ed. Plummer, Oxford, 1896), ii. 5, 9, 11, 12,
+13, 15, 16, 18, 20; Nennius (ed. San Marte, 1844), § 63; <i>Vita S.
+Oswaldi</i>, ix. Simeon of Durham (ed. Arnold, London, 1882-1885,
+vol. i. R.S.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. G. M. B.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWIN, JOHN<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (1749-1790), English actor, was born in London
+on the 10th of August 1749, the son of a watchmaker. As a
+youth, he appeared in the provinces, in minor parts; and at
+Bath in 1768 he formed a connexion with a Mrs Walmsley, a
+milliner, who bore him a son, but whom he afterwards deserted.
+His first London appearance was at the Haymarket in 1776 as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page8" id="page8"></a>8</span>
+Flaw in Samuel Foote&rsquo;s <i>The Cozeners</i>, but when George Colman
+took over the theatre he was given better parts and became its
+leading actor. In 1779 he was at Covent Garden, and played
+there or at the Haymarket until his death on the 31st of October
+1790. Ascribed to him are <i>The Last Legacy of John Edwin</i>, 1780;
+<i>Edwin&rsquo;s Jests</i> and <i>Edwin&rsquo;s Pills to Purge Melancholy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">John Edwin</span> (1768-1805), made a first appearance
+on the stage at the Haymarket as Hengo in Beaumont and
+Fletcher&rsquo;s <i>Bonduca</i> in 1778, and from that time acted frequently
+with his father, and managed the private theatricals organized
+by his intimate friend Lord Barrymore at Wargrave, Berks.
+In 1791 he married Elizabeth Rebecca Richards, an actress
+already well known in juvenile parts, and played at the Haymarket
+and elsewhere thereafter with her. He died in Dublin
+on the 22nd of February 1805. His widow joined the Drury
+Lane company (then playing, on account of the fire of 1809, at
+the Lyceum), and took all the leading characters in the comedies
+of the day. She died on the 3rd of August 1854.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EDWY<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Eadwig</span>), <span class="sc">&rdquo;The Fair&rdquo;</span> (c. 940-959), king of the
+English, was the eldest son of King Edmund and Ælfgifu, and
+succeeded his uncle Eadred in 955, when he was little more than
+fifteen years old. He was crowned at Kingston by Archbishop
+Odo, and his troubles began at the coronation feast. He had
+retired to enjoy the company of the ladies Æthelgifu (perhaps
+his foster-mother) and her daughter Ælfgifu, whom the king
+intended to marry. The nobles resented the king&rsquo;s withdrawal,
+and he was induced by Dunstan and Cynesige, bishop of Lichfield,
+to return to the feast. Edwy naturally resented this interference,
+and in 957 Dunstan was driven into exile. By the year
+956 Ælfgifu had become the king&rsquo;s wife, but in 958 Archbishop
+Odo of Canterbury secured their separation on the ground of
+their being too closely akin. Edwy, to judge from the disproportionately
+large numbers of charters issued during his
+reign, seems to have been weakly lavish in the granting of
+privileges, and soon the chief men of Mercia and Northumbria
+were disgusted by his partiality for Wessex. The result was
+that in the year 957 his brother, the Ætheling Edgar, was chosen
+as king by the Mercians and Northumbrians. It is probable
+that no actual conflict took place, and in 959, on Edwy&rsquo;s death,
+Edgar acceded peaceably to the combined kingdoms of Wessex,
+Mercia and Northumbria.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>Saxon Chronicle</i> (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford),
+<i>sub ann.</i>; <i>Memorials of St Dunstan</i> (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series);
+William of Malmesbury, <i>Gesta regum</i> (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series);
+Birch, <i>Cartularium Saxonicum</i>, vol. ii. Nos. 932-1046; Florence of
+Worcester.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EECKHOUT, GERBRAND VAN DEN<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1621-1674), Dutch
+painter, born at Amsterdam on the 19th of August 1621, entered
+early into the studio of Rembrandt. Though a companion
+pupil to F. Bol and Govaert Flinck, he was inferior to both in
+skill and in the extent of his practice; yet at an early period
+he assumed Rembrandt&rsquo;s manner with such success that his
+pictures were confounded with those of his master; and, even
+in modern days, the &ldquo;Resurrection of the Daughter of Jairus,&rdquo;
+in the Berlin museum, and the &ldquo;Presentation in the Temple,&rdquo;
+in the Dresden gallery, have been held to represent worthily
+the style of Rembrandt. As evidence of the fidelity of Eeckhout&rsquo;s
+imitation we may cite his &ldquo;Presentation in the Temple,&rdquo; at
+Berlin, which is executed after Rembrandt&rsquo;s print of 1630, and
+his &ldquo;Tobit with the Angel,&rdquo; at Brunswick, which is composed
+on the same background as Rembrandt&rsquo;s &ldquo;Philosopher in
+Thought.&rdquo; Eeckhout not merely copies the subjects; he also
+takes the shapes, the figures, the Jewish dress and the pictorial
+effects of his master. It is difficult to form an exact judgment
+of Eeckhout&rsquo;s qualities at the outset of his career. His earliest
+pieces are probably those in which he more faithfully reproduced
+Rembrandt&rsquo;s peculiarities. Exclusively his is a tinge of green
+in shadows marring the harmony of the work, a certain gaudiness
+of jarring tints, uniform surface and a touch more quick than
+subtle. Besides the pictures already mentioned we should class
+amongst early productions on this account the &ldquo;Woman taken
+in Adultery,&rdquo; at Amsterdam; &ldquo;Anna presenting her Son to the
+High Priest,&rdquo; in the Louvre; the &ldquo;Epiphany,&rdquo; at Turin; and
+the &ldquo;Circumcision,&rdquo; at Cassel. Eeckhout matriculated early
+in the Gild of Amsterdam. A likeness of a lady at a dressing-table
+with a string of beads, at Vienna, bears the date of 1643,
+and proves that the master at this time possessed more imitative
+skill than genuine mastery over nature. As he grew older he
+succeeded best in portraits, a very fair example of which is that
+of the historian Dappers (1669), in the Städel collection. Eeckhout
+occasionally varied his style so as to recall in later years the
+&ldquo;small masters&rdquo; of the Dutch school. Waagen justly draws
+attention to his following of Terburg in &ldquo;Gambling Soldiers,&rdquo;
+at Stafford House, and a &ldquo;Soldiers&rsquo; Merrymaking,&rdquo; in the collection
+of the marquess of Bute. A &ldquo;Sportsman with Hounds,&rdquo;
+probably executed in 1670, now in the Vander Hoo gallery, and
+a &ldquo;Group of Children with Goats&rdquo; (1671), in the Hermitage,
+hardly exhibit a trace of the artist&rsquo;s first education. Amongst
+the best of Eeckhout&rsquo;s works &ldquo;Christ in the Temple&rdquo; (1662),
+at Munich, and the &ldquo;Haman and Mordecai&rdquo; of 1665, at Luton
+House, occupy a good place. Eeckhout died at Amsterdam on
+the 22nd of October 1674.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EEL.<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> The common freshwater eel (Lat. <i>anguilla</i>; O. Eng.
+<i>&oelig;l</i>) belongs to a group of soft-rayed fishes distinguished by the
+presence of an opening to the air-bladder and the absence of
+the pelvic fins. With its nearest relatives it forms the family
+<i>Muraenidae</i>, all of which are of elongated cylindrical form.
+The peculiarities of the eel are the rudimentary scales buried
+in the skin, the well-developed pectoral fins, the rounded tail fin
+continuous with the dorsal and ventral fins. Only one other
+species of the family occurs in British waters, namely, the conger,
+which is usually much larger and lives in the sea. In the conger
+the eyes are larger than in the eel, and the upper jaw overlaps
+the lower, whereas in the eel the lower jaw projects beyond the
+upper. Both species are voracious and predatory, and feed
+on almost any animal food they can obtain, living or dead.
+The conger is especially fond of squid or other Cephalopods,
+while the eel greedily devours carrion. The common eel occurs
+in all the rivers and fresh waters of Europe, except those draining
+towards the Arctic Ocean, the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea.
+It also occurs on the Atlantic side of North America. The
+conger has a wider range, extending from the western and
+southern shores of Britain and Ireland to the East Indian Archipelago
+and Japan. It is common in the Mediterranean.</p>
+
+<p>The ovaries of the eel resemble somewhat those of the salmon in
+structure, not forming closed sacs, as in the majority of Teleostei,
+but consisting of laminae exposed to the body cavity. The
+laminae in which the eggs are produced are very numerous, and
+are attached transversely by their inner edges to a membranous
+band running nearly the whole length of the body-cavity. The
+majority of the eels captured for market are females with the
+ovaries in an immature condition. The male eel was first discovered
+in 1873 by Syrski at Trieste, the testis being described by
+him as a lobed elongated organ, in the same relative position as
+the ovary in the female, surrounded by a smooth surface without
+laminae. He did not find ripe spermatozoa. He discovered the
+male by examining small specimens, all the larger being female.
+L. Jacoby, a later observer, found no males exceeding 19 in. in
+length, while the female may reach a length of 39 in. or more.
+Dr C. G. J. Petersen, in a paper published in 1896, states that in
+Denmark two kinds of eels are distinguished by the fishermen,
+namely, yellow eels and silver eels. The silver eels are further
+distinguished by the shape of the snout and the size of the eyes.
+The snout in front of the eyes is not flat, as in the yellow eels, but
+high and compressed, and therefore appears more pointed, while
+the eyes are much larger and directed outwards. In both kinds
+there are males and females, but Petersen shows that the yellow
+eels change into silver eels when they migrate to the sea. The
+sexual organs in the silver eels are more developed than in the
+yellow eels, and the former have almost or entirely ceased to take
+food. The male silver eels are from 11½ to 19 in. in length,
+the females from 16½ to about 39 in. It is evident, therefore,
+that if eels only spawn once, they do not all reach the same size
+when they become sexually mature. The male conger was first
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page9" id="page9"></a>9</span>
+described in 1879 by Hermes, who obtained a ripe specimen
+in the Berlin Aquarium. This specimen was not quite 2½ ft.
+in length, and of the numerous males which have been identified
+at the Plymouth Laboratory, none exceeded this length. The
+large numbers of conger above this size caught for the market
+are all immature females. Female conger of 5 or 6 ft. in length
+and weighing from 30 to 50 &#8468; are common enough, and occasionally
+they exceed these limits. The largest recorded was 8 ft. 3 in.
+long, and weighed 128 &#8468;.</p>
+
+<p>There is every reason to believe that eels and conger spawn
+but once in their lives, and die soon after they have discharged
+their generative products. When kept in aquaria, both male
+and female conger are vigorous and voracious. The males
+sooner or later cease to feed, and attain to the sexually mature
+condition, emitting ripe milt when handled and gently squeezed.
+They live in this condition five or six months, taking no food
+and showing gradual wasting and disease of the bodily organs.
+The eyes and skin become ulcerated, the sight is entirely lost,
+and the bones become soft through loss of lime. The females
+also after a time cease to feed, and live in a fasting condition
+for five or six months, during which time the ovaries develop
+and reach great size and weight, while the bones become soft
+and the teeth disappear. The female, however, always dies in
+confinement before the ova are perfectly ripe and before they
+are liberated from the ovarian tissue. The absence of some
+necessary condition, perhaps merely of the pressure which exists
+at the bottom of the sea, evidently prevents the complete
+development of the ovary. The invariable death of the fish in
+the same almost ripe condition leads to the conclusion that under
+normal conditions the fish dies after the mature ova have been
+discharged. G. B. Grassi states that he obtained ripe male eels,
+and ripe specimens of <i>Muraena</i>, another genus of the family,
+in the whirlpools of the Strait of Messina. A ripe female <i>Muraena</i>
+has also been described at Zanzibar. Gravid female eels, <i>i.e.</i>
+specimens with ovaries greatly enlarged, have been occasionally
+obtained in fresh water, but there is no doubt that, normally,
+sexual maturity is attained only in the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Until recent years nothing was known from direct observation
+concerning the reproduction of the common eel or any species
+of the family. It was a well-known fact that large eels migrated
+towards the sea in autumn, and that in the spring small transparent
+eels of 2 in. in length and upwards were common on the
+shore under stones, and ascended rivers and streams in vast
+swarms. It was reasonable, therefore, to infer that the mature
+eels spawned in the sea, and that there the young were developed.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:423px; height:338px" src="images/img9.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Leptocephali. (By permission of J. &amp; A. Churchill.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>A group of peculiar small fishes were, however, known which
+were called Leptocephali, from the small proportional size of
+the head. The first of these described was captured in 1763
+near Holyhead, and became the type of <i>L. Morrisii</i>, other
+specimens of which have been taken either near the shore or at
+the surface of the sea. Other forms placed in the same genus
+had been taken by surface fishing in the Mediterranean and in
+tropical ocean currents. The chief peculiarities of Leptocephali,
+in addition to the smallness of the head, are their ribbon-like
+shape and their glassy transparency during life. The body is
+flattened from side to side, and broad from the dorsal to the
+ventral edge. Like the eels, they are destitute of pelvic fins
+and no generative organs have been observed in them (see fig.).</p>
+
+<p>In 1864 the American naturalist, T. N. Gill, published the conclusion
+that <i>L. Morrisii</i> was the young or larva of the conger, and
+Leptocephali generally the young stages of species of <i>Muraenidae</i>.
+In 1886 this conclusion was confirmed from direct observation
+by Yves Delage, who kept alive in a tank at Roscoff a specimen
+of <i>L. Morrisii</i>, and saw it gradually transformed into a young
+conger. From 1887 to 1892 Professor Grassi and Dr Calandruccio
+carried on careful and successful researches into the development
+of the Leptocephali at Catania, in Sicily. The specimens were
+captured in considerable numbers in the harbour, and the
+transformation of <i>L. Morrisii</i> into young conger, and of various
+other forms of Leptocephalus into other genera of <i>Muraenidae</i>,
+such as <i>Muraena</i>, <i>Congromuraena</i> and <i>Ophichthys</i>, was observed.
+In 1894 the same authors published the announcement that
+another species of Leptocephalus, namely, <i>L. brevirostris</i>, was
+the larva of the common eel. This larval form was captured
+in numbers with other Leptocephali in the strong currents of
+the Strait of Messina. In the metamorphosis of all Leptocephali
+a great reduction in size occurs. The <i>L. brevirostris</i> reaches a
+length of 8 cm., or a little more than 2½ in., while the perfectly-formed
+young eel is 2 in. long or a little more.</p>
+
+<p>The Italian naturalists have also satisfied themselves that
+certain pelagic fish eggs originally described by Raffaele at Naples
+are the eggs of <i>Muraenidae</i>, and that among them are the eggs
+of <i>Conger</i> and <i>Anguilla</i>. They believe that these eggs, although
+free in the water, remain usually near the bottom at great
+depths, and that fertilization takes place under similar conditions.
+No fish eggs of the kind to which reference is here made have
+yet been obtained on the British coasts, although conger and
+eels are so abundant there. Raffaele described and figured the
+larva newly hatched from one of the eggs under consideration,
+and it is evident that this larva is the earliest stage of a
+Leptocephalus.</p>
+
+<p>Although young eels, some of them more or less flat and
+transparent, are common enough on the coasts of Great Britain
+and north-western Europe in spring, neither eggs nor specimens
+of <i>Leptocephalus brevirostris</i> have yet been taken in the North
+Sea, English Channel or other shallow waters in the neighbourhood
+of the British Islands, or in the Baltic. Marked eels have
+been proved to migrate from the inmost part of the Baltic to
+the Kattegat. Recently, however, search has been made for the
+larvae in the more distant and deeper portions of the Atlantic
+Ocean. In May 1904 a true larval specimen was taken at the
+surface south-west of the Faeroe Islands, and another was taken
+40 m. north by west of Achill Head, Ireland. In 1905 numbers
+were taken in deep water in the Atlantic. The evidence at present
+available indicates that the spawning of mature eels takes place
+beyond the 100 fathom line, and that the young eels which reach
+the coast are already a year old. As eels, both young and old,
+are able to live for a long time out of water and have the habit
+of travelling at night over land in wet grass and in damp weather,
+there is no difficulty in explaining their presence in wells, ponds
+or other isolated bodies of fresh water at any distance from
+the sea.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See &ldquo;The Eel Question,&rdquo; <i>Report U.S. Commissioner of Fisheries
+for 1879</i> (Washington, 1882); J. T. Cunningham, &ldquo;Reproduction
+and Development of the Conger,&rdquo; <i>Journ. Mar. Biol. Assn.</i> vol. ii.;
+C. G. J. Petersen, <i>Report Dan. Biol. Station</i>, v. (1894); G. B. Grassi,
+<i>Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.</i> vol. xxxix. (1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. T. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EFFENDI<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (a Turkish word, corrupted from the Gr. <span class="grk" title="authentês">&#945;&#8016;&#952;&#941;&#957;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>,
+a lord or master), a title of respect, equivalent to the English
+&ldquo;sir,&rdquo; in the Turkish empire and some other eastern countries.
+It follows the personal name, when that is used, and is generally
+given to members of the learned professions, and to government
+officials who have no higher rank, such as Bey, Pasha, &amp;c. It
+may also indicate a definite office, as <i>Hakim effendi</i>, chief physician
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page10" id="page10"></a>10</span>
+to the sultan. The possessive form <i>effendim</i> (my master) is used
+by servants and in formal intercourse.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EFFIGIES, MONUMENTAL.<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> An &ldquo;effigy&rdquo; (Lat. <i>effigies</i>, from
+<i>effingere</i>, to fashion) is, in general, a material image or likeness
+of a person; and the practice of hanging or burning people
+&ldquo;in effigy,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> their semblance only, preserves the more general
+sense of the word. Such representations may be portraits,
+caricatures or models. But, apart from general usages of the
+term (see <i>e.g.</i> <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wax Figures</a></span>), it is more particularly applied in
+the history of art to a particular class of sculptured figures, in
+the flat or the round, associated with Christian sepulchral
+monuments, dating from the 12th century. The earliest of these
+attempts at commemorative portraiture were executed in low
+relief upon coffin-lids of stone or purbeck marble, some portions
+of the designs for the most part being executed by means of
+incised lines, cut upon the raised figure. Gradually, with the
+increased size and the greater architectural dignity of monumental
+structures, effigies attained to a high rank as works of
+art, so that before the close of the 13th century very noble
+examples of figures of this order are found to have been executed
+in full relief; and, about the same period, similar figures also
+began to be engraved, either upon monumental slabs of stone
+or marble, or upon plates of metal, which were affixed to the
+surfaces of slabs that were laid in the pavements of churches.</p>
+
+<p>Engraved plates of this class, known as &ldquo;Brasses&rdquo; (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brasses, Monumental</a></span>), continued in favour until the era of
+the Reformation, and in recent times their use has been revived.
+It seems probable that the introduction and the prevalence of
+flat engraved memorials, in place of commemorative effigies in
+relief, was due, in the first instance, to the inconvenience resulting
+from increasing numbers of raised stones on the pavement
+of churches; while the comparatively small cost of engraved
+plates, their high artistic capabilities, and their durability,
+combined to secure for them the popularity they unquestionably
+enjoyed. If considerably less numerous than contemporary
+incised slabs and engraved brasses, effigies sculptured in relief&mdash;with
+some exceptions in full relief&mdash;continued for centuries to
+constitute the most important features in many medieval
+monuments. In the 13th century, their origin being apparently
+derived from the endeavour to combine a monumental effigy
+with a monumental cross upon the same sepulchral stone
+(whether in sculpture or by incised lines), parts only of the
+human figure sometimes were represented, such as the head or
+bust, and occasionally also the feet; in some of the early examples
+of this curious class the cross symbol was not introduced,
+and after awhile half-length figures became common.</p>
+
+<p>Except in very rare instances, that most important element,
+genuine face-portraiture, is not to be looked for, in even the
+finest sculptured effigies, earlier than about the middle of the
+15th century. In works of the highest order of art, indeed, the
+memorials of personages of the most exalted rank, effigies from
+an early period in their existence may be considered occasionally
+to have been portraits properly so called; and yet even in such
+works as these an approximately correct general resemblance
+but too frequently appears to have been all that was contemplated
+or desired. At the same time, in the earliest monumental
+effigies we possess contemporary examples of vestments, costume,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+armour, weapons, royal and knightly insignia, and other personal
+appointments and accessories, in all of which accurate fidelity
+has been certainly observed with scrupulous care and minute
+exactness. Thus, since the monumental effigies of England
+are second to none in artistic merit, while they have been preserved
+in far greater numbers, and generally in better condition
+than those in other countries, they represent in unbroken
+continuity an unrivalled series of original personal representations
+of successive generations, very many of them being, in
+the most significant acceptation of that term, veritable contemporaneous
+portraits.</p>
+
+<p>Once esteemed to be simply objects of antiquarian curiosity,
+and either altogether disregarded or too often subjected to
+injurious indignity, the monumental effigies in England long
+awaited the formation of a just estimate of their true character
+and their consequent worth in their capacity as authorities for
+face-portraiture. In the original contract for the construction
+of the monument at Warwick to Richard Beauchamp, the fifth
+earl, who died in 1439, it is provided that an effigy of the deceased
+noble should be executed in bronze gilt, with all possible care,
+by the most skilful and experienced artists of the time; and
+the details of the armour and the ornaments of the figure are
+specified with minute precision. It is remarkable, however,
+that the effigy itself is described only in the general and indefinite
+terms&mdash;&ldquo;an image of a man armed.&rdquo; There is no provision
+that the effigy should be &ldquo;an image&rdquo; of the earl; and much
+less is anything said as to its being such a &ldquo;counterfeit presentment&rdquo;
+of the features and person of the living man, as the
+contemporaries of Shakespeare had learned to expect in what
+they would accept as true portraiture. The effigy, almost as
+perfect as when it left the sculptor&rsquo;s hands, still bears witness,
+as well to the conscientious care with which the conditions of
+the contract were fulfilled, as to the eminent ability of the artists
+employed. So complete is the representation of the armour,
+that this effigy might be considered actually to have been
+equipped in the earl&rsquo;s own favourite suit of the finest Milan steel.
+The cast of the figure also was evidently studied from what the
+earl had been when in life, and the countenance is sufficiently
+marked and endowed with the unmistakable attributes of
+personal character. Possibly such a resemblance may have
+been the highest aim in the image-making of the period, somewhat
+before the middle of the 15th century. Three-quarters
+of a century later, a decided step towards fidelity in true
+portraiture is shown to have been taken, when, in his will (1510
+<span class="sc">a.d.</span>), Henry VII. spoke of the effigies of himself and of his late
+queen, Elizabeth of York, to be executed for their monument,
+as &ldquo;an image of our figure and another of hers.&rdquo; The existing
+effigies in the Beauchamp chapel and in Henry VII.&rsquo;s chapel,
+with the passages just quoted from the contract made by the
+executors of the Lancastrian earl, strikingly illustrate the gradual
+development of the idea of true personal portraiture in monumental
+effigies, during the course of the 15th and at the
+commencement of the 16th century in England.</p>
+
+<p>Study of the royal effigies still preserved must commence in
+Worcester Cathedral with that of King John. This earliest
+example of a series of effigies of which the historical value has
+never yet been duly appreciated is rude as a work of art, and yet
+there is on it the impress of such individuality as demonstrates
+that the sculptor did his best to represent the king. Singularly
+fine as achievements of the sculptor&rsquo;s art are the effigies of
+Henry III., Queen Eleanor of Castile, and her ill-fated son
+Edward II., the two former in Westminster Abbey, the last in
+Gloucester cathedral; and of their fidelity also as portraits no
+doubt can be entertained. In like manner the effigies of
+Edward III. and his queen Philippa, and those of their grandson
+Richard II. and his first consort, Anne of Bohemia (all at
+Westminster), and of their other grandson, Henry of Lancaster,
+with his second consort, Joan of Navarre, at Canterbury&mdash;all
+convince us that they are true portraits. Next follow the effigies
+of Henry VII. and Elizabeth of York,&mdash;to be succeeded, and
+the royal series to be completed, by the effigies of Queen Elizabeth
+and Mary Stuart, all of them in Westminster Abbey. Very
+instructive would be a close comparison between the two last-named
+works and the painted portraits of the rival queens,
+especially in the case of Mary, the pictures of whom differ so
+remarkably from one another.</p>
+
+<p>As the 15th century advanced, the rank of the personage
+represented and the character of the art that distinguishes any
+effigy goes far to determine its portrait qualities. Still later,
+when more exact face-portraiture had become a recognized
+element, sculptors must be supposed to have aimed at the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page11" id="page11"></a>11</span>
+production of such resemblance as their art would enable them
+to give to their works; and accordingly, when we compare
+effigies with painted portraits of the same personages, we find
+that they corroborate one another. The prevalence of portraiture
+in the effigies of the 16th and 17th centuries, when their
+art generally underwent a palpable decline, by no means raises
+all works of this class, or indeed the majority of them, to the
+dignity of true portraits; on the contrary, in these effigies, as
+in those of earlier periods, it is the character of the art in each
+particular example that affects its merit, value and authority
+as a portrait. In judging of these latter effigies, however, we
+must estimate them by the standard of art of their own era;
+and, as a general rule, the effigies that are the best as works of
+art in their own class are the best also and the most faithful in
+their portraiture. The earlier effigies, usually produced without
+any express aim at exact portraiture, as we now employ that
+expression, have nevertheless strong claims upon our veneration.
+Often their sculpture is very noble; and even when they are
+rudest as works of art, there is rarely lacking a rough grandeur
+about them, as exhibited in the fine bold figure of Fair
+Rosamond&rsquo;s son, Earl William of the Long Sword, which reposes
+in such dignified serenity in his own cathedral at Salisbury.
+These effigies may not bring us closely face to face with remote
+generations, but they do place before us true images of what the
+men and women of those generations were.</p>
+
+<p>Observant students of monumental effigies will not fail to
+appreciate the singular felicity with which the medieval sculptors
+adjusted their compositions to the recumbent position in which
+their &ldquo;images&rdquo; necessarily had to be placed. Equally worthy
+of notice is the manner in which many monumental effigies,
+particularly those of comparatively early date, are found to have
+assumed an aspect neither living nor lifeless, and yet impressively
+life-like. The sound judgment also, and the good taste of those
+early sculptors, were signally exemplified in their excluding,
+almost without exception, the more extravagant fashions in
+the costume of their era from their monumental sculpture, and
+introducing only the simpler but not less characteristic styles
+of dress and appointments. Monumental effigies, as commonly
+understood, represent recumbent figures, and the accessories
+of the effigies themselves have been adjusted to that position.
+With the exceptions when they appear on one side resting on
+the elbow (as in the case of Thomas Owen (d. 1598) and Sir
+Thomas Heskett (d. 1605), both in Westminster Abbey), these
+effigies lie on their backs, and as a general rule (except in the case
+of episcopal figures represented in the act of benediction, or of
+princes and warriors who sometimes hold a sceptre or a sword)
+their hands are uplifted and conjoined as in supplication. The
+crossed-legged attitude of numerous armed effigies of the era of
+mail-armour has been supposed to imply the personages so
+represented to have been crusaders or Knights of the Temple;
+but in either case the supposition is unfounded and inconsistent
+with unquestionable facts. Much beautiful feeling is conveyed by
+figures of ministering angels being introduced as in the act of
+supporting and smoothing the pillows or cushions that are placed
+in very many instances to give support to the heads of the recumbent
+effigies. The animals at the feet of these effigies,
+which frequently have an heraldic significance, enabled the
+sculptors, with equal propriety and effectiveness, to overcome
+one of the special difficulties inseparable from the recumbent
+position. In general, monumental effigies were carved in stone
+or marble, or cast in bronze, but occasionally they were of wood:
+such is the effigy of Robert Curthose, son of William I. (d. 1135),
+whose altar tomb in Gloucester cathedral was probably set up
+about 1320.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to recumbent statues, upright figures must receive
+notice here, especially those set in wall-monuments in churches
+mainly. These usually consisted in half-length figures, seen
+full-face, placed in a recess within an architectural setting more
+or less elaborate. They belong mainly to the 16th and 17th
+centuries. Among the many examples in old St Paul&rsquo;s cathedral
+(destroyed in the Great Fire of 1666) were those of Dean Colet
+(d. 1519), William Aubrey (1595) and Alexander Nowell (d. 1601).
+In St Giles&rsquo;s, Cripplegate, is the similarly designed effigy of John
+Speed (d. 1629); while that of John Stow (d. 1605) is a full-length,
+seated figure. This, like the figure of Thomas Owen, is
+in alabaster, but since its erection has always been described
+as terra-cotta&mdash;a material which came into considerable favour
+for the purpose of busts and half-lengths towards the end of the
+16th century, imported, of course, from abroad. Sometimes
+the stone monuments were painted to resemble life, as in the
+monuments to Shakespeare and John Combe (the latter now
+over-painted white), in Holy Trinity Church, Stratford-on-Avon.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;Among the more noteworthy publications are
+the following: <i>Monumental Effigies in Great Britain</i> (Norman
+Conquest to Henry VIII.), by C. A. Stothard, folio (London, 1876);
+<i>The Recumbent Monumental Effigies in Northamptonshire</i>, by A.
+Hartshorne (4to, London, 1867-1876); <i>Sepulchral Memorials</i>
+(Northamptonshire), by W. H. Hyett (folio, London, 1817); <i>Ancient
+Sepulchral Effigies and Monumental Sculpture of Devon</i>, by W. H. H.
+Rogers (4to, Exeter, 1877); <i>The Ancient Sepulchral Monuments
+of Essex</i>, ed. by C. M. Carlton (4to, Chelmsford, 1890); and other
+works dealing with the subject according to counties. Of particular
+value is the <i>Report of the Sepulchral Monuments Committee</i> of the
+Society of Antiquaries, laboriously compiled at the request of the
+Office of Works, arranged (1) personally and chronologically, and
+(2) locally (1872).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. B.; M. H. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> It is well known that the costume of effigies nearly always
+represented what was actually worn by the remains of the person
+commemorated, when prepared for interment and when lying in
+state; and, in like manner, the aspect of the lifeless countenance,
+even if not designedly reproduced by medieval &ldquo;image&rdquo; makers,
+may long have exercised a powerful influence upon their ideas of
+consistent monumental portraiture.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGAN, PIERCE<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1772-1849), English sporting writer, was born
+in London in 1772. He began life as sporting reporter for the
+newspapers, and was soon recognized as the best of his day. In
+1814 he wrote, set and printed a book about the relations of the
+prince regent (afterwards George IV.) and Miss Robinson, called
+<i>The Mistress of Royalty, or the Loves of Florizel and Perdita</i>. But
+his best-known work is <i>Life in London, or Days and Nights of Jerry
+Hawthorne and his Elegant Friend Corinthian Tom</i> (1821), a book
+describing the amusements of sporting men, with illustrations by
+Cruikshank. This book took the popular fancy and was one of
+Thackeray&rsquo;s early favourites (see his <i>Roundabout Papers</i>). It
+was repeatedly imitated, and several dramatic versions were
+produced in London. A sequel containing more of country sports
+and misadventures probably suggested Dickens&rsquo;s <i>Pickwick
+Papers</i>. In 1824 <i>Pierce Egan&rsquo;s Life in London and Sporting
+Guide</i> was started, a weekly newspaper afterwards incorporated
+with <i>Bell&rsquo;s Life</i>. Among his numerous other books are <i>Boxiana</i>
+(1818), <i>Life of an Actor</i> (1824), <i>Book of Sports</i> (1832), and the
+<i>Pilgrims of the Thames</i> (1838). Egan died at Pentonville on the
+3rd of August 1849.</p>
+
+<p>His son, Pierce Egan (1814-1880), illustrated his own and his
+father&rsquo;s books, and wrote a score of novels of varying merit, of
+which <i>The Snake in the Grass</i> (1858) is perhaps the best.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGBO,<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> a secret society flourishing chiefly among the Efiks of
+the Calabar district, West Africa. Egbo or Ekpé is a mysterious
+spirit who lives in the jungle and is supposed to preside at the
+ceremonies of the society. Only males can join, boys being
+initiated about the age of puberty. Members are bound by oath
+of secrecy, and fees on entrance are payable. The Egbo-men are
+ranked in seven or nine grades, for promotion to each of which
+fresh initiation ceremonies, fees and oaths are necessary. The
+society combines a kind of freemasonry with political and law-enforcing
+aims. For instance any member wronged in an Egbo
+district, that is one dominated by the society, has only to address
+an Egbo-man or beat the Egbo drum in the Egbo-house, or
+&ldquo;blow Egbo&rdquo; as it is called, <i>i.e.</i> sound the Egbo horn before the
+hut of the wrong-doer, and the whole machinery of the society is
+put in force to see justice done. Formerly the society earned as
+bad a name as most secret sects, from the barbarous customs
+mingled with its rites; but the British authorities have been able
+to make use of it in enforcing order and helping on civilization.
+The Egbo-house, an oblong building like the nave of a church,
+usually stands in the middle of the villages. The walls are of clay
+elaborately painted inside and ornamented with clay figures in
+relief. Inside are wooden images, sometimes of an obscene
+nature, to which reverence is paid. Much social importance
+attaches to the highest ranks of Egbo-men, and it is said that very
+large sums, sometimes more than a thousand pounds, are paid
+to attain these dignities. At certain festivals in the year the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page12" id="page12"></a>12</span>
+Egbo-men wear black wooden masks with horns which it is death
+for any woman to look on.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Mary H. Kingsley, <i>West African Studies</i> (1901); Rev. Robt.
+H. Nassau, <i>Fetichism in West Africa</i> (1904); C. Partridge, <i>Cross
+River Natives</i> (1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGEDE, HANS<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1686-1758), Norwegian missionary, was born
+in the vogtship of Senjen, Norway, on the 31st of January 1686.
+He studied at the university of Copenhagen, and in 1706 became
+pastor at Vaagen in the Lofoten islands, but the study of the
+chronicles of the northmen having awakened in him the desire to
+visit the colony of Northmen in Greenland, and to convert them
+to Christianity, he resigned his charge in 1717; and having, after
+great difficulty, obtained the sanction and help of the Danish
+government in his enterprise, he set sail with three ships from
+Bergen on the 3rd of May 1721, accompanied by his wife and
+children. He landed on the west coast of Greenland on the 3rd of
+July, but found to his dismay that the Northmen were entirely
+superseded by the Eskimo, in whom he had no particular interest,
+and whose language he would be able to master, if at all, only after
+years of study. But, though compelled to endure for some years
+great privations, and at one time to see the result of his labours
+almost annihilated by the ravages of small-pox, he remained
+resolutely at his post. He founded the colony of Godthaab, and
+soon gained the affections of the people. He converted many of
+them to Christianity, and established a considerable commerce
+with Denmark. Ill-health compelling him to return home in
+1736, he was made principal of a seminary at Copenhagen, in
+which workers were trained for the Greenland mission; and from
+1740 to 1747 he was superintendent of the mission. He died on
+the 5th of November 1758. He is the author of a book on the
+natural history of Greenland.</p>
+
+<p>His work in Greenland was continued, on his retirement, by
+his son <span class="sc">Paul Egede</span> (1708-1789), who afterwards returned to
+Denmark and succeeded his father as superintendent of the
+Greenland mission. Paul Egede also became professor of
+theology in the mission seminary. He published a Greenland-Danish-Latin
+dictionary (1750), Greenland grammar (1760) and
+Greenland catechism (1756). In 1766 he completed the translation
+begun by his father of the New Testament into the Greenland
+tongue; and in 1787 he translated Thomas à Kempis. In
+1789 he published a journal of his life in Greenland.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGER, AQIBA<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1761-1837), Jewish scholar, was for the last
+twenty-five years of his life rabbi of Posen. He was a rigorous
+casuist of the old school, and his chief works were legal notes on
+the Talmud and the code of Qaro (<i>q.v.</i>). He believed that
+religious education was enough, and thus opposed the party which
+favoured secular schools. He was a determined foe of the
+reform movement, which began to make itself felt in his
+time.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGER<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (Czech, <i>Cheb</i>), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 148 m.
+W.N.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 23,665. It is situated
+on the river Eger, at the foot of one of the spurs of the Fichtelgebirge,
+and lies in the centre of a German district of about
+40,000 inhabitants, who are distinguished from the surrounding
+population by their costumes, language, manners and customs.
+On the rock, to the N.W. of the town, lies the Burg or Castle,
+built probably in the 12th century, and now in ruins. It
+possesses a massive black tower, built of blocks of lava, and in
+the courtyard is an interesting chapel, in Romanesque style with
+fantastic ornamentations, which was finished in the 13th century.
+In the banquet-room of this castle Wallenstein&rsquo;s officers Terzky,
+Kinsky, Illo and Neumann were assassinated a few hours before
+Wallenstein himself was murdered by Captain Devereux. The
+murder took place on the 25th of February 1634 in the town-house,
+which was at that time the burgomaster&rsquo;s house. The
+rooms occupied by Wallenstein have been transformed since 1872
+into a museum, which contains many historical relics and
+antiquities of the town of Eger. The handsome and imposing St
+Nicholas church was built in the 13th century and restored in
+1892. There is a considerable textile industry, together with the
+manufacture of shoes, machinery and milling. Eger was the
+birthplace of the novelist and playwright Braun von Braunthal
+(1802-1866). About 3 m. N.W. of Eger is the well-known
+watering place of Franzensbad (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The district of Eger was in 870 included in the new margraviate
+of East Franconia, which belonged at first to the Babenbergs, but
+from 906 to the counts of Vohburg, who took the title of margraves
+of Eger. By the marriage, in 1149, of Adela of Vohburg with
+the emperor Frederick I., Eger came into the possession of the
+house of Swabia, and remained in the hands of the emperors
+until the 13th century. In 1265 it was taken by Ottakar II. of
+Bohemia, who retained it for eleven years. After being repeatedly
+transferred from the one power to the other, according to the
+preponderance of Bohemia or the empire, the town and territory
+were finally incorporated with Bohemia in 1350, after the
+Bohemian king became the emperor Charles IV. Several imperial
+privileges, however, continued to be enjoyed by the town
+till 1849. It suffered severely during the Hussite war, during the
+Swedish invasion in 1631 and 1647, and in the War of the Austrian
+Succession in 1742.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Drivok, <i>Ältere Geschichte der deutschen Reichstadt Eger und
+des Reichsgebietes Egerland</i> (Leipzig, 1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGER<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Erlau</i>, Med. Lat. <i>Agria</i>), a town of Hungary,
+capital of the county of Heves, 90 m. E.N.E. of Budapest by rail.
+Pop. (1900) 24,650. It is beautifully situated in the valley of the
+river Eger, an affluent of the Theiss, and on the eastern outskirts
+of the Mátra mountains. Eger is the see of an archbishopric,
+and owing to its numerous ecclesiastical buildings has received
+the name of &ldquo;the Hungarian Rome.&rdquo; Amongst the principal
+buildings are the beautiful cathedral in the Italian style, with a
+handsome dome 130 ft. high, erected in 1831-1834 by the archbishop
+Ladislaus Pyrker (1772-1847); the church of the Brothers
+of Mercy, opposite which is a handsome minaret, 115 ft. high,
+the remains of a mosque dating from the Turkish occupation,
+other Roman Catholic churches, and an imposing Greek church.
+The archiepiscopal palace; the lyceum, with a good library and
+an astronomical observatory; the seminary for Roman priests;
+and the town-hall are all noteworthy. On an eminence N.E. of
+the town, laid out as a park, are the ruins of the old fortress, and
+a monument of Stephen Dobó, the heroic defender of the town
+against the assaults of the Turks in 1552. The chief occupation of
+the inhabitants is the cultivation of the vineyards of the surrounding
+hills, which produce the red Erlauer wine, one of the best in
+Hungary. To the S.W. of Eger, in the same county of Heves,
+is situated the town of Gyöngyös (pop. 15,878). It lies on the
+south-western outskirts of the Mátra mountains, and carries on a
+brisk trade in the Erlauer wine, which is produced throughout the
+district. The Hungarians defeated the Austrians at Gyöngyös on
+the 3rd of April 1849. To the S.W. of Gyöngyös is situated the
+old town of Hatvan (pop. 9698), which is now a busy railway
+junction, and possesses several industrial establishments.</p>
+
+<p>Eger is an old town, and owes its importance to the bishopric
+created by King Stephen in 1010, which was one of the richest
+in the whole of Hungary. In 1552 Eger resisted the repeated
+assaults of a large Turkish force; in 1596, however, it was given
+up to the Turks by the Austrian party in the garrison, and
+remained in their possession until 1687. It was created an archbishopric
+in 1814. During the revolution of 1848-1849, Eger
+was remarkable for the patriotic spirit displayed by its inhabitants;
+and it was here that the principal campaigns against
+the Austrians were organized.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGERIA,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> an ancient Italian goddess of springs. Two distinct
+localities were regarded as sacred to her,&mdash;the grove of Diana
+Nemorensis at Aricia, and a spring in the immediate neighbourhood
+of Rome at the Porta Capena. She derives her chief
+importance from her legendary connexion with King Numa, who
+had frequent interviews with her and consulted her in regard
+to his religious legislation (Livy i. 19; Juvenal iii. 12). These
+meetings took place on the spot where the sacred shield had
+fallen from heaven, and here Numa dedicated a grove to the
+Camenae, like Egeria deities of springs. After the death of Numa,
+Egeria was said to have fled into the grove of Aricia, where she
+was changed into a spring for having interrupted the rites of
+Diana by her lamentations (Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> xv. 479). At Aricia
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page13" id="page13"></a>13</span>
+there was also a Manius Egerius, a male counterpart of Egeria.
+Her connexion with Diana Nemorensis, herself a birth goddess, is
+confirmed by the fact that her aid was invoked by pregnant
+women. She also possessed the gift of prophecy; and the
+statement (Dion. Halic. ii. 60) that she was one of the Muses
+is due to her connexion with the Camenae, whose worship was
+displaced by them.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGERTON, SIR PHILIP DE MALPAS GREY,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> Bart. (1806-1881),
+English palaeontologist, was born on the 13th of November
+1806, the son of the 9th baronet. He was educated at Eton and
+Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated B.A. in 1828. While
+at college his interest in geology was aroused by the lectures of
+W. Buckland, and by his acquaintance with W.D. Conybeare.
+Subsequently when travelling in Switzerland with Lord Cole
+(afterwards 3rd earl of Enniskillen) they were introduced to
+Prof. L. Agassiz at Neufchatel, and determined to make a special
+study of fossil fishes. During the course of fifty years they
+gradually gathered together two of the largest and finest of
+private collections&mdash;that of Sir Philip Grey Egerton being at
+Oulton Park, Tarporley, Cheshire. He described the structure
+and affinities of numerous species in the publications of the
+Geological Society of London, the <i>Geological Magazine</i> and the
+Decades of the Geological Survey; and in recognition of his
+services the Wollaston medal was awarded to him in 1873 by the
+Geological Society. He was elected F.R.S. in 1831, and was a
+trustee of the British Museum. As a member of Parliament he
+represented the city of Chester in 1830, the southern division of
+Cheshire from 1835 until 1868, and the western division from
+1868 to 1881. He died in London on the 6th of April 1881. His
+collection of fossil fishes is now in the British Museum.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGG, AUGUSTUS LEOPOLD<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (1816-1863), English painter,
+was born on the 2nd of May 1816 in London, where his father
+carried on business as a gun-maker. He had some schooling at
+Bexley, and was not at first intended for the artistic profession;
+but, developing a faculty in this line, he entered in 1834 the
+drawing class of Mr Sass, and in 1836 the school of the Royal
+Academy. His first exhibited picture appeared in 1837 at the
+Suffolk Street gallery. In 1838 he began exhibiting in the
+Academy, his subject being a &ldquo;Spanish Girl&rdquo;; altogether he
+sent twenty-seven works to this institution. In 1848 he became
+an associate and in 1860 a full member of the Academy: he had
+considerable means, apart from his profession. In 1857 he took a
+leading part in selecting and arranging the modern paintings in the
+Art-Treasures Exhibition in Manchester. His constitution being
+naturally frail, he went in 1853, with Dickens and Wilkie Collins,
+to Italy for a short trip, and in 1863 he visited Algeria. Here he
+benefited so far as his chronic lung-disease was concerned; but
+exposure to a cold wind while out riding brought on an attack of
+asthma, from which he died on the 26th of March 1863 at Algiers,
+near which city his remains were buried.</p>
+
+<p>Egg was a gifted and well-trained painter of genre, chiefly in
+the way of historical anecdote, or of compositions from the poets
+and novelists. Among his principal pictures may be named:
+1843, the &ldquo;Introduction of Sir Piercie Shafton and Halbert
+Glendinning&rdquo; (from Scott&rsquo;s <i>Monastery</i>); 1846, &ldquo;Buckingham
+Rebuffed&rdquo;; 1848, &ldquo;Queen Elizabeth discovers she is no longer
+young&rdquo;; 1850, &ldquo;Peter the Great sees Catharine for the first
+time&rdquo;; 1854, &ldquo;Charles I. raising the Standard at Nottingham&rdquo;
+(a study); 1855, the &ldquo;Life and Death of Buckingham&rdquo;; 1857
+and 1858, two subjects from Thackeray&rsquo;s <i>Esmond</i>; 1858, &ldquo;Past
+and Present, a triple picture of a faithless wife&rdquo;; 1859, the &ldquo;Night
+before Naseby&rdquo;; 1860, his last exhibited work, the Dinner
+Scene from <i>The Taming of the Shrew</i>. The Tate Gallery contains
+one of his earlier pictures, Patricio entertaining two Ladies, from
+the <i>Diable boiteux</i>; it was painted in 1844.</p>
+
+<p>Egg was rather below the middle height, with dark hair and
+a handsome well-formed face; the head of Peter the Great (in
+the picture of Peter and Catharine, which may be regarded as his
+best work, along with the Life and Death of Buckingham)
+was studied, but of course considerably modified, from his own
+countenance. He was manly, kind-hearted, pleasant, and very
+genial and serviceable among brother-artists; social and companionable,
+but holding mainly aloof from fashionable circles.
+As an actor he had uncommon talent. He appeared among
+Dickens&rsquo;s company of amateurs in 1852 in Lord Lytton&rsquo;s
+comedy <i>Not so Bad as we Seem</i>, and afterwards in Wilkie Collins&rsquo;s
+<i>Frozen Deep</i>, playing the humorous part of Job Want.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGG<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (O.E. <i>aeg</i>, cf. Ger. <i>Ei</i>, Swed. <i>aegg</i>, and prob. Gr. <span class="grk" title="ôon">&#8032;&#972;&#957;</span>,
+Lat. <i>ovum</i>), the female reproductive cell or ovum of animals,
+which gives rise generally only after fertilization to the young.
+The largest eggs are those of birds; and this because, to the
+minute essential portion of the egg, or germ, from which the
+young bird grows, there is added a large store of food-material&mdash;the
+yolk and white of the egg&mdash;destined to nourish the growing
+embryo while the whole is enclosed within a hard shell.</p>
+
+<p>The relative sizes of eggs depend entirely on the amount of the
+food-yolk thus enclosed with the germ; while the form and
+texture of the outer envelope are determined by the nature of
+the environment to which the egg is exposed. Where the food
+material is infinitesimal in quantity the egg is either not extruded&mdash;the
+embryo being nourished by the maternal tissues,&mdash;or
+it passes out of the parental body and gives rise at once to a
+free-living organism or &ldquo;larva&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Larval Forms</a></span>), as in the
+case of many lowly freshwater and marine animals. In such
+cases no &ldquo;egg&rdquo; in the usual sense of the term is produced.</p>
+
+<p>The number of eggs periodically produced by any given
+individual depends on the risks of destruction to which they, and
+the young to which they give rise, are exposed: not more than a
+single egg being annually laid by some species, while with others
+the number may amount to millions.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1"><i>Birds&rsquo; Eggs.</i>&mdash;The egg of the bird affords, for general purposes,
+the readiest example of the modifications imposed on eggs by
+the external environment. Since it must be incubated by the
+warmth of the parent&rsquo;s body, the outer envelope has taken the
+form of a hard shell for the protection of the growing chick from
+pressure, while the dyes which commonly colour the surface of
+this shell serve as a screen to hide it from egg-eating animals.</p>
+
+<p>Carbonate of lime forms the principal constituent of this shell;
+but in addition phosphate of lime and magnesia are also present.
+In section, this shell will be found to be made up of three more
+or less distinct crystalline layers, traversed by vertical canals,
+whereby the shell is made porous so as to admit air to the
+developing chick.</p>
+
+<p>The outermost, or third, layer of this shell often takes the form
+of a glaze, as of <span class="correction" title="amended from procelain">porcelain</span>, as for example in the burnished egg of
+the ostrich: or it may assume the character of a thick, chalky
+layer as in some cuckoos (<i>Guira</i>, <i>Crotophaga ani</i>), cormorants,
+grebes and flamingoes: while in some birds as in the auks, gulls
+and tinamous, this outer layer is wanting; yet the tinamous have
+the most highly glazed eggs of all birds, the second layer of the
+shell developing a surface even more perfectly burnished than
+that formed by the outermost, third layer in the ostrich.</p>
+
+<p>While the eggs of some birds have the shell so thin as to be
+translucent, <i>e.g.</i> kingfisher, others display considerable thickness,
+the maximum being reached in the egg of the extinct <i>Aepyornis</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Though in shape differing but little from that of the familiar
+hen&rsquo;s egg, certain well-marked modifications of form are yet to be
+met with. Thus the eggs of the plover are pear-shaped, of the
+sand-grouse more or less cylindrical, of the owls and titmice
+spherical and of the grebes biconical.</p>
+
+<p>In the matter of coloration the eggs of birds present a remarkable
+range. The pigments to which this coloration is due have been
+shown, by means of their absorption spectra (Sorby, <i>Proc. Zool.
+Soc.</i>, 1875), to be seven in number. The first of these, oorhodeine,
+is brown-red in tone, and rarely absent: the second and third,
+oocyanin, and banded oocyanin, are of a beautiful blue, and
+though differing spectroscopically give rise to the same product
+when oxidized: the fourth and fifth are yellow, and rufous
+ooxanthine, the former combining with oocyanin gives rise to the
+wonderful malachite green of the emu&rsquo;s egg, while the latter
+occurs only in the eggs of tinamous: the sixth is lichenoxanthine,
+a pigment not yet thoroughly known but present in the shells of
+all eggs having a peculiar brick-red colour. Still less is known of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page14" id="page14"></a>14</span>
+the seventh pigment which is, as yet, nameless. It is a substance
+giving a banded absorption spectrum, and which, mixed with
+other pigments, imparts an abnormally browner tint. The
+origin of these pigments is yet uncertain, but it is probable that
+they are derived from the haemoglobin or red colouring matter of
+the blood. This being so, then the pigments of the egg-shell differ
+entirely in their nature from those which colour the yolk or the
+feathers.</p>
+
+<p>While many eggs are either colourless or of one uniform tint,
+the majority have the surface broken up by spots or lines, or
+a combination of both, of varying tints: the pigment being
+deposited as the egg passes down the lower portion of the oviduct.
+That the egg during this passage turns slowly on its long axis is
+shown by the fact that the spots and lines have commonly a
+spiral direction; though some of the markings are made during
+periods of rest, as is shown by their sharp outlines, movement
+giving a blurred effect. Where the egg is pyriform, the large end
+makes way for the smaller. Many eggs display, in addition to the
+strongly marked spots, more or fewer fainter spots embedded in a
+deeper layer of the shell, and hence such eggs are said to be
+&ldquo;double-spotted,&rdquo; <i>e.g.</i> rails and plovers.</p>
+
+<p>Among some species, as in birds of prey, the intensity of this
+coloration is said to increase with age up to a certain point, when
+it as gradually decreases. Frequently, especially where but two
+eggs are laid (Newton), all the dye will be deposited, sometimes
+on the first, sometimes on the last laid, leaving the other colourless.
+But although of a number of eggs in a &ldquo;clutch&rdquo;&mdash;as the
+full complement of eggs in a nest is called&mdash;no two are exactly
+alike, they commonly bear a very close resemblance. Among
+certain species, however, which lay several eggs, one of the
+number invariably differs markedly from the rest, as for example
+in the eggs of the house-sparrow or in those of the sparrow-hawk,
+where, of a clutch of six, two generally differ conspicuously from
+the rest. Differing though these eggs do from the rest of the
+clutch, all yet present the characters common to the species.
+But the eggs of some birds, such as the Australian swamp quail,
+<i>Synoecus australis</i>, present a remarkably wide range of variation
+in the matter of coloration, no two clutches being alike, the extremes
+ranging from pure white to eggs having a greenish ground
+colour and rufous spots or blotches. But a still more interesting
+illustration of variation equally marked is furnished by the
+chikor partridge (<i>Caccabis chukar</i>), since here the variation
+appears to be correlated with the geographical distribution of the
+species. Thus eggs taken in Greece are for the most part cream-coloured
+and unspotted; those from the Grecian Archipelago are
+generally spotted and blotched; while more to the eastward
+spots are invariably present, and the blotches attain their
+maximum development.</p>
+
+<p>But in variability the eggs of the guillemot (<i>Lomvia troile</i>)
+exceed all others: both in the hue of the ground colour and in
+the form of the superimposed markings, these eggs exhibit a
+wonderful range for which no adequate explanation has yet
+been given.</p>
+
+<p>Individual peculiarities of coloration are commonly reproduced,
+not only with this species but also in others, year after
+year.</p>
+
+<p>The coloration of the egg bears no sort of relation to the
+coloration of the bird which lays it; but it bears on the other
+hand a more or less direct relation to the nature of the
+<span class="sidenote">Significance of colour.</span>
+environment during incubation.</p>
+
+<p>White eggs may generally be regarded as representing
+the primitive type of egg, since they agree in this
+particular with the eggs of reptiles. And it will generally be
+found that eggs of this hue are deposited in holes or in domed
+nests. So long indeed as nesting-places of this kind are used
+will the eggs be white. And this because coloured eggs would be
+invisible in dimly lighted chambers of this description, and
+therefore constantly exposed to the risk of being broken by the
+sitting bird, or rolling out of reach where the chamber was large
+enough to admit of this, whereas white eggs are visible so long
+as they can be reached by the faintest rays of light. Pigeons
+invariably lay white eggs; and while some deposit them in holes
+others build an open nest, a mere platform of sticks. These
+exceptions to the rule show that the depredations of egg-eating
+animals are sufficiently guarded against by the overhanging
+foliage, as well as by the great distance from the ground at
+which the nest is built. Birds which have reverted to the more
+ancient custom of nesting in holes after having developed
+pigmented eggs, have adopted the device of covering the shell
+with a layer of chalky matter (<i>e.g.</i> puffins), or, to put the case more
+correctly, they have been enabled to maintain survival after
+their return to the more ancient mode of nidification, because
+this reversion was accompanied by the tendency to cover the
+pigmented surface of the shell with this light-reflecting chalky
+incrustation.</p>
+
+<p>Eggs which are deposited on the bare ground, or in other
+exposed situations, are usually protectively coloured: that is to
+say, the hue of the shell more or less completely harmonizes with
+the ground on which the egg is placed. The eggs of the plover
+tribe afford the most striking examples of this fact.</p>
+
+<p>But the majority of birds deposit their eggs in a more or less
+elaborately constructed nest, and in such cases the egg, so far
+from being protectively coloured, often displays tints that would
+appear calculated rather to attract the attention of egg-stealing
+animals; bright blue or blue spotted with black being commonly
+met with. It may be, however, that coloration of this kind is less
+conspicuous than is generally supposed, but in any case the safety
+of the egg depends not so much on its coloration as on the character
+of the nest, which, where protective devices are necessary, must
+harmonize sufficiently with its surroundings to escape observation
+from prowling egg-stealers of all kinds.</p>
+
+<p>The size of the egg depends partly on the number produced and
+partly on the conditions determining the state of the young bird
+at hatching: hence there is a great disparity in the relative sizes
+of the eggs of different birds. Thus it will be found that young
+birds which emerge in the world blind, naked and helpless are the
+product of relatively small eggs, while on the contrary young
+hatched from relatively large eggs are down-clad and active
+from birth.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that the eggs must be brooded by the parent is also a
+controlling factor in so far as number is concerned, for no more
+can be hatched than can be covered by the sitting bird. Other
+factors, however, less understood, also exercise a controlling
+influence in this matter. Thus the ostrich lays from 12 to 16, the
+teal 15, the partridge 12-20, while among many other species the
+number is strictly limited, as in the case of the hornbills and
+guillemots, which lay but a single egg; the apteryx, divers,
+petrels and pigeons never lay more than 2, while the gulls and
+plovers never exceed 4. Tropical species are said to lay fewer
+eggs than their representatives in temperate regions, and further
+immature birds lay more and smaller eggs than when fully adult.</p>
+
+<p>Partly owing to the uniformity of shape, size and texture of the
+shell, the eggs of birds are by no means easy to distinguish, except
+in so far as their family resemblances are concerned: that is
+to say, except in particular cases, they cannot be specifically
+distinguished, and hence they are of but little or no value for the
+purposes of classification.</p>
+
+<p>Save only among the megapodes, all birds brood their eggs,
+the period of incubation varying from 13 days, as in small passerine
+birds, to 8 weeks, as in the cassowary, though eggs of the rhea and
+of <i>Struthio</i> hatch in from 5 to 6 weeks. But the megapodes
+deposit their eggs in mounds of decaying vegetable matter or in
+sand in the neighbourhood of hot springs, and there without
+further apparent care leave them. Where the nestling is active
+from the moment of hatching the eggs have a relatively longer
+incubation period than in cases where the nestlings are for a
+long while helpless.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1"><i>Eggs of Mammals.</i>&mdash;Only in the spiny ant-eater, or <i>Echidna</i>,
+and the duck-billed platypus, or <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, among the
+Mammalia, are the eggs provided with a large store of yolk,
+enclosed within a shell, and extruded to undergo development
+apart from the maternal tissues. In the case of the echidna the
+eggs, two in number, are about as large as those of a sparrow,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page15" id="page15"></a>15</span>
+similar in shape, and have a white, parchment-like shell. After
+expulsion they are transferred by the beak of the mother to a
+pouch resembling that of the marsupial kangaroos, and there
+they undergo development. The <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, on the other
+hand, lays from two to four eggs, which in size and general
+appearance resemble those of the echidna. They are, however,
+deposited in a loosely constructed nest at the end of
+a long burrow and there brooded. In Marsupials, the eggs
+are smaller than those of <i>Echidna</i> and <i>Ornithorhynchus</i>, and
+they contain a larger proportion of yolk than occurs in higher
+mammals.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1"><i>Eggs of Reptiles.</i>&mdash;The eggs of reptiles are invariably provided
+with a large amount of food yolk and enclosed with a firm test or
+shell, which though generally parchment-like in texture may be
+calcareous as in birds, as, for example, in many of the tortoises and
+turtles and in the crocodiles.</p>
+
+<p>Among reptiles the egg is always white or yellowish, while the
+number laid often far exceeds that in the case of birds. The
+tuatara of New Zealand, however, lays but ten&mdash;white hard-shelled,
+long and oval&mdash;at intervals between November and
+January. The long intervals between the appearance of the
+successive eggs is a characteristic feature of the reptiles, but is met
+with among the birds only in the megapodes, which, like the
+reptiles, do not &ldquo;brood&rdquo; their eggs.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Chelonia the number of eggs varies from two to four
+in some of the tortoises, to 200 in some of the turtles: while in the
+crocodiles between 20 and 30 are produced, hard-shelled and
+white.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs of the lizards are always white or yellowish, and
+generally soft-shelled; but the geckos and the green lizard lay
+hard-shelled eggs. Many of the soft-shelled eggs are remarkable
+for the fact that they increase in size after extrusion, owing to the
+stretching of the membranous shell by the growing embryo. In
+the matter of number lizards are less prolific than many of the
+Chelonia, a dozen eggs being the general number, though as many
+as thirty may be produced at a time, as in the case of the common
+chameleon.</p>
+
+<p>While as a general rule the eggs of lizards are laid in burrows or
+buried, some are retained within the body of the parent until the
+young are ready to emerge; or they may even hatch within the
+oviduct. This occurs with some chameleons and some lizards, <i>e.g.</i>
+the slow-worm. The common English lizard is also viviparous.
+Normally the young leaves the egg immediately after its extrusion,
+but if by any chance this extrusion is delayed they
+escape while yet in the oviduct.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of the snakes lay eggs, but most of the vipers and
+the aquatic snakes are viviparous, as also are a few terrestrial
+species. The shell of the egg is always soft and parchment-like.
+As a rule the number of eggs produced among the snakes is not
+large, twenty or thirty being common, but some species of python
+lay as many as a hundred. Generally, among the oviparous
+snakes the eggs are buried, but some species of boas jealously
+guard them, enclosing them within the coils of the body.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1"><i>Eggs of Amphibia.</i>&mdash;Among the amphibia a greater variety
+obtains in the matter of the investment of the egg, as well as
+in the number, size and method of their disposal. The outer
+covering is formed by a toughening of the surface of a thick
+gelatinous coat which surrounds the essential parts of the egg.
+This coat in many species of salamander&mdash;using this name in
+the wide sense&mdash;is produced into threads which serve either to
+anchor the eggs singly or to bind them together in bunches.</p>
+
+<p>Viviparity occurs both among the limbless and the tailed
+Amphibia, the eggs hatching before they leave the oviduct or
+immediately after extrusion. The number of young so produced
+is generally not large, but the common salamander (<i>Salamandra
+maculosa</i>) may produce as many as fifty at a birth, though fifteen
+is the more normal figure. When the higher number is reached
+the young are relatively small and weak.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule among the Amphibia the young leave the egg in the
+form of larvae, generally known as &ldquo;tadpoles&rdquo;; but many
+species produce eggs containing a sufficient amount of food
+material to enable the whole of the larval phase to be completed
+before hatching.</p>
+
+<p>Among the tailless Amphibia (frogs and toads) there are wide
+differences in the number of eggs produced, while the methods
+by which these eggs are disposed of present a marvellous
+variety.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule vast quantities of eggs are shed by the female into the
+water in the form of &ldquo;spawn.&rdquo; In the common toad as many as
+7000 eggs may be extruded at a time. These leave the body in
+the form of two long strings&mdash;one from each oviduct&mdash;of translucent
+globules, gelatinous in texture, and enclosing a central
+sphere of yolk, the upper pole of which is black. The spawn of
+the common frog differs from that of the toad in that the eggs all
+adhere to form a huge jelly-like mass. But in many species the
+number of eggs produced are few; and these may be sufficiently
+stored with food-yolk to allow of the tadpole stage being passed
+before hatching, as in frogs of the genus <i>Hylodes</i>. In many cases
+the eggs are deposited out of the water and often in quite
+remarkable ways.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1"><i>Eggs of Fishes.</i>&mdash;The eggs of fishes present an extremely wide
+range of form, and a no less extensive range in the matter of
+number. Both among the cartilaginous and bony fishes viviparity
+occurs. Most of the sharks and rays are viviparous, but in
+the oviparous species the eggs present some interesting and
+peculiar forms. Large in size, the outer coat or &ldquo;shell&rdquo; is in all
+cases horn-like and flexible, but differs greatly in shape. Thus
+in the egg of the larger spotted dog-fish it is oblong in shape,
+flattened from side to side, and has the angles produced into long,
+slender tendrils. As the egg is laid the lower tendrils project
+from the vent, and the mother rubs herself against some fixed
+body. The tendrils soon catch fast in some slight projection,
+when the egg is dragged forth there to remain till hatching takes
+place. A couple of narrow slits at each corner of the upper end
+serve to admit fresh water to the imprisoned embryo during the
+later stages of development; when development is complete
+escape is made through the end of the shell. In the rays or
+&ldquo;skates,&rdquo; long spines take the place of tendrils, the egg simply
+resting at the bottom of the sea. The empty egg-cases of the
+rays are often found on the seashore, and are known as &ldquo;Mermaids&rsquo;
+purses.&rdquo; The egg of the Port Jackson shark (<i>Cestracion</i>) is of
+enormous size, pear-shaped, and provided with a spiral flange
+extending along the whole length of the capsule. In the <i>Chimaera</i>
+the egg is long, more or less spindle-shaped, and produced on each
+side into a broad flange having a fringed edge, so that the whole
+bears a close resemblance to a long leaf, broad and notched at one
+end, pointed at the other. This likeness to the seaweed among
+which it rests is doubtless a protective device, akin to that of
+protectively coloured birds&rsquo; eggs.</p>
+
+<p>Among the bony fishes the eggs generally take the form of
+small spheres, enclosed within a tough membrane or capsule.
+But they present many important differences, being in some
+fishes heavy and remaining at the bottom of the water, in other
+light and floating on the surface. While in some species they are
+distributed separately, in others they adhere together in masses.
+The eggs of the salmon, for example, are heavy, hard and smooth,
+and deposited separately in a trough dug by the parent and
+afterwards covered to prevent them from being carried away by
+the stream. In the perch they are adhesive and form long band-like
+masses of spawn adhering to water-plants. In the gobies the
+egg is spindle-shaped, and attached by one end by means of a
+network of fibres, resembling rootlets; while in the smelt the egg
+is loosely suspended by a membrane formed by the peeling off
+of a part of the outer sheath of the capsule. The eggs of the
+garfish (<i>Belone vulgaris</i>) and of the flying-fish of the genus
+<i>Exocoetus</i>, attach themselves to foreign objects, or to one another,
+by means of threads or cords developed at opposite poles of
+the egg.</p>
+
+<p>Among a number of fishes the eggs float at the surface of the
+sea, often in enormous masses, when they are carried about at
+the mercy of tides and currents. An idea of the size which such
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page16" id="page16"></a>16</span>
+masses attain may be gathered from the fact that the spawn
+of the angler-fish, <i>Lophius piscatorius</i>, takes the form of a sheet
+from 2 to 3 ft. wide, and 30 ft. long. Another remarkable feature
+of these floating eggs is their transparency, inasmuch as they are
+extremely difficult to see, and hence they probably escape the
+rapacious maws of spawn-eating animals. The cod tribe and
+flat-fishes lay floating eggs of this description.</p>
+
+<p>The maximum number of eggs laid by fishes varies greatly,
+some species laying relatively few, others an enormous number.
+But in all cases the number increases with the weight and age of
+the fish. Thus it has been calculated that the number laid by the
+salmon is roughly about 1000 to every pound weight of the fish,
+a 15 &#8468; salmon laying 15,000 eggs. The sturgeon lays about
+7,000,000; the herring 50,000; the turbot 14,311,000; the sole
+134,000; the perch 280,000. Briefly, the number is greatest
+where the risks of destruction are greatest.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs of the degenerate fishes known as the lampreys and
+hag-fishes are remarkable for the fact that in the latter they
+are large in size, cylindrical in shape, and provided at each
+end with hooklets whereby they adhere one to another; while in
+the lampreys they are extremely small and embedded in a jelly.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1"><i>Molluscs.</i>&mdash;Among the Mollusca, Crustacea and Insecta yolk-stored
+eggs of very remarkable forms are commonly produced.</p>
+
+<p>In variety, in this connexion, the Mollusca must perhaps be
+given the first place. This diversity, indeed, is strikingly illustrated
+by the eggs of the Cephalopoda. In the squids (<i>Loligo</i>),
+for example, the eggs are enclosed in long cylindrical cases, of
+which there are several hundreds, attached by one end to a
+common centre; the whole series looking strangely like a rough
+mop-head. Each case, in such a cluster, contains about 250 eggs,
+or about 40,000 in all. By way of contrast the eggs of the true
+cuttle-fish (<i>Sepia</i>) are deposited separately, each enclosed in a
+tough, black, pear-shaped capsule which is fastened by a stalk to
+fronds of sea-weed or other object. They appear to be extruded
+at short intervals, till the full complement is laid, the whole
+forming a cluster looking like a bunch of grapes. The octopus
+differs yet again in this matter, its eggs being very small, berry-like,
+and attached to a stalk which runs through the centre of
+the mass.</p>
+
+<p>The eggs of the univalve Mollusca are hardly less varied in the
+shapes they take. In the common British <i>Purpura lapillus</i> they
+resemble delicate pink grains of rice set on stalks; in <i>Busycon</i>
+they are disk-shaped, and attached to a band nearly 3 ft. long.
+The eggs of the shell-bearing slugs (<i>Testacella</i>) are large, and have
+the outer coat so elastic that if dropped on a stone floor they will
+rebound several inches; while some of the snails (<i>Bulimus</i>) lay
+eggs having a white calcareous and slightly iridescent shell, in size
+and shape closely resembling the egg of the pigeon. Some are
+even larger than the egg of the wood-pigeon. The beautiful
+violet-snail (<i>Ianthina</i>)&mdash;a marine species&mdash;carries its eggs on the
+under side of a gelatinous raft. No less remarkable are the eggs of
+the whelk; since, like those of the squids, they are not laid
+separately but enveloped in capsules, and these to the number of
+many hundreds form the large, ball-like masses so commonly met
+with on the seashore. When the eggs in these capsules hatch, the
+crowd of embryos proceed to establish an internecine warfare,
+devouring one another till only the strongest survives!</p>
+
+<p>With the Mollusca, as with other groups of animals, where the
+eggs are exposed to great risks they are small, produced in great
+numbers, and give rise to larvae. This is well illustrated by the
+common oyster which annually disperses about 60,000,000 eggs.
+But where the risk of destruction is slight, the eggs are large and
+produce young differing from the parent only in size, as in the case
+of the pigeon-like eggs of <i>Bulimus</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1"><i>Crustaceans.</i>&mdash;Among the higher Crustacea, as a rule, the eggs
+are carried by the female, attached to special appendages on the
+under side of the body. But in some&mdash;Squillas&mdash;they are deposited
+in burrows. Generally they are relatively small so that
+the young which emerge therefrom differ markedly in appearance
+from the parents, but in deep-sea and freshwater species the eggs
+are large, when the young, on emerging, differ but little from
+the adults in appearance.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1"><i>Insects, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;The eggs of insects though minute, are also
+remarkable for the great variety of form which they present,
+while they are frequently objects of great beauty owing to the
+sculptured markings of the shell. They are generally laid in
+clusters, either on the ground, on the leaves of plants, or in the
+water. Some of the gnats (<i>Culex</i>) lay them on the water.
+Cylindrical in shape they are packed closely together, set on
+end, the whole mass forming a kind of floating raft. Frequently,
+as in the case of the stick and leaf insect, the eggs are enclosed in
+capsules of very elaborate shapes and highly ornamented.</p>
+
+<p>As to the rest of the Invertebrata&mdash;above the Protozoa the eggs
+are laid in water, or in damp places. In the former case they are
+as a rule small, and give rise to larvae; while eggs hatched on
+land are sometimes enclosed in capsules, &ldquo;cocoons,&rdquo; as in the
+case of the earthworm, where this capsule is filled with a milky
+white fluid, of a highly nutritious character, on which the
+embryos feed.</p>
+
+<p>Among some invertebrates two different kinds of eggs are laid
+by the same individual. The water-flea, <i>Daphnia</i> (a crustacean),
+lays two kinds of eggs known as &ldquo;summer&rdquo; and &ldquo;winter&rdquo; eggs.
+The summer eggs are carried by the female in a &ldquo;brood-pouch&rdquo;
+on the back. The &ldquo;winter&rdquo; eggs, produced at the approach of
+winter, differ markedly in appearance from the summer eggs,
+being larger, darker in colour, thicker shelled, and enclosed in a
+capsule formed from the shell or carapace, of the parent&rsquo;s body.
+&ldquo;Winter eggs,&rdquo; however, may be produced in the height of
+summer. While the &ldquo;summer eggs&rdquo; are unfertilized, the winter
+eggs are fertilized by the male, and possess the remarkable power
+of lying dormant for months or even years before they develop.
+The production of these two kinds of eggs is a device to overcome
+the cold of winter, or the drying up of the pools in which the
+species lives, during the heat of the summer. The power of
+resistance which such eggs possess may be seen in the fact that a
+sample of mud which had been kept dry for ten years still contained
+living eggs. In deep water where neither drought nor
+winter cold can seriously affect the <i>Daphnias</i>, they propagate all
+the year round by unfertilized &ldquo;summer&rdquo; eggs.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.&mdash;For further details on this subject the following
+authors should be consulted:&mdash;<i>Mammals</i>: F. E. Beddard, &ldquo;Remarks
+on the Ovary of Echidna,&rdquo; <i>Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin.</i>
+vol. viii. (1885); W. H. Caldwell, &ldquo;The Embryology of Monotremata
+and Marsupialia,&rdquo; <i>Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc.</i> vol. 178 (1887);
+E. B. Poulton, &ldquo;The Structures connected with the Ovarian Ovum
+of the Marsupialia and Monotremata,&rdquo; <i>Quart. Journ. Micros. Sci.</i>
+vol. xxiv. (1884). <i>Birds, Systematic</i>:&mdash;H. Seebohm, <i>Coloured
+Figures of the Eggs of British Birds</i> (1896); A. Newton, <i>Ootheca
+Wooleyana</i> (1907); E. Oates, <i>Cat. Birds&rsquo; Eggs Brit. Mus.</i>
+(appearing), vols. i.-iv. published. <i>General</i>:&mdash;A. Newton, <i>Dictionary
+of Birds</i> (1896). <i>Colouring matter</i>:&mdash;Newbegin, <i>Colour in Nature</i>
+(1898). <i>Reptiles and Amphibia</i>:&mdash;H. Gadow, &ldquo;Reptiles,&rdquo; <i>Camb.
+Nat. Hist.</i> (1901); G. A. Boulenger, &ldquo;The Tailless Batrachians of
+Europe,&rdquo; <i>Ray Soc.</i> (1896). <i>Fishes</i>:&mdash;Bridge and Boulenger, &ldquo;Fishes,
+Ascidians, &amp;c.,&rdquo; <i>Camb. Nat. Hist.</i> (1904); B. Dean, <i>Fishes Living and
+Fossil</i> (1895); J. T. Cunningham, <i>Marketable Marine Fishes</i> (1896).
+<i>Invertebrate</i>:&mdash;G. H. Carpenter, <i>Insects. Their Structure and Life</i>
+(1899); L. C. Miall, <i>A History of Aquatic Insects</i> (1895); T. R. R.
+Stebbing, <i>Crustacea</i>, Internat. Sci. series (1893); M. C. Cooke,
+&ldquo;Mollusca,&rdquo; <i>Camb. Nat. Hist.</i> (1906). For further references to the
+above and other Invertebrate groups see various text-books on
+Entomology, Zoology.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. P. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGGENBERG, HANS ULRICH VON,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> <span class="sc">Prince</span> (1568-1634),
+Austrian statesman, was a son of Siegfried von Eggenberg (d.
+1594), and began life as a soldier in the Spanish service, becoming
+about 1596 a trusted servant of the archduke of Styria, afterwards
+the emperor Ferdinand II. Having become a Roman
+Catholic, he was soon the chancellor and chief adviser of
+Ferdinand, whose election as emperor he helped to secure in 1619.
+He directed the imperial policy during the earlier part of the
+Thirty Years&rsquo; War, and was in general a friend and supporter of
+Wallenstein, and an opponent of Maximilian I., duke of Bavaria,
+and of Spain. He was largely responsible for Wallenstein&rsquo;s
+return to the imperial service early in 1632, and retired from
+public life just after the general&rsquo;s murder in February 1634, dying
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page17" id="page17"></a>17</span>
+at Laibach, on the 18th of October 1634. Eggenberg&rsquo;s influence
+with Ferdinand was so marked that it was commonly said that
+Austria rested upon three hills (<i>Berge</i>): Eggenberg, Questenberg
+and Werdenberg. He was richly rewarded for his services to the
+emperor. Having received many valuable estates in Bohemia
+and elsewhere, he was made a prince of the Empire in 1623, and
+duke of Krumau in 1625.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. von Zwiedineck-Südenhorst, <i>Hans Ulrich, Fürst von
+Eggenberg</i> (Vienna, 1880); and F. Mares, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte
+der Beziehungen des Fürsten J. U. von Eggenberg zu Kaiser Ferdinand
+II und zu Waldstein</i> (Prague, 1893).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGGER, ÉMILE<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> (1813-1885), French scholar, was born in
+Paris on the 18th of July 1813. From 1840 till 1855 he was
+assistant professor, and from 1855 till his death professor of
+Greek literature in the Faculté; des Lettres at Paris University.
+In 1854 he was elected a member of the Académie des Inscriptions
+and in 1873 of the Conseil supérieur de l&rsquo;instruction publique. He
+was a voluminous writer, a sound and discerning scholar, and his
+influence was largely responsible for the revival of the study of
+classical philology in France. His most important works were
+<i>Essai sur l&rsquo;histoire de la critique chez les Grecs</i> (1849), <i>Notions
+élémentaires de grammaire comparée</i> (1852), <i>Apollonius Dyscole,
+essai sur l&rsquo;histoire des théories grammalicales dans l&rsquo;antiquité</i> (1854),
+<i>Mémoires de littérature ancienne</i> (1862), <i>Mémoires d&rsquo;histoire
+ancienne et de philologie</i> (1863), <i>Les Papyrus grecs du Musée du
+Louvre et de la Biblioth&amp;èque Impériale</i> (1865), <i>Études sur les
+traités publics chez les Grecs et les Romains</i> (1866), <i>L&rsquo;Hellénisme en
+France</i> (1869), <i>La Littérature grecque</i> (1890). He was also the
+author of <i>Observations et réflexions sur le développement de l&rsquo;intelligence
+et du langage chez les enfants</i> (1879). Egger died in
+Paris on the 1st of September 1885.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGGLESTON, EDWARD<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (1837-1902), American novelist and
+historian, was born in Vevay, Indiana, on the 10th of December
+1837, of Virginia stock. Delicate health, by which he was more
+or less handicapped throughout his life, prevented his going to
+college, but he was naturally a diligent student. He was a
+Methodist circuit rider and pastor in Indiana and Minnesota
+(1857-1866); associate editor (1866-1867) of <i>The Little Corporal</i>,
+Chicago; editor of <i>The National Sunday School Teacher</i>, Chicago
+(1867-1870); literary editor and later editor-in-chief of <i>The
+Independent</i>, New York (1870-1871); and editor of <i>Hearth and
+Home</i> in 1871-1872. He was pastor of the church of Christian
+Endeavour, Brooklyn, in 1874-1879. From 1880 until his death
+on the 2nd of September 1902, at his home on Lake George, New
+York, he devoted himself to literary work. His fiction includes
+<i>Mr Blake&rsquo;s Walking Stick</i> (1869), for children; <i>The Hoosier
+Schoolmaster</i> (1871); <i>The End of the World</i> (1872); <i>The Mystery
+of Metropolisville</i> (1873); <i>The Circuit Rider</i> (1874); <i>Roxy</i>
+(1878); The <i>Hoosier Schoolboy</i> (1883); <i>The Book of Queer
+Stories</i> (1884), for children; <i>The Graysons</i> (1888), an excellent
+novel; <i>The Faith Doctor</i> (1891); and <i>Duffels</i> (1893), short
+stories. Most of his stories portray the pioneer manners and
+dialect of the Central West, and the <i>Hoosier Schoolmaster</i> was one
+of the first examples of American local realistic fiction; it was very
+popular, and was translated into French, German and Danish.
+During the last third of his life Eggleston laboured on a <i>History of
+Life in the United States</i>, but he lived to finish only two volumes&mdash;<i>The
+Beginners of a Nation</i> (1896) and <i>The Transit of Civilization</i>
+(1900). In addition he wrote several popular compendiums of
+American history for schools and homes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. C. Eggleston, <i>The First of the Hoosiers</i> (Philadelphia, 1903),
+and Meredith Nicholson, <i>The Hoosiers</i> (1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His brother <span class="sc">George Cary Eggleston</span> (1839- ), American
+journalist and author, served in the Confederate army; was
+managing editor and later editor-in-chief of <i>Hearth and Home</i>
+(1871-1874); was literary editor of the <i>New York Evening Post</i>
+(1875-1881), literary editor and afterwards editor-in-chief of the
+New York <i>Commercial Advertiser</i> (1884-1889), and editorial writer
+for <i>The World</i> (New York) from 1889 to 1900. Most of his books
+are stories for boys; others, and his best, are romances dealing
+with life in the South especially in the Virginias and the
+Carolinas&mdash;before and during the Civil War. Among his publications
+may be mentioned: <i>A Rebel&rsquo;s Recollections</i> (1874);
+<i>The Last of the Flatboats</i> (1900); <i>Camp Venture</i> (1900); <i>A Carolina
+Cavalier</i> (1901); <i>Dorothy South</i> (1902); <i>The Master of Warlock</i>
+(1903); <i>Evelyn Byrd</i> (1904); <i>A Daughter of the South</i> (1905); <i>Blind
+Alleys</i> (1906); <i>Love is the Sum of it all</i> (1907); <i>History of the Confederate
+War</i> (1910); and <i>Recollections of a Varied Life</i> (1910).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGHAM,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a town in the Chertsey parliamentary division of
+Surrey, England, on the Thames, 21 m. W.S.W. of London by the
+London &amp; South Western railway. Pop. (1901) 11,895. The
+church of St John the Baptist is a reconstruction of 1817; it
+contains monuments by John Flaxman. Above the right bank of
+the river a low elevation, Cooper&rsquo;s Hill, commands fine views over
+the valley, and over Windsor Great Park to the west. On the
+hill was the Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, commonly
+called Cooper&rsquo;s Hill College, of which Sir George Tomkyns
+Chesney was the originator and first president (1871). It
+educated men for the public works, accounts, railways and
+telegraph departments of India, and included a school of forestry;
+but it was decided, in the face of some opposition, to close it in
+1906, on the theory that it was unnecessary for a college with
+such a specialized object to be maintained by the government, in
+view of the readiness with which servants for these departments
+could be recruited elsewhere. Part of the organization, including
+the school of forestry, was transferred to Oxford University.
+Cooper&rsquo;s Hill gives name to a famous poem of Sir John Denham
+(1642). A large and handsome building houses the Royal
+Holloway College for Women (1886), founded by Thomas
+Holloway; in the neighbourhood is the sanatorium of the same
+founder (1885) for the treatment of mental ailments, accommodating
+about 250 patients. The college for women, surrounded by
+extensive grounds, commands a wide view from the wooded slope
+on which it stands. The recreation hall, with its fine art collection,
+is the most notable room in this handsome building, which
+can receive 250 students. Within the parish, bordering the river,
+is the field of Runnymede, which, with Magna Charta Island
+lying off it, is famous in connexion with the signature of the
+charter by King John. Virginia Water, a large and picturesque
+artificial lake to the south of Windsor Great Park, is much
+frequented by visitors. It was formed under the direction of the
+duke of Cumberland, about 1750, and was the work of the
+brothers Thomas and Paul Sandby.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGIN<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (Armenian <i>Agn</i>, &ldquo;the spring&rdquo;), an important town in
+the Mamuret el-Aziz vilayet of Asiatic Turkey (altitude 3300 ft.).
+Pop. about 20,000, fairly equally divided between Armenian
+Christians and Moslems. It is picturesquely situated in a theatre
+of lofty, abrupt rocks, on the right bank of the western Euphrates,
+which is crossed by a wooden bridge. The stone houses stand in
+terraced gardens and orchards, and the streets are mere rock
+ladders. Egin was settled by Armenians who emigrated from
+Van in the 11th century with Senekherim. On the 8th of
+November 1895 and in the summer of 1896 many Armenians were
+massacred here.</p>
+<div class="author">(D. G. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGLANTINE<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (E. Frisian, <i>egeltiere</i>; Fr. <i>aiglantier</i>), a plant-name
+of which Dr R. C. A. Prior (<i>Popular Names of British
+Plants</i>, p. 70) says that it &ldquo;has been the subject of much discussion,
+both as to its exact meaning and as to the shrub to
+which it properly belongs.&rdquo; The eglantine of the herbalists was
+the sweet-brier, <i>Rosa rubiginosa</i>. The signification of the word
+seems to be thorn-tree or thorn-bush, the first two syllables
+probably representing the Anglo-Saxon <i>egla</i>, <i>egle</i>, a prick or thorn,
+while the termination is the Dutch <i>tere</i>, <i>taere</i>, a tree. Eglantine is
+frequently alluded to in the writings of English poets, from
+Chaucer downwards. Milton, in <i>L&lsquo;Allegro</i>, is thought by the
+term &ldquo;twisted eglantine&rdquo; to denote the honeysuckle, <i>Lonicera
+Periclymenum</i>, which is still known as eglantine in north-east
+Yorkshire.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGLINTON, EARLS OF.<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> The title of earl of Eglinton has been
+held by the famous Scottish family of Montgomerie since 1508.
+The attempts made to trace the descent of this house to Roger of
+Montgomery, earl of Shrewsbury (d. 1094), one of William the
+Conqueror&rsquo;s followers, will not bear examination, and the sure
+pedigree of the family only begins with Sir John Montgomerie,
+lord of Eaglesham, who fought at the battle of Otterbourne in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page18" id="page18"></a>18</span>
+1388 and died about 1398. His grandson, Sir Alexander Montgomerie
+(d. c. 1460), was made a lord of the Scottish parliament
+about 1445 as Lord Montgomerie, and Sir Alexander&rsquo;s great-grandson
+Hugh, the 3rd lord (c. 1460-1545), was created earl of
+Eglinton, or Eglintoun, in 1508. Hugh, who was a person of
+importance during the minority of James V., was succeeded by
+his grandson Hugh (d. 1546), and then by the latter&rsquo;s son Hugh
+(c. 1531-1585), who became 3rd earl of Eglinton. This nobleman
+was a firm supporter of Mary queen of Scots, for whom he fought
+at Langside, and of the Roman Catholic Church; his son and
+successor, Hugh, was murdered in April 1586 by the Cunninghams,
+a family with which his own had an hereditary blood feud. In
+1612, by the death of Hugh, the 5th earl, the male line of the
+Montgomeries became extinct.</p>
+
+<p>Having no children Earl Hugh had settled his title and estates
+on his cousin, Sir Alexander Seton of Foulstruther (1588-1661), a
+younger son of Robert Seton, 1st earl of Wintoun (c. 1550-1603),
+and his wife Margaret, daughter of the 3rd earl of Eglinton.
+Alexander, who thus became the 6th earl of Eglinton and took the
+name of Montgomerie, was commonly called Greysteel; he was a
+prominent Covenanter and fought against Charles I. at Marston
+Moor. Later, however, he supported the cause of Charles II., and
+fell into the hands of Cromwell, who imprisoned him. His fifth
+son, Robert Montgomerie (d. 1684), a soldier of distinction, fought
+against Cromwell at Dunbar and at Worcester, afterwards
+escaping from the Tower of London and serving in Denmark.
+Robert&rsquo;s elder brother, Hugh, 7th earl of Eglinton (1613-1669),
+who also fought against Cromwell, was the grandfather of
+Alexander, the 9th earl (c. 1660-1729), who married, for his third
+wife, Susannah (1689-1780), daughter of Sir Archibald Kennedy,
+Bart., of Culzean, a lady celebrated for her wit and beauty.
+Alexander, the 10th earl (1723-1769), a son of the 9th earl, was
+one of the first of the Scottish landowners to carry out improvements
+on his estates. He was shot near Ardrossan by an excise
+officer named Mungo Campbell on the 24th of October 1769.
+His brother and successor, Archibald, the 11th earl (1726-1796),
+raised a regiment of Highlanders with which he served in America
+during the Seven Years&rsquo; War. As he left no male issue he was
+succeeded in the earldom by his kinsman Hugh Montgomerie
+(1739-1819), a descendant of the 6th earl, who was created a peer
+of the United Kingdom as Baron Ardrossan in 1806. Before
+succeeding to the earldom Hugh had served in the American war
+and had been a member of parliament; after this event he began
+to rebuild Eglinton castle on a magnificent scale and to construct
+a harbour at Ardrossan.</p>
+
+<p>This earl&rsquo;s successor was his grandson, Archibald William, the
+13th earl (1812-1861), who was born at Palermo <span class="correction" title="amended from in">on</span> the 29th of
+September 1812. His father was Archibald, Lord Montgomerie
+(1773-1814), the eldest son of the 12th earl, and his mother was
+Mary (d. 1848), a daughter of the 11th earl. Educated at Eton,
+the young earl&rsquo;s main object of interest for some years was the
+turf; he kept a large racing stud and won success and reputation
+in the sporting world. In 1839 his name became more widely
+known in connexion with the famous tournament which took
+place at Eglinton castle and is said to have cost him £30,000 or
+£40,000. This was made the subject of much ridicule and was
+partly spoiled by the unfavourable weather, the rain falling in
+torrents. Yet it was a real tournament and the &ldquo;knights&rdquo;
+broke their spears in the orthodox way. Prince Louis Napoleon
+(Napoleon III.) took part in it, and Lady Seymour, a daughter of
+Thomas Sheridan and the wife of Lord Seymour, afterwards 12th
+duke of Somerset, was the queen of beauty. A list of the
+challengers with an account of the jousts and the melée will be
+found in the volume on the tournament written by John
+Richardson, with drawings by J. H. Nixon. It is also described
+by Disraeli in <i>Endymion</i>. Eglinton was a staunch Tory, and in
+February 1852 he became lord-lieutenant of Ireland under the
+earl of Derby. He retired with the ministry in the following
+December, having by his princely hospitality made himself one of
+the most popular of Irish viceroys. When Derby returned to
+office in February 1858 he was again appointed lord-lieutenant,
+and he discharged the duties of this post until June 1859. In this
+year he was created earl of Winton, an earldom which had been
+held by his kinsfolk, the Setons, from 1600 until 1716, when
+George Seton, the 5th earl (c. 1678-1749), was deprived of his
+honours for high treason. The earl died on the 4th of October
+1861, and was succeeded by his eldest son Archibald William
+(1841-1892). When this earl died in 1892 his younger brother
+George Arnulph (b. 1848) became 15th earl of Eglinton and
+3rd earl of Winton.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sir W. Fraser, <i>Memorials of the Montgomeries, earls of Eglinton</i>
+(1859).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGMONT, EARLS OF.<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> John Perceval, 1st earl of Egmont
+(1683-1748), Irish politician, and partner with J. E. Oglethorpe
+in founding the American colony of Georgia, was created earl
+in 1733. He claimed descent from the Egmonts of Flanders,
+but his title was taken from the place in County Cork where
+the family residence stood. Its name of Burton House, and that
+of Burton manor which formed part of the family estates, were
+a reminiscence of Burton in Somerset, where was the earlier
+English family property of his great-great-grandfather Richard
+Perceval (1550-1620), Burghley&rsquo;s secret agent, and author of a
+Spanish dictionary published in 1591, whose son Sir Philip
+Perceval (1605-1647) acquired the Irish estates by judicious
+use of his opportunities as commissioner for land titles and of his
+interest at court. Sir Philip&rsquo;s son John, grandfather of the 1st
+earl, was made a baronet in 1661. The first earl of Egmont
+(who had been made Baron Perceval in 1715, and Viscount
+Perceval in 1723) is chiefly important for his connexion with
+the colonization of Georgia, and for his voluminous letters and
+writings on biography and genealogy.</p>
+
+<p>John Perceval, 2nd earl of Egmont (1711-1770), his eldest
+son, was an active politician, first lord of the admiralty (1763-1766),
+and political pamphleteer, and like his father an ardent
+genealogist. He was twice married, and had eight sons and eight
+daughters. One of his younger sons was Spencer Perceval,
+prime minister of England. His eldest son succeeded as 3rd earl,
+and the eldest by his second marriage (with Catherine Compton,
+baroness of Arden in Ireland) was in 1802 created Baron Arden
+of the United Kingdom, a title which subsequently became
+merged in the Egmont earldom.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGMONT<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Egmond</span>), <b>LAMORAL,</b> <span class="sc">Count of</span>, prince of
+Gavre (1522-1568), was born in Hainaut in 1522. He was the
+younger of the two sons of John IV., count of Egmont, by his
+wife Françoise of Luxemburg, princess of Gavre. On the death
+of his elder brother Charles, about 1541, he succeeded to his
+titles and estates. In this year he served his apprenticeship as
+a soldier in the expedition of the emperor Charles V. to Algiers,
+distinguishing himself in the command of a body of cavalry.
+In 1544 he married Sabina, sister of the elector palatine
+Frederick III., and the wedding was celebrated at Spires with
+great pomp in the presence of the emperor and his brother Ferdinand,
+afterwards emperor. Created knight of the Golden Fleece
+in 1546, he accompanied Philip of Spain in his tour through the
+Netherland towns, and in 1554 he went to England at the head
+of a special embassy to ask the hand of Mary of England for
+Philip, and was afterwards present at the wedding ceremony
+at Winchester. In the summer of 1557 Egmont was appointed
+commander of the Flemish cavalry in the war between Spain
+and France; and it was by his vehement persuasion that the
+battle of St Quentin was fought. The victory was determined
+by the brilliant charge that he led against the French. The
+reputation which he won at St Quentin was raised still higher
+in 1558, when he encountered the French army under de Thermes
+at Gravelines, on its march homewards after the invasion of
+Flanders, totally defeated it, and took Marshal de Thermes
+prisoner. The battle was fought against the advice of the duke
+of Alva, and the victory made Alva Egmont&rsquo;s enemy. But
+the count now became the idol of his countrymen, who looked
+upon him as the saviour of Flanders from the devastations of
+the French. He was nominated by Philip stadtholder of Flanders
+and Artois. At the conclusion of the war by the treaty of
+Cateau Cambrésis, Egmont was one of the four hostages selected
+by the king of France as pledges for its execution.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page19" id="page19"></a>19</span></p>
+
+<p>The attempt made by King Philip to convert the Netherlands
+into a Spanish dependency and to govern it by Spanish ministers
+excited the resentment of Egmont and other leading members
+of the Netherlands aristocracy. Between him and Cardinal
+Granvella, the all-powerful minister of the regent Margaret of
+Parma, there was no love lost. As a member of the council of
+state Egmont joined the prince of Orange in a vigorous protest
+addressed to Philip (1561) against the autocratic proceedings
+of the minister; and two years later he again protested in
+conjunction with the prince of Orange and Count Horn. In the
+spring of 1564 Granvella left the Netherlands, and the malcontent
+nobles once more took their places in the council of state. The
+resolve, however, of Philip to enforce the decrees of the council
+of Trent throughout the Netherlands once more aroused their
+resentment. Although himself a good Catholic, Egmont had
+no wish to see the Spanish Inquisition established in his native
+country. Orange, Egmont and others were convinced that the
+enforcement of the decrees in the Netherlands was impossible,
+and, in January 1665, Egmont accepted a special mission to
+Spain to make known to Philip the state of affairs and the
+disposition of the people. At Madrid the king gave him an
+ostentatiously cordial reception, and all the courtiers vied with
+one another in lavishing professions of respect upon him. They
+knew his vain and somewhat unstable character, and hoped to
+win him over without conceding anything to the wishes of the
+Netherlanders. The king gave him plenty of flatteries and
+promises, but steadily evaded any serious discussion of the
+object of his mission, and Egmont finally returned home without
+having accomplished anything. At the same time Philip sent
+further instructions to the regent to abate nothing of the severity
+of the persecution.</p>
+
+<p>Egmont was naturally indignant at the treatment he had
+received, while the terrors of the Inquisition were steadily
+rousing the people to a state of frenzied excitement. In 1566
+a confederacy of the lesser nobility was formed (<i>Les Gueux</i>)
+whose principles were set out in a document known as the
+Compromise. From this league Egmont held aloof; he declined
+to take any step savouring of actual disloyalty to his sovereign.
+He withdrew to his government of Flanders, and as stadtholder
+took active measures for the persecution of heretics. But in the
+eyes of Philip he had long been a marked man. The Spanish
+king had temporized only until the moment arrived when he
+could crush opposition by force. In the summer of 1567 the
+duke of Alva was despatched to the Netherlands at the head of
+an army of veterans to supersede the regent Margaret and
+restore order in the discontented provinces. Orange fled to
+Germany after having vainly warned Egmont and Horn of the
+dangers that threatened them. Alva was at pains to lull their
+suspicions, and then suddenly seized them both and threw them
+in the castle of Ghent. Their trial was a farce, for their fate had
+already been determined before Alva left Spain. After some
+months of imprisonment they were removed to Brussels, where
+sentence was pronounced upon them (June 4) by the infamous
+Council of Blood erected by Alva. They were condemned to
+death for high treason. It was in vain that the most earnest
+intercessions were made in behalf of Egmont by the emperor
+Maximilian, by the knights of the order of the Golden Fleece,
+by the states of Brabant, and by several of the German princes.
+Vain, too, was the pathetic pleading of his wife, who with her
+eleven children was reduced to want, and had taken refuge in
+a convent. Egmont was beheaded at Brussels in the square
+before the town hall on the day after his sentence had been
+publicly pronounced (June 5, 1568). He met his fate with calm
+resignation; and in the storm of terror and exasperation to
+which this tragedy gave rise Egmont&rsquo;s failings were forgotten,
+and he and his fellow-victim to Spanish tyranny were glorified
+in the popular imagination as martyrs of Flemish freedom.
+From this memorable event, which Goethe made the theme of
+his play <i>Egmont</i> (1788), is usually dated the beginning of the
+famous revolt of the Netherlands. In 1865 a monument to
+Counts Egmont and Horn, by Fraiken, was erected on the spot
+where they were beheaded.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;T. Juste, <i>Le Comte d&rsquo;Egmont et le comte de Hornes</i>
+(Brussels, 1862), <i>Les Pays-Bas sous Philippe II</i>, 1555-1565 (2 vols.,
+Brussels, 1855); J. L. Motley, <i>Rise of the Dutch Republic</i>, 1555-1584
+(3 vols., London, 1856); J. P. Blok, <i>History of the People of the
+Netherlands</i> (tr. from Dutch), vol. iii. (New York, 1900); R. Fruin,
+<i>Het voorspel van den tastigjarigen oorlag</i> (Amsterdam, 1866); E.
+Marx, <i>Studien zur Geschichte des niederländischen Aufstandes</i>
+(Leipzig, 1902).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. E.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGOISM<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (from Gr. and Lat. <i>ego</i>, I, the 1st personal pronoun),
+a modern philosophical term used generally, in opposition to
+&ldquo;Altruism,&rdquo; for any ethical system in which the happiness or
+the good of the individual is the main criterion of moral action.
+Another form of the word, &ldquo;Egotism,&rdquo; is really interchangeable,
+though in ordinary language it is often used specially (and
+similarly &ldquo;egoism,&rdquo; as in George Meredith&rsquo;s <i>Egoist</i>) to describe
+the habit of magnifying one&rsquo;s self and one&rsquo;s achievements, or
+regarding all things from a selfish point of view. Both these
+ideas derive from the original meaning of <i>ego</i>, myself, as opposed
+to everything which is outside myself. This antithesis of ego
+and non-ego, self and not-self, may be understood in several
+senses according to the connexion in which it is used. Thus the
+self may be held to include one&rsquo;s family, property, business, and
+an indefinitely wider range of persons or objects in which the
+individual&rsquo;s interest is for the moment centred, <i>i.e.</i> everything
+which I can call &ldquo;mine.&rdquo; In this, its widest, sense &ldquo;a man&rsquo;s Self
+is the sum total of all that he <i>can</i> call his&rdquo; (Wm. James, <i>Principles
+of Psychology</i>, chap x.). This self may be divided up in many
+ways according to the various forms in which it may be expressed.
+Thus James (ibid.) classifies the various &ldquo;selves&rdquo; as the material,
+the spiritual, the social and the &ldquo;pure.&rdquo; Or again the self may
+be narrowed down to a man&rsquo;s own person, consisting of an
+individual mind and body. In the true philosophical sense,
+however, the conception of the ego is still further narrowed down
+to the individual consciousness as opposed to all that is outside
+it, <i>i.e.</i> can be its object. This conception of the self belongs
+mainly to metaphysics and involves the whole problem of the
+relation between subject and object, the nature of reality, and
+the possibility of knowledge of self and of object. The ordinary
+idea of the self as a physical entity, obviously separate from
+others, takes no account of the problem as to how and in what
+sense the individual is conscious of himself; what is the relation
+between subject and object in the phenomenon of self-consciousness,
+in which the mind reflects upon itself both past and present?
+The mind is in this case both subject and object, or, as William
+James puts it, both &ldquo;I&rdquo; and &ldquo;me.&rdquo; The phenomenon has been
+described in various ways by different thinkers. Thus Kant
+distinguished the two selves as rational and empirical, just as
+he distinguished the two egos as the noumenal or real and the
+phenomenal from the metaphysical standpoint. A similar
+distinction is made by Herbart. Others have held that the self
+has a complex content, the subject self being, as it were, a fuller
+expression of the object-self (so Bradley); or again the subject
+self is the active content of the mind, and the object self the
+passive content which for the moment is exciting the attention.
+The most satisfactory and also the most general view is that
+consciousness is complex and unanalysable.</p>
+
+<p>The relation of the self to the not-self need not to be treated
+here (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Metaphysics</a></span>). It may, however, be pointed out that
+in so far as an object is cognized by the mind, it becomes in a sense
+part of the complex self-content. In this sense the individual
+is in himself his own universe, his whole existence being, in other
+words, the sum total of his psychic relations, and nothing else
+being <i>for him</i> in existence at all. A similar idea is prominent in
+many philosophico-religious systems wherein the idea of God
+or the Infinite is, as it were, the union of the ego and the non-ego,
+of subject and object. The self of man is regarded as having
+limitations, whereas the Godhead is infinite and all-inclusive.
+In many mystical Oriental religions the perfection of the human
+self is absorption in the infinite, as a ripple dies away on the
+surface of water. The problems of the self may be summed up
+as follows. The psychologist investigates the ideal construction
+of the self, <i>i.e.</i> the way in which the conception of the self arises,
+the different aspects or contents of the self and the relation of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page20" id="page20"></a>20</span>
+the subject to the object self. At this point the epistemologist
+takes up the question of empirical knowledge and considers
+the kind of validity, if any, which it can possess. What existence
+has the known object for the knowing subject? The result of
+this inquiry is generally intellectual scepticism in a greater or
+less degree, namely, that the object has no existence for the
+knower except a relative one, <i>i.e.</i> in so far as it is &ldquo;known&rdquo;
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Relativity of Knowledge</a></span>). Finally the metaphysician,
+and in another sphere the theologian, consider the nature of the
+pure or transcendental self apart from its relations, <i>i.e.</i> the
+absolute self.</p>
+
+<p>In ethics, egoistic doctrines disregard the ultimate problems
+of selfhood, and assume the self to consist of a man&rsquo;s person and
+those things in which he is or ought to be directly interested.
+The general statement that such doctrines refer all moral action
+to criteria of the individual&rsquo;s happiness, preservation, moral perfection,
+raises an obvious difficulty. Egoism merely asserts that
+the self is all-important in the application of moral principles,
+and does not in any way supply the material of these principles.
+It is a purely formal direction, and as such merely an adjunct
+to a substantive ethical criterion. A practical theory of ethics
+seeks to establish a particular moral ideal; if it is an absolute
+criterion, then the altruist would place first the attainment
+of that ideal by others, while the egoist would seek it for himself.
+The same is true of ethical theories which may be described as
+material. Of the second type are those, <i>e.g.</i> of Hobbes and
+Spinoza, which advocate self-preservation as the ideal, as contrasted
+with modern evolutionist moralists who advocate race-preservation.
+Again, we may contrast the early Greek hedonists,
+who bade each man seek the greatest happiness (of whatever
+kind), with modern utilitarian and social hedonists, who prefer
+the greatest good or the greatest happiness of the greatest
+number. It is with hedonistic and other empirical theories
+that egoism is generally associated. As a matter of fact, however,
+egoism has been no less prominent in intuitional ethics. Thus
+the man who seeks only or primarily his own moral perfection
+is an egoist par excellence. Such are ascetics, hermits and the
+like, whose whole object is the realization of their highest
+selves.</p>
+
+<p>The distinction of egoistical and altruistic action is further
+complicated by two facts. In the first place, many systems
+combine the two. Thus Christian ethics may be said to insist
+equally on duty to self and duty to others, while crudely egoistic
+systems become unworkable if a man renders himself obnoxious
+to his fellows. On the other hand, every deliberate action based
+on an avowedly altruistic principle necessarily has a reference
+to the agent; if it is right that A should do a certain action for the
+benefit of B, then it tends to the moral self-realization of A that
+he should do it. Upon whatsoever principle the rightness of an
+action depends, its performance is right <i>for the agent</i>. The self-reference
+is inevitable in every action in so far as it is regarded
+as voluntary and chosen as being of a particular moral quality.</p>
+
+<p>It is this latter fact which has led many students of human
+character to state that men do in fact aim at the gratification
+of their personal desires and impulses. The laws of the state
+and the various rules of conduct laid down by religion or morality
+are merely devices adopted for general convenience. The most
+remarkable statement of this point of view is that of Friedrich
+Nietzsche, who went so far as to denounce all forms of self-denial
+as cowardice:&mdash;let every one who is strong seek to make himself
+dominant at the expense of the weak.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGORIEVSK,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> a town of Russia, in the government of Ryazañ,
+70 m. by rail E.S.E. of Moscow, by a branch line (15 m.) connecting
+with the Moscow to Ryazañ main line. The cotton mills and
+other factories give occupation to 6000 persons. Egorievsk
+has important fairs for grain, hides, &amp;c., which are exported.
+Pop. (1897) 23,932.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGREMONT, EARLS OF.<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> In 1749 Algernon Seymour, 7th
+duke of Somerset, was created earl of Egremont, and on his
+childless death in February 1750 this title passed by special
+remainder to his nephew, Sir Charles Wyndham or Windham,
+Bart. (1710-1763), a son of Sir William Wyndham of Orchard
+Wyndham, Somerset. Charles, who had succeeded to his
+father&rsquo;s baronetcy in 1740, inherited Somerset&rsquo;s estates in
+Cumberland and Sussex. He was a member of parliament from
+1734 to 1750, and in October 1761 he was appointed secretary
+of state for the southern department in succession to William
+Pitt. His term of office, during which he acted in concert with
+his brother-in-law, George Grenville, was mainly occupied with
+the declaration of war on Spain and with the negotiations for
+peace with France and Spain, a peace the terms of which the
+earl seems to have disliked. He was also to the fore during the
+proceedings against Wilkes, and he died on the 21st of August
+1763. Horace Walpole perhaps rates Egremont&rsquo;s talents too
+low when he says he &ldquo;had neither knowledge of business, nor
+the smallest share of parliamentary abilities.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The 2nd earl&rsquo;s son and successor, George O&rsquo;Brien Wyndham
+(1751-1837), was more famous as a patron of art and an agriculturist
+than as a politician, although he was not entirely indifferent
+to politics. For some time the painter Turner lived at his
+Sussex residence, Petworth House, and in addition to Turner, the
+painter Leslie, the sculptor Flaxman and other talented artists
+received commissions from Egremont, who filled his house with
+valuable works of art. Generous and hospitable, blunt and
+eccentric, the earl was in his day a very prominent figure in
+English society. Charles Greville says, &ldquo;he was immensely rich
+and his munificence was equal to his wealth&rdquo;; and again that in
+his time Petworth was &ldquo;like a great inn.&rdquo; The earl died unmarried
+on the 11th of November 1837, and on the death of
+his nephew and successor, George Francis Wyndham, the 4th
+earl (1785-1845), the earldom of Egremont became extinct.
+Petworth, however, and the large estates had already passed
+to George Wyndham (1787-1869), a natural son of the 3rd earl,
+who was created Baron Leconfield in 1859.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGREMONT,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> a market town in the Egremont parliamentary
+division of Cumberland, England, 5 m. S.S.E. of Whitehaven,
+on a joint line of the London &amp; North Western and Furness
+railways. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5761. It is pleasantly
+situated in the valley of the Ehen. Ruins of a castle command
+the town from an eminence. It was founded c. 1120 by William
+de Meschines; it is moated, and retains a Norman doorway
+and some of the original masonry, as well as fragments of later
+date. The church of St Mary is a modern reconstruction embodying
+some of the Norman features of the old church. Iron
+ore and limestone are raised in the neighbourhood.</p>
+
+<p>It seems impossible to find any history for Egremont until
+after the Norman Conquest, when Henry I. gave the barony of
+Coupland to William de Meschines, who erected a castle at
+Egremont around which the town grew into importance. The
+barony afterwards passed by marriage to the families of Lucy
+and Multon, and finally came to the Percys, earls of Northumberland,
+from whom are descended the present lords of the manor
+of Egremont. The earliest evidence that Egremont was a
+borough occurs in a charter, granted by Richard de Lucy in the
+reign of King John, which gave the burgesses right to choose
+their reeve, and set out the customs owing to the lord of the
+manor, among which was that of providing twelve armed men
+at his castle in the time of war. The borough was represented
+by two members in the parliament of 1295, but in the following
+year was disfranchised, on the petition of the burgesses, on
+account of the expense of sending members. In 1267 Henry III.
+granted Thomas de Multon a market every Wednesday at
+Egremont, and a fair every year on the eve, day and morrow
+of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary. In the <i>Quo Warranto</i> rolls
+he is found to have claimed by prescription another weekly
+market on Saturday. The market rights were purchased from
+Lord Leconfield in 1885, and the market on Saturday is still
+held. Richard de Lucy&rsquo;s charter shows that dyeing, weaving
+and fulling were carried on in the town in his time.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGRESS<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (Lat. <i>egressus</i>, going out), in astronomy, the end of the
+apparent transit of a small body over the disk of a larger one;
+especially of a transit of a satellite of Jupiter over the disk of
+that planet. It designates the moment at which the smaller
+body is seen to leave the limb of the other.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page21" id="page21"></a>21</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EGYPT,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> a country forming the N.E. extremity of Africa.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+In the following account a division is made into (I.) <i>Modern
+Egypt</i>, and (II.) <i>Ancient Egypt</i>; but the history from the earliest
+times is given as a separate section (III.).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Section I. includes Geography, Economics, Government, Inhabitants,
+Finance and Army. Section II. is subdivided into:&mdash;(A)
+Exploration and Research; (B) The Country in Ancient Times;
+(C) Religion; (D) Language and Writing; (E) Art and Archaeology;
+(F) Chronology. Section III. is divided into three main
+periods:&mdash;(1) Ancient History; (2) the Mahommedan Period; (3)
+Modern History (from Mehemet Ali).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">I. Modern Egypt</p>
+
+<p><i>Boundaries and Areas.</i>&mdash;Egypt is bounded N. by the Mediterranean,
+S. by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, N.E. by Palestine,
+E. by the Red Sea, W. by Tripoli and the Sahara. The western
+frontier is ill-defined. The boundary line between Tripoli and
+Egypt is usually taken to start from a point in the Gulf of
+Sollum and to run S. by E. so as to leave the oasis of Siwa to
+Egypt. South of Siwa the frontier, according to the Turkish
+firman of 1841, bends eastward, approaching the cultivated
+Nile-land near Wadi Halfa, <i>i.e.</i> the southern frontier. This
+southern frontier is fixed by agreement between Great Britain
+and Egypt at the 22° N. The N.E. frontier is an almost direct
+line drawn from Taba, near the head of the Gulf of Akaba, the
+eastern of the two gulfs into which the Red Sea divides, to the
+Mediterranean at Rafa in 34° 15&prime; E. The peninsula of Sinai,
+geographically part of Asia, is thus included in the Egyptian
+dominions. The total area of the country is about 400,000
+sq. m., or more than three times the size of the British Isles. Of
+this area <span class="spp">14</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">15</span>ths is desert. Canals, roads, date plantations, &amp;c.,
+cover 1900 sq. m.; 2850 sq. m. are comprised in the surface of
+the Nile, marshes, lakes, &amp;c. A line corresponding with the
+30° N., drawn just S. of Cairo, divides the country into Lower
+and Upper Egypt, natural designations in common use, Lower
+Egypt being the Delta and Upper Egypt the Nile valley. By
+the Arabs Lower Egypt is called Er-Rif, the cultivated or fertile;
+Upper Egypt Es Sa&rsquo;id, the happy or fortunate. Another
+division of the country is into Lower, Middle and Upper Egypt,
+Middle Egypt in this classification being the district between
+Cairo and Assiut.</p>
+
+<p><i>General Character.</i>&mdash;The distinguishing features of Egypt are
+the Nile and the desert. But for the river there would be nothing
+to differentiate the country from other parts of the Sahara.
+The Nile, however, has transformed the land through which it
+passes. Piercing the desert, and at its annual overflow depositing
+rich sediment brought from the Abyssinian highlands, the river
+has created the Delta and the fertile strip in Upper Egypt. This
+cultivable land is Egypt proper; to it alone is applicable the
+ancient name&mdash;&ldquo;the black land.&rdquo; The <i>Misr</i> of the Arabs is
+restricted to the same territory. Beyond the Nile valley east
+and west stretch great deserts, containing here and there fertile
+oases. The general appearance of the country is remarkably
+uniform. The Delta is a level plain, richly cultivated, and
+varied alone by the lofty dark-brown mounds of ancient cities,
+and the villages set in groves of palm-trees, standing on mounds
+often, if not always, ancient. Groves of palm-trees are
+occasionally seen besides those around the villages, but other
+trees are rare. In Upper Egypt the Nile valley is very narrow
+and is bounded by mountains of no great height. They form
+the edge of the desert on either side of the valley, of which the
+bottom is level rock. The mountains rarely take the form of
+peaks. Sometimes they approach the river in bold promontories,
+and at others are divided by the dry beds of ancient watercourses.
+The bright green of the fields, the reddish-brown or
+dull green of the great river, contrasting with the bare yellow
+rocks, seen beneath a brilliant sun and a deep-blue sky, present
+views of great beauty. In form the landscape varies little and
+is not remarkable; in colour its qualities are always splendid,
+and under a general uniformity show a continual variety.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Coast Region.</i>&mdash;Egypt has a coast-line of over 600 m. on the
+Mediterranean and about 1200 m. on the Red Sea. The Mediterranean
+coast extends from the Gulf of Sollum on the west to Rafa on
+the east. From the gulf to the beginning of the Delta the coast is
+rock-bound, but slightly indented, and possesses no good harbourage.
+The cliffs attain in places a height of 1000 ft. They are the termination
+of a stony plateau, containing several small oases, which
+southward joins the more arid and uninhabitable wastes of the
+Libyan Desert. The Delta coast-line, composed of sandhills and,
+occasionally, limestone rocks, is low, with cape-like projections at
+the Nile mouths formed by the river silt. Two bays are thus formed,
+the western being the famous Bay of Aboukir. It is bounded W.
+by a point near the ancient Canopic mouth, eastward by the Rosetta
+mouth. Beyond the Delta eastward the coast is again barren and
+without harbours. It rises gradually southward, merging into the
+plateau of the Sinai peninsula. The Red Sea coast is everywhere
+mountainous. The mountains are the northern continuation of the
+Abyssinian table-land, and some of the peaks are over 6000 ft. above
+the sea. The highest peaks, going from north to south, are Jebels
+Gharib, Dukhan, Es Shayib, Fatira, Abu Tiur, Zubara and Hammada
+(Hamata). The coast has a general N.N.W. and S.S.E. trend,
+and, save for the two gulfs into which it is divided by the massif of
+Sinai, is not deeply indented. Where the frontier between Egypt
+and the Sudan reaches the sea is Ras Elba (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Red Sea</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><i>The Nile Valley</i> (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nile</a></span>).&mdash;Entering Egypt proper, a
+little north of the Second Cataract, the Nile flows through a valley
+in sandstone beds of Cretaceous age as far as 25° N., and throughout
+this part of its course the valley is extremely narrow, rarely exceeding
+2 m. in width. At two points, namely, Kalabsha&mdash;the valley
+here being only 170 yds. wide and the river over 100 ft. deep&mdash;and
+Assuan (First Cataract), the course of the river is interrupted by
+outcrops of granites and other crystalline rocks, which have been
+uncovered by the erosion of the overlying sandstone, and to-day form
+the mass of islands, with numerous small rapids, which are described
+not very accurately as cataracts; no good evidence exists in support
+of the view that they are the remains of a massive barrier, broken
+down and carried away by some sudden convulsion. From 25° N.
+northwards for 518 m. the valley is of the &ldquo;rift-valley&rdquo; type, a level
+depression in a limestone plateau, enclosed usually by steep cliffs,
+except where the tributary valleys drained into the main valley in
+early times, when there was a larger rainfall, and now carry off the
+occasional rainstorms that burst on the desert. The cliffs are highest
+between Esna and Kena, where they reach 1800 ft. above sea-level.
+The average width of the cultivated land is about 10 m., of which
+the greater part lies on the left (western) bank of the river; and
+outside this is a belt, varying from a few hundred yards to 3 or 4 m.,
+of stony and sandy ground, reaching up to the foot of the limestone
+cliffs, which rise in places to as much as 1000 ft. above the valley.
+This continues as far as 29° N., after which the hills that close in the
+valley become lower, and the higher plateaus lie at a distance of
+10 or 15 m. back in the desert.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Fayum.</i>&mdash;The fertile province of the Fayum, west of the Nile
+and separated from it by some 6 m. of desert, seems to owe its existence
+to movements similar to those which determined the valley
+itself. Lying in a basin sloping in a series of terraces from an altitude
+of 65 ft. above sea-level in the east to about 140 ft. <i>below</i> sea-level
+on the north-west, at the margin of the Birket-el-Kerun, this province
+is wholly irrigated by a canalized channel, the Bahr Yusuf,
+which, leaving the Nile at Derut esh Sherif in Upper Egypt, follows
+the western margin of the cultivation in the Nile valley, and at
+length enters the Fayum through a gap in the desert hills by the
+XIIth Dynasty pyramids of Lahun and Hawara (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fayum</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><i>The Delta.</i>&mdash;About 30° N., where the city of Cairo stands, the
+hills which have hitherto run parallel with the Nile turn W.N.W.
+and E.N.E., and the triangular area between them is wholly deltaic.
+The Delta measures 100 m. from S. to N., having a width of 155 m.
+on the shore of the Mediterranean between Alexandria on the west
+and Port Said on the east. The low sandy shore of the Delta, slowly
+increasing by the annual deposit of silt by the river, is mostly a
+barren area of sand-hills and salty waste land. This is the region
+of the lagoons and marshes immediately behind the coast-line.
+Southwards the quality of the soil rapidly improves, and becomes the
+most fertile part of Egypt. This area is watered by the Damietta
+and the Rosetta branches of the Nile, and by a network of canals. The
+soil of the Delta is a dark grey fine sandy soil, becoming at times
+almost a stiff clay by reason of the fineness of its particles, which
+consist almost wholly of extremely small grains of quartz with a few
+other minerals, and often numerous flakes of mica. This deposit
+varies in thickness, as a rule, from 55 to 70 ft., at which depth it is
+underlain by a series of coarse and fine yellow quartz sands, with
+occasional pebbles, or even banks of gravel, while here and there thin
+beds of clay occur. These sand-beds are sharply distinguished by
+their colour from the overlying Nile deposit, and are of considerable
+thickness. A boring made in 1886 for the Royal Society at Zagazig
+attained a depth of 375 ft. without reaching rock, and another,
+subsequently sunk near Lake Aboukir (close to Alexandria), reached
+a depth of 405 ft. with the same result. Numerous other borings to
+depths of 100 to 200 ft. have given similar results, showing the Nile
+deposit to rest generally on these yellow sands, which provide a
+constant though not a very large supply of good water; near the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page22" id="page22"></a>22</span>
+northern limits of the Delta this cannot, however, be depended on,
+since the well water at these depths has proved on several occasions
+to be salt. The surface of the Delta is a wide alluvial plain sloping
+gently towards the sea, and having an altitude of 29 ft. above it at
+its southern extremity. Its limits east and west are determined by
+the higher ground of the deserts, to which the silt-laden waters of
+the Nile in flood time cannot reach. This silt consists largely of
+alumina (about 48%) and calcium carbonate (18%) with smaller
+quantities of silica, oxide of iron and carbon. Although the Nile
+water is abundantly charged with alluvium, the annual deposit by
+the river, except under extraordinary circumstances, is smaller than
+might be supposed. The mean ordinary rate of the increase of the
+soil of Egypt is calculated as about 4½ in. in a century.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:679px; height:606px" src="images/img22.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>The Lakes.</i>&mdash;The lagoons or lakes of the Delta, going from west
+to east, are Mareotis (Mariut), Edku, Burlus and Menzala. The land
+separating them from the Mediterranean is nowhere more than 10 m.
+wide. East of the Damietta mouth of the Nile this strip is in places
+not more than 200 yds. broad. All the lakes are shallow and the
+water in them salt or brackish. Mareotis, which bounds Alexandria
+on the south side,
+varies considerably in
+area according to the
+rise or fall of the Nile;
+when the Nile is low
+there is a wide expanse
+of marsh, when at its
+highest the lake covers
+about 100 sq. m. In
+ancient times Mareotis
+was navigable and was
+joined by various canals
+to the Nile. The country
+around was cultivated
+and produced the
+famous Mareotic wine.
+The canals being neglected,
+the lake decreased
+in size, though
+it was still of considerable
+area in the 15th
+and 16th centuries, and
+was then noted for the
+value of its fisheries.
+When the French army
+occupied Egypt in 1798,
+Mareotis was found to
+be largely a sandy plain.
+In April 1801 the British
+army besieging Alexandria
+cut through the
+land between Aboukir
+and the lake, admitting
+the waters of the sea
+into the ancient bed
+of Mareotis and laying
+under water a large
+area then in cultivation.
+This precedent
+was twice imitated, first by the Turks in 1803 and a second time by
+the British in 1807. Mareotis has no outlet, and the water is kept
+at a uniform level by means of powerful pumps which neutralize the
+effect of the Nile flood. A western arm has been cut off from the
+lake by a dyke, and in this arm a thick crust of salt is formed each
+year after the evaporation of the flood water. Near the shores of the
+lake wild flowers grow in rich profusion. Like all the Delta lakes,
+Mareotis abounds in wild-fowl. North-east of Mareotis was Lake
+Aboukir, a small sheet of water, now dry, lying S.W. of Aboukir Bay.
+East of this reclaimed marsh and reaching to within 4 m. of the
+Rosetta branch of the Nile, lies Edku, 22 m. long and in places 16
+wide, with an opening, supposed to be the ancient Canopic mouth
+of the Nile, into Aboukir Bay. Burlus begins a little eastward
+of the Rosetta channel, and stretches bow-shaped for 64 m. Its
+greatest width is about 16 m. Adjoining it S.E. is an expanse of
+sandy marsh. Several canals or canalized channels enter the lake.
+Opposite the spot where the Bahr-mit Yezir enters is an opening
+into the Mediterranean. Canal and opening indicate the course of
+the ancient Sebennytic branch of the Nile. Burlus is noted for its
+water-melons, which are yellow within and come into season after
+those grown on the banks of the Nile.</p>
+
+<p>Menzala greatly exceeds the other Delta lakes in size, covering
+over 780 sq. m. It extends from very near the Damietta branch of
+the Nile to Port Said. It receives the waters of the canalized channels
+which were once the Tanitic, Mendesian and Pelusiac branches.
+The northern shore is separated from the sea by an extremely narrow
+strip of land, across which, when the Mediterranean is stormy and
+the lake full, the waters meet. Its average length is about 40 m.,
+and its average breadth about 15. The depth is greater than that
+of the other lakes, and the water is salt, though mixed with fresh.
+It contains a large number of islands, and the whole lake abounds
+in reeds of various kinds. Of the islands Tenn&#299;s (anciently Tennesus)
+contains ruins of the Roman period. The lake supports a considerable
+population of fishermen, who dwell in villages on the shore and
+islands and live upon the fish of the lake. The reeds are cover for
+waterfowl of various kinds, which the traveller sees in great numbers,
+and wild boars are found in the marshes to the south. The Suez
+Canal runs in a straight line for 20 m. along the eastern edge of the
+lake. That part of the lake east of where the canal was excavated
+is now marshy plain, and the Tanitic and Pelusiac mouths of the
+Nile are dry. East of Menzala is the site of Serbonis, another dried-up
+lake, which had the general characteristics of the Delta lagoons.
+In the Isthmus of Suez are Lake Timsa and the Great and Little
+Bitter Lakes, occupying part of the ancient bed of the Red Sea.
+All three were dry or marshy depressions previously to the cutting
+of the Suez Canal, at which time the waters of the Mediterranean
+and Red Sea were let into them (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Suez Canal</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>A chain of natron lakes (seven in number) lies in a valley in the
+western desert, 70 to 90 m. W.N.W. of Cairo. In the Fayum province
+farther south is the Birket-el-Kerun, a lake, lying below the level of
+the Nile, some 30 m. long and 5 wide at its broadest part. Kerun
+is all that is left of
+the Lake of Moeris, an
+ancient artificial sheet
+of water which played
+an important part in
+the irrigation schemes
+of the Pharaohs. The
+water of el-Kerun is
+brackish, though derived
+from the Nile,
+which has at all seasons
+a much higher level. It
+is bounded on the north
+by the Libyan Desert,
+above which rises a bold
+range of mountains; and
+it has a strange and picturesque
+wildness. Near
+the lake are several sites
+of ancient towns, and
+the temple called Kasr-Karun,
+dating from
+Roman times, distinguishes
+the most important
+of these.
+South-west of the
+Fayum is the Wadi
+Rayan, a large and
+deep depression, utilizable
+in modern schemes
+for re-creating the Lake
+of Moeris (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>The Desert Plateaus.</i>&mdash;From
+the southern
+borders of Egypt to
+the Delta in the north,
+the desert plateaus extend
+on either side of
+the Nile valley. The
+eastern region, between the Nile and the Red Sea, varies in
+width from 90 to 350 m. and is known in its northern part as
+the Arabian Desert. The western region has no natural barrier
+for many hundreds of miles; it is part of the vast Sahara. On its
+eastern edge, a few miles west of Cairo, stand the great pyramids
+(<i>q.v.</i>) of Gizeh or Giza. North of Assuan it is called the Libyan
+Desert. In the north the desert plateaus are comparatively low, but
+from Cairo southwards they rise to 1000 and even 1500 ft. above sea-level.
+Formed mostly of horizontal strata of varying hardness, they
+present a series of terraces of minor plateaus, rising one above the
+other, and intersected by small ravines worn by the occasional rainstorms
+which burst in their neighbourhood. The weathering of this
+desert area is probably fairly rapid, and the agents at work are
+principally the rapid heating and cooling of the rocks by day and
+night, and the erosive action of sand-laden wind on the softer layers;
+these, aided by the occasional rain, are ceaselessly at work, and
+produce the successive plateaus, dotted with small isolated hills and
+cut up by valleys (wadis) which occasionally become deep ravines,
+thus forming the principal type of scenery of these deserts. From
+this it will be seen that the desert in Egypt is mainly a rock desert,
+where the surface is formed of disintegrated rock, the finer particles
+of which have been carried away by the wind; and east of the Nile
+this is almost exclusively the case. Here the desert meets the line
+of mountains which runs parallel to the Red Sea and the Gulf of
+Suez. In the western desert, however, those large sand accumulations
+which are usually associated with a desert are met with.
+They occur as lines of dunes formed of rounded grains of quartz, and
+lie in the direction of the prevalent wind, usually being of small
+breadth as compared with their length; but in certain areas, such
+as that lying S.W. and W. of the oases of Farafra and Dakhla, these
+lines of dunes, lying parallel to each other and about half a mile
+apart, cover immense areas, rendering them absolutely impassable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page23" id="page23"></a>23</span>
+except in a direction parallel to the lines themselves. East of the
+oases of Baharia and Farafra is a very striking line of these sand
+dunes; rarely more than 3 miles wide, it extends almost continuously
+from Moghara in the north, passing along the west side of
+Kharga Oasis to a point near the Nile in the neighbourhood of Abu
+Simbel&mdash;having thus a length of nearly 550 m. In the northern
+part of this desert the dunes lie about N.W.-S.E., but farther south
+incline more towards the meridian, becoming at last very nearly north
+and south.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oases.</i>&mdash;In the western desert lie the five large oases of Egypt,
+namely, Siwa, Baharia, Farafra, Dakhla and Kharga or Great Oasis,
+occupying depressions in the plateau or, in the case of the last three,
+large indentations in the face of limestone escarpments which form
+the western versant of the Nile valley hills. Their fertility is due to
+a plentiful supply of water furnished by a sandstone bed 300 to
+500 ft. below the surface, whence the water rises through natural
+fissures or artificial boreholes to the surface, and sometimes to
+several feet above it. These oases were known and occupied by the
+Egyptians as early as 1600 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, and Kharga (<i>q.v.</i>) rose to special
+importance at the time of the Persian occupation. Here, near the
+town of Kharga, the ancient Hebi, is a temple of Ammon built by
+Darius I., and in the same oasis are other ruins of the period of the
+Ptolemies and Caesars. The oasis of Siwa (Jupiter Ammon) is about
+150 m. S. of the Mediterranean at the Gulf of Sollum and about
+300 m. W. of the Nile (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Siwa</a></span>). The other four oases lie parallel
+to and distant 100 to 150 m. from the Nile, between 25° and 29° N.,
+Baharia being the most northerly and Kharga the most southerly.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the oases the desert is remarkable for two other valleys.
+The first is that of the natron lakes already mentioned. It contains
+four monasteries, the remains of the famous anchorite settlement of
+Nitriae. South of the Wadi Natron, and parallel to it, is a sterile
+valley called the Bahr-bela-Ma, or &ldquo;River without Water.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Sinai Peninsula.</i>&mdash;The triangular-shaped Sinai peninsula
+has its base on the Mediterranean, the northern part being an arid
+plateau, the desert of Tih. The apex is occupied by a massif of crystalline
+rocks. The principal peaks rise over 8500 ft. Owing to the
+slight rainfall, and the rapid weathering of the rocks by the great
+range of temperature, these hills rise steeply from the valleys at their
+feet as almost bare rock, supporting hardly any vegetation. In
+some of the valleys wells or rock-pools filled by rain occur, and
+furnish drinking-water to the few Arabs who wander in these hills
+(see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sinai</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>[<i>Geology.</i>&mdash;Just as the Nile valley forms the chief geographical
+feature of Egypt, so the geology of the country is intimately related
+to it. The north and south direction of the river has been largely
+determined by faults, though the geologists of the Egyptian Survey
+are finding that the influence of faulting in determining physical
+outline has, in some cases, been overestimated. The oldest rocks,
+consisting of crystalline schists with numerous intrusions of granite,
+porphyry and diorite, occupy the eastern portion of the country
+between the Nile south of Assuan and the Red Sea. The intrusive
+rocks predominate over the schists in extent of area covered. They
+furnished the chief material for the ancient monuments. At Assuan
+(Syene) the well-known syenite of Werner occurs. It is, however, a
+hornblende granite and does not possess the mineralogical composition
+of the syenites of modern petrology. Between Thebes
+and Khartum the western banks of the Nile are composed of Nubian
+Sandstone, which extends westward from the river to the edge of the
+great Libyan Desert, where it forms the bed rock. The age of this
+sandstone has given rise to much dispute. The upper part certainly
+belongs to the Cretaceous formation; the lower part has been considered
+to be of Karroo age by some geologists, while others regard
+the whole formation to be of Cretaceous age. In the Kharga Oasis
+the upper portion consists of variously coloured unfossiliferous clays
+with intercalated bands of sandstone containing fossil silicified
+woods (<i>Nicolia Aegyptiaca</i> and <i>Araucarioxylon Aegypticum</i>). They
+are conformably overlain by clays and limestones with <i>Exogyra
+Overwegi</i> belonging to the Lower Danian, and these by clays and
+white chalk with <i>Ananchytes ovata</i> of the Upper Danian. In many
+instances the Tertiary formation, which occurs between Esna and
+Cairo, unconformably overlies the Cretaceous, the Lower Eocene
+being absent. The fluvio-marine deposits of the Upper Eocene
+and Oligocene formations contain an interesting mammalian fauna,
+proving that the African continent formed a centre of radiation for
+the mammalia in early Tertiary times. <i>Arsinoitherium</i> is the precursor
+of the horned Ungulata; while <i>Moeritherium</i> and <i>Palaeomastodon</i>
+undoubtedly include the oldest known elephants. Miocene
+strata are absent in the southern Tertiary areas, but are present at
+Moghara and in the north. Marine Pliocene strata occur to the south
+of the pyramids of Giza and in the Fayum province, where, in
+addition, some gravel terraces, at a height of 500 ft. above sea-level,
+are attributed to the Pliocene period. The Lake of Moeris, as a large
+body of fresh water, appears to have come into existence in Pleistocene
+times. It is represented now by the brackish-water lake of
+the Birket-el-Kerun. The superficial sands of the deserts and the
+Nile mud form the chief recent formations. The Nile deposits its
+mud over the valley before reaching the sea, and consequently the
+Delta receives little additional material. At Memphis the alluvial
+deposits are over 50 ft. thick. The superficial sands of the desert
+region, derived in large part from the disintegration of the Nubian
+Sandstone, occupy the most extensive areas in the Libyan Desert.
+The other desert regions of Egypt are elevated stony plateaus,
+which are diversified by extensively excavated valleys and oases,
+and in which sand frequently plays quite a subordinate part. These
+regions present magnificent examples of dry erosion by wind-borne
+sand, which acts as a powerful sand blast etching away the rocks
+and producing most beautiful sculpturing. The rate of denudation
+in exposed positions is exceedingly rapid; while spots sheltered from
+the sand blast suffer a minimum of erosion, as shown by the preservation
+of ancient inscriptions. Many of the Egyptian rocks in the
+desert areas and at the cataracts are coated with a highly polished
+film, of almost microscopic thinness, consisting chiefly of oxides of
+iron and manganese with salts of magnesia and lime. It is supposed
+to be due to a chemical change within the rock and not to deposition
+on the surface.]</p>
+
+<p><i>Minerals.</i>&mdash;Egypt possesses considerable mineral wealth. In
+ancient times gold and precious stones were mined in the Red Sea
+hills. During the Moslem period mining was abandoned, and it was
+not until the beginning of the 20th century that renewed efforts were
+made to develop the mining industry. The salt obtained from
+Lake Mareotis at Meks, a western suburb of Alexandria, supplies the
+salt needed for the country, except a small quantity used for curing
+fish at Lake Menzala; while the lakes in the Wadi Natron, 45 m.
+N.W. of the pyramids of Giza, furnish carbonate of soda in large
+quantities. Alum is found in the western oases. Nitrates and phosphates
+are also found in various parts of the desert and are used as
+manures. The turquoise mines of Sinai, in the Wadi Maghara, are
+worked regularly by the Arabs of the peninsula, who sell the stones
+in Suez; while there are emerald mines at Jebel Zubara, south of
+Kosseir. Petroleum occurs at Jebel Zeit, on the west shore of the
+Gulf of Suez. Considerable veins of haematite of good quality occur
+both in the Red Sea hills and in Sinai. At Jebel ed-Dukhan are
+porphyry quarries, extensively worked under the Romans, and at
+Jebel el-Fatira are granite quarries. At El-Hamm&#257;m&#257;t, on the old
+way from Coptos to Philoteras Portus, are the breccia verde quarries,
+worked from very early times, and having interesting hieroglyphic
+inscriptions. At the various mines, and on the routes to them and
+to the Red Sea, are some small temples and stations, ranging from
+the Pharaonic to the Roman period. The quarries of Syene (Assuan)
+are famous for extremely hard and durable red granite (syenite), and
+have been worked since the days of the earliest Pharaohs. Large
+quantities of this syenite were used in building the Assuan dam
+(1898-1902). The cliffs bordering the Nile are largely quarried for
+limestone and sandstone.</p>
+
+<p>Gold-mining recommenced in 1905 at Um Rus, a short distance
+inland from the Red Sea and some 50 m. S. of Kosseir, where milling
+operations were started in March of that year. Another mine opened
+in 1905 was that of Um Garaiat, E.N.E. of Korosko, and 65 m.
+distant from the Nile.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;Part of Upper Egypt is within the tropics, but the
+greater part of the country is north of the Tropic of Cancer. Except
+a narrow belt on the north along the Mediterranean shore, Egypt
+lies in an almost rainless area, where the temperature is high by day
+and sinks quickly at night in consequence of the rapid radiation under
+the cloudless sky. The mean temperature at Alexandria and Port
+Said varies between 57° F. in January and 81° F. in July; while at
+Cairo, where the proximity of the desert begins to be felt, it is 53° F.
+in January, rising to 84° F. in July. January is the coldest month,
+when occasionally in the Nile valley, and more frequently in the open
+desert, the temperature sinks to 32° F., or even a degree or two below.
+The mean maximum temperatures are 99° F. for Alexandria and
+110° F. for Cairo. Farther south the range of temperature becomes
+greater as pure desert conditions are reached. Thus at Assuan the
+mean maximum is 118° F., the mean minimum 42° F. At Wadi
+Halfa the figures in each case are one degree lower.</p>
+
+<p>The relative humidity varies greatly. At Assuan the mean value
+for the year is only 38%, that for the summer being 29%, and for
+the winter 51%; while for Wadi Halfa the mean is 32%, and
+20% and 42% are the mean values for summer and winter respectively.
+A white fog, dense and cold, sometimes rises from the
+Nile in the morning, but it is of short duration and rare occurrence.
+In Alexandria and on all the Mediterranean coast of Egypt rain falls
+abundantly in the winter months, amounting to 8 in. in the year;
+but southwards it rapidly decreases, and south of 31° N. little rain
+falls.</p>
+
+<p>Records at Cairo show that the rainfall is very irregular, and is
+furnished by occasional storms rather than by any regular rainy
+season; still, most falls in the winter months, especially December
+and January, while, on the other hand, none has been recorded in
+June and July. The average annual rainfall does not exceed 1.50 in.
+In the open desert rain falls even more rarely, but it is by no means
+unknown, and from time to time heavy storms burst, causing sudden
+floods in the narrow ravines, and drowning both men and animals.
+These are more common in the mountainous region of the Sinai
+peninsula, where they are much dreaded by the Arabs. Snow is
+unknown in the Nile valley, but on the mountains of Sinai and the
+Red Sea hills it is not uncommon, and a temperature of 18° F. at an
+altitude of 2000 ft. has been recorded in January.</p>
+
+<p>The atmospheric pressure varies between a maximum in January
+and a minimum in July, the mean difference being about 0.29 in.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page24" id="page24"></a>24</span>
+In a series of records extending over 14 years the mean pressure
+varied between 29.84 and 29.90 in.</p>
+
+<p>The most striking meteorological factor in Egypt is the persistence
+of the north wind throughout the year, without which the climate
+would be very trying. It is this &ldquo;Etesian&rdquo; wind which enables
+sailing boats constantly to ascend the Nile, against its strong and
+rapid current. In December, January and February, at Cairo, the
+north wind slightly predominates, though those from the south and
+west often nearly equal it, but after this the north blows almost
+continuously for the rest of the year. In May and June the prevailing
+direction is north and north-north-east, and for July, August,
+September and October north and north-west. From the few
+observations that exist, it seems that farther south the southern
+winter winds decrease rapidly, becoming westerly, until at Assuan
+and Wadi Haifa the northerly winds are almost invariable throughout
+the year. The <i>khamsin</i>, hot sand-laden winds of the spring
+months, come invariably from the south. They are preceded by a
+rapid fall of the barometer for about a day, until a gradient from
+south to north is formed, then the wind commences to blow, at first
+gently, from the south-east; rapidly increasing in violence, it shifts
+through south to south-west, finally dropping about sunset. The
+same thing is repeated on the second and sometimes the third day,
+by which time the wind has worked round to the north again.
+During a khamsin the temperature is high and the air extremely dry,
+while the dust and sand carried by the wind form a thick yellow fog
+obscuring the sun. Another remarkable phenomenon is the <i>zobaa</i>,
+a lofty whirlwind of sand resembling a pillar, which moves with
+great velocity. The southern winds of the summer months which
+occur in the low latitudes north of the equator are not felt much
+north of Khartum.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most interesting phenomena of Egypt is the mirage,
+which is frequently seen both in the desert and in the waste tracts of
+uncultivated land near the Mediterranean; and it is often so truthful
+in its appearance that one finds it difficult to admit the illusion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora.</i>&mdash;Egypt possesses neither forests nor woods and, as practically
+the whole of the country which will support vegetation is
+devoted to agriculture, the flora is limited. The most important
+tree is the date-palm, which grows all over Egypt and in the oases.
+The lower branches being regularly cut, this tree grows high and
+assumes a much more elegant form than in its natural state. The
+dom-palm is first seen a little north of 26° N., and extends southwards.
+The vine grows well, and in ancient times was largely
+cultivated for wine; oranges, lemons and pomegranates also abound.
+Mulberry trees are common in Lower Egypt. The sunt tree (<i>Acacia
+nilotica</i>) grows everywhere, as well as the tamarisk and the sycamore.
+In the deserts halfa grass and several kinds of thorn bushes grow;
+and wherever rain or springs have moistened the ground, numerous
+wild flowers thrive. This is especially the case where there is also shade
+to protect them from the midday sun, as in some of the narrow
+ravines in the eastern desert and in the palm groves of the oases,
+where various ferns and flowers grow luxuriantly round the springs.
+Among many trees which have been imported, the &ldquo;lebbek&rdquo; (<i>Albizzia
+lebbek</i>), a thick-foliaged mimosa, thrives especially, and has been
+very largely employed. The weeping-willow, myrtle, elm, cypress
+and eucalyptus are also used in the gardens and plantations.</p>
+
+<p>The most common of the fruits are dates, of which there are nearly
+thirty varieties, which are sold half-ripe, ripe, dried, and pressed in
+their fresh moist state in mats or skins. The pressed dates of Siwa
+are among the most esteemed. The Fayum is celebrated for its
+grapes, and chiefly supplies the market of Cairo. The most common
+grape is white, of which there is a small kind far superior to the
+ordinary sort. The black grapes are large, but comparatively
+tasteless. The vines are trailed on trelliswork, and form agreeable
+avenues in the gardens of Cairo. The best-known fruits, besides
+dates and grapes, are figs, sycamore-figs and pomegranates, apricots
+and peaches, oranges and citrons, lemons and limes, bananas, which
+are believed to be of the fruits of Paradise (being always in season),
+different kinds of melons (including some of aromatic flavour, and
+the refreshing water-melon), mulberries, Indian figs or prickly pears,
+the fruit of the lotus and olives. Among the more usual cultivated
+flowers are the rose (which has ever been a favourite among the
+Arabs), the jasmine, narcissus, lily, oleander, chrysanthemum,
+convolvulus, geranium, dahlia, basil, the henna plant (<i>Lawsonia
+alba</i>, or Egyptian privet, which is said to be a flower of Paradise),
+the helianthus and the violet. Of wild flowers the most common
+are yellow daisies, poppies, irises, asphodels and ranunculuses.
+The <i>Poinsettia pulcherrima</i> is a bushy tree with leaves of brilliant
+red.</p>
+
+<p>Many kinds of reeds are found in Egypt, though they were formerly
+much more common. The famous byblus or papyrus no longer
+exists in the country, but other kinds of <i>cyperi</i> are found. The lotus,
+greatly prized for its flowers by the ancient inhabitants, is still found
+in the Delta, though never in the Nile itself. There are two varieties
+of this water-lily, one with white flowers, the other with blue.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna.</i>&mdash;The chief quadrupeds are all domestic animals. Of these
+the camel and the ass are the most common. The ass, often a tall
+and handsome creature, is indigenous. When the camel was first
+introduced into Egypt is uncertain&mdash;it is not pictured on the ancient
+monuments. Neither is the buffalo, which with the sheep is very
+numerous in Egypt. The horses are of indifferent breed, apparently
+of a type much inferior to that possessed by the ancient Egyptians.
+Wild animals are few. The principal are the hyena, jackal and fox.
+The wild boar is found in the Delta. Wolves are rare. Numerous
+gazelles inhabit the deserts. The ibex is found in the Sinaitic peninsula
+and the hills between the Nile and the Red Sea, and the mouflon,
+or maned sheep, is occasionally seen in the same regions. The desert
+hare is abundant in parts of the Fayum, and a wild cat, or lynx,
+frequents the marshy regions of the Delta. The ichneumon
+(Pharaoh&rsquo;s rat) is common and often tame; the coney and jerboa
+are found in the eastern mountains. Bats are very numerous.
+The crocodile is no longer found in Egypt, nor the hippopotamus,
+in ancient days a frequenter of the Nile. The common or pariah
+dog is generally of sandy colour; in Upper Egypt there is a breed
+of wiry rough-haired black dogs, noted for their fierceness. Among
+reptiles are several kinds of venomous snakes&mdash;the horned viper, the
+hooded snake and the echis. Lizards of many kinds are found, including
+the monitor. There are many varieties of beetle, including
+a number of species representing the scarabaeus of the ancients.
+Locusts are comparatively rare. The scorpion, whose sting is sometimes
+fatal, is common. There are many large and poisonous spiders
+and flies; fleas and mosquitoes abound. Fish are plentiful in the
+Nile, both scaled and without scales. The scaly fish include members
+of the carp and perch kind. The <i>bayad</i>, a scaleless fish commonly
+eaten, reaches sometimes 3½ ft. in length. A somewhat rare fish is the
+<i>Polypterus</i>, which has thick bony scales and 16 to 18 long dorsal fins.
+The <i>Tetrodon</i>, or ball fish, is found in the Red Sea, as well as in the Nile.</p>
+
+<p>Some 300 species of birds are found in Egypt, and one of the most
+striking features of a journey up the Nile is the abundance of bird
+life. Many of the species are sedentary, others are winter visitants,
+while others again simply pass through Egypt on their way to or
+from warmer or colder regions. Birds of prey are very numerous,
+including several varieties of eagles&mdash;the osprey, the spotted, the
+golden and the imperial. Of vultures the black and white Egyptian
+variety (<i>Neophron percnopterus</i>) is most common. The griffon and
+the black vulture are also frequently seen. There are many kinds
+of kites, falcons and hawks, kestrel being numerous. The long-legged
+buzzard is found throughout Egypt, as are owls. The so-called
+Egyptian eagle owl (<i>Bubo ascalaphus</i>) is rather rare, but the
+barn owl is common. The kingfisher is found beside every watercourse,
+a black and white species (<i>Ceryle rudis</i>) being much more
+numerous than the common kingfisher. Pigeons and hoopoes abound
+in every village. There are various kinds of plovers&mdash;the black-headed
+species (<i>Pluvianus Aegyptius</i>) is most numerous in Upper
+Egypt; the golden plover and the white-tailed species are found
+chiefly in the Delta. The spurwing is supposed to be the bird
+mentioned by Herodotus as eating the parasites covering the inside
+of the mouth of the crocodile. Of game-birds the most plentiful
+are sandgrouse, quail (a bird of passage) and snipe. Red-legged
+and other partridges are found in the eastern desert and the Sinai
+hills. Of aquatic birds there is a great variety. Three species of
+pelican exist, including the large Dalmatian pelican. Storks, cranes,
+herons and spoonbills are common. The sacred ibis is not found in
+Egypt, but the buff-backed heron, the constant companion of the
+buffalo, is usually called an ibis. The glossy ibis is occasionally seen.
+The flamingo, common in the lakes of Lower Egypt, is not found
+on the Nile. Geese, duck and teal are abundant. The most common
+goose is the white-fronted variety; the Egyptian goose is more rare.
+Both varieties are depicted on the ancient monuments; the white-fronted
+goose being commonly shown. Several birds of gorgeous
+plumage come north into Egypt in the spring, among others the
+golden oriole, the sun-bird, the roller and the blue-cheeked bee-eater.</p>
+
+<p><i>Egypt as a Health Resort.</i>&mdash;The country is largely resorted to
+during the winter months by Europeans in search of health as well
+as pleasure. Upper Egypt is healthier than Lower Egypt, where,
+especially near the coast, malarial fevers and diseases of the respiratory
+organs are not uncommon. The least healthy time of
+the year is the latter part of autumn, when the inundated soil is
+drying. In the desert, at a very short distance from the cultivable
+land, the climate is uniformly dry and unvaryingly healthy. The
+most suitable places for the residence of invalids are Helwan, where
+there are natural mineral springs, in the desert, 14 m. S. of Cairo,
+and Luxor and Assuan in Upper Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The diseases from which Egyptians suffer are very largely the result
+of insanitary surroundings. In this respect a great improvement
+has taken place since the British occupation in 1882. Plague,
+formerly one of the great scourges of the country, seems to have been
+stamped out, the last visitation having been in 1844, but cholera
+epidemics occasionally occur.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Cholera rarely extends south of Cairo.
+In 1848 it is believed that over 200,000 persons died from cholera,
+but later epidemics have been much less fatal. Smallpox is not uncommon,
+and skin diseases are numerous, but the two most prevalent
+diseases among the Egyptians are dysentery and ophthalmia. The
+objection entertained by many natives to entering hospitals or to
+altering their traditional methods of &ldquo;cure&rdquo; renders these diseases
+much more malignant and fatal than they would be in other circumstances.
+The government, however, enforces certain health regulations,
+and the sanitary service is under the direction of a European official.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page25" id="page25"></a>25</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Chief Towns.</i>&mdash;Cairo (<i>q.v.</i>) the capital, a city of Arab foundation,
+is built on the east bank of the Nile, about 12 m, above the
+point where the river divides, and in reference to its situation
+at the head of the Delta has been called by the Arabs &ldquo;the
+diamond stud in the handle of the fan of Egypt.&rdquo; It has a
+population (1907) of 654,476 and is the largest city in Africa.
+Next in importance of the cities of Egypt and the chief seaport
+is Alexandria (<i>q.v.</i>), pop. (with Ramleh) 370,009, on the shore of
+the Mediterranean at the western end of the Delta. Port Said
+(<i>q.v.</i>), pop. 49,884, at the eastern end of the Delta, and at the
+north entrance to the Suez Canal, is the second seaport. Between
+Alexandria and Port Said are the towns of Rosetta (<i>q.v.</i>), pop.
+16,810, and Damietta (<i>q.v.</i>), pop. 29,354, each built a few
+miles above the mouth of the branch of the Nile of the same
+name. In the middle ages, when Alexandria was in decay,
+these two towns were busy ports; with the revival of Alexandria
+under Mehemet Ali and the foundation of Port Said (c. 1860),
+their trade declined. The other ports of Egypt are Suez (<i>q.v.</i>),
+pop. 18,347, at the south entrance of the canal, Kosseir (794) on
+the Red Sea, the seat of the trade carried on between Upper
+Egypt and Arabia, Mersa Matruh, near the Tripolitan frontier,
+and El-Arish, pop. 5897, on the Mediterranean, near the
+frontier of Palestine, and a halting-place on the caravan route
+from Egypt to Syria. In the interior of the Delta are many
+flourishing towns, the largest being Tanta, pop. 54,437, which
+occupies a central position. Damanhur (38,752) lies on the
+railway between Tanta and Alexandria; Mansura (40,279) is on
+the Damietta branch of the Nile, to the N.E. of Tanta; Zagazig
+(34,999) is the largest town in the Delta east of the Damietta
+branch; Bilbeis (13,485) lies N.N.E. of Cairo, on the edge of
+the desert and in the ancient Land of Goshen. Ismailia (10,373)
+is situated midway on the Suez Canal. All these towns, which
+depend largely on the cotton industry, are separately noticed.</p>
+
+<p>Other towns in Lower Egypt are: Mehallet el-Kubra, pop.
+47,955, 16 m. by rail N.E. of Tanta, with manufactories of silk
+and cottons; Salihia (6100), E.N.E. of and terminus of a railway
+from Zagazig, on the edge of the desert south of Lake Menzala,
+and the starting-point of the caravans to Syria; Mataria
+(15,142) on Lake Menzala and headquarters of the fishing
+industry; Zifta (15,850) on the Damietta branch and the site of
+a barrage; Samanud (14,408), also on the Damietta branch, noted
+for its pottery, and Fua (14,515), where large quantities of
+tarbushes are made, on the Rosetta branch. Shibin el-Kom
+(21,576), 16 m. S. of Tanta, is a cotton centre, and Menuf (22,316),
+8 m. S.W. of Shibin, in the fork between the branches of the Nile,
+is the chief town of a rich agricultural district. There are many
+other towns in the Delta with populations between 10,000 and
+20,000.</p>
+
+<p>In Upper Egypt the chief towns are nearly all in the narrow
+valley of the Nile. The exceptions are the towns in the oases
+comparatively unimportant, and those in the Fayum province.
+The capital of the Fayum, Medinet el-Fayum, has a population
+(1907) of 37,320. The chief towns on the Nile, taking them in their
+order in ascending the river from Cairo, are Beni Suef, Minia,
+Assiut, Akhmim, Suhag, Girga, Kena, Luxor, Esna, Edfu,
+Assuan and Korosko. Beni Suef (23,357) is 77 m. from Cairo by
+rail. It is on the west bank of the river, is the capital of a
+<i>mudiria</i> and a centre for the manufacture of woollen goods.
+Minia (27,221) is 77 m. by rail farther south. It is also the
+capital of a mudiria, has a considerable European colony,
+possesses a large sugar factory and some cotton mills. It is the
+starting-point of a road to the Baharia oasis. Assiut (<i>q.v.</i>), pop.
+39,442, is 235 m. S. of Cairo by rail, and is the most important
+commercial centre in Upper Egypt. At this point a
+barrage is built across the river. Suhag (17,514) is 56 m. by rail
+S. of Assiut and is the headquarters of Girga mudiria. The
+ancient and celebrated Coptic monasteries El Abiad (the white)
+and El Ahmar (the red) are 3 to 4 m. W. and N.W. respectively of
+Suhag. A few miles above Suhag, on the opposite (east) side of
+the Nile is Akhmim (<i>q.v.</i>) or Ekhmim (23,795), where silk and
+cotton goods are made. Girga (<i>q.v.</i>), pop. 19,893, is 22 m. S. by
+rail of Suhag, and on the same (the west) side of the river. It is
+noted for its pottery. Kena (<i>q.v.</i>), pop. 20,069, is on the east
+bank of the Nile, 145 m. by rail from Assiut. It is the chief seat of
+the manufacture of the porous earthenware water-bottles used
+all over Egypt. Luxor (<i>q.v.</i>), pop. (with Karnak) 25,229, marks
+the site of Thebes. It is 418 m. from Cairo, and here the gauge
+of the railway is altered from broad to narrow. Esna (<i>q.v.</i>), pop.
+19,103, is another place where pottery is made in large quantities.
+It is on the west bank of the Nile, 36 m. by rail S. of Luxor.
+Edfu (<i>q.v.</i>), pop. 19,262, is also on the west side of the river, 30 m.
+farther south. It is chiefly famous for its ancient temple.
+Assuan (<i>q.v.</i>), pop. 12,618, is at the foot of the First Cataract and
+551 m. S. of Cairo by rail. Three miles farther south, at Shellal,
+the Egyptian railway terminates. Korosko, 118 m. by river
+above Assuan, is a small place notable as the northern terminus
+of the caravan route from the Sudan across the Nubian desert.
+Since the building of the railway&mdash;which starts 96 m. higher up,
+at Wadi Halfa&mdash;to Khartum, this route is little used, and Korosko
+has lost what importance it had.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ancient Cities and Monuments.</i>&mdash;Many of the modern cities of
+Egypt are built on the sites of ancient cities, and they generally
+contain some monuments of the time of the Pharaohs, Greeks or
+Romans. The sites of other ancient cities now in complete ruin
+may be indicated. Memphis, the Pharaonic capital, was on the
+west bank of the Nile, some 14 m. above Cairo, and Heliopolis lay
+some 5 m. N.N.E. of Cairo. The pyramids of Giza or Gizeh, on
+the edge of the desert, 8 m. west of Cairo, are the largest of
+the many pyramids and other monuments, including the famous
+Sphinx, built in the neighbourhood of Memphis. The site of
+Thebes has already been indicated. Syene stood near to where
+the town of Assuan now is; opposite, on an island in the Nile, are
+scanty ruins of the city of Elephantine, and a little above, on
+another island, is the temple of Philae. The ancient Coptos
+(Keft) is represented by the village of Kuft, between Luxor and
+Kena. A few miles north of Kena is Dendera, with a famous
+temple. The ruins of Abydos, one of the oldest places in Egypt, are
+8 m. S.W. of Balliana, a small town in Girga mudiria. The
+ruined temples of Abu Simbel are on the west side of the Nile,
+56 m. above Korosko. On the Red Sea, south of Kosseir, are the
+ruins of Myos Hormos and Berenice. Of the ancient cities in the
+Delta there are remains, among others, of Sais, Iseum, Tanis,
+Bubastis, Onion, Sebennytus, Pithom, Pelusium, and of the Greek
+cities Naucratis and Daphnae. There are, besides the more
+ancient cities and monuments, a number of Coptic towns,
+monasteries and churches in almost every part of Egypt, dating
+from the early centuries of Christianity. The monasteries, or
+<i>ders</i>, are generally fort-like buildings and are often built in the
+desert. Tombs of Mahommedan saints are also numerous, and
+are often placed on the summit of the cliffs overlooking the Nile.
+The traveller in Egypt thus views, side by side with the activities
+of the present day, where occident and orient meet and clash,
+memorials of every race and civilization which has flourished in
+the valley of the Nile.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trade Routes and Communications.</i>&mdash;Its geographical position
+gives Egypt command of one of the most important trade routes
+in the world. It is, as it were, the fort which commands the way
+from Europe to the East. This has been the case from time
+immemorial, and the provision, in 1869, of direct maritime
+communication between the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, by
+the completion of the Suez Canal, ensured for the Egyptian route
+the supremacy in sea-borne traffic to Asia, which the discovery of
+the passage to India by way of the Cape of Good Hope had
+menaced for three and a half centuries. The Suez Canal is 87 m.
+long, 66 actual canal and 21 lakes. It has sufficient depth to
+allow vessels drawing 27 ft. of water to pass through. It is
+administered by a company whose headquarters are in Paris, and
+no part of its revenue reaches the Egyptian exchequer (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Suez
+Canal</a></span>). Besides the many steamship lines which use the Suez
+Canal, other steamers run direct from European ports to
+Alexandria. There is also a direct mail service between Suez
+and Port Sudan.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The chief means of internal communication are, in the Delta the
+railways, in Upper Egypt the railway and the river. The railways
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page26" id="page26"></a>26</span>
+are of two kinds: (1) those state-owned and state-worked, (2) agricultural
+light railways owned and worked by private companies.
+Railway construction dates from 1852, when the line from Alexandria
+to Cairo was begun, by order of Abbas I. The state railways,
+unless otherwise indicated, have a gauge of 4 ft. 8½ in. The main
+system is extremely simple. Trunk lines from Alexandria (via
+Damanhur and Tanta) and from Port Said (via Ismailia) traverse
+the Delta and join at Cairo. From Cairo the railway is continued
+south up the valley of the Nile and close to the river. At first it
+follows the west bank, crossing the stream at Nag Hamadi, 354 m.
+from Cairo, by an iron bridge 437 yds. long. Thence it continues
+on the east bank to Luxor, where the broad gauge ceases. From
+Luxor the line continues on the standard African gauge (3 ft. 6 in.)
+to Shellal, 3 m. above Assuan and 685 m. from Alexandria. This
+main line service is supplemented by a steamer service on the Nile
+from Shellal to Wadi Halfa, on the northern frontier of the Anglo-Egyptian
+Sudan, whence there is direct railway communication with
+Khartum and the Red Sea (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sudan</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Branch lines connect Cairo and Alexandria with Suez and with
+almost every town in the Delta. From Cairo to Suez via Ismailia
+is a distance of 160 m. Before the Suez Canal was opened passengers
+and goods were taken to Suez from Cairo by a railway 84 m. long
+which ran across the desert. This line, now disused, had itself
+superseded the &ldquo;overland route&rdquo; organized by Lieut. Thomas
+Waghorn, R.N., c. 1830, for the conveyance of passengers and
+mails to India. In Upper Egypt a line, 40 m. long, runs west from
+Wasta, a station 56 m. S. of Cairo, to Abuksa in the Fayum mudiria.
+Another railway goes from Kharga Junction, a station on the main
+line 24 m. S. of Girga, to the oasis of Kharga. These lines are
+privately owned.</p>
+
+<p>In the Delta the light railways supplement the ordinary lines and
+connect the villages with the towns and seaports. There are over
+700 m. of these lines. The railway development of Egypt has not
+been very rapid. In 1880 944 m. of state lines were open; in 1900
+the figure was 1393, and in 1905, 1688. For several years before 1904
+the administration of the railways was carried on by an international
+or mixed board for the security of foreign creditors. In the year
+named the railways came directly under the control of the Egyptian
+government, which during the next four years spent £E.3,000,000
+on improving and developing the lines. In the five years 1902-1906
+the capital value of the state railways increased from £E.20,383,000
+to £E.23,200,000 and the net earnings from £E.1,059,000 to
+£E. 1,475,000. The number of passengers carried in the same period
+rose from 12½ to over 22 millions, and the weight of goods from
+slightly under 3,000,000 to nearly 6,750,000 tons. In 1906 the light
+railways carried nearly a million tons of goods and over 6,800,000
+passengers.</p>
+
+<p>Westward from Alexandria a railway, begun in 1904 by the
+khedive, Abbas II., runs parallel with the coast, and is intended to
+be continued to Tripoli. The line forms the eastern end of the great
+railway system which will eventually extend from Tangier to
+Alexandria.</p>
+
+<p>The Nile is navigable throughout its course in Egypt, and is largely
+used as a means of cheap transit of heavy goods. Lock and bridge
+tolls were abolished in 1899 and 1901 respectively. As a result, river
+traffic greatly increased. Above Cairo the Nile is the favourite
+tourist route, while between Shellal (Assuan) and the Sudan frontier
+it is the only means of communication. Among the craft using the
+river the dahab&#299;ya is a characteristic native sailing vessel, somewhat
+resembling a house-boat. From the Nile, caravan routes lead
+westward to the various oases and eastward to the Red Sea, the
+shortest (120 m.) and most used of the eastern routes being that from
+Kena to Kosseir. Roads suitable for wheeled vehicles are found in
+Lower Egypt, but the majority of the tracks are bridle-paths, goods
+being conveyed on the backs of donkeys, mules and camels.</p>
+
+<p><i>Posts and Telegraphs.</i>&mdash;The Egyptian postal system is highly
+organized and efficient, and in striking contrast with its condition
+in 1870, when there were but nineteen post-offices in the country.
+All the branches of business transacted in European post-offices are
+carried on by the Egyptian service, Egypt being a member of the
+Postal Union. It was the first foreign country to establish a penny
+postage with Great Britain, the reduction from 2½d. being made in
+1905. The inland letters and packages carried yearly exceed
+20,000,000 and foreign letters (30% to England) number over
+4,000,000. Over £17,000,000 passes yearly through the post. A
+feature of the service are the travelling post-offices, of which there
+are some 200.</p>
+
+<p>All the important towns are connected by telegraph, the telegraphs
+being state-owned and worked by the railway administration.
+Egypt is also connected by cables and land-lines with the outside
+world. One land-line connects at El-Arish with the line through
+Syria and Asia Minor to Constantinople. Another line connects at
+Wadi Halfa with the Sudan system, affording direct telegraphic
+communication via Khartum and Gondokoro with Uganda and
+Mombasa. The Eastern Telegraph Company, by concessions, have
+telegraph lines across Egypt from Alexandria via Cairo to Suez, and
+from Port Said to Suez, connecting their cables to Europe and the
+East. The principal cables are from Alexandria to Malta, Gibraltar
+and England; from Alexandria to Crete and Brindisi; from Suez
+to Aden, Bombay, China and Australia.</p>
+
+<p>The telephone is largely used in the big towns, and there is a trunk
+telephone line connecting Alexandria and Cairo.</p>
+
+<p><i>Standard Time.</i>&mdash;The standard time adopted in Egypt is that of the
+longitude of Alexandria, 30° E., <i>i.e.</i> two hours earlier than Greenwich
+time. It thus corresponds with the standard time of British South
+Africa.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Agriculture and Land Tenure.</i>&mdash;The chief industry of Egypt is
+agriculture. The proportions of the industry depend upon the
+area of land capable of cultivation. This again depends upon the
+fertilizing sediment brought down by the Nile and the measure in
+which lands beyond the natural reach of the flood water can be
+rendered productive by irrigation. By means of canals, &ldquo;basins,&rdquo;
+dams and barrages, the Nile flood is now utilized to a greater
+extent than ever before (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Irrigation</a></span>: <i>Egypt</i>). The result has
+been a great increase in the area of cultivated or cultivable land.</p>
+
+<p>At the time of the French occupation of Egypt in 1798, it was
+found that the cultivable soil covered 4,429,400 acres, but the
+quantity actually under cultivation did not exceed 3,520,000
+acres, or six-elevenths of the entire surface. Under improved
+conditions the area of cultivated land, or land in process of
+reclamation, had risen in 1906 to 5,750,000 acres, while another
+500,000 acres of waste land awaited reclamation.</p>
+
+<p>Throughout Egypt the cultivable soil does not present any
+very great difference, being always the deposit of the river; it
+contains, however, more sand near the river than at a distance
+from it. Towards the Mediterranean its quality is injured by the
+salt with which the air is impregnated, and therefore it is not so
+favourable to vegetation. Of the cultivated land, some three-fourths
+is held, theoretically, in life tenancy. The state, as
+ultimate proprietor, imposes a tax which is the equivalent of rent.
+These lands are <i>Kharaji</i> lands, in distinction from the <i>Ushuri</i> or
+tithe-paying lands. The <i>Ushuri</i> lands were originally granted in
+fee, and are subject to a quit-rent. All tenants are under obligation
+to guard or repair the banks of the Nile in times of flood, or in
+any case of sudden emergency. Only to this extent does the
+<i>corvée</i> now prevail. The land-tax is proportionate, <i>i.e.</i> land under
+perennial irrigation pays higher taxes than land not so irrigated
+(see below, <i>Finance</i>). The unit of land is the <i>feddan</i>, which equals
+1.03 acre. Out of 1,153,759 proprietors of land in 1905, 1,005,705
+owned less than 5 <i>feddans</i>. The number of proprietors owning
+over 50 <i>feddans</i> was 12,475. The acreage held by the first class
+was 1,264,084, that by the second class, 2,356,602. Over 1,600,000
+<i>feddans</i> were held in holdings of from 5 to 50 <i>feddans</i>. The state
+domains cover over 240,000 <i>feddans</i>, and about 600,000 <i>feddans</i> are
+owned by foreigners. The policy of the government is to maintain
+the small proprietors, and to do nothing tending to oust the
+native in favour of European landowners.</p>
+
+<p>The kind of crops cultivated depends largely on whether the
+land is under perennial, flood or &ldquo;basin&rdquo; irrigation. Perennial
+irrigation is possible where there are canals which can be supplied
+with water all the year round from the Nile. This condition
+exists throughout the Delta and Middle Egypt, but only in parts
+of Upper Egypt. Altogether some 4,000,000 acres are under
+perennial irrigation. In these regions two and sometimes three
+crops can be harvested yearly. In places where perennial
+irrigation is impossible, the land is divided by rectangular dikes
+into &ldquo;basins.&rdquo; Into these basins&mdash;which vary in area from
+600 to 50,000 acres&mdash;water is led by shallow canals when the Nile
+is in flood. The water is let in about the middle of August and
+the basins are begun to be emptied about the 1st of October.
+The land under basin irrigation covers about 1,750,000 acres.
+In the basins only one crop can be grown in the year. This
+basin system is of immemorial use in Egypt, and it was not
+until the time of Mehemet Ali (c. 1820) that perennial irrigation
+began. High land near the banks of the Nile which cannot
+be reached by canals is irrigated by raising water from the Nile
+by steam-pumps, water-wheels (<i>sakias</i>) worked by buffaloes,
+or water-lifts (<i>shadufs</i>) worked by hand. There are several
+thousand steam-pumps and over 100,000 <i>sakias</i> or <i>shadufs</i> in
+Egypt. The <i>fellah</i> divides his land into little square plots by
+ridges of earth, and from the small canal which serves his holding
+he lets the water into each plot as needed. The same system
+obtains on large estates (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Irrigation</a></span>: <i>Egypt</i>).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page27" id="page27"></a>27</span>
+There are three agricultural seasons: (1) summer (<i>sefi</i>), 1st of
+April to 31st of July, when crops are grown only on land under
+perennial irrigation; (2) flood (<i>Nili</i>), 1st of August to 30th of
+November; and (3) winter (<i>shetwi</i>), 1st of December to 31st
+of March. Cotton, sugar and rice are the chief summer crops;
+wheat, barley, flax and vegetables are chiefly winter crops;
+maize, millet and &ldquo;flood&rdquo; rice are <i>Nili</i> crops; millet and
+vegetables are also, but in a less degree, summer crops. The
+approximate areas under cultivation in the various seasons are,
+in summer, 2,050,000 acres; in flood, 1,500,000 acres; in
+winter, 4,300,000 acres. The double-cropped area is over
+2,000,000 acres. Although on the large farms iron ploughs, and
+threshing and grain-cleaning machines, have been introduced,
+the small cultivator prefers the simple native plough made of
+wood. Corn is threshed by a <i>norag</i>, a machine resembling a
+chair, which moves on small iron wheels or thin circular plates
+fixed to axle-trees, and is drawn in a circle by oxen.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Crops.</i>&mdash;Egypt is third among the cotton-producing countries of
+the world. Its production per acre is the greatest of any country
+but, owing to the restricted area available, the bulk raised is not
+more than one-tenth of that of the United States and about half
+that of India. Some 1,600,000 acres of land, five-sixths being in
+Lower Egypt, are devoted to cotton growing. The climate of Lower
+Egypt being very suitable to the growth of the plant, the cotton
+produced there is of excellent quality. The seed is sown at the end
+of February or beginning of March and the crop is picked in September
+and October. The cotton crop increased from 1,700,000
+<i>kantars</i><a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> in 1878 to 4,100,000 in 1890, had reached 5,434,000 in 1900,
+and was 6,750,000 in 1905. Its average value, 1897-1905, was over
+£14,000,000 a year. The cotton exported was valued in 1907 at
+£E.23,598,000, in 1908 at £E.17,091,612.</p>
+
+<p>While cotton is grown chiefly in the Delta, the sugar plantations,
+which cover about 100,000 acres, are mainly in Upper Egypt. The
+canes are planted in March and are cut in the following January
+or February. Although since 1884 the production of sugar has
+largely increased, there has not been a corresponding increase in its
+value, owing to the low price obtained in the markets of the world.
+Beetroot is also grown to a limited extent for the manufacture of
+sugar. The sugar exported varied in annual value in the period
+1884-1905 from £400,000 to £765,000.</p>
+
+<p>A coarse and strong tobacco was formerly extensively grown, but
+its cultivation was prohibited in 1890. Flax and hemp are grown
+in a few places.</p>
+
+<p>Maize in Lower Egypt and millet (of which there are several
+varieties) in Upper Egypt are largely grown for home consumption,
+these grains forming a staple food of the peasantry. The stalk of the
+maize is also a very useful article. It is used in the building of the
+houses of the fellahin, as fuel, and, when green, as food for cattle.
+Wheat and barley are important crops, and some 2,000,000 acres are
+sown with them yearly. The barley in general is not of good quality,
+but the desert or &ldquo;Mariut&rdquo; barley, grown by the Bedouins in the
+coast region west of Alexandria, is highly prized for the making of
+beer. Beans and lentils are extensively sown, and form an important
+article of export. The annual value of the crops is over £3,000,000.
+Rice is largely grown in the northern part of the Delta, where the soil
+is very wet. Two kinds are cultivated: <i>Sultani</i>, a summer crop, and
+<i>Sabaini</i>, a flood crop. <i>Sabaini</i> is a favourite food of the fellahin,
+while <i>Sultani</i> rice is largely exported. In the absence of grass, the
+chief green food for cattle and horses is clover, grown largely in the
+basin lands of Upper Egypt. To a less extent vetches are grown for
+the same purpose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetables and Fruit.</i>&mdash;Vegetables grow readily, and their
+cultivation is an important part of the work of the fellahin. The
+onion is grown in great quantities along the Nile banks in Upper
+Egypt, largely for export. Among other vegetables commonly
+raised are tomatoes (the bulk of which are exported), potatoes (of
+poor quality), leeks, marrows, cucumbers, cauliflowers, lettuce,
+asparagus and spinach.</p>
+
+<p>The common fruits are the date, orange, citron, fig, grape, apricot,
+peach and banana. Olives, melons, mulberries and strawberries are
+also grown, though not in very large numbers. The olive tree
+flourishes only in the Fayum and the oases. The Fayum also possesses
+extensive vineyards. The date is a valuable economic asset.
+There are some 6,000,000 date-palms in the country, 4,000,000
+being in Upper Egypt. The fruit is one of the chief foods of the
+people. The value of the crop is about £1,500,000 a year.</p>
+
+<p><i>Roses and Dyes.</i>&mdash;There are fields of roses in the Fayum, which
+supply the market with rose-water. Of plants used for dyeing, the
+principal are bastard saffron, madder, woad and the indigo plant.
+The leaves of the henna plant are used to impart a bright red colour
+to the palms of the hands, the soles of the feet, and the nails of both
+hands and feet, of women and children, the hair of old ladies and
+the tails of horses. Indigo is very extensively employed to dye the
+shirts of the natives of the poorer classes; and is, when very dark,
+the colour of mourning; therefore, women at funerals, and generally
+after a death, smear themselves with it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Domestic Animals.</i>&mdash;The Egyptians are not particularly a pastoral
+people, though the wealth of the Bedouin in the Eastern or Arabian
+Desert consists in their camels, horses, sheep and goats. In the Nile
+valley the chief domestic animals are the camel, donkey, mule, ox,
+buffalo, sheep and goat. Horses are comparatively few, and are
+seldom seen outside the large towns, the camel and donkey being the
+principal beasts of burden. The cattle are short-horned, rather
+small and well formed. They are quiet in disposition, and much
+valued for agricultural labour by the people, who therefore very
+rarely slaughter them for meat. Buffaloes of an uncouth appearance
+and of a dark slaty colour, strikingly contrasting with the neat cattle,
+abound in Egypt. They are very docile, and the little children of
+the villagers often ride them to or from the river. The buffaloes are
+largely employed for turning the <i>sakias</i>. Sheep (of which the greater
+number are black) and goats are abundant, and mutton is the
+ordinary butcher&rsquo;s meat. The wool is coarse and short. Swine are
+very rarely kept, and then almost wholly for the European inhabitants,
+the Copts generally abstaining from eating their meat.
+Poultry is plentiful and eggs form a considerable item in the exports.
+Pigeons are kept in every village and their flesh is a common article
+of food.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fishing.</i>&mdash;The chief fishing-ground is Lake Menzala, where some
+4000 persons are engaged in the industry, but fish abound in the
+Nile also, and are caught in large quantities along the coast of the
+Delta. The salting and curing of the fish is done chiefly at Mataria,
+on Lake Menzala, and at Damietta. Dried and salted fish eggs,
+called <i>batarekh</i>, command a ready market. The average annual
+value of the fisheries is about £200,000.</p>
+
+<p><i>Canals.</i>&mdash;The irrigation canals, which are also navigable by small
+craft, are of especial importance in a country where the rainfall is
+very slight. The Delta is intersected by numerous canals which
+derive their supply from four main channels. The Rayya Behera,
+known in its lower courses first as the Khatatba and afterwards as
+the Rosetta canal, follows the west bank of the Rosetta branch of
+the Nile and has numerous offshoots. The most important is the
+Mahmudia (50 m. long), which connects Alexandria with the Rosetta
+branch, taking a similar direction to that of the ancient canal which
+it succeeded. This canal supplies Alexandria with fresh water.</p>
+
+<p>The Rayya Menufia, or Menuf canal, connects the two branches
+of the Nile and supplies water to the large number of canals in the
+central part of the Delta. Following the right (eastern) bank of the
+Damietta branch is the Rayya Tewfiki, known below Benha as the
+Mansuria, and below Mansura as the Fareskur, canal. This canal
+has many branches. Farther east are other canals, of which the
+most remarkable occupy in part the beds of the Tanitic and Pelusiac
+branches. That following the old Tanitic channel is called the canal
+of Al-Mo&rsquo;izz, the first Fatimite caliph who ruled in Egypt, having
+been dug by his orders, and the latter bears the name of the canal
+of Abu-l-Muneggi, a Jew who executed this work, under the caliph
+Al-Amir, in order to water the province called the Sharkia. From
+this circumstance this canal is also known as the Sharkawia. From
+a town on its bank it is called in its lower course the Shibini canal.
+The superfluous water from all the Delta canals is drained off by
+<i>bahrs</i> (rivers) into the coast lakes. The Ismailia or Fresh-water canal
+branches from the Nile at Cairo and follows, in the main, the course
+of the canal which anciently joined the Nile and the Red Sea. It
+dates from Pharaonic times, having been begun by &ldquo;Sesostris,&rdquo;
+continued by Necho II. and by Darius Hystaspes, and at length
+finished by Ptolemy Philadelphus. This canal, having fallen into
+disrepair, was restored in the 7th century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> by the Arabs who
+conquered Egypt, but appears not long afterwards to have again
+become unserviceable. The existing canal was dug in 1863 to supply
+fresh water to the towns on the Suez Canal. Although designed for
+irrigation purposes, the Delta canals are also used for the transport
+of passengers and goods.</p>
+
+<p>In Upper Egypt the most important canals are the Ibrahimia
+and the Bahr Yusuf (the River of Joseph). They are both on the
+west side of the Nile. The Ibrahimia takes its water from the Nile
+at Assiut, and runs south to below Beni Suef. It now supplies the
+Bahr Yusuf, which runs parallel with and west of the Ibrahimia,
+until it diverges to supply the Fayum&mdash;a distance of some 350 m.
+It leaves the Ibrahimia at Derut near its original point of departure
+from the Nile. Although the Joseph whence it takes its name is the
+celebrated Saladin, it is related that he merely repaired it, and it is
+not doubted to be of a much earlier period. Most probably it was
+executed under the Pharaohs. By some authorities it is believed
+to be a natural channel canalized. Besides supplying the canals of
+the Fayum with summer water, it fills many of the &ldquo;basins&rdquo; of
+Upper Egypt with water in flood time.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Manufactures and Native Industries.</i>&mdash;Although essentially
+an agricultural country, Egypt possesses several manufactures.
+In connexion with the cotton industry there are a few mills
+where calico is made or oil crushed, and ginning-mills are
+numerous. In Upper Egypt there are a number of factories for
+sugar-crushing and refining, and one or two towns of the Delta
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page28" id="page28"></a>28</span>
+possess rice mills. Flour mills are found in every part of the
+country, the maize and other grains being ground for home
+consumption. Soap-making and leather-tanning are carried on,
+and there are breweries at Alexandria and Cairo. The manufacture
+of tobacco into cigarettes, carried on largely at Alexandria
+and Cairo, is another important industry. Native industries
+include the weaving of silk, woollen, linen and cotton goods,
+the hand-woven silk shawls and draperies being often rich and
+elegant. The silk looms are chiefly at Mehallet el-Kubra, Cairo
+and Damietta. The Egyptians are noted for the making of
+pottery of the commoner kinds, especially water-jars. There
+is at Cairo and in other towns a considerable industry in ornamental
+wood and metal work, inlaying with ivory and pearl,
+brass trays, copper vessels, gold and silver ornaments, &amp;c. At
+Cairo and in the Fayum, attar of roses and other perfumes are
+manufactured. Boat-building is an important trade.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Commerce.</i>&mdash;The trade of Egypt has developed enormously since
+the British occupation in 1882 ensured to all classes of the community
+the enjoyment of the profit of their labour. The total value
+of the exterior trade increased in the 20 years 1882 to 1902 from
+£19,000,000 to £32,400,000. The wealth of Egypt lying in the cultivation
+of its soil, almost all the exports are agricultural produce,
+while the imports are mostly manufactured goods, minerals and
+hardware. The chief exports in order of importance are: raw
+cotton, cotton seed, sugar, beans, cigarettes, onions, rice and gum-arabic.
+The gum is not of native produce, being in transit from the
+Sudan. Of less importance are the exports of hides and skins, eggs,
+wheat and other grains, wool, quails, lentils, dates and Sudan
+produce in transit. The principal articles imported are: cotton
+goods and other textiles, coal, iron and steel, timber, tobacco,
+machinery, flour, alcoholic liquors, petroleum, fruits, coffee and live
+animals. There is an <i>ad valorem</i> duty of 8% on imports and of about
+1% on exports. Tobacco and precious stones and metals pay
+heavier duties. The tobacco is imported chiefly from Turkey and
+Greece, is made into cigarettes in Egypt, and in this form exported
+to the value of about £500,000 yearly.</p>
+
+<p>In comparison with cotton, all other exports are of minor account.
+The cotton exported, of which Great Britain takes more than half,
+is worth over three-fourths of the total value of goods sent abroad.
+Next to cotton, sugar is the most important article exported. A large
+proportion of the sugar manufactured is, however, consumed in the
+country and does not figure in the trade returns. Of the imports
+the largest single item is cotton goods, nearly all being sent from
+England. Woollen goods come chiefly from England, Austria and
+Germany, silk goods from France. Large quantities of ready-made
+clothes and fezes are imported from Austria. Iron and steel goods,
+machinery, locomotives, &amp;c., come chiefly from England, Belgium
+and Germany, coal from England, live stock from Turkey and the
+Red Sea ports, coffee from Brazil, timber from Russia, Turkey and
+Sweden.</p>
+
+<p>A British consular report (No. 3121, annual series), issued in 1904,
+shows that in the period 1887-1902 the import trade of Egypt nearly
+doubled. In the same period the proportion of imports from the
+United Kingdom fell from 39.63 to 36.76%. Though the percentage
+decreased, the value of imports from Great Britain increased in the
+same period from £2,500,000 to £4,500,000. In addition to imports
+from the United Kingdom, British possessions took 6.0% of the
+import trade. Next to Great Britain, Turkey had the largest share
+of the import trade, but it had declined in the sixteen years from 19
+to 15%. France about 10%, and Austria 6.72%, came next,
+but their import trade was declining, while that of Germany had risen
+from less than 1 to over 3%, and Belgium imports from 1.74 to
+4.27%.</p>
+
+<p>In the same period (1887-1902) Egyptian exports to Great Britain
+decreased from 63.25 to 52.30%, Germany and the United States
+showing each an increase of over 6.0%. Exports to Germany had
+increased from 0.13 to 6.75%, to the United States from 0.26 to
+6.70%. Exports to France had remained practically stationary
+at 8.0%; those to Austria had dropped from 6.3% to 4.0%, to
+Russia from 9.11 to 8.43%.</p>
+
+<p>For the quinquennial period 1901-1905, the average annual
+value of the exterior trade was:&mdash;imports £17,787,296; exports
+£18,811,588; total £36,598,884. In 1907 the total value of the
+merchandise imported and exported, exclusive of transit, re-exportation
+and specie, was £E.54,134,000&mdash;constituting a record
+trade return. The value of the imports was £E.26,121,000, of the
+exports £E.28,013,000.</p>
+
+<p><i>Shipping.</i>&mdash;More than 90% of the external trade passes through
+the port of Alexandria. Port Said, which in consequence of its
+position at the northern entrance of the Suez Canal has more frequent
+and regular communication with Europe, is increasing in importance
+and is the port where mails and passengers are landed. Over 3000
+ships enter and clear harbour at Alexandria every year. The total
+tonnage entering the port increased in the five years 1901-1905 from
+2,555,259 to 3,591,281. In the same period the percentage of British
+shipping, which before 1900 was nearly 50, varied from 40 to 45.
+No other nation had more than 12% of the tonnage, Italy, France,
+Austria and Turkey each having 9 to 12%. The tonnage of German
+ships increased in the five years mentioned from 3 to 7%. In
+number of steamships entering the harbour Great Britain is first,
+with some 800 yearly, or about 50% of all steamers entering. The
+sailing boats entering the harbour are almost entirely Turkish.
+They are vessels of small tonnage.</p>
+
+<p>The transit trade with the East, which formerly passed overland
+through Egypt, has been diverted to the Suez Canal, the traffic
+through which has little to do with the trade or shipping of Egypt.
+The number of ships using the canal increased in the 20 years 1880-1900
+from 2000 to 4000, while in the same period the tonnage rose
+from 4,300,000 to 14,000,000. In 1905 the figures were:&mdash;Number
+of ships that passed through the canal, 4116 (2484 being British
+and 600 German), net tonnage 13,134,105 (8,356,940 British and
+2,113,484 German). Next to British and German the nationality
+of ships using the canal in order of importance is French, Dutch,
+Austrian, Italian and Russian. About 250,000 passengers (including
+some 40,000 pilgrims to Mecca) pass through the canal in a year
+(see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Suez</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Currency.</i>&mdash;The monetary system in force dates from 1885, when
+through the efforts of Sir Edgar Vincent the currency was placed
+on a sound basis. The system is based on the single gold standard.
+The unit is a gold coin called a pound and equal to £1, 0s. 6d. in
+English currency. The Egyptian pound (£E.) is divided into 100
+piastres, of which there are coins in silver of 20, 10, 5 and 2 piastres.
+One, ½, <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> and <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">10</span> piastre pieces are coined in nickel and <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">20</span> and <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">40</span>
+piastre pieces in bronze. The one piastre piece is worth a fraction
+over 2½d. The <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">40</span> of a piastre is popularly called a para and the
+native population generally reckon in paras. The legal piastre
+is called the piastre tariff (P.T.), to distinguish it from the ½ piastre,
+which in local usage in Cairo and Alexandria is called a piastre.
+Officially the ½ piastre is known as 5 milliemes, and so with the coins
+of lower denomination, the para being ¼ millieme. The old terms
+<i>kis</i> or &ldquo;purse&rdquo; (500 piastres) and <i>khazna</i> or &ldquo;treasury&rdquo; (1000
+purses) are still occasionally used. Formerly European coins of all
+kinds were in general circulation, now the only foreign coins current
+are the English sovereign, the French 20 franc piece and the Turkish
+mejidie, a gold coin worth 18 shillings. For several years no
+Egyptian gold pieces have been coined. Egyptian silver money is
+minted at Birmingham, and nickel and bronze money at Vienna.
+Bank-notes, of the National Bank, are issued for £E.100, £E.50, £E.10,
+£E.5 and £E.1, and for 50 piastres. The notes are not legal tender,
+but are accepted by the government in payment of taxes.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the currency reform in Egypt is interesting as
+affording a practical example of a system much discussed in connexion
+with the currency question in India, namely, a gold standard
+without a gold coinage. The Egyptian pound is practically nonexistent,
+nearly all that were coined having been withdrawn from
+circulation. Their place has been taken by foreign gold, principally
+the English sovereign, which circulates at a value of 97½ piastres.
+In practice the system works perfectly smoothly, the gold flowing in
+and out of the country through the agency of private banking establishments
+in proportion to the requirements of the circulation. It is,
+moreover, very economical for the government. As in most agricultural
+countries, there is a great expansion of the circulation in the
+autumn and winter months in order to move the crops, followed by
+a long period of contracted circulation throughout the rest of the
+year. Under the existing system the fluctuating requirements of
+the currency are met without the expense of alternately minting and
+melting down.</p>
+
+<p><i>Weights and Measures.</i>&mdash;The metrical system of weights and
+measures is in official but not in popular use, except in the foreign
+quarters of Cairo, Alexandria, &amp;c. The most common Egyptian
+measures are the <i>fitr</i>, or space measured by the extension of the
+thumb and first finger; the <i>shibr</i>, or span; and the cubit (of three
+kinds = 22<span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>, 25 and 26½ in.). The measure of land is the <i>feddan</i>, equal
+to 1.03 acres, subdivided into 24 <i>kirats</i>. The <i>ardeb</i> is equal to about
+5 bushels, and is divided into 6 <i>waybas</i>, and each <i>wayba</i> into 24
+<i>rubas</i>. The <i>okieh</i> equals 1.32 oz., the <i>rotl</i> .99 &#8468;, the <i>oke</i> 2.75 &#8468;,
+the <i>kantar</i> (or 100 <i>rotls</i> or 36 <i>okes</i>) 99.04 &#8468;.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Constitution and Administration.</i>&mdash;Egypt is a tributary state
+of the Turkish empire, and is ruled by an hereditary prince
+with the style of khedive, a Persian title regarded as the equivalent
+of king. The succession to the throne is by primogeniture.
+The central administration is carried on by a council of ministers,
+appointed by the khedive, one of whom acts as prime minister.
+To these is added a British financial adviser, who attends all
+meetings of the council of ministers, but has not a vote; on the
+other hand, no financial decision may be taken without his
+consent. The ministries are those of the interior, finance, public
+works, justice, war, foreign affairs and public instruction,<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a> and
+in each of these are prepared the drafts of decrees, which are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page29" id="page29"></a>29</span>
+then submitted to the council of ministers for approval, and on
+being signed by the khedive become law. No important decision,
+however, has been taken since 1882 without the concurrence of
+the British minister plenipotentiary. With a few exceptions,
+laws cannot, owing to the Capitulations, be enforced against
+foreigners except with the consent of the powers.</p>
+
+<p>While the council of ministers with the khedive forms the
+legislative authority, there are various representative bodies
+with strictly limited powers. The legislative council is a consultative
+body, partly elective, partly nominative. It examines
+the budget and all proposed administrative laws, but cannot
+initiate legislation, nor is the government bound to adopt its
+suggestions. The general assembly consists of the legislative
+council and the ministers of state, together with popularly
+elected members, who form a majority of the whole assembly.
+It has no legislative functions, but no new direct personal tax
+nor land tax can be imposed without its consent. It must meet
+at least once in every two years.</p>
+
+<p>For purposes of local government the chief towns constitute
+governorships (<i>moafzas</i>), the rest of the country being divided
+into <i>mudirias</i> or provinces. The governors and <i>mudirs</i> (heads
+of provinces) are responsible to the ministry of the interior.
+The provinces are further divided into districts, each of which
+is under a <i>mamur</i>, who in his turn supervises and controls the
+<i>omda</i>, mayor or head-man, of each village in his district.</p>
+
+<p>The governorships are: Cairo; Alexandria, which includes
+an area of 70 sq. m.; Suez Canal, including Port Said and
+Ismailia; Suez and El-Arish. Lower Egypt is divided into the
+provinces of: Behera, Gharbia, Menufia, Dakahlia, Kaliubia,
+Sharkia. The oasis of Siwa and the country to the Tripolitan
+frontier are dependent on the province of Behera. Upper
+Egypt: Giza, Beni Suef, Fayum, Minia, Assiut, Girga, Kena,
+Assuan. The peninsula of Sinai is administered by the war office.</p>
+
+<p><i>Justice.</i>&mdash;There are four judicial systems in Egypt: two
+applicable to Egyptian subjects only, one applicable to foreigners
+only, and one applicable to foreigners and, to a certain extent,
+natives also. This multiplicity of tribunals arises from the fact
+that, owing to the Capitulations, which apply to Egypt as part
+of the Turkish empire, foreigners are almost entirely exempt
+from the jurisdiction of the native courts. It will be convenient
+to state first the law as regards foreigners, and secondly the law
+which concerns Egyptians. Criminal jurisdiction over foreigners
+is exercised by the consuls of the fifteen powers possessing such
+right by treaty, according to the law of the country of the
+offender. These consular courts also judge civil cases between
+foreigners of the same nationality.</p>
+
+<p>Jurisdiction in civil matters between natives and foreigners
+and between foreigners of different nationalities is no longer
+exercised by the consular courts. The grave abuse to which
+the consular system was subject led to the establishment, in
+February 1876, at the instance of Nubar Pasha and after eight
+years of negotiation, of International or &ldquo;Mixed&rdquo; Tribunals
+to supersede consular jurisdiction to the extent indicated. The
+Mixed Tribunals employ a code based on the <i>Code Napoléon</i>
+with such additions from Mahommedan law as are applicable.
+There are three tribunals of first instance, and an appeal court
+at Alexandria. These courts have both foreign and Egyptian
+judges&mdash;the foreign judges forming the majority of the bench.
+In certain designated matters they enjoy criminal jurisdiction,
+including, since 1900, offences against the bankruptcy laws.
+Cases have to be conducted in Arabic, French, Italian and
+English, English having been admitted as a &ldquo;judicial language&rdquo;
+by khedivial decree of the 17th of April 1905. Besides their
+judicial duties, the courts practically exercise legislative functions,
+as no important law can be made applicable to Europeans
+without the consent of the powers, and the powers are mainly
+guided by the opinions of the judges of the Mixed Courts.</p>
+
+<p>The judicial systems applicable solely to Egyptians are
+supervised by the ministry of justice, to which has been attached
+since 1890 a British judicial adviser. Two systems of laws are
+administered:&mdash;(1) the <i>Mehkemehs</i>, (2) the Native Tribunals.
+The <i>mehkemehs</i>, or courts of the cadis, judge in all matters of
+personal status, such as marriage, inheritance and guardianship,
+and are guided in their decisions by the code of laws founded on
+the Koran. The grand cadi, who must belong to the sect of
+the <i>Hanifis</i>, sits at Cairo, and is aided by a council of <i>Ulema</i> or
+learned men. This council consists of the sheikh or religious chief
+of each of the four orthodox sects, the sheikh of the mosque of
+Azhar, who is of the sect of the <i>Shafi&lsquo;is</i>, the chief (<i>nakib</i>) of the
+<i>Sherifs</i>, or descendants of Mahomet, and others. The cadis are
+chosen from among the students at the Azhar university. (In
+the same manner, in matters of personal law, Copts and other
+non-Moslem Egyptians are, in general, subject to the jurisdiction
+of their own religious chiefs.)</p>
+
+<p>For other than the purposes indicated, the native judicial
+system, both civil and criminal, was superseded in 1884 by
+tribunals administering a jurisprudence modelled on that of
+the French code. It is, in the words of Lord Cromer, &ldquo;in many
+respects ill adapted to meet the special needs of the country&rdquo;
+(<i>Egypt</i>, No. 1, 1904, p. 33). The system was, on the advice of an
+Anglo-Indian official (Sir John Scott), modified and simplified
+in 1891, but its essential character remained unaltered.  In 1904,
+however, more important modifications were introduced. Save
+on points of law, the right of appeal in criminal cases was abolished,
+and assize courts, whose judgments were final, established.  At
+the same time the penal code was thoroughly revised, so that the
+Egyptian judges were &ldquo;for the first time provided with a sound
+working code&rdquo; (Ibid. p. 49). The native courts have both
+native and foreign judges.  There are courts of summary jurisdiction
+presided over by one judge, central tribunals (or courts of
+first instance) with three judges, and a court of appeal at Cairo.
+A committee of judicial surveillance watches the working of the
+courts of first instance and the summary courts, and endeavours,
+by letters and discussions, to maintain purity and sound law.
+There is a <i>procureur-général</i>, who, with other duties, is entrusted
+with criminal prosecutions.  His representatives are attached
+to each tribunal, and form the <i>parquet</i> under whose orders the
+police act in bringing criminals to justice.  In the <i>markak</i> (district)
+tribunals, created in 1904 and presided over by magistrates
+with jurisdiction in cases of misdemeanour, the prosecution is,
+however, conducted directly by the police.  Special Children&rsquo;s
+Courts have been established for the trial of juvenile offenders.</p>
+
+<p>The police service, which has been subject to frequent modification,
+was in 1895 put under the orders of the ministry of the
+interior, to which a British adviser and British inspectors are
+attached.  The provincial police is under the direction of the local
+authorities, the <i>mudirs</i> or governors of provinces, and the
+<i>mamurs</i> or district officials; to the <i>omdas</i>, or village head-men,
+who are responsible for the good order of the villages, a limited
+criminal jurisdiction has been entrusted.</p>
+
+<p><i>Religion.</i>&mdash;The great majority of the inhabitants are Mahommedans.
+In 1907 the Moslems numbered over ten millions,
+or 91.8% of the entire population.  The Christians in the same
+year numbered 880,000, or 8% of the population.  Of these
+the Coptic Orthodox church had some 667,000 adherents.  Among
+other churches represented were the Greek Orthodox, the Armenian,
+Syrian and Maronite, the Roman Catholic and various
+Protestant bodies.  The last-named numbered 37,000 (including
+24,000 Copts).  There were in 1907 over 38,000 Jews in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>The Mahommedans are Sunnites, professing the creed commonly
+termed &ldquo;orthodox,&rdquo; and are principally of the persuasion
+of the <i>Shafi&lsquo;is</i>, whose celebrated founder, the imam ash-Shafi&lsquo;i,
+is buried in the great southern cemetery of Cairo.  Many of
+them are, however, <i>Hanifis</i> (to which persuasion the Turks
+chiefly belong), and in parts of Lower, and almost universally
+in Upper, Egypt, <i>M&#257;likis</i>.  Among the Moslems the <i>Sheikh-el-Islam</i>,
+appointed by the khedive from among the <i>Ulema</i> (learned
+class), exercises the highest religious and, in certain subjects,
+judicial authority. There is also a grand cadi, nominated by the
+sultan of Turkey from among the <i>Ulema</i> of Stamboul.  Valuable
+property is held by the Moslems in trust for the promotion of
+religion and for charitable purposes, and is known as the Wakfs
+administration. The revenue derived is over £250,000 yearly.</p>
+
+<p>The Coptic organization includes in Egypt three metropolitans
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page30" id="page30"></a>30</span>
+and twelve bishops, under the headship of the patriarch of
+Alexandria. The minor orders are arch-priests, priests, archdeacons,
+deacons, readers and monks (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Copts</a></span>: <i>Coptic
+Church</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Education.</i>&mdash;Two different systems of education exist, one
+founded on native lines, the other European in character. Both
+systems are more or less fully controlled by the ministry of public
+instruction. The government has primary, secondary and
+technical schools, training colleges for teachers, and schools
+of agriculture, engineering, law, medicine and veterinary science.
+The government system, which dates back to a period before
+the British occupation, is designed to provide, in the main, a
+European education. In the primary schools Arabic is the
+medium of instruction, the use of English for that purpose being
+confined to lessons in that language itself. The school of law
+is divided into English and French sections according to the
+language in which the students study law. Besides the government
+primary and secondary schools, there are many other
+schools in the large towns owned by the Moslems, Copts,
+Hebrews, and by various missionary societies, and in which the
+education is on the same lines. A movement initiated among
+the leading Moslems led in 1908 to the establishment as a private
+enterprise of a national Egyptian university devoted to scientific,
+literary and philosophical studies. Political and religious subjects
+are excluded from the curriculum and no discrimination in regard
+to race or religion is allowed.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Education on native lines is given in <i>kuttabs</i> and in the Azhar
+university in Cairo. <i>Kuttabs</i> are schools attached to mosques, found
+in every village and in every quarter of the larger towns. In these
+schools the instruction given before the British occupation was very
+slight. All pupils were taught to recite portions of the Koran, and
+a proportion of the scholars learnt to read and write Arabic and a
+little simple arithmetic. Those pupils who succeeded in committing
+to memory the whole of the Koran were regarded as <i>fiki</i> (learned
+in Mahommedan law), and as such escaped liability to military
+conscription. The government has improved the education given
+in the <i>kuttabs</i>, and numbers of them have been taken under the
+direct control of the ministry of public instruction. In these latter
+schools an excellent elementary secular education is given, in
+addition to the instruction in the Koran, to which half the school
+hours are devoted. The number of pupils in 1905 was over 12,000
+boys and 2000 girls. Grants-in-aid are given to other schools where
+a sufficiently good standard of instruction is maintained. No grant
+is made to any <i>kuttab</i> where any language other than Arabic is taught.
+In all there are over 10,000 kuttabs, attended by some 250,000
+scholars. The number of pupils in private schools under government
+inspection was in 1898, the first year of the grant-in-aid system,
+7536; in 1900, 12,315; in 1905, 145,691. The number of girls
+in attendance rose from 598 in 1898 to 997 in 1900 and 9611 in 1905.
+The Copts have about 1000 primary schools, in which the teaching
+of Coptic is compulsory, a few industrial schools, and one college
+for higher instruction.</p>
+
+<p>Cairo holds a prominent place as a seat of Moslem learning, and
+its university, the Azhar, is considered the first of the eastern world.
+Its professors teach &ldquo;grammatical inflexion and syntax, rhetoric,
+versification, logic, theology, the exposition of the Koran, the
+traditions of the Prophet, the complete science of jurisprudence, or
+rather of religious, moral, civil and criminal law, which is chiefly
+founded on the Koran and the traditions, together with arithmetic
+as far as it is useful in matters of law. Lectures are also given on
+algebra and on the calculations of the Mahommedan calendar,
+the times of prayer, &amp;c.&rdquo; (E. W. Lane, <i>Modern Egyptians</i>). The
+students come from all parts of the Mahommedan world. They
+number about 8000, of whom some 2000 are resident. The students
+pay no fees, and the professors receive no salaries. The latter maintain
+themselves by private teaching and by copying manuscripts,
+and the former in the same manner, or by reciting the Koran. To
+meet the demand for better qualified judges for the Moslem courts
+a training college for cadis was established in 1907. Besides the
+subjects taught at the Azhar university, instruction is given in
+literature, mathematics and physical science. The necessity for
+a reorganization of the Azhar system itself being also recognized
+by the high Moslem dignitaries in Egypt, a law was passed in 1907
+creating a superior board of control under the presidency of the
+Sheikh el-Azhar to supervise the proceedings of the university and
+other similar establishments. This attempt to reform the Azhar met,
+however, with so much opposition that in 1909 it was, for the time,
+abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>In 1907, of the sedentary Egyptian population over seven years of
+age, some 12% of the Moslems could read and write, female literacy
+having increased 50% since 1897; of the foreign population over
+seven years of age 75% could read and write. Of the Coptic community
+about 50% can read and write.</p>
+
+<p><i>Literature and the Press.</i>&mdash;Since the British occupation there has
+been a marked renaissance of Arabic learning and literature in
+Egypt. Societies formed for the encouragement of Arabic literature
+have brought to light important texts bearing on Mahommedan
+history, antiquities and religion. Numbers of magazines and
+reviews are published in Arabic which cater both for the needs
+of the moment and the advancement of learning. Side by side
+with these literary organs there exists a vernacular press largely
+devoted to nationalist propaganda. Prominent among these papers
+is <i>Al Lewa</i> (<i>The Standard</i>), founded in 1900. Other papers of a
+similar character are <i>Al Omma</i>, <i>Al Moayad</i> and <i>Al Gerida</i>. The
+<i>Mokattam</i> represents the views of the more enlightened and conservative
+section of the native population. In Cairo and Alexandria
+there are also published several newspapers in English and French.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;(a) General descriptions, geography, travel, &amp;c.:
+<i>Description de l&rsquo;Égypte</i>, 10 folio vols. and atlas of 10 vols. (Paris,
+1809-1822), compiled by the scientific commission sent to Egypt by
+Bonaparte; Clot Bey, <i>Aperçu général sur l&rsquo;Égypte</i>, 2 vols. (Paris,
+1840); Boinet Bey, <i>Dictionnaire géographique de l&rsquo;Égypte</i> (Cairo,
+1899); Murray&rsquo;s and Baedeker&rsquo;s handbooks and <i>Guide Joanne</i>;
+G. Ebers, <i>Egypt, Descriptive, Historical and Picturesque</i>, translated
+from the German edition of 1879 by Clara Bell, new edition, 2 vols.
+(London, 1887); Sir Gardiner Wilkinson, <i>Modern Egypt and Thebes</i>
+(2 vols., London, 1843); Lady Duff Gordon, <i>Letters from Egypt</i>,
+complete edition (London, 1902), an invaluable account of social
+conditions in the period 1862-1869; A. B. Edwards, <i>A Thousand
+Miles up the Nile</i> (2nd edition, London, n.d. [1889]); <i>Pharaohs,
+Fellahs and Explorers</i> (London, 1892); H. W. Mardon, <i>Geography
+of Egypt ...</i> (London, 1902), an excellent elementary text-book;
+D. G. Hogarth, <i>The Nearer East</i> (London, 1902), contains brief but
+suggestive chapters on Egypt; S. Lane Poole, <i>Egypt</i> (London, 1881);
+A. B. de Guerville, <i>New Egypt</i>, translated from the French (London,
+1905); R. T. Kelly, <i>Egypt Painted and Described</i> (London, 1902).
+The best maps are those of the Survey Department, Cairo, on the
+scale of 1:50000 (1.3 in. to the mile).</p>
+
+<p>(b) Administration: Sir John Bowring&rsquo;s <i>Report on Egypt ...</i> to
+Lord Palmerston (London, 1840) shows the system obtaining at that
+period. For the study of the state of Egypt at the time of the British
+occupation, 1882, and the development of the country since, the
+most valuable documents<a name="fa5c" id="fa5c" href="#ft5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a> are:</p>
+
+<p>I. <i>Official.</i>&mdash;The <i>Reports on the Finances, Administration and
+Condition of Egypt</i>, issued yearly since 1892 (the reports 1888-1891
+were exclusively financial). Up to 1906 the reports were by Lord
+Cromer (Sir Evelyn Baring). They clearly picture the progress of
+the country. The following reports are specially valuable as exhibiting
+the difficulties which at the outset confronted the British
+administrators:&mdash;<i>Correspondence respecting the Reorganization of
+Egypt</i> (1883); <i>Reports by Mr Villiers Stuart respecting Reorganization
+of Egypt</i> (1883 and 1895); <i>Despatch from Lord Dufferin forwarding
+the Decree constituting the New Political Institutions of Egypt</i> (1883);
+<i>Reports on the State of Egypt and the Progress of Administrative
+Reforms</i> (1885); <i>Reports by Sir H. D. Wolff on the Administration
+of Egypt</i> (1887). Annual returns are published in Cairo in English
+or French by the various ministries, and British consular reports
+on the trade of Egypt and of Alexandria and of the tonnage and
+shipping of the Suez Canal are also issued yearly.</p>
+
+<p>II. <i>Non-official.</i>&mdash;Lord Cromer, <i>Modern Egypt</i> (2 vols., 1908), an
+authoritative record; Alfred (Lord) Milner, <i>England in Egypt</i>, first
+published in 1892, the story being brought up to 1904 in the 11th
+edition; Sir A. Colvin, <i>The Making of Modern Egypt</i> (1906); J.
+Ward, <i>Pyramids and Progress</i> (1900); A. S. White, <i>The Expansion
+of Egypt</i> (1899); and F. W. Fuller, <i>Egypt and the Hinterland</i> (1901).
+See also the works cited in <i>History</i>, last section.</p>
+
+<p>(c) Law: H. Lamba, <i>De l&rsquo;évolution de la condition juridique des
+Européens en Égypte</i> (Paris, 1896); J. H. Scott, <i>The Law affecting
+Foreigners in Egypt ...</i> (Edinburgh, 1907); <i>The Egyptian Codes</i>
+(London, 1892).</p>
+
+<p>(d) Irrigation, agriculture, geology, &amp;c.: <i>Despatch from Sir Evelyn
+Baring enclosing Report on the Condition of the Agricultural Population
+in Egypt</i> (1888); <i>Notes on Egyptian Crops</i> (Cairo, 1896); Yacub
+Artin Bey, <i>La Propriété foncière en Égypte</i> (Bulak, 1885); <i>Report on
+Perennial Irrigation and Flood Protection for Egypt</i>, 1 vol. and atlas
+(Cairo, 1894). The reports (<i>Egypt</i>, No. 2, 1901, and <i>Egypt</i>, No. 2,
+1904), by Sir William Garstin on irrigation projects on the Upper
+Nile are very valuable records&mdash;notably the 1904 report. W. Willcocks,
+<i>Egyptian Irrigation</i> (2nd ed., 1899); H. G. Lyons, <i>The
+Physiography of the River Nile and its Basin</i> (Cairo, 1906); Leigh
+Canney, <i>The Meteorology of Egypt and its Influence on Disease</i> (1897).
+Annual meteorological reports are issued by the Public Works
+Department, Cairo. The same department issues special irrigation
+reports. See for geology Carl von Zittel, <i>Beiträge zur Geologie und
+Paläontologie der libyschen Wüste</i> (Cassel, 1883); <i>Reports of the
+Geological Survey of Egypt</i> (Cairo, 1900, et seq.).</p>
+
+<p>(e) Natural history, anthropology, &amp;c.: F. Pruner, <i>Ägyptens
+Naturgeschichte und Anthropologie</i> (Erlangen, 1848); R. Hartmann,
+<i>Naturgeschichtliche Skizze der Nilländer</i> (Berlin, 1866); Captain
+G. E. Shelley, <i>Birds of Egypt</i> (London, 1872).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. R. C.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>31</span></p>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Inhabitants.</i></p>
+
+<p>The population enumerated at the census taken in April 1907
+was 11,189,978. In these figures nomad Arabs or Bedouins, estimated
+to number 97,381, are not included. The total population
+was thus returned at 11,287,359, or some 16% more than in
+1897 when the inhabitants numbered 9,734,405. The figures
+for 1897 compared with 6,813,919 in 1882, an increase of 43.5%
+in fifteen years. Thus, during the first twenty-five years
+of the British occupation of the country the population increased
+by nearly 4,500,000. In 1800 the French estimated
+the population at no more than 2,460,000; the census of 1846
+gave the figures at 4,476,440. From that year to 1882 the
+average annual increase was 1.25%. If the desert regions be
+excluded, the population of Egypt is extremely dense, being
+about 939 per sq. m. This figure may be compared with that
+of Belgium, the most densely populated country in Europe,
+589 per sq. m., and with that of Bengal, 586 per sq. m. In
+parts of Menufia, a Delta province, the density rises to 1352 per
+sq. m., and in the Kena province of Upper Egypt to 1308.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed1">
+<p>The population is generally divisible into&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The fellahin or peasantry and the native townsmen.</p>
+<p>2. The Bedouins or nomad Arabs of the desert.</p>
+<p>3. The Nuba, Nubians or Berberin, inhabitants of the Nile valley
+     between Assuan and Dongola.</p>
+<p>4. Foreigners.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first of these divisions includes both the Moslem and
+Coptic inhabitants. The Bedouins, or the Arabs of the desert,
+are of two different classes: first, Arabic-speaking tribes who
+range the deserts as far south as 26° N.; secondly, the tribes
+inhabiting the desert from Kosseir to Suakin, namely the
+Hadendoa, Bisharin and the Ababda tribes. This group speak
+a language of their own, and are probably descendants of the
+Blemmyes, who occupied these parts in ancient times (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arabs</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bedouins</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hadendoa</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bish&#257;r&#299;n</a></span>; &amp;c.). The Nubas
+are of mixed negro and Arab blood. They are mainly agriculturists,
+though some are keen traders (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Nubia</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Foreigners number over 150,000 and form 1½% of the total
+population. They are chiefly Greeks&mdash;of whom the majority
+live in Alexandria&mdash;Italians, British and French. Syrians
+and Levantines are numerous, and there is a colony of Persians.
+The Turkish element is not numerically strong&mdash;a few thousands
+only&mdash;but holds a high social position.</p>
+
+<p>Of the total population, about 20% is urban. In addition to
+the 97,000 pure nomads, there are half a million Bedouins
+described as &ldquo;semi-sedentaries,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> tent-dwelling Arabs, usually
+encamped in those parts of the desert adjoining the cultivated
+land. The rural classes are mainly engaged in agriculture, which
+occupies over 62% of the adults. The professional and trading
+classes form about 10% of the whole population, but 50% of the
+foreigners are engaged in trade. Of the total population the
+males exceed the females by some 46,000.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Coptic inhabitants are described in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Copts</a></span>, and the
+rural population under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fellah</a></span>. It remains here to describe characteristics
+and customs common to the Moslem Egyptians
+<span class="sidenote">Physical characteristics of the Egyptians.</span>
+and particularly to those of the cities. In some respects
+the manner of life of the natives has been modified by
+contact with Europeans, and what follows depicts in
+general the habits of the people where little affected by
+western culture. With regard to physical characteristics
+the Egyptians are of full average height (the men are mostly 5 ft.
+8 in. or 5 ft. 9 in), and both sexes are remarkably well proportioned
+and of strong physique. The Cairenes and the inhabitants of Lower
+Egypt generally have a clear complexion and soft skin of a light
+yellowish colour; those of Middle Egypt have a tawny skin, and
+the dwellers in Upper Egypt a deep bronze or brown complexion.
+The face of the men is of a fine oval, forehead prominent but seldom
+high, straight nose, eyes deep set, black and brilliant, mouth well
+formed, but with rather full lips, regular teeth beautifully made,
+and beard usually black and curly but scanty. Moustaches are
+worn, while the head is shaved save for a small tuft (called <i>shusheh</i>)
+upon the crown. As to the women, &ldquo;from the age of about fourteen
+to that of eighteen or twenty, they are generally models of beauty
+in body and limbs; and in countenance most of them are pleasing,
+and many exceedingly lovely; but soon after they have attained
+their perfect growth, they rapidly decline.&rdquo; There are few Egyptian
+women over forty who retain either good looks or good figures.
+&ldquo;The forms of womanhood begin to develop themselves about the
+ninth and tenth year: at the age of fifteen or sixteen they generally
+attain their highest degree of perfection. With regard to their
+complexions, the same remarks apply to them as to the men, with
+only this difference, that their faces, being generally veiled when
+they go abroad, are not quite so much tanned as those of the men.
+They are characterized, like the men, by a fine oval countenance,
+though in some instances it is rather broad. The eyes, with very
+few exceptions, are black, large and of a long almond-form, with
+long and beautiful lashes, and an exquisitely soft, bewitching expression&mdash;eyes
+more beautiful can hardly be conceived: their
+charming effect is much heightened by the concealment of the other
+features (however pleasing the latter may be), and is rendered still
+more striking by a practice universal among the females of the higher
+and middle classes, and very common among those of the lower
+orders, which is that of blackening the edge of the eyelids both above
+and below the eye, with a black powder called &lsquo;kohl&rsquo;&rdquo; (Lane,
+<i>Modern Egyptians</i>). Both sexes, but especially the women, tattoo
+several parts of the person, and the women stain their hands and feet
+with the red dye of the henna.</p>
+
+<p>The dress of the men of the upper and middle classes who have
+not adopted European clothing&mdash;a practice increasingly common&mdash;consists
+of cotton drawers, and a cotton or silk shirt with
+very wide sleeves. Above these are generally worn a
+<span class="sidenote">Dress and social life.</span>
+waistcoat without sleeves, and a long vest of silk, called
+kaftan, which has hanging sleeves, and reaches nearly to the ankles.
+The kaftan is confined by the girdle, which is a silk scarf, or cashmere
+or other woollen shawl. Over all is worn a long cloth robe, the
+gibbeh (or jibbeh) somewhat resembling the kaftan in shape, but
+having shorter sleeves, and being open in front. The dress of the
+lower orders is the shirt and drawers, and waistcoat, with an outer
+shirt of blue cotton or brown woollen stuff; some wear a kaftan.
+The head-dress is the red cloth fez or tarbush round which a turban
+is usually worn. Men who have otherwise adopted European
+costume retain the tarbush. Many professions and religions, &amp;c.,
+are distinguished by the shape and colour of the turban, and various
+classes, and particularly servants, are marked by the form and colour
+of their shoes; but the poor go usually barefoot. Many ladies of the
+upper classes now dress in European style, with certain modifications,
+such as the head-veil. Those who retain native costume wear a very
+full pair of silk trousers, bright coloured stockings (usually pink),
+and a close-fitting vest with hanging sleeves and skirts, open down
+the front and at the sides, and long enough to turn up and fasten
+into the girdle, which is generally a cashmere shawl; a cloth jacket,
+richly embroidered with gold, and having short sleeves, is commonly
+worn over the vest. The hair in front is combed down over the forehead
+and cut across in a straight line; behind it is divided into very
+many small plaits, which hang down the back, and are lengthened by
+silken cords, and often adorned with gold coins and ornaments. A
+small tarbush is worn on the back of the head, sometimes having
+a plate of gold fixed on the crown, and a handkerchief is tastefully
+bound round the temples. The women of the lower orders have
+trousers of printed or dyed cotton, and a close waistcoat. All wear
+the long and elegant head-veil. This is a simple &ldquo;breadth&rdquo; of
+muslin, which passes over the head and hangs down behind, one side,
+being drawn forward over the face in the presence of a man. A lady&rsquo;s
+veil is of white muslin, embroidered at the ends in gold and colours;
+that of a person of the lower class is simply dyed blue. In going
+abroad the ladies wear above their indoor dress a loose robe of
+coloured silk without sleeves, and nearly open at the sides, and above
+it a large enveloping piece of black silk, which is brought over the
+head, and gathered round the person by the arms and hands on each
+side. A face-veil entirely conceals the features, except the eyes;
+it is a long and narrow piece of thick white muslin, reaching to a
+little below the knees. The women of the lower orders have the same
+out-door dress of different materials and colour. Ladies use slippers
+of yellow morocco, and abroad, inner boots of the same material,
+above which they wear, in either case, thick shoes, having only toes.
+The poor wear red shoes, very like those of the men. The women,
+especially in Upper Egypt, not infrequently wear nose-rings.</p>
+
+<p>Children, though often neglected, are not unkindly treated, and
+reverence for their parents and the aged is early inculcated. They
+are also well grounded in the leading doctrines of Islam. Boys are
+circumcised at the age of five or six years, when the boy is paraded,
+generally with a bridal procession, on a gaily caparisoned horse and
+dressed in woman&rsquo;s clothes. Most parents send their boys to school
+where a knowledge of reading and writing Arabic&mdash;the common
+tongue of the Egyptians&mdash;is obtainable, and from the closing years
+of the 19th century a great desire for the education of girls has arisen
+(see § <i>Education</i>).</p>
+
+<p>It is deemed disreputable for a young man not to marry when
+he has attained a sufficient age; there are, therefore, few unmarried
+men. Girls, in like manner, marry very young, some at ten years of
+age, and few remain single beyond the age of sixteen; they are
+generally very prolific. The bridegroom never sees his future wife
+before the wedding night, a custom rendered more tolerable than
+it otherwise might be by the facility of divorce. A dowry is always
+given, and a simple marriage ceremony performed by a <i>fiki</i> (a schoolmaster,
+or one who recites the Koran, properly one learned in <i>fiqh</i>,
+Mahommedan law) in the presence of two witnesses. The bridal
+of a virgin is attended with great festivity and rejoicing, a grandee&rsquo;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page32" id="page32"></a>32</span>
+wedding sometimes continuing eleven days and nights. On the last
+day, which should be that terminating with the eve of Friday, or of
+Monday, the bride is taken in procession to the bridegroom&rsquo;s house,
+accompanied by her female friends, and a band of musicians, jugglers,
+wrestlers, &amp;c. As before stated, a boy about to be circumcised joins
+in such a procession, or, frequently, a succession of such boys.
+Though allowed by his religion four wives, most Egyptians are
+monogamists. A man may, however, possess any number of concubines,
+who, though objects of jealousy to the legal wife, are tolerated
+by her in consideration of her superior position and power over them,
+a power which she often uses with great tyranny; but certain
+privileges are possessed by concubines, especially if they have borne
+sons to their master. A divorce is rendered obligatory by the simple
+words &ldquo;Thou art divorced.&rdquo; Repudiation may take place twice
+without being final, but if the husband repeats thrice &ldquo;Thou art
+divorced&rdquo; the separation is absolute. In that case the dowry must
+be returned to the wife.</p>
+
+<p>Elaborate ceremonies are observed at funerals. Immediately on
+death the corpse is turned towards Mecca, and the women of the
+household, assisted by hired mourners, commence their peculiar
+wailing, while fikis recite portions of the Koran. The funeral takes
+place on the day of the death, if that happen in the morning; otherwise
+on the next day. The corpse, having been washed and shrouded,
+is placed in an open bier, covered with a cashmere shawl, in the case
+of a man; or in a closed bier, having a post in front, on which are
+placed feminine ornaments, in that of a woman or child. The funeral
+procession is headed by a number of poor, and generally blind, men,
+chanting the profession of the faith, followed by male friends of the
+deceased, and a party of schoolboys, also chanting, generally from
+a poem descriptive of the state of the soul after death. Then follows
+the bier, borne on the shoulders of friends, who are relieved by the
+passers-by, such an act being deemed highly meritorious. Behind
+come the women relatives and the hired wailers. On the way to
+the cemetery the corpse is generally carried to some revered mosque.
+Here the funeral service is performed by the imam, and the procession
+then proceeds to the tomb. In the burials of the rich, water
+and bread are distributed to the poor at the grave; and sometimes
+a buffalo or several buffaloes are slaughtered there, and the flesh
+given away. The tomb is a vault, surmounted by an oblong stone
+monument, with a stele at the head and feet; and a cupola, supported
+by four walls, covers the whole in the case of sheikhs&rsquo; tombs
+and those of the wealthy. During the night following the interment,
+called the Night of Desolation, or that of Solitude, the soul being
+believed to remain with the body that one night, fikis are engaged
+at the house of the deceased to recite various portions of the Koran,
+and, commonly, to repeat the first clause of the profession of the
+faith, &ldquo;There is no God but God,&rdquo; three thousand times. The
+women alone put on mourning attire, by dyeing their veils, shirts,
+&amp;c., dark blue, with indigo; and they stain their hands, and smear
+the walls, with the same colour. Everything in the house is also
+turned upside down. The latter customs are not, however, observed
+on the death of an old man. At certain periods after the burial, a
+khatmeh, or recitation of the whole of the Koran, is performed,
+and the tomb is visited by the women relations and friends of the
+deceased. The women of the peasants of Upper Egypt perform
+strange dances, &amp;c., at funerals, which are regarded partly as relics
+of ancient Egyptian customs.</p>
+
+<p>The harem system of appointing separate apartments to the
+women, and secluding them from the gaze of men, is observed in
+Egypt as in other Moslem countries, but less strictly. The women
+of an Egyptian household in which old customs are maintained never
+sit in the presence of the master, but attend him at his meals, and
+are treated in every respect as inferiors. The mother, however,
+forms a remarkable exception to this rule; in rare instances, also,
+a wife becomes a companion to her husband. On the other hand,
+if a pair of women&rsquo;s shoes are placed outside the door of the harem
+apartments, they are understood to signify that female visitors are
+within, and a man is sometimes thus excluded from the upper
+portion of his own house for many days. Ladies of the upper or
+middle classes lead a life of extreme inactivity, spending their time
+at the bath, which is the general place of gossip, or in receiving visits,
+embroidering, and the like, and in absolute <i>dolce far niente</i>. Both
+sexes are given to licentiousness.</p>
+
+<p>The principal meals are breakfast, about an hour after sunrise;
+dinner, or the mid-day meal, at noon; and supper, which is the
+chief meal of the day, a little after sunset. Pastry, sweetmeats and
+fruit are highly esteemed. Coffee is taken at all hours, and is, with
+a pipe, presented at least once to each guest. Tobacco is the great
+luxury of the men of all classes in Egypt, who begin and end the day
+with it, and generally smoke all day with little intermission. Many
+women, also, especially among the rich, adopt the habit. The smoking
+of hashish, though illegal, is indulged in by considerable numbers
+of people. Men who can afford to keep a horse, mule or ass are
+very seldom seen to walk. Ladies ride asses and sit astride. The
+poorer classes cannot fully observe the harem system, but the women
+are in general carefully veiled. Some of them keep small shops, and
+all fetch water, make fuel, and cook for their households. Domestic
+slavery lingers but is moribund. The majority of the slaves are
+negresses employed in household duties.</p>
+
+<p>In social intercourse the Egyptians observe many forms of salutation
+and much etiquette; they are very affable, and readily enter
+into conversation with strangers. Their courtesy and dignity of
+manner are very striking, and are combined with ease and a fluency
+of discourse. They have a remarkable quickness of apprehension,
+a ready wit, a retentive memory, combined, however, with religious
+pride and hypocrisy, and a disregard for the truth. Their common
+discourse is full of asseverations and expressions respecting sacred
+things. They entertain reverence for their Prophet; and the Koran
+is treated with the utmost respect&mdash;never, for example, being placed
+in a low situation&mdash;and this is the case with everything they esteem
+holy. They are fatalists, and bear calamities with surprising resignation.
+Their filial piety and respect for the aged have been mentioned,
+and benevolence and charity are conspicuous in their character.
+Humanity to animals is another virtue, and cruelty is openly
+discountenanced in the streets. Their affability, cheerfulness and
+hospitality are remarkable, as well as frugality and temperance in
+food and drink, and honesty in the payment of debt. Their cupidity
+is mitigated by generosity; their natural indolence by the necessity,
+especially among the peasantry, to work hard to gain a livelihood.
+Egyptians, however, are as a rule suspicious of all not of their own
+creed and country. Murders and other grave crimes are rare, but
+petty larcenies are very common.</p>
+
+<p>The amusements of the people are generally not of a violent kind,
+being in keeping with their sedentary habits and the heat of the
+climate. The bath is a favourite resort of both sexes and all classes.
+They are acquainted with chess, draughts, backgammon, and other
+games, among which is one peculiar to themselves, called Mankalah,
+and played with cowries. Notwithstanding its condemnation by
+Mahomet, music is the most favourite recreation of the people; the
+songs of the boatmen, the religious chants, and the cries in the
+streets are all musical. There are male and female musical performers;
+the former are both instrumental and vocal, the latter
+(called <i>&lsquo;Almeh</i>, pl. <i>&lsquo;Aw&#257;lim</i>) generally vocal. The &lsquo;Aw&#257;lim are, as
+their name (&ldquo;learned&rdquo;) implies, generally accomplished women,
+and should not be confounded with the Ghaw&#257;zi, or dancing-girls.
+There are many kinds of musical instruments. The music, vocal
+and instrumental, is generally of little compass, and in the minor
+key; it is therefore plaintive, and strikes a European ear as somewhat
+monotonous, though often possessing a simple beauty, and
+the charm of antiquity, for there is little doubt that the favourite
+airs have been handed down from remote ages. The Ghaw&#257;zi (sing.
+Gh&#257;z&#299;a) form a separate class, very similar to the gipsies. They intermarry
+among themselves only, and their women are professional
+dancers. Their performances are often objectionable and are so
+regarded by many Egyptians. They dance in public, at fairs and
+religious festivals, and at private festivities, but, it is said, not in
+respectable houses. Mehemet Ali banished them to Esna, in Upper
+Egypt; and the few that remained in Cairo called themselves
+&lsquo;Aw&#257;lim, to avoid punishment. Many of the dancing-girls of Cairo
+to-day are neither &lsquo;Aw&#257;lim nor Ghaw&#257;zi, but women of the very
+lowest class whose performances are both ungraceful and indecent.
+A most objectionable class of male dancers also exists, who imitate
+the dances of the Ghaw&#257;zi, and dress in a kind of nondescript female
+attire. Not the least curious of the public performances are those
+of the serpent-charmers, who are generally Rif&#257;&rsquo;i&#257; (Saad&#299;a) dervishes.
+Their power over serpents has been doubted, yet their performances
+remain unexplained; they, however, always extract the fangs of
+venomous serpents. Jugglers, rope-dancers and farce-players must
+also be mentioned. In the principal coffee-shops of Cairo are to be
+found reciters of romances, surrounded by interested audiences.</p>
+
+<p>The periodical public festivals are exceedingly interesting, but
+many of the remarkable observances connected with them are
+passing away. The first ten days of the Mahommedan
+year are held to be blessed, and especially the tenth;
+<span class="sidenote">Public festivals.</span>
+and many curious practices are observed on these days,
+particularly by the women. The tenth day, being the anniversary
+of the martyrdom of Hosain, the son of Ali and grandson of the
+Prophet, the mosque of the Hasan&#275;n at Cairo is thronged to excess,
+mostly by women. In the evening a procession goes to the mosque,
+the principal figure being a white horse with white trappings, upon
+which is seated a small boy, the horse and the lad, who represents
+Hosain, being smeared with blood. From the mosque the procession
+goes to a private house, where a mullah recites the story of the martyrdom.
+Following the order of the lunar year, the next festival is that
+of the Return of the Pilgrims, which is the occasion of great rejoicing,
+many having friends or relatives in the caravan. The Mahmal,
+a kind of covered litter, first originated by Queen Sheger-ed-Dur, is
+brought into the city in procession, though not with as much pomp
+as when it leaves with the pilgrims. These and other processions
+have lost much of their effect since the extinction of the Mamelukes,
+and the gradual disuse of gorgeous dress for the retainers of the
+officers of state. A regiment of regular infantry makes but a sorry
+substitute for the splendid cavalcade of former times. The Birth
+of the Prophet (Molid en-Nebi), which is celebrated in the beginning
+of the third month, is the greatest festival of the whole year. For
+nine days and nights Cairo has more the aspect of a fair than of a
+city keeping a religious festival. The chief ceremonies take place
+in some large open spot round which are erected the tents of the
+khedive, of great state officials, and of the dervishes. Next in time,
+and also in importance, is the Molid El-Hasan&#275;n, commemorative
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page33" id="page33"></a>33</span>
+of the birth of Hosain, and lasting fifteen days and nights; and at
+the same time is kept the Molid of al-&#7778;&#257;li&#7717; Ayy&#363;b, the last sovereign
+but two of the Ayyubite dynasty. In the seventh month occur
+the Molid of the sayyida Zenab, and the commemoration of the
+Miar&#257;g, or the Prophet&rsquo;s miraculous journey to heaven. Early in
+the eighth month (Sha&rsquo;b&#257;n), the Molid of the imam Sh&#257;fi&lsquo;i is observed;
+and the night of the middle of that month has its peculiar
+customs, being held by the Moslems to be that on which the fate of
+all living is decided for the ensuing year. Then follows Ramad&#257;n,
+the month of abstinence, a severe trial to the faithful; and the
+Lesser Festival (Al-&rsquo;id a&#7779;-&#7779;agh&#299;r), which commences Shaww&#257;l, is
+hailed by them with delight. A few days after, the Kiswa, or new
+covering for the Ka&rsquo;ba at Mecca, is taken in procession from the
+citadel, where it is always manufactured, to the mosque of the
+Hasan&#275;n to be completed; and, later, the caravan of pilgrims
+departs, when the grand procession of the Mahmal takes place. On
+the tenth day of the last month of the year the Great Festival
+(Al-&rsquo;id al-kab&#299;r), or that of the Sacrifice (commemorating the willingness
+of Ibrahim to slay his son Ismail&mdash;according to the Arab legend),
+closes the calendar. The Lesser and Great Festivals are those known
+in Turkish as the Bairam (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The rise of the Nile is naturally the occasion of annual customs,
+some of which are doubtless relics of antiquity; these are observed
+according to the Coptic calendar. The commencement of the rise
+is commemorated on the night of the 11th of Ba&#363;na, the 17th of
+June, called that of the Drop (Lelet-en-Nukta), because a miraculous
+drop is then supposed to fall and cause the swelling of the river.
+The real rise begins at Cairo about the summer solstice, or a few
+days later, and early in July a crier in each district of the city begins
+to go his daily rounds, announcing, in a quaint chant, the increase
+of water in the nilometer of the island of R&#333;da. When the river
+has risen 20 or 21 ft., he proclaims the Wef&#257; en-Nil, &ldquo;Completion&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;Abundance of the Nile.&rdquo; On the following day the dam which
+closed the canal of Cairo was cut with much ceremony. The canal
+having been filled up in 1897 the ceremony has been much modified,
+but a brief description of what used to take place may be given. A
+pillar of earth before the dam is called the &ldquo;Bride of the Nile,&rdquo; and
+Arab historians relate that this was substituted, at the Moslem
+conquest, for a virgin whom it was the custom annually to sacrifice,
+to ensure a plentiful inundation. A large boat, gaily decked out,
+representing that in which the victim used to be conveyed, was
+anchored near, and a gun on board fired every quarter of an hour
+during the night. Rockets and other fireworks were also let off,
+but the best, strangely, after daybreak. The governor of Cairo
+attended the ceremony, with the cadi and others, and gave the
+signal for the cutting of the dam. As soon as sufficient water had
+entered, boats ascended the canal to the city. The crier continues
+his daily rounds, with his former chant, excepting on the Coptic
+New Year&rsquo;s Day, when the cry of the Wef&#257; is repeated, until the
+Salib, or Discovery of the Cross, the 26th or 27th of September, at
+which period, the river having attained its greatest height, he concludes
+his annual employment with another chant, and presents to
+each house some limes and other fruit, and dry lumps of Nile mud.</p>
+
+<p>The period of the hot winds, called the khamsin, that is, &ldquo;the
+fifties,&rdquo; is calculated from the day after the Coptic Easter, and terminates
+on the day of Pentecost, and the Moslems observe the
+Wednesday preceding this period, called &ldquo;Job&rsquo;s Wednesday,&rdquo; as
+well as its first day, when many go into the country from Cairo,
+&ldquo;to smell the air.&rdquo; This day is hence called Shem en-Nesim, or
+&ldquo;the smelling of the zephyr.&rdquo; The Ulema observe the same custom
+on the first three days of the spring quarter.</p>
+
+<p>Tombs of saints abound, one or more being found in every town
+and village; and no traveller up the Nile can fail to remark how
+every prominent hill has the sepulchre of its patron saint. The
+great saints of Egypt are the imam Ash-Sh&#257;fi&lsquo;i, founder of the persuasion
+called after him, the sayyid A&#7717;mad al-Bai&#7693;&#257;w&#299;, and the
+sayyid Ibr&#257;h&#299;m Ed-Des&#363;k&#299;, both of whom were founders of orders of
+dervishes. Al-Bai&#7693;&#257;w&#299;, who lived in the 13th century <span class="sc">a.d.</span>, is buried
+at the town of Tanta, in the Delta, and his tomb attracts many
+thousands of visitors at each of the three festivals held yearly in his
+honour; Ed-Des&#363;k&#299; is also much revered, and his festivals draw
+together, in like manner, great crowds to his birthplace, the town
+of Des&#363;k. But, besides the graves of her native saints, Egypt boasts
+of those of several members of the Prophet&rsquo;s family, the tomb of
+the sayyida Zeyneb, daughter of &lsquo;Ali, that of the sayyida Sekeina,
+daughter of Hosain, and that of the sayyida Nefisa, great-granddaughter
+of Hasan, all of which are held in high veneration. The
+mosque of the Hasan&#275;n (or that of the &ldquo;two Hasans&rdquo;) is the
+most reverenced shrine in the country, and is believed to contain
+the head of Hosain. Many orders of Dervishes live in Egypt, the
+following being the most celebrated:&mdash;(1) the Rif&#257;&rsquo;i&#257;, and their
+sects the &lsquo;Ilw&#257;n&#299;a and Saad&#299;a; (2) the Q&#257;dir&#299;a (K&#257;hir&#299;a), or howling
+dervishes; (3) the Ahmed&#299;a, or followers of the sayyid A&#7717;mad al-Bai&#7693;&#257;w&#299;,
+and their sects the Bey&#363;m&#299;a (known by their long hair),
+Shinnaw&#299;a, Sharaw&#299;a and many others; and (4) the Bar&#257;m&#299;a, or
+followers of the sayyid Ibr&#257;h&#299;m Ed-Des&#363;k&#299;. These are all presided
+over by a direct descendant of the caliph Abu Bekr, called the
+Sheikh El-Bekri. The Saad&#299;a are famous for charming and eating
+live serpents, &amp;c., and the &lsquo;Ilw&#257;n&#299;a for eating fire, glass, &amp;c. The
+Egyptians firmly believe in the efficacy of charms, a belief associated
+with that in an omnipresent and over-ruling providence. Thus the
+doors of houses are inscribed with sentences from the Koran, or the
+like, to preserve from the evil eye, or avert the dangers of an unlucky
+threshold; similar inscriptions may be observed over most shops,
+while almost every one carries some charm about his person. The
+so-called sciences of magic, astrology and alchemy still flourish.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;The standard authority for the Moslem Egyptians
+is E. W. Lane&rsquo;s <i>Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians</i>, first
+published in 1836. The best edition is that of 1860, edited, with
+additions, by E. S. Poole. See also B. Saint-John, <i>Village Life in
+Egypt</i> (2 vols., 1852); S. Lane Poole, <i>Social Life in Egypt</i> (1884);
+P. Arminjon, <i>L&rsquo;Enseignement, la doctrine, el la vie dans les universités
+musulmanes d&rsquo;Égypte</i> (Paris, 1907). For the language see J. S.
+Willmore, <i>The Spoken Arabic of Egypt</i> (2nd ed., London, 1905);
+Spitta Bey, <i>Grammatik des arabischen Vulgardialektes von Ägypten,
+Contes arabes modernes</i> (Leiden, 1883). For statistical information
+consult the reports on the censuses of 1897 and 1907, published by
+the Ministry of the Interior, Cairo, in 1898 and 1909.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. S. P.; S. L.-P.; F. R. C.)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Finance.</i></p>
+
+<p>The important part which the financial arrangements have
+played in the political and social history of Egypt since the
+accession of Ismail Pasha in 1863 is shown in the section <i>History</i>
+of this article. Here it is proposed to trace the steps by which
+Egypt, after having been brought to a state of bankruptcy,
+passed through a period of great stress, and finally attained
+prosperity and a large measure of financial autonomy.</p>
+
+<p>In 1862 the foreign debt of Egypt stood at £3,292,000. With
+the accession of Ismail (<i>q.v.</i>) there followed a period of wild
+extravagance and reckless borrowing accompanied by the
+extortion of every piastre possible from the fellahin. The real
+state of affairs was disclosed in the report of Mr Stephen Cave,
+a well-known banker, who was sent by the British government
+in December 1875 to inquire into the situation. The Cave
+report showed that Egypt suffered from &ldquo;the ignorance, dishonesty,
+waste and extravagance of the East&rdquo; and from &ldquo;the
+vast expense caused by hasty and inconsiderate endeavours to
+adopt the civilization of the West.&rdquo; The debtor and creditor
+account of the state from 1864 to 1875 showed receipts amounting
+to £148,215,000. Of this sum over £94,000,000 had been obtained
+from revenue and nearly £4,000,000 by the sale of the khedive&rsquo;s
+shares in the Suez Canal to Great Britain. The rest was credited
+to: loans £31,713,000, floating debt £18,243,000. The cash
+which reached the Egyptian treasury from the loans and floating
+debt was far less than the nominal amount of such loans, none
+of which cost the Egyptian government less than 12% per
+annum. When the expenditure during the same period was
+examined the extraordinary fact was disclosed that the sum
+raised by revenue was only three millions less than that spent
+on administration, tribute and public works, including a sum
+of £10,500,000, described as &ldquo;expenses of questionable utility
+or policy.&rdquo; The whole proceeds of the loans and floating debt
+had been absorbed in payment of interest and sinking funds,
+with the exception of £16,000,000 debited to the Suez Canal.
+In other words, Egypt was burdened with a debt of £91,000,000&mdash;funded
+or floating&mdash;for which she had no return, for even from
+the Suez Canal she derived no revenue, owing to the sale of the
+khedive&rsquo;s shares.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after Mr Cave&rsquo;s report appeared (March 1876), default
+took place on several of the loans. Nearly the whole of the debt,
+it should be stated, was held in England or France, and at the
+instance of French financiers the stoppage of payment was
+followed by a scheme to unify the debt. This scheme included
+the distribution of a bonus of 25% to holders of treasury bonds.
+These bonds had then reached a sum exceeding £20,000,000
+and were held chiefly by French firms. The unification scheme
+was elaborated in a khedivial decree of the 7th of May 1876,
+but was rendered abortive by the opposition of the British
+bondholders. Its place was taken by another scheme drawn
+up by Mr (afterwards Lord) Goschen and M. Joubert, who
+represented the British and French bondholders respectively.
+The details of this settlement, promulgated by decree of the 17th
+of November 1876, need not be given, as it was superseded in
+1880. One of the securities devised for the benefit of the bondholders
+in the abortive scheme of May 1876 was retained in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page34" id="page34"></a>34</span>
+Goschen-Joubert settlement, and being continued in later settlements
+grew to be one of the most important institutions in
+Egypt. This security was the establishment of a Treasury
+of the Public Debt, known by its French title of <i>Caisse de la
+Dette</i>, and commonly spoken of simply as &ldquo;the Caisse.&rdquo; The
+duty of this body was to act as receivers of the revenues assigned
+to the service of the debt. To render their powers effective
+they were given the right to sue the Egyptian government in
+the Mixed Tribunals for any breach of engagement to the
+bondholders.</p>
+
+<p>The Goschen-Joubert settlement was accompanied by guarantees
+against maladministration by the appointment of an
+Englishman and a Frenchman to superintend the
+revenue and expenditure&mdash;the &ldquo;Dual Control&rdquo;;
+<span class="sidenote">The Law of Liquidation.</span>
+while a commission was appointed in 1878 to investigate
+the condition of the country. The settlement
+of 1880 was effected on the basis of the proposals made by this
+commission, and was embodied in the Law of Liquidation of
+July 1880&mdash;after the deposition of Ismail. For the purposes
+of the new settlement the loans raised by Ismail on his private
+estates, those known as the Daïra (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;administrations&rdquo;) and
+Domains loans, were brought into account. By the Law of
+Liquidation the floating debt was paid off, the whole debt being
+consolidated into four large loans, upon which the rate of interest
+was reduced to a figure which it was considered Egypt was able
+to bear. The Egyptian debt under this composition was:</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Privileged debt</td> <td class="tcr">£22,609,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Unified debt</td> <td class="tcr">58,018,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Daïra Sanieh loan</td> <td class="tcr">9,513,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Domains loan</td> <td class="tcr">8,500,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">£98,640,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The rate of interest was, on the Privileged debt and Domains
+loan, 5%; on the Unified debt and Daïra loan, 4%. Under
+this settlement the total annual charges on the country amounted
+to £4,500,000, about half the then revenue of Egypt. These
+charges included the services of the Privileged and Unified
+debts, the tribute to Turkey and the interest on the Suez Canal
+shares held by Great Britain, but excluded the interest on the
+Daïra and Domains loans, expected to be defrayed by the
+revenues from the estates on which those loans were secured.
+The general revenue of Egypt was divided between the bondholders
+and the government, any surplus on the bondholders&rsquo;
+share being devoted to the redemption of the capital.</p>
+
+<p>The 1880 settlement proved little more lasting than that of
+1876. After a brief period of prosperity, the Arabi rising, the
+riots at Alexandria, and the events generally which led to the
+British occupation of Egypt in 1882, followed by the losses
+incurred in the Sudan in the effort to prevent it falling into the
+hands of the Mahdi, brought Egypt once more to the verge of
+financial disaster. The situation was an anomalous one. While
+the revenue assigned to the service of the debt was more than
+sufficient for the payment of interest and the sinking fund was
+in full operation, the government found that their share of the
+revenue was altogether inadequate for the expenses of administration,
+and they were compelled to borrow on short loans at high
+rate of interest. Moreover, to make good the losses incurred at
+Alexandria, and to get money to pay the charges arising out of
+the Sudan War and the Arabi rebellion, a new loan was essential.
+On the initiative of Great Britain a conference between the
+representatives of the great powers and Turkey was held in
+London, and resulted in the signing of a convention in March
+1885. The terms agreed upon in this instrument, known as
+the London Convention, were embodied in a khedivial decree,
+which, with some modification in detail, remained for twenty
+years the organic law under which the finances of Egypt were
+administered.</p>
+
+<p>The principle of dividing the revenue of the country between
+the Caisse, as representing the bondholders, and the government
+was maintained by the London Convention. The revenue
+assigned to the service of the debt, namely, that derived from
+the railway, telegraphs, port of Alexandria, customs (including
+tobacco) and from four of the provinces, remained as before.
+It was recognized, however, that the non-assigned revenue was
+<span class="sidenote">Provisions of the London Convention.</span>
+insufficient to meet the necessary expenses of government,
+and a scale of administrative expenditure was
+drawn up. This was originally fixed at £E.5,237,000,<a name="fa6c" id="fa6c" href="#ft6c"><span class="sp">6</span></a>
+but subsequently other items were allowed, and
+in 1904, the last year in which the system described
+existed, it was £E.6,300,600. The Caisse was authorized,
+after payment of the coupons on the debt, to make good
+out of their balance in hand the difference between the
+authorized expenditure and the non-assigned revenue. If a
+surplus remained to the Caisse after making good such deficit
+the surplus was to be divided equally between the Caisse and the
+government; the government to be free to spend its share as
+it pleased, while the Caisse had to devote its share to the reduction
+of the debt. This limitation of administrative expenditure
+was the cardinal feature and the leading defect of the convention.
+Those responsible for this arrangement&mdash;the most favourable
+for Egypt that Great Britain could secure&mdash;failed to recognize
+the complete change likely to result from the British occupation
+of Egypt, and probably regarded that occupation as temporary.
+The system devised might have been justifiable as a check on a
+retrograde government, but was wholly inapplicable to a reforming
+government and a serious obstacle to the attainment of
+national prosperity. In practice administrative expenditure
+always exceeded the amount fixed by the convention. Any
+excess could, however, only be met out of the half-share of the
+eventual surplus reached in the manner described. Consequently,
+in order to meet new expenditure necessitated by the growing
+wants of a country in process of development, just double the
+amount of revenue had to be raised.</p>
+
+<p>To return to the provisions of the London Convention. The
+convention left the permanent rate of interest on the debt,
+as fixed by the Law of Liquidation, unchanged, but to afford
+temporary relief to the Egyptian exchequer a reduction of 5%
+on the interest of the debt was granted for two years, on condition
+that if at the end of that period payment, including the arrears
+of the two years, was not resumed in full, another international
+commission was to be appointed to examine into the whole
+financial situation. Lastly, the convention empowered Egypt
+to raise a loan of nine millions, guaranteed by all the powers,
+at a rate of interest of 3%. For the service of this loan&mdash;known
+as the Guaranteed loan&mdash;an annuity of £315,000 was provided
+in the Egyptian budget for interest and sinking fund. The
+£9,000,000 was sufficient to pay the Alexandria indemnities, to
+wipe out the deficits of the preceding years, to give the Egyptian
+treasury a working balance of £E.500,000 and thereby avoid
+the creation of a fresh floating debt, and to provide a million
+for new irrigation works. To the wise foresight which, at a
+moment when the country was sinking beneath a weight of debt,
+did not hesitate to add this million for expenditure on productive
+works, the present prosperity of Egypt is largely due.</p>
+
+<p>The provisions of the London Convention did not exhaust the
+restrictions placed upon the Egyptian government in respect
+of financial autonomy. These restrictions were of two categories,
+(1) those independent of the London Convention, (2) those
+dependent upon that instrument. In the first category came
+(a) the prohibition to raise a loan without the consent of the
+Porte. The right to raise loans had been granted to the khedive
+Ismail in 1873, but was taken away in 1879 by the firman appointing
+Tewfik khedive. (b) Next came the inability to levy taxes
+on foreigners without the consent of their respective governments.
+This last obligation was, in virtue of the Capitulations, applicable
+to Egypt as part of the Ottoman empire. The only exception,
+resulting from the Ottoman law under which foreigners are
+allowed to acquire and hold real property, is the land tax. (All
+taxes formerly paid by natives and not by foreigners have been
+abolished in Egypt, but the immunity described constitutes a
+most serious obstacle to the redistribution of the burden of
+taxation in a more equitable manner.)</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page35" id="page35"></a>35</span></p>
+
+<p>From the purely Egyptian point of view the most powerful
+restriction in this first category remains to be named. In 1883
+the supervision exercised over the finances by French and
+British controllers was replaced by that of a British official
+called the financial adviser. The British government has
+declared that &ldquo;no financial decision shall be taken without his
+consent,&rdquo; a declaration never questioned by the Egyptian
+government. This restriction, therefore, is at the same time
+the chief safeguard for the purity of Egypt&rsquo;s finances.</p>
+
+<p>In the second category of restrictions, namely, those dependent
+on the London Convention, were the various commissions or
+boards known as Mixed Administrations and having relations of a
+quasi-independent character with the ministry of finance. Of
+these boards by far the most important was the Caisse. As first
+constituted it consisted of a French, an Austrian, and an Italian
+member; a British member was added in 1877 and a German and
+a Russian member in 1885. The revenue assigned to the debt
+charges was paid direct to the Caisse without passing through the
+ministry of finance. The assent of the Caisse (as well as that of
+the sultan) was necessary before any new loan could be issued, and
+in the course of a few years from its creation this body acquired
+very extensive powers. Besides the Caisse there was the Railway
+Board, which administered the railways, telegraphs and port of
+Alexandria for the benefit of the bondholders, and the Daïra and
+Domains commissions, which administered the estates mortgaged
+to the holders of those loans. Each of the three boards last named
+consisted of an Englishman, a Frenchman and an Egyptian.</p>
+
+<p>During the two years that followed the signing of the London
+Convention, the financial policy of the Egyptian government was
+directed to placing the country in a position to resume
+full payment of the interest on the debt in 1887, and
+<span class="sidenote">The race against bankruptcy.</span>
+thereby to avoid the appointment of an international
+commission. By the exercise of the most rigid economy
+in all branches this end was attained, though budgetary equilibrium
+was only secured by a variety of financial expedients,
+justified by the vital importance of saving Egypt from further
+international interference. By such means this additional
+complication was averted, but the struggle to put Egypt in a
+genuinely solvent position was by no means over. It was not
+until his report on the financial results of 1888 that Sir Evelyn
+Baring (afterwards Lord Cromer) was able to inform the British
+government that the situation was such that &ldquo;it would take a
+series of untoward events seriously to endanger the stability of
+Egyptian finance and the solvency of the Egyptian government.&rdquo;
+From this moment the corner was turned, and the era of financial
+prosperity commenced. The results of the labours of the preceding
+six years began to manifest themselves with a rapidity which
+surprised the most sanguine observers. The principal feature of
+the successive Egyptian budgets of 1890-1894 was the fiscal
+relief afforded to the population. From 1894 onward more
+attention was paid than had hitherto been possible to the
+legitimate demands of the spending departments and to the
+prosecution of public works. Of these the most notable was the
+construction (1898-1902) of the Assuan dam, which by bringing
+more land under cultivation permanently increased the resources
+of the country and widened the area of taxation.</p>
+
+<p>With the accumulating proofs of the financial stability of the
+country various changes were made in connexion with the debt
+charges. With the consent of the powers a General
+Reserve Fund was created by decree of the 12th of July
+<span class="sidenote">Reserve funds.</span>
+1888, into which was paid the Caisse&rsquo;s half-share in the
+eventual surplus of revenue. This fund, primarily intended as a
+security for the bondholders, might be drawn upon for extraordinary
+expenditure with the consent of the commissioners of
+the Caisse. Large sums were so advanced for the purposes of
+drainage and irrigation and other public works, and in relief
+of taxation. The defect of this arrangement consisted in the
+necessity of obtaining the consent of the commissioners&mdash;a consent
+sometimes withheld on purely political grounds. At the
+same time it is believed that but for the faculty given by the
+decree of 1888 to spend the General Reserve Fund on public works,
+the financial system elaborated by the London Convention would
+have broken down altogether. Between 1888 and 1904 about
+£10,000,000 was devoted from this fund to public works.</p>
+
+<p>In June 1890 the assent of the powers was obtained to the
+conversion of the Preference (Privileged), Domains and Daïra
+loans on the following conditions, imposed at the initiative of the
+French government:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. The employment of the economies resulting from the conversion
+was to be the subject of future agreement with the powers.</p>
+
+<p>2. The Daïra loan was to be reimbursed at 85%, instead of 80%,
+as provided by the Law of Liquidation.</p>
+
+<p>3. The sales of Domains and Daïra lands were to be restricted to
+£E.300,000 a year each, thus prolonging the period of liquidation
+of those estates.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The interest on the Preference stock was reduced from 5 to
+3½%, and on the Domains from 5 to 4¼%. As regards the Daïra
+loan, there was no apparent reduction in the rate of interest,
+which remained at 4%, but the bondholders received £85 of the
+new stock for every £100 of the old. The capital of the debt was
+increased by £1,945,000 by these conversions, while the annual
+economy to the Egyptian government amounted at the time of
+the conversion to £E.348,000. Further, an engagement was
+entered into that there should be no reimbursement of the loans
+till 1905 for the Preference and Daïra, and 1908 for the Domains.
+By an arrangement concluded in June 1898, between the Egyptian
+government and a syndicate, the unsold balance of the Daïra
+estates was taken over by the syndicate in October 1905, for the
+amount of the debt remaining, when the Daïra loan ceased to
+exist. The fund formed by the accumulation of the economies resulting
+from the conversion of the Privileged, Daïra and Domains
+loan was known as the Conversion Economies Fund. The fund
+could not be used for any purpose without the consent of the
+powers, and the money paid into it was invested by the Caisse in
+Egyptian stock. The fund therefore acted as a very expensive
+sinking fund, the market price of the stock purchased being above
+par. Up to 1904 the consent of the powers to the employment of
+this fund for any purpose of public utility was withheld. On the
+31st of December of that year the fund amounted to £E.6,031,000.
+It may be added that besides the General Reserve Fund and the
+Conversion Economies Fund, there existed another fund called
+the Special Reserve Fund. This was constituted in 1886 and was
+chiefly made up of the net savings of the Egyptian government on
+its share of the annual surpluses from revenue. Of the three
+funds this last-named was the only one at the absolute disposal
+of the government. The whole of the extraordinary expenditure
+of the Sudan campaigns of 1896-1898, with the exception of
+£800,000 granted by the British government, was paid out of this
+fund&mdash;a sum amounting in round figures to £1,500,000.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding all the hampering conditions stated, the
+prosperity of the country became more manifest each succeeding
+year. During the four years 1883-1886, both inclusive,
+the aggregate deficit amounted to £E.2,606,000. In
+<span class="sidenote">An era of prosperity.</span>
+1887 there was practical equilibrium in the budget, in
+1888 there was a deficit of £E.53,000. In 1889 there was a surplus
+of £E.218,000, and from that date onward every year has shown
+a surplus. In 1895 the surplus exceeded, for the first time,
+£E.1,000,000. The growth of revenue was no less marked. &ldquo;In
+1883&mdash;the first complete year after the British occupation&mdash;the
+revenue was slightly under 9 millions. This sum was collected
+with difficulty. The revenue steadily rose until, in 1890, the
+figure of 10 millions was exceeded. In 1897 a figure of over 11
+millions was attained. Continuing to rise with ever-increasing
+rapidity, a revenue of close on 12 millions was collected in 1901
+and 1902, in spite of the fact that during the latter of these two
+years the Nile flood was one of the lowest on record. In 1903 the
+revenue amounted to 12½ millions, and in 1904 the unprecedented
+figure of £E.13,906,000 was reached.&rdquo;<a name="fa7c" id="fa7c" href="#ft7c"><span class="sp">7</span></a> Yet during this period
+the amount of direct taxation remitted reached £E.1,900,000 a
+year. Arrears of land tax to the extent of £E.1,245,000 were
+cancelled. In indirect taxation the salt tax had been reduced by
+40%, the postal, railway and telegraph rates lowered, octroi
+duties and bridge and lock dues abolished. The only increase of
+taxation had been on tobacco, on which the duty was raised from
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" id="page36"></a>36</span>
+P.T. 14 to P.T. 20 per kilogramme. At the same time the house
+duty, with the consent of the powers, had been imposed on
+European residents. The fact that during the period under
+review Egypt suffered very severely from the general fall in the
+price of commodities makes the prosperity of the country the more
+remarkable. Had it not been for the great increase of production
+as the result of improved irrigation and the fiscal relief afforded to
+landowners, the agricultural depression would have impaired the
+financial situation. In this connexion it should be stated that
+during 1899 the reassessment of the land tax, a much-needed
+reform, was seriously taken in hand. The existing assessment,
+made before the British occupation, had long been condemned
+by all competent authorities, but the inherent intricacies and
+difficulties of the problem had hitherto postponed a solution.
+After careful study and a preliminary examination of the land, a
+scheme was passed which has given satisfaction to the landowning
+community, and which distributes the tax equitably in proportion
+to the fertility of the soil. The reassessment was completed in 1907.</p>
+
+<p>While the country thus prospered it also suffered greatly from
+the restrictions imposed by the system of international control.
+This system produced a great disproportion between
+the sums available for capital and those available for
+<span class="sidenote">The cost of internationalism.</span>
+administrative expenditure. Although the money for
+public works could be obtained out of grants from
+the General Reserve Fund, there was no fund from which to
+provide a sufficient sum to keep those works in order. Moreover,
+to avoid having to pay half the amount received into the General
+Reserve Fund the government was compelled to keep certain
+items of revenue and expenditure out of the accounts altogether&mdash;a
+violation of the principles of sound finance. Then there was
+the glaring anomaly of allowing the Conversion Economies to
+accumulate at compound interest in the hands of the commissioners
+of the Caisse, instead of using the money for remunerative
+purposes. The net result of internationalism was to impose an
+extra charge of about £1,750,000 a year on the Egyptian treasury.</p>
+
+<p>All these cumbersome restrictions were swept away by the
+khedivial decree of the 28th of November 1904, a decree which
+received the assent of the powers and was the result
+of the Anglo-French agreement of April 1904 (see
+§ History).<span class="sidenote">Egypt gains financial liberty.</span> The decree did not affect the inability
+of Egypt to tax foreigners without their consent nor
+remove the right of Turkey to veto the issue of new loans, but
+in other respects the financial changes made by it were of a
+radical character. The main effect was to give to the Egyptian
+government a free hand in the disposal of its own resources so
+long as the punctual payment of interest on the debt was assured.
+The plan devised by the London Convention of fixing a limit
+to administrative expenditure was abolished. The consent of
+the Caisse to the raising of a new loan was no longer required.
+The Caisse itself remained, but shorn of all political and administrative
+powers, its functions being strictly limited to receiving
+the assigned revenues and to ensuring the due payment of the
+coupon. The nature of the assigned revenue was altered, the land
+tax being substituted for those previously assigned, that tax
+being chosen as it had a greater character of stability than
+any other source of revenue. By this means Egypt gained complete
+control of its railways, telegraphs, the port of Alexandria
+and the customs, and as a consequence the mixed administration
+known as the Railway Board ceased to exist. Moreover, it was
+provided that when the Caisse had received from the land tax
+the amount needed for the service of the debt, the balance of the
+tax was to be paid direct to the Egyptian treasury. The Conversion
+Economies Fund was also placed at the free disposal
+of the Egyptian government. The General Reserve Fund
+ceased to exist, but for the better security of the bondholders
+a reserve fund of £1,800,000 was constituted and left in the
+hands of the Caisse to be used in the highly improbable event
+of the land tax being insufficient to meet the debt charges.
+Moreover, the Caisse started under the new arrangement with a
+cash balance of £1,250,000. The interest of the money lying
+in the hands of the Caisse goes towards meeting the debt charges
+and thus reduces the amount needed from the land tax. The
+bondholders gained a further material advantage by the consent
+of the Egyptian government to delay the conversion of the
+loans, which under previous arrangements they would have been
+free to do in 1905. It was agreed that there should be no conversion
+of the Guaranteed or Privileged debts before 1910 and
+no conversion of the Unified debt until 1912. Such were the
+chief provisions of the khedivial decree, and in 1905, for the first
+time, it was possible to draw up the Egyptian budget in accordance
+with the needs of the country and on perfectly sound
+principles.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In the system adopted in 1905 and since maintained, recurring and
+non-recurring expenditure were shown separately, the non-recurring
+expenditure being termed &ldquo;special.&rdquo; At the same time a new
+General Reserve Fund was created, made up chiefly of the surpluses
+of the old General Reserve, Special Reserve, and Conversion
+Economies funds. This new fund started with a capital of
+£13,376,000 and was replenished by the surpluses of subsequent
+years, by the interest earned by its temporary investment, and by
+the sums accruing by the liquidation of the Daïra and Domains loans.
+During 1905 and 1906 about £3,000,000 was paid into the fund
+through the liquidation of the Daïra loan. From this fund, which
+had a balance of over £12,000,000 in 1906, is taken capital expenditure
+on remunerative public works in Egypt and the Sudan, and
+while the fund lasts the necessity for any new loan is avoided. The
+greater freedom of action attained as the result of the Anglo-French
+declaration of 1904 enabled the Egyptian government to advance
+simultaneously along the lines of fiscal reform and increased administrative
+expenditure. Thus in 1906 the salt monopoly was
+abolished at a cost to the revenue of £175,000, while the reduction
+of import duties on coal and other fuels, live-stock, &amp;c., involved
+a further loss of £118,000, and an increase of over £1,000,000 in
+expenditure was budgeted for. The accounts for 1907 showed
+a total revenue of £E.16,368,000 and a total expenditure of
+£E.14,280,000, a surplus of £E.2,088,000. The annual growth of
+revenue for the previous five years averaged over £E.500,000.
+About one-third of the annual revenue is derived from the land tax;
+customs and tobacco duties yield about £3,000,000, and an equal or
+larger amount is received from railways and other revenue-earning
+departments. The chief items of ordinary expenditure are tribute
+and debt charges, the expenses of the civil administration, of the
+Egyptian army (between £500,000 and £600,000 yearly), of the
+revenue-earning departments and of pensions.</p>
+
+<p>It will be convenient here to summarize the position of the
+Egyptian debt at the close of 1905, that is at the period immediately
+following the liquidation of the Daïra loan. In a previous table it
+has been shown that under the Law of Liquidation of 1880 the total
+debt was £98,640,000. In 1883, the first complete year after the
+British occupation, the capital of the debt&mdash;then exclusively held
+by the public&mdash;was £96,457,000. In 1885 the Guaranteed loan, the
+nominal capital of which was £9,424,000, was issued, and in 1891
+the debt reached its maximum figure of £106,802,000. At that
+period the charge for interest and sinking fund was £4,127,000. On
+the 31st of December 1905 the total capital of the debt was as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Guaranteed 3%</td> <td class="tcr">£7,849,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Preference 3½%</td> <td class="tcr">31,128,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Unified 4%</td> <td class="tcr">55,972,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Domains 4¼%</td> <td class="tcr">1,535,000</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">£96,484,000</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The charge on account of interest and sinking fund was £3,709,000.
+Thus the capital of the debt in 1905 stood at almost the exact figure
+it did in 1883, although by borrowing and conversion operations
+nearly £17,000,000 had in the meantime been added to the capital.
+This reduction was brought about by surplus revenue, and by the
+operation of the sinking fund in the case of the Guaranteed loan,
+while £15,729,000 had been wiped out by the sale of Daïra and
+Domains property. These figures do not, however, indicate fully the
+prosperity of the country, for although the nominal amount of
+the capital was practically identical in 1883 and 1905, in the latter
+year the Egyptian government or the Caisse held stock (bought
+with surplus revenue) to the value of £8,770,000. The amount of
+debt in the hands of the public was therefore only £87,714,000, that
+is to say £8,743,000 less than in 1883, while the interest charge to be
+borne by the taxpayer of Egypt was £3,378,000, being £890,000
+less than in 1883. The charge amounts to about 40% of the national
+expenditure. On the other hand, Egypt is not now weighed down
+with a huge warlike expenditure. There is no navy to support,
+and the army costs but 7% of the total expenditure.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;A concise view of the financial situation in 1877
+will be found in J. C. McCoan&rsquo;s <i>Egypt as it is</i> (London n.d.). Mr
+Cave&rsquo;s report is printed in an appendix. The subsequent history
+of Egyptian finance is told in the following blue-books, &amp;c.:&mdash;<i>Correspondence
+respecting the State Domains of Egypt</i> (1883); <i>Statement
+of the Revenue and Expenditure of Egypt, together with a List
+of the Egyptian Bonds and the Charges for their Services</i> (1885);
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page37" id="page37"></a>37</span>
+<i>Reports on the Finances of Egypt</i>, by the British agent, yearly from
+1888; <i>Convention ... relative to the Finance of Egypt, signed at
+London, March 18, 1885; Khedivial decree of the 28th November 1904;
+Compte général de l&rsquo;administration des finances</i>, issued yearly at Cairo.
+Consult also the works of Lord Cromer, Lord Milner, and Sir A.
+Colvin cited under § History, last section.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Go.; F. R. C.)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>The Egyptian Army.</i></p>
+
+<p>The fellah soldier has been aptly likened to a bicycle, which
+although incapable of standing up alone, is very useful while
+under the control of a skilful master. It is generally
+believed that the successes gained in the time of the
+<span class="sidenote">Early history.</span>
+Pharaohs were due to foreign legions; and from
+Cambyses to Alexander, from the Ptolemies to Antony (Cleopatra),
+from Augustus to the 7th century, throughout the
+Arab period, and from Saladin&rsquo;s dynasty down to the middle of
+the 13th century, the military power of Egypt was dependent
+on mercenaries. The Mamelukes (slaves), imported from the
+eastern borders of the Black Sea and then trained as soldiers,
+usurped the government of Egypt, and held it till 1517, when
+the Ottomans began to rule. This form of government, speaking
+generally, endured till the French invasion at the end of the 18th
+century. British and Turkish troops drove the French out after
+an occupation of two years, the British troops remaining till 1803.
+Then Mehemet Ali, a small tobacconist of Kavala, Macedonia,
+coming with Albanian mercenaries, made himself governor, and
+later (1811), by massacring the Mamelukes, became the actual
+master of the country, and after seven years&rsquo; war brought Arabia
+under Egypt&rsquo;s rule. He subdued Nubia and Sennar in 1820-22;
+and then, requiring a larger army, he obtained instructors from
+France. To them were handed over 1000 Turks and Circassians
+to be trained as officers, who later took command of 30,000
+Sudanese. These died so rapidly in Egypt from pneumonia<a name="fa8c" id="fa8c" href="#ft8c"><span class="sp">8</span></a>
+that Mehemet Ali conscripted over 250,000 fellahin, and in so
+arbitrary a fashion that many peasants mutilated themselves
+to avoid the much-dreaded service. The common practice
+was to place a small piece of nitrate of silver into the eye, which
+was then kept tightly bandaged till the sight was destroyed.
+Battalions were then formed of one-eyed men, and of soldiers
+who, having cut off their right-hand fingers, were made to shoot
+from the left shoulder. Every man who could not purchase
+exemption, with the exception of those living in Cairo, Alexandria
+and Suez, on becoming 19 years old was liable nominally to 12
+years&rsquo; service; but many men were kept for 30 or 40 years,
+in spite of constant appeals. Nevertheless the experiment
+succeeded. The docile, yet robust and hardy peasants, under
+their foreign leaders, gained an unbroken series of successes in
+the first Syrian War; and after the bloody battle of Konia
+(1832), where the raw Turkish army was routed and the grand
+vizier taken prisoner, it was only European intervention which
+prevented the Egyptian general, Ibrahim Pasha, from marching
+unopposed to the Bosphorus. The defeat of the Turkish army
+at Nizib (Nezeeb or Nisib), in the second Syrian War (1839),
+showed that it was possible to obtain favourable military results
+with Egyptians when stiffened by foreigners and well commanded.
+Ibrahim, the hero of Konia, declared, however, that no native
+Egyptian ought to rise higher than the rank of sergeant; and
+in the Syrian campaigns nearly all the officers were Turks or
+Circassians, as were several non-commissioned officers. In the
+cavalry and artillery many of the privates were foreigners,
+numbers of the janissaries who escaped the massacre at Stamboul
+(1832) having joined Mehemet Ali&lsquo;s army.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of Abbas, who succeeded Mehemet Ali, the
+Egyptian troops were driven from Nejd, and the Wahhabi
+state recovered its independence. The next viceroy, Said, began
+as an ardent soldier, but took to agriculture, and at his death
+(1863) 3000 men only were retained under arms. Ismail, on
+succeeding, immediately added 27,000 men, and in seven years
+was able to put 100,000 men, well equipped, in the field. He
+sent 10,000 men to help to suppress a rebellion in Crete, and
+conquered the greater part of the (Nile) Sudan; but an expedition
+of 11,000 men, sent to Abyssinia under Prince Hasan
+and Rateb Pasha, well equipped with guns and all essentials,
+was, in two successive disasters (1875 and 1876), practically
+destroyed. The education of Egyptians in continental cities
+had not produced the class of leaders who led the fellahin to
+victory at Konia.</p>
+
+<p>Ismail&rsquo;s exactions from the Egyptian peasantry reacted on
+the army, causing discontent; and when he was tottering on
+the throne he instigated military demonstrations against his
+own government, and, by thus sapping the foundations of
+discipline, assisted Arabi&rsquo;s revolution; the result was the battle
+of Tell el-Kebir, the British occupation, and the disbandment
+of the army, which at that time in Egypt proper consisted
+of 18,000 men. Ismail had collected 500 field-guns, 200 Armstrong
+cannon, and had created factories of warlike and other
+stores. These latter were conducted extravagantly, and badly
+administered.</p>
+
+<p>In January 1883, Major-General Sir Evelyn Wood, V.C.,
+was given £200,000, and directed to spend it in raising a fellahin
+force of 6000 men for the defence of Egypt. He was
+assisted at first by 26 officers, amongst whom were
+<span class="sidenote">Reorganization.</span>
+two who later became successively sirdars&mdash;Colonel
+F. Grenfell, commanding a brigade, and Lieutenant H. Kitchener,
+R.E., second in command of the cavalry regiment. There were
+four batteries, eight battalions, and a camel company. Each
+battalion of the 1st infantry brigade had three British mounted
+officers, Turks and Egyptians holding the corresponding positions
+in the battalions of the 2nd Brigade. The sirdar selected these
+native officers from those of Arabi&rsquo;s followers who had been
+the least prominent in the recent mutiny; non-commissioned
+officers who had been drill-instructors in the old army were
+recalled temporarily, but all the privates were conscripted from
+their villages. The earlier merciless practice had been in theory
+abolished by a decree based on the German system, published
+in 1880; but owing to defective organization, and internal
+disturbances induced by Khedive Ismail&rsquo;s follies, the law had
+not been applied, and the 6000 recruits collected at Cairo in
+January 1883 represented the biggest and strongest peasants
+who could not purchase exemption by bribing the officials
+concerned. The difficulties experienced in applying the 1880
+decree were great, but the perseverance of British officers gave
+the oppressed peasants, in 1885, an equitable law, which has
+been since improved by the decree of 1900. General considerations
+later caused the sirdar to allow exemption by payment
+of (Badalia) £20 before ballot. This tax, which is popular
+amongst the peasantry, produced in 1906 £E.150,000, and over
+£250,000 in 1908. This is a marked indication of the increasing
+prosperity of the fellahin. A portion of the badalia is expended
+in the betterment of the soldier&rsquo;s position. He is no longer
+drafted into the police on completing his army service, but goes
+free at the end of five years with a gift of £E.20. The sirdar is
+allowed, moreover, to use £20,000 per annum of the badalia for
+the improvement of the education of the rank and file. As an
+experiment the police is now a voluntary service, except in
+Alexandria and Cairo, for which cities peasants are conscripted
+for the police under army conditions. The recruiting superintending
+committee, travelling through districts, supervise
+every ballot, and work under stringent rules which render
+systematic bribery difficult. The recruits who draw unlucky
+numbers at 19 years of age are seldom called up till they are
+23, when they are summoned by name and escorted by a policeman
+to Cairo. To prevent substitution on the journey each
+recruit wears a string girdle sealed in lead. The periods of service
+are: with the colours, 5 years; in the reserve, 5 years, during
+which time they may be called up for police service, man&oelig;uvres,
+&amp;c. The pay is £E.3, 14s. per annum for all services, and the
+liberal scale of rations of meat, bread and rice remains as before
+in theory, but in practice the value of pay and food received is
+greatly enhanced. So also with the pension and promotion
+regulations. They were in 1882 sufficiently liberal on paper,
+but had never been carried into effect.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page38" id="page38"></a>38</span></p>
+
+<p>The efforts of 48 American officers, who under Gen. C. P. Stone
+zealously served Ismail, had entirely failed to overcome Egyptian
+venality and intrigue; and in spite of the military schools, with
+a comprehensive syllabus, the only perceptible difference between
+the Egyptian officer and private in 1879 consisted, according
+to one of the Americans, in the fact that the first was the product
+of the harem, and the second of the field. Marshal Marmont,
+writing in 1839, mentions the capacity of the Egyptians for
+endurance; and it was tested in 1883, especially in the 2nd
+Brigade, since its officers (Turks and Egyptians), anxious to
+excel as drill-masters, worked their men not only from morn
+till eve, but also by lamplight in the corridors of the barracks.
+On the 31st March 1883, ten weeks after the arrival of the first
+draft of recruits, about 5600 men went through the ceremonial
+parade movements as practised by the British guards in Hyde
+Park, with unusual precision. The British officers had acquired
+the words of command in Turkish, as used in the old army, an
+attempt to substitute Egyptian words having failed owing to
+lack of crisp, sharp-sounding words. As the Egyptian brigadier,
+who had spent some years in Berlin, spoke German fluently,
+and it was also understood by the senior British officers, that
+language was used for all commands given by the sirdar on
+that special parade. The British drill-book, minus about one-third
+of the least serviceable movements, was translated by an
+English officer, and by 1900 every necessary British official
+book had been published in English and Arabic, except the new
+Recruiting Law (1885) and a manufacturing manual, for which
+French and Arabic editions are in use. The discipline of the
+old army had been regulated by a translation of part of the Code
+Napoleon, which was inadequate for an Eastern army, and the
+sirdar replaced it by the British Army Act of 1881, slightly
+modified, and printed in Arabic.</p>
+
+<p>The task undertaken by the small body of British officers
+was difficult. There was not one point in the former administration
+of the army acceptable to English gentlemen. That there
+had been no adequate auxiliary departments, without which
+an army cannot move or be efficient, was comparatively a minor
+difficulty. To succeed, it was essential that the fellah should
+be taught that discipline might be strict without being oppressive,
+that pay and rations would be fairly distributed, that brutal
+usage by superiors would be checked, that complaints would be
+thoroughly investigated, and impartial justice meted out to
+soldiers of all ranks. An epidemic of cholera in the summer
+of 1883 gave the British officers their first chance of acquiring
+the esteem and confidence of their men, and the opportunity
+was nobly utilized. While the patient fellah, resigned to the
+decrees of the Almighty, saw the ruling Egyptian class hurry
+away from Cairo, he saw also those of his comrades who were
+stricken tenderly nursed, soothed in death&rsquo;s struggles, and in
+many cases actually washed, laid out and interred by their new
+self-sacrificing and determined masters. The regeneration of
+the fellahin army dates from that epidemic.</p>
+
+<p>When the Egyptian Army of the Delta was dispersed at
+Tell el-Kebir, the khedive had 40,000 troops in the Sudan,
+scattered from Massawa on the Red Sea to 1200 m. towards the
+west, and from Wadi Halfa, 1500 m. southward to Wadelai,
+near Albert Nyanza. These were composed of Turks, Albanians,
+Circassians and some Sudanese. Ten thousand fellahin, collected
+in March 1883, mainly from Arabi&rsquo;s former forces, set out from
+Duem, 100 m. south of Khartum, in September 1883, under
+Hicks Pasha, a dauntless retired Indian Army officer, to vanquish
+the Mahdi. They disappeared in the deserts of Kordofan,
+where they were destroyed by the Mahdists about 50 m. south
+of El Obeid. In the wave of successful rebellion, except at
+Khartum, few of the Egyptian garrisons were killed when the
+posts fell, long residence and local family ties rendering easy
+their assimilation in the ranks of the Mahdists.</p>
+
+<p>Baker Pasha, with about 4000 constabulary, who were old
+soldiers, attempted to relieve Tokar in February 1884. He was
+attacked by 1200 tribesmen and utterly routed, losing 4 Krupp
+guns, 2 machine guns and 3000 rifles. Only 1400 Egyptians
+escaped the slaughter.</p>
+
+<p>The sirdar made an attempt to raise a battalion of Albanians,
+but the few men obtained mutinied when ordered to proceed
+to the Sudan, and it was deemed advisable, after the ringleaders
+had been executed, to abandon the idea, and rely on blacks to
+stiffen the fellahin. Then the 9th (Sudanese) Battalion was
+created for service at Suakin, and four others having been
+successively added, these (with one exception&mdash;at Gedaref)
+have since borne the brunt of all the fighting which has been
+done by the khedivial troops. The Egyptian troops in the
+operations near Suakin behaved well; and there were many
+instances of personal gallantry by individual soldiers. In the
+autumn of 1884, when a British expedition went up the Nile to
+endeavour to relieve the heroic Gordon, besieged in Khartum,
+the Egyptians did remarkably good work on the line of communication
+from Assiut to Korti, a distance of 800 m., and the
+training and experience thus gained were of great value in all
+subsequent operations. The honesty and discipline of the
+fellah were shown to be undoubtedly of a high order. When the
+crews of the whale-boats were conveying stores, the forwarding
+officers tried to keep brandy and such like medical comforts
+from the European crews, coffee and tea from Canadian voyageurs
+and sugar from Kroo boys. The only immaculate carrier was
+the Egyptian. A large sum of specie having failed under British
+escort to reach Dongola, an equivalent sum was handed to an
+Egyptian lieutenant of six months&rsquo; service, with 10 men, and
+duly reached its destination.</p>
+
+<p>Twelve years later the standard of honesty was unimpaired,
+and the British officers had imparted energy and activity into
+Egyptians of all ranks. The intelligent professional knowledge
+of the native officers, taught under British gentlemen, and the
+constant hard work cheerfully rendered by the fellah soldiers,
+were the main factors of the success achieved at Omdurman on
+the 2nd of September 1898. The large depots of stores at
+Assuan, Halfa and Dongola could only be cursorily supervised
+by British officers, and yet when the stores were received at the
+advance depot the losses were infinitesimal.</p>
+
+<p>By nature the fellah is unwarlike. Born in the valley of a
+great river, he resembles in many respects the Bengali, who
+exists under similar conditions; but the Egyptian
+has proved capable of greater improvement. He is
+<span class="sidenote">Character of Egyptian soldier.</span>
+stronger in frame, and can undergo greater exertion.
+Singularly unemotional, he stood steady at Tell el-Kebir
+after Arabi Pasha and all his officers, from general to subaltern,
+had fled, and gave way only when decimated by the
+British field artillery firing case shot. At El Teb, however, in
+1884 he allowed himself to be slaughtered by tribesmen formerly
+despised, and only about one-fourth of the force under General
+Valentine Baker escaped. Baker Pasha&rsquo;s force was termed
+constabulary, yet his men were all old soldiers, though new to
+their gallant leader and to the small band of their brave but
+strange British officers. Since that fatal day, however, many
+of the fellahin have shown they are capable of devoted conduct,
+and much has been done to raise in the soldiers a sense of self-respect,
+and, in spite of centuries of oppression, of veracity.
+The barrack-square drill was smart under the old system, but
+there was no fire discipline, and all individuality was crushed.
+Now both are encouraged, and the men, receiving their full
+rations, are unsurpassable in endurance at work and in marching.
+All the troops present in the surprise fight when the Dervish
+force was destroyed at Firket in June 1896 had covered long
+distances, and one battalion (the 10th Sudanese) accomplished
+90 m. within 72 hours, including the march back to railhead
+immediately after the action. The troops under Colonel Parsons,
+Royal Artillery, who beat the Dervishes at Gedaref, were so
+short of British officers that all orders were necessarily given in
+Arabic and carried to commanders of units by Arabs. While
+an Egyptian battalion was attacking in line, it was halted to
+repel a rush from the rear, and front and rear ranks were simultaneously
+engaged, firing in opposite directions&mdash;yet the fellahin
+were absolutely steady; they shot well and showed no signs of
+trepidation. On the other hand, neither was there any exultation
+after their victory. It has been aptly said &ldquo;the fellah would
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page39" id="page39"></a>39</span>
+make an admirable soldier if he only wished to kill some one!&rdquo;
+The fellahin furnish three squadrons, five batteries, three garrison
+artillery companies and nine battalions.</p>
+
+<p>The well-educated Egyptian officer, with his natural aptitude
+for figures, does subordinate regimental routine carefully, and
+works well when supervised by men of stronger character. The
+ordinary Egyptian is not self-reliant or energetic by nature, and,
+like most Eastern people, finds it difficult to be impartial where
+duty and family or other personal relations are in the balance.
+The black soldier has, on the other hand, many of the finest
+fighting qualities. This was observed by British officers, from
+the time of the preliminary operations about Kosha and at the
+action near Ginnis in December 1885 down to the brilliant
+operations in the pursuit of the Mahdists on the Blue Nile after
+the action of Gedaref (subsequent to the battle of Omdurman),
+and the fighting in Kordofan in 1899, which resulted in the death
+of the khalifa and his amirs.</p>
+
+<p>Black soldiers served in the army of Mehemet Ali, but their
+fighting value was not then duly appreciated. Prior to the death
+of the khalifa, many of his soldiers deserted to join their brethren
+who had been captured by the sirdar&rsquo;s troops, during the gradual
+advance up the Nile. After 1899 many more enlisted: the
+greater number were Shilluks and Dinkas coming from the
+country between Fashoda and the equatorial provinces, but a
+proportion came from the western borders of the Sudan, and some
+from Wadai and Bornu. Many were absolute savages, difficult
+to control, wayward and thoughtless like children. Sudanese
+are very excitable and apt to get out of hand; unlike the fellahs
+they are not fond of drill, and are slow to acquire it; but their
+dash, pugnacious instincts and desire to close with an enemy,
+are valuable military qualities. The Sudanese, moreover, shoot
+better than the fellahin, whose eyesight is often defective. The
+Sudanese captain can seldom read or write, and is therefore
+in the hands of the Egyptian-born company quartermaster-sergeant
+as regards pay and clothing accounts. He is slow, and
+as a rule has little knowledge of drill. Nevertheless he is self-reliant,
+much respected by his men, and can be trusted in the
+field to carry out any orders received from his British officer.
+The most efficient companies in the Sudanese battalions are
+apparently those in which the captain is a black and the lieutenants
+are Egyptians.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In 1908 the Egyptian army, with a total establishment of 18,000,
+consisted of three squadrons of cavalry (one composed of Sudanese)
+each numbering 116 men; four batteries of field artillery and a
+Maxim battery, horses and mules being used, with a total strength of
+1257 of all ranks; the camel corps, 626 of all ranks (fellahin and
+Sudanese); and nine fellahin and six Sudanese infantry battalions,
+10,631 of all ranks. Every battalion receives two additional companies
+on mobilization and takes the field with six companies.</p>
+
+<p>The armament of the infantry is Martini-Henry rifle and bayonet;
+of the cavalry, lance, sword and carbine.</p>
+
+<p>There are seven gunboats on the Nile.</p>
+
+<p>The medical department (reorganized in 1883 by Surgeon-Major
+J. G. Rogers at the time of the cholera epidemic) controls in peace
+fourteen station hospitals, and in war furnishes a mobile field hospital
+to each brigade. There are also veterinary station hospitals.
+The supply department controls mills at Tura, Halfa and Khartum.</p>
+
+<p>The stringent system of selecting British officers, originated by the
+first sirdar in 1883, is shown by the fact that of the 24 employed in
+creating the army, 14 rose to be generals. The competition for
+employment in the army is still severe. In 1908 there were 140
+British warrant and non-commissioned officers. Four of the fellahin
+battalions were officered by Orientals; in the other five, British
+officers commanded. Seven officers were employed with the artillery,
+six with the camel corps. Each of the Sudanese battalions had four
+British officers, and each squadron of cavalry one. Twelve medical
+and two veterinary officers are also employed departmentally, as
+well as officers acting as directors of supply, &amp;c. Since the assumption
+of command by the third sirdar, Colonel (afterwards Lord)
+Kitchener, the ordnance, supply and engineer services have been
+separately administered, and a financial secretary is charged with
+the duty of preparing the budget, making contracts, &amp;c. The total
+annual expenditure is £500,000.</p>
+
+<p>The reorganized military school system under British control, for
+supplying officers, dates from 1887. The course lasts for about two
+years, and two hundred students can be accommodated. After the
+reconquest of the Sudan one-fourth of the cadets in the military
+school of Cairo were Sudanese. Later, however, the Sudanese cadets
+were transferred to a branch school at Khartum.</p>
+
+<p>The army raised by the first sirdar in January 1883 was highly
+commended for its work on the line of communication in 1884-1885,
+and its artillery and camelry distinguished themselves in the action
+at Kirbekan in February 1885. Colonel Sir Francis Grenfell succeeded
+General Sir Evelyn Wood in March 1885, and while under
+his command the army continued to improve, and fought successful
+actions at Gemaiza, Argin, Toski and Tokar. At Toski the Dervish
+force was nearly annihilated. In March 1892 Colonel Kitchener
+succeeded General Sir Francis Grenfell, and four years later began his
+successful reconquest of the Sudan. In June 1896, owing to the
+indefatigable exertions of Major Wingate, a perfected system of
+secret intelligence enabled the sirdar to bring an overwhelming
+force of 6 to 1 against the Dervish outpost at Firket and destroy it.
+In September 1896 a skirmish at Hafir, with similarly successful
+tactics, gave the British commander the possession of Dongola.
+On the 7th of August 1897 Colonel Hunter surprised and annihilated
+a weak Dervish garrison at Abu Hamed, to which place, by the 31st
+of October 1897, a railway had been laid across the Nubian desert
+from Wadi Halfa, a distance of 230 m., the &ldquo;record&rdquo; construction
+of 5300 yds surveyed, embanked and laid in one day having been
+attained. On the 26th of December 1897 the Italian troops handed
+over Kassala to Colonel Parsons, R.A. On the 8th of April 1898
+a British division, with the Egyptian army, destroyed the Dervish
+force under the amir Mahmud Ahmed, on the Atbara river. On the
+2nd of September the khalifa attacked the British-Egyptian troops
+at Kerreri (near Omdurman), and being routed, his men dispersed;
+Khartum was occupied, and on the 19th of September the Egyptian
+flag was rehoisted at Fashoda. On the 22nd of September 1898
+Gedaref was taken from the amir Ahmed Fedil by Colonel Parsons,
+and on the 26th of December the army of Ahmed Fedil was finally
+defeated and dispersed near Roseires. The khalifa&rsquo;s army, reduced
+to an insignificant number, after several unsuccessful engagements
+withdrew to the west of the Nile, where it was attacked, on the 24th
+of November 1899, after a forced march by Colonel Wingate, and
+annihilated. The khalifa himself was killed; while the victor, who
+had joined the Egyptian army in 1883 as aide-de-camp to the first
+sirdar, in December 1899 became the fourth sirdar, as Major-General
+Sir F. R. Wingate, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.S.O., &amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Wo.)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">II. Ancient Egypt</p>
+
+<p>A. <i>Exploration and Research.</i>&mdash;Owing to its early development
+of a high civilization with written records, its wealth,
+and its preservative climate, Egypt is the country which most
+amply repays archaeological research. It is especially those
+long ages during which Egypt was an independent centre of
+culture and government, before its absorption in the Persian
+empire in the 6th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, that make the most powerful
+appeal to the imagination and can often justify this appeal by
+the splendour of the monuments representing them. Later,
+however, the history of Hellenism, the provincial history of the
+Roman empire, the rise of Christianity and the triumph of Islam
+successively receive brilliant illustration in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>As early as the 17th century travellers began to bring home
+specimens of ancient Egyptian handiwork: a valuable stele
+from Sakkara of the beginning of the Old Kingdom was presented
+to the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford in 1683. In the following
+century the Englishman R. Pococke (1704-1765), the Dane
+F. L. Norden (1708-1742), both travelling in 1737, and others
+later, planned, described or figured Egyptian ruins in a primitive
+way and identified many of the sites with cities named in classical
+authors. Napoleon&rsquo;s great military expedition in 1798 was
+accompanied by a scientific commission including artists and
+archaeologists, the results of whose labours fill several of the
+magnificent volumes of the <i>Description de l&rsquo;Égypte</i>. The
+antiquities collected by the expedition, including the famous
+Rosetta stone, were ceded to the British government at the
+capitulation of Alexandria, in 1801. Thereafter Mehemet Ali
+threw Egypt freely open to Europeans, and a busy traffic in
+antiquities began, chiefly through the agency of the consuls of
+different powers. From the year 1820 onwards the growth of
+the European collections was rapid, and Champollion&rsquo;s decipherments
+(see below, § &ldquo;Language and Writing&rdquo;) of the hieroglyphic
+inscriptions, dating from 1821, added fresh impetus to
+the fashion of collecting, in spite of doubts as to their trustworthiness.
+In 1827 a combined expedition led by Champollion
+and Rosellini was despatched by the governments of France
+and Tuscany, and accomplished a great deal of valuable work
+in copying scenes and inscriptions. But the greatest of such
+expeditions was that of Lepsius, under the auspices of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page40" id="page40"></a>40</span>
+Prussian government, in 1842-1845. Its labours embraced not
+only Egypt and Nubia (as far as Khartum) but also the Egyptian
+monuments in Sinai and Syria; its immense harvest of material
+is of the highest value, the new device of taking paper impressions
+or &ldquo;squeezes&rdquo; giving Lepsius a great advantage over his
+predecessors, similar to that which was later conferred by the
+photographic camera.</p>
+
+<p>A new period was opened in Egyptian exploration in 1858
+when Mariette was appointed director of archaeological works
+in Egypt, his duties being to safeguard the monuments and
+prevent their exploitation by dealers. As early as 1835 Mehemet
+Ali had given orders for a museum to be formed; little however,
+was accomplished before the whole of the resulting collection
+was given away to the Archduke Maximilian of Austria in 1855.
+Mariette, who was appointed by the viceroy Said Pasha at
+the instance of the French government, succeeded in making
+his office effective and permanent, in spite of political intrigues
+and the whims of an Oriental ruler; he also secured a building
+on the island of Bulak (Bulaq) for a viceregal museum in which
+the results of his explorations could be permanently housed.
+Supported by the French interest, the established character
+of this work as a department of the Egyptian government
+(which also claims the ancient sites) has been fully recognized
+since the British occupation. The &ldquo;Service of Antiquities&rdquo;
+now boasts a large annual budget and employs a number of
+European and native officials&mdash;a director, curators of the museum,
+European inspectors and native sub-inspectors of provinces
+(at Luxor for Upper Egypt and Nubia, at Assiut for Middle
+Egypt and the Fayum, at Mansura for Lower Egypt, besides a
+European official in charge of the government excavations at
+Memphis). The museum, no longer the property of an individual,
+was removed in 1889 from the small building at Bulak to a disused
+palace at Giza, and since 1902 has been established at Kasr-en-Nil,
+Cairo, in a special building, of ample size and safe from fire and
+flood. In the year 1881 the directorship of the museum was
+temporarily undertaken by Prof. Maspero, who resumed it in
+1899. The admirably conducted Archaeological Survey of the
+portion of Nubia threatened by the raising of the Assuan dam
+is in the charge of another department&mdash;the Survey department,
+directed for many years up to 1909 by Captain H. G. Lyons.
+Non-official agencies (supported by voluntary contributions)
+for exploration in Egypt comprise the Egypt Exploration Fund,
+started in London in 1881, with its two branches, viz. the Archaeological
+Survey (1890) for copying and publishing the monuments
+above ground, and the Graeco-Roman Branch (1897), well known
+through the brilliant work in Greek papyri of B. P. Grenfell and
+A. S. Hunt; and the separate Research Account founded by
+Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie in London (University College)
+in 1896, and since 1905 called the British School of Archaeology
+in Egypt (see especially <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Memphis</a></span>). The <i>Mission archéologique
+française au Caire</i>, established as a school by the French government
+in 1881, was re-organized in 1901 on a lavish scale under the
+title <i>Institut français d&rsquo;archéologie orientale du Caire</i>, and domiciled
+with printing-press and library in a fine building near the
+museum. As the result of an excellent bargain, it was afterwards
+removed to the Munira palace in the south-east part of the city.
+An archaeologist is attached to the German general consulate to
+look after the interests of German museums, and is director of
+the German Institute of Archaeology. The Orient-Gesellschaft
+(German Orient-Society) has worked in Egypt since 1901 with
+brilliant results. Excavations and explorations are also conducted
+annually by the agents of universities and museums in
+England, America and Germany, and by private explorers,
+concessions being granted generally on the terms that the
+Egyptian government shall retain half of the antiquities discovered,
+while the other half remains for the finders.</p>
+
+<p>The era of scientific excavation began with Flinders Petrie&rsquo;s
+work at Tanis in 1883. Previous explorers kept scientific aims
+in view, but the idea of scientific archaeology was not realized
+by them. The procedure in scientific excavation is directed
+to collecting and interpreting all the information that can be
+obtained from the excavation as to the history and nature of
+the site explored, be it town, temple, house, cemetery or individual
+grave, wasting no evidence that results from it touching the
+endless problems which scientific archaeology affords&mdash;whether
+in regard to arts and crafts, manners and customs, language,
+history or beliefs. This is a totally different thing from mere
+hunting for inscriptions, statues or other portable objects which
+will present a greater or less value in themselves even when torn
+from their context. Such may, of course, form the greater
+part of the harvest and working material of a scientific excavator;
+their presence is most welcome to him, but their complete absence
+need be no bar to his attainment of important historical results.
+The absence of scientific excavation in Egypt was deplored by
+the Scottish archaeologist Alexander Henry Rhind (1833-1863),
+as early as 1862. Since Flinders Petrie began, the general level
+of research has gradually risen, and, while much is shamefully
+bad and destructive, there is a certain proportion that fully
+realizes the requirements of scientific archaeology.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antiquities, Sites, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;The remains for archaeological investigation
+in Egypt may be roughly classified as material and
+literary: to the latter belong the texts on papyri and the
+inscriptions, to the former the sites of ancient towns with the
+temples, fortifications and houses; remains of roads, canals,
+quarries and other matters falling within the domain of ancient
+topography; the larger monuments, as obelisks, statues, stelae,
+&amp;c.; and finally the small antiquities&mdash;utensils, clothes, weapons,
+amulets, &amp;c. Where moisture can reach the antiquities their
+preservation is no better in Egypt than it would have been in
+other countries; for this reason all the papyri in the Delta have
+perished unless they happen to have been charred by fire. A
+terrible pest is a kind of termite which is locally abundant and
+has probably visited most parts of Egypt at one time or another,
+destroying all dead vegetable or animal material in the soil that
+was not specially protected.</p>
+
+<p>In Lower Egypt the cities built of crude brick were very
+numerous, especially after the 7th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, but owing to
+the value of stone very few of their monuments have escaped
+destruction: even the mounds of rubbish which marked their
+sites furnish a valuable manure for the fields and in consequence
+are rapidly disappearing. Granite and other hard stones, having
+but a limited use (for millstones and the like), have the best
+chance of survival. At Bubastis, Tanis, Behbeit (Iseum) and
+Heliopolis considerable stone remains have been discovered.
+In the north of the Delta wherever salt marshes have prevented
+cultivation in modern times, the mounds, such as those of
+Pelusium, still stand to their full height, and the more important
+are covered with ruins of brick structures of Byzantine and
+Arab date.</p>
+
+<p>Middle and Upper Egypt were less busy and prosperous in
+the later ages than Lower Egypt.  There was consequently
+somewhat less consumption of the old stone-work.  Moreover,
+in many places equally good material could be obtained without
+much difficulty from the cliffs on both sides of the Nile. Yet
+even the buried portions of limestone buildings have seldom been
+permitted to survive on the cultivated land; the Nubian sandstone
+of Upper Egypt was of comparatively little value, and,
+generally speaking, buildings in that material have fallen into
+decay rather than been destroyed by quarrying.</p>
+
+<p>Starting from Cairo and going southward we have first the
+great pyramid-field, with the necropolis of Memphis as its centre;
+stretching from Ab&#363; Ro&#257;sh on the north to Lisht on the south,
+it is followed by the pyramid group of Dahsh&#363;r, the more isolated
+pyramids of Med&#363;m and Illah&#363;n, and that of Haw&#257;ra in the
+Fay&#363;m. On the east bank are the limestone quarries of Turra
+and Mas&#257;ra opposite Memphis. South of the Fay&#363;m on the
+western border of the desert are the tombs of Desh&#257;sha, Meir
+and Assi&#363;t, and on the east bank those of Beni Hasan, the rock-cut
+temple of Speos Artemidos, the tombs of El Bersha and
+Sheikh Said, the tombs and stelae of El Amarna with the alabaster
+quarries of Hanub in the desert behind them, and the tombs of
+Deir el Gebr&#257;wi. Beyond Assi&#363;t are the tombs of Dronka and
+R&#299;fa, the temples of Abydos and Dendera, and the tombs, &amp;c.,
+at Akhm&#299;m and Kasr es Saiy&#257;d. Farther south are the stupendous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page41" id="page41"></a>41</span>
+ruins of Thebes on both sides of the river, the temple of Esna, the
+ruins and tombs of El K&#257;b, the temple of Edf&#363;, the quarries of
+Silsila and the temple of Ombos, followed by the inscribed rocks
+of the First Cataract, the tombs and quarries of Assuan and the
+temples of Philae.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:800px; height:1102px" src="images/img40a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><a href="images/img40b.jpg">(Click to enlarge.)</a></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In Nubia, owing to the poverty of the country and its scanty
+population, the proportion of monuments surviving is infinitely
+greater than in Egypt. Here are the temples of Deb&#333;d, the
+temple and quarries of Kertassi, the temples of Kalabsha, B&#275;t
+el Wali, Dend&#363;r, Gerf Hus&#275;n, Dakka, Maharaka, Es-Seb&#363;&rsquo;a,
+&lsquo;Am&#257;da and Derr, the grottos of Elles ya, the tombs of An&#299;ba,
+the temple of Ibr&#299;m, the great rock-temples of Ab&#363;-Simbel, the
+temples at Jebel Adda and Wadi Halfa, the forts and temples of
+Semna, the temples of Am&#257;ra (Meroitic) and S&#333;leb. Beyond are
+the Ethiopian temples and pyramids of Jebel Barkal and the other
+pyramids of Napata at Tangassi, &amp;c., the still later pyramids of
+Meroe at Begeraw&#299;a, and the temples of Mesauwar&#257;t and N&#257;ga
+reaching to within 50 m. of Khart&#363;m.</p>
+
+<p>Outside the Nile valley on the west are temples in the Great
+and Little Oases and the Oasis of Ammon: on the east quarries
+and stelae on the Hammam&#257;t road to the Red Sea, and mines
+and other remains at Wadi Magh&#257;ra and Ser&#257;b&#299;t el Kh&#257;dim in
+the Sinai peninsula. In Syria there are tablets of conquest on
+the rocks at the mouth of the Nahr el Kelb.</p>
+
+<p>Of the collections of Egyptian antiquities in public museums,
+those of the British Museum, Leiden, Berlin, the Louvre, Turin
+were already very important in the first half of the 19th century,
+also in a less degree those of Florence, Bologna and the Vatican.
+Most of these have since been greatly increased and many others
+have been created. By far the largest collection in the world
+is that at Cairo. In America the museums and universities of
+Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, San Francisco and New York
+have collections of greater or less interest. Besides these the
+museums of Edinburgh, Liverpool, Manchester and Oxford are
+noteworthy in Great Britain for their Egyptian antiquities,
+as are those of St Petersburg, Vienna, Marseilles, Munich,
+Copenhagen, Palermo and Athens; there are also collections
+in most of the British colonies. Private collections are numerous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Literary Records.</i>&mdash;In estimating the sources of information
+regarding pre-Christian Egypt, the native sources, first opened
+to us by Champollion, are infinitely the most important. With
+very few exceptions they are contemporary with the events
+which they record. Of the composition of history and the
+description of their own manners and customs by the Egyptians
+for posterity, few traces have reached our day. Consequently
+the information derived from their monuments, in spite of their
+great abundance, is of a fortuitous character. For one early
+papyrus that survives, many millions must have perished. If
+the journals of accounts, the letters and business documents,
+had come down to us <i>en masse</i>, they would no doubt have yielded
+to research the history and life of Egypt day by day; but those
+that now represent a thousand years of the Old Kingdom and
+Middle Kingdom together would not half fill an ordinary muniment
+chest. A larger proportion of the records on stone have
+survived, but that an event should be inscribed on stone depends
+on a variety of circumstances and not necessarily on its importance.
+There may seem to be a great abundance of Egyptian monuments,
+but they have to cover an enormous space of time, and even in
+the periods which are best represented, gravestones recording
+the names of private persons with a prayer or two are scarcely
+material for history. A scrap of annals has been found extending
+from the earliest times to the Vth Dynasty, as well as a very
+fragmentary list of kings reaching nearly to the end of the
+Middle Kingdom, to help out the scattered data of the other
+monuments. As to manners and customs, although we possess
+no systematic descriptions of them from a native source, the
+native artists and scribes have presented us with exceptionally
+rich materials in the painted and sculptured scenes of the tombs
+from the Old and Middle Kingdoms and the New Empire. For
+the Deltaic dynasties these sources fail absolutely, the scenes being
+then either purely religious or conventional imitations of the
+earlier ones.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately the native records are largely supplemented by
+others: valuable information comes from cuneiform literature,
+belonging to two widely separated periods. The first group is
+contemporary with the XVIIIth and XIXth Dynasties and
+consists in the first place of the Tell el Amarna tablets with
+others related to them, containing the reports of governors
+of the Syrian possessions of Egypt, and the correspondence of
+the kings of Babylon, Assur, Mitanni and Khatti (the Hittites)
+with the Pharaohs. The sequel to this is furnished by Winckler&rsquo;s
+discovery of documents relating to Rameses II. of the XIXth
+Dynasty in the Hittite capital at Boghaz Keui (see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hittites</a></span>
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pteria</a></span>). The other group comprises the annals and inscriptions
+of the Assyrian kings Esarhaddon and Assur-bani-pal,
+recording their invasions of Egypt under the XXVth Dynasty.
+There are also a few references to Egypt of later date down to
+the reign of Darius. In Hebrew literature the Pentateuch, the
+historical books and the prophets alike contain scanty but
+precious information regarding Egypt. Aramaic papyri written
+principally by Jews of the Persian period (5th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>)
+have been found at Syene and Memphis.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the external sources the literary accounts written in
+Greek are the most valuable. They comprise fragments of the
+native historian Manetho, the descriptions of Egypt in Herodotus
+and Diodorus, the geographical accounts of Strabo and Ptolemy,
+the treatise of Plutarch on Isis and Osiris and other monographs
+or scattered notices of less importance. Our knowledge of the
+history of Alexander&rsquo;s conquest, of the Ptolemies and of the
+Roman occupation is almost entirely derived from Greek sources,
+and in fact almost the same might be said of the history of
+Egypt as far back as the beginning of the XXVIth Dynasty.
+The non-literary Greek remains in papyri and inscriptions
+which are being found in great abundance throw a flood of
+light on life in Egypt and the administration of the country from
+the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus to the Arab conquest. On
+the other hand, papyri and inscriptions in Latin are of the
+greatest rarity, and the literary remains in that language are of
+small importance for Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Arabic literature appears to be entirely barren of authentic
+information regarding the earlier condition of the country.
+Two centuries of unchallenged Christianity had broken almost
+completely the traditions of paganism, even if the Moslems had
+been willing to consider them, either in their fanciful accounts
+of the origins of cities, &amp;c., or elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p>B. <i>The Country in Ancient Times.</i>&mdash;The native name of
+Egypt was K&#275;mi (KM·T), clearly meaning &ldquo;the black land,&rdquo;
+Egypt being so called from the blackness of its alluvial soil
+(cf. Plut. <i>De Is. et Os.</i> cap. 33): in poetical inscriptions <i>K&#275;mi</i> is
+often opposed to <i>Toshri</i>, &ldquo;the red land,&rdquo; referring to the sandy
+deserts around, which however, would probably be included
+in the term K&#275;mi in its widest sense. Egypt is called in Hebrew
+Mizraim, &#1501;&#1497;&#1512;&#1510;&#1502;, possibly a dual form describing the country in
+reference to its two great natural and historical divisions of
+Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt: but Mizraim (poetically
+sometimes M&#257;z&#333;r) often means Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt
+being named Pathros, &ldquo;the south land.&rdquo; In Assyrian the name
+was Mu&#7779;ri, Mi&#7779;ri: in Arabic it is Mi&#7779;r, <img style="width:30px; height:25px" src="images/img41.jpg" alt="" />, pronounced Ma&#7779;r in
+the vulgar dialect of Egypt. These names are certainly of
+Semitic origin and perhaps derive from the Assyrian with the
+meaning &ldquo;frontier-land&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mizraim</a></span>). Winckler&rsquo;s theory
+of a separate Mu&#7779;ri immediately south of Palestine is now
+generally rejected (see, for instance, Ed. Meyer, <i>Die Israeliten
+und ihre Nachbarstämme</i>, 455). The Greek <span class="grk" title="Aigyptos">&#913;&#7988;&#947;&#965;&#960;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span> (Aegyptus)
+occurs as early as Homer; in the <i>Odyssey</i> it is the name of the
+Nile (masc.) as well as of the country (fem.): later it was confined
+to the country. Its origin is very obscure (see Pietschmann
+in Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopädie</i>, s.v. &ldquo;Aigyptos&rdquo;).
+Brugsch&rsquo;s derivation from Hakeptah, a name of the northern
+capital, Memphis, though attractive, is unconfirmed.</p>
+
+<p>Egypt normally included the whole of the Nile valley from
+the First Cataract to the sea; pure Egyptians, however, formed
+the population of Lower Nubia above the Cataract in prehistoric
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" id="page42"></a>42</span>
+times; at some periods also the land was divided into separate
+kingdoms, while at others Egypt stretched southward into
+Nubia, and it generally claimed the neighbouring Libyan deserts
+and oases on the west and the Arabian deserts on the east to the
+shore of the Red Sea, with Sinai and the Mediterranean coast
+as far as Rhinocorura (El Ar&#299;sh). The physical features in
+ancient times were essentially the same as at the present day.
+The bed of the Nile was lower: it appears to have risen by
+its own deposits at a rate of about 4 in. in a century. In the
+north of the Delta, however, there was a sinking of the land,
+in consequence of which the accumulations on some of the
+ancient sites there extend below the present sea-level. On the
+other hand at the south end of the Suez canal the land may
+have risen bodily, since the head of the Gulf of Suez has been
+cut off by a bank of rock from the Bitter lakes, which were
+probably joined to it in former days. The banks of the Nile
+and the islands in it are subject to gradual but constant alteration&mdash;indeed,
+several ancient sites have been much eroded or
+destroyed&mdash;and the main volume of the stream may in course of
+time be diverted into what has previously been a secondary
+channel. According to the classical writers, the mouths or
+branches of the Nile in the Delta were five in number (seven
+including two that were artificial): now there are only two.
+In Upper Egypt the main stream tended as now to flow along
+the eastern edge of the valley, while to the west was a parallel
+stream corresponding to the Bahr Yusuf. From the latter
+a canal or branch led to the Lake of Moeris, which, until the
+3rd century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, filled the deep depression of the Fayum, but
+is now represented only by the strongly brackish waters of the
+Birket el Ker&#363;n, left in the deepest part. The area of alluvial
+land has probably not changed greatly in historic times. The
+principal changes that have occurred are due to the grip which
+civilization has taken upon the land in the course of thousands
+of years, often weakening but now firmer than ever. In early
+days no doubt the soil was cultivated in patches, but gradually
+a great system of canals was organized under the control of the
+central government, both for irrigation and for transport.
+The wild flora of the alluvial valley was probably always restricted
+and eventually was reduced almost to the &ldquo;weeds of
+cultivation,&rdquo; when every acre of soil, at one period of the year
+under water, and at another roasted under the burning heat of a
+semi-tropical sun, was carefully tilled. The acacia abounded
+on the borders of the valley, but the groves were gradually cut
+down for the use of the carpenter and the charcoal-burner.
+The desert was full of wild life, the balance of nature being
+preserved by the carnivorous animals preying on the herbivorous;
+trees watered by soakage from the Nile protected the undergrowth
+and encouraged occasional rainfall. But this balance
+was upset by the early introduction of the goat and later of
+the camel, which destroyed the sapling trees, while the grown
+ones fell to the axe of the woodcutter. Thus in all probability
+the Egyptian deserts have become far poorer in animals and
+trees than they were in primitive times. Much of Lower Egypt
+was left in a wilder state than Upper Egypt. The marshy lands
+in the north were the resort of fishermen and fowlers, and the
+papyrus, the cultivation of which was a regular industry, protected
+an abundance of wild life. The abandonment of papyrus
+culture in the 8th century <span class="sc">a.d.</span>, the neglect of the canals, and
+the inroads of the sea, have converted much of that country
+into barren salt marsh, which only years of draining and washing
+can restore to fertility.</p>
+
+<p>The rich alluvial deposits of the Nile which respond so readily
+to the efforts of the cultivator ensured the wealth of the country.
+Moulded into brick, without burning, this black clay also supplied
+the common wants of the builder, and even the palaces of the
+greatest kings were constructed of crude brick. For more lasting
+and ambitious work in temples and tombs the materials could
+be obtained from the rocks and deserts of the Nile valley. The
+chief of these was limestone of varying degrees of fineness, composing
+the cliffs which lined the valley from the apex of the Delta
+to the neighbourhood of El K&#257;b; the best quality was obtained
+on the east side opposite Memphis from the quarries of Turra
+and Mas&#257;ra. From El K&#257;b southward its place was taken by
+Libyan sandstone, soft and easily worked, but unsuitable for
+fine sculpture. These two were the ordinary building stones.
+In the limestone was found the flint or chert used for weapons and
+instruments in early times. For alabaster the principal quarry
+was that of Hanub in the desert 10 m. behind El Amarna, but it
+was obtained elsewhere in the limestone region, including a spot
+near Alexandria. A hard and fine-grained quartzite sandstone
+was quarried at Jebel Ahmar behind Heliopolis, and basalt
+was found thence along the eastern edge of the Delta to near
+the Wadi Tumil&#257;t. Red granite was obtained from the First
+Cataract, breccia and diorite were quarried from very early times
+in the Wadi Hammam&#257;t, on the road from Coptos to the Red
+Sea, and porphyry was brought, chiefly in Roman times but
+also in the prehistoric age, from the same region at Jebel Dokh&#257;n.</p>
+
+<p>Egypt was poor in metals. Gold was obtained chiefly from
+Nubia: iron was found in small quantities in the country and
+at one time was worked in the neighbourhood of Assu&#257;n. Some
+copper was obtained in Sinai. Of stones that were accounted
+precious Sinai produced turquoise and the Egyptian deserts
+garnet, carnelian and jasper.</p>
+
+<p>The native supply of wood for industrial purposes was exceedingly
+bad: there was no native wood long enough and
+straight enough to be used in joiners&rsquo; work or sculpture without
+fitting and patching: palm trees were abundant, and if the
+trees could be spared, their split stems could be used for roofing.
+For boatbuilding papyrus stems and acacia wood were employed,
+and for the best work cedar-wood was imported from Lebanon.</p>
+
+<p>Egypt was isolated by the deserts and the sea. The Nile
+valley afforded a passage by ship or on foot into Nubia, where,
+however, little wealth was to be sought, though gold and rarities
+from the Sudan, such as ivory and ebony, came that way and an
+armed raid could yield a good spoil in slaves and cattle. The
+poverty-stricken and barbarous Nubians were strong and
+courageous, and gladly served in Egypt as mercenary soldiers
+and police. Through the oases also ran paths to the Sudan by
+which the raw merchandise of the southern countries could be
+brought to Egypt. Eastward, roads led through the Arabian
+mountains to the Red Sea, whence ships made voyages to the
+incense-bearing land of Puoni (Punt) on the Somali coast of
+Africa, rich also in gold and ivory. The mines of Sinai could be
+reached either by sea or by land along the route of the Exodus.
+The roads to Syria skirted the east border of the Delta and then
+followed the coast from near Pelusium through El Ar&#299;sh and
+Gaza. A secondary road branched off through the Wadi Tumil&#257;t,
+whence the ways ran northwards to Syria and southwards to
+Sinai. On the Libyan side the oasis of S&#299;wa could be reached
+from the Lake of Moeris or from Terrana (Terenuthis), or by the
+coast route which also led to the Cyrenaica. The Egyptians
+had some traffic on the Mediterranean from very remote times,
+especially with Byblus in Phoenicia, the port for cedar-wood.</p>
+
+<p>Of the populations surrounding Egypt the negroes (Nehsi)
+in the south (Cush) were the lowest in the scale of civilization:
+the people of Puoni and of Libya (the Tehen, &amp;c.) were pale in
+colour and superior to the negroes, but still show no sign of
+a high culture. The Syrians and the Keftiu, the latter now
+identified with the Cretans and other representatives of the
+Aegean civilization, are the only peoples who by their elaborate
+clothing and artistic products reveal themselves upon the
+ancient Egyptian monuments as the equals in culture of the
+Egyptian nation.</p>
+
+<p>The Egyptians seem to have applied no distinctive name to
+themselves in early times: they called themselves proudly <i>r&#333;mi</i>
+(RMTW), <i>i.e.</i> simply &ldquo;men,&rdquo; &ldquo;people,&rdquo; while the despised races
+around them, collectively &#7722;&rsquo;SWT, &ldquo;desert-peoples,&rdquo; were distinguished
+by special appellations. The races of mankind,
+including the Egyptians, were often called the Nine Archers.
+Ultimately the Egyptians, when their insularity disappeared
+under the successive dominations of Ethiopia, Assyria and
+Persia, described themselves as <i>rem-n-K&#275;mi</i>, &ldquo;men of Egypt.&rdquo;
+Whence the population of Egypt as we trace it in prehistoric
+and historic times came, is not certain. The early civilization
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page43" id="page43"></a>43</span>
+of Egypt shows remarkable coincidences with that of Babylonia,
+the language is of a Semitic type, the religion may well be a
+compound of a lower African and a higher Asiatic order of ideas.
+According to the evidence of the mummies, the Egyptians were
+of slender build, with dark hair and of Caucasian type. Dr
+Elliott Smith, who has examined thousands of skeletons and
+mummies of all periods, finds that the prehistoric population of
+Upper Egypt, a branch of the North African-Mediterranean-Arabian
+race, changed with the advent of the dynasties to a
+stronger type, better developed than before in skull and muscle.
+This was apparently due to admixture with the Lower Egyptians,
+who themselves had been affected by Syrian immigration. Thereafter
+little further change is observable, although the rich lands
+of Egypt must have attracted foreigners from all parts. The
+Egyptian artists of the New Empire assigned distinctive types
+of feature as well as of dress to the different races with which they
+came into contact, Hittites, Syrians, Libyans, Bedouins, negroes,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The people of Egypt were not naturally fierce or cruel. Intellectually,
+too, they were somewhat sluggish, careless and
+unbusinesslike. In the mass they were a body of patient
+labourers, tilling a rich soil, and hating all foreign lands and ways.
+The wealth of their country gave scope for ability within the
+population and also attracted it from outside: it enabled the
+kings to organize great monumental enterprises as well as to
+arm irresistible raids upon the inferior tribes around. Urged
+on by necessity and opportunity, the Egyptians possessed
+sufficient enterprise and originating power to keep ahead of
+their neighbours in most departments of civilization, until the
+more warlike empires of Assyria and Persia overwhelmed them
+and the keener intellects of the Greeks outshone them in almost
+every department. The debt of civilization to Egypt as a
+pioneer must be considerable, above all perhaps in religious
+thought. The moral ideals of its nameless teachers were high
+from an early date: their conception of an after-life was exceedingly
+vivid: the piety of the Egyptians in the later days
+was a matter of wonder and scoffing to their contemporaries;
+it is generally agreed that certain features in the development of
+Christianity are to be traced to Egypt as their birthplace and
+nidus.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For researches into the ethnography of Egypt and the neighbouring
+countries, see W. Max Müller, <i>Asien und Europa nach den
+altäg. Inschriften</i> (Leipzig, 1893), <i>Egyptological Researches</i> (Washington,
+1906); for measurements of Egyptian skulls, Miss Fawcett
+in <i>Biometrika</i> (1902); A. Thomson and D. Randall-MacIver, <i>The
+Ancient Races of the Thebaid</i> (Oxford, 1905) (cf. criticisms in <i>Man</i>,
+1905; and for comparisons with modern measurements, C. S. Myers,
+<i>Journ. Anthropological Institute</i>, 1905, 80). W. Flinders Petrie has
+collected and discussed a series of facial types shown in prehistoric
+and early Egyptian sculpture, <i>Journal Anthropological Institute</i>,
+1901, 248. For Elliott Smith&rsquo;s results see <i>The Cairo Scientific Journal</i>,
+No. 30, vol. iii., March 1909.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Divisions.</i>&mdash;In ancient times Egypt was divided into two
+regions, representing the kingdoms that existed before Menes.
+Lower Egypt, comprising the Delta and its borders, formed
+the &ldquo;North Land,&rdquo; <i>To-meh</i>, and reached up the valley to include
+Memphis and its province or &ldquo;nome,&rdquo; while the remainder of the
+Egyptian Nile valley was &ldquo;the South,&rdquo; <i>Shema</i> (&#352;M&lsquo;W <img style="width:56px; height:56px" src="images/img43a.jpg" alt="" />).
+The south, if only as the abode of the sun, always had the precedence
+over the north in Egypt, and the west over the east. Later
+the two regions were known respectively as P-to-r&#275;s (Pathros),
+&ldquo;the south land,&rdquo; and P-to-meh, &ldquo;the north land.&rdquo; In practical
+administration this historic distinction was sometimes observed,
+at others ignored, but in religious tradition it had a firm hold.
+In Roman times a different system marked off a third region,
+namely Middle Egypt, from the point of the Delta southward.
+Theoretically, as its name Heptanomis implies, this division
+contained seven nomes, actually from the Hermopolite on the
+south to the Memphite on the north (excluding the Arsinoite
+according to the papyri). Some tendency to this existed earlier.
+Egypt to the south of the Heptanomis was the Thebais, called
+P-tesh-en-Ne, &ldquo;the province of Thebes,&rdquo; as early as the XXVIth
+Dynasty. The Thebais was much under the influence of the
+Ethiopian kingdom, and was separated politically in the troubled
+times of the XXIIIrd Dynasty, though the old division into
+Upper and Lower Egypt was resumed in the XXVIth Dynasty.</p>
+
+<p>If Upper and Lower Egypt represented ancient kingdoms,
+the nomes have been thought to carry on the traditions of tribal
+settlements. They are found in inscriptions as early as the end
+of the IIIrd Dynasty, and the very name of Thoth, and that
+of another very ancient god, are derived from those of two contiguous
+nomes in Lower Egypt. The names are written by special
+emblems placed on standards, such as an ibis, <img style="width:43px; height:40px" src="images/img43b.jpg" alt="" />, a jackal
+<img style="width:49px; height:40px" src="images/img43c.jpg" alt="" />, a hare <img style="width:41px; height:42px" src="images/img43d.jpg" alt="" />, a feathered crown <img style="width:36px; height:42px" src="images/img43e.jpg" alt="" />, a sistrum <img style="width:38px; height:49px" src="images/img43f.jpg" alt="" />,
+a blade <img style="width:40px; height:33px" src="images/img43g.jpg" alt="" />, &amp;c., suggesting tribal badges. Some nomes having
+a common badge but distinguished as &ldquo;nearer&rdquo; or &ldquo;further,&rdquo;
+<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;northern&rdquo; or &ldquo;southern,&rdquo; have simply been split, as they
+are contiguous: in one case, however, corresponding &ldquo;eastern&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;western&rdquo; Harpoon nomes are widely separated on opposite
+sides of the Delta. In a few cases, such as &ldquo;the West,&rdquo; &ldquo;the
+Beginning of the East,&rdquo; it is obvious that the names are derived
+solely from their geographical situation. It is quite possible
+that the divisions are geographical in the main, but it seems
+likely that there were also religious, tribal and other historical
+reasons for them. How their boundaries were determined is not
+certain: in Upper Egypt in many cases a single nome embraced
+both sides of the river. The number and nomenclature of the
+nomes were never absolutely fixed. In temples of Ptolemaic and
+Roman age the full series is figured presenting their tribute to
+the god, and this series approximately agrees with the scattered
+data of early monuments. The normal number of the nomes
+in the sacred lists appears to be 42, of which 22 belonged to
+Upper Egypt and 20 to Lower Egypt. In reality again these
+nome-divisions were treated with considerable freedom, being
+split or reunited and their boundaries readjusted. Each nome
+had its metropolis, normally the seat of a governor or nomarch
+and the centre of its religious observances. During the New
+Empire, except at the beginning, the nomes seem to have been
+almost entirely ignored: under the Deltaic dynasties (except of
+course in the traditions of the sacred writing) they were named
+after the metropolis, as &ldquo;the province (<i>tosh</i>) of Busiris,&rdquo; &ldquo;the
+province of Sais,&rdquo; &amp;c.: hence the Greek names <span class="grk" title="Bousiritês
+nomos">&#914;&#959;&#965;&#963;&#953;&#961;&#943;&#964;&#951;&#962; &#957;&#959;&#956;&#972;&#962;</span>, &amp;c. The Arsinoite nome was added by the Ptolemies
+after the draining of the Lake of Moeris (<i>q.v.</i>), and in the later
+Ptolemaic and the Roman times many changes and additions
+to the list must have been made. In Christian texts the
+&ldquo;provinces&rdquo; appear to have been very numerous.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See H. Brugsch, <i>Geographische Inschriften altägyptischer Denkmäler</i>
+(3 vols., Leipzig, 1857-1860), and for the nomes on monuments
+of the Old Kingdom, N. de G. Davies, <i>Mastaba of Ptahhetep and
+Akhethetep</i> (London, 1901), p. 24 et sqq.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>King and Government.</i>&mdash;The government of Egypt was
+monarchical. The king (for titles see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pharaoh</a></span>) was the head of
+the hierarchy: he was himself divine and is often styled &ldquo;the
+good god,&rdquo; and was the proper mediator between gods and men.
+He was also the dispenser of office, confirmer of hereditary titles
+and estates and the fountain of justice. Oaths were generally
+sworn by the &ldquo;life&rdquo; of the king. The king wore special headdresses
+and costumes, including the crowns of Upper <img style="width:21px; height:39px" src="images/img43h.jpg" alt="" /> and
+Lower Egypt <img style="width:25px; height:43px" src="images/img43i.jpg" alt="" /> (often united <img style="width:29px; height:41px" src="images/img43j.jpg" alt="" />), and the cobra upon his
+forehead. Females were admitted to the succession, but very
+few instances occur before the Cleopatras. The most notable
+Pharaonic queen in her own right was Hatshepsut in the XVIIIth
+Dynasty, but her reign was ignored by the later rulers even of
+her own family. A certain Nit&#333;cris of about the VIIIth Dynasty
+and Sc&#275;miophris of the XIIth Dynasty are in the lists, but are
+quite obscure. Yet inheritance through the female line was
+fully recognized, and marriage with the heiress princess was
+sought by usurpers to legitimate the claims of their offspring.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page44" id="page44"></a>44</span>
+Often, especially in the XIIth Dynasty, the king associated his
+heir on the throne with him to ensure the succession.</p>
+
+<p>From time to time feudal conditions prevailed: the great
+landowners and local princes had establishments of their own
+on the model of the royal court, and were with difficulty kept in
+order by the monarch. In rare cases during the Middle Kingdom
+(inscriptions in the tomb of Ameni at Beni Hasan, graffiti in the
+quarries of Hanub) documents were dated in the years of reign
+of these feudatory nobles. Under the Empire all power was
+again centralized in the hands of the Pharaoh. The apportionment
+of duties amongst the swarm of officials varied from age
+to age, as did their titles. Members of the royal family generally
+held high office. Under the Empire Egypt was administered
+by a vast bureaucracy, at the head of which, responsible to the
+king, was the vizier, or sometimes two viziers, one for Upper
+Egypt, the other for Lower Egypt (in which case the former,
+stationed at Thebes, had the precedence). The duties of the
+vizier and the procedure in his court are detailed in a long
+inscription which is repeated in three tombs of the XVIIIth
+Dynasty at Thebes (Breasted, <i>Records</i>, ii. § 663 et seqq.). The
+strictest impartiality was enjoined upon him, and he was advised
+to hold aloof from the people in order to preserve his authority.
+The office of vizier was by no means a sinecure. All the business
+of the country was overlooked by him&mdash;treasury, taxation, army,
+law-courts, expeditions of every kind. Egypt was the vast
+estate of Pharaoh, and the vizier was the steward of it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Army.</i>&mdash;The youth of Egypt was liable to be called upon
+for service in the field under the local chiefs. Their training
+consisted of gymnastic and warlike exercises which developed
+strength and discipline that would be as useful in executing
+public works and in dragging large monuments as in strictly
+military service. They were armed in separate companies with
+bows and arrows, spears, daggers and shields, and the officers
+carried battle-axes and maces. The army, commanded in chief
+by Una under the VIth Dynasty for raids in Sinai or Palestine,
+comprised levies from every part of Egypt and from Nubia,
+each under its own leader. Under the New Empire, when Egypt
+was almost a military state, the army was a more specialized
+institution, the art of war in siege and strategy had developed,
+divisions were formed with special standards, there were regiments
+armed with battle-axes and scimitars, and chariots formed an
+essential part of the host. Egyptian cavalry are not represented
+upon the monuments, and we hear little of such at any time.
+Herodotus divides the army into two classes, the Calasiries and
+the Hermotybies; these names, although he was not aware of it,
+mean respectively horse- and foot-soldiers, but it is possible
+that the former name was only traditional and had characterized
+those who fought from chariots, a mode of warfare
+that was obsolete in Herodotus&rsquo;s own day: as a matter of
+fact both classes are said to have served on the warships of
+Xerxes&rsquo; fleet.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arms and Armour.</i>&mdash;From the contents of graves and other
+remains, and the sculptured and painted scenes, an approximate
+idea can be obtained of the weapons of the Egyptians at all
+periods from the prehistoric age onwards. Only a few points
+are here noted. Stone mace-heads are found in the earliest
+cemeteries, together with flint implements that may be the heads
+of lances, &amp;c., and thin leaf-shaped daggers of bronze. Stone
+arrow-heads are common on the surface of the desert. Thin
+bronze arrow-heads appear at an early date; under the Empire
+they are stouter and furnished with a tang, and later still,
+towards the Greek period, they are socketed (often three-sided),
+or, if of iron, still tanged. The wooden club, a somewhat primitive
+weapon, seems to have been considered characteristic of
+foreigners from very early times, and, in scenes dating from the
+Middle Kingdom, belong principally to the levies from the
+surrounding barbarians. The dagger grew longer and stouter,
+but the sword made its appearance late, probably first in the
+hands of the <i>Sherdana</i> (Sardinian?), mercenaries of the time of
+Rameses II. A peculiar scimitar, <i>khopsh</i> <img style="width:16px; height:42px" src="images/img44.jpg" alt="" />, is characteristic of
+the Empire. Slings are first heard of in Egyptian warfare in the
+8th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> The chariot was doubtless introduced with
+the horse in the Hyksos period; several examples have been
+discovered in the tombs of the New Kingdom. Shields were
+covered with ox-hide and furnished with round sighting-holes
+above the middle. Cuirasses of bronze scales were worn by the
+kings and other leaders. The linen corslets of the Egyptian
+soldiery at a later time were famous, and were adopted by the
+Persian army. According to the paintings of the Middle Kingdom
+in the tombs of Beni Hasan, the battlements of brick fortresses
+were attacked and wrenched away with long and massive spears.
+No siege engines are depicted, even in the time of the Empire,
+and the absence of original representations after the XXth
+Dynasty renders it difficult to judge the advances made in the
+art of war during the first half of the last millennium <span class="sc">b.c.</span> The
+inscription of Pankhi, however, proves that in the 8th century
+approaches and towers were raised against the walls of besieged
+cities.</p>
+
+<p><i>Priesthood.</i>&mdash;The priesthood was in a great degree hereditary,
+though perhaps not essentially so. In each temple the priests
+were divided into four orders (until Ptolemy Euergetes added a
+fifth), each of which served in turn for a lunar month under the
+chief priest or prophet. They received shares of the annual
+revenues of the temple in kind, consisting of linen, oil, flesh,
+bread, vegetables, wine, beer, &amp;c. The &ldquo;divine servants&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;prophets&rdquo; had residences assigned them in the temple area.
+In late times the priests were always shaven, and paid the greatest
+attention to cleanliness and ceremonial purity already implied
+in their ancient name. Fish and beans then were abhorred by
+them. Among the priests were the most learned men of Egypt,
+but probably many were illiterate. For the Hellenistic period
+see W. Otto, <i>Priester und Tempel im hellenistichen Ägypten</i>
+(Leipzig, 1905 foll.).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For ancient Egyptian life and civilization in all departments, the
+principal work is Ad. Erman, <i>Life in Ancient Egypt</i>, translated by
+H. M. Tirard (London, 1894), (the original <i>Ägypten und ägyptisches
+Leben im Altertum</i>, 2 vols., was published in 1885 at Tübingen);
+G. Maspero, <i>Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria</i>, translated by A. P.
+Morton (London, 1892), (<i>Lectures historiques</i>, Paris, 1890); also
+J. G. Wilkinson, <i>Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians</i>, new
+ed. by S. Birch (3 vols., London, 1878). The annual <i>Archaeological
+Reports</i> of the Egypt Exploration Fund contain summaries of the
+work done each year in the several departments of research.</p>
+
+<p>Of the innumerable publications of Egyptian monuments, scenes
+and inscriptions, C. R. Lepsius, <i>Denkmäler aus Ägypten und
+Äthiopien</i> (Berlin, 1849-1859), and Memoirs of the <i>Archaeological
+Survey</i> of the Egypt Exploration Fund, may be specified. For
+antiquities in museums there is the sumptuous <i>Catalogue général des
+antiquités égyptiennes du musée de Caire</i>; for excavations the
+Memoirs of the Egypt Exploration Fund, of the Research Account,
+of the British School of Archaeology, of the Liverpool School of
+Archaeology, of the Deutsche Orient-Gesellschaft, of the Hearst
+Egyptian Expedition, of the Theodore M. Davis excavations (Tombs
+of the Kings).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Trade and Money.</i>&mdash;There is little evidence to show how buying
+and selling were carried on in ancient Egypt. A unique scene
+in a tomb of the IVth Dynasty, however, shows men and women
+exchanging commodities against each other&mdash;fish, fish-hooks,
+fans, necklaces, &amp;c. Probably this was a market in the open air
+such as is held weekly at the present time in every considerable
+village. Rings of metal, gold, silver and bronze played some part
+in exchange, and from the Hyksos period onwards formed the
+usual standards by which articles of all kinds might be valued.
+In the XVIIIth Dynasty the value of meat, &amp;c., was reckoned
+in gold; somewhat later copper seems the commonest standard,
+and under the Deltaic dynasties silver. But barter must have
+prevailed much longer. The precious metals were kept in the
+temples under the tutelage of the deities. During the XXVth
+and XXVIth Dynasties silver of the treasury of Harshafe (at
+Heracleopolis Magna) was commonly prescribed in contracts,
+and in the reign of Darius we hear of silver of the treasury of
+Ptah (at Memphis). Aryandes, satrap of Egypt, is said by
+Herodotus to have been punished by Darius for coining money
+of equal fineness with that of the king in Persia: thus coinage
+had then begun in Egypt. But the early coins that have been
+found there are mainly Greek, and especially Athenian, and it
+was not until the introduction of a regular currency in the three
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page45" id="page45"></a>45</span>
+metals under the Ptolemies that much use was made of coined
+money.</p>
+
+<p>Corn was the staple produce of Egypt and may have been
+exported regularly, and especially when there was famine in
+other countries. In the Tell el-Amarna letters the friendly
+kings ask Pharaoh for &ldquo;much gold.&rdquo; Papyrus rolls and fine
+linen were good merchandise in Phoenicia in the 10th century
+<span class="sc">b.c.</span> From the earliest times Egypt was dependent on foreign
+countries to supply its wants in some degree. Vessels were
+fashioned in foreign stone as early as the Ist Dynasty. All silver
+must have been imported, and all copper except a little that
+the Pharaohs obtained from the mines of Sinai. Cedar wood
+was brought from the forests of Lebanon, ivory, leopard skins
+and gold from the south, all kinds of spices and ingredients of
+incense from Somaliland and Arabia, fine linen and beautifully
+worked vessels from Syria and the islands. Such supplies might
+be obtained by forcible raiding or as tribute of conquered
+countries, or perhaps as the free offerings of simple savages
+awed by the arrival of ships and civilized well-armed crews,
+or again by royal missions in which rich gifts on both sides were
+exchanged, or lastly by private trading. For deciding how large
+a share was due to trade, there is almost no evidence. But there
+are records of expeditions sent out by the king to obtain the
+rarities of different countries, and the hero of the Story of the
+Shipwrecked Sailor was upon this quest. Egyptian objects of
+the age of the XVIIIth Dynasty are found in the Greek islands
+and on the mainland among remains of the Mycenaean epoch,
+and on the other hand the products of the workshops of Crete
+and other centres of that culture are found in Egypt and are
+figured as &ldquo;tribute of the Keftiu&rdquo; in the tomb-paintings,
+though we have no information of any war with or conquest of
+that people. It must be a case of trade rather than tribute here
+and in like instances. According to the papyrus of Unamun at
+the end of the weak XXth Dynasty payment for cedar was insisted
+on by the king of Byblus from the Egyptian commissioner, and
+proofs were shown to him of payment having been made even
+in the more glorious times of Egypt. Trade both internal and
+external must have been largely in the hands of foreigners.
+It is impossible to say at what period Phoenician traffic by sea
+with Egypt began, but it existed as early as the IIIrd Dynasty.
+In the time of Herodotus much wine was imported from Syria
+and Greece. Amasis II. (c. 570 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) established Naucratis as
+the centre of Greek trade in Egypt. Financial transactions by
+Jews settled at the southern extremity of Egypt, at Assuan, are
+found as early as the reign of Artaxerxes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hunting, Fishing, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;In the desert hunting was carried
+on by hunters with bows and arrows, dogs and nets to check
+the game. Here in ancient times were found the oryx, addax,
+ibex, gazelle, bubale, ostrich, hyena and porcupine, more rarely
+the wild ox and wild sheep (<i>O. tragelaphus</i>). All of these were
+considered fit for the table. The lion, leopard and jackal were
+not eaten. Pigeons and other birds were caught in traps, and
+quails were netted in the fields and on the sea-shore. In the
+papyrus marshes the hippopotamus was slain with harpoons,
+the wild boar, too, was probably hunted, and the sportsman
+brought down wild-fowl with the boomerang, or speared or
+angled for fish. Enormous quantities of wild-fowl of many sorts
+were taken in clap-nets, to be preserved in jars with salt. Fish
+were taken sometimes in hand-nets, but the professional fishermen
+with their draw-nets caught them in shoals. The fishing
+industry was of great importance: the annual catch in the Lake
+of Moeris and its canal formed an important part of the Egyptian
+revenue. The fish of the Nile, which were of many kinds (including
+mullets, &amp;c., which came up from the sea), were split and
+dried in the sun: others were salted and so preserved. A supply
+of sea fish would be obtained off the coast of the Delta and at the
+mouth of the Lake Serbonis.</p>
+
+<p><i>Farming, Horticulture, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;The wealth of Egypt lay in its
+agriculture. The regular inundations, the ease of irrigating the
+rich alluvial flats, and the great heat of the sun in a cloudless
+sky, while limiting the natural flora, gave immense opportunities
+to the industrious farmer. The normal rise of the Nile was
+sixteen cubits at the island of Roda, and two cubits more or
+less caused a failure of the harvest. In the paintings we see
+gardens irrigated by handbuckets and <i>shadufs</i>; the latter
+(buckets hung on a lever-pole) were probably the usual means
+of raising water for the fields in ancient times, and still are
+common in Egypt and Nubia, although water-wheels have been
+known since the Ptolemaic age, if not earlier. Probably a certain
+amount of cultivation was possible all the year round, and there
+was perhaps a succession of harvests; but there was a pause
+after the main harvests were gathered in by the end of April,
+and from then till June was the period in which taxes were
+collected and loans were repaid. Under the Ptolemaic régime
+the records show a great variety of crops, wheat and barley being
+probably the largest (see B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt, <i>Tebtunis
+Papyri</i>, i. 560; J. P. Mahaffy and J. G. Smyly, <i>Petrie Papyri</i>,
+iii. p. 205). Earlier the <i>b&#333;ti</i>, in Greek <span class="grk" title="olyra">&#8000;&#955;&#973;&#961;&#945;</span> (spelt? or durra?)
+was the main crop, and earlier again inferior varieties of wheat
+and barley took the lead, with <i>b&#333;ti</i> apparently in the second
+place. The bread was mainly made of <i>b&#333;ti</i>, the beer of barley.
+There were green crops such as clover, and lentils, peas, beans,
+radishes, onions, lettuces (as a vegetable and for oil), castor oil
+and flax were grown. The principal fruit trees were the date
+palm, useful also for its wood and fibre, the pomegranate, fig
+and fig-sycamore. The vine was much cultivated in early times,
+and the vintage is a subject frequently depicted. Later the
+wine of the Mareotic region near Alexandria was celebrated even
+amongst Roman epicures. Papyrus, which grew wild in the
+marshes, was also cultivated, at least in the later ages: its stems
+were used for boat-building, and according to the classical
+authors for rope-making, as well as for the famous writing
+material. About the 8th century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> paper drove the latter
+out of use, and the papyrus plant quickly became extinct.
+The Indian lotus described by Herodotus is found in deposits
+of the Roman age. Native lotuses, blue and white, were much
+used for decoration in garlands, &amp;c., also the chrysanthemum and
+the corn-flower.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See chapters on plant remains by Newberry in W. M. F. Petrie,
+<i>Hawara, Biahmu, and Arsinoe</i> (London, 1889); <i>Kahun, Gurob and
+Hawara</i> (1890); V. Loret, <i>La Flore pharaonique</i> (2nd ed., Paris, 1892),
+and the authorities there cited.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Domestic Animals and Birds.</i>&mdash;The farmer kept up a large
+stock of animals: in the houses there were pets and in the temples
+sacred creatures of many kinds. Goats browsed on the trees
+and herbage at the edge of the desert. Sheep of a peculiar breed
+with horizontal twisted horns and hairy coat are figured on the
+earliest monuments: a more valuable variety, woolly with
+curved horns, made its appearance in the Middle Kingdom and
+pushed out the older form: sheep were driven into the ploughed
+fields to break the clods and trample in the seed. The oxen were
+long-horned, short-horned and polled. They drew the plough,
+trampled the corn sheaves round the circular threshing floor,
+and were sometimes employed to drag heavy weights. The pig
+is rarely figured and was less and less tolerated as the Egyptians
+grew in ceremonial purity. A variety of wild animals caught in
+the chase were kept alive and fed for slaughter. Geese and
+ducks of different sorts were bred in countless numbers by the
+farmers, also pigeons and quails, and in the early ages cranes.
+The domestic fowl was unknown in Egypt before the Deltaic
+dynasties, but Diodorus in the first century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> describes how
+its eggs were hatched artificially, as they are at the present
+day. Bee-keeping, too, must have been a considerable industry,
+though dates furnished a supply of sweetening material.</p>
+
+<p>The farm lands were generally held at a rent from an overlord,
+who might according to times and circumstances be the king,
+a feudal prince, or a temple-corporation. The stock also might
+be similarly held, or might belong to the farmers. The ordinary
+beast of burden, even in the desert, was the ass. The horse seems
+to have been introduced with the chariot during the Hyksos
+period. It is thought that the camel is shown in rude figures of
+the earliest age, but it is scarcely traceable again before the
+XXVIth Dynasty. In the Ptolemaic period it was used for
+desert transport and gradually became common. Strange to say,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page46" id="page46"></a>46</span>
+it is only very rarely that men are depicted riding on animals,
+and never before the New Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>The dog was of many varieties as early as the XIIth Dynasty,
+when the greyhound and turnspit and other well-marked forms
+are seen. The cat was sometimes trained by the sportsman to
+catch birds. Monkeys were commonly kept as pets. The sacred
+beasts in the various temples, tame as far as possible, were of
+almost every conceivable variety, from the vulture to the swallow
+or the goose, from the lion to the shrew-mouse, from the hippopotamus
+to the sheep and the monkey, from the crocodile to the
+tortoise and the cobra, from the carp to the eel; the scorpion
+and the scarab beetle were perhaps the strangest in this strange
+company of deities.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For agriculture see J. J. Tylor and F. Ll. Griffith, <i>The Tomb of
+Paheri</i> at El Kab, in the XIth Memoir of the Egypt Exploration
+Fund. Together with hunting and fishing it is illustrated in many
+of the Memoirs of the <i>Archaeological Survey</i> of the same society. See
+also Lortet and M. C. Gaillard, <i>La Faune momifiée de l&rsquo;ancienne
+Égypte</i> (Lyons, 1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Law.</i>&mdash;No code of Egyptian laws has come down to us.
+Diodorus names a series of Egyptian kings who were law-givers,
+ending with Amasis (Ahmosi II.) and Darius. Frequent reference
+is made in inscriptions to customs and laws which were traditional,
+and perhaps had been codified in the sacred books. From time
+to time regulations on special points were issued by royal decree:
+a fragment of such a decree, directed by Horemheb of the XVIIIth
+Dynasty against oppression of the peasantry by officials and
+prescribing penalties, is preserved on a stela in the temple of
+Karnak, and enactments of Ptolemy Philadelphus and Euergetes
+II. are known from papyri. In the Ptolemaic age matters arising
+out of native contracts were decided according to native law by
+<span class="grk" title="laokritai">&#955;&#945;&#959;&#954;&#961;&#953;&#964;&#945;&#943;</span>, while travelling courts of <span class="grk" title="chrêmatistai">&#967;&#961;&#951;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#953;&#963;&#964;&#945;&#943;</span> representing
+the king settled litigation on Greek contracts and most other
+disputes. Affairs were decided in accordance with the code of
+the country, <span class="grk" title="tês chôras nomoi">&#964;&#8134;&#962; &#967;&#974;&#961;&#945;&#962; &#957;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#953;</span>, the Greek code, <span class="grk" title="politikoi nomoi">&#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#959;&#8054; &#957;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#953;</span>,
+modelled, it would seem, on Athenian law or royal decrees,
+<span class="grk" title="prostagmata">&#960;&#961;&#959;&#963;&#964;&#940;&#947;&#956;&#945;&#964;&#945;</span>. &ldquo;Native&rdquo; law was still quoted in Roman times,
+but the significance of the expression remains to be ascertained.
+In ancient Egypt petitions were sent to the king or the great
+feudal landowners in whose territory the petitioner or his
+adversary dwelt or the injury was committed: courts were
+composed of royal or feudal officials, or in the New Kingdom
+of officials or responsible citizens. The right of appeal to the
+king probably existed at all times. The statement of the case
+and the evidence were frequently ordered to be put in writing.
+The evidence was supported by oath: in criminal cases, such as
+the harem conspiracy against Rameses III., torture of the accused
+was resorted to to extract evidence, the bastinado being applied
+on the hands and the feet. Penalties in the New Kingdom were
+death (by starvation or self-inflicted), fines, beating with a certain
+number of blows so as to open a specified number of wounds on
+as many different parts of the body (<i>e.g.</i> five wounds, <i>i.e.</i> on
+hands, feet and back?), also cutting off the nose with banishment
+to Nubia or the Syrian frontier. In the times of the Old Kingdom
+decapitation was in use, and a decree exists of the Middle Kingdom
+degrading a nomarch of Coptos and his family for ever
+from his office and from the priesthood on account of services
+to a rival pretender.</p>
+
+<p>As to legal instruments: contracts agreed to in public or
+before witnesses and written on papyrus are found as early as
+the Middle Kingdom and perhaps belong to all historic times,
+but are very scarce until the XXVth Dynasty. Two wills exist
+on papyrus of the XIIth Dynasty, but they are isolated, and such
+are not again found among native documents, though they occur
+in Greek in the Ptolemaic age. The virtual will of a high priest
+of Ammon under the XXIInd Dynasty is put in the form of a
+decree of the god himself.</p>
+
+<p>From the time of the XXVth Dynasty there is a great increase
+in written documents of a legal character, sales, loans, &amp;c.,
+apparently due to a change in law and custom; but after the
+reign of Darius I. there is again almost a complete cessation
+until the reign of Alexander, probably only because of the disturbed
+condition of the country. Under Ptolemy Philadelphus
+Greek documents begin to be numerous: under Euergetes II.
+(Physcon) demotic contracts are particularly abundant, but they
+cease entirely after the first century of Roman rule.</p>
+
+<p>Marriage contracts are not found earlier than the XXVIth
+Dynasty. Women had full powers of inheritance (though not of
+dealing with their property), and succession through the mother
+was of importance. In the royal line there are almost certain
+instances of the marriage of a brother with an heiress-sister in
+Pharaonic times: this was perhaps helped by the analogy of
+Osiris and Isis: in the Ptolemaic dynasty it was an established
+custom, and one of the stories of Khamois, written in the
+Ptolemaic age, assumes its frequency at a very remote date.
+It would be no surprise to find examples of the practice in other
+ranks also at an early period, as it certainly was prevalent in the
+Hellenistic age, but as yet it is very difficult to prove its occurrence.
+The native contracts with the wife gave to her child
+all the husband&rsquo;s property, and divorce or separation was provided
+for, entailing forfeiture of the dowry. The &ldquo;native law&rdquo;
+of Roman times allowed a man to take his daughter away from
+her husband if the last quarrelled with him.</p>
+
+<p>Slavery is traceable from an early date. Private ownership
+of slaves, captured in war and given by the king to their captor
+or otherwise, is certainly seen at the beginning of the XVIIIth
+Dynasty. Sales of slaves occur in the XXVth Dynasty, and
+contracts of servitude are found in the XXVIth Dynasty and
+in the reign of Darius, appearing as if the consent of the slave
+was then required. Presumably at this late period there were
+eunuchs in Egypt, though adequate evidence of their existence
+there is not yet forthcoming. They must have originated among
+a more cruel people. That circumcision (though perhaps not
+till puberty) was regularly practised is proved by the mummies
+(agreeing with the testimony of Herodotus and the indications
+of the early tomb sculptures) until an edict of Hadrian forbade
+it: after that, only priests were circumcised.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. H. Gardiner, <i>The Inscription of Mes</i> (from Sethe&rsquo;s <i>Untersuchungen
+zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde Ägyptens</i>, iv.);
+J. H. Breasted, <i>Ancient Records</i>, Egypt, passim, esp. i. § 190, 535
+et seqq., 773, ii. 54, 671, iii. 45, 367, iv. 416, 499, 795; F. Ll. Griffith,
+<i>Catalogue of the John Rylands Demotic Papyri</i>; B. P. Grenfell and
+J. P. Mahaffy, <i>Revenue Laws of Philadelphus</i> (Oxford, 1896);
+B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt, <i>Tebtunis Papyri</i>, part i. (London,
+1902); Bouché-Leclercq, <i>Histoire des Lagides</i>, tome iv. (Paris,
+1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Science.</i>&mdash;The Egyptians sought little after knowledge for its
+own sake: they might indulge in religious speculation, but their
+science was no more than the knowledge of practical methods.
+Undoubtedly the Egyptians acquired great skill in the application
+of simple means to the fulfilment of the most difficult tasks.
+But the books that have come down to us prove how greatly
+their written theoretical knowledge fell short of their practical
+accomplishment. The explanation of the fact may partly be
+that the mechanical and other discoveries of the most ingenious
+minds among them, when not in constant requisition by later
+generations, were misunderstood or forgotten, and even in other
+cases were preserved only as rules of thumb by the craftsmen
+and experts, who would jealously hide them as secrets of trade.
+Men of genius were not wanting in the long history of Egypt;
+two doctors, Imh&#333;tp (Imuthes), the architect of Zoser, in the
+IIIrd Dynasty, and Amen&#333;phis (Amenhotp), son of Hap, the
+wise scribe under Amen&#333;phis III. in the XVIIIth, eventually
+received the honours of deification; and Hardadf under Cheops
+of the IVth Dynasty was little behind these two in the estimation
+of posterity. Such men, who, capable in every field, designed the
+Great Pyramids and bestowed the highest monumental fame on
+their masters, must surely have had an insight into scientific
+principles that would hardly be credited to the Egyptians from
+the written documents alone.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mathematics.</i>&mdash;The Egyptian notation for whole numbers
+was decimal, each power of 10 up to 100,000 being represented
+by a different figure, on much the same principle as the Roman
+numerals. Fractions except <span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> were all primary, <i>i.e.</i> with the
+numerator unity: in order to express such an idea as <span class="spp">9</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">13</span> the
+Egyptians were obliged to reduce it to a series of primary
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page47" id="page47"></a>47</span>
+fractions through double fractions <span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">13</span> + <span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">13</span> + <span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">13</span> + <span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">13</span> + <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">13</span> = 4(<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> +
+<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">52</span> + <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">104</span>) + <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">13</span> = ½ + <span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">13</span> + <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">26</span> = ½ + <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> + <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">26</span> + <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">52</span> + <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">104</span>; this operation
+was performed in the head, only the result being written
+down, and to facilitate it tables were drawn up of the
+division of 2 by odd numbers. With integers, besides adding
+and subtracting, it was easy to double and to multiply by 10:
+multiplying and dividing by 5 and finding the 1½ value were
+also among the fundamental instruments of calculation, and all
+multiplication proceeded by repetitions of these processes with
+addition, <i>e.g.</i> 9 × 7 = (9 × 2 × 2) + (9 × 2) + 9. Division was accomplished
+by multiplying the divisor until the dividend was reached;
+the answer being the number of times the divisor was so multiplied.
+Weights and measures proceeded generally on either a
+decimal or a doubling system or a combination of the two.
+Apart from a few calculations and accounts, practically all the
+materials for our knowledge of Egyptian mathematics before
+the Hellenistic period date from the Middle Kingdom.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The principal text is the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus in the
+British Museum, written under a Hyksos king c. 1600 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>; unfortunately
+it is full of gross errors. Its contents fall roughly into
+the following scheme, but the main headings are not shown in the
+original:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>I. <i>Arithmetic.</i>&mdash;A. Tables and rule to facilitate the employment
+of fractions.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="condensed2">
+<p>(a) Table of the divisions of 2 by odd numbers from 3 to 99
+        (<i>e.g.</i> 2 ÷ 11 = <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">6</span> + <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">66</span>), see above.</p>
+<p>(b) Conversions of compound fractions (<i>e.g.</i> <span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> × <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> = <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">6</span> + <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">18</span>), with
+        rule for finding <span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> of a fraction.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>B. The &ldquo;bread&rdquo; calculation&mdash;a division by 10 of the units 1 to 9.</p>
+
+<p>C. &ldquo;Completing&rdquo; calculations.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="condensed2">
+<p>(a) Adding multiples of a fraction to produce a more convenient
+        fraction (perhaps connected with the use of palms and
+        cubits in decoration in a proportion based on the number 8).</p>
+<p>(b) Finding the difference between a given fraction and a given
+        whole number.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>D. <i>Ahe</i><a name="fa9c" id="fa9c" href="#ft9c"><span class="sp">9</span></a> or &ldquo;mass&rdquo;-problems (of the form x + x/n = a, to find the
+<i>ahe</i> x).</p>
+
+<p>E. <i>Tooun</i>-problems (<i>tooun</i>, &ldquo;rising,&rdquo; seems to be the difference
+between the shares of two sets of persons dividing an amount
+between them on a lower and a higher scale).</p>
+
+<p>II. <i>Geometry.</i>&mdash;A. Measurement of volume (amounts of grain in
+cylindrical and rectangular spaces of different dimensions and vice
+versa).</p>
+
+<p>B. Measurement of area (areas of square, circular, triangular, &amp;c.,
+fields).</p>
+
+<p>C. Proportions of pyramids and other monuments with sloping
+sides.</p>
+
+<p>III. <i>Miscellaneous problems</i> (and tables) such as are met with in
+bread-making, beer-making, food of live-stock, &amp;c. &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>The method of estimating the area of irregular fields and the
+cubic contents of granaries, &amp;c., is very faulty. It would be interesting
+to find material of later date, such as Pythagoras is reported
+to have studied.</p>
+
+<p>See A. Eisenlohr, <i>Ein mathematisches Handbuch der alten Ägypter</i>
+(Leipzig, 1877); F. Ll. Griffith, &ldquo;The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus&rdquo;
+in <i>Proceedings of the Soc. of Biblical Archaeology</i>, Nov. 1891, March,
+May and June 1894.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Astronomy.</i>&mdash;The brilliant skies of day and night in Egypt
+favoured the development of astronomy. A papyrus of the
+Roman period in the British Museum attributes the invention of
+horoscopes to the Egyptians, but no early instance is known.
+Professor Petrie has indeed suggested, chiefly on chronological
+grounds, that a table of stars on the ceiling of the Ramesseum
+temple and another in the tomb of Rameses VI. (repeated in
+that of Rameses IX. without alteration) were horoscopes of
+Rameses II. and VI.; but Mahler&rsquo;s interpretation of the tables
+on which this would rest appears to be false. Astronomy played
+a considerable part in religious matters for fixing the dates of
+festivals and determining the hours of the night. The titles of
+several temple books are preserved recording the movements
+and phases of the sun, moon and stars. The rising of Sothis
+(Sirius) at the beginning of the inundation was a particularly
+important point to fix in the yearly calendar (see below,
+§ &ldquo;Chronology&rdquo;). The primitive clock<a name="fa10c" id="fa10c" href="#ft10c"><span class="sp">10</span></a> of the temple time-keeper
+(horoscopus), consisting of a <span class="grk" title="hôrologion kai phoinika">&#8033;&#961;&#959;&#955;&#972;&#947;&#953;&#959;&#957; &#954;&#945;&#7985; &#966;&#959;&#943;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#945;</span>
+(Clemens Alex. <i>Strom.</i>, vi. 4. 35), has been identified with two
+inscribed objects in the Berlin Museum; these are a palm branch
+with a sight-slit in the broader end, and a short handle from
+which a plummet line was hung. The former was held close
+to the eye, the latter in the other hand, perhaps at arm&rsquo;s length.
+From the above-mentioned tables of culmination in the tombs
+of Rameses VI. and IX. it seems that for fixing the hours of the
+night a man seated on the ground faced the horoscopus in such a
+position that the line of observation of the Pole-star passed over
+the middle of his head. On the different days of the year each
+hour was determined by a fixed star culminating or nearly
+culminating in it, and the position of these stars at the time is
+given in the tables as &ldquo;in the centre,&rdquo; &ldquo;on the left eye,&rdquo; &ldquo;on
+the right shoulder,&rdquo; &amp;c. According to the texts, in founding or
+rebuilding temples the north axis was determined by the same
+apparatus, and we may conclude that it was the usual one for
+astronomical observations. It is conceivable that in ingenious
+and careful hands it might give results of a high degree of
+accuracy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L. Borchardt, &ldquo;Ein altägyptisches astronomisches Instrument&rdquo;
+in <i>Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache</i>, xxxvii. (1899), p. 10;
+Ed. Meyer, <i>Ägyptische Chronologie</i>, p. 36. Besides the sun and
+moon, five planets, thirty-six dekans, and constellations to which
+animal and other forms are given, appear in the early astronomical
+texts and paintings. The zodiacal signs were not introduced till the
+Ptolemaic period. See H. Brugsch, <i>Die Ägyptologie</i> (Leipzig, 1891),
+pp. 315 et seqq., for a full account of all these.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Medicine.</i>&mdash;Except, that splints are sometimes found on the
+limbs of bodies of all periods, at present nothing is known, from
+texts or otherwise, of the existence of Egyptian surgery or
+dentistry. For historical pathology the examination of mummies
+and skeletons is yielding good results. There is little sign of the
+existence of gout or of syphilitic diseases until late times (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mummy</a></span>). A number of papyri have been discovered containing
+medical prescriptions. The earliest are of the XIIth Dynasty
+from Kah&#363;n, one being veterinary, the other gynaecological.
+The finest non-religious papyrus known, the Ebers Papyrus,
+is a vast collection of receipts. One section, giving us some of
+&ldquo;the mysteries of the physician,&rdquo; shows how lamentably crude
+were his notions of the constitution of the body. It teaches
+little more than that the pulse is felt in every part of the body,
+that there are vessels leading from the heart to the eyes, ears,
+nose and all the other members, and that &ldquo;the breath entering
+the nose goes to the heart and the lungs.&rdquo; The prescriptions
+are for a great variety of ailments and afflictions&mdash;diseases of
+the eye and the stomach, sores and broken bones, to make the
+hair grow, to keep away snakes, fleas, &amp;c. Purgatives and
+diuretics are particularly numerous, and the medicines take the
+form of pillules, draughts, liniments, fumigations, &amp;c. The
+prescriptions are often fanciful and may thus bear some absurd
+relation to the disease to be cured, but generally they would be
+to some extent effective. Their action was assisted by spells,
+for general use in the preparation or application, or for special
+diseases. In most cases several ingredients are prescribed
+together: when the amounts are indicated it is by measure not
+by weight, and evidently no very potent drugs were employed,
+for the smallest measure specified is equal to about half of a
+cubic inch. Little has yet been accomplished in identifying the
+diseases and the substances named in the medical papyri.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. A. Reisner, <i>The Hearst Medical Papyrus</i> (Leipzig, 1905),
+(XVIIIth Dynasty), and for a great magical text of the Roman
+period (3rd century <span class="sc">a.d.</span>) with some prescriptions, F. Ll. Griffith and
+H. Thompson, <i>The Demotic Magical Papyrus of London and Leiden</i>
+(London, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Literature</i>.&mdash;The vast mass of writing which has come down to
+us from the ancient Egyptians comprises documents of almost
+every conceivable kind, business documents and correspondence,
+legal documents, memorial inscriptions, historical, scientific,
+didactic, magical and religious literature; also tales and lyrics
+and other compositions in poetical language. Most of these
+classes are dealt with in this article under special headings.
+In addition there should be mentioned the abundant explanatory
+inscriptions attached to wall-scenes as a secondary element in
+those compositions. As early as the Middle Kingdom, papyri are
+found containing classified lists of words, titles, names of cities,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page48" id="page48"></a>48</span>
+&amp;c., and of nomes with their capitals, festivals, deities and sacred
+things, calendars, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>To a great extent the standard works in all classes date from
+an early age, not later than the Middle Kingdom, and subsequent
+works of religion and learning like the later additions were
+largely written in the same style. Several books of proverbs or
+&ldquo;instructions&rdquo; were put in circulation during the Middle Kingdom.
+Kagemni and Ptahhotp of the Old Kingdom were nominally
+or really the instructors in manners: King Amenemh&#275; I.
+laid down the principles of conduct in government for his son
+Senwosri I., preaching on the text of beneficence rewarded by
+treachery; Kheti points out in detail to his schoolboy son Pepi
+the advantages enjoyed by scribes and the miseries of all other
+careers. Some of these books are known only in copies of the
+New Kingdom. The instructions of Ani to his son Khenshotp
+are of later date. In demotic the most notable of such works
+is a papyrus of the first century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> at Leiden.</p>
+
+<p>A number of Egyptian tales are known, dating from the
+Middle Kingdom and later. Some are so sober and realistic as
+to make it doubtful whether they are not true biographies and
+narratives of actual events. Such are the story of Sin&#363;hi, a
+fugitive to Syria in the reign of Sesostris [Senwosri] I., and
+perhaps the narrative of Unamun of his expedition in quest of
+cedar wood for the bark of the Theban Ammon in the XXIst
+Dynasty. Others are highly imaginative or with miraculous
+incidents, like the story of the Predestined Prince and the story
+of the Two Brothers, which begins with a pleasing picture of the
+industrious farmer, and, in demotic of the Ptolemaic and Roman
+periods, two stories of the learned Sethon Khamois, son of Rameses
+II. and high priest of Ptah, with his rather tragical experiences
+at the hands of magicians. The stories of the Middle Kingdom
+were in choice diction, large portions of them being rhetorical
+or poetical compositions attributed to the principal characters.
+The story of Sin&#363;hi is of this description and was much read
+during the New Kingdom. Another, of the Eloquent Peasant
+whose ass had been stolen, was only a framework to the rhetoric
+of endless petitions. The tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor in the
+Red Sea was a piece of simpler writing, not unpicturesque, of the
+marvellous type of a Sindbad story. If all these are deficient
+in literary merit, they are deeply interesting as revelations of
+primitive mind and manners. Of New Kingdom tales, the story
+of the Two Brothers is frankly in the simplest speech of everyday
+life, while others are more stilted. The demotic stories of
+Khamois are simple, but the &ldquo;Rape of Inar&#333;s&rsquo; Cuirass&rdquo; (at
+Vienna) is told in a stiff and high-flown style.</p>
+
+<p>In general it may be said of Egyptian literary compositions
+that apart from their interest as anthropological documents
+they possess no merit which would entitle them to survive.
+They are more or less touched by artificiality, but so far as we
+are able to appreciate them at present they very seldom attain
+to any degree of literary beauty. Most of the compositions in
+the literary language, whether old or archaistic, are in a stilted
+style and often with parallelisms of phrase like those of Hebrew
+poetry. Simple prose narrative is here quite exceptional.
+Some few hymns contain stanzas of ten lines, each line with a
+break in the middle. There is no sign of rhyming in Egyptian
+poetry, and the rhythm is not yet recognizable owing to our
+ignorance of the ancient vocalization. In old Egyptian tales the
+narrative portions are frequently in prose; New Egyptian and
+demotic contain as a rule little else. Hymns exist in both of
+these later forms of the language, and a few love songs in Late
+Egyptian.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W. M. F. Petrie, <i>Egyptian Tales</i> (2 vols., London, 1895);
+G. Maspero, <i>Les Contes populaires de l&rsquo;Égypte ancienne</i> (3rd edition,
+Paris, 1906); W. Max Müller, <i>Die Liebespoesie der alten Ägypter</i>
+(Leipzig, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. Ll. G.)</div>
+
+<p>C. <i>Religion.</i>&mdash;1. <i>Introductory.</i>&mdash;Copious as are the sources of
+information from which our knowledge of the Egyptian religion is
+drawn, there is nevertheless no aspect of the ancient civilization
+of Egypt that we really so little understand. While the youth of
+Egyptological research is in part responsible for this, the reason
+lies still more in the nature of the religion itself and the character
+of the testimony bearing upon it. For a true appreciation of the
+chaotic polytheism that reveals itself even in the earliest texts
+it would be necessary to be able to trace its development, stage
+by stage, out of a number of naive primitive cults; but the
+period of growth lies behind recorded history, and we are here
+reduced to hypotheses and <i>a posteriori</i> reconstructions. The
+same criticism applies, no doubt, to other religions, like those of
+Greece and Rome. In Egypt, however, the difficulty is much
+aggravated by the poor quality of the evidence. The religious
+books are textually very corrupt, one-sided in their subject-matter,
+and distributed over a period of more than two thousand
+years. The greatest defect of all is their relative silence with
+regard to the myths. For the story of Isis and Osiris we have
+indeed the late treatise ascribed to Plutarch, and a few fragments
+of other myths may be culled from earlier native sources. But
+in general the tales that passed current about the gods are
+referred to only in mysterious and recondite allusions; as
+Herodotus for his own times explicitly testifies, a reticence in
+such matters seems to have been encouraged by the priests.
+Thus with regard to Egyptian theology we are very imperfectly
+informed, and the account that is here given of it must be looked
+upon as merely provisional. The actual practices of the cult,
+both funerary and divine, are better known, and we are
+tolerably familiar with the doctrines as to the future state
+of the dead. There is good material, too, for the study
+of Egyptian magic, though this branch has been somewhat
+neglected hitherto.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Main Sources.</i>&mdash;(a) <i>The Pyramid texts,</i> a vast collection of
+incantations inscribed on the inner walls of five royal tombs
+of the Vth and VIth Dynasties at Sakk&#257;ra, discovered and first
+published by Maspero. Much of these texts is of extreme
+antiquity; one incantation at least has been proved to belong
+to an age anterior to the unification of the Northern and Southern
+kingdoms. Later copies also exist, but possess little independent
+critical value. The subject-matter is funerary, <i>i.e.</i> it deals
+with the fate of the dead king in the next life. Some chapters
+describe the manner in which he passes from earth to heaven
+and becomes a star in the firmament, others deal with the food
+and drink necessary for his continued existence after death,
+and others again with the royal prerogatives which he hopes still
+to enjoy; many are directed against the bites of snakes and
+stings of scorpions. It is possible that these incantations were
+recited as part of the funerary ritual, but there is no doubt that
+their mere presence in the tombs was supposed to be magically
+effective for the welfare of the dead. Originally these texts had
+an application to the king alone, but before the beginning of the
+XIIth Dynasty private individuals had begun to employ them
+on their own behalf. They seem to be relatively free from textual
+corruption, but the vocabulary still occasions much difficulty to
+the translator.</p>
+
+<p>(b) <i>The Book of the Dead</i> is the somewhat inappropriate name
+applied to a large similar collection of texts of various dates,
+certain chapters of which show a tendency to become welded
+together into a book of fixed content and uniform order. A
+number of chapters contained in the later recensions are already
+found on the sarcophagi of the Middle Kingdom, together with
+a host of funereal texts not usually reckoned as belonging to the
+Book of the Dead; these have been published by Lepsius and
+Lacau. The above-mentioned nucleus, combined with other
+chapters of more recent origin, is found in the papyri of the
+XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties, and forms the so-called Theban
+recension, which has been edited by Naville in an important work.
+Here already more or less rigid groups of chapters may be noted,
+but individual manuscripts differ greatly in what they include
+and exclude. In the Saite period a sort of standard edition was
+drawn up, consisting of 165 chapters in a fixed order and with a
+common title &ldquo;the book of going forth in the day&rdquo;; this recension
+was published by Lepsius in 1842 from a Turin papyrus.
+Like the Pyramid texts, the Book of the Dead served a funerary
+purpose, but its contents are far more heterogeneous; besides
+chapters enabling the dead man to assume what shape he will,
+or to issue triumphant from the last judgment, there are lists
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>49</span>
+of gates to be passed and demons to be encountered in the
+nether world, formulae such as are inscribed on sepulchral figures
+and amulets, and even hymns to the sun-god. These texts are
+for the most part excessively corrupt, and despite the translations
+of Pierret, Renouf and Budge, much labour must yet
+be expended upon them before they can rank as a first-rate
+source.</p>
+
+<p>(c) The texts of the <i>Tombs of the Kings at Thebes</i> (XVIIIth-XXth
+Dyn.) consist of a series of theological books compiled
+at an uncertain date; they have been edited by Naville and
+Lefébure. The chief of these, extant in a longer and a shorter
+version, is called <i>The book of that which is in the Nether World</i>
+(familiarly known as the <i>Am Duat</i>) and deals with the journey
+of the sun during the twelve hours of the night. <i>The Book of
+Gates</i> treats of the same topic from a more theological standpoint.
+<i>The Litanies of the Sun</i> contain the acclamations with
+which the sun-god Re was greeted, when at eventide his bark
+reached the entrance of the nether world. Another treatise
+relates the destruction of mankind, and the circumstances that
+led to the creation of the heavens in the form of a cow.</p>
+
+<p>(d) Among the <i>later religious books</i> one or two deserve a
+special mention, such as <i>The Overthrowing of Apophis</i>, the serpent
+enemy of the sun-god; <i>The Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys</i>
+over their murdered brother Osiris; <i>The Book of Breathings</i>, a
+favourite book among the later Theban priests. Several of these
+books were used in the ritual of feast days, but all have received
+a secondary funerary employment, and are therefore found buried
+with the dead in their tombs.</p>
+
+<p>(e) The <i>Ritual texts</i> have survived only in copies not earlier
+than the New Kingdom. The temple ritual employed in the
+daily cult is illustrated by the scenes depicted on the inner walls
+of the great temples: the formulae recited during the performance
+of the ceremonies are recorded at length in the temple of
+Seti I. (XIXth Dyn.) at Abydos, as well as in some later papyri
+in Berlin. The whole material has been collected and studied
+by Moret. The funerary ritual is known from texts in the Theban
+tombs (XVIIIth-XXth Dyn.) and papyri and sarcophagi of
+later date; older versions are contained in the Pyramid texts
+and <i>The Book of the Dead</i>. Schiaparelli has done much towards
+gathering together this scattered material. The ritual observed
+during the process of embalmment is preserved in late papyri in
+Paris and Cairo published by Maspero.</p>
+
+<p>(f) The <i>magical</i> documents have been comparatively little
+studied, in spite of their great interest. They deal for the most
+part with the hearing of diseases, the bites of snakes and scorpions,
+&amp;c., but incidentally cast many sidelights on the mythology and
+superstitious beliefs. The best-known of these books is the
+<i>Papyrus Harris</i> published by F. J. Chabas, but other papyri of
+as great or greater importance are to be found in the Leiden,
+Turin and other collections. A curious book published by
+A. Erman contains spells to be used by mothers for the protection
+of their children. A papyrus in London contains a calendar of
+lucky and unlucky days. A late class of stelae, of which the best
+specimen has been published by Golenischeff, consists of spells of
+various kinds originally intended for the use of the living, but
+later employed for funerary purposes.</p>
+
+<p>(g) Under the heading <i>Miscellaneous</i> we must mention a
+number of sources of great value: the grave-stones, or stelae,
+especially those from Abydos, which throw much light on funerary
+beliefs; the great <i>Papyrus Harris</i>, the longest of all papyri,
+which enumerates the gifts of Rameses III. (XXth Dyn.) to
+the various temples of Egypt; the hymns to the gods preserved
+in Cairo and Leiden papyri; and the inscriptions of the Ptolemaic
+temples (Dendera, Edfu, &amp;c.), which teem with good religious
+material. Nor can any attempt here be made to summarize
+the remaining native Egyptian sources, literary and archaeological,
+that deserve notice.</p>
+
+<p>(h) Among the classical writers, Plutarch in his treatise
+<i>Concerning Isis and Osiris</i> is the most important. Diodorus also
+is useful. Herodotus, owing to his religious awe and dread of
+divulging sacred mysteries, is only a second-rate source.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>The Gods.</i>&mdash;The end of the pre-dynastic period, in which
+we dimly descry a number of independent tribes in constant
+warfare with one another, was marked by the rise of a united
+Egyptian state with a single Pharaonic ruler at its head. The
+era of peace thus inaugurated brought with it a rapid progress
+in all branches of civilization; and there soon emerged not only
+a national art and a condition of material prosperity shared by
+the entire land in common, but also a state religion, which
+gathered up the ancient tribal cults and floating cosmical
+conceptions, and combining them as best it could, imposed
+them on the people as a whole. By the time that the Pyramid
+texts were put into writing, doubtless long before the Vth
+Dynasty, this religion had assumed a stereotyped appearance
+that clung to it for ever afterwards. But the multitude of the
+deities and the variety of the myths that it strove to incorporate
+prevented the development of a uniform theological system,
+and the heterogeneous origin of the religion remained irretrievably
+stamped upon its face. Written records were few at the time
+when the pantheon was built up, so that the process of construction
+cannot be followed historically from stage to stage; but
+it is possible by arguing backwards from the later facts to discern
+the main tendencies at work, and the principal elementary cults
+that served as the materials.</p>
+
+<p>The gods of the pre-dynastic period may be divided into two
+chief groups, the tribal or local divinities and the cosmic or
+explanatory deities. At the beginning each tribe had
+its own particular god, who in essence was nothing
+<span class="sidenote">Classification of pre-dynastic gods.</span>
+but the articulate expression of the inner cohesion and
+of the outward independence of the tribe itself, but
+who outwardly manifested himself in the form of some
+animal or took up his abode in some fetish of wood or stone.
+In times of peace this visible emblem of the god&rsquo;s presence
+was housed in a rude shrine, but in war-time it was taken thence
+and carried into the battlefield on a standard. We find such
+divine standards <img style="width:22px; height:23px" src="images/img49a.jpg" alt="" /> often depicted on the earliest monuments,
+and among the symbols placed upon them may be detected the
+images of many deities destined to play an important part in the
+later national pantheon, such as the falcon Horus <img style="width:32px; height:39px" src="images/img49b.jpg" alt="" />, the wolf
+Wepwawet (Ophois) <img style="width:43px; height:41px" src="images/img49c.jpg" alt="" />, the goddess Neith <img style="width:30px; height:35px" src="images/img49d.jpg" alt="" />, symbolized
+by a shield transfixed with arrows, and the god Min <img style="width:38px; height:34px" src="images/img49e.jpg" alt="" />, the
+nature of whose fetish is obscure. In course of time the tribes
+became localized in particular districts, under the influence of a
+growing central authority, and their gods then passed from tribal
+into local deities. Hence it came about that the provincial
+districts or nomes, as they were called, often derived their names
+from the gods of tribes that settled in them, these names being
+hieroglyphically written with the sign for &ldquo;district&rdquo; surmounted
+by standards of the type above described, <i>e.g.</i> <img style="width:45px; height:41px" src="images/img49f.jpg" alt="" />, &ldquo;the nome
+of the dog Anubis,&rdquo; the 17th or Cynopolite nome of Upper
+Egypt. In this way a large number of deities came to enjoy
+special reverence in restricted territories, <i>e.g.</i> the ram <img style="width:40px; height:27px" src="images/img49g.jpg" alt="" />
+Khnum in Elephantine, the jerboa or okapi (?) <img style="width:41px; height:41px" src="images/img49h.jpg" alt="" /> Seth in
+Ombos, the ibis <img style="width:41px; height:39px" src="images/img49i.jpg" alt="" /> Thoth in Hermopolis Magna, and of the
+gods named above, Horus in Hieraconpolis, Wepwawet in Assiut,
+Neith in Sais, and Min in Coptos. As towns and villages gradually
+sprang up, they too adopted as their patron some one or
+other of the original tribal gods, so that these came to have
+different seats of worship all over Egypt. For this reason it is
+often hard to tell where the primitive cult-centre of a particular
+deity is to be sought; thus Horus seems equally at home both
+at Buto in the Delta and at Hieraconpolis in Upper Egypt,
+and the earliest worship of Seth appears to have been claimed
+no less by Tanis in the north than by Ombos in the south. The
+effect of the localization of gods in many different places was to
+give them a double aspect; so, for instance, Khnum the god of
+Elephantine could in one minute be regarded as identical with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" id="page50"></a>50</span>
+Khnum the god of Esna, while in the next minute and without
+any conscious sense of contradiction the two might be looked
+upon as entirely separate beings. In order that there might be
+no ambiguity as to what divinity was meant, it became usual,
+in speaking of any local deity, to specify the place of which he
+was &ldquo;lord.&rdquo; The tendency to create new forms of a god by
+instituting his worship in new local centres persisted throughout
+the whole course of Egyptian history, unhindered by the
+opposite tendency which made national out of local gods. Some
+of the cosmic gods, like the sun-god Re of Heliopolis and of
+Hermonthis, early acquired a local in addition to their cosmic
+aspect.</p>
+
+<p>In the innermost principle of their existence, as patrons and
+protectors of restricted communities, the primitive tribal gods
+did not differ from one another. But externally they were distinguishable
+by the various shapes that their worshippers ascribed
+to them; and there can be little doubt that even in the beginning
+each had his own special attributes and particular mythical
+traits. These, however, may have borne little resemblance to
+the later conceptions of the same gods with which we are made
+familiar by the Pyramid texts. Thus we have no means of
+ascertaining what the earliest people of Sais thought about their
+goddess Neith, though her fetish would seem to point to her
+warlike nature. Nor are we much wiser in respect of those
+primitive tribal gods that are represented on the oldest monuments
+in animal form. For though we may be sure that the shape
+of an animal was that in which these gods were literally visible
+to their worshippers, yet it is impossible to tell whether some
+one living animal was chosen to be the earthly tenement of the
+deity, or whether he revealed himself in every individual of a
+species, or whether merely the cult-image was roughly hewn into
+the shape of an animal. Not too much weight must be attached
+to later evidence on this point; for the New Kingdom and still
+more the Graeco-Roman period witnessed a strange recrudescence
+of supposed primitive cults, to which they gave a form that may
+or may not have been historically exact. In some places whole
+classes of animals came to be deemed sacred. Thus at Bubastis,
+where the cat-headed Bast (Ubasti) was worshipped, vast cemeteries
+of mummified cats have been found; and elsewhere
+similar funerary cults were accorded to crocodiles, lizards, ibises
+and many other animals. In Elephantine Khnum was supposed
+to become incarnate in a ram, at whose death the divinity left
+him and took up his abode in another. So too the bull of Apis
+(a black animal with white spots) was during its lifetime regarded
+as a reincarnation of Ptah, the local god of Memphis, and similarly
+the Mnevis and Bacis bulls were accounted to be &ldquo;the living
+souls&rdquo; of Etom of Heliopolis and of Re of Hermonthis respectively;
+these latter cults are certainly secondary, for Ptah
+himself was never, either early or late, depicted otherwise than
+in human form, as a mummy or as a dwarf; and Etom and Re
+are but different names of the sun-god. The form of a snake,
+attributed to many local goddesses, especially in later times
+(<i>e.g.</i> Meresger of the Theban necropolis), was borrowed from
+the very ancient deity Outo (Buto); the semblance of a snake
+became so characteristic of female divinities that even the
+word &ldquo;goddess&rdquo; was written with the hieroglyph of a snake.
+Other animal shapes particularly affected by goddesses were
+those of a lioness (Sakhmi, Pakhe) or a cow (Hathor, Isis). The
+primitive animal gods are not to be confused with the animal
+forms ascribed to many cosmic deities; thus when the sun-god
+Re was pictured as a scarabaeus, or dung-beetle, rolling its ball
+of dung behind it, this was certainly mere poetical imagery.
+Or else a cosmic god might assume an animal shape through
+assimilation with some tribal god, as when Re was identified
+with Horus and therefore depicted as a falcon.</p>
+
+<p>With the advance of civilization and the transformation of the
+tribal gods into national divinities, the beliefs held about them
+must have become less crude. At a very early date the anthropomorphizing
+tendency caused the animal deities to be represented
+with human bodies, though as a rule they retained their animal
+heads; so in the case of Seth as early as the IInd Dynasty.
+The other gods carry their primitive fetishes in their hands (like
+Neith, who is depicted holding arrows) or on their heads (so
+Nefertem [Iphthimis] with his lotus-flower). At the same time
+the gods began to acquire human personalities. In a few
+instances this may have come about by the emphasizing of a
+really primitive trait; as when the wolf Ophois, in consonance
+with the predatory nature of that animal, developed into a
+god of war. In other cases the transitional steps are shrouded
+in mystery; we do not know, for example, why the ibis Thoth
+subsequently became the patron of the fine arts, the inventor
+of writing, and the scribe of the gods. But the main factor in
+this evolutionary process was undoubtedly the formation of
+myths, which brought gods of independent origin into relation
+with one another, and thus imbued them with human passions
+and virtues. Here dim historic recollections often determined
+the features of the story, and in one famous legend that knits
+together a group of gods all seemingly local in origin we can
+still faintly trace how the tale arose, was added to, and finally
+crystallized in a coherent form.</p>
+
+<p>Osiris was a wise and beneficent king, who reclaimed the
+Egyptians from savagery, gave them laws and taught them handicrafts.
+The prosperous reign of Osiris was brought to a premature
+close by the machinations of his wicked brother Seth, who with
+seventy-two fellow-conspirators invited him to a banquet, induced
+him to enter a cunningly-wrought coffin made exactly to
+his measure, then shut down the lid and cast the chest into the
+Nile. Isis, the faithful wife of Osiris, set forth in search of her
+dead husband&rsquo;s body, and after long and adventure-fraught
+wanderings, succeeded in recovering it and bringing it back
+to Egypt. Then while she was absent visiting her son Horus
+in the city of Buto, Seth once more gained possession of the
+corpse, cut it into fourteen pieces, and scattered them all over
+Egypt. But Isis collected the fragments, and wherever one was
+found, buried it with due honour; or, according to a different
+account, she joined the limbs together by virtue of her magical
+powers, and the slain Osiris, thus resurrected, henceforth reigned
+as king of the dead in the nether world. When Horus grew
+up he set out to avenge his father&rsquo;s murder, and after terrible
+struggles finally conquered and dispossessed his wicked uncle;
+or, as another version relates, the combatants were separated by
+Thoth, and Egypt divided between them, the northern part
+falling to Horus and the southern to Seth. Such is the story
+as told by Plutarch, with certain additions and modifications
+from older native sources. There existed, however, a very ancient
+tradition according to which Horus and Seth were hostile brothers,
+not nephew and uncle; and many considerations may be urged
+in support of the thesis which regards their struggles as reminiscences
+of wars between two prominent tribes or confederations
+of tribes, one of which worshipped the falcon Horus while the
+other had the okapi (?) Seth as its patron and champion. The
+Horus-tribes were the victors, and it was from them that the
+dynastic line sprang; hence the Pharaoh always bore the name
+of Horus, and represented in his own hallowed person the ancient
+tribal deity. Of Osiris we can only state that he was originally
+the local god of Busiris, whatever further characteristics he
+primitively possessed being quite obscure. Isis was perhaps the
+local goddess of Buto, a town not far distant from Busiris;
+this geographical proximity would suffice to explain her connexion
+with Osiris in the tale. A legend now arose, we know
+not how or why, which made Seth the brother and murderer of
+Osiris; and this led to a fusion of the Horus-Seth and the Seth-Isis-Osiris
+<i>motifs</i>. The relationships had now to be readjusted,
+and the most popular view recognized Horus as the son and
+avenger of Osiris. The more ancient account survived, however,
+in the myth that Osiris, Horus, Seth, Isis and Nephthys (a
+goddess who plays but a minor part in the Osiris cycle) were all
+children of the earth-god Keb and the sky-goddess Nut, born on
+the five consecutive days added on at the end of the year (the
+so-called epagomenal days). Later generations reconciled these
+contradictions by assuming the existence of two Horuses, one,
+the brother of Osiris, Seth and Isis, being named Haroeris, <i>i.e.</i>
+Horus the elder, while the other, the child of Isis and Osiris, was
+called Harpocrates, <i>i.e.</i> Horus the child.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page51" id="page51"></a>51</span></p>
+
+<p>The second main class of divinities that entered into the
+composition of the Egyptian pantheon was due to that innate
+and universal speculative bent which seeks, and never
+fails to find, an explanation of the facts of the external
+<span class="sidenote">Cosmic deities.</span>
+world. Behind the great natural phenomena that they
+perceived all around them, the Egyptians, like other primitive
+folk, postulated the existence of divine wills not dissimilar
+in kind to their own, though vastly superior in power. Chief
+among these cosmic deities was the sun-god Re, whose supremacy
+seemed predestined under the cloudless sky of Egypt. The
+oldest conceptions represented Re as sailing across the heavens
+in a ship called &ldquo;Manzet,&rdquo; &ldquo;the bark of the dawn&rdquo;; at sunset
+he stepped aboard another vessel named &ldquo;Mesenktet,&rdquo; &ldquo;the
+bark of the dusk,&rdquo; which bore him back from west to east
+during the night. Later theories symbolized Re in many
+different ways. For some he was identical with Horus, and then
+he was falcon-headed and was called Hor-akhti, the Horus of
+the horizons. Others pictured him to themselves as a tiny
+infant in the early dawn, as full-grown at noon, and as an infirm
+old man in the evening. When the sky was imagined as a cow,
+he was a calf born anew every morning. The moon was a male
+deity, who likewise fared across the heavens in a boat; hence
+he was often named Chons, &ldquo;the sailor.&rdquo; The ibis-god Thoth
+was early identified with the moon. The stars and planets
+were likewise gods. Among them the bright star Sirius was
+held in special esteem; it was a goddess Sothis (Sopde), often
+identified by the Egyptians with Isis. The constellations that
+seemed unceasingly to speed across the sky were named &ldquo;the
+never-resting ones,&rdquo; and the circumpolar stars, which never
+sink beneath the horizon, were known as &ldquo;the imperishables.&rdquo;
+Concerning earth and sky there were many different opinions.
+Some thought that the sky was a goddess Nut, whom the god
+Show held aloof from her husband Keb the earth, on whose back
+the plants and trees grew. Others believed in a celestial ocean,
+personified under the name of Nun, over which the heavenly
+bodies sailed in boats. At a later date the sky was held to be a
+cow (Hathor) whose four feet stood firm upon the soil; or else
+a vast face, in which the right eye was the sun and the left eye
+the moon. Alongside these fanciful conceptions there existed
+a more sober view, according to which the earth was a long
+oval plain, and the sky an iron roof supported by the tops of
+mountains or by four pillars <img style="width:46px; height:40px" src="images/img51.jpg" alt="" /> at the cardinal points.
+Beneath the ground lay a dark and mysterious region, now conceived
+as an inverse heaven (Nenet), now as a vast series of
+caverns whose gates were guarded by demons. This nether
+world was known as the Duat (Dat, Têi), and through it passed
+the sun on his journey during the hours of night; here too, as
+many thought, dwelt the dead and their king Osiris. That great
+natural feature of Egypt, the Nile, was of course one of the gods;
+his name was Hapi, and as a sign of his fecundity he had long
+pendulous breasts like a woman. In contradistinction to the
+tribal gods, it rarely happened that the cosmic deities enjoyed
+a cult. But there are a few important exceptions: Re in
+Heliopolis (here identified with a local god Etom) and in Hermonthis;
+Hathor at Dendera and elsewhere. Certain of the
+tribal gods early became identified with cosmic divinities, and
+the latter thus became the objects of a cult; so, for instance,
+the Horus of Edfu was a sun-god, and Thoth in Hermopolis
+Magna was held to be the moon.</p>
+
+<p>An extension of the principle that created the cosmic gods
+gave rise to a large number of minor deities and demons. Day
+and night, the year, the seasons, eternity, and many
+similar conceptions were each represented by a god
+<span class="sidenote">Minor deities and demons.</span>
+or goddess of their own, who nevertheless possessed
+but a shadowy and doubtful existence. Human
+attributes like Taste, Knowledge, Joy and so forth were likewise
+personified, no less than abstract ideas such as Fate, Destiny
+and others; rather more clearly defined than the rest was Maat,
+the goddess of Truth and Right, who was fabled to be the daughter
+of Re and may even have had a cult. Certain gods were purely
+functional, that is to say, they appeared at special times to
+perform some appointed task, at the completion of which they
+vanished. Such were Nepri, the god of the corn-harvest;
+Meskhonit, the goddess who attended every child-bed; Tait, the
+goddess of weaving. Numberless semi-divine beings had no
+other purpose than to fill out the myths, as, for instance, the
+chattering apes that greeted the sun-god Re as he rose above
+the eastern horizon, and the demons who opened the gates of
+the nether world at the approach of the setting sun.</p>
+
+<p>We take this opportunity of mentioning sundry other divinities
+who were later introduced to swell the already overcrowded
+ranks of the pantheon. Contact with foreign lands
+brought with it several new deities, Baal, Anat and
+<span class="sidenote">Foreign deities.</span>
+Resheph from Syria, and the misshapen dwarf Bes
+from the south; earlier than these, the Astarte of Byblus,
+whom the Egyptians identified with Hathor. In Thebes Amenophis
+I. and his spouse Nefertari were worshipped as patron gods
+of the necropolis many centuries after their death. Two men of
+exceptional wisdom received divine honours, and had temples
+of their own in the Ptolemaic period; these were Imouthes,
+who had lived under Zoser of the IIIrd Dynasty, and Amenophis
+son of Hapu, a contemporary of the third king of the same name
+(XVIIIth Dyn.). The hill of Sheikh Abd-el-gurna at Thebes
+was looked upon as a particularly holy place, and was revered
+as a goddess. Almost anything that was regarded with awe,
+any object used in the divine ritual could at a given moment
+be envisaged as a deity. Thus the boat of Osiris (Neshemet)
+and those of the sun-god were goddesses; and various wands
+and sceptres belonging to certain gods were imagined as harbouring
+the divine being. Truly it might have been said in ancient
+Egypt: of the making of gods there is no end!</p>
+
+<p>For such order as can be discerned in the mythological conceptions
+of the Egyptians the priesthood was largely responsible.
+At a very early date the theological school of Heliopolis
+undertook the task of systematizing the gods and the
+<span class="sidenote">Theological combinations.</span>
+myths, and it is mainly to them that is due the Egyptian
+religion as we find it in the Pyramid texts. Their influence
+is particularly conspicuous in the prominent place accorded
+to the sun-god Re, and in the creation-legend that made him the
+father of gods and men. First of all living things was Re;
+legend told how he arose as a naked babe from a lotus-flower
+that floated on the primeval ocean Nun. Others held the view
+that he crept from an egg that lay on a hill in the midst of a lake
+called Desdes; and a third, more barbarous, tale related his
+obscene act of self-procreation. Re became the father of the
+pair of gods Show and Tefnut (Tphenis), who emanated from
+his spittle. They again gave birth to Keb and Nut, from whom
+in their turn sprang Osiris and Seth, Isis and Nephthys. These
+nine gods were together known as the great Ennead or cycle of
+nine. A second series of nine deities, with Horus as its first
+member, was invented at the same time or not long afterwards,
+and was called the Lesser Ennead. In later times the theory of
+the Ennead became very popular and was adopted by most of
+the local priesthoods, who substituted their own favourite god
+for Re, sometimes retaining and sometimes changing the names
+of the other eight deities. Thus locally many different gods
+came to be viewed as the creators of the world. Only in two
+instances, however, did a local god ever obtain wide acceptance
+in the capacity of demiurge: Ptah of Memphis, who was famed
+as an artist and master-builder, and Khnum of Elephantine,
+who was said to have moulded mankind on the potter&rsquo;s wheel.</p>
+
+<p>Already in the Pyramid texts the importance of Osiris almost
+rivals that of Re. His worship does not seem to have been due
+to Heliopolitan influence, and may possibly have been propagated
+by active missionary effort. It is apparently through the funeral
+cult that Osiris so early took a firm hold on the imagination of
+the people; for at a very ancient date he was identified with
+every dead king, and it needed but a slight extension of this idea
+to make him into a king of the dead. In later times the moral
+aspect of his tale was doubtless the main cause of its continued
+popularity; Osiris was named Onnophris, &ldquo;the good Being&rdquo;
+<i>par excellence</i>, and Seth was contrasted with him as the author
+and the root of all evil. Still the Egyptians themselves seem
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page52" id="page52"></a>52</span>
+to have been somewhat at a loss to account for the great veneration
+that they paid to Osiris. Successive theories interpreted
+him as the god of the earth, as the god of the Nile, as a god of
+vegetation, as a moon-god and as a sun-god; and nearly every
+one of these theories has been claimed to be the primitive truth
+by some scholar or another.</p>
+
+<p>Nowhere is the conservatism of the Egyptians more clearly
+displayed than in the tenacity with which they clung to the
+old forms of the theology, such as we have essayed to describe.
+Neither the influx of new deities nor the diligence of the priestly
+authors and commentators availed to break down the cast-iron
+traditions with which the compilers of the Pyramid texts were
+already familiar. It is true that with the displacement of the
+capital town certain local deities attained a degree of power
+that, superficially regarded, seems to alter the entire perspective
+of the religion. Thus Ammon, originally the obscure local god
+of Thebes, was raised by the Theban monarchs of the XIIth
+and of the XVIIIth to XXIst Dynasties to a predominant
+position never equalled by any other divinity; and, by similar
+means, Suchos of the Fayum, Ubasti of Bubastis, and Neith of
+Sais, each enjoyed for a short space of time a consideration that
+no other cause would have secured to them. But precisely the
+example of Ammon proves the hopelessness of any attempt to
+change the time-honoured religious creed; his priests identified
+him with the sun-god Re, whose cult-centre was thus merely
+transferred a few hundred miles to the South. Nor could even
+the violent religious revolution of Akhenaton (Amenophis IV.),
+of which we shall later have occasion to speak, sweep away for
+ever beliefs that had persisted for so many generations.</p>
+
+<p>But if the facts of the religion, broadly viewed, never underwent
+a change, the interpretation of those facts did so in no
+small degree. The religious books were for the most part written
+in archaic language, which was only imperfectly understood by
+the priests of later times; and hence great scope was given to
+them to exercise their ingenuity as commentators. By the time
+of the XVIIIth Dynasty some early chapters of the Book of
+the Dead had been provided with a triple commentary. Unfortunately
+the methods pursued were as little reasonable as
+those adopted by the medieval Jewish Rabbis; instead of the
+context being studied as a whole, with a view to the recovery of
+its literal sense, each single verse was considered separately,
+and explained as an allusion to some obscure myth or as embodying
+some mystical meaning. Thus so far from simplifying or
+really elucidating the religion, these priestly labours tended rather
+to confuse one legend with another and to efface the personality
+of individual gods. The ease with which one god could be
+identified with another is perhaps the most striking characteristic
+of later Egyptian theology. There are but few of the greater
+deities who were not at some time or another identified with the
+solar god Re. His fusion with Horus and Etom has already been
+noted; further we find an Ammon-Re, a Sobk-Re, a Khnum-Re;
+and Month, Onouris, Show and Osiris are all described as possessing
+the attributes of the sun. Ptah was early assimilated to
+the sepulchral gods Sokaris and Osiris. Pairs of deities whose
+personalities are often blended or interchanged are Hathor and
+Nut, Sakhmi and Pakhe, Seth and Apophis. So too in Abydos,
+his later home, Osiris was identified with Khante-Amentiu
+(Khentamenti, Khentamenthes), &ldquo;the chief of those who are
+in the West,&rdquo; a name that was given to a vaguely-conceived but
+widely-venerated divinity ruler of the dead. Many factors helped
+in the process of assimilation. The unity of the state was largely
+influential in bringing about the suppression of local differences
+of belief. The less important priesthoods were glad to enhance
+the reputation of the deity they served by identifying him
+with some more important god. And the mystical bent of the
+Egyptians found satisfaction in the multiplicity of forms that
+their gods could assume; among the favourite epithets which
+the hymns apply to divinities are such as &ldquo;mysterious of shapes,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;multiple of faces.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The goal towards which these tendencies verged was monotheism;
+and though this goal was only once, and then quite
+ephemerally, reached, still the monotheistic idea was at most
+periods, so to speak, in the air. Sometimes the qualities common
+to all the gods were abstracted, and the resultant notion
+<span class="sidenote">Monotheistic tendency.</span>
+spoken of as &ldquo;the god.&rdquo; At other times, and especially
+in the hymns addressed to some divinity, all other
+gods were momentarily forgotten, and he was eulogized
+as &ldquo;the only one,&rdquo; &ldquo;the supreme,&rdquo; and so forth.
+Or else several of the chief deities were consciously combined
+and regarded as different emanations or aspects of a Sole Being;
+thus a Ramesside hymn begins with the words &ldquo;Three are all
+the gods, Ammon, Re and Ptah,&rdquo; and then it is shown how these
+three gods, each in his own particular way, gave expression and
+effect to a single divine purpose.</p>
+
+<p>For a brief period at the end of the XVIIIth Dynasty a real
+monotheism, as exclusive as that of Judaism or of Islam, was
+adopted as the state religion of Egypt. The young
+Pharaoh Amenophis IV. seems to have been fired by
+<span class="sidenote">Akhenaton.</span>
+genuine fanatical enthusiasm, though political motives,
+as well as doctrinal considerations, may have prompted him in
+the planning of his religious revolution (see also § History).
+The Theban god Ammon-Re was then supreme, and the ever-growing
+power of his priesthood may well have inflamed the
+jealousy of their Heliopolitan rivals. Amenophis began his reign
+in Thebes as an adherent of the traditional faith, but after a
+few years he abandoned that town and built a new capital for
+his god Aton 200 m. farther north, at a place now called El
+Amarna. The new deity was a personification of the sun&rsquo;s disk.
+The name Re was suppressed, as too intimately associated with
+that of Ammon; and Ammon, together with all the other gods,
+was put to the ban. Amenophis even changed his own name,
+of which the name of Ammon formed an element, to Akhenaton,
+&ldquo;the brilliancy of the Aton,&rdquo; and the capital was called Khitaton,
+&ldquo;The Horizon of the Aton.&rdquo; The new dogmas were known as
+&ldquo;the Teaching,&rdquo; and their tenets, as revealed in the poems
+composed in honour of the Aton, breathe the purest and most
+exalted monotheistic spirit. The movement had, no doubt, met
+with serious opposition from the very start, and the reaction soon
+set in. The immediate successors of Akhenaton strove to follow
+in his footsteps, but the conservative nature of Egypt quickly
+asserted itself. Not sixty years after the accession of Akhenaton,
+his city was abandoned, its rulers branded as heretics, and the
+old religion restored in Thebes as completely as if the Aton had
+never existed.</p>
+
+<p>Having thus failed to become rational, Egyptian theology
+took refuge in learning. The need for a more spiritual and intellectual
+interpretation of the pantheon still remained, and gave
+rise to a number of theological sciences. The names of the gods
+and the places of their worship were catalogued and classified,
+and manuals were devoted to the topography of mythological
+regions. Much ingenuity was expended on the development of a
+history of the gods, the groundwork of which had been laid in
+much earlier times. Re was not only the creator of the world,
+but he was also the first king of Egypt. He was followed on the
+throne by the other eight members of his Ennead, then by the
+lesser Ennead and by other gods, and finally by the so-called
+&ldquo;worshippers of Horus.&rdquo; The latter were not wholly mythical
+personages, though they were regarded as demigods (Manetho
+calls them &ldquo;the dead,&rdquo; <span class="grk" title="nekues">&#957;&#941;&#954;&#965;&#949;&#962;</span>); they have been shown to be
+none other than the dim rulers of the predynastic age. The
+Pharaohs of the historic period were thus divine, not only by
+virtue of their connexion with Horus (see above), but also as
+descendants of Re; and the king of Egypt was called &ldquo;the
+good god&rdquo; during his lifetime, and &ldquo;the great god&rdquo; after his
+death. The later religious literature is much taken up with the
+mythical and semi-mythical dynasties of kings, and the priests
+compiled, with many newly-invented details, the chronicles of
+the wars they were supposed to have waged.</p>
+
+<p>In a similar manner, the ethical and allegorical methods of
+interpretation came into much greater prominence towards the
+end of the New Kingdom. The Osirian legend, as we have
+already seen, was early accepted as symbolizing the conflict
+between good and evil. So too the victories of Re over the serpent
+named Apophis were more or less clearly understood as a simile of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page53" id="page53"></a>53</span>
+the antithetical nature of light and darkness. In one text at least
+as ancient as the XVIIIth Dynasty (the copy that we have dates
+<span class="sidenote">Later developments.</span>
+only from the Ethiopian period) an ingenious attempt
+is made to represent Ptah as the source of all life:
+from him, it is said, emanated Horus as &ldquo;heart&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;mind&rdquo; and Thoth as &ldquo;tongue,&rdquo; and through the
+conjoint action of these two, the mind conceiving the design
+and the tongue uttering the creative command, all gods and
+men and beasts obtained their being. Of this kind of speculation
+much more must have existed than has reached us. It is
+doubtless such explanations as these that the Greeks had in
+view when they praised the wisdom of the ancient Egyptians;
+and in the classical period similar semi-philosophical interpretations
+altogether supplanted, among the learned at least, the naive
+literal beliefs of earlier times. Plutarch in his treatise on Isis
+and Osiris well exemplifies this standpoint: for him every god
+and every rite is symbolic of some natural or moral truth.</p>
+
+<p>The final stages of the Egyptian religion are marked by a
+renewed popularity of all its more barbarous elements. Despairing,
+as it would seem, of discovering the higher wisdom that the
+more philosophic of the priests supposed that religion to conceal,
+the simpler-minded sought to work out their own salvation by
+restoring the worship of the gods to its most primitive forms.
+Hence came the fanatical revival of animal-worship which led
+to feud and bloodshed between neighbouring towns&mdash;a feature of
+Egyptian religion that at once amused and scandalized contemporary
+Greek and Latin authors (Plut. De Iside, 72; Juv. xv.
+33). Nevertheless Egyptian cults, and particularly those of
+Serapis and Isis, found welcome acceptance on European soil;
+and the shrines of Egyptian deities were established in all the
+great cities of the Roman Empire. Serapis was a god imported
+by the first Ptolemy from Sinope on the Black Sea, who soon lost
+his own identity by assimilation with Osiris-Apis, the bull revered
+in Memphis. Far down into the Roman age the worship of Serapis
+persisted and flourished, and it was only when the Serapeum of
+Alexandria was razed to the ground by order of Theodosius the
+Great (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 391) that the death-blow of the old Egyptian religion
+was struck.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Notes are here added on some divinities who have received inadequate
+or no attention in the preceding pages. For information
+as to Ammon, Anubis, Apis, Bes, Bubastis, Buto, Isis and Thoth,
+reference must be made to the special articles on these gods.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Arsaphes</span>, in Egyptian <i>Harshafe</i>, &ldquo;he who is upon his lake,&rdquo; the
+ram-headed god of Heracleopolis Magna, gained an ephemeral
+importance during the IXth Dynasty, which arose from his town.
+Outwardly, he resembles Khnum. Little is known about him, and
+he is seldom mentioned. The burial-place of his priests in later
+times was in 1904 discovered at Abusir el Meleq.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Chons</span>, &ldquo;he who travels by boat,&rdquo; perhaps originally a mere
+epithet of the moon-god Ioh or Thoth, is chiefly familiar as the third
+member of the Theban triad. As such he is represented as a youthful
+god, wearing a skull-cap surmounted by the moon. His cult was
+revived and became popular in Ptolemaic times. A curious story
+about the sending of his statue to Mesopotamia to heal a daughter
+of the king of Bakhtan is related upon a stele that purports to date
+from the Ramesside period: it has been proved to be a pious fraud
+invented by the priests not earlier than the Greek period.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Hathor</span>, whose name means &ldquo;house of Horus,&rdquo; was at all times
+a very important deity. She is depicted as a cow, or with a broad
+human countenance, the cow&rsquo;s ears just showing from under a
+massive wig. Probably at first a goddess of the sky, she is early
+mentioned in connexion with Re. Later she was often identified
+with Isis, and her name was used to designate foreign goddesses
+like those of Puoni and Byblus. Unlike most cosmic deities, she
+was worshipped in many localities, chief among which was Dendera,
+where her magnificent temple, of Ptolemaic date, still stands. &ldquo;The
+seven Hathors&rdquo; is a name given to certain fairies, who appeared
+shortly after the birth of an infant, and predicted his future.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Khnum</span> or <span class="sc">Khnoum</span>, a ram-headed god, whose principal place of
+worship was the island of Elephantine (there associated with Satis
+and Anukis), but also revered elsewhere, <i>e.g.</i> together with Nebtu
+in Esna. He enjoyed great repute as a creator, and was supposed
+to use the potter&rsquo;s wheel for the purpose. In this capacity he is
+sometimes accompanied by the frog-headed goddess Heket.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Month</span>, a hawk-headed god of the Thebaid: in Thebes itself his
+cult was superseded by that of Ammon, but it persisted in Hermonthis.
+He was often given the solar attributes, and was credited
+as a great warrior.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Min</span>, the god of Coptos and Panopolis (Akhmim), seems to have
+been early looked upon as a deity of the harvest and crops. His
+cult dates from the earliest times. Represented as ithyphallic, with
+two tall plumes on his head, the right arm upraised and bearing a
+scourge. In old times he is identified with Horus: later Ammon
+was confused with him, and depicted in his image.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Nechbet</span> (Nekhbi, Nekhebi), the vulture-goddess of El Kab,
+called Eileithyia by the Greeks. She gained an ascendancy as
+patroness of the south at the time when the two kingdoms were
+striving for the mastery. It is as such, in opposition to Buto the
+goddess of the north, that she is most often named on the monuments.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Neith</span>, the very ancient and important goddess of Sais, the Greek
+Athene. On the earliest monuments she is represented by a shield
+transfixed by arrows. Later she wears the crown of Lower Egypt,
+and carries in her hands a bow and arrows, a sign of her warlike
+character. In the XXVIth Dynasty, when a line of Pharaohs sprang
+from Sais, she regained a prominent position, and was given many
+cosmogonic attributes, including the title of mother of Re.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Nephthys</span>, the sister of Osiris and wife of Seth, daughter of Keb
+and Nut, plays a considerable rôle in the Osiris story. She sided
+with Isis and aided her to bring Osiris back to life. Isis and Nephthys
+are often mentioned together as protectresses of the dead.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Onouris</span>, Egyptian <i>En-h&#363;ri</i>, &ldquo;sky-bearer,&rdquo; the god of Thinis.
+Later identified with Shu (Show), who holds heaven and earth apart.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Ptah</span>, the Hephaestus of the Greeks, a demiurgic and creative
+god, special patron of hand-workers and artisans. Worshipped in
+Memphis, he perhaps owed his importance more to the political
+prominence of that town than to anything else. He was early
+identified with an ancient but obscure god Tenen, and further with
+the sepulchral deity Sokaris. He is represented either as a closely
+enshrouded figure whose protruding hands grasp a composite sceptre,
+the whole standing on a pedestal within a shrine; or else as a
+misshapen dwarf.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Sakhmi</span>, a lion-headed goddess of war and strife, whose name
+signifies the mighty. She was worshipped at Latopolis (Esna), but
+also at a late date as a member of the Memphite triad, with Ptah
+as husband and Nefertem (Iphthimis) as son: often, too, confounded
+with Ubasti.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Seth</span> (Egyptian S&#275;t, St&#7723; or St&#353;), by the Greeks called Typhon,
+was depicted as an animal <img style="width:39px; height:41px" src="images/img53a.jpg" alt="" /> that has been compared with the
+jerboa by some, and with the okapi by others, but which the
+Egyptians themselves occasionally conceived to be nothing but a
+badly drawn ass. In historic times his cult was celebrated at Tanis
+and Ombos. He regained a certain prestige as god of the Hyksos
+rulers, and two Pharaohs of the XIXth Dynasty derived their name
+Sethos (Seti) from him.  But, generally speaking, he was abominated
+as a power of evil, and his figure was often obliterated on the monuments.
+He is named in similes as a great warrior, and as such and
+&ldquo;son of Nut&rdquo; he is identified with the Syrian Baal.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>4. <i>The Divine Cult.</i>&mdash;In the midst of every town rose the
+temple of the local god, a stately building of stone, strongly
+contrasting with the mud and plaster houses in which even the
+wealthiest Egyptians dwelt. It was called the &ldquo;house of the god&rdquo;
+<img style="width:99px; height:39px" src="images/img53b.jpg" alt="" />, and in it the deity was supposed to reside, attended
+by his &ldquo;servants&rdquo; <img style="width:54px; height:39px" src="images/img53c.jpg" alt="" /> the priests. There was indeed a certain
+justification for this contention, even when a contrary theory
+assigned to the divinity a place in the sky, as in the case of the
+lunar divinity Thoth; for in the inmost sanctuary stood a statue
+of the god, which served as his representative for the purposes
+of the cult. Originally each temple was dedicated to one god
+only; but it early became usual to associate with him a mate of
+the opposite sex, besides a third deity who might be represented
+either as a second wife or as a child. As examples of such triads,
+as they are called, may be mentioned that of Thebes, consisting
+of Ammon, Mut and Chons, father, mother and child; and as
+typical of the other kind, where a god was accompanied by two
+goddesses, that of Elephantine, consisting of Khnum, Satis and
+Anukis. The needs of the god were much the same as those
+of mortals; no more than they could he dispense with food and
+drink, clothes for his apparel, ointment for his limbs, and music
+and dancing to rejoice his heart. The only difference was that
+the divine statue was half-consciously recognized as a lifeless
+thing that required carefully regulated rites and ceremonies to
+enable it to enjoy the good things offered to it. Early every
+morning the officiating priest proceeded to the holy of holies,
+after the preliminaries of purification had cleansed him from
+any miasma that might interfere with the efficacy of the rites.
+Then with the prescribed gestures, and reciting appropriate
+formulae all the while, he broke the seal upon the door of the
+shrine, loosed the bolts, and at last stood face to face with the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page54" id="page54"></a>54</span>
+god. There followed a series of prostrations and adorations,
+culminating in the offering of a small image of Maat, the goddess
+of Truth. This seems to have been the psychological moment
+of the entire service: hitherto the statue had been at best a
+god in <i>posse</i>; now the symbolical act placed him in possession
+of all his faculties, he was a god in truth, and could participate
+like any mortal in the food and luxuries that his servants put
+before him. The daily ceremony closed with ablutions, anointings
+and a bountiful feast of bread, geese, beer and oxen; having
+taken his fill of these, the god returned to his shrine until the
+next morning, when the ritual was renewed. The words that
+accompanied the manual gestures are, in the rituals that have
+come down to us, wholly dominated by the myth of Osiris:
+it is often hard to discern much connexion between the acts and
+the formulae recited, but the main thought is clearly that the
+priest represents Horus, the pious son of the dead divinity
+Osiris. That this conception is very old is proved by the fact
+that even in the Pyramid texts &ldquo;the eye of Horus&rdquo; is a synonym
+for all offerings: an ancient tale of which only shreds have
+reached us related how Seth had torn the eye of Horus from
+him, though not before he himself had suffered a still more
+serious mutilation; and by some means, we know not how, the
+restoration of the eye was instrumental in bringing about the
+vindication of Osiris. As to the manual rites of the daily cult,
+all that can here be said is that incense, purifications and anointings
+with various oils played a large part; the sacrifices consisted
+chiefly of slaughtered oxen and geese; burnt offerings were a
+very late innovation.</p>
+
+<p>At an early date the rites practised in the various temples
+were conformed to a common pattern. This holds good not only
+for the daily ritual, but also for many festivals that were celebrated
+on the same day throughout the whole length of the land.
+Such were the calendrical feasts, called &ldquo;the beginnings of the
+seasons,&rdquo; and including, for example, the monthly and half-monthly
+festivals, that of the New Year and that of the rising
+of Sirius (Sothis). But there were also local feast days like that
+of Neith in Sais (Hdt. ii. 62) or that of Ammon in southern Opi
+(Luxor). These doubtless had a more individual character, and
+often celebrated some incident supposed to have occurred in the
+lifetime of the god. Sometimes, as in the case of the feast of
+Osiris in Abydos, a veritable drama would be enacted, in which
+the whole history of the god, his sufferings and final triumph
+were represented in mimic form. At other times the ceremonial
+was more mysterious and symbolical, as in the feast of the
+raising of the Ded-column <img style="width:19px; height:40px" src="images/img54a.jpg" alt="" /> when a column of the kind was
+drawn by cords into an upright position. But the most common
+feature of these holy days was the procession of the god, when he
+was carried on the shoulders of the priests in his divine boat far
+beyond the precincts of his temple; sometimes, indeed, even to
+another town, where he paid a visit to the god of the place.
+These occasions were public holidays, and passed amid great
+rejoicings. The climax was reached when at a given moment
+the curtains of the shrine placed on the boat were withdrawn,
+and the god was revealed to the eyes of the awe-struck multitude.
+Music and dancing formed part of the festival rites.</p>
+
+<p>As with the rites and ceremonies, so also the temples were
+early modelled upon a common type. Lofty enclosure walls,
+adorned with scenes from the victorious campaigns
+of the Pharaoh, shut off the sacred buildings from the
+<span class="sidenote">Temples.</span>
+surrounding streets. A small gateway between two massive
+towers or pylons gave admittance to a spacious forecourt open
+to the sky, into which the people were allowed to enter at least on
+feast days. Farther on, separated from the forecourt by smaller
+though still massive pylons, lay a hypostyle hall, so called from
+its covered colonnades; this hall was used for all kinds of
+processions. Behind the hypostyle hall, to which a second
+similar one might or might not be added, came the holy of holies,
+a dark narrow chamber where the god dwelt; none but the
+priests were admitted to it. All around lay the storehouses that
+contained the treasures of the god and the appurtenances of the
+divine ritual. The temples of the earliest times were of course
+far more primitive than this: from the pictures that are all that
+is now left to indicate their nature, they seem to have been little
+more than huts or sheds in which the image of the god was kept.
+One temple of a type different from that above described has
+survived at Abusir, where it has been excavated by German
+explorers. It was a splendid edifice dedicated to the sun-god
+Re by a king of the Vth Dynasty, and was probably a close
+copy of the famous temple of Heliopolis. The most conspicuous
+feature was a huge obelisk on a broad superstructure <img style="width:28px; height:38px" src="images/img54b.jpg" alt="" />: the
+obelisk always remained closely connected with the solar worship,
+and probably took the place of the innermost shrine and statue
+of other temples. The greater part of the sanctuary was left
+uncovered, as best befitted a dwelling-place of the sun. Outside
+its walls there was a huge brick model of the solar bark in which
+the god daily traversed the heavens.</p>
+
+<p>As the power of the Pharaohs increased, the maintenance of
+the cult became one of the most important affairs of state. The
+most illustrious monarchs prided themselves no less on the buildings
+they raised in honour of the gods than on the successful
+wars they waged: indeed the wars won a religious significance
+through the gradual elevation of the god of the capital to god
+of the nation, and a large part of the spoils was considered the
+rightful perquisite of the latter. Countless were the riches that
+the kings heaped upon the gods in the hope of being requited
+with long life and prosperity on the throne of the living. It
+became the theory that the temples were the gifts of the Pharaoh
+to his fathers the gods, and therefore in the scenes of the cult
+that adorn the inner walls it is always he who is depicted as
+performing the ceremonies. As a matter of fact the priesthoods
+<span class="sidenote">Power of the priests.</span>
+were much more independent than was allowed to
+appear. Successive grants of land placed no small
+portion of the entire country in their hands, and the
+administration of the temple estates gave employment
+to a large number of officials and serfs. In the New Kingdom
+the might of the Theban god Ammon gradually became a serious
+menace to the throne: in the reign of Rameses III. he could
+boast of more than 80,000 dependants, and more than 400,000
+cattle. It is not surprising that a few generations later the high
+priests of Ammon supplanted the Pharaohs altogether and
+founded a dynasty of their own.</p>
+
+<p>At no period did the priests form a caste that was quite
+distinctly separated from the laity. In early times the feudal
+lords were themselves the chief priests of the local temples.
+Under them stood a number of subordinate priests, both professional
+and lay. Among the former were the <i>kher-heb</i>, a
+learned man entrusted with the conduct of the ceremonies, and
+the &ldquo;divine fathers,&rdquo; whose functions are obscure. The lay
+priests were divided into four classes that undertook the management
+of the temple in alternate months; their collective name
+was the &ldquo;hour-priesthood.&rdquo; Perhaps it was to them that the
+often recurring title <i>oueb</i>, &ldquo;the pure,&rdquo; should properly be
+restricted, though strict rules as to personal purity, dress and
+diet were demanded of all priests. The personnel of the temple
+was completed by various subordinate officials, doorkeepers,
+attendants and slaves. In the New Kingdom the leading priests
+were more frequently mere clerics than theretofore, though for
+instance the high priest of Ammon was often at the same time
+the vizier of southern Egypt. In some places the highest priests
+bore special names, such as the <i>Ouer maa</i>, &ldquo;the Great Seer,&rdquo;
+of Re in Heliopolis, or the <i>Khorp himet</i>, &ldquo;chief artificer,&rdquo; of the
+Memphite Ptah. Women could also hold priestly rank, though
+apparently in early times only in the service of goddesses;
+&ldquo;priestess of Hathor&rdquo; is a frequent title of well-born ladies in
+the Old Kingdom. At a later date many wealthy dames held
+the office of &ldquo;musicians&rdquo; (<i>shemat</i>) in the various temples.
+In the service of the Theban Ammon two priestesses called &ldquo;the
+Adorer of the God&rdquo; and the &ldquo;Wife of the God&rdquo; occupied very
+influential positions, and towards the Saite period it was by no
+means unusual for the king to secure these offices for his daughters
+and so to strengthen his own royal title.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>The Dead and their Cult.</i>&mdash;While the worship of the gods
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page55" id="page55"></a>55</span>
+tended more and more to become a <span class="correction" title="amended from monoply">monopoly</span> of the state and
+the priests, and provided no adequate outlet for the religious
+cravings of the people themselves, this deficiency was amply
+supplied by the care which they bestowed upon their dead:
+the Egyptians stand alone among the nations of the world in
+the elaborate precautions which they took to secure their own
+welfare beyond the tomb. The belief in immortality, or perhaps
+rather the incapacity to grasp the notion of complete annihilation,
+is traceable from the very earliest times: the simplest graves
+of the prehistoric period, when the corpses were committed to the
+earth in sheepskins and reed mats, seldom lack at least a few
+poor vases or articles of toilet for use in the hereafter. In
+proportion as the prosperity of the land increased, and the
+advance of civilization afforded the technical means, so did
+these primitive burials give place to a more lavish funereal
+equipment. Tombs of brick with a single chamber were succeeded
+by tombs of stone with several chambers, until they really
+merited the name of &ldquo;houses of eternity&rdquo; that the Egyptians
+gave to them. The conception of the tomb as the residence of
+the dead is the fundamental notion that underlies all the ritual
+observances in connexion with the dead, just as the idea of the
+temple as the dwelling-place of the god is the basis of the divine
+cult. The parallelism between the attitude of the Egyptians
+towards the dead and their attitude towards the gods is so
+striking that it ought never to be lost sight of: nothing can
+illustrate it better than the manner in which the Osirian doctrines
+came to permeate both kinds of cult.</p>
+
+<p>The general scheme of Egyptian tombs remained the same
+throughout the whole of the dynastic period, though there were
+many variations of detail. By preference they were
+built in the Western desert, the Amente, near the
+<span class="sidenote">Tombs.</span>
+place where the sun was seen to go to rest, and which seemed
+the natural entrance to the nether world. A deep pit led down
+to the sepulchral chamber where the dead man was deposited
+amid the funereal furniture destined for his use; and no device
+was neglected that might enable him to rest here undisturbed.
+This aim is particularly conspicuous in the pyramids, the gigantic
+tombs which the Pharaohs of the Old Kingdom constructed for
+themselves: the passages that lead to the burial chamber were
+barred at intervals by vast granite blocks, and the narrow
+opening that gave access to them was hidden from view beneath
+the stone casing of the pyramid sides. Quite separate from
+this part of the tomb lay the rooms employed for the cult of
+the dead: their walls were often adorned with pictures from the
+earthly life of the deceased, which it was hoped he might still
+continue to enjoy after death. The innermost chamber was the
+chapel proper: on its western side was sculptured an imitation
+door for the dead man to pass through, when he wished to
+participate in the offerings brought by pious relatives. It was
+of course only the few who could afford elaborate tombs of the
+kind: the poor had to make shift with an unpretentious grave,
+in which the corpse was placed enveloped only by a few rags or
+enclosed in a rough wooden coffin.</p>
+
+<p>The utmost care was taken to preserve the body itself from
+decay. Before the time of the Middle Kingdom it became usual
+for the rich to have their bodies embalmed. The
+intestines were removed and placed in four vases (the
+<span class="sidenote">Embalming and burial.</span>
+so-called Canopic jars) in which they were supposed to
+enjoy the protection of the four sons of Horus, the
+man-headed Mesti, the ape-headed Hapi, the jackal Duamutef
+and the falcon Kebhsenuf. The corpse was treated with natron
+and asphalt, and wound in a copious swathing of linen bandage,
+with a mask of linen and stucco on the face. The &ldquo;mummy&rdquo;
+thus prepared was then laid on its side like a sleeper, the head
+supported by a head-rest, in a sarcophagus of wood or stone.
+The operations in connexion with the mummy grow more and
+more elaborate towards the end of the Pharaonic period:
+already in the New Kingdom the wealthiest persons had their
+mummies laid in several coffins, each of which was gaudily
+painted with mythological scenes and inscriptions. The costliest
+process of embalmment lasted no less than seventy days. Many
+superstitious rites had to be observed in the course of the process:
+a late book has preserved to us the magical formulae that were
+repeated by the wise <i>kher-heb</i> priest (who in the necropolis
+performed the functions of taricheutes, &ldquo;embalmer&rdquo;), as each
+bandage was applied.</p>
+
+<p>A large number of utensils, articles of furniture and the like
+were placed in the burial-chamber for the use of the dead&mdash;jars,
+weapons, mirrors, and even chairs, musical instruments and wigs.
+In the early times statuettes of servants, representing them as
+engaged in their various functions (brewers, bakers, &amp;c.), were
+included for the same purpose; they were supposed to perform
+their menial functions for their deceased lord in the future life.
+In the Middle Kingdom these are gradually replaced by small
+models of the mummy itself, and the belief arose that when their
+owner was called upon to perform any distasteful work in the
+nether world, they would answer to his name and do the task
+for him. The later <i>ushebti</i>-figures, little statuettes of wood,
+stone or faience, of which several hundreds are often found in a
+single tomb, are confused survivals of both of the earlier classes
+of statuettes. Still more important than all such funereal
+objects are the books that were placed in the grave for the use
+of the dead: in the pyramids they are written on the walls of
+the sepulchral chamber and the passages leading to it; in the
+Middle Kingdom usually inscribed on the inner sides of the
+sarcophagus; in later times contained in rolls of papyrus.
+The Pyramid texts and the <i>Book of the Dead</i> are the most important
+of these, and teach us much about the dangers and
+needs that attended the dead man beyond the tomb, and
+about the manner in which it was thought they could be
+counteracted.</p>
+
+<p>The burial ceremony itself must have been an imposing
+spectacle. In many cases the mummy had to be conveyed across
+the Nile, and boats were gaily decked out for this purpose.
+On the western bank a stately procession conducted the deceased
+to his last resting-place. At the door of the tomb the final
+ceremonies were performed; they demanded a considerable
+number of actors, chief among whom were the <i>sem</i>-priest and the
+<i>kher-heb</i> priest. It was a veritable drama that was here enacted,
+and recalled in its incidents the story of Osiris, the divine prototype
+of all successive generations of the Egyptian dead.</p>
+
+<p>However carefully the preliminary rites of embalmment and
+burial might have been performed, however sumptuous the
+tomb wherein the dead man reposed, he was nevertheless
+almost entirely at the mercy of the living for
+<span class="sidenote">The soul.</span>
+his welfare in the other world: he was as dependent on a continued
+cult on the part of the surviving members of his family
+as the gods were dependent on the constant attendance of their
+priests. That portion of a man&rsquo;s individuality which required,
+even after death, food and drink, and the satisfaction of sensuous
+needs, was called by the Egyptians the <i>ka</i>, and represented in
+hieroglyphs by the uplifted hands <img style="width:22px; height:20px" src="images/img55a.jpg" alt="" />. This <i>ka</i> was supposed
+to be born together with the person to whom it belonged, and
+on the very rare occasions when it is depicted, wears his exact
+semblance. The conception of this psychical entity is too vaguely
+formulated by the Egyptians and too foreign to modern thought
+to admit of exact translation: of the many renderings that
+have been proposed, perhaps &ldquo;double&rdquo; is the most suitable.
+At all events the <i>ka</i> has to be distinguished from the soul, the <i>bai</i>
+(in hieroglyphs <img style="width:39px; height:40px" src="images/img55b.jpg" alt="" /> or <img style="width:37px; height:41px" src="images/img55c.jpg" alt="" />), which was of more tangible nature,
+and might be descried hovering around the tomb in the form of a
+bird or in some other shape; for it was thought that the soul
+might assume what shape it would, if the funerary rites had been
+duly attended to. The gods had their <i>ka</i> and <i>bai</i>, and the forms
+attributed to the latter are surprising; thus we read that the
+soul of the sky Nun is Re, that of Osiris the Goat of Mendes,
+the souls of Sobk are crocodiles, and those &ldquo;of all the gods are
+snakes&rdquo;; similarly the soul of Ptah was thought to dwell in the
+Apis bull, so that each successive Apis was during its lifetime
+the reincarnation of the god. Other parts of a man&rsquo;s being to
+which at given moments and in particular contexts the Egyptians
+assigned a certain degree of separate existence are the &ldquo;name&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page56" id="page56"></a>56</span>
+<img style="width:45px; height:25px" src="images/img56a.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ran</i>, the &ldquo;shadow&rdquo; <img style="width:38px; height:40px" src="images/img56b.jpg" alt="" />, <i>khaibet</i>, and the &ldquo;corpse&rdquo;
+<img style="width:38px; height:38px" src="images/img56c.jpg" alt="" />, <i>khat</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It was, however, the <i>ka</i> alone to which the cult of the dead
+was directly addressed. This cult was a positive duty binding
+on the children of a dead man, and doubtless as a rule discharged
+by them with some regularity and conscientiousness; at least,
+on feast-days offerings would be brought to the tomb, and the
+ceremonies of purification and opening the mouth of the deceased
+would be enacted. But there could be little guarantee that later
+generations would perpetuate the cult. It therefore became
+usual under the Old Kingdom for the wealthiest persons to make
+testamentary dispositions by which certain other persons agreed
+for a consideration to observe the required rites at stated periods:
+they received the name of &ldquo;servants of the <i>ka</i>,&rdquo; and stood in the
+same relation to the deceased as the priests to the gods. Or
+again, contracts might be made with a neighbouring temple, the
+priesthood of which bound itself to reserve for the contracting
+party some portion of the offerings that had already been used
+for the divine cult. There is probably a superstitious reason
+for the preference shown by the dead for offerings of this kind;
+no wish is commoner than that one may receive &ldquo;bread and beer
+that had gone up on to the altar of the local god,&rdquo; or &ldquo;with
+which the god had been sated&rdquo;; something of the divine sanctity
+still clung about such offerings and made them particularly
+desirable. In spite of all the precautions they took and the
+contracts they made, the Egyptians could never quite rid themselves
+of the dread that their tombs might decay and their cult
+be neglected; and they sought therefore to obtain by prayers
+and threats what they feared they might lose altogether. The
+occasional visitor to the tomb is reminded by its inscriptions of
+the many virtues of the dead man while he yet lived, and is
+charged, if he be come with empty hands, at least to pronounce
+the funerary formula; it will indeed cost him nothing but &ldquo;the
+breath of his mouth&rdquo;! Against the would-be desecrator the
+wrath of the gods is invoked: &ldquo;with him shall the great god
+reckon there where a reckoning is made.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The funerary customs that have been described are meaningless
+except on the supposition that the tomb was the regular
+dwelling-place of the dead. But just as the Egyptians found no
+contradiction between the view of the temple as the residence
+of the god and the conception of him as a cosmic deity, so
+too they often attributed to the dead a continued existence
+quite apart from the tomb. According to a widely-spread
+doctrine of great age the deceased Egyptian was translated to
+the heavens, where he lived on in the form of a star. This theme
+is elaborated with great detail in the Pyramid texts, where it is
+the dead king to whom this destiny is promised. It was perhaps
+only a restricted aristocracy who could aspire to such high
+honour: the <img style="width:42px; height:43px" src="images/img56d.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ikh</i>, or &ldquo;glorified being,&rdquo; who has his place in
+the sky seems often to hold an intermediate position between
+the gods and the rank and file of the dead. But in a few early
+passages the required qualification appears to be rather moral
+integrity than exalted station. The life of the dead man in the
+sky is variously envisaged in different texts: at one moment
+he is spoken of as accompanying the sun-god in his celestial
+bark, at another as a mighty king more powerful than Re
+himself; the crudest fancy of all pictures him as a hunter who
+catches the stars and gods, and cooks and eats them. According
+to another conception that persisted in the imagination of the
+Egyptians longer than any of the ideas just mentioned, the home
+of the dead in the heavens was a fertile region not very different
+<span class="correction" title="amended from 'form'">from</span> Egypt itself, intersected by canals and abounding in corn
+and fruit; this place was called the Sokhet Earu or &ldquo;field of
+Reeds.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Even in the oldest texts these beliefs are blended inextricably
+with the Osirian doctrines. It is not so much as king of the dead
+that Osiris here appears, but every deceased Egyptian was
+regarded as himself an Osiris, as having undergone all the
+indignities inflicted upon the god, but finally triumphant over
+the powers of death and evil impersonated by Seth. This notion
+became so popular, that beside it all other views of the dead sink
+into insignificance; it permeates the funerary cult in all its
+stages, and from the Middle Kingdom onwards the dead man is
+regularly called &ldquo;the Osiris so-and-so,&rdquo; just as though he were
+completely identical with the god. One incident of the tale of
+Osiris acquired a deep ethical meaning in connexion with the
+dead. It was related how Seth had brought an accusation
+against Osiris in the great judgment hall of Heliopolis, and how
+the latter, helped by the skilful speaker Thoth, had emerged from
+the ordeal acquitted and triumphant. The belief gradually grew
+up that every dead man would have to face a similar trial before
+he could be admitted to a life of bliss in the other world. A well-known
+vignette in the <i>Book of the Dead</i> depicts the scene. In a
+shrine sits Osiris, the ruler and judge of the dead, accompanied
+by forty-two assessors; and before him stands the balance on
+which the heart of the deceased man is to be weighed against
+Truth; Thoth stands behind and registers the result. The
+words that accompany this picture are still more remarkable:
+they form a long negative confession, in which the dead man
+declares that he has sinned neither against man nor against the
+gods. Not all the sins named are equally heinous according to
+modern conceptions; many of them deal with petty offences
+against religious usages that seem to us but trifling. But it is
+clear that by the time this chapter was penned it was believed
+that no man could attain to happiness in the hereafter if he had
+not been upright, just and charitable in his earthly existence.
+The date at which these conceptions became general is not quite
+certain, but it can hardly be later than the Middle Kingdom,
+when the dead man has the epithet &ldquo;justified&rdquo; appended to his
+name in the inscriptions of his tomb.</p>
+
+<p>It was but a natural wish on the part of the Egyptians that
+they should desire to place their tombs near the traditional
+burying-place of Osiris. By the time of the XIIth Dynasty it
+was thought that this lay in Abydos, the town where the kings
+of the earliest times had been interred. But it was only in a few
+cases that such a wish could be literally fulfilled. It therefore
+became customary for those who possessed the means to dedicate
+at least a tombstone in the neighbourhood of &ldquo;the staircase of
+the great god,&rdquo; as the sacred spot was called. And those who
+had found occasion to visit Abydos in their lifetime took pleasure
+in recalling the part that they had there taken in the ceremonies
+of Osiris. Such pilgrims doubtless believed that the pious act
+would stand to their credit when the day of death arrived.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Magic.</i>&mdash;Among the rites that were celebrated in the temples
+or before the statues of the dead were many the mystical meaning
+of which was but imperfectly understood, though their efficacy
+was never doubted. Symbolical or imitative acts, accompanied
+by spoken formulae of set form and obscure content, accomplished,
+by some peculiar virtues of their own, results that were
+beyond the power of human hands and brain. The priests and
+certain wise men were the depositaries of this mysterious but
+highly useful art, that was called <i>hik</i> or &ldquo;magic&rdquo;; and one of
+the chief differences between gods and men was the superior
+degree in which the former were endowed with magical powers.
+It was but natural that the Egyptians should wish to employ
+magic for their own benefit or self-gratification, and since
+religion put no veto on the practice so long as it was exercised
+within legal bounds, it was put to a widespread use among them.
+When magicians made figures of wax representing men whom
+they desired to injure, this was of course an illegal act like any
+other, and the law stepped in to prevent it: one papyrus that
+has been preserved records the judicial proceedings taken in
+such a case in connexion with the harem conspiracy against
+Rameses III.</p>
+
+<p>One of the chief purposes for which magic was employed was
+to avert diseases. Among the Egyptians, as in other lands,
+illnesses were supposed to be due to evil spirits or the ghosts of
+dead men who had taken up their abode in the body of the
+sufferer, and they could only be driven thence by charms and
+spells. But out of these primitive notions arose a real medical
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page57" id="page57"></a>57</span>
+science: when the ailment could be located and its nature
+roughly determined, a more materialistic view was taken of it;
+and many herbs and drugs that were originally used for some
+superstitious reason, when once they had been found to be actually
+effective, easily lost their magical significance and were looked
+upon as natural specifics. It is extremely hard to draw any fixed
+line in Egypt between magic and medicine; but it is curious to
+note that simple diagnoses and prescriptions were employed for
+the more curable diseases, while magical formulae and amulets
+are reserved for those that are harder to cope with, such as the
+bites of snakes and the stings of scorpions.</p>
+
+<p>The formulae recited for such purposes are not purely cabalistic,
+though inasmuch as mystery is of the very essence of magic,
+foreign words and outlandish names occur in them by preference.
+Often the magician relates some mythical case where a god
+had been afflicted with a disease similar to that of the patient,
+but had finally recovered: a number of such tales were told of
+Horus, who was usually healed by some device of his mother
+Isis, she being accounted as a great enchantress. The mere
+recitation of such similar cases with their happy issue was
+supposed to be magically effective; for almost unlimited power
+was supposed to be inherent in mere words. Often the demon is
+directly invoked, and commanded to come forth. At other times
+the gods are threatened with privations or even destruction if
+they refuse to aid the magician: the Egyptians seem to have
+found little impiety in such a use of the divine name, though
+to us it would seem the utmost degree of profanity when, for
+instance, a magician declares that if his spell prove ineffective,
+he &ldquo;will cast fire into Mendes and burn up Osiris.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The verbal spells were always accompanied by some manual
+performance, the tying of magical knots or the preparation of an
+amulet. In these acts particular significance was attached to
+certain numbers: a sevenfold knot, for example, was more
+efficacious than others. Often the formula was written on a
+strip of rag or a scrap of papyrus and tied round the neck of
+the person for whom it was intended. Beads and all kinds of
+amulets could be infused with magical power so as to be potent
+phylacteries to those who wore them.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, it must be emphasized that in Egypt magic
+stands in no contrast or opposition to religion, at least as long
+as it was legitimately used. The religious rites and ceremonies
+are full of it. When a pretence was made of opening, with an
+iron instrument, the mouth of the divine statue, to the accompaniment
+of recited formulae, this can hardly be termed anything
+but magic. Similarly, the potency attributed to <i>ushebti</i>-figures
+and the copies of the <i>Book of the Dead</i> deposited in the tombs
+is magical in quality. What has been considered under this
+heading, however, is the use that the same principles of magic
+were put to by men in their own practical life and for their own
+advantage.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;An excellent list of books and articles on the
+various topics connected with Egyptian Religion will be found in
+H. O. Lange&rsquo;s article on the subject in P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye,
+<i>Lehrbuch der Religionsgeschichte</i> (Tübingen, 1905), vol. i. pp. 172-245.
+Among general works may be especially recommended A.
+Erman, <i>Die ägyptische Religion</i> (Berlin, 1905); and chapters 2
+and 3 in G. Maspero, <i>Histoire ancienne des peuples de l&rsquo;Orient, les
+origines</i>, vol. i. (Paris, 1895).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. H. G.)</div>
+
+<p>D. <i>Egyptian Language and Writing.&mdash;Decipherment.</i>&mdash;Although
+attempts were made to read Egyptian hieroglyphs
+so far back as the 17th century, no promise of success
+appeared until the discovery of the Rosetta stone in 1799
+by the French engineers attached to Napoleon&rsquo;s expedition
+to Egypt. This tablet was inscribed with three versions,
+in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek, of a long decree of the
+Egyptian priests in honour of Ptolemy V., Epiphanes and his
+wife Cleopatra. The Greek and demotic versions were still
+almost perfect, but most of the hieroglyphic text had been
+broken away with the top of the tablet; portions of about half
+of the lines remained, but no single line was complete. In 1802
+J. D. Akerblad, a Swedish orientalist attached to the embassy
+in Paris, identified the proper names of persons which occurred
+in the demotic text, being guided to them by the position of
+their equivalents in the Greek. These names, all of them foreign,
+were written in an alphabet of a limited number of characters,
+and were therefore analysed with comparative ease.</p>
+
+<p>The hieroglyphic text upon the Rosetta stone was too fragmentary
+to furnish of itself the key to the decipherment. But the
+study of this with the other scanty monuments and imperfect
+copies of inscriptions that were available enabled the celebrated
+physicist Thomas Young (1773-1829) to make a beginning.
+In an article completed in 1819 and printed (over the initials
+I. J.) in the supplement to the 4th, 5th and 6th editions of the
+<i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> (vol. iv., 1824), he published a brief
+account of Egyptian research, with five plates containing the
+&ldquo;rudiments of an Egyptian vocabulary.&rdquo; It appears that Young
+could place the hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek texts of the
+Rosetta stone very correctly parallel; but he could not accurately
+break up the Egyptian sentences into words, much less
+could he attribute to the words their proper sounds. Yet he
+recognized correctly the names of Apis and Re, with many
+groups for words such as &ldquo;assembly,&rdquo; &ldquo;good,&rdquo; &ldquo;name,&rdquo; and
+important signs such as those which distinguish feminine words.
+In a bad copy of another monument he rightly guessed the royal
+name of Berenice in its cartouche by the side of that of Ptolemy,
+which was already known from its occurrence on the Rosetta
+stone. He considered that these names must be written in
+phonetic characters in the hieroglyphic as in demotic, but he
+failed to analyse them correctly. It was clear, however, that
+with more materials and perseverance such efforts after decipherment
+must eventually succeed.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile J. F. Champollion &ldquo;le Jeune&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Champollion</a></span>;
+and Hartleben, <i>Champollion, sein Leben und sein Werk</i>, Berlin,
+1906) had devoted his energies whole-heartedly since 1802,
+when he was only eleven years old, to preparing himself for the
+solution of the Egyptian problem, by wide linguistic and historical
+studies, and above all by familiarizing himself with every scrap
+of Egyptian writing which he could find. By 1818 he made many
+equations between the demotic and the hieroglyphic characters,
+and was able to transcribe the demotic names of Ptolemy and
+Cleopatra into hieroglyphics. At length, in January 1822, a
+copy of the hieroglyphic inscription on the Bankes obelisk,
+which had long been fruitlessly in the hands of Young, reached
+the French savant. On the base of this obelisk was engraved
+a Greek inscription in honour of Ptolemy Euergetes II. and
+Cleopatra; of the two cartouches on the obelisk one was of
+Ptolemy, the other was easily recognized as that of Cleopatra,
+spelt nearly as in Champollion&rsquo;s experimental transcript of the
+demotic name, only more fully. This discovery, and the recognition
+of the name Alexander, gave fourteen alphabetic signs,
+including homophones, with ascertained values. Starting from
+these, by the beginning of September Champollion had analysed
+a long series of Ptolemaic and Roman cartouches. His next
+triumph was on the 14th of September, when he read the names
+of the ancient Pharaohs Rameses and Tethmosis in some drawings
+just arrived from Egypt, proving that his alphabetic characters
+were employed, in conjunction with syllabic signs, for spelling
+native names; this gave him the assurance that his discovery
+touched the essential nature of the Egyptian writing and not
+merely, as had been contended, a special cipher for the foreign
+words which might be quite inapplicable to the rest of the
+inscriptions. His progress continued unchecked, and before
+the end of the year the connexion of ancient Egyptian and
+Coptic was clearly established. Subsequently visits to the
+museums of Italy and an expedition to Egypt in 1828-1829 furnished
+Champollion with ample materials. The <i>Précis du système
+hiéroglyphique</i> (1st ed. 1823, 2nd ed. 1828) contained the philological
+results of his decipherments down to a certain point.
+But his MS. collections were vast, and his illness after the
+strenuous labours of the expedition and his early death in 1832
+left all in confusion. The <i>Grammaire égyptienne</i> and <i>Dictionnaire
+égyptien</i>, edited from these MSS. by his brother, precious as
+they were, must be a very imperfect register of the height of his
+attainments. In his last years he was able to translate long
+texts in hieroglyphic and in hieratic of the New Kingdom and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page58" id="page58"></a>58</span>
+of the later periods with some accuracy, and his comprehension
+of demotic was considerable. Champollion outdistanced all his
+competitors from the first, and had practically nothing to thank
+them for except material to work on, and too often that had been
+intentionally withheld from him. In eleven years he broke
+ground in all directions; if the ordinary span of life had been
+allowed him, with twenty or thirty more years of labour he might
+have brought order into the chaos of different ages and styles
+of language and writing; but, as it was, the task of co-ordination
+remained to be done by others. For one year, before his illness
+incapacitated him, Champollion held a professorship in Paris;
+but of his pupils and fellow-workers, F. P. Salvolini, insincere
+and self-seeking, died young, and Ippolito Rosellini (1800-1843)
+showed little original power. From 1832 to 1837 there was a
+pause in the march of Egyptology, and it seemed as if the young
+science might be overwhelmed by the storm of doubts and detraction
+that was poured upon it by the enemies of Champollion.
+Then, however, Lepsius in Germany and Samuel Birch in England
+took up the thread where the master had dropped it, and E. de
+Rougé, H. Brugsch, François Joseph Chabas and a number of
+lesser lights quickly followed. Brugsch (<i>q.v.</i>) was the author of a
+hieroglyphic and demotic dictionary which still holds the field,
+and from time to time carried forward the study of demotic by a
+giant&rsquo;s stride. De Rougé (d. 1872) in France was a brilliant
+translator of hieroglyphic texts and the author of an important
+grammatical work. Chabas (1817-1882) especially addressed
+himself to the reading of the hieratic texts of the New Kingdom.
+By such labours after forty years the results attained by Champollion
+in decipherment were entirely superseded. Yet, while
+the values of the signs were for the most part well ascertained,
+and the meanings of most works fixed with some degree of
+accuracy, few grammatical rules had as yet been established,
+the varieties of the language at different periods had not been
+defined, and the origins of the hieroglyphs and of their values
+had not been investigated beyond the most obvious points.
+At this time a rare translator of Egyptian texts in all branches
+was arising in G. Maspero (<i>q.v.</i>), while E. Revillout addressed
+himself with success to the task of interpreting the legal documents
+of demotic which had been almost entirely neglected for
+thirty years. But the honour of inaugurating an epoch marked
+by greater precision belongs to Germany. The study of Coptic
+had begun in Europe early in the 17th century, and reached a
+high level in the work of the Dane Georg Zoega (1755-1809) at
+the end of the 18th century. In 1835, too late for Champollion
+to use it, Amadeo Peyron (1785-1870) of Turin published a
+Coptic lexicon of great merit which is still standard, though far
+from satisfying the needs of scholars of the present day. In 1880
+Ludwig Stern (<i>Koptische Grammatik</i>) admirably classified the
+grammatical forms of Coptic. The much more difficult task of
+recovering the grammar of Egyptian has occupied thirty
+years of special study by Adolf Erman and his school at
+Berlin, and has now reached an advanced stage. The greater
+part of Egyptian texts after the Middle Kingdom having been
+written in what was even then practically a dead language,
+as dead as Latin was to the medieval monks in Italy who wrote
+and spoke it, Erman selected for special investigation those texts
+which really represented the growth of the language at different
+periods, and, as he passed from one epoch to another, compared
+and consolidated his results.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The <i>Neuägyptische Grammatik</i> (1880) dealt with texts written
+in the vulgar dialect of the New Kingdom (Dyns. XVIII. to XX.).
+Next followed, in the <i>Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Alterthumskunde</i>,
+studies on the Old Kingdom inscription of Una, and the
+Middle Kingdom contracts of Assiut, as well as on an &ldquo;Old Coptic&rdquo;
+text of the 3rd century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> At this point a papyrus of stories
+written in the popular language of the Middle Kingdom provided
+Erman with a stepping-stone from Old Egyptian to the Late
+Egyptian of the <i>Neuägyptische Grammatik</i>, and gave the connexions
+that would bind solidly together the whole structure of Egyptian
+grammar (see <i>Sprache des Papyrus Westcar</i>, 1889). The very archaic
+pyramid texts enabled him to sketch the grammar of the earliest
+known form of Egyptian (<i>Zeitschrift d. Deutsch. Morgenl. Gesellschaft</i>,
+1892), and in 1894 he was able to write a little manual of Egyptian
+for beginners (<i>Ägyptische Grammatik</i>, 2nd ed., 1902), centring on
+the language of the standard inscriptions of the Middle and New
+Kingdoms, but accompanying the main sketch with references to
+earlier and later forms. Of the work of Erman&rsquo;s pupils we may
+mention G. Steindorff&rsquo;s little <i>Koptische Grammatik</i> (1894, ed. 1904),
+improving greatly on Stern&rsquo;s standard work in regard to phonology
+and the relationship of Coptic forms to Egyptian, and K. Sethe&rsquo;s <i>Das
+Ägyptische Verbum</i> (1899). The latter is an extensive monograph on
+the verb in Egyptian and Coptic by a brilliant and laborious philologist.
+Owing to the very imperfect notation of sound in the writing,
+the highly important subject of the verbal roots and verbal forms
+was perhaps the obscurest branch of Egyptian grammar when Sethe
+first attacked it in 1895. The subject has been reviewed by Erman,
+<i>Die Flexion des ägyptischen Verbums</i> in the <i>Sitzungsberichte</i> of the
+Berlin Academy, 1900. The Berlin school, having settled the main
+lines of the grammar, next turned its attention to lexicography. It
+has devised a scheme, founded on that for the Latin Thesaurus of
+the Berlin Academy, which almost mechanically sorts the whole
+number of occurrences of every word in any text examined. Scholars
+in England, America and Denmark, as well as in Germany, have
+taken part in this great enterprise, and though the completion of it
+may be far off, the collections of classified material already made
+are very valuable for consultation.<a name="fa11c" id="fa11c" href="#ft11c"><span class="sp">11</span></a> At present Egyptologists
+depend on Heinrich Brugsch&rsquo;s admirable but somewhat antiquated
+<i>Wörterbuch</i> and on Levi&rsquo;s useful but entirely uncritical <i>Vocabolario</i>.
+Though demotic has not yet received serious attention at Berlin,
+the influence of that great school has made itself felt amongst
+demotists, especially in Switzerland, Germany, America and
+England. The death of Heinrich Brugsch in 1895 was a very severe
+blow to demotic studies; but it must be admitted that his brilliant
+gifts lay in other directions than exact grammatical analysis. Apart
+from their philological interest, as giving the history of a remarkable
+language during a period of several thousand years, the grammatical
+studies of the last quarter of the 19th century and afterwards are
+beginning to bear fruit in regard to the exact interpretation of
+historical documents on Egyptian monuments and papyri. Not
+long ago the supposed meaning of these was extracted chiefly by
+brilliant guessing, and the published translations of even the best
+scholars could carry no guarantee of more than approximate exactitude,
+where the sense depended at all on correct recognition of the
+syntax. Now the translator proceeds in Egyptian with some of the
+sureness with which he would deal with Latin or Greek. The meaning
+of many words may be still unknown, and many constructions
+are still obscure; but at least he can distinguish fairly between a
+correct text and a corrupt text. Egyptian writing lent itself only
+too easily to misunderstanding, and the writings of one period were
+but half intelligible to the learned scribes of another. The mistaken
+readings of the old inscriptions by the priests at Abydos (Table of
+Abydos), when attempting to record the names of the kings of the
+1st Dynasty on the walls of the temple of Seti I., are now admitted
+on all sides; and no palaeographer, whether his field be Greek, Latin,
+Arabic, Persian or any other class of MSS., will be surprised to hear
+that the Egyptian papyri and inscriptions abound in corruptions and
+mistakes. The translator of to-day can, if he wishes, mark where
+certainty ends and mere conjecture begins, and it is to be hoped that
+advantage will be taken more widely of this new power. The
+Egyptologist who has long lived in the realm of conjecture is too
+prone to consider any series of guesses good enough to serve as a
+translation, and forgets to insert the notes of interrogation which
+would warn workers in other fields from implicit trust.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Language and Writing.</i>&mdash;The history of the Egyptian language
+is evidenced by documents extending over a very long range of
+time. They begin with the primitive inscriptions of the Ist
+Dynasty (not later than 3300 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) and end with the latest Coptic
+compositions of about the 14th century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> The bulk of the
+hieroglyphic inscriptions are written in a more or less artificial
+literary language; but in business documents, letters, popular
+tales, &amp;c., the scribes often adhered closely to the living form of
+the tongue, and thus reveal its progressive changes.</p>
+
+<p>The stages of the language are now distinguished as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Old Egyptian.</i>&mdash;This is properly the language of the Old
+Kingdom. In it we have (a) the recently discovered inscriptions
+of the Ist Dynasty, too brief and concise to throw much light on
+the language of that time; and the great collections of spells
+and ritual texts found inscribed in the Pyramids of the Vth
+and VIth Dynasties, which must even then have been of high
+antiquity, though they contain later additions made in the same
+style. (b) A few historical texts and an abundance of short
+inscriptions representing the language of the IVth, Vth and VIth
+Dynasties. The ordinary <i>literary language</i> of the later monuments
+is modelled on Old Egyptian. It is often much affected
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page59" id="page59"></a>59</span>
+by contemporary speech, but preserves in the main the characteristics
+of the language of the Old Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p><i>Middle and Late Egyptian.</i>&mdash;These represent the vulgar speech
+of the Middle and New Kingdoms respectively. The former is
+found chiefly in tales, letters, &amp;c., written in hieratic on papyri
+of the XIIIth Dynasty to the end of the Middle Kingdom; also
+in some inscriptions of the XVIIIth Dynasty. Late Egyptian is
+seen in hieratic papyri of the XVIIIth to the XXIst Dynasties.
+The spelling of Late Egyptian is very extraordinary, full of false
+etymologies, otiose signs, &amp;c., the old orthography being quite
+unable to adapt itself neatly to the profoundly modified language;
+nevertheless, this clumsy spelling is expressive, and the very
+mistakes are instructive as to the pronunciation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Demotic.</i>&mdash;Demotic Egyptian seems to represent approximately
+the vulgar speech of the Saite period, and is written in the
+&ldquo;demotic&rdquo; character, which may be traced back to the XXVIth
+Dynasty, if not to a still earlier time. With progressive changes,
+this form of the language is found in documents reaching down
+to the fall of Paganism in the 4th century <span class="sc">a.d.</span><a name="fa12c" id="fa12c" href="#ft12c"><span class="sp">12</span></a> Under the later
+Ptolemies and the Roman rule documents in Greek are more
+abundant than in demotic, and the language of the ruling classes
+must have begun to penetrate the masses deeply.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coptic.</i>&mdash;This, in the main, represents the popular language of
+early Christian Egypt from the 3rd to perhaps the 10th century
+<span class="sc">a.d.</span>, when the growth of Coptic as a literary language must have
+ceased. The Greek alphabet, reinforced by a few signs borrowed
+from demotic, rendered the spoken tongue so accurately that four
+distinct, though closely allied, dialects are readily distinguishable
+in Coptic MSS.; ample remains are found of renderings of the
+Scriptures into all these dialects. The distinctions between the
+dialects consist largely in pronunciation, but extend also to the
+vocabulary, word-formation and syntax. Such interchanges are
+found as <i>l</i> for <i>r</i>, &#1005; (<i>k</i>, <i>ch</i>) for &#1003; (<i>dj</i>), final <i>i</i> for final <i>e</i>, <i>a</i> for <i>e</i>,
+<i>a</i> for <i>o</i>. Early in the 2nd century <span class="sc">a.d.</span>, pagan Egyptians, or
+perhaps foreigners settled in Egypt, essayed, as yet unskilfully,
+to write the native language in Greek letters. This <i>Old Coptic</i>,
+as it is termed, was still almost entirely free from Greek loan-words,
+and its strong archaisms are doubtless accounted for by
+the literary language, even in its most &ldquo;vulgar&rdquo; forms, having
+moved more slowly than the speech of the people. Christian
+Coptic, though probably at first contemporary with some documents
+of Old Coptic, contrasts strongly with the latter. The
+monks whose task it was to perfect the adaptation of the alphabet
+to the dialects of Egypt and translate the Scriptures out of the
+Greek, flung away all pagan traditions. It is clear that the basis
+which they chose for the new literature was the simplest language
+of daily life in the monasteries, charged as it was with expressions
+taken from Greek, pre-eminently the language of patristic
+Christianity. There is evidence that the amount of stress on
+syllables, and the consequent length of vowels, varied greatly in
+spoken Coptic, and that the variation gave much trouble to the
+scribes; the early Christian writers must have taken as a model
+for each dialect the deliberate speech of grave elders or preachers,
+and so secured a uniform system of accentuation. The remains
+of Old Coptic, though very instructive in their marked peculiarities,
+are as yet too few for definite classification. The main
+divisions of Christian Coptic as recognized and named at present
+are: Sahidic (formerly called Theban), spoken in the upper
+Thebais; Akhmimic, in the neighbourhood of Akhmim, but
+driven out by Sahidic about the 5th century; Fayumic, in the
+Fayum (formerly named wrongly &ldquo;Bashmuric,&rdquo; from a province
+of the Delta); Bohairic, the dialect of the &ldquo;coast district&rdquo;
+(formerly named &ldquo;Memphite&rdquo;), spoken in the north-western
+Delta. Coptic, much alloyed with Arabic, was spoken in Upper
+Egypt as late as the 15th century, but it has long been a dead
+language.<a name="fa13c" id="fa13c" href="#ft13c"><span class="sp">13</span></a> Sahidic and Bohairic are the most important
+dialects, each of these having left abundant remains; the former
+spread over the whole of Upper Egypt, and the latter since the
+14th century has been the language of the sacred books of
+Christianity throughout the country, owing to the hierarchical
+importance of Alexandria and the influence of the ancient
+monasteries established in the north-western desert.</p>
+
+<p>The above stages of the Egyptian language are not defined
+with absolute clearness. Progress is seen from dynasty to
+dynasty or from century to century. New Egyptian shades off
+almost imperceptibly into demotic, and it may be hoped that
+gaps which now exist in the development will be filled by further
+discovery.</p>
+
+<p>Coptic is the only stage of the language in which the spelling
+gives a clear idea of the pronunciation. It is therefore the
+mainstay of the scholar in investigating or restoring the word-forms
+of the ancient language. Greek transcriptions of Egyptian
+names and words are valuable as evidence for the vocalization
+of Egyptian. Such are found from the 6th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> in the
+inscription of Abu Simbel, from the 5th in Herodotus, &amp;c.,
+and abound in Ptolemaic and later documents from the beginning
+of the 3rd century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> onwards. At first sight they may seem
+inaccurate, but on closer examination the Graecizing is seen to
+follow definite rules, especially in the Ptolemaic period. A few
+cuneiform transcriptions, reaching as far back as the XVIIIth
+Dynasty, give valuable hints as to how Egyptian was pronounced
+in the 15th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> Coptic itself is of course quite inadequate
+to enable us to restore Old Egyptian. In it the Old Egyptian
+verbal forms are mostly replaced by periphrases; though the
+strong roots are often preserved entire, the weaker consonants
+and the &#1510; have largely or entirely disappeared, so that the
+language appears as one of biliteral rather than triliteral roots.
+Coptic is strongly impregnated with Greek words adopted late;
+moreover, a certain number of Semitic loan-words flowed into
+Egyptian at all ages, and especially from the 16th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>
+onwards, displacing earlier words. It is only by the most careful
+scrutiny, or the exercise of the most piercing insight, that the
+imperfectly spelled Egyptian has been made to yield up one
+grammatical secret after another in the light brought to bear
+upon it from Coptic. Demotic grammar ought soon to be
+thoroughly comprehensible in its forms, and the study of Late
+Egyptian should not stand far behind that of demotic. On the
+other hand, Middle Egyptian, and still more Old Egyptian,
+which is separated from Middle Egyptian by a wide gap, will
+perhaps always be to us little more than consonantal skeletons,
+the flesh and blood of their vocalization being for the most part
+irretrievably lost.<a name="fa14c" id="fa14c" href="#ft14c"><span class="sp">14</span></a></p>
+
+<p>In common with the Semitic languages, the Berber languages
+of North Africa, and the Cushite languages of North-East Africa,
+Egyptian of all periods possesses grammatical gender, expressing
+masculine and feminine. Singularly few language groups have
+this peculiarity; and our own great Indo-European group,
+which possesses it, is distinguished from those above mentioned
+by having the neuter gender in addition. The characteristic
+triliteral roots of all the Semitic languages seemed to separate
+them widely from others; but certain traits have caused the
+Egyptian, Berber and Cushite groups to be classed together as
+three subfamilies of a Hamitic group, remotely related to the
+Semitic. The biliteral character of Coptic, and the biliteralism
+which was believed to exist in Egyptian, led philologists to suspect
+that Egyptian might be a surviving witness to that far-off stage
+of the Semitic languages when triliteral roots had not yet been
+formed from presumed original biliterals; Sethe&rsquo;s investigations,
+however, prove that the Coptic biliterals are themselves derived
+from Old Egyptian triliterals, and that the triliteral roots enormously
+preponderated in Egyptian of the earliest known form;
+that view is, therefore, no longer tenable. Many remarkable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page60" id="page60"></a>60</span>
+resemblances have been observed in the grammatical structure
+of the Berber and Cushite groups with Semitic (cf. H.
+Zimmern, <i>Vergleichende Grammatik d. semitischen Sprachen</i>,
+Berlin, 1898, especially pronouns and verbs); but the relationship
+must be very distant, and there are no ancient documents
+that can take back the history of any one of those languages
+more than a few centuries. Their connexion with Semitic and
+Egyptian, therefore, remains at present an obscure though
+probable hypothesis. On the other hand, Egyptian is certainly
+related to Semitic. Even before the triliterality of Old Egyptian
+was recognized, Erman showed that the so-called pseudo-participle
+had been really in meaning and in form a precise
+analogue of the Semitic perfect, though its original employment
+was almost obsolete in the time of the earliest known texts.
+Triliteralism is considered the most essential and most peculiar
+feature of Semitic. But there are, besides, many other resemblances
+in structure between the Semitic languages and Egyptian,
+so that, although the two vocabularies present few points of
+clear contact, there is reason to believe that Egyptian was originally
+a characteristic member of the Semitic family of languages.
+See Erman, &ldquo;Das Verhältnis d. ägyptischen zu d. semitischen
+Sprachen&rdquo; (<i>Zeitschrift d. deutschen morgenl. Gesellschaft</i>, 1892);
+Zimmern, <i>Vergl. Gram.</i>, 1898; Erman, &ldquo;Flexion d. ägyptischen
+Verbums&rdquo; (<i>Sitzungsberichte d. Berl. Akad.</i>, 1900). The Egyptians
+proper are not, and so far as we can tell never were, Semitic in
+physical feature. As a possible explanation of the facts, Erman
+supposes that a horde of conquering Semites, like the Arabs
+of a later day, imposed their language on the country, but disappeared,
+being weakened by the climate or absorbed by the
+native population. The latter acquired the Semitic language
+imperfectly from their conquerors; they expressed the verbal
+conjugations by periphrases, mispronounced the consonants, and
+so changed greatly the appearance of the vocabulary, which
+also would certainly contain a large proportion of native non-Semitic
+roots. Strong consonants gave place to weak consonants
+(as <img style="width:24px; height:22px" src="images/img60aa.jpg" alt="" /> has done to <img style="width:10px; height:23px" src="images/img60ab.jpg" alt="" />, in the modern Arabic of Egypt), and then
+the weak consonants disappearing altogether produced biliterals
+from the triliterals. Much of this must have taken place,
+according to the theory, in the prehistoric period; but the loss
+of weak consonants, of &#1506; and of one of two repeated consonants,
+and the development of periphrastic conjugations continued to
+the end. The typical Coptic root thus became biliteral rather
+than triliteral, and the verb, by means of periphrases, developed
+tenses of remarkable precision. Such verbal resemblances as
+exist between Coptic and Semitic are largely due to late exchanges
+with Semitic neighbours.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following sketch of the Egyptian language, mainly in its
+earliest form, which dates from some three or four thousand years
+<span class="sc">b.c.</span>, is founded upon Erman&rsquo;s works. It will serve to contrast with
+Coptic grammar on the one hand and Semitic grammar on the other.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">The Egyptian Alphabet</p>
+
+<table class="reg" cellspacing="15" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:17px; height:43px" src="images/img60a.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>l</i>; so conventionally transcribed since it unites two values,
+        being sometimes y but often &#1488; (especially at the beginning
+        of words), and from the earliest times used in a manner
+        corresponding to the Arabic <i>hamza</i>, to indicate a prosthetic
+        vowel. Often lost.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:19px; height:18px" src="images/img60b.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> and <img style="width:25px; height:44px" src="images/img60d.jpg" alt="" /> are frequently employed for <i>y</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:41px; height:44px" src="images/img60c.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = &rsquo;(&#1488;); easily lost or changes to <i>y</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:44px; height:18px" src="images/img60e.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = &rsquo;(&#1506;); lost in Coptic. This rare sound, well known in
+Semitic, occurs also in Berber and Cushite languages.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:31px; height:40px" src="images/img60f.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>w</i>; often changes to <i>y</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:23px; height:40px" src="images/img60g.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>b</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:16px; height:16px" src="images/img60h.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>p</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:40px; height:15px" src="images/img60i.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>f</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:41px; height:41px" src="images/img60j.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>m</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:40px; height:12px" src="images/img60k.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>n</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:44px; height:13px" src="images/img60l.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>r</i>; often lost, or changes to <i>y</i>. <i>r</i> and <i>l</i> are distinguished
+        in later demotic and in Coptic.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:28px; height:24px" src="images/img60m.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>h</i> distinction lost in Coptic.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:16px; height:39px" src="images/img60n.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>&#7717;</i> &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp; &rdquo;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:19px; height:20px" src="images/img60o.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>h</i>; in Coptic &#995; (<i>sh</i>) or &#998; (<i>kh</i>) correspond to it.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:40px; height:12px" src="images/img60p.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>&#7723;</i>; generally written with <img style="width:41px; height:16px" src="images/img60q.jpg" alt="" /> (<i>&#353;</i>) in the Old Kingdom,
+but <img style="width:40px; height:12px" src="images/img60p.jpg" alt="" /> corresponds to <i>kh</i> in Coptic.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:38px; height:9px" src="images/img60r.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>s</i> distinction lost at the end of the Old Kingdom.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:15px; height:40px" src="images/img60s.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>&#347;</i> &emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; &emsp;&emsp;&emsp;&emsp; &rdquo; </td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:41px; height:16px" src="images/img60q.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>&#353;</i> (<i>sh</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:17px; height:17px" src="images/img60t.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>q</i>; Coptic &kappa;.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:41px; height:16px" src="images/img60u.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>k</i> Coptic &kappa;; or &#1005;, &#1003;, according to dialect.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:20px; height:22px" src="images/img60v.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>g</i> Coptic &kappa;; or &#1005;.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:15px; height:12px" src="images/img60w.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>&#7791;</i>; often lost at the end of words.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:42px; height:13px" src="images/img60x.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>t</i> (&#952;); often changes to <i>t</i>, otherwise Coptic &#1007;; or &#1003;, &#1005;.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:42px; height:16px" src="images/img60y.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>d</i>; in Coptic reduced to <i>t</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc"><img style="width:38px; height:41px" src="images/img60z.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl"> = <i>&#7695;</i> (<i>z</i>); often changes to <i>d</i>, Coptic &#1007;; otherwise in Coptic &#1003;.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>ROOTS</i></p>
+
+<p>Egyptian roots consist of consonants and semi-consonants only,
+the inflexion being effected by internal vowel-change and the
+addition of consonants or vowels at the beginning or end. The
+Egyptian system of writing, as opposed to the Coptic, showed only
+the consonantal skeletons of words: it could not record internal
+vowel-changes; and semi-consonants, even when radicals, were
+often omitted in writing.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>PERSONAL PRONOUNS</i></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sing.</td>
+  <td class="tcl"><p>1. c. <i>iw</i> (?) later <i>wi</i>.</p>
+      <p>2. m. <i>kw</i>.</p>
+      <p>&emsp; f. <i>&#7791;n</i>.</p>
+      <p>3. <i>m</i>. *<i>fy</i>, surviving only in a special verbal form.</p>
+      <p>&emsp; f. <i>&#347;y</i>.</p></td>
+
+<td class="tcl">Pl.</td>
+<td class="tcl"><p>1. c. <i>n</i>.</p>
+    <p>2. c. <i>&#7791;n</i>.</p>
+    <p>&nbsp;</p>
+    <p>3. m. <i>&#347;n</i>, early lost, except as suffix.</p>
+    <p>&emsp; f. *<i>&#347;t</i> surviving as 3. c.</p></td>
+
+<td class="tcl">Du.</td>
+<td class="tcl"><p>&nbsp;</p>
+    <p>2. c. <i>&#7791;ny</i>.</p>
+    <p>&nbsp;</p>
+    <p>3. c. <i>&#347;ny</i>.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">From these are derived the suffixes, which are shortened forms
+attached to nouns to express the possessor, and to verbs to express
+the subject. In the latter case the verb was probably in the participle,
+so that <i>&#347;&#7695;mii-&#347;n</i>, &ldquo;they hear,&rdquo; is literally &ldquo;hearing are they.&rdquo; The
+singular suffixes are: (1) c. <i>-i</i>; (2) m. <i>-k</i>, f. <i>-&#7791;</i>; (3) m. <i>-f</i>, f. <i>-&#347;</i>;&mdash;the
+dual and plural have no special forms.</p>
+
+<p>Another series of absolute pronouns is: (2) m. <i>&#7791;wt</i>, <i>&#7791;w</i>; f. <i>&#7791;mt</i>, <i>&#7791;m</i>;
+(3) m. <i>&#347;wt</i>, <i>&#347;w</i>; f. <i>&#347;tt</i>, <i>&#347;t</i>. Of these <i>&#7791;wt</i>, <i>&#7791;mt</i>, &amp;c., are emphatic forms.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the above absolute pronouns were almost obsolete even
+in the Old Kingdom. In ordinary texts some survive, especially
+as objects of verbs, namely, <i>wi</i>, <i>tw</i>, <i>tn</i>, <i>sw</i>, <i>st</i>. The suffixes of all
+numbers and persons except the dual were in full use throughout, to
+Coptic; <i>sn</i>, however, giving way to a new suffix, <i>-w</i>, which developed
+first in the New Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>Another absolute pronoun of the first person is <i>ink</i>, <img style="width:62px; height:18px" src="images/img60ac.jpg" alt="" /> like
+Heb. &#1497;&#1499;&#1504;&#1488;. It is associated with a series for the second and third
+persons: <i>nt-k</i>, <i>nt-&#7791;</i>, <i>nt-f</i>, <i>nt-&#347;n</i>, &amp;c.; but from their history, use
+and form, it seems probable that the last are of later formation, and
+are not to be connected with the Semitic pronouns (chiefly of the
+2nd person) resembling them.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS</i></p>
+
+<p>There are several series based on m. <i>p</i>; f. <i>t</i>; pl. <i>n</i>; but <i>n</i> as a
+plural seems later than the other two. From them are developed
+a weak demonstrative to which possessive suffixes can be attached,
+producing the definite and possessive articles (<i>p&rsquo;</i>, <i>t&rsquo;</i>, <i>n&rsquo;</i>, &ldquo;the,&rdquo;
+<i>p&rsquo;y-f</i>, &ldquo;his,&rdquo; <i>p&rsquo;y-s</i> &ldquo;her,&rdquo; &amp;c.) of Middle Egyptian and the later
+language.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>NOUNS</i></p>
+
+<p>Two genders, m. (ending <i>w</i>, or nothing), f. (ending <i>t</i>). Three
+numbers: singular, dual (m. <i>wi</i>, f. <i>ti</i>, gradually became obsolete),
+plural (m. <i>w</i>; f. <i>wt</i>). No case-endings are recognizable, but construct
+forms&mdash;to judge by Coptic&mdash;were in use. Masculine and
+feminine nouns of instrument or material are formed from verbal
+roots by prefixing <i>m</i>; <i>e.g.</i> <i>m·sdm·t</i>, &ldquo;stibium,&rdquo; from <i>sdm</i>, &ldquo;paint
+the eye.&rdquo; Substantives and adjectives are formed from substantives
+and prepositions by the addition of <i>y</i> in the masculine; <i>e.g.</i>
+<i>n·t</i>, &ldquo;city,&rdquo; <i>nt·y</i>, &ldquo;belonging to a city,&rdquo; &ldquo;citizen&rdquo;; <i>&#7717;r</i>, &ldquo;upon,&rdquo;
+<i>&#7717;r·y</i> (f. <i>&#7717;r·t</i>; pl. <i>&#7717;r·w)</i>, &ldquo;upper.&rdquo; This is not unlike the Semitic
+<i>nisbe</i> ending <i>iy</i>, <i>ay</i> (<i>e.g.</i> Ar. <i>beled</i>, &ldquo;city,&rdquo; <i>beledi</i>, &ldquo;belonging to a
+city&rdquo;). Adjectives follow the nouns they qualify.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page61" id="page61"></a>61</span></p>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>NUMERALS</i></p>
+
+<p>1, <i>w&rsquo;</i>; 2, <i>&#347;n</i>; 3, <i>&#7723;mt</i>; 4, <i>fdw</i>; 5, <i>dw&rsquo;</i>; 6, <i>sis</i> (or <i>sw&rsquo;</i> ?); 7,
+<i>sf&#7723;</i>; 8, <i>&#7723;mn</i>; 9, <i>ps&#7695;</i>; 10, <i>mt</i>. 2, 6, 7, 8 and 9 (?) resemble
+Semitic numerals. 20 and 30 (<i>m&rsquo;b</i>) had special names; 40-90 were
+named as if plurals of the units 4-9, as in Semitic. 100, <i>&#353;nt</i>; 1000,
+<i>&#7723;&rsquo;</i>; 10,000, <i>zb&rsquo;</i>; 100,000, <i>&#7717;fnw</i>.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>VERBS</i></p>
+
+<p>The forms observable in hieroglyphic writing lead to the following
+classification:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl sc" >Strong&nbsp;Verbs.</td>
+<td class="tcl">Biliteral</td>
+<td class="tcl">Often showing traces of an original III. inf.;
+in early times very rare.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tcl">Triliteral</td>
+<td class="tcl">Very numerous.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tcl">Quadriliteral<br />Quinqueliteral</td>
+<td class="tcl">Generally formed by reduplication.
+In Late Egyptian they were no longer inflected,
+and were conjugated with the help of <i>iry</i>,
+&ldquo;do.&rdquo;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl sc">Weak&nbsp;Verbs.</td>
+<td class="tcl">II. geminatae</td>
+<td class="tcl">Properly triliterals, but, with the 2nd or 3rd
+radical alike, these coalesced in many forms
+where no vowel intervened, and gave the word
+the appearance of a biliteral.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tcl">III. gem.</td>
+<td class="tcl">Rare.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tcl">III. inf.</td>
+<td class="tcl">Numerous. III. <i>w</i>, and III. <i>i</i> were
+unified early. Some very common verbs, &ldquo;do,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;give,&rdquo; &ldquo;come,&rdquo; &ldquo;bring&rdquo; are irregular.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td>
+<td class="tcl">IV. inf.</td>
+<td class="tcl">Partly derived from adjectival formations in
+<i>y</i>, from nouns and infinitives:&mdash;<i>e.g.</i>
+<i>&#347;·ip</i>, inf. <i>&#347;ipt</i>; adj.
+<i>&#347;ipty</i>; verb (4 lit.), <i>&#347;ipty</i>.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">Many verbs with weak consonants&mdash;I<i>y</i>, I<i>w</i>, II. inf. (<i>m[w]t</i>), and those
+with &#1488;&mdash;are particularly difficult to trace accurately, owing to
+defective writing.</p>
+
+<p>It seems that all the above classes may be divided into two main
+groups, according to the form of the infinitive:&mdash;with masculine infinitive
+the strong triliteral type, and with feminine infinitive the
+type of the III. inf. The former group includes all except III. inf.,
+IV. inf., and the causative of the biliterals, which belong to the
+second group.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that the verb had a special form denoting condition,
+as in Arabic. There was a causative form prefixing <i>&#347;</i>, and traces of
+forms resembling <i>Pi&lsquo;el</i> and <i>Niphal</i> are observed. Some roots are reduplicated
+wholly or in part with a frequentative meaning, and there
+are traces of gemination of radicals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pseudo-Participle.</i>&mdash;In very early texts this is the past indicative,
+but more commonly it is used in sentences such as, <i>gm-n-f wi &lsquo;&#7717;&lsquo;·kwi</i>,
+&ldquo;he found me I stood,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;he found me standing.&rdquo; The indicative
+use was soon given up and the pseudo-participle was
+employed only as predicate, especially indicating a state; <i>e.g.</i> <i>ntr·t
+&#353;m·ti</i>, &ldquo;the goddess goes&rdquo;; <i>iw-k w&#7695;&rsquo;·ti</i>, &ldquo;thou art prosperous.&rdquo;
+The endings were almost entirely lost in New Egyptian. For early
+times they stand thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 90%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sing.</td>
+
+<td class="tcl"><p>3. masc.</p>
+<p>&emsp; fem</p>
+<p>2. masc.</p>
+<p>&emsp; fem.</p>
+<p>1. c.</p></td>
+
+<td class="tcl"><p><i>i</i>, late <i>w</i>.</p>
+<p><i>ti</i>.</p>
+<p><i>ti</i></p>
+<p><i>ti</i></p>
+<p><i>kwi</i>.</p></td>
+
+<td class="tcl"><p>Dual <i>wii</i>.</p>
+<p><i>tiiw</i></p></td>
+
+<td class="tcl">Pl.</td>
+
+<td class="tcl"><p><i>w</i>.</p>
+<p><i>ti</i>.</p>
+<p><i>tiwny</i>.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><i>wyn</i>.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The pseudo-participle seems, by its inflexion, to have been the
+perfect of the original Semitic conjugation. The simplest form
+being that of the 3rd person, it is best arranged like the corresponding
+tense in Semitic grammars, beginning with that person. There
+is no trace of the Semitic imperfect in Egyptian. The ordinary
+conjugation is formed quite differently. The verbal stem is here
+followed by the subject-suffix or substantive&mdash;<i>&#347;&#7695;m-f</i>, &ldquo;he hears&rdquo;;
+<i>&#347;&#7695;mw &#347;tn</i>, &ldquo;the king hears.&rdquo; It is varied by the addition of
+particles, &amp;c., <i>n</i>, <i>in</i>, <i>&#7723;r</i>, <i>tw</i>, thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>&#347;&#7695;m-f</i>, &ldquo;he hears&rdquo;; <i>&#347;&#7695;m-w-f</i>, &ldquo;he is heard&rdquo; (<i>pl. &#347;&#7695;m-ii-&#347;n</i>, &ldquo;they
+are heard&rdquo;); <i>&#347;&#7695;m-tw-f</i>, &ldquo;he is heard&rdquo;; <i>&#347;&#7695;m-n-f</i>, &ldquo;he heard&rdquo;;
+<i>&#347;&#7695;m-n-tw-f</i>, &ldquo;he was heard&rdquo;; also, <i>&#347;&#7695;m-in-f</i>, <i>&#347;&#7695;m-&#7723;r-f</i>, <i>&#347;&#7695;m-k&rsquo;-f</i>.
+Each form has special uses, generally difficult to define, <i>&#347;dm-f</i> seems
+rather to be imperfect, <i>&#347;&#7695;m-n-f</i> perfect, and generally to express the
+past. Later, <i>&#347;&#7695;m-f</i> is ordinarily expressed by periphrases; but by
+the loss of <i>n</i>, <i>&#347;&#7695;m-n-f</i> became itself <i>sdm-f</i>, which is the ordinary past
+in demotic. Coptic preserves <i>&#347;&#7695;m-f</i> forms of many verbs in its
+causative (<i>e.g.</i> <img style="width:80px; height:16px" src="images/img61.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;cause him to live,&rdquo; from Egyptian
+<i>di·t·n&#7723;-f</i>), and, in its periphrastic conjugation, the same forms of
+<i>wn</i>, &ldquo;be,&rdquo; and <i>iry</i>, &ldquo;do.&rdquo; With <i>&#347;&#7695;m-f</i> (<i>&#347;e&#7695;mo-f</i>) was a more
+emphatic form (<i>e&#347;&#7695;omef</i>), at any rate in the weak verbs.</p>
+
+<p>The above, with the relative forms mentioned below, are supposed
+by Erman to be derived from the participle, which is placed first for
+emphasis: thus, <i>&#347;&#7695;m·w &#347;tn</i>, &ldquo;hearing is the king&rdquo;; <i>&#347;&#7695;m-f</i>, for
+<i>&#347;&#7695;m-fy</i>, &ldquo;hearing he is.&rdquo; This Egyptian paraphrase of Semitic is
+just like the Irish paraphrase of English, &ldquo;It is hearing he is.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The <i>imperative</i> shows no ending in the singular; in the plural it
+has <i>y</i>, and later <i>w</i>; cf. Semitic imperative.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>infinitive</i> is of special importance on account of its being
+preserved very fully in Coptic. It is generally of masculine form,
+but feminine in <span class="sc">iii</span>. inf. (as in Semitic), and in causatives of biliterals.</p>
+
+<p>There are relative forms of <i>&#347;&#7695;m-f</i> and <i>&#347;&#7695;m-n-f</i>, respectively <i>&#347;&#7695;m·w-f</i>
+(masc.), <i>&#347;&#7695;m·t-n-f</i> (fem.), &amp;c. They are used when the relative is the
+object of the relative sentence, or has any other position than the
+subject. Thus <i>&#347;&#7695;m·t-f</i> may mean &ldquo;she whom he hears,&rdquo; &ldquo;she who[se
+praises] he hears,&rdquo; &ldquo;she [to] whom he hears [someone speaking],&rdquo;
+&amp;c. There are close analogies between the function of the relative
+particles in Egyptian and Semitic; and the Berber languages
+possess a relative form of the verb.</p>
+
+<p><i>Participles</i>.&mdash;These are active and passive, perfect and imperfect,
+in the old language, but all are replaced by periphrases in Coptic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Verbal Adjectives</i>.&mdash;There is a peculiar formation, <i>&#347;&#7695;m·ty-fy</i>, &ldquo;he
+who shall hear,&rdquo; probably meaning originally &ldquo;he is a hearer,&rdquo;
+<i>&#347;&#7695;m·ty</i> being an adjective in <i>y</i> formed from a feminine (<i>t</i>) form of
+the infinitive, which is occasionally found even in triliteral verbs;
+the endings are: sing., masc. <i>ty-fy</i>, fem. <i>ty-&#347;y</i>; pl., masc. <i>ty-&#347;n</i>, fem.
+<i>ty-&#347;t</i>. It is found only in Old Egyptian.</p>
+
+<p><i>Particles</i>.&mdash;There seems to be no special formation for adverbs,
+and little use is made of adverbial expressions. Prepositions, simple
+and compound, are numerous. Some of the commonest simple
+prepositions are <i>n</i> &ldquo;for,&rdquo; <i>r</i> &ldquo;to,&rdquo; <i>m</i> &ldquo;in, from,&rdquo; <i>&#7717;r</i> &ldquo;upon.&rdquo; A few
+enclitic conjunctions exist, but they are indefinite in meaning&mdash;<i>&#347;wt</i>
+a vague &ldquo;but,&rdquo; <i>grt</i> a vague &ldquo;moreover,&rdquo; &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Coptic presents a remarkable contrast to Egyptian in the precision
+of its periphrastic conjugation. There are two present tenses,
+an imperfect, two perfects, a pluperfect, a present and a past frequentative,
+and three futures besides future perfect; there are also
+conjunctive and optative forms. The negatives of some of these are
+expressed by special prefixes. The gradual growth of these new forms
+can be traced through all the stages of Egyptian. Throughout the
+history of the language we note an increasing tendency to periphrasis;
+but there was no great advance towards <i>precision</i> before demotic.
+In demotic there are distinguishable a present tense, imperfect,
+perfect, frequentative, future, future perfect, conjunctive and
+optative; also present, past and future negatives, &amp;c. The passive
+was extinct before demotic; demotic and Coptic express it, clumsily
+it must be confessed, by an impersonal &ldquo;they,&rdquo; <i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;they bore
+him&rdquo; stands for &ldquo;he was born.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is worth noting how, in other departments besides the verb,
+the Egyptian language was far better adapted to practical ends
+during and after the period of the Deltaic dynasties (XXII.-XXX.)
+than ever it was before. It was both simplified and enriched. The
+inflexions rapidly disappeared and little was left of the distinctions
+between masculine and feminine, singular, dual and plural&mdash;except
+in the pronouns. The dual number had been given up entirely at
+an earlier date. The pronouns, both personal and demonstrative,
+retained their forms very fully. As prefixes, suffixes and articles,
+they, together with some auxiliary verbs, provided the principal
+mechanism of the renovated language. An abundant supply of
+useful adverbs was gradually accumulated, as well as conjunctions,
+so far as the functions of the latter were not already performed by
+the verbal prefixes. These great improvements in the language
+correspond to great changes in the economic condition of the
+country; they were the result of active trade and constant intercourse
+of all classes of Egyptians with foreigners from Europe
+and Asia. Probably the best stage of Egyptian speech was that
+which immediately preceded Coptic. Though Coptic is here and
+there more exactly expressive than the best demotic, it was spoilt
+by too much Greek, duplicating and too often expelling native
+expressions that were already adequate for its very simple requirements.
+Above all, it is clumsily pleonastic.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">The Writing</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Egyptian system of writing, so far as we know,
+originated, developed and finally expired strictly within the limits
+of the Nile Valley. The germ of its existence may have come from
+without, but, as we know it, it is essentially Egyptian and intended
+for the expression of the Egyptian language. About the 1st
+century <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, however, the semi-barbarous rulers of the Ethiopian
+kingdoms of Meroe and Napata contrived the &ldquo;Meroitic&rdquo; alphabet,
+founded on Egyptian writing, and comprising both a hieroglyphic
+and a cursive form (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ethiopia</a></span>). As yet both of these kinds
+of Nubian writing are undeciphered. Egyptian hieroglyphic was
+carried by conquest into Syria, certainly under the XVIIIth
+Dynasty, and again under the XXVIth for the engraving of Egyptian
+inscriptions; but in the earlier period the cuneiform syllabary,
+and in the later the &ldquo;Phoenician&rdquo; alphabet, had obtained a firm
+hold there, and we may be sure that no attempt was made to substitute
+the Egyptian system for the latter. Cuneiform tablets in Syria,
+however, seem almost confined to the period of the XVIIIth Dynasty.
+Although it cannot be proved it seems quite possible that the traders
+of Phoenicia and the Aegean adopted the papyrus and Egyptian
+hieratic writing together, before the end of the New Kingdom, and
+developed their &ldquo;Phoenician&rdquo; alphabet from the latter about
+1000 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> In very early times a number of systems of writing already
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page62" id="page62"></a>62</span>
+reigned in different countries forming a compact and not very large
+area&mdash;perhaps from South Arabia to Asia Minor, and from Persia
+to Crete and Egypt. Whether they all sprang from one common
+stock of picture-writing we shall perhaps never know, nor can we as
+yet trace the influence which one great system may have had on
+another, owing to the poverty of documents from most of the
+countries concerned.</p>
+
+<p>It is certain that in Egypt from the IVth Dynasty onwards the
+mode of writing was essentially the same as that which was extinguished
+by the fall of paganism in the 4th century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> Its
+elements in the hieroglyphic form are pictorial, but each hieroglyph
+had one or more well-defined functions, fixed by convention in such
+a manner that the Egyptian language was expressed in writing word
+by word. Although a picture sign may at times have embarrassed
+the skilled native reader by offering a choice of fixed values or
+functions, it was never intended to convey merely an idea, so as to
+leave to him the task of putting the idea into his own words. How
+far this holds good for the period before the IVth Dynasty it is
+difficult to say. The known inscriptions of the earlier times are so
+brief and so limited in range that the system on which they were
+written cannot yet be fully investigated. As far back as the Ist
+Dynasty, phonograms (see below) were in full use. But the spelling
+then was very concise: it is possible that some of the slighter words,
+such as prepositions, were omitted in the writing, and were intended
+to be supplied from the context. As a whole, we gain the impression
+that a really distinct and more primitive stage of hieroglyphic
+writing by a substantially vaguer notation of words lay not far
+behind the time of the Ist Dynasty.</p>
+
+<p>The employment of the signs are of three kinds: any given sign
+represents either (1) a whole word or root; or (2) a sound as part of a
+word; or (3) pictorially defines the meaning of a word the sound of
+which has already been given by a sign or group of signs preceding.
+The number of phonograms is very restricted, but some signs have all
+these powers. For instance, <img style="width:40px; height:14px" src="images/img62a.jpg" alt="" /> is the conventional picture of
+a draughtboard (shown in plan) with the draughtsmen (shown in
+elevation) on its edge:&mdash;this sign (1) signifies the root <i>mn</i>, &ldquo;set,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;firm&rdquo;; or (2) in the group <img style="width:41px; height:33px" src="images/img62b.jpg" alt="" />, represents the same sound as
+part of the root <i>mn&#7723;</i>, &ldquo;good&rdquo;; or (3) added to the group <i>snt</i> (thus:
+<img style="width:92px; height:34px" src="images/img62c.jpg" alt="" />), shows that the meaning intended is &ldquo;draught-board,&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;draughts,&rdquo; and not any of the other meanings of <i>snt</i>.
+Thus signs, according to their employment, are said to be (1) &ldquo;word-signs,&rdquo;
+(2) &ldquo;phonograms,&rdquo; or (3) &ldquo;determinatives.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Word-signs.</i>&mdash;The word-sign value of a sign is, in the first place,
+the name of the object it represents, or of some material, or quality,
+or action, or idea suggested by it. Thus <img style="width:19px; height:23px" src="images/img62d.jpg" alt="" /> is <i>&#7717;r</i>, &ldquo;face&rdquo;; <img style="width:16px; height:29px" src="images/img62e.jpg" alt="" />, a vase
+of ointment, is <i>mr&#7717;.t</i>, &ldquo;ointment&rdquo;; <img style="width:40px; height:14px" src="images/img62f.jpg" alt="" /> is <i>wdb</i>, &ldquo;turn.&rdquo; Much
+investigation is still required to establish the origins of the values
+of the signs; in some cases the connexion between the pictures and
+the <i>primary</i> values seems to be curiously remote. Probably all the
+signs in the hieroglyphic signary can be employed in their primary
+sense. The <i>secondary</i> value expresses the consonantal root of the
+name or other primary value, and any, or almost any, derivative
+from that root: as when <img style="width:38px; height:13px" src="images/img62g.jpg" alt="" />, a mat with a cake upon it, is not
+only <i>&#7717;tp</i>, an &ldquo;offering-mat,&rdquo; but also <i>&#7717;tp</i> in the sense of &ldquo;conciliation,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;peace,&rdquo; &ldquo;rest,&rdquo; &ldquo;setting&rdquo; (of the sun), with many derivatives.
+In the third place, some signs may be <i>transferred</i> to
+express another root having the same consonants as the first: thus
+<img style="width:19px; height:21px" src="images/img62h.jpg" alt="" />, the ear, by a play upon words can express not only <i>&#347;&#7695;m</i>, &ldquo;hear,&rdquo;
+but also <i>&#347;dm</i>, &ldquo;paint the eyes.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Phonograms.</i>&mdash;Only a limited number of signs are found with this
+use, but they are of the greatest importance. By searching throughout
+the whole mass of normal inscriptions, earlier than the periods
+of Greek and Roman rule when great liberties were taken with the
+writing, probably no more than one hundred different phonograms
+can be found. The number of those commonly employed in good
+writing is between seventy and eighty. The most important phonograms
+are the <i>uniliteral</i> or <i>alphabetic</i> signs, twenty-four in number
+in the Old Kingdom and without any homophones: later these were
+increased by homophones to thirty. Of <i>biliteral</i> phonograms&mdash;each
+expressing a combination of two consonants&mdash;there were about fifty
+commonly used: some fifteen or twenty were rarely used. As
+Egyptian roots seldom exceeded three letters, there was no need for
+<i>triliteral</i> phonograms to spell them. There is, however, one triliteral
+phonogram, the eagle, <img style="width:40px; height:40px" src="images/img62i.jpg" alt="" />, <i>tyw</i>, or <i>tiu</i> (?), used for the plural ending
+of adjectives in <i>y</i> formed from words ending in <i>t</i> (whether radical
+or the feminine ending).</p>
+
+<p>The phonetic values of the signs are derived from their word-sign
+values and consist usually of the bare root, though there are rare
+examples of the retention of a flexional ending; they often ignore also
+the weaker consonants of the root, and on the same principle reduce a
+repeated consonant to a single one, as when the hoe <img style="width:18px; height:18px" src="images/img62i1.jpg" alt="" />, <i>&#7717;nn</i>, has the
+phonetic value <i>&#7717;n</i>. The history of some of the alphabetic signs is still
+very obscure, but a sufficient number of them have been explained
+to make it nearly certain that the values of all were obtained on the
+same principles.<a name="fa15c" id="fa15c" href="#ft15c"><span class="sp">15</span></a> Some of the ancient words from which the phonetic
+values were derived probably fell very early into disuse, and may
+never be discoverable in the texts that have come down to us. The
+following are among those most easily explained:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" cellspacing="15" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tclb"><img style="width:13px; height:39px" src="images/img62j.jpg" alt="" />, reed flower,&emsp; &emsp; &emsp; </td> <td class="tclb">value <i>y</i> and &#1488;; from <img style="width:102px; height:45px" src="images/img62k.jpg" alt="" />, <i>y&rsquo;</i>, &ldquo;reed.&rdquo;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">(It seems as if the two values <i>y</i> and &#1488; were obtained by choosing
+first one and then the other of the two semi-consonants composing
+the name. They are much confused, and a conventional symbol <i>l</i>
+has to be adopted for rendering <img style="width:13px; height:39px" src="images/img62j.jpg" alt="" />.)</p>
+
+<table class="reg" cellspacing="15" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tclb"><img style="width:40px; height:14px" src="images/img62l.jpg" alt="" />, forearm,</td> <td class="tclb">value &rsquo;(&#1506;); from <img style="width:42px; height:33px" src="images/img62m.jpg" alt="" />, &rsquo;(&#1506;), &ldquo;hand.&rdquo;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclb"><img style="width:44px; height:13px" src="images/img60l.jpg" alt="" />, mouth,</td> <td class="tclb">value <i>r</i>;  from  <img style="width:41px; height:34px" src="images/img62m1.jpg" alt="" />, <i>r</i>, &ldquo;mouth.&rdquo;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclb"><img style="width:38px; height:15px" src="images/img62n.jpg" alt="" />, belly and teats,</td> <td class="tclb">value <i>&#7723;</i>; from   <img style="width:40px; height:30px" src="images/img62o.jpg" alt="" />, <i>&#7723;.t</i>, &ldquo;belly.&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">(The feminine ending is here, as usual, neglected.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclb"><img style="width:40px; height:17px" src="images/img62p.jpg" alt="" />, tank,</td> <td class="tclb">value <i>&#353;</i>; from <img style="width:44px; height:34px" src="images/img62q.jpg" alt="" />, <i>&#353;</i>, &ldquo;tank.&rdquo;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclb"><img style="width:16px; height:18px" src="images/img62r.jpg" alt="" />, slope of earth or brickwork,</td> <td class="tclb">value <i>q</i>; from <img style="width:113px; height:42px" src="images/img62s.jpg" alt="" />, <i>q</i>&rsquo;&rsquo;, &ldquo;slope,&rdquo; &ldquo;height.&rdquo;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc" colspan="2">(The doubled weak consonant is here neglected.)</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclb"><img style="width:40px; height:15px" src="images/img62t.jpg" alt="" />, hand,</td> <td class="tclb">value <i>d</i>; from  <img style="width:44px; height:35px" src="images/img62u.jpg" alt="" />, <i>d.t</i>, &ldquo;hand.&rdquo;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclb"><img style="width:38px; height:43px" src="images/img62v.jpg" alt="" />, cobra,</td> <td class="tclb">value <i>z</i>; from  <img style="width:42px; height:40px" src="images/img62w.jpg" alt="" />, <i>z.t</i>, &ldquo;cobra.&rdquo;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">For some alphabetic signs more than one likely origin might be
+found, while for others, again, no clear evidence of origin is yet
+forthcoming.</p>
+
+<p>It has already been explained that the writing expresses only
+consonants. In the Graeco-Roman period various imperfect
+attempts were made to render the vowels in foreign names and
+words by the semi-vowels as also by <img style="width:40px; height:14px" src="images/img62l.jpg" alt="" />, the consonant &#1506;
+which <img style="width:40px; height:14px" src="images/img62l.jpg" alt="" /> originally represented having been reduced in speech
+by that time to the power of &#1488;, only. Thus, <span class="grk" title="Ptolemaios">&#928;&#964;&#959;&#955;&#949;&#956;&#945;&#953;&#959;&#962;</span> is spelt
+<i>Ptwrmys</i>, Antoninus, <i>&rsquo;Nt&rsquo;nynws</i> or <i>Intnyns</i>, &amp;c. &amp;c. Much earlier,
+throughout the New Kingdom, a special &ldquo;syllabic&rdquo; orthography,
+in which the alphabetic signs for the consonants are generally
+replaced by groups or single signs having the value of a consonant
+followed by a semi-vowel, was used for foreign names and words, <i>e.g.</i></p>
+
+<table class="reg" cellspacing="15" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcrm">&#1514;&#1489;&#1499;&#1512;&#1502;,</td> <td class="tclb">&ldquo;chariot,&rdquo; was written <img style="width:253px; height:43px" src="images/img62x.jpg" alt="" />,
+in Coptic <img style="width:137px; height:27px" src="images/img62y.jpg" alt="" />.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcrm">&#1500;&#1491;&#1490;&#1502;,</td> <td class="tclb">&ldquo;tower,&rdquo; was written <img style="width:188px; height:41px" src="images/img62z.jpg" alt="" />,
+<img style="width:222px; height:42px" src="images/img62aa.jpg" alt="" />, <img style="width:100px; height:23px" src="images/img62ab.jpg" alt="" />.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcrb">&#1512;&#1493;&#1504;&#1499;,</td> <td class="tclb">&ldquo;harp,&rdquo; was written <img style="width:276px; height:38px" src="images/img62ac.jpg" alt="" />.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcrb">&#1514;&#1502;&#1495;,</td> <td class="tclb">&ldquo;Hamath,&rdquo; was written <img style="width:224px; height:42px" src="images/img62ad.jpg" alt="" />.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">According to W. Max Müller (<i>Asien und Europa</i>, 1893, chap, v.),
+this represents an endeavour to express the vocalization; but, if so,
+it was carried out with very little system. In practice, the semi-vowels
+are generally negligible. This method of writing can be
+traced back into the Middle Kingdom, if not beyond, and it greatly
+affected the spelling of native words in New Egyptian and demotic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Determinatives.</i>&mdash;Most signs can on occasion be used as determinatives,
+but those that are very commonly employed as phonograms
+or as secondary word-signs are seldom employed as determinatives;
+and when they are so used they are often somewhat
+differentiated. Certain generic determinatives are very common,
+<i>e.g.</i>:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" cellspacing="15" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcr"><img style="width:26px; height:21px" src="images/img62ae.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl">; of motion.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr"><img style="width:75px; height:40px" src="images/img62af.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl">; of acts involving force.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr"><img style="width:23px; height:38px" src="images/img62ag.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl">; of divinity.<span class="pagenum"><a name="page63" id="page63"></a>63</span></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr"><img style="width:26px; height:38px" src="images/img63a.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl">; of a person or a man&rsquo;s name.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr"><img style="width:37px; height:16px" src="images/img63b.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl">; of buildings.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr"><img style="width:19px; height:18px" src="images/img63c.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl">; of inhabited places.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr"><img style="width:39px; height:16px" src="images/img63d.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl">; of foreign countries.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr"><img style="width:17px; height:37px" src="images/img63e.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl">; club; of foreigners.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr"><img style="width:28px; height:42px" src="images/img63f.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl">; of all actions of the mouth&mdash;eating and speaking, likewise
+silence and hunger.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr"><img style="width:36px; height:38px" src="images/img63g.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl">; ripple-lines; of liquid.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr"><img style="width:30px; height:40px" src="images/img63h.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl">; hide; of animals, also leather, &amp;c.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr"><img style="width:25px; height:30px" src="images/img63i.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl">; of plants and fibres.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr"><img style="width:17px; height:24px" src="images/img63j.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl">; of flesh.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr"><img style="width:40px; height:14px" src="images/img63k.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl">; a sealed papyrus-roll; of books, teaching, law, and of
+abstract ideas generally.</td></tr>
+
+</table>
+
+<p>In the earliest inscriptions the use of determinatives is restricted
+to the <img style="width:56px; height:43px" src="images/img63l.jpg" alt="" />, &amp;c., after proper names, but it developed immensely
+later, so that few words beyond the particles were written
+without them in the normal style after the Old Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>Some few signs ideographic of a group of ideas are made to express
+particular words belonging to that group by the aid of phonograms
+which point out the special meaning. In such cases the ideogram
+is not merely a determinative nor yet quite a word-sign.
+Thus <img style="width:212px; height:43px" src="images/img63m.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;Semite,&rdquo; <img style="width:173px; height:41px" src="images/img63n.jpg" alt="" />
+&ldquo;Libyan,&rdquo; &amp;c., but <img style="width:17px; height:37px" src="images/img63e.jpg" alt="" /> cannot stand by itself for the name of any
+particular foreign people. So also in monogram <img style="width:40px; height:27px" src="images/img63o.jpg" alt="" /> is <i>&#353;m</i> &ldquo;go,&rdquo;
+<img style="width:38px; height:17px" src="images/img63p.jpg" alt="" /> is &ldquo;conduct.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Orthography.</i>&mdash;The most primitive form of spelling in the hieroglyphic
+system would be by one sign for each word, and the monuments
+of the Ist Dynasty show a decided tendency to this mode.
+Examples of it in later times are preserved in the royal cartouches,
+for here the monumental style demanded special consciseness. Thus,
+for instance, the name of Tethmosis III.&mdash;MN-&#7722;PR-R&rsquo;&mdash;is spelled
+<img style="width:101px; height:44px" src="images/img63q.jpg" alt="" /> (as R&rsquo; is the name of the sun-god, with customary
+deference to the deity it is written first though pronounced last).
+A number of common words&mdash;prepositions, &amp;c.&mdash;with only one
+consonant are spelled by single alphabetic signs in ordinary
+writing. Word-signs used singly for the names of objects are
+generally marked with | in classical writing, as <img style="width:38px; height:41px" src="images/img63r.jpg" alt="" />, <i>ib</i>, &ldquo;heart,&rdquo;
+<img style="width:22px; height:41px" src="images/img63s.jpg" alt="" />, <i>&#7717;r</i>, &ldquo;face,&rdquo; &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>But the use of bare word-signs is not common. Flexional consonants
+are almost always marked by phonograms, except in very
+early times;  as when the feminine word <img style="width:37px; height:38px" src="images/img63t.jpg" alt="" /> = <i>z.t</i>, &ldquo;cobra,&rdquo; is
+spelled <img style="width:37px; height:43px" src="images/img63u.jpg" alt="" />. Also, if a sign had more than one value, a phonogram
+would be added to indicate which of its values was intended:
+thus <img style="width:17px; height:43px" src="images/img63v.jpg" alt="" /> in <img style="width:47px; height:41px" src="images/img63w.jpg" alt="" /> is <i>&#347;w</i>, &ldquo;he,&rdquo; but in <img style="width:16px; height:40px" src="images/img63x.jpg" alt="" /> it is <i>&#347;tn</i>, &ldquo;king.&rdquo; Further,
+owing to the vast number of signs employed, to prevent confusion
+of one with another in rapid writing they were generally provided
+with &ldquo;phonetic complements,&rdquo; a group being less easily misread
+than a single letter. <i>E.g.</i> <img style="width:9px; height:40px" src="images/img63y.jpg" alt="" />, <i>wz</i>, &ldquo;command,&rdquo; is regularly written
+<img style="width:45px; height:40px" src="images/img63z.jpg" alt="" />, <i>wz</i> (<i>w</i>); but <img style="width:11px; height:41px" src="images/img63aa.jpg" alt="" />, <i>&#7717;z</i>, &ldquo;white,&rdquo; is written <img style="width:53px; height:43px" src="images/img63ab.jpg" alt="" />, <i>&#7717;z</i>(<i>z</i>). This
+practice had the advantage also of distinguishing determinatives
+from phonograms. Thus the root or syllable <i>&#7717;n</i> is regularly written
+<img style="width:58px; height:42px" src="images/img63ac.jpg" alt="" /> to avoid confusion with the determinative <img style="width:25px; height:30px" src="images/img63ad.jpg" alt="" />. Redundance
+in writing is the rule; for instance, <i>b</i> is often spelled <img style="width:108px; height:41px" src="images/img63ae.jpg" alt="" />
+(<i>b</i>)<i>b</i>&rsquo;(&rsquo;). Biliteral phonograms are very rare as phonetic complements,
+nor are two biliteral phonograms employed together in writing the
+radicals of a word.</p>
+
+<p>Spelling of words purely in phonetic or even alphabetic characters
+is not uncommon, the determinative being generally added. Thus
+in the pyramidal texts we find <i>&#7723;pr</i>, &ldquo;become,&rdquo; written <img style="width:26px; height:38px" src="images/img63af.jpg" alt="" /> in one
+copy of a text, in another <img style="width:40px; height:37px" src="images/img63ag.jpg" alt="" />. Such variant spellings are very
+important for fixing the readings of word-signs. It is noteworthy
+that though words were so freely spelled in alphabetic characters,
+especially in the time of the Old Kingdom, no advance was ever
+made towards excluding the cumbersome word-signs and biliteral
+phonograms, which, by a judicious use of determinatives, might well
+have been rendered quite superfluous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Abbreviations.</i>&mdash;We find <img style="width:55px; height:42px" src="images/img63ah.jpg" alt="" />, strictly <i>&rsquo;n&#7723; z</i>&rsquo; <i>&#347;</i> standing for the
+ceremonial <i>viva! &rsquo;n&#7723; wz, &#347;nb</i>. &ldquo;Life, Prosperity and Health,&rdquo;
+and in course of time <img style="width:40px; height:14px" src="images/img63k.jpg" alt="" /> was used in accounts instead of <img style="width:40px; height:22px" src="images/img63ai.jpg" alt="" />
+<i>dmz</i>, &ldquo;total.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Monograms</i> are frequent and are found from the earliest times.
+Thus <img style="width:40px; height:27px" src="images/img63o.jpg" alt="" />, <img style="width:38px; height:17px" src="images/img63p.jpg" alt="" /> mentioned above are monograms, the association
+of <img style="width:44px; height:15px" src="images/img63aj.jpg" alt="" /> and <img style="width:25px; height:26px" src="images/img63ak.jpg" alt="" /> having no pictorial meaning. Another common
+monogram is <img style="width:42px; height:41px" src="images/img63al.jpg" alt="" />, <i>i.e.</i> <img style="width:16px; height:41px" src="images/img63am.jpg" alt="" /> and <img style="width:36px; height:43px" src="images/img63an.jpg" alt="" /> for <i>&#7716;·t-&#7716;rw</i> &ldquo;Hathor.&rdquo;
+A word-sign may be compounded with its phonetic complement,
+as <img style="width:41px; height:41px" src="images/img63ao.jpg" alt="" /> <i>&#7717;z</i> &ldquo;white,&rdquo; or with its determinative, as <img style="width:43px; height:38px" src="images/img63ap.jpg" alt="" /> <i>&#7717;z</i> &ldquo;silver.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The table on the opposite page shows the uses of a few of the
+commoner signs.</p>
+
+<p>The decorative value of hieroglyphic was fully appreciated in
+Egypt. The aim of the artist-scribe was to arrange his variously
+shaped characters into square groups, and this could be done in great
+measure by taking advantage of the different ways in which many
+words could be spelt. Thus <i>&#7717;s</i> could be written <img style="width:37px; height:41px" src="images/img63aq.jpg" alt="" />, <i>&#7717;sy</i> <img style="width:41px; height:44px" src="images/img63ar.jpg" alt="" />,
+<i>&#7717;s-f</i> <img style="width:58px; height:42px" src="images/img63as.jpg" alt="" />, <i>&#7717;s-n-f</i> <img style="width:56px; height:42px" src="images/img63at.jpg" alt="" />. But some words in the classical writing
+were intractable from this point of view. It is obvious that the alphabetic
+signs played a very important part in the formation of the
+groups, and many words could only be written in alphabetic signs.
+A great advance was therefore made when several homophones were
+introduced into the alphabet in the Middle and New Kingdoms,
+partly as the result of the wearing away of old phonetic distinctions,
+giving the choice between <img style="width:38px; height:9px" src="images/img60r.jpg" alt="" /> and <img style="width:84px; height:38px" src="images/img63au.jpg" alt="" /> and <img style="width:73px; height:42px" src="images/img63av.jpg" alt="" /> and
+<img style="width:97px; height:19px" src="images/img63aw.jpg" alt="" /> and <img style="width:68px; height:40px" src="images/img63ax.jpg" alt="" /> and <img style="width:20px; height:22px" src="images/img63ay.jpg" alt="" />. In later times the number of
+homophones in use increased greatly throughout the different
+classes, the tendency being much helped by the habit of fanciful
+writing; but few of these homophones found their way into the
+cursive script. Occasionally a scribe of the old times indulged
+his fancy in &ldquo;sportive&rdquo; or &ldquo;mysterious&rdquo; writing, either inventing
+new signs or employing old ones in unusual meanings. Short
+sportive inscriptions are found in tombs of the XIIth Dynasty;
+some groups are so written cursively in early medical papyri,
+and certain religious inscriptions in the royal tombs of the
+XIXth and XXth Dynasties are in secret writing. Fanciful
+writing abounds on the temples of the Ptolemaic and Roman
+periods.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">Palaeography</p>
+
+<p><i>HRGic.</i>&mdash;The main division is into monumental or epigraphic
+hieroglyphs and written hieroglyphs. The former may be rendered
+by the sculptor or the painter in stone, on wood, &amp;c., with great
+delicacy of detail, or may be simply sunk or painted in outline.
+When finely rendered they are of great value to the student investigating
+the origins of their values. No other system of writing
+bears upon its face so clearly the history of its development as the
+Egyptian; yet even in this a vast amount of work is still required
+to detect and disentangle the details. Monumental hieroglyphic
+did not cease till the 3rd century <span class="sc">a.d.</span> (Temple of Esna). The written
+hieroglyphs, formed by the scribe with the reed pen on papyrus,
+leather, wooden tablets, &amp;c., have their outlines more or less abbreviated,
+producing eventually the cursive scripts hieratic and demotic.
+The written hieroglyphs were employed at all periods, especially
+for religious texts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hieratic.</i>&mdash;A kind of cursive hieroglyphic or hieratic writing is
+found even in the Ist Dynasty. In the Middle Kingdom it is well
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page64" id="page64"></a>64</span>
+characterized, and in its most cursive form seems hardly to retain
+any definable trace of the original hieroglyphic pictures. The style
+varies much at different periods.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Sign.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Description.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Name.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Word-sign<br />Value.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Phonetic<br />Value.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Determinative<br />Value.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:26px; height:43px" src="images/img64a.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">child</td> <td class="tcc rb">hrd (khrod)</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">youth</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:22px; height:24px" src="images/img64b.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">face</td> <td class="tcc rb">&#7717;r (&#7717;or)</td> <td class="tcc rb">&#7717;r</td> <td class="tcc rb">[&#7717;r]</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:40px; height:14px" src="images/img64c.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">eye</td> <td class="tcc rb">ir.t (yori.t)</td> <td class="tcc rb">ir</td> <td class="tcc rb">ir</td> <td class="tcl rb">see, &amp;c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:38px; height:13px" src="images/img64d.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">mouth</td> <td class="tcc rb">r (ro)</td> <td class="tcc rb">r</td> <td class="tcc rb">r</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:40px; height:16px" src="images/img64e.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">forearm</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rsquo; (&rsquo;ei)</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rsquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rsquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">[action of hand or arm]</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:41px; height:20px" src="images/img64f.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">arm with stick</td> <td class="tcc rb">n&#7723;t &ldquo;be strong&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">n&#7723;t</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">violent action</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:23px; height:41px" src="images/img64g.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">man with stick</td> <td class="tcc rb">n&#7723;t &ldquo;be strong&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">n&#7723;t</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">violent action</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:23px; height:40px" src="images/img64h.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">lungs and windpipe</td> <td class="tcc rb">sm;</td> <td class="tcc rb">sm;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:18px; height:23px" src="images/img64i.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">heart</td> <td class="tcc rb">ib</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">heart</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:16px; height:41px" src="images/img64j.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">heart and windpipe</td> <td class="tcc rb">?</td> <td class="tcc rb">nfr</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:38px; height:22px" src="images/img64k.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">sparrow</td> <td class="tcc rb">?</td> <td class="tcc rb">&#353;r</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">evil, worthlessness, smallness</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:41px; height:42px" src="images/img64l.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">widgeon</td> <td class="tcc rb">s;.t</td> <td class="tcc rb">s;</td> <td class="tcc rb">s;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:42px; height:23px" src="images/img64m.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">bolti-fish</td> <td class="tcc rb">in.t</td> <td class="tcc rb">in</td> <td class="tcc rb">in</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:45px; height:12px" src="images/img64n.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">tusk</td> <td class="tcc rb">(1) ib&#7717; &ldquo;tooth&rdquo;<br />(2) &#7717;w &ldquo;taste&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">b&#7717;<br />&#7717;w</td> <td class="tcc rb">b&#7717;</td> <td class="tcl rb">bite, &amp;c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:42px; height:13px" src="images/img64o.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">cut branch</td> <td class="tcc rb">&#7723;t</td> <td class="tcc rb">&#7723;t</td> <td class="tcc rb">[&#7723;t]</td> <td class="tcl rb">wood, tree</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:15px; height:17px" src="images/img64p.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">threshing-floor</td> <td class="tcc rb">sp.t</td> <td class="tcc rb">sp</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:16px; height:16px" src="images/img64q.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">sun</td> <td class="tcc rb">(1) r&rsquo; &ldquo;sun&rdquo;<br />(2) hrw &ldquo;day&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">(1) sun<br />(2) division of time</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:41px; height:15px" src="images/img64r.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">chamber, house</td> <td class="tcc rb">pr</td> <td class="tcc rb">pr</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:40px; height:10px" src="images/img64s.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">flat land</td> <td class="tcc rb">t&rsquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">t&rsquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">t&rsquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">boundless horizon, eternity</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:11px; height:42px" src="images/img64t.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">libation vase</td> <td class="tcc rb">&#7717;s.t</td> <td class="tcc rb">&#7717;s</td> <td class="tcc rb">&#7717;s</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:12px; height:40px" src="images/img64u.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">cord on stick</td> <td class="tcc rb">wz</td> <td class="tcc rb">wz</td> <td class="tcc rb">wz</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:42px; height:17px" src="images/img64v.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">basket</td> <td class="tcc rb">nb.t</td> <td class="tcc rb">nb</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:43px; height:14px" src="images/img64w.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">looped basket</td> <td class="tcc rb">?</td> <td class="tcc rb">k</td> <td class="tcc rb">k</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:36px; height:44px" src="images/img64x.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">sickle</td> <td class="tcc rb">?</td> <td class="tcc rb">m&rsquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">m&rsquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:42px; height:17px" src="images/img64y.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">composite hoe</td> <td class="tcc rb">[mr?]</td> <td class="tcc rb">mr</td> <td class="tcc rb">mr</td> <td class="tcl rb">tillage</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:18px; height:43px" src="images/img64z.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">fire-drill</td> <td class="tcc rb">z&rsquo;.t(?)</td> <td class="tcc rb">z&rsquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">z&rsquo;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"><img style="width:13px; height:42px" src="images/img64aa.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb">attendant&rsquo;s equipment</td> <td class="tcc rb">&#353;m&#347; &ldquo;follow&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&#353;m&#347;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb"><img style="width:38px; height:18px" src="images/img64ab.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcl rb bb">knife</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">d&#347;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">d&#347;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">cut, prick, cutting instrument</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Demotic.</i>&mdash;Widely varying degrees of cursiveness are at all periods
+observable in hieratic; but, about the XXVIth Dynasty, which
+inaugurated a great commercial era, there was something like a
+definite parting between the uncial hieratic and the most cursive
+form afterwards known as demotic. The employment of hieratic
+was thenceforth almost confined to the copying of religious and other
+traditional texts on papyrus, while demotic was used not only for all
+business but also for writing literary and even religious texts in the
+popular language. By the time of the XXVth Dynasty the cursive
+of the conservative Thebais had become very obscure. A better
+form from Lower Egypt drove this out completely in the time of
+Amasis II. and is the true demotic. Before the Macedonian conquest
+the cursive ligatures of the old demotic gave birth to new symbols
+which were carefully and distinctly formed, and a little later an
+epigraphic variety was engraved on stone, as in the case of the
+Rosetta stone itself. One of the most characteristic
+distinctions of later demotic is the
+minuteness of the writing.</p>
+
+<p>HRGic is normally written from right
+to left, the signs facing to the commencement
+of the line; hieratic and demotic follow the
+same direction. But monumental hieroglyphic
+may also be written from left to right, and is
+constantly so arranged for purposes of symmetry,
+<i>e.g.</i> the inscriptions on the two jambs
+of a door are frequently turned in opposite
+directions; the same is frequently done with
+the short inscriptions scattered over a scene
+amongst the figures, in order to distinguish one
+label from another.</p>
+
+<p>In modern founts of type, the hieroglyphic
+signs are made to run from left to right, in
+order to facilitate the setting where European
+text is mixed with the Egyptian. The table
+on next page shows them in their more correct
+position, in order to display more clearly
+their relation to the hieratic and demotic
+equivalents.</p>
+
+<p>Clement of Alexandria states that in the
+Egyptian schools the pupils were first taught
+the &ldquo;epistolographic&rdquo; style of writing (<i>i.e.</i>
+demotic), secondly the &ldquo;hieratic&rdquo; employed
+by the sacred scribes, and finally the &ldquo;hieroglyphic&rdquo;
+(<i>Strom.</i> v. 657). It is doubtful
+whether they classified the signs of the huge
+hieroglyphic syllabary with any strictness.
+The only native work on the writing that has
+come to light as yet is a fragmentary papyrus
+of Roman date which has a table in parallel
+columns of hieroglyphic signs, with their hieratic
+equivalents and words written in hieratic describing
+them or giving their values or meanings.
+The list appears to have comprised about
+460 signs, including most of those that occur
+commonly in hieratic.  They are to some
+extent classified. The bee <img style="width:42px; height:41px" src="images/img64ac.jpg" alt="" /> heads the list
+as a royal sign, and is followed by figures of
+nobles and other human figures in various attitudes,
+more or less grouped among themselves,
+animals, reptiles and fishes, scorpion, animals
+again, twenty-four alphabetic characters, parts
+of the human body carefully arranged from
+<img style="width:21px; height:22px" src="images/img64ad.jpg" alt="" /> to <img style="width:26px; height:23px" src="images/img64ae.jpg" alt="" />, thirty-two in number, parts of
+animals, celestial signs, terrestrial signs, vases.
+The arrangement down to this point is far from
+strict, and beyond it is almost impossible to
+describe concisely, though there is still a rough
+grouping of characters according to resemblance
+of form, nature or meaning. It is a
+curious fact that not a single bird is visible
+on the fragments, and the trees and plants,
+which might easily have been collected in a
+compact and well-defined section, are widely
+scattered. Why the alphabetic characters are
+introduced where they are is a puzzle; the order
+of these is:&mdash;<img style="width:239px; height:40px" src="images/img64af.jpg" alt="" />
+<img style="width:361px; height:43px" src="images/img64ag.jpg" alt="" />
+<img style="width:361px; height:40px" src="images/img64ah.jpg" alt="" /></p>
+
+<p>Three others, <img style="width:76px; height:41px" src="images/img64ai.jpg" alt="" /> and <img style="width:41px; height:14px" src="images/img64aj.jpg" alt="" />, had already occurred
+amongst the fish and reptiles. There seems to be no logical aim
+in this arrangement of the alphabetic characters and the series is
+incomplete. Very probably the Egyptians never constructed a
+really systematic list of hieroglyphs. In modern lists the signs are
+classified according to the nature of the objects they depict, as
+human figures, plants, vessels, instruments, &amp;c. Horapollon&rsquo;s
+<i>Hieroglyphica</i> may be cited as a native work, but its author,
+if really an Egyptian, had no knowledge of good writing. His production
+consists of two elaborate complementary lists: the one
+describing sign-pictures and giving their meanings, the other cataloguing
+ideas in order to show how they could be expressed in
+hieroglyphic. Each seems to us to be made up of curious but perverted
+reminiscences eked out by invention; but they might some day
+prove to represent more truly the usages of mystics and magicians
+in designing amulets, &amp;c., at a time approaching the middle ages.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind pt2 f80 sc">Plate I.</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">EARLIEST EGYPTIAN ART</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 820px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:114px; height:244px" src="images/img64x1.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:209px; height:234px" src="images/img64x2.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:196px; height:240px" src="images/img64x3.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">1. TATOOED FEMALE, LIMESTONE SLAG.</td>
+<td class="caption">2. HEADS ON IVORY TUSKS. 3.</td>
+<td class="caption">4. ANIMALS ON BONE COMBS. 5.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:182px; height:242px" src="images/img64x4.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:277px; height:251px" src="images/img64x5.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:212px; height:245px" src="images/img64x6.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">6. IVORY HAWK.<br />LIMESTONE LION.</td>
+<td class="caption">8. IVORY DOG AND GAZELLE.<br />9. IVORY HANDLE OF KNIFE.</td>
+<td class="caption">10. 11. WHITE ON RED VASES; MEN AND ANIMALS.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 820px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:228px; height:270px" src="images/img64x7.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:422px; height:154px" src="images/img64x8.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:118px; height:274px" src="images/img64x9.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">12. SHIP ON A VASE.</td>
+<td class="caption">13. SHIP ON A WALL PAINTING.</td>
+<td class="caption">14. IVORY KING.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 820px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:230px; height:246px" src="images/img64x10.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:229px; height:254px" src="images/img64x11.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:268px; height:238px" src="images/img64x12.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">15. ARCHAIC KING&rsquo;S HEAD, STUDY IN LIMESTONE. 16.</td>
+<td class="caption">17. HEAD OF KHASEKHEM.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind pt2 f80 sc">Plate II.</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">EARLY EGYPTIAN ART.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 820px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:254px; height:187px" src="images/img64y1.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:334px; height:182px" src="images/img64y2.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:195px; height:184px" src="images/img64y3.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">18. LIMESTONE RELIEF.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="f80"><i>Photo, Mansell.</i></span><br />19. ANIMALS ON SLATE PALETTE.</td>
+<td class="caption">20. CONQUEROR AS A BULL.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 820px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:316px; height:359px" src="images/img64y4.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:159px; height:327px" src="images/img64y5.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:354px; height:354px" src="images/img64y6.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">21. GAZELLES AND PALM, SLATE.</td>
+<td class="caption">22. ANIMALS, SLATE.</td>
+<td class="caption">23. KING NARMER, SLATE PALETTE.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 820px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:284px; height:152px" src="images/img64y7.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:475px; height:148px" src="images/img64y8.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">24. IVORY TUSK, WITH ANIMALS.</td>
+<td class="caption">25. IVORY WAND, WITH ANIMALS.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 820px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:182px; height:328px" src="images/img64y9.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:182px; height:332px" src="images/img64y10.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:294px; height:329px" src="images/img64y11.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:117px; height:321px" src="images/img64y12.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2">26. WOODEN PANELS OF HESI.</td>
+<td class="caption">27. RAHOTP AND NEFERT.</td>
+<td class="caption">28. WOODEN FIGURE.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page65" id="page65"></a>65</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Demotic.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hieratic.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hieroglyphic.</td> <td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>ent</i>, &ldquo;who&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:19px; height:23px" src="images/img65a.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:57px; height:36px" src="images/img65b.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:57px; height:40px" src="images/img65c.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>nty</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>Perso</i> (&ldquo;Pharaoh&rdquo;)</td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:70px; height:40px" src="images/img65d.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:145px; height:41px" src="images/img65e.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:149px; height:42px" src="images/img65f.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>Per&lsquo;o &lsquo;n&#7723; wz, &#347;nb</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>yôt</i>, &ldquo;father&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:53px; height:47px" src="images/img65g.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:78px; height:50px" src="images/img65h.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:77px; height:44px" src="images/img65i.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>&rsquo;itf</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>&lsquo;ônkh</i>, &ldquo;live&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:37px; height:37px" src="images/img65j.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:59px; height:40px" src="images/img65k.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:57px; height:40px" src="images/img65l.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>&lsquo;n&#7723;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>ekh</i>, &ldquo;know&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:24px; height:28px" src="images/img65m.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:62px; height:42px" src="images/img65n.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:102px; height:45px" src="images/img65o.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>r&#7723;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>ahe</i>, &ldquo;stand&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:38px; height:29px" src="images/img65p.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:46px; height:37px" src="images/img65q.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:64px; height:38px" src="images/img65r.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>&lsquo;&#7723;&lsquo;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>eine</i>, &ldquo;carry&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:28px; height:17px" src="images/img65s.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:19px; height:39px" src="images/img65t.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:22px; height:43px" src="images/img65u.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>&rsquo;in</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>ms</i> (phon.)</td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:24px; height:32px" src="images/img65v.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:22px; height:38px" src="images/img65w.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:26px; height:41px" src="images/img65x.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>ms</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>s</i> (alph.)</td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:73px; height:21px" src="images/img65y.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:41px; height:12px" src="images/img65z.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:37px; height:11px" src="images/img65aa.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>s</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>s</i> (alph.)</td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:19px; height:26px" src="images/img65ab.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:18px; height:36px" src="images/img65ac.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:17px; height:42px" src="images/img65ad.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>&#347;</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb"><i>m</i> (alph.)</td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:21px; height:20px" src="images/img65ae.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:26px; height:38px" src="images/img65af.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><img style="width:35px; height:43px" src="images/img65ag.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb"><i>m</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb"><i>n</i> (alph.)</td> <td class="tcc rb bb"><img style="width:44px; height:16px" src="images/img65ah.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb bb"><img style="width:37px; height:12px" src="images/img65ai.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb bb"><img style="width:46px; height:15px" src="images/img65aj.jpg" alt="" /></td> <td class="tcc rb bb"><i>n</i></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The early scribe&rsquo;s outfit, often carried slung over his shoulder,
+is seen in the hieroglyph <img style="width:29px; height:41px" src="images/img65bd.jpg" alt="" />. It consisted of frayed reed pens
+or brushes, a small pot of water, and a palette with two circular cavities
+in which black and red ink were placed, made of finely powdered
+colour solidified with gum. In business and literary documents
+red ink was used for contrast, especially in headings; in demotic,
+however, it is very rarely seen. The pen became finer in course of
+time, enabling the scribe to write very small. The split reed of the
+Greek penman was occasionally adopted by the late demotic scribes.</p>
+
+<p>Egypt had long been bilingual when, in papyri of the 2nd century
+<span class="sc">a.d.</span>, we begin to find transcripts of the Egyptian language into
+Greek letters, the latter reinforced by a few signs borrowed from
+the demotic alphabet: so written we have a magical text and a
+horoscope, probably made by foreigners or for their use. The
+infinite superiority of the Greek alphabet with its full notation of
+vowels was readily seen, but piety and custom as yet barred the way
+to its full adoption. The triumph of Christianity banished the old
+system once and for all; even at the beginning of the 4th century
+the native Egyptian script scarcely survived north of the Nubian
+frontier at Philae; a little later it finally expired. The following
+eight signs, however, had been taken over from demotic by the Copts:</p>
+</div>
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+
+<p>&#995; = <i>&#353;</i>, from <img style="width:39px; height:31px" src="images/img65ak.jpg" alt="" /> <i>&#353;i</i>, dem. <img style="width:94px; height:36px" src="images/img65al.jpg" alt="" />.</p>
+
+<p>&#1001; = <i>h</i>, probably from <img style="width:40px; height:38px" src="images/img65am.jpg" alt="" /> <i>&#7717;w</i> (or <img style="width:32px; height:41px" src="images/img65an.jpg" alt="" /> <i>&#7717;i</i>), dem. <img style="width:36px; height:42px" src="images/img65ao.jpg" alt="" />.</p>
+
+<p>&#998; (Boh.) = <i>&#7723;</i>, from <img style="width:18px; height:44px" src="images/img65ap.jpg" alt="" /> <i>&#7723;i</i>, dem. <img style="width:31px; height:38px" src="images/img65aq.jpg" alt="" />.</p>
+
+<p><img style="width:17px; height:22px" src="images/img65z1.jpg" alt="" /> (Akhm.) = <i>&#7723;</i>, from <img style="width:64px; height:40px" src="images/img65ar.jpg" alt="" /> <i>&#7723;y</i>, <i>&#7723;t</i>, dem. <img style="width:17px; height:30px" src="images/img65as.jpg" alt="" />.</p>
+
+<p>&#997; = <i>f</i>, from <img style="width:41px; height:18px" src="images/img65at.jpg" alt="" /> <i>f</i>, dem. <img style="width:30px; height:29px" src="images/img65au.jpg" alt="" />.</p>
+
+<p>&#1005; = <i>&#269;</i> from <img style="width:42px; height:15px" src="images/img65av.jpg" alt="" /> <i>k</i> (or <img style="width:18px; height:22px" src="images/img65aw.jpg" alt="" /> <i>&#7723;</i>), dem. <img style="width:80px; height:26px" src="images/img65ax.jpg" alt="" />.</p>
+
+<p>&#1003; = <i>&#287;</i>, from <img style="width:18px; height:41px" src="images/img65ay.jpg" alt="" /> <i>di</i> (or <img style="width:41px; height:43px" src="images/img65az.jpg" alt="" /> <i>ti</i>), dem. <img style="width:37px; height:22px" src="images/img65ba.jpg" alt="" />.</p>
+
+<p>&#1007; = <i>ti</i>, from <img style="width:41px; height:36px" src="images/img65bb.jpg" alt="" /> <i>dy·t</i>, dem. <img style="width:38px; height:30px" src="images/img65bc.jpg" alt="" />.</p>
+
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For origins of hieroglyphs, see Petrie&rsquo;s <i>Medum</i> (1892); F. Ll.
+Griffith, <i>A Collection of HRGs</i> (1898); N. de G. Davies, <i>The
+Mastaba of Ptahhetep and
+Akhethetep</i>, pt. i. (1900);
+M. A. Murray, <i>Saqqara
+Mastabas</i> (London, 1905);
+also Petrie and Griffith,
+<i>Two HRGic Papyri from
+Tanis</i> (London, 1889) (native
+sign-list); G. Möller, <i>Hieratische
+Paläographie</i> (Leipzig,
+1909); Griffith, <i>Catalogue of
+Demotic Papyri in the J.
+Rylands Collection</i> (Manchester,
+1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. Ll. G.)</div>
+
+<p>E. <i>Art and Archaeology.</i>&mdash;In
+the following sections
+a general history of the
+characteristics of Ancient
+Egyptian art is first given,
+showing the variation of
+periods and essentials of
+style; and this is followed
+by an account of the use
+made of material products,
+of the tools and instruments
+employed, and of the
+monuments. For further
+details see also the separate
+topographical headings (for
+excavations, &amp;c.), and the
+general articles on the
+various arts and art-materials
+(for references to
+Egypt); also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pyramids</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mummy</a></span>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>General Characteristics.</i></p>
+
+<p>The wide and complex subject of Egyptian art will be treated
+here in six periods: Prehistoric, Early Kings, Pyramid Kings,
+XIIth Dynasty, XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties, XXVIth Dynasty
+and later. In each age will be considered the (A) statuary,
+(B) reliefs, (C) painting.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prehistoric.</i>&mdash;The earliest civilized population of Egypt was
+highly skilled in mechanical accuracy and regularity, but had
+little sense of organic forms. They kept the unfinished treatment
+of the limbs and extremities which is so characteristic of most
+barbaric art; and the action was more considered than the form.</p>
+
+<p>(A) In the round there are in the earlier graves female figures
+of two races, the Bushman type and European, both probably
+representing servants or slaves. These have the legs always
+united, sloping to a point without feet (Plate I. fig. 1); the arms
+are only stumps. The face has a beaky nose and some indication
+of eyes. Upon the surface is colouring; red for the Bushman,
+with black whisker though female; white for the European
+type, with black tattoo patterns. Other female figures are
+modelled in a paste, upon a stick, and the black hair is sometimes
+made separately to fit on as a wig over the red head, showing
+that wigs were then used. Male figures are generally only heads
+in the earlier times. Tusks with carved heads (Plate I. figs. 2, 3)
+are the earliest, beginning at S.D. (sequence date) 33;<a name="fa16c" id="fa16c" href="#ft16c"><span class="sp">16</span></a> heads
+on the top of combs are found, from S.D. 42 to the close of such
+combs in the fifties. All of these heads show a high forehead
+and a pointed beard; and such expression as may be discovered
+is grave but not savage. In later times whole figures of ivory,
+stone and clay are found, with the legs united, and the arms
+usually joined to the body. A favourite way of indicating the
+eyes was by drilling two holes and inserting a white shell bead
+in each. The figures of animals (Plate I. figs. 4, 5) are quite as
+rude as the human figures: they only summarily indicate the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page66" id="page66"></a>66</span>
+mature, and often hardly express the genus. They are most usual
+on combs and pins; but sacred animals are also found. The
+lion is the most usual (Plate I. fig. 7), but the legs are roughly
+marked, if at all: the leonine air is given, but the attitude is
+more distinct than the form. The hawk (Plate I. fig. 6) is
+modelled in block without any legs. The slate palettes in the
+form of animals are even more summary, and continually
+degraded until they lost all trace of their origin. There are also
+curious figures of animals chipped in flint, which show some
+character, but no detail.</p>
+
+<p>(B) Reliefs with animal figures belong to the later part of the
+prehistoric age. The relief is low, and the form hatched across
+with lines (Plate I. fig. 8), a style copied from drawing. There
+is more animation than in the round figures. At the close of
+this age the fashion of long processions of animals appears
+(Plate I. fig. 9); some character is shown in these, but no sense
+of action.</p>
+
+<p>(C) Drawing is found from the earliest civilization, done in
+white slip on red vases. Figures of men are very rare (Plate I.
+fig. 10); they have the body triangular, the waist being very
+narrow; the legs are two lines linked by a zigzag, as if to express
+that they move to and fro. The usual figures are goats and
+hippopotami; always having the body covered with cross lines
+to express the connexion of the outlines (Plate I. fig. 11). This
+technique is in every way closely akin to that of the modern
+Kabyle. An entirely different mode is common at a later time
+when designs were painted in thin red colour on a light brown
+ware. The subjects of the earlier of these examples are imitations
+of cordage, of marbling, and of basket-work; later there are
+rows of men and animals, and ships (Plate I. figs. 12, 13), with
+various minor signs. The figures are never cross-hatched as in
+earlier drawing, but always filled in altogether. The fact that
+the ships have oars and not sails makes it probable that they
+were rather for the sea than for Nile traffic, and a starfish
+among the motives on such pottery also points to the sea connexion.
+The ulterior meaning of the decoration is probably
+religious and funereal, but the objects which are figured must
+have been familiar.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For this whole period see Jean Capart, <i>Débuts de l&rsquo;art en Égypte</i>
+(1904; trans. <i>Primitive Art in Ancient Egypt</i>).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Early Kings.</i>&mdash;The dynastic race wrought an entire
+transformation in the art of Egypt; in place of the clumsy
+and undetailed representations, there suddenly appears highly
+artistic work, full of character, action and anatomical detail.</p>
+
+<p>(A) The earliest statues of this age are the colossi of the god
+Min from Coptos; that they belong to the artistic race is evident
+from the spirited reliefs upon them (see below, B), but the
+figures were very rude, the legs and arms being joined all in the
+mass. The main example of this early art is a limestone head of
+a king (Plate I. figs. 15, 16), which is a direct study from life,
+to serve as a model. For the accuracy of the facial curves, and
+the grasp of character and type, it is equal to any later work;
+and in its entire absence of conventions and its pure naturalism
+there is no later sculpture so good: as Prof. A. Michaelis says,
+&ldquo;it renders the race type with astounding keenness, and shows
+an excellent power of observation in the exact representation
+of the eyes.&rdquo; By the portrait, it is probably of King Narmer or
+some king related to him, that is, about the beginning of the
+Ist Dynasty. The ivory statuette of an aged king (Plate I.
+fig. 14) is probably slightly later. It shows the same subtle
+sense of character, and is unsurpassed in its reality. Many ivory
+figures of men, women and animals are known from Nekhen
+(Hieraconpolis) and Abydos; and they all show the same school
+of work, simple, dignified, observant, and with an air which
+places them on a higher plane of truthfulness and precision than
+later art. There is none of the mannerism of a long tradition,
+but a nobility pervades them which has no self-consciousness.
+The lower class of work of this age is shown by great numbers
+of glazed pottery figures both human and animal. Later in the
+IInd Dynasty, the head of Khasekhem (Plate I. fig. 17) shows
+the beginning of convention, but yet has a delicacy about the
+mouth which surpasses later works.</p>
+
+<p>(B) Reliefs abound at this age, and include the most important
+evidences of the development of the art. The earliest examples
+are those of animals (Plate II. fig. 18) and shells on the colossi
+of Coptos. They show a keen sense of form, and the stag&rsquo;s head,
+which is probably the earliest, already bears an artistic feeling
+wholly different to that of any of the prehistoric works (P.K. iii.
+iv.). The carvings on slate palettes appear to begin with work
+crudely accurate and forceful, the heavy limbs being ridged with
+tendons and muscles (Plate II. fig. 19), but there is more proportion,
+with the same massive strength (Plate II. fig. 20).
+Soon after, with a leap, the artist produced the first pure work
+of art that is known (Plate II. fig. 21), a design for its own sake
+without the tie of symbolism or history. The group of two long-necked
+gazelles facing a palm tree is of extraordinary refinement,
+and shows the artistic consciousness in every part; the symmetric
+rendering of the palm tree, reduced to fit the scale of the
+animals, the dainty grace of the smooth gazelles contrasted with
+the rugged stem, the delicacy of the long flowing curves and the
+fine indications of the joints, all show a sense of design which
+has rarely been equalled in the ceaseless repetitions of the tree
+and supporters motive during every age since. Passing the
+various palettes with hunting scenes and animals (Plate II.
+fig. 22), we come to the great historical carving of King Narmer
+(Plate II. fig. 23). Here the anatomy has reached its limits for
+such work; the precision of the muscles on the inner and outer
+sides of the leg, of the uniform grip in the left arm, and the tense
+muscle upholding the right arm, prove that the artist knew that
+part of his work perfectly. The large ceremonial mace-heads
+recording the <i>Sed</i> festivals of the king Narmer and another,
+belong also to this school; but owing to their smaller size they
+have not such artistic detail. With them were found many
+reliefs in ivory, on tusks, wands and cylinders. The main motive
+in these is a long procession of animals (Plate II. figs. 24, 25)
+often grotesquely crowded; but there is much observation
+shown and the figures are expressive. No drawing of this age
+has survived.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Pyramid Kings.</i>&mdash;A different ideal appears in the pyramid
+times; in place of the naturalism of the earlier work there is
+more regularity, some convention, and the sense of a school in
+the style. The prevailing feeling is a noble spaciousness both in
+scale and in form, an equanimity based upon knowledge and
+character, a grandeur of conception expressed by severely simple
+execution. There is nothing superfluous, nothing common,
+nothing trivial. The smallest as well as the largest work seems
+complete, inevitable, immutable, without limitations of time,
+or labour or thought.</p>
+
+<p>(A) The statuette of Khufu or Cheops (Plate III. fig. 29)
+though only a minute figure in ivory, shows the character of
+immense energy and will; the face is an astonishing portrait to
+be expressed in a quarter of an inch. The life-size statue of
+Khafr&#275; or Chephren (Plate III. fig. 30) is a majestic work,
+serene and powerful; carved in hard diorite, yet unhesitating in
+execution. The muscular detail is full, but yet kept in harmony
+with the massive style of the figure. The private persons have
+entirely different treatment according to the character of their
+position. In place of the awful dignity of the kings there is the
+placid high-bred Princess Nofri (Plate II. fig. 27, Plate III. fig.
+31), the calm conscientious dignitary Hemset (Plate III. fig. 32),
+the bustling, active, middle-class official, Ka-aper (Plate II. fig. 28,
+Plate III. fig. 33), and the kneeling figure of a servitor. The
+differences of character are very skilfully rendered in all the
+sculpture of this age. The whole figures are stiff in the earlier
+time, as the figure of Nes; then square and massive, but true in
+form, as Rahotp and Nofri (Plate II. fig. 27); and afterwards
+easier and less monumental, as Ka-aper (Plate II. fig. 28). The
+skill in beaten copper work is shown by the portrait of the Prince
+Mer-en-ra (Plate III. fig. 35).</p>
+
+<p>(B) The reliefs are quite equal to the statuary. The wooden
+panels of Hesi (Plate II. fig. 26) show the archaic style of great
+detail, with a bold, stark vigour of attitude. Later work is
+abundant in the tomb-sculptures of this age, with a fulness of
+variety and detail which makes them the most interesting of all
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page67" id="page67"></a>67</span>
+branches of the art.  The general effect cannot be judged without
+a large scene, but the figures of two men and an ox (Plate III. fig.
+37) show the freshness and vigour of the style, which is even
+higher than this in some examples. The clear, noble spacing of
+the surface work is well shown by a group of offerings and
+inscribed titles (Plate III. fig. 36).</p>
+
+<p class="noind f80 pt2 sc">Plate III.</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">PYRAMID PERIOD.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 840px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:238px; height:258px" src="images/img66a1.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:290px; height:260px" src="images/img66a2.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:248px; height:264px" src="images/img66a3.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">29. IVORY OF CHEOPS.</td>
+<td class="caption">30. DIORITE OF CHEPHREN.</td>
+<td class="caption">31. LIMESTONE OF NEFERT.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 840px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:217px; height:283px" src="images/img66a4.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:185px; height:278px" src="images/img66a5.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:216px; height:278px" src="images/img66a6.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:187px; height:277px" src="images/img66a7.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">32. HEMSET: LIMESTONE.</td>
+<td class="caption">33. WOOD (see Fig. 28).</td>
+<td class="caption">34. SCRIBE: LIMESTONE.</td>
+<td class="caption">35. MER-EN-RA: COPPER.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 840px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:466px; height:208px" src="images/img66a8.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:355px; height:211px" src="images/img66a9.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">36. LIMESTONE SLAB OF KHENT-ER-KA.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="f80"><i>Photo, Bonfils</i></span><br />37. THE OXHERDS: LIMESTONE.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 840px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:197px; height:251px" src="images/img66a10.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:197px; height:252px" src="images/img66a11.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:192px; height:246px" src="images/img66a12.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:212px; height:253px" src="images/img66a13.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">38. GRANITE SPHINX.</td>
+<td class="caption">39. AMENEMHË III.</td>
+<td class="caption" colspan="2">40. SENWOSRI I.: LIMESTONE RELIEFS: HOTEPA. 41.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind f80 pt2 sc">Plate IV.</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">1400 B. C. TO ROMAN.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 840px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:229px; height:258px" src="images/img66b1.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:198px; height:265px" src="images/img66b2.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:224px; height:259px" src="images/img66b3.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="f80"><i>Photo, Manseil.</i></span><br />42. AMENOPHIS III.: GRANITE.</td>
+<td class="caption">43. QUEEN TAIA: LIMESTONE.</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="f80"><i>Photo, Anderson.</i></span><br />44. RAMESES II.: GRANITE.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 840px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:98px; height:246px" src="images/img66b4.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:222px; height:245px" src="images/img66b5.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:217px; height:254px" src="images/img66b6.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:236px; height:249px" src="images/img66b7.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">45. NEGRESS: EBONY.</td>
+<td class="caption">46. QUEEN HATSHEPSUT.</td>
+<td class="caption">47. KHA-EM-HAT.</td>
+<td class="caption">48. SETI I.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 840px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:314px; height:254px" src="images/img66b8.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:220px; height:260px" src="images/img66b9.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:248px; height:261px" src="images/img66b10.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">49. PRINCESSES: FRESCO.</td>
+<td class="caption">50. FOUR RACES OF MAN.</td>
+<td class="caption">51. TUMBLER.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 840px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:359px; height:250px" src="images/img66b11.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:226px; height:250px" src="images/img66b12.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:198px; height:249px" src="images/img66b13.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">52. SCENE IN XXVI. DYNASTY.</td>
+<td class="caption">53. PTOLEMAIC RELIEF.</td>
+<td class="caption">54. MODELLED HEAD AND SKULL.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>(C) Flat drawings of this age are rare. Some fine examples,
+such as the geese from M&#275;d&#363;m, show that such work kept pace
+with the reliefs; but most of the fresco-work has perished, and
+there are few instances of line drawing.</p>
+
+<p><i>The XIIth Dynasty.</i>&mdash;This age overlaps the previous in its
+style. The end of the last age was in the very degraded tomb
+work of the early XIth Dynasty.</p>
+
+<p>(A) The new style begins with the royal statues, which it seems
+we must attribute to the foreign kings from whom the XIIth
+Dynasty was descended. These statues were later appropriated by
+the Hyksos, and so came to be called by their name, which is a misnomer.
+The type of face (Plate III. fig. 38) is thick-featured, full
+of force, with powerful masses of facial muscle covering the skull.
+The style is very vigorous and impassioned, without any trace of
+relenting towards conventional work. The surfaces are not in the
+least subdued by a general breadth of style, as in the last period;
+but, on the contrary, revel in the full detail of variety. There is
+perhaps no age where nature is so little controlled by convention
+in either the living character or its sculptured expression. One of
+these kings might well be the founder of the IXth Dynasty,
+&ldquo;Achthoes (Kheti), who did much injury to all the inhabitants,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Khuther Taurus the tyrant&rdquo;; the expression is that of a
+Chlodwig or an Alboin. From this type evidently descended
+the milder and more civilized kings of the XIIth Dynasty, the
+resemblance being so strong that the fierce figures have even been
+identified with that dynasty by some. A good example is that of
+the statue of Amenemhat (Amenemh&#275;) III. (Plate III. fig. 39).
+The style of the XIIth Dynasty may be summed up as clean,
+highly-finished work, strong in facial detail; but with neither the
+grandeur of the IVth nor the vivacity of the XVIIIth Dynasty.
+This passed in the XIIIth Dynasty into a graceful but weak
+manner, as in the statues of Sebkhotp (Sebek-hotep) III. and
+Neferhotp.</p>
+
+<p>(B) The relief work shows most clearly the rise of the new
+style. In the middle of the XIth Dynasty an entirely fresh
+treatment appears; the Old Kingdom work had died out in very
+bad sunk-reliefs, the fresh style (Plate III. fig. 41) was a low
+relief with sharp edges above the field. It was full of delicate
+variety in the surfaces, and of elaborated close-packed lines of hair
+and ornaments. By the time of the early XIIth Dynasty, this
+reached a perfection of refinement in the detail of facial curves,
+with an ostentatiously low relief (P.K. ix. i.), rather on the lines
+of modern French work; but the whole with clean, firm outlines,
+severely restrained in the expression, and without any trace of
+emotion. It is the work of a school, in which high training took
+the place of the reliance on nature. Sunk relief was also well used,
+as by Senusert (Senwosri) I. (Plate III. fig. 40). There was a
+steady decline during the XIIth Dynasty and onward, but the
+same tone was followed.</p>
+
+<p>(C) In some tombs painting only was used, and it followed the
+general character of the relief treatment, being more rigid, detailed,
+and scholastic than the older style.</p>
+
+<p><i>The XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties.</i>&mdash;The obvious, not to say
+superficial, character of this age has rendered it one of the most
+popular in Egyptian art. The older breadth, fulness, and vigour
+have vanished, those great qualities which stamp the immortal
+works of early times. The difference is much like that between
+the Parthenon and the Niobids, or between Jacopo Avanzi and
+Caracci. In this change is the whole difference between the art of
+character and the art of emotion; and though the emotional side
+is the more popular, as needing less thought to understand it, yet
+the unfailing canon is that in every age and land the true quality
+of art is proportionate to the expression of character as apart
+from transient emotion. This may perhaps apply to other arts
+as well as to sculpture and painting. If we accept frankly the
+emotional nature of this age, we may admire its graceful outlines,
+its vivacious manner, its romantic style, with an occasional
+sauciness which is amusing and attractive. It revelled in rich
+detail, and close masses of lines, as in wigs and ribbed dresses.
+It sported with a seductive Syrian type of face, especially under
+Amenophis (Amenhotep) III.; but we find the anatomy giving
+way to mere smoothness of surface, for the sake of contrast with
+the masses of detail. The romantic element increased, solemn
+funereal statues show husband and wife hand in hand; and it
+culminated under Akhenaton, who is seen kissing his wife in the
+chariot, or dancing her on his knee. An overwhelming naturalism
+swamped the older reserves of Egyptian art, and the expression of
+the postures, actions and familiarities of daily life, or the instantaneous
+attitudes of animals, became the <i>dernier cri</i> of fashion.
+It was all charming and wonderful, but it was the end,&mdash;nothing
+could come after it. The XIXth Dynasty, at its best under
+Seti I., could only excel in high finish of smoothness and graceful
+curves; life, character, meaning, had vanished. And soon after,
+under Rameses II., mere mechanical copying, hard lifeless
+routine of stone-cutting, regardless of truth and of nature,
+dominated the whole.</p>
+
+<p>(A) In sculpture there is a certain baldness of style at first,
+as in the Amenophis I. at Turin or Mutnefert at Cairo. More
+fulness and richness of character succeeded, as in Tahutmes
+(Tethmosis) III. and Amenophis III. (Plate IV. fig. 42, British
+Museum). And the feeling of the age finds greater scope in
+private statues, many of which have a personal fascination
+about them, as in the seated figures at Cairo and Florence, and
+the freer work in wood, of which the ebony negress (Plate IV.
+fig. 45) is the best example. The burst of naturalism under
+Akhenaton resulted in some marvellous portraiture, of which
+the fragment of a queen&rsquo;s head (Plate IV. fig. 43) is perhaps the
+most brilliant instance; the fidelity in the delicate curves of
+the nose and around the mouth is enhanced by the touch of
+artistic convention in the facing of the lips. The only work of
+ability in the XIXth Dynasty is the black granite figure
+(Plate IV. fig. 44) of Rameses II. at Turin. The ordinary
+statuary of his reign is painfully stiff and poor, and there is no
+later work in the period worth notice.</p>
+
+<p>(B) The reliefs of the early XVIIIth Dynasty are closely like
+the scenes of the tombs in the pyramid age, but soon carving
+was superseded by the cheaper painting, and but few tombs
+in relief are known. The temples were the principal places for
+reliefs; and they steadily deteriorate from the first great example,
+Deir el Bahri (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Architecture</a></span>: <i>Egyptian</i>), down to the late
+Ramessides. The portraiture is strong and clear-cut (Plate IV.
+fig. 46), but somewhat mechanical and without muscular detail:
+the sameness is rather more than is probable. There is a good
+deal of repetition for mere effect, even in the fine work of Kha-em-hat
+(Plate IV. fig. 47), under Amenophis III. That the
+artists were conscious of their poverty of thought is shown by
+some precise imitations of the style of early monuments. On
+reaching the age of Akhenaton, the peculiar style of that school
+is obvious in every relief; the older conventions were deserted,
+and, for good or for bad, a new start from nature was attempted.
+After that the smooth finish of the Seti reliefs at Abydos (Plate
+IV. fig. 48) shows no life or observation; and only occasionally
+the artist triumphed over the stone-worker, as in the portrait
+of Bantanta at Memphis, which is precisely like another head
+of her found in Sinai. The innumerable reliefs of the XIXth-XXth
+Dynasty temples are only of historic interest, and are all
+despicable in comparison with earlier works.</p>
+
+<p>(C) Painting was the art most congenial to this age; the
+lightness of touch, abundance of incident, and even comedy,
+of the scenes are familiar in the frescoes in the British Museum.
+And under Akhenaton this was pervaded by an entire naturalism
+of posture, as seen in the two little princesses (Plate IV.
+fig. 49). Drawing continued to be the strong point of the art
+after the more laborious sculpture had lost all vitality. The
+tomb of Seti shows exquisitely firm line drawing; and the heads
+of four races (Plate IV. fig. 50), Western, Syrian, and two Negro,
+here show the unfailing line-work which has never been matched
+in later times. The artist habitually drew the long lines of whole
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page68" id="page68"></a>68</span>
+limbs without a single hesitation or revoke; and the drawing
+of a tumbling girl (Plate IV. fig. 51) shows how credibly such
+contortions could be represented. The comic papyri of the
+XXth Dynasty have also a very strong sense of character, even
+through coarse drawing and some childish combinations.</p>
+
+<p>The subsequent centuries show continuous decline, and in
+whatever branch we compare the work, we see that each
+dynasty was poorer than that which preceded it. The XXVIth
+Dynasty is often looked on as a renaissance; but when we
+compare similar work we see that it was poorer than the
+XXIInd, as that was poorer than the XIXth. The alabaster
+statue of Amenardus of the XXVth is faulty in pose, and
+perfunctory in modelling; the resemblance between this
+and the head of her nephew Tirhaka is perhaps the best
+evidence of truthful work. After this there was a strong
+archaistic fashion, much like that under Hadrian; in both
+cases it may have arrested decay, but it did not lift the art up
+again. The work of this age can always be detected by the
+faulty jointing (Plate IV. fig. 52) and muscular treatment.
+The elements are right enough, but there was not the vital sense
+to combine them properly. Hence the monstrous protuberances
+(Plate IV. fig. 53) on relief figures of this age; a fault which the
+Greek fell into in his decline, as shown in the Farnese Hercules.</p>
+
+<p>Portraiture, with its limited demand on imagination and lack
+of ideals, was the form of art which flourished latest. The
+Saitic heads in basalt show a school of close observation, with
+fair power of rendering the personal character; and even in
+Roman times there still were provincial artists who could
+model a face very truthfully, as is shown in one case in which
+the stucco head (Plate IV. fig. 54) from a coffin is here superposed
+on the view of the actual skull to show the accuracy of the work.
+The school of portrait-painting belongs entirely to Greek art, and
+is therefore not touched upon here. (See Edgar, <i>Catalogue of
+Graeco-Egyptian Coffins</i>, 48 plates, for this subject.)</p>
+
+<p>Lastly we must recognize the different schools of Egyptian
+sculpture which are as distinct as those of recent painting.
+The black-granite school in every age is the finest; its seat we
+do not know, but its vitality and finish always exceed those of
+contemporary works. The limestone school was probably the
+next best, to judge from the reliefs, but hardly any statues of
+this school have survived; it probably was seated at Memphis.
+The quartzite work from Jebel Ahmar near Cairo stands next,
+as often very fine design is found in this hard material. The
+red granite school of Assuan comes lower, the work being usually
+clumsy and with unfinished corners and details. And the lowest
+of all was the sandstone school of Silsila, which is always the
+worst. Broadly speaking, the Lower Egyptian was much better
+than the Upper Egyptian; a conclusion also evident in the art
+of the tombs done on the spot. But the secret of the black granite
+school, and its excellence, is the main problem unsolved in the
+history of the art.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. M. F. P.)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Tools and Material Products.</i></p>
+
+<p><i>Tools</i> (see Illustrations 1 to 111).&mdash;The history of tools is a
+very large subject which needs to be studied for all countries;
+the various details of form are too numerous to specify here,
+but the general outline of tools used in Egypt may be briefly
+stated under <i>general</i> and <i>special</i> types. The <i>general</i> include
+tools for striking, slicing and scraping; the <i>special</i> tools are for
+fighting, hunting, agriculture, building and thread-work.</p>
+
+<p><i>Striking Tools.</i>&mdash;The wooden mallet of club form (1) was used
+in the VIth and XIIth Dynasties; of the modern mason&rsquo;s form
+(2) in the XIIth and XVIIIth. The stone mace head was a
+sharp-edged disk (3), in the prehistoric from 31-40 sequence date;
+of the pear shape (4) from S.D. 42, which was actually in use
+till the IVth Dynasty, and represented down to Roman time.
+The metal or stone hammer with a long handle was unknown
+till Greek or Roman times; but, for beating out metal, hemispherical
+stones (5) were held in the hand, and swung at arm&rsquo;s
+length overhead. Spherical hard stone hammers (6) were held
+in the hand for dressing down granite. The axe was at the close
+of the prehistoric age a square slab of copper (7) with one sharp
+edge; small projecting tails then appeared at each end of the
+back (8), and increased until the long tail for lashing on to the
+handle is more than half the length of the axe in an iron one of
+Roman (?) age (13). Flint axes were made in imitation of metal
+in the XIIth Dynasty (9). Battle-axes with rounded outline
+started as merely a sharp edge of metal (10) inserted along a stick
+(10, 11); they become semicircular (12) by the VIth Dynasty,
+lengthen to double their width in the XIIth, and then thin out
+to a waist in the middle by the XVIIIth Dynasty. Flint hoes
+(14) are common down to the XIIth Dynasty. Small copper
+hoes (15) with a hollow socket are probably of about the XXIInd
+Dynasty. Long iron picks (16), like those of modern navvies,
+were made by Greeks in the XXVIth Dynasty.</p>
+
+<p><i>Slicing Tools.</i>&mdash;The knife was originally a flint saw (17), having
+minute teeth; it must have been used for cutting up animals,
+fresh or dried, as the teeth break away on soft wood. The double-edged
+straight flint knife dates from S.D. 32-45. The single-edged
+knife (18) is from 33-65. The flint knives of the time of
+Menes are finely curved (19), with a handle-notch; by the end
+of the IInd Dynasty they were much coarser (20) and almost
+straight in the back. In the XIth-XIIth Dynasty they were
+quite straight in the back (21), and without any handle-notch.
+The copper knives are all one-edged with straight back (22)
+down to the XVIIIth Dynasty, when two-edged symmetrical
+knives (23) become usual. Long thin one-edged knives of iron
+begin about 800 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> Various forms of one-edged iron knives,
+straight (24) and curved (25), belong to Roman times. A cutting-out
+knife, for slicing through textiles, began double-edged (26) in
+the Ist Dynasty, and went through many single-edged forms
+(27-29) until it died out in the XXth Dynasty (<i>Man</i>, 1901, 123).
+A small knife hinged on a pointed backing of copper (31) seems to
+have been made for hair curling and toilet purposes. Razors (30)
+are known of the XIIth Dynasty, and became common in the
+XVIIIth. A curious blade of copper (32), straight sided, and
+sharpened at both ends, belongs to the close of the prehistoric
+age. Shears are only known of Roman age and appear to have
+been an Italian invention: there is a type in Egypt with one
+blade detachable, so that each can be sharpened apart. Chisels of
+bronze began of very small size (33) at S.D. 38, and reached a
+full size at the close of the prehistoric age. In historic times the
+chisels are about 1 × ½, × 6 to 8 in. long (34). Small chisels set in
+wooden handles are found (35) of the XIIth and XVIIIth
+Dynasties. Ferrules first appear in the Assyrian iron of the 7th
+century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> The rise of stone work led to great importance of
+heavy chisels (36) for trimming limestone and Nubian sandstone;
+such chisels are usually round rods about ¾ in. thick and 6 in. long.
+The cutting edge was about ½ in. wide for flaking tools (36),
+which were not kept sharp, and 1 in. wide for facing tools (37)
+which had a good edge. In Greek times the iron chisels are
+shorter and merge into wedges (39). The socketed or mortising
+chisel (38) is unknown till the Italian bronze of the 8th century
+<span class="sc">b.c.</span>, and the Naucratis iron of the 6th century. Adzes begin in
+S.D. 56, as plain slips of copper (40) 4 to 6 in. long, about 1 wide
+and <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>th thick. The square end was rounded in the early dynastic
+times, and went through a series of changes down to the XIXth
+Dynasty. Adzes of iron are probably of Greek times. A fine
+instance of a handle about 4 ft. long is represented in the IIIrd
+Dynasty (P.M. XI.). The adze (41) was used not only for wood-work
+but also for dressing limestone.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scraping Tools.</i>&mdash;Flint scrapers are found from S.D. 40 and
+onward. The rectangular scraper (42) began in S.D. 63, and
+continued into the IInd Dynasty: the flake with rounded ends
+(43) was used from the Ist to the IVth Dynasty (P. Ab. i. xiv.,
+xv.). Round scrapers were also made (44). Flint scrapers were
+used in dressing down limestone sculpture in the IIIrd Dynasty.
+Rasps of conical form (45), made of a sheet of bronze punched
+and coiled round, were common in the XVIIIth Dynasty,
+apparently as personal objects, possibly used for rasping dried
+bread. In the Assyrian iron tools of the 7th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> the long
+straight rasp (46) is exactly of the modern type. The saw is first
+found as a notched bronze knife of the IIIrd Dynasty. Larger
+toothed saws (47) are often represented in the IVth-VIth Dynasty,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page69" id="page69"></a>69</span>
+as used by carpenters. There are no dated specimens till the
+Assyrian iron saws (48) of the 7th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> Drills were of
+flint (49) for hard material and bead-making, of bronze for woodwork.
+In the Assyrian tools iron drills are of slightly twisted
+scoop form (50), and of centre-bit type with two scraping edges
+(51). In Roman times the modern V drill (52) is usual. The
+drill was worked by a stock with a loose cap (53), rotated by a
+drill bow, in the XIIth to Roman dynasties. The pump drill
+with cords twisted round it was in Roman use. The bow drill
+(56) was used as a fire drill to rotate wood (55) on wood (57);
+and the cap (54) for such use was of hard stone with a highly
+polished hollow. The drill brace appears to have been used by
+Assyrians in the 7th century <span class="sc">b.c.</span> Piercers of bronze tapering
+(58), to enlarge holes in leather, &amp;c., were common in all ages.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fighting Weapons.</i>&mdash;The battle-axe has been described above
+with axes. The flint dagger (59) is found from S.D. 40-56. A
+very finely made copper dagger (60) with deep midrib is dated to
+between 55 and 60 S.D. Copper daggers with parallel ribbing
+(61) down the middle are common in the XIth-XIVth Dynasties;
+and in the XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties they are often shown in
+scenes and on figures. The falchion with a curved blade (62)
+belongs to the XVIIIth-XXth Dynasty. The rapier (63) or
+lengthened dagger is rarely found, and is probably of prehistoric
+Greek origin. The sword is of Greek and Roman age, always
+double-edged and of iron. The spear is not commonly found in
+Egypt, until the Greek age, but it is represented from the XIth
+Dynasty onward; it belonged to the Semitic people (L.D. ii. 133).
+The bow was always of wood, in one piece in the prehistoric and
+early times, also of two horns in the Ist Dynasty; but the
+compound bow of horn is rarely found, only as an importation,
+in the XVIIIth Dynasty. The arrow-heads of flint (64-66) and of
+bone (68-69) were pointed, and also square-ended (67) for
+hunting (P.R.T. ii. vi.; vii. A., 7; xxxiv.). The copper arrow-heads
+appear in the XIXth Dynasty, of blade form with tang
+(70); the triangular form (72), and leaf form with socket (71), are
+of the XXVIth Dynasty. Triangular iron arrows with tang are
+of the same age. Tangs show that the shaft was a reed, sockets
+show that it was of wood. Many early arrows (XIIth) have
+only hard wood points of conical form. The sling is rarely
+shown in the XIXth-XXth Dynasties; and the only known
+example is probably of the XXVIth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hunting Weapons.</i>&mdash;The forked lance of flint was at first wide
+with slight hollow (73) from S.D. 32-43; then the hollow
+became a V notch (74) in 38 S.D. and onward. The lance was
+fixed in a wooden shaft for throwing, and held in by a check-cord
+from flying too far if it missed the animal (P.N. LXXIII.).
+The harpoon for fishing was at first of bone (75), and was imitated
+in copper (76, 77) from S.D. 36 onwards. The boomerang or
+throw-stick (78) was used from the Ist to the XXIInd Dynasty,
+and probably later. Fish-hooks of copper (79-82) are found from
+the Ist Dynasty to Roman times. A trap for animals&rsquo; legs,
+formed by splints of palm stick radiating round a central hole, is
+figured in S.D. 60, and one was found of probably the XXth
+Dynasty. Fishing nets were common in all historic times, and the
+lead sinkers (83) and stone sinkers (84) are often found under the
+XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agricultural Tools.</i>&mdash;The hoe of wood (85) is the main tool from
+the late prehistoric time, and many have been found of the
+XVIIIth Dynasty. With the handle lengthened (86) and turned
+forward, this became the plough (87 is the hieroglyph, 88 the
+drawing, of a plough); this was always sloping, and never the
+upright post of the Italic type. The rake of wood (89) is usual in
+the XIIth and XVIIIth Dynasties. The fork (90), used for
+tossing straw, was common in the Old Kingdom, but none has
+been found. The sickle was of wood (92), with flints (91) inserted,
+apparently a copy of the ox-jaw and teeth. The notched flints
+for it are common from the Ist to the XVIIIth Dynasty. In
+Roman times the same principle was followed, by making an
+iron sickle with a deep groove, in which was inserted the cutting
+blade of steel (P.E. XXIX.). Shovel-boards, to hold in right (93)
+or left hand for scraping up the grain in winnowing, are usual in
+the XVIIIth Dynasty, and are figured in use in the Old Kingdom
+Pruning knives with curved blades (94) are Italic, and were made
+of iron by the Romans. Corn grinders were flat oval stones, with
+a smaller one lying cross-ways (95), and slid from end to end.
+Such were used from the Old Kingdom down to late times. In
+the Roman period a larger stone was used, with a rectangular
+slab (96) sliding on it, in which a long trough held the grain and
+let it slip out below for grinding. The quern with rotary motion
+is late Roman, and still used by Arabs. The large circular millstones
+of Roman age worked by horse-power are usually made
+from slices of granite columns.</p>
+
+<p><i>Building Tools.</i>&mdash;The adze described above was used for
+dressing blocks of limestone. The brick-mould was an open
+frame, with one side prolonged into a handle (97), exactly as
+the modern mould. The plasterers&rsquo; floats (98) were entirely
+cut out of wood. The mud rake for mixing mortar is rather
+narrower than the modern form. The square (99) and plummet
+(100, 101) have remained unchanged since the XIXth Dynasty.
+For dressing flat surfaces three wooden pegs (102) of equal length
+were used; a string was stretched between the tops of two,
+and the third peg was set on the point to be tested and tried
+against the string.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thread-Work.</i>&mdash;Stone spindle whorls (103) are common in
+the prehistoric age; wooden ones were usual, of a cylindrical
+form (104) in the XIIth, and conical (105) in the XVIIIth
+Dynasty. The thread was secured by a spiral notch in the stick.
+In Roman times an iron hook on the top held the thread (106)
+as in modern spindles. Needles of copper were made in the
+prehistoric, as early as S.D. 48, and very delicate ones by S.D. 71.
+Gold needles are found of the Ist Dynasty. Fine ones of
+bronze are common in the XVIIIth Dynasty, and some with
+two eyes at right angles, one above the other, to carry two
+different threads. The copper bodkin is found in S.D. 70.
+Netters are common, of rib bones, pointed (107); the thread
+was wound round them. Long netting needles were probably
+brought in by the dynastic people as they figure in the hieroglyphs.
+Finely-made ones are found in the XVIIIth Dynasty
+and later. Reels were also commonly used for net making, of
+pottery (108) or even pebbles (109) with a groove chipped around.
+The flint vase-grinders were used in the early dynasties (110),
+and also sandstone grinders for hollowing larger vases (111).</p>
+
+<p><i>Stone-Work.</i>&mdash;In the prehistoric ages stone building was
+unknown, but many varieties of stones were used for carving
+into vases, amulets and ornaments. The stone vases were
+at first of cylindrical forms, with a foot, and ears for hanging.
+These are worked in brown basalt, syenite, porphyry, alabaster
+and limestone. In the second prehistoric civilization barrel-shaped
+vases became usual; and to the former materials were
+added slate, grey limestone and breccia. Serpentine appears
+later, and diorite towards the close of the prehistoric ages.
+Flat dishes were used in earlier times; gradually deeper forms
+appear, and lastly the deep bowl with turned-in edge belongs to
+the close of the prehistoric time and continued common in the
+earlier dynasties (P.D.P. 19). This stone-work was usually
+formed on the outside with rotary motion, but sometimes the
+vase was rotated upon the grinder (Q. H. 17). The interior was
+ground out by cutters (figs. 110, 111) fixed in the end of a stick
+and revolved with a weight on the top, as shown in scenes on
+the tombs of the Vth Dynasty. The cutters were sometimes
+flints of a crescent shape (P. Ab. ii. liii. 24), but more usually
+grinders blocks of quartzite sandstone (26-34), and occasionally
+of diorite (Q. H. xxxii. lxii.). These blocks were fed with sand
+and water to give the bite on the stone (P. Ab. i. 26). The
+outsides of the vases were entirely wrought by handwork, with
+the polishing lines crossing diagonally. Probably the first
+forming was done by chipping and hammer-dressing, as in later
+times; the final facing of the hard stones was doubtless by
+means of emery in block or powder, as emery grinding blocks
+are found.</p>
+
+<p>In the early dynasties the hard stones were still worked,
+and the Ist dynasty was the most splendid age for vases, bowls,
+and dishes of the finest stones. The royal tombs have preserved
+an enormous quantity of fragments, from which five hundred
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page70" id="page70"></a>70</span>
+varied forms have been drawn (P.R.T. ii. xlvi.-liii. 6). The
+materials are quartz crystal, basalt, porphyry, syenite, granite,
+volcanic ash, various metamorphics, serpentine, slate, dolomite
+marble, alabaster, many coloured marbles, saccharine marble,
+grey and white limestones. The most splendid vase is one from
+Nekhen (Hieraconpolis), of syenite, 2 ft. across and 16 in. high,
+hollowed so as to be marvellously light and highly polished
+(Q.H. xxxvii). Another branch of stone-work, surface
+carving, was early developed by the artistic dynastic race.
+The great palettes of slate covered with elaborate reliefs are
+probably all of the pre-Menite kings; the most advanced of
+them having the figure of Narmer, who preceded Menes. Other
+carving full of detail is on the great mace-heads of Narmer
+and the Scorpion king, where scenes of ceremonials are minutely
+engraved in relief. In the Ist Dynasty the large tombstones
+of the kings are of bold work, but the smaller stones of private
+graves vary much in the style, many being very coarse. All
+of this work was by hammer-dressing and scraping. The scrapers
+seem to have always been of copper.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest use of stone in buildings is in the tomb of King
+Den (Ist Dynasty), where some large flat blocks of red granite
+seem to have been part of the construction. The oldest stone
+chamber known is that of Khasekhemui (end of the IInd
+Dynasty). This is of blocks of limestone whose faces follow the
+natural cleavages, and only dressed where needful; part is
+hammer-dressed, but most of the surfaces are adze-dressed.
+The adze was of stone, probably flint, and had a short handle
+(P.R.T. ii. 13). The same king also wrought granite with
+inscriptions in relief. In the close of the IIIrd Dynasty a great
+impetus was given to stone-work, and the grandest period of
+refined masonry is at the beginning of the IVth Dynasty under
+Cheops. The tombs of M&#275;d&#363;m under Snefru are built with
+immense blocks of limestone of 20 and 33 tons weight. The
+dressing of the face between the hieroglyphs was done partly
+with copper and partly with flint scrapers (P.M. 27). The
+most splendid masonry is that of the Great Pyramid of Cheops.
+The blocks of granite for the roofing are 56 in number, of an
+average weight of 54 tons each. These were cut from the
+water-worn rocks at the Cataract&mdash;the soundest source for
+large masses, as any incipient flaws are well exposed by wear.
+The blocks were quarried by cleavage; a groove was run along
+the line intended, and about 2 ft. apart holes about 4 in. wide
+were jumped downward from it in the intended plane; this
+prevented a skew fracture (P.T. 93). In shallower masses a
+groove was run, and then holes, apparently for wedges, were
+sunk deeper in the course of it; whether wetted wood was used
+for the expansive force is not known, but it is probable, as no
+signs are visible of crushing the granite by hard wedges. The
+facing of the cloven surfaces was done by hammer-dressing,
+using rounded masses of quartzose hornstone, held in the hand
+without any handle. In order to get a hold for moving the
+blocks without bruising the edges, projecting lumps or bosses
+were left on the faces, about 6 or 8 in. across and 1 or 2 in. thick.
+After the block was in place the boss was struck off and the
+surface dressed and polished (P.T. 78, 82). In the pyramid of
+Cheops the blocks were all faced before building; but the later
+granite temple of Chephren and the pyramid of Mycerinus
+(Menkaura, Menkeur&#275;) show a system of building with an excess
+of a few inches left rough on the outer surface, which was dressed
+away when in position (P.T. 110, 132).</p>
+
+<p>The flatness of faces of stone or rock (both granite and limestone)
+was tested by placing a true-plane trial plate, smeared
+with red ochre, against the dressed surface, as in modern engineering.
+The contact being thus reddened showed where the face
+had to be further dressed away; and this process was continued
+until the ochre touched points not more than an inch apart all
+over the joint faces, many square feet in area. On stones too
+large for facing-plates a diagonal draft was run, so as to avoid
+any wind in the plane (P.T. 83).</p>
+
+<p>The cutting of granite was not only by cleavage and hammer
+dressing, but also by cutting with harder materials than quartz
+such as emery. Long saws of copper were fed with emery powder,
+and used to saw out blocks as much as 7½ ft. long (P.T. Plate
+XIV.). In other cases the very deep scores in the sides of the
+saw-cut suggest that fixed cutting points were inserted in the
+copper saws; and this would be parallel to the saw-cuts in the
+very hard limestone of the Palace of Tiryns, in which a piece
+of a copper saw has been broken, and where may be yet found
+large chips of emery, too long and coarse to serve as a powder,
+but suited for fixed teeth. A similar method was common for
+circular holes, which were cut by a tube, either with powder or
+fixed teeth. These tubular drills were used from the IVth
+Dynasty down to late times, in all materials from alabaster up
+to carnelian. The resulting cores are more regular than those
+of modern rock-drilling.</p>
+
+<p>Limestone in the Great Pyramid, as elsewhere, was dressed
+by chopping it with an adze, a tool used from prehistoric to
+Roman times for all soft stones and wood. This method was
+carried on up to the point of getting contact with the facing-plate
+at every inch of the surface; the cuts cross in various
+directions. For removing rock in reducing a surface to a level,
+or in quarrying, cuts were made with a pick, forming straight
+trenches, and the blocks were then broken out between these.
+In quarrying the cuts are generally 4 or 5 in. wide, just enough
+for the workman&rsquo;s arm to reach in; for cutting away rock the
+grooves are 20 in. wide, enough to stand in, and the squares of
+rock about 9 ft. wide between the grooves (P.T. 100). The
+accuracy of the workmanship in the IVth Dynasty is astonishing.
+The base of the pyramid of Snefru had an average variation of
+6 in. on 5765 and 10&prime; of squareness. But, immediately after,
+Cheops improved on this with a variation of less than 6 in. on
+9069 in. and 12&Prime; of direction. Chephren fell off, having 1.5
+error on 8475, and 33&Prime; of variation; and Mycerinus (Menkeur&#275;)
+had 3 in. error on 4154 and 1&prime; 50&Prime; variation of direction (P.M. 6;
+P.T. 39, 97, 111). Of perhaps later date the two south pyramids
+of Dahshur show errors of 3.7 on 7459 and 1.1 on 2065 in., and
+variation of direction of 4&prime; and 10&prime; (P.S. 28, 30). The above
+smallest error of only 1 in 16,000 in lineal measure, and 1 in
+17,000 of angular measure, is that of the rock-cutting for the
+foundation of Khufu, and the masonry itself (now destroyed)
+was doubtless more accurate. The error of flatness of the joints
+from a straight line and a true square is but <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">100</span>th in. on 75 in.
+length; and the error of level is only <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">50</span>th in. along a course, or
+about 10&Prime; on a long length (P.T. 44). We have entered thus
+fully on the details of this period, as it is the finest age for workmanship
+in every respect. But in the XIIth Dynasty the granite
+sarcophagus of Senwosri II. is perhaps the finest single piece of
+cutting yet known; the surfaces of the granite are all dull-ground,
+the errors from straight lines and parallelism are only
+about <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">200</span>th inch (P. 1, 3).</p>
+
+<p>In later work we may note that copper scrapers were used for
+facing the limestone work in the VIth, the XIIth and the
+XVIIIth Dynasties. In the latter age granite surfaces were
+ground, hieroglyphs were chipped out and polished by copper
+tools fed with emery; outlines were graved by a thick sheet of
+copper held in the hand, and sawed to and fro with emery.
+Corners of signs and intersections of lines were first fixed by
+minute tube-drill holes, into which the hand tool butted, so that
+it should not slip over the outer surface.</p>
+
+<p>The marking out of work was done by fine black lines; and
+supplemental lines at a fixed distance from the true one were
+put in to guard against obliteration in course of working (P.T.
+92); similarly in building a brick pyramid the axis was marked,
+and there were supplemental marks two cubits to one side
+(P.K. 14). When cutting a passage in the rock a rough drift-way
+was first made, the roof was smoothed, a red axis line was
+drawn along it, and then the sides were cut parallel to the axis.
+For setting out a mastaba with sloping sides, on an irregular
+foundation at different levels, hollow corner walls were built
+outside the place of each corner; the distances of the faces at
+the above-ground level were marked on the inner faces of the
+walls; the above-ground level was also marked; then sloping
+lines at the intended angle of the face were drawn downward from
+the ground-level measures, and each face was set out so as to
+lie in the plane thus defined by two traces at the ends (P.M.
+VIII.).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page71" id="page71"></a>71</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:862px; height:1140px" src="images/img71.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Ancient Egyptian tools.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page72" id="page72"></a>72</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:852px; height:1119px" src="images/img72.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Ancient Egyptian tools.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page73" id="page73"></a>73</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Metal-Work.</i>&mdash;Copper was wrought into pins, a couple of
+inches long, with loop heads, as early as the oldest prehistoric
+graves, before the use of weaving, and while pottery was scarcely
+developed. The use of harpoons and small chisels of copper next
+arose, then broad flaying knives, needles and adzes, lastly the
+axe when the metal was commoner. On these prehistoric tools,
+when in fine condition, the original highly-polished surface
+remains. It shows no trace of grinding lines or attrition, nor
+yet of the blows of a hammer. Probably it was thus highly
+finished by beating between polished stone hammers which were
+almost flat on the face. Most likely the forms of the tools were
+cast to begin with, and then finished and polished by fine hammering.
+A series of moulds for casting in the XIIth Dynasty
+show that the forms were carved out in thick pieces of pottery,
+and then lined with fine ashy clay. The mould was single, so
+that one side of the tool was the open face of metal. As early
+as the pyramid times solid casting by <i>cire perdue</i> was already
+used for figures: but the copper statues of Pepi and his son
+seem, by their thinness and the piecing together of the parts, to
+have been entirely hammered out. The portraiture in such
+hammer work is amazingly life-like. By the time of the XIIth
+Dynasty, and perhaps earlier, <i>cire perdue</i> casting over an ash
+core became usual. This was carried out most skilfully, the
+metal being often not <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">50</span>th in. thick, and the core truly centred
+in the mould. Casting bronze over iron rods was also done, to
+gain more stiffness for thin parts.</p>
+
+<p>In gold work the earliest jewelry, that of King Zer of the
+Ist Dynasty, shows a perfect mastery of working hollow balls
+with minute threading holes, and of soldering with no trace of
+excess nor difference of colour. Thin wire was hammered out,
+but there is no ancient instance of drawn wire. Castings were
+not trimmed by filing or grinding, but by small chisels and
+hammering (P.R.T. ii. 17). In the XIIth Dynasty the soldering
+of the thin cells for the <i>cloisonnée</i> inlaid pectorals, on to the base
+plate, is a marvellous piece of delicacy; every cell has to be
+perfectly true in form, and yet all soldered, apparently simultaneously,
+as the heat could not be applied to successive portions
+(M.D. i.). Such work was kept up in the XVIIIth and XXVIth
+Dynasties. There is nothing distinctive in later jewelry different
+from Greek and Roman work elsewhere.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glaze and Glass.</i>&mdash;From almost the beginning of the prehistoric
+age there are glazed pottery beads found in the graves: and
+glazing on amulets of quartz or other stones begins in the middle
+of the prehistoric. Apparently then glazing went together with
+the working of the copper ores, and probably accidental slags in
+the smelting gave the first idea of using glaze intentionally. The
+development of glazing at the beginning of the dynasties was
+sudden and effective. Large tiles, a foot in length, were glazed
+completely all over, and used to line the walls of rooms; they
+were retained in place by deep dovetails and ties of copper wire.
+Figures of glazed ware became abundant; a kind of visiting card
+was made with the figure of a man and his titles to present in
+temples which he visited; and glazed ornaments and toggles for
+fastening dresses were common (P. Ab. ii.). Further, besides thus
+using glaze on a large scale, differently coloured glazes were used,
+and even fused together. A piece of a large tile, and part of a
+glazed vase, have the royal titles and name of Menes, originally in
+violet inlay in green glaze. There was no further advance in the
+art until the great variety of colours came into use about 4000
+years later. In the XIIth Dynasty a very thin smooth glaze was
+used, which became rather thicker in the XVIIIth. The most
+brilliant age of glazes was under Amenophis III. and his son
+Akhenaton. Various colours were used; beside the old green
+and blue, there were purple, violet, red, yellow and white. And a
+profusion of forms is shown by the moulds and actual examples,
+for necklaces, decorations, inlay in stone and applied reliefs on
+vases. Under Seti II. cartouches of the king in violet and white
+glaze are common; and under Rameses III. there were vases with
+relief figures, with painted figures, and tiles with coloured
+reliefs of captives of many races. The latter development of
+glazing was in thin delicate apple-green ware with low relief
+designs, which seem to have originated under Greek influence at
+Naucratis. The Roman glaze is thick and coarse, but usually of a
+brilliant Prussian blue, with dark purple and apple-green; and
+high reliefs of wreaths, and sometimes figures, are common.</p>
+
+<p>Though glaze begins so early, the use of the glassy matter by
+itself does not occur till the XVIIIth Dynasty; the earlier
+reputed examples are of stone or frit. The first glass is black and
+white under Tethmosis (Tahutmes) III. It was not fused at a
+high point, but kept in a pasty state when working. The main
+use of it was for small vases; these were formed upon a core of
+sandy paste, which was modelled on a copper rod, the rod being
+the core for the neck. Round this core threads of glass were
+wound of various colours; the whole could be reset in the furnace
+to soften it for moulding the foot or neck, or attaching handles, or
+dragging the surface into various patterns. The colours under
+later kings were as varied as those of the glazes. Glass was also
+wheel-cut in patterns and shapes under Akhenaton. In later
+times the main work was in mosaics of extreme delicacy. Glass
+rods were piled together to form a pattern in cross-section. The
+whole was then heated until it perfectly adhered, and the mass
+was drawn out lengthways so as to render the design far more
+minute, and to increase the total length for cutting up. The rod
+was then sliced across, and the pieces used for inlaying. Another
+use of coloured glass was for cutting in the shapes of hieroglyphs
+for inlaying in wooden coffins to form inscriptions. Glass
+amulets were also commonly placed upon Ptolemaic mummies.
+Blown glass vessels are not known until late Greek and Roman
+times, when they were of much the same manufacture as glass
+elsewhere. The supposed figures of glass-blowers in early scenes
+are really those of smiths, blowing their fires by means of reeds
+tipped with clay. The variegated glass beads belonging to Italy
+were greatly used in Egypt in Roman times, and are like those
+found elsewhere. A distinctively late Egyptian use of glass was
+for weights and vase-stamps, to receive an impress stating the
+amount of the weight or measure. The vase-stamps often state
+the name of the contents (always seeds or fruits), probably not to
+show what was in them, but to show for what kind of seed the
+vessel was a true measure. These measure stamps bear names
+dating them from <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 680 to about 950. The large weights of
+ounces and pounds are disks or cuboid blocks; they are dated
+from 720 to 785 for the lesser, and to <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 915 for larger, weights.
+The greater number are, however, small weights for testing gold
+and silver coins of later caliphs from <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 952 to 1171. The
+system was not, however, Arab, as there are a few Roman vase-stamps
+and weights. Of other medieval glass may be noted the
+splendid glass vases for lamps, with Arab inscriptions fused in
+colours on the outsides. No enamelling was ever done by
+Egyptians, and the few rare examples are all of Roman age due
+to foreign work.</p>
+
+<p>The manufacture of glass is shown by examples in the XVIIIth
+Dynasty. The blue or green colour was made by fritting together
+silica, lime, alkaline carbonate and copper carbonate;
+the latter varied from 3% in delicate blues to 20% in deep
+purple blues. The silica was needed quite pure from iron, in
+order to get the rich blues, and was obtained from calcined
+quartz pebbles; ordinary sand will only make a green frit.
+These materials were heated in pans in the furnace so as to
+combine in a pasty, half-fused condition. The coloured frit thus
+formed was used as paint in a wet state, and also used to dissolve
+in glass or to fuse over a surface in glazing. The brown tints
+often seen in glazed objects are almost always the result of the
+decomposition of green glazes containing iron. The blue glazes,
+on the other hand, fade into white. The essential colouring
+materials are, for blue, copper; green, copper and iron; purple,
+cobalt; red, haematite; white, tin. An entirely clear colourless
+glass was made in the XVIIIth Dynasty, but coloured glass was
+mainly used. After fusing a panful of coloured glass, it was
+sampled by taking pinches out with tongs; when perfectly
+combined it was left to cool in the pan, as with modern optical
+glass. When cold the pan was chipped away, and the cake of
+glass broken up into convenient pieces, free of sediment and of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page74" id="page74"></a>74</span>
+scum. A broken lump would then be heated to softness in the
+furnace; rolled out under a bar of metal, held diagonally across
+the roll; and when reduced to a rod of a quarter of an inch
+thick, it was heated and pulled out into even rods about an
+eighth of an inch thick. These were used to wind round glass
+vases, to form lips, handles, &amp;c.; and to twist together for
+spiral patterns. Glass tube was similarly drawn out. Beads were
+made by winding thin threads of glass on copper wires, and the
+greater contraction of the copper freed the bead when cold. The
+coiling of beads can always be detected by (1) the little tails left
+at the ends, (2) the streaks, (3) the bubbles, seen with a magnifier.
+Roman glass beads are always drawn out, and nicked off hot,
+with striation lengthways; except the large opaque variegated
+beads which are coiled. Modern Venetian beads are similarly
+coiled. In the XXIIIrd Dynasty beads of a rich transparent
+Prussian blue glass were made, until the XXVIth. About the
+same time the eyed beads, with white and brown eyes in a blue
+mass, also came in (P.A. 25-27, Plate XIII.).</p>
+
+<p><i>Pottery</i> (see fig. 112).&mdash;The earliest style of pottery is entirely
+hand made, without any rotary motion; the form being built
+up with a flat stick inside and the hand outside, and finally
+scraped and burnished in a vertical direction. The necks of
+vases were the first part finished with rotation, at the middle
+and close of the prehistoric age. Fully turned forms occur in
+the Ist Dynasty; but as late as the XIIth Dynasty the lower
+part of small vases is usually trimmed with a knife. In the
+earlier part of the prehistoric age there was a soft brown ware
+with haematite facing, highly burnished. This was burnt
+mouth-down in the oven, and the ashes on the ground reduced
+the red haematite to black magnetic oxide of iron; some traces
+of carbonyl in the ash helped to rearrange the magnetite as a
+brilliant mirror-like surface of intense black. The lower range
+of jars in the oven had then black tops, while the upper ranges
+were entirely red. A favourite decoration was by lines of white
+clay slip, in crossing patterns, figures of animals, and, rarely,
+men. This is exactly of the modern Kabyle style in Algeria,
+and entirely disappeared from Egypt very early in the prehistoric
+age. Being entirely hand made, various oval, doubled and even
+square forms were readily shaped.</p>
+
+<p>The later prehistoric age is marked by entirely different
+pottery, of a hard pink-brown ware, often with white specks
+in it, without any applied facing beyond an occasional pink
+wash, and no polishing. It is decorated with designs in red line,
+imitating cordage and marbling, and drawings of plants, ostriches
+and ships. The older red polished ware still survived in a coarse
+and degraded character, and both kinds together were carried
+on into the next age (P.D.P.).</p>
+
+<p>The early dynastic pottery not only shows the decadent end
+of the earlier forms, but also new styles, such as grand jars of
+2 or 3 ft. high which were slung in cordage, and which have
+imitation lines of cordage marked on them. Large ring-stands
+also were brought in, to support jars, so that the damp surfaces
+should not touch the dusty ground. The pyramid times show
+the great jars reduced to short rough pots, while a variety of
+forms of bowls are the most usual types (P.R.T.; P.D.;
+P. Desh.)</p>
+
+<p>In the XIIth Dynasty a hard thin drab ware was common,
+like the modern <i>qulleh</i> water flasks. Drop-shaped jars with
+spherical bases are typical, and scrabbled patterns of incised
+lines. Large jars of light brown pottery were made for storing
+liquids and grain, with narrow necks which just admit the hand
+(P.K.).</p>
+
+<p>The XVIIIth Dynasty used a rather softer ware, decorated
+at first with a red edge or band around the top, and under
+Tethmosis (Tahutmes) III. black and red lines were usual.
+Under Amenophis III. blue frit paint was freely used, in lines
+and bands around vases; it spread to large surfaces under
+Amenophis IV., and continued in a poor style into the Ramesside
+age. In the latter part of the XVIIIth and the XIXth Dynasties
+a thick hard light pottery, with white specks and a polished
+drab-white facing, was generally used for all fine purposes. The
+XIXth and XXth Dynasties only show a degradation of the
+types of the XVIIIth; and even through to the XXVth Dynasty
+there is no new movement (P.K.; P.I.; P.A.; P.S.T.).</p>
+
+<p>The XXVIth Dynasty was largely influenced by Greek
+amphorae imported with wine and oil. The native pottery is
+of a very fine paste, smooth and thin, but poor in forms. Cylindrical
+cups, and jars with cylindrical necks and no brim, are
+typical. The small necks and trivial handles begin now, and are
+very common in Ptolemaic times (P.T. ii.).</p>
+
+<p>The great period of Roman pottery is marked by the ribbing
+on the outsides. The amphorae began to be ribbed about
+<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 150, and then ribbing extended to all the forms. The ware
+is generally rather rough, thick and brown for the amphorae,
+thin and red for smaller vessels. At the Constantine age a new
+style begins, of hard pink ware, neatly made, and often with
+&ldquo;start-patterns&rdquo; made by a vibrating tool while the vessel
+rotated: this was mainly used for bowls and cups (P.E.).
+Of the later pottery of Arab times we have no precise knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>The abbreviations used above refer to the following sources of
+information:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">M.D. Morgan,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Dahshur</i>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">P.A. Petrie,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Tell el Amarna</i>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">P. Ab. Petrie,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Abydos</i>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">P.D. Petrie,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Dendereh</i>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">P. Desh. Petrie,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Deshasheh</i>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">P.D.P. Petrie,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Diospolis Parva</i>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">P.E. Petrie,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Ehnasya</i>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">P.I. Petrie,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Illahun</i>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">P.K. Petrie,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Kahun</i>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">P.M. Petrie,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Medum</i>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">P.N. Petrie,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Naqada</i>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">P.R.T. Petrie,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Royal Tombs</i>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">P.S. Petrie,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Season in Egypt</i>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">P.S.T. Petrie,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Six Temples</i>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">P.T. Petrie,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh</i>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">P.T. ii. Petrie,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Tanis, ii.</i>;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Q.H. Quibell,</td> <td class="tcl"><i>Hieraconpolis</i>.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+<div class="author">(W. M. F. P.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Monuments.</i>&mdash;The principal monuments that are yet remaining
+to illustrate the art and history of Egypt may be best taken in
+historical order. Of the prehistoric age there are many rock
+carvings, associated with others of later periods: they principally
+remain on the sandstone rocks about Silsila, and their age is
+shown by the figures of ostriches which were extinct in later
+times. One painted tomb was found at Nekhen (Hieraconpolis),
+now in the Cairo Museum; the brick walls were colour-washed
+and covered with irregular groups of men, animals and ships,
+painted with red, black and green. The cemeteries otherwise
+only contain graves, cut in gravel or brick lined, and formerly
+roofed with poles and brushwood. The Ist to IIIrd Dynasties
+have left at Abydos large forts of brickwork, remains of two
+successive temples, and the royal tombs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abydos</a></span>). Elsewhere
+are but few other monuments; at Wadi Magh&#257;ra in Sinai
+is a rock sculpture of Semerkhet of the Ist Dynasty in perfect
+state, at G&#299;za is a group of tombs of a prince and retinue of the
+Ist Dynasty, and at G&#299;za and B&#275;t Khallaf are two large brick
+mastabas with extensive passages closed by trap-doors, of kings
+of the IIIrd Dynasty. The main structure of this age is the
+step-pyramid of Sakkara, which is a mastaba tomb with eleven
+successive coats of masonry, enlarging it to about 350 by 390 ft.
+and 200 ft. high. In the interior is sunk in the rock a chamber
+24 × 23 ft. and 77 ft. high, with a granite sepulchre built in the
+floor of it, and various passages and chambers branching from
+it. The doorway of one room (now in Berlin Museum) was
+decorated with polychrome glazed tiles with the name of King
+Neterkhet. The complex original work and various alterations
+of it need thorough study, but it is now closed and research is
+forbidden.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page75" id="page75"></a>75</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:766px; height:1119px" src="images/img75.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Fig. 112.&mdash;Principal Types of Pottery of Ancient Egypt. (Scale 1 : 20.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page76" id="page76"></a>76</span></p>
+
+<p>The IVth to VIth Dynasties are best known by the series of
+pyramids (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pyramid</a></span>) in the region of Memphis. Beyond
+these tombs, and the temples attached to them, there are very
+few fixed monuments; of Cheops and Pepi I. there are temple
+foundations at Abydos (<i>q.v.</i>), and a few blocks on other sites;
+of Neuserre (Raenuser) there is a sun temple at Abus&#299;r; and of
+several kings there were tablets in Sinai, now in the Cairo Museum.
+A few tablets of the IXth Dynasty have been found at Sakk&#257;ra,
+and a tomb of a prince at Assi&#363;t. Of the XIth Dynasty is the
+terrace-temple of Menthotp III. recently excavated at Thebes:
+also foundations of this king and of Sankhker&#275; at Abydos. In
+the XIIth Dynasty there is the celebrated red granite obelisk
+of Heliopolis, one of a pair erected by Senwosri (Senusert) I. in
+front of his temple which has now vanished. Another large
+obelisk of red granite, 41 ft. high, remains in the Fay&#363;m. The
+most important pictorial tombs of Beni Hasan belong to this age;
+the great princes appear to have largely quarried stone for their
+palaces, and to have cut the quarry in the form of a regular
+chamber, which served for the tomb chapel. These great rock
+chambers were covered with paintings, which show a large range
+of the daily life and civilization. The pyramids and temples
+of Senwosri II. and III. and Amenemh&#275; III. remain at Illah&#363;n,
+Dahsh&#363;r and Haw&#257;ra. The latter was the celebrated Labyrinth,
+which has been entirely quarried away, so that only banks of
+chips and a few blocks remain. At the first of these sites is
+the most perfect early town, of which hundreds of houses still
+remain. Of Senwosri III. there are the forts and temples above
+the second cataract at Semna and Kumma. Of the Hyksos age
+there are the scanty remains of a great fortified camp at Tell
+el-Yehudia.</p>
+
+<p>In the XVIIIth to XXth Dynasties we reach the great period
+of monuments. Of Am&#257;sis (Aahmes) and Amenophis I. there
+are but fragments left in later buildings; and of the latter a
+great quantity of sculpture has been recovered at Karnak.
+The great temple of Karnak had existed since the XIth Dynasty
+or earlier, but the existing structure was begun under Tethmosis
+(Tahutmes) I., and two of the great pylons and one obelisk of
+his remain in place. He also built the simple and dignified
+temple of Medinet Habu at Thebes, which was afterward overshadowed
+by the grandiose work of Rameses III. The next
+generation&mdash;Tethm&#333;sis II. and Hatshepsut&mdash;added to their
+father&rsquo;s work; they also built another pylon and some of the
+existing chambers at Karnak, set up the great obelisks there
+and carved some colossi. The obelisks are exquisitely cut in
+red granite, each sign being sawn in shape by copper tools fed
+with emery, and the whole finished with a perfection of proportion
+and delicacy not seen on other granite work. One
+obelisk being overthrown and broken we can examine the minute
+treatment of the upper part, which was nearly a hundred feet
+from the ground. The principal monument of this period is
+the temple of Deir el Bahri, the funeral temple of Hatshepsut,
+on which she recorded the principal event of her reign, the expedition
+to Punt. The erasures of her name by Tethmosis III., and
+reinsertions of names under later kings, the military scenes, and
+the religious groups showing the sacred kine of Hathor, all add
+to the interest of the remarkable temple. It stands on three
+successive terraces, rising to the base of the high limestone cliffs
+behind it. The rock-cut shrine at Speos Artemidos, and the
+temple of Serab&#299;t in Sinai are the only other large monuments
+of this queen yet remaining. Tethmosis III. was one of the
+great builders of Egypt, and much remains of his work, at about
+forty different sites. The great temple of Karnak was largely
+built by him; most of the remaining chambers are his, including
+the beautiful botanical walls showing foreign plants. Of his
+work at Heliopolis there remain the obelisks of London and
+New York; and from Elephantine is the obelisk at Sion House.
+On the Nubian sites his work may still be seen at Am&#257;da,
+Elles&#299;a, Ibr&#299;m, Semna and in Sinai at Serab&#299;t el Kh&#257;dem. Of
+Amenophis II. and Tethmosis IV. there are no large monuments,
+they being mainly known by additions at Karnak. The well
+known stele of the sphinx was cut by the latter king, to commemorate
+his dream there and his clearing of the sphinx
+from sand. Amenophis III. has left several large buildings
+of his magnificent reign. At Karnak the temple had a new
+front added as a great pylon, which was later used as the
+back of the hall of columns by Seti I. But three new temples
+at Karnak, that of Month (Mentu), of Mut and a smaller one,
+all are due to this reign, as well as the long avenue of sphinxes
+before the temple of Khons; these indicate that the present
+Ramesside temple of Khons has superseded an earlier one of
+this king. The great temple of Luxor was built to record the
+divine origin of the king as son of Ammon; and on the western
+side of Thebes the funerary temple of Amenophis was an immense
+pile, of which the two colossi of the Theban plain still stand
+before the front of the site, where yet lies a vast tablet of sandstone
+30 ft. high. The other principal buildings are the temples
+of Sedenga and of S&#333;lib in Nubia. Akhenaton has been so
+consistently eclipsed by the later kings who destroyed his work,
+that the painted pavement and the rock tablets of Tell el Amarna
+are the only monuments of his still in position, beside a few
+small inscriptions. Harmahib (Horemheb) resumed the work
+at Karnak, erecting two great pylons and a long avenue of
+sphinxes. The rock temple at Silsila and a shrine at Jebel Adda
+are also his.</p>
+
+<p>In the XIXth Dynasty the great age of building continued,
+and the remains are less destroyed than the earlier temples,
+because there were subsequently fewer unscrupulous rulers to
+quarry them away. Seti I. greatly extended the national temple
+of Karnak by his immense hall of columns added in front of the
+pylon of Amenophis III. His funerary temple at Kurna is
+also in a fairly complete condition. The temple of Abydos is
+celebrated owing to its completeness, and the perfect condition
+of its sculptures, which render it one of the most interesting
+buildings as an artistic monument; and the variety of religious
+subjects adds to its importance. The very long reign and
+vanity of Rameses II. have combined to leave his name at over
+sixty sites, more widely spread than that of any other king.
+Yet very few great monuments were originated by him; even
+the Ramesseum, his funerary temple, was begun by his father.
+Additions, appropriations of earlier works and scattered inscriptions
+are what mark this reign. The principal remaining buildings
+are part of a court at Memphis, the second temple at Abydos,
+and the six Nubian temples of B&#275;t el-W&#257;li, Jerf Husein, Wadi
+es-Seb&#363;a, Derr, and the grandest of all&mdash;the rock-cut temple
+of Abu Simbel, with its neighbouring temple of Hathor.
+Mineptah has left few original works; the Osireum at Abydos
+is the only one of which much remains, his funerary temple
+having been destroyed as completely as he destroyed that of
+Amenophis III. The celebrated Israel stele from this temple
+<span class="correction" title="amended from in">is</span> his principal inscription. The rock shrines at Silsila are of
+small importance. There is no noticeable monument of the
+dozen troubled years of the end of the dynasty.</p>
+
+<p>The XXth Dynasty opened with the great builder Rameses
+III. Probably he did not really exceed other kings in his
+activity; but as being the last of the building kings at the
+western side of Thebes, his temple has never been devastated
+for stone by the claims of later work. The whole building of
+Medinet Habu is about 500 ft. long and 160 wide, entirely the
+work of one reign. The sculptures of it are mainly occupied
+with the campaigns of the king against the Libyans, the Syrians
+and the negroes, and are of the greatest importance for the
+history of Egypt and of the Mediterranean lands. Another
+large work was the clearance and rebuilding of much of the city
+of Tell el Yehudia, the palace hall of which contained the celebrated
+coloured tiles with figures of captives. At Karnak three
+temples, to Ammon, Khonsu and Mut, all belong to this reign.
+The blighted reigns of the later Ramessides and the priest-kings
+did not leave a single great monument, and they are only known
+by usurpations of the work of others. The Tanite kings of the
+XXIst Dynasty rebuilt the temple of their capital, but did little
+else. The XXIInd Dynasty returned to monumental work.
+Sheshonk I. added a large wall at Karnak, covered with the
+record of his Judaean war. Osorkon (Uasarkon) I. built largely
+at Bubastis, and Osorkon II. added the great granite pylon
+there, covered with scenes of his festival; but at Thebes these
+kings only inscribed previous monuments. The Ethiopian
+(XXVth) dynasty built mainly in their capital under Mount
+Barkal, and Shabako and Tirhaka (Tahrak) also left chapels
+and a pylon at Thebes; and the latter added a great colonnade
+leading up to the temple of Karnak, of which one column is still
+standing.</p>
+
+<p>Of the Saite kings there are very few large monuments.
+Their work was mainly of limestone and built in the Delta, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page77" id="page77"></a>77</span>
+hence it has been entirely swept away. The square fort of brickwork
+at Daphnae (<i>q.v.</i>) was built by Psammetichus I. Of
+Apries (Haa-ab-ra, Hophra) an obelisk and two monolith shrines
+are the principal remains. Of Amasis (Aahmes) II. five great
+shrines are known; but the other kings of this age have only
+left minor works. The Persians kept up Egyptian monuments.
+Darius I. quarried largely, and left a series of great granite
+decrees along his Suez canal; he also built the great temple in
+the oasis of Kharga.</p>
+
+<p>The XXXth Dynasty renewed the period of great temples.
+Nekhtharheb built the temple of Behb&#275;t, now a ruinous heap
+of immense blocks of granite. Beside other temples, now
+destroyed, he set up the great west pylon of Karnak, and the
+pylon at Kharga. Nekhtnebf built the Hathor temple and
+great pylon at Philae, and the east pylon of Karnak, beside
+temples elsewhere, now vanished. Religious building was
+continued under the Ptolemies and Romans; and though the
+royal impulse may not have been strong, yet the wealth of the
+land under good government supplied means for many places
+to rebuild their old shrines magnificently. In the Fayum the
+capital was dedicated to Queen Arsinoe, and doubtless Ptolemy
+rebuilt the temple, now destroyed. At Sharona are remains of
+a temple of Ptolemy I. Dendera is one of the most complete
+temples, giving a noble idea of the appearance of such work
+anciently. The body of the temple is of Ptolemy XIII., and
+was carved as late as the XVIth (Caesarion), and the great
+portico was in building from Augustus to Nero. At Coptos was
+a screen of the temple of Ptolemy I. (now at Oxford), and a
+chapel still remains of Ptolemy XIII. Karnak was largely
+decorated; a granite cella was built under Philip Arrhidaeus,
+covered with elaborate carving; a great pylon was added to
+the temple of Khonsu by Ptolemy III.; the inner pylon of
+the Ammon-temple was carved by Ptolemy VI. and IX.; and
+granite doorways were added to the temples of Month and M&#363;t
+by Ptolemy II. At Luxor the entire cella was rebuilt by
+Alexander. At Med&#299;net Hab&#363; the temple of Tethmosis III. had
+a doorway built by Ptolemy X., and a forecourt by Antoninus.
+The smaller temple was built under Ptolemy X. and the
+emperors. South of Med&#299;net Hab&#363; a small temple was built
+by Hadrian and Antoninus. At Esna the great temple was
+rebuilt and inscribed during a couple of centuries from Titus
+to Decius. At El Kab the temple dates from Ptolemy IX. and
+X. The great temple of Edf&#363;, which has its enclosure walls and
+pylon complete, and is the most perfect example remaining, was
+gradually built during a century and a half from Ptolemy III.
+to XI. The monuments of Philae begin with the wall of Nekhtnebf.
+Ptolemy II. began the great temple, and the temple of
+Arhesnofer (Arsenuphis) is due to Ptolemy IV., that of Asclepius
+to Ptolemy V., that of Hathor to Ptolemy VI., and the great
+colonnades belong to Ptolemy XIII. and Augustus. The
+beautiful little riverside temple, called the &ldquo;kiosk,&rdquo; was built
+by Augustus and inscribed by Trajan; and the latest building
+was the arch of Diocletian.</p>
+
+<p>Farther south, in Nubia, the temples of Dab&#333;d and Dakka
+were built by the Ethiopian Ergamenes, contemporary of
+Ptolemy IV.; and the temple of Dend&#363;r is of Augustus. The
+latest building of the temple style is the White Monastery near
+Suhag. The external form is that of a great temple, with
+windows added along the top; while internally it was a Christian
+church. The modern dwellings in it have now been cleared out,
+and the interior admirably preserved and cleaned by a native
+Syrian architect.</p>
+
+<p>Beside the great monuments, which we have now noticed,
+the historical material is found on several other classes of remains.
+These are: (1) The royal tombs, which in the Vth, VIth,
+XVIIIth, XIXth and XXth Dynasties are fully inscribed;
+but as the texts are always religious and not historical, they are
+less important than many other remains. (2) The royal coffins
+and wrappings, which give information by the added graffiti
+recording their removals; (3) Royal tablets, which are of the
+highest value for history, as they often describe or imply historical
+events; (4) Private tombs and tablets, which are in many cases
+biographical. (5) Papyri concerning daily affairs which throw
+light on history; or which give historic detail, as the great
+papyrus of Rameses III., and the trials under Rameses X.
+(6) The added inscriptions on buildings by later restorers, and
+alterations of names for misappropriation. (7) The statues
+which give the royal portraits, and sometimes historical facts.
+(8) The <i>ostraca</i>, or rough notes of work accounts, and plans
+drawn on pieces of limestone or pottery. (9) The scarabs
+bearing kings&rsquo; names, which under the Hyksos and in some other
+dark periods, are our main source of information. (10) The
+miscellaneous small remains of toilet objects, ornaments, weapons,
+&amp;c., many of which bear royal names.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Every object and monument with a royal name will be found
+catalogued under each reign in Petrie&rsquo;s <i>History of Egypt</i>, 3 vols.,
+the last editions of each being the fullest.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. M. F. P.)</div>
+
+
+<p>F. <i>Chronology.</i>&mdash;1. <i>Technical.</i>&mdash;The standard year of the Ancient
+Egyptians consisted of twelve months of thirty days<a name="fa17c" id="fa17c" href="#ft17c"><span class="sp">17</span></a> each, with
+five epagomenal days, in all 365 days. It was thus an effective
+compromise between the solar year and the lunar month, and
+contrasts very favourably with the intricate and clumsy years
+of other ancient systems. The leap-year of the Julian and
+Gregorian calendars confers the immense benefit of a fixed
+correspondence to the seasons which the Egyptian year did not
+possess, but the uniform length of the Egyptian months is
+enviable even now. The months were grouped under three
+seasons of four months each, and were known respectively as
+the first, second, third and fourth month <img style="width:174px; height:42px" src="images/img77a.jpg" alt="" />
+of <img style="width:83px; height:38px" src="images/img77b.jpg" alt="" /> (i&rsquo;&#7723;·t) &ldquo;inundation&rdquo; or &ldquo;verdure,&rdquo;
+<img style="width:65px; height:42px" src="images/img77c.jpg" alt="" /> <i>pr·t</i> (<i>pro</i>) &ldquo;seed-time,&rdquo; &ldquo;winter,&rdquo; and
+<img style="width:60px; height:41px" src="images/img77d.jpg" alt="" /> <i>&#353;mw (shôm)</i>
+&ldquo;harvest,&rdquo; &ldquo;summer,&rdquo; the <img style="width:150px; height:41px" src="images/img77e.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;five (days)
+over the year&rdquo; being outside these seasons and the year itself,
+according to the Egyptian expression, and counted either at
+the beginning or at the end of the year. Ultimately the
+Egyptians gave names to the months taken from festivals
+celebrated in them, in order as follows:&mdash;Thoth, Paophi, Athyr,
+Choiak, T&#333;bi, Mech&#299;r, Phamen&#333;th, Pharm&#363;thi, Pachons, Payni,
+Epiphi, Mesore, the epagomenal days being then called &ldquo;the
+short year.&rdquo; In Egypt the agricultural seasons depend more
+immediately on the Nile than on the solar movements; the first
+day of the first month of inundation, <i>i.e.</i> nominally the beginning
+of the rise of the Nile, was the beginning of the year, and as the
+Nile commences to rise very regularly at about the date of the
+annual heliacal rising of the conspicuous dog-star Sothis (Sirius)
+(which itself follows extremely closely the slow retrogression
+of the Julian year), the primitive astronomers found in the
+heliacal rising of Sothis as observed at Memphis (on July 19
+Julian) a very correct and useful starting-point for the seasonal
+year. But the year of 365 days lost one day in four years of the
+Sothic or Julian year, so that in 121 Egyptian years New Year&rsquo;s
+day fell a whole month too early according to the seasons, and
+in 1461 years a whole year was lost. This &ldquo;Sothic period&rdquo;
+or era of 1460 years, during which the Egyptian New
+Year&rsquo;s day travelled all round the Sothic year, is recorded by
+Greek and Roman writers at least as early as the 1st century
+<span class="sc">b.c.</span> The epagomenal days appear on a monument of the Vth
+Dynasty and in the very ancient Pyramid texts. They were
+considered unlucky, and perhaps this accounts for the curious
+fact that, although they are named in journals and in festival
+lists, &amp;c., where precise dating was needed, no known
+monument or legal document is dated in them. It is, however,
+quite possible that by the side of the year of 365 days a shorter
+year of 360 was employed for some purposes. Lunar months
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page78" id="page78"></a>78</span>
+were observed in the regulation of temples, and lunar years, &amp;c.,
+have been suspected. To find uniformity in any department
+in Egyptian practice would be exceptional. By the decree of
+Canopus, Ptolemy III. Euergetes introduced through the assembly
+of priests an extra day every fourth year, but this reform had
+no acceptation until it was reimposed by Augustus with the
+Julian calendar. Whether any earlier attempt was made to
+adjust the civil to the solar or Sothic year in order to restore
+the festivals to their proper places in the seasons temporarily
+or otherwise, is a question of great importance for chronology,
+but at present it remains unanswered. Probably neither the
+Sothic nor any other era was employed by the ancient Egyptians,
+who dated solely by regnal years (see below). An inscription
+of Rameses II. at Tanis is dated in the 400th year of the reign
+of the god S&#275;th of Ombos, probably with reference to some
+religious ordinance during the rule of the Seth-worshipping
+Hyksos; Rameses II. may well have celebrated its quater-centenary,
+but it is wrong to argue from this piece of evidence
+alone that an era of S&#275;th was ever observed.</p>
+
+<p>From the Middle Kingdom onward to the Roman period, the
+dates upon Egyptian documents are given in regnal years.
+On the oldest monuments the years in a reign were not numbered
+consecutively but were named after events; thus in the Ist
+Dynasty we find &ldquo;the year of smiting the Antiu-people,&rdquo; in the
+beginning of the IIIrd Dynasty &ldquo;the year of fighting and smiting
+the people of Lower Egypt.&rdquo; But under the IInd Dynasty
+there was a census of property for taxation every two years,
+and the custom, continuing (with some irregularities) for a long
+time, offered a uniform mode of marking years, whether current
+or past. Thus such dates are met with as &ldquo;the year of the third
+time of numbering&rdquo; of a particular king, the next being designated
+as &ldquo;the year after the third time of numbering.&rdquo; Under
+the Vth Dynasty this method was so much the rule that the
+words &ldquo;of numbering&rdquo; were commonly omitted. It would seem
+that in the course of the next dynasty the census became annual
+instead of biennial, so that the &ldquo;times&rdquo; agreed with the actual
+years of reign; thenceforward their consecutive designation as
+&ldquo;first time,&rdquo; &ldquo;second time,&rdquo; for &ldquo;first year,&rdquo; &ldquo;second year,&rdquo;
+was as simple as it well could be, and lasted unchanged to the
+fall of paganism. The question arises from what point these
+regnal dates were calculated. Successive regnal years might
+begin (1) on the anniversary of the king&rsquo;s accession, or (2)
+on the calendrical beginning in each year (normally on the
+first day of the nominal First month of inundation, <i>i.e.</i>
+1st Thoth in the later calendar). In the latter case there
+would be a further consideration: was the portion of a
+calendar year following the accession of the new king counted
+to the last year of the outgoing king, or to the first year of the
+new king? In Dynasties I., IV.-V., XVIII. there are instances
+of the first mode (1), in Dynasties II., VI. (?), XII., XXVI. and
+onwards they follow the second (2). It may be that the practice
+was not uniform in all documents even of the same age. In
+Ptolemaic times not only were Macedonian dates sometimes
+given in Greek documents, but there were certainly two native
+modes of dating current; down to the reign of Euergetes there
+was a &ldquo;fiscal&rdquo; dating in papyri, according to which the year
+began in Paophi, besides a civil dating probably from Thoth;
+later, all the dates in papyri start from Thoth.</p>
+
+<p>The Macedonian year is found in early Ptolemaic documents.
+The fixed year of the Canopic decree under Euergetes (with
+1st Thoth on Oct. 22) was never adopted. Augustus established
+an &ldquo;Alexandrian&rdquo; era with the fixed Julian year,
+retaining the Egyptian months, with a sixth epagomenal day
+every fourth year. The capture of Alexandria having taken
+place on the 1st of August 30 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, the era began nominally
+in 30 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, but it was not actually introduced till some years later,
+from which time the 1st Thoth corresponded with the 29th
+of August in the Julian year. The vague &ldquo;Egyptian&rdquo; year,
+however, continued in use in native documents for some centuries
+along with the Alexandrian &ldquo;Ionian&rdquo; year. The era of Diocletian
+dates from the 29th of August 284, the year of his reforms;
+later, however, the Christians called it the era of the Martyrs
+(though the persecution was not until 302), and it survived the
+Arab conquest. The dating by indictions, <i>i.e.</i> Roman tax-censuses,
+taking place every fifteenth year, probably originated
+in Egypt, in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 312, the year of the defeat of Maxentius. The
+indictions began in Payni of the fixed year, when the harvest
+had been secured.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See F. K. Ginzel, <i>Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
+Chronologie</i>, Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1906), and the bibliography in the
+following section.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. <i>Historical.</i><a name="fa18c" id="fa18c" href="#ft18c"><span class="sp">18</span></a>&mdash;As to absolute chronology, the assigning of
+a regnal year to a definite date <span class="sc">b.c.</span> is clear enough (except in
+occasional detail) from the conquest by Alexander onwards.
+Before that time, in spite of successive efforts to establish a
+chronology, the problem is very obscure. The materials for
+reconstructing the absolute chronology are of several kinds:
+(1) Regnal dates as given on contemporary monuments may
+indicate the <i>lengths of individual reigns</i>, but not with accuracy,
+as they seldom reach to the end of a reign and do not allow for
+co-regencies. Records of the time that has elapsed between two
+regnal dates in the reigns of different kings are very helpful;
+thus stelae from the Serapeum recording the ages of the Apis
+bulls with the dates of their birth and death have fixed the
+chronology of the XXVIth Dynasty. Traditional evidence for
+the lengths of reigns exists in the Turin Papyrus of kings and
+in Manetho&rsquo;s history; unfortunately the papyrus is very fragmentary
+and preserves few reign-lengths entire, and Manetho&rsquo;s
+evidence seems very untrustworthy, being known only from
+late excerpts. (2) The duration of a period may be calculated
+by <i>generations</i> or the probable average lengths of reigns, but such
+calculations are of little value, and the succession of generations
+even when the evidence seems to be full is particularly difficult
+to ascertain in Egyptian, owing to adoptions and the repetition
+of the same name even in one family of brothers and sisters.
+(3) <i>Synchronisms</i> in the histories of other countries furnish reliable
+dates&mdash;Greek, Persian, Babylonian and Biblical dates for the
+XXVIth Dynasty, Assyrian for the XXVth; less precise are the
+Biblical date of Rehoboam, contemporary with the invasion
+of Shishak (Sheshonk) in the XXIInd Dynasty, and the date
+of the Babylonian and Assyrian kings contemporary with
+Amenhotp IV. in the XVIIIth Dynasty. The last, about 1400
+<span class="sc">b.c.</span>, is the earliest point to which such coincidences reach.
+(4) <i>Astronomical data</i>, especially the heliacal risings of Sothis
+recorded by dates of their celebration in the vague year. These
+are easily calculated on the assumption first that the observations
+were correctly made, secondly that the calendrical dates are in
+the year of 365 days beginning on 1st Thoth, and thirdly that
+this year subsequently underwent no readjustment or other
+alteration before the reign of Euergetes. The assumption may
+be a reasonable one, and if the results agree with probabilities
+as deduced from the rest of the evidence it is wise to adopt it;
+if on the other hand the other evidence seems in any serious
+degree contrary to those results it may be surmised that the
+assumption is faulty in some particular. The harvest date
+referred to below helps to show that the first part of the assumption
+is justified.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Dynasty.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Meyer 1887<br />(minimum date).</td> <td class="tccm allb">Petrie<br />1894 &amp;c.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Meyer<br />1904-1908.</td> <td class="tccm allb">
+Sethe<br />1905.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Breasted<br />1906.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Petrie<br />1906.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">I.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3180</td> <td class="tcc rb">4777</td> <td class="tcc rb">3315</td> <td class="tcc rb">3360</td> <td class="tcc rb">3400</td> <td class="tcc rb">5510</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">II.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">4514</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">3110</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">5247</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">III.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">4212</td> <td class="tcc rb">2895</td> <td class="tcc rb">2810</td> <td class="tcc rb">2980</td> <td class="tcc rb">4945</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">IV.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2830</td> <td class="tcc rb">3998</td> <td class="tcc rb">2840</td> <td class="tcc rb">2720</td> <td class="tcc rb">2900</td> <td class="tcc rb">4731</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">V.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">3721</td> <td class="tcc rb">2680</td> <td class="tcc rb">2630</td> <td class="tcc rb">2750</td> <td class="tcc rb">4454</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">VI.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2530</td> <td class="tcc rb">3503</td> <td class="tcc rb">2540</td> <td class="tcc rb">2480</td> <td class="tcc rb">2625</td> <td class="tcc rb">4206</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">VII.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">3322</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">2300</td> <td class="tcc rb">2475</td> <td class="tcc rb">4003</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">VIII.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">3252</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">3933</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">IX.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">3106</td> <td class="tcc rb">2360</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">2445</td> <td class="tcc rb">3787</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">X.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">3006</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">3687</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XI.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">2821</td> <td class="tcc rb">2160</td> <td class="tcc rb">2100</td> <td class="tcc rb">2160</td> <td class="tcc rb">3502</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XII.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2130</td> <td class="tcc rb">2778</td> <td class="tcc rb">2000</td> <td class="tcc rb">2000</td> <td class="tcc rb">2000</td> <td class="tcc rb">3459</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XIII.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1930</td> <td class="tcc rb">2565</td> <td class="tcc rb">1791</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1788</td> <td class="tcc rb">3246</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XIV.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">2112</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">2793</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XV.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1780</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1680*</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">2533</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XVI.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1928</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">2249</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XVII.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1738</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1731</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XVIII.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1530</td> <td class="tcc rb">1587</td> <td class="tcc rb">1580</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">1580</td> <td class="tcc rb">1580</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">XIX.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1320</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1327</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1321</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1350</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1323</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="7">* Meyer makes XIII. overlap XV. (Hyksos), and XIV. (Xoite),<br />
+contemporary with XVI. (Hyksos) and XVII. (Theban).</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The duration of the reigns in several dynasties is fairly well
+known from the incontrovertible evidence of contemporary
+monuments. The XXVIth Dynasty, which lasted 139 years,
+is particularly clear, and synchronisms fix its regnal dates to the
+years <span class="sc">b.c.</span> within an error of one or two years at most. The
+lengths of several reigns in the XIIth, XVIIIth and XIXth
+Dynasties are known, and the sum total for the XIIth Dynasty
+is preserved better than any other in the Turin Papyrus, which
+was written under the XIXth Dynasty. The succession and
+number of the kings are also ascertained for other dynasties,
+together with many regnal dates, but very serious gaps exist
+in the records of the Egyptian monuments, the worst being
+between the XIIth and the XVIIIth Dynasties, between the
+XIth and the VIth, and at Dynasties I.-III. For the chronology
+before the time of the XXVIth Dynasty Herodotus&rsquo;s history
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page79" id="page79"></a>79</span>
+is quite worthless. Manetho alone of all authorities offers a
+complete chronology from the 1st Dynasty to the XXXth. In
+the case of the six kings of the XXVIth Dynasty, Africanus,
+the best of his excerptors, gives correct figures for five reigns,
+but attributes six instead of sixteen years to Necho; the other
+excerptors have wrong numbers throughout. For the XIXth
+Dynasty Manetho&rsquo;s figures are wrong wherever we can check
+them; the names, too, are seriously faulty. In the XVIIIth
+Dynasty he has too many names and few are clearly identifiable,
+while the numbers are incomprehensible. In the XIIth Dynasty
+the number of the kings is correct and many of the names can
+be justified, but the reign-lengths are nearly, if not quite, all
+wrong. The summations of years for the Dynasties XII. and
+XVIII. are likewise wrong. It seems, therefore, that the known
+texts of Manetho, serviceable as they have been in the reconstruction
+of Egyptian history, cannot be employed as a
+serious guide to the early chronology, since they are faulty
+wherever we can check them, even in the XXVIth
+Dynasty whose kings were so celebrated among the Greeks.
+There remain the astronomical data. Of these, the Sothic
+date furnished by a calendar in the Ebers Papyrus of the
+9th year of Amenophis I. (when interpreted on the assumption
+stated above), and another at Elephantine of an uncertain
+year of Tethmosis III., tally well with each other (1550-1546,
+1474-1470 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) and with the Babylonian synchronism (not
+yet accurately determined) under Amenhotp IV. (Akhenaton).
+Another Sothic date of the 7th year of Senwosri III. on a Berlin
+papyrus from Kah&#363;n, similarly interpreted (1882-1878 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>),
+gives for the XIIth Dynasty a range from 2000 to 1788 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>
+This (discovered by L. Borchardt in 1899)
+seems to offer a welcome ray, piercing the
+obscurity of early Egyptian chronology;
+guided by it the historian Ed. Meyer, and
+K. Sethe have framed systems of chronology
+in close agreement with each other, reaching
+back to the 1st Dynasty at about 3400 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>
+To Meyer is further due a calculation that
+the Egyptian calendar was introduced in
+4241-4238 <span class="sc">b.c.</span><a name="fa19c" id="fa19c" href="#ft19c"><span class="sp">19</span></a> Their results in general
+have been adopted by the &ldquo;Berlin school,&rdquo;
+including Erman, Steindorff (in Baedeker&rsquo;s
+<i>Egypt</i>) and Breasted in America. Nevertheless
+many Egyptologists are unwilling
+to accept the new chronology, the
+chief obstacle being that it allows so short an interval for
+the six dynasties between the XIIth and the XVIIIth. If
+the XIIth Dynasty ended about 1790 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> and the XVIIIth
+began about 1570 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, taking what seems to be the utmost
+interval that it permits, 220 years have to contain a crowd of
+kings of whom nearly 100 are already known by name from
+monuments and papyri, while fresh names are being added
+annually to the long list; the shattered fragments of the last
+columns in the Turin Papyrus show space for 150 or perhaps
+180 kings of this period, apparently without
+reaching the XVIIth Dynasty. An
+estimate of 160 to 200 kings would therefore
+not be excessive. The dates that have
+come down to us are very few; the only
+ones known from the Hyksos period are of a
+12th and a 33rd year. In the Turin Papyrus
+two reign-lengths of less than a year, seven
+others of less than five years each, one of ten
+years and one of thirteen seem attributable
+to the XIIIth and XIVth Dynasties. Probably
+most of the reigns were short, as
+Manetho also decidedly indicates. It is
+possible that the compiler of the Turin
+Papyrus, who excluded contemporary reigns
+in the period between the VIth and the
+XIIth Dynasties, here admitted such; nor
+is a correspondingly large number of kings
+in so short a period without analogies in
+history. Professor Petrie, however, thinks
+it best, while accepting the evidence of the Sirius date, to
+suppose further that a whole Sothic period of 1460 years had
+passed in the interval, making a total of 1650 years for
+the six dynasties in place of 220 years. This, however,
+seems greatly in excess of probability, and several Egyptologists
+familiar with excavation are willing to accept Meyer&rsquo;s
+figures on archaeological grounds. To the present writer it
+seems that Meyer&rsquo;s chronology provides a convenient working
+theory, but involves such an improbability in regard to the
+interval between the XIIth and the XVIIIth Dynasties that the
+interpretation of the Sothic date on which it is founded must
+be viewed with suspicion until clear facts are found to corroborate
+it. Corroboration has been sought by Mahler, Sethe and Petrie
+in the dates of new moons, of warlike and other expeditions,
+and of high Nile, but their evidence so far is too vague and
+uncertain to affect the question seriously. It is remarkable that
+no records of eclipses are known from Egyptian documents.
+The interesting date of the harvest at El Bersha, quoted by
+Meyer in Breasted, <i>Records</i>, i. p. 48, confirms the Sothic date for
+the XIIth Dynasty in some measure, but it belongs to the same
+age, and therefore its evidence would be equally vitiated with the
+other by any subsequent alteration in the Egyptian calendar.
+Before the discovery of the Kahun Sothic date, Professor Petrie
+put the end of the XIIth Dynasty at 2565 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>; in 1884 even
+Meyer had suggested 1930 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> as its <i>minimum</i> date, thus
+allowing 400 years at the least for the period from the XIIIth
+Dynasty to the XVIIth.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Dynasty.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Wiedemann<br />1884.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Meyer<br />1884.</td> <td class="tccm allb">
+Petrie<br />1905-1906.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Breasted<br />1906.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Maspero<br />1904.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XIX.</td> <td class="tcr rb">1490</td> <td class="tcr rb">1320</td> <td class="tcc rb">(1328), 1322</td> <td class="tcr rb">1350</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XX.</td> <td class="tcr rb">1280</td> <td class="tcr rb">1180</td> <td class="tcr rb">1202</td> <td class="tcr rb">1200</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XXI.</td> <td class="tcr rb">1100</td> <td class="tcr rb">1060</td> <td class="tcr rb">1102</td> <td class="tcr rb">1090</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XXII.</td> <td class="tcr rb">975</td> <td class="tcr rb">930</td> <td class="tcr rb">952</td> <td class="tcr rb">945</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XXIII.</td> <td class="tcr rb">810</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">755 </td> <td class="tcr rb">745</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XXIV.</td> <td class="tcr rb">720</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">721</td> <td class="tcr rb">718</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XXV.</td> <td class="tcr rb">715</td> <td class="tcr rb">728</td> <td class="tcr rb">715</td> <td class="tcr rb">712</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XXVI.</td> <td class="tcr rb">664</td> <td class="tcr rb">663</td> <td class="tcr rb">664</td> <td class="tcr rb">663</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XXVII.</td> <td class="tcr rb">525</td> <td class="tcr rb">525</td> <td class="tcr rb">525</td> <td class="tcr rb">525</td> <td class="tcr rb">425</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XXVIII.</td> <td class="tcr rb">415</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">405</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">c. 405</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XXIX.</td> <td class="tcr rb">408</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">399</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">399</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">XXX.</td> <td class="tcr rb">387</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">378</td> <td class="tcr rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb">380 </td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">Ochus</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">350</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">342</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">342</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Beyond the XIIth Dynasty estimates must again be vague.
+The spacing of the years on the Palermo stone has given rise to
+some calculations for the early dynasties. Others are grounded
+on the dates of certain operations which are likely to have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page80" id="page80"></a>80</span>
+taken place at particular seasons of the year so that they can be
+roughly calculated on the Sothic basis, others on Manetho&rsquo;s
+figures, average lengths of reigns, evidence of the Turin Papyrus,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>Table I. page 79 shows the chronology of the first nineteen
+dynasties, according to recent authorities, before and after the
+discovery of the Kahun Sothic date.</p>
+
+<p>The dates of the earlier dynasties in this table are always
+intended to be only approximate; for instance, Meyer in 1904
+allowed an error of 100 years either of excess or deficiency in
+the dates he assigned to the dynasties from the Xth upwards.</p>
+
+<p>The other dynasties are dated as in Table II. by different
+authorities.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Ed. Meyer, <i>Geschichte des Altertums</i>, Bd. i. (Stuttgart, 1884),
+<i>Geschichte des alten Ägyptens</i> (1887), <i>Ägyptische Chronologie</i>
+(<i>Abhandl.</i> of Prussian Academy) (Berlin, 1904, with the supplement
+<i>Nachträge zur ägypt. Chronologie</i>, ib. 1907); K. Sethe, &ldquo;Beiträge
+zur ältesten Geschichte Ägyptens&rdquo; (in his <i>Untersuchungen</i>, Bd. iii.)
+(Leipzig, 1905); J. H. Breasted, <i>Ancient Records of Egypt</i>, &ldquo;Historical
+Documents,&rdquo; vol. i. (Chicago, 1906); W. M. F. Petrie, <i>A
+History of Egypt</i>, vol. i. (London, 1884), vol. iii. (1905), <i>Researches in
+Sinai</i> (London, 1906); G. Maspero, <i>Histoire ancienne des peuples
+de l&rsquo;orient</i> (Paris, 1904); A. Wiedemann, <i>Ägyptische Geschichte</i>
+(Gotha, 1884); articles by Mahler and others in the <i>Zeitschrift für
+ägyptische Sprache and Orientalistische Literaturzeitung</i> (recent
+years).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. Ll. G.)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">III. History</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2">1. <i>From the Earliest Times to the Moslem Conquest.</i></p>
+
+<p>In the absence of a strict chronology, the epochs of Pharaonic
+history are conveniently reckoned in dynasties according to
+Manetho&rsquo;s scheme, and these dynasties are grouped into longer
+periods:&mdash;the Old Kingdom (Dynasties I. to VIII.), including
+the Earliest Dynasties (I. to III.) and the Pyramid Period
+(Dynasties IV. to VI.); the Middle Kingdom (Dynasties IX.
+to XVII.), including the Heracleopolite Dynasties (IX. to X.)
+and the Hyksos Period (Dynasties XV. to XVII.); the New
+Empire (Dynasties XVIII. to XX.); the Deltaic Dynasties
+(Dynasties XXI. to XXXI.), including the Saite and Persian
+Periods (Dynasties XXVI. to XXXI.). The conquest by
+Alexander ushers in the Hellenistic age, comprising the periods
+of Ptolemaic and Roman rule.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Prehistoric Age.</i>&mdash;One of the most striking features of
+recent Egyptology is the way in which the earliest ages of the
+civilization, before the conventional Egyptian style was formed,
+have been illustrated by the results of excavation. Until 1895
+there seemed little hope of reaching the records of those remote
+times, although it was plain that the civilization had developed
+in the Nile valley for many centuries before the IVth Dynasty,
+beyond which the earliest known monuments scarcely reached.
+Since that year, however, there has been a steady flow of discoveries
+in prehistoric and early historic cemeteries, and, partly
+in consequence of this, monuments already known, such as the
+annals of the Palermo stone, have been made articulate for the
+beginnings of history in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>It is probable that certain rudely chipped flints, so-called
+eoliths, in the alluvial gravels (formed generally at the mouth
+of wadis opening on to the Nile) at Thebes and elsewhere,
+are the work of primitive man; but it has been shown that such
+are produced also by natural forces in the rush of torrents.
+On the surface of the desert, at the borders of the valley, palaeolithic
+implements of well-defined form are not uncommon, and
+bear the marks of a remote antiquity. In some cases they
+appear to lie where they were chipped on the sites of flint factories.
+Geologists and anthropologists are not yet agreed on the question
+whether the climate and condition of the country have undergone
+large changes since these implements were deposited. As yet
+none have been found in such association with animal remains
+as would help in deciding their age, nor have any implements
+been discovered in rock-shelters or in caves.</p>
+
+<p>Of neolithic remains, arrowheads and other implements are
+found in some numbers in the deserts. In the Fay&#363;m region,
+about the borders of the ancient Lake of Moeris and beyond, they
+are particularly abundant and interesting in their forms. But
+their age is uncertain; some may be contemporary with the
+advanced culture of the XIIth Dynasty in the Nile valley.
+Definite history on the other hand has been gained from the
+wonderful series of &ldquo;prehistoric&rdquo; cemeteries excavated by J. de
+Morgan, Petrie, Reisner and others on the desert edgings of the
+cultivated alluvium. The succession of archaeological types
+revealed in them has been tabulated by Petrie in his <i>Diospolis
+Parva</i>; and the detailed publication of Reisner&rsquo;s unusually
+careful researches is bringing much new light on the questions
+involved, amongst other things showing the exact point at which
+the &ldquo;prehistoric&rdquo; series merges into the Ist Dynasty, for, as
+might be surmised, in many cases the prehistoric cemeteries
+continued in use under the earliest dynasties. The finest
+pottery, often painted but all hand-made without the wheel,
+belongs to the prehistoric period; so also do the finest flint
+implements, which, in the delicacy and exactitude of their form
+and flaking, surpass all that is known from other countries.
+Metal seems to be entirely absent from the earliest type of
+graves, but immediately thereafter copper begins to appear
+(bronze is hardly to be found before the XIIth Dynasty). The
+paintings on the vases show boats driven by oars and sails
+rudely figured, and the boats bear emblematic standards or
+ensigns. The cemeteries are found throughout Upper and Middle
+Egypt, but as yet have not been met with in the Delta or on
+its borders. This might be accounted for by the inhabitants
+of Lower Egypt having practised a different mode of disposing
+of the dead, or by their cemeteries being differently
+placed.</p>
+
+<p>Tradition, mythology and later customs make it possible to
+recover a scrap of the political history of that far-off time.
+Menes, the founder of the Ist Dynasty, united the two kingdoms
+of Upper and Lower Egypt. In the prehistoric period, therefore,
+these two realms were separate. The capital of Upper Egypt
+was Nekheb, now represented by the ruins of El Kab, with the
+royal residence across the river at Nekhen (Hieraconpolis); that
+of Lower Egypt was at Buto (Put&#333; or Dep) in the marshes, with
+the royal residence in the quarter called Pe. Nekhêbi, goddess of
+El Kab, represented the Upper or Southern Kingdom, which
+was also under the tutelage of the god Seth, the goddess Buto
+and the god Horus similarly presiding over the Lower Kingdom.
+The royal god in the palace of each was a hawk or Horus. The
+spirits of the deceased kings were honoured respectively as
+the jackal-headed spirits of Nekhen and the hawk-headed spirits
+of Pe. As we hear also of the &ldquo;spirits of On&rdquo; it is probable that
+Heliopolis was at one time capital of a kingdom. In after days
+the prehistoric kings were known as &ldquo;Worshippers of Horus&rdquo;
+and in Manetho&rsquo;s list they are the <span class="grk" title="nekues">&#957;&#941;&#954;&#965;&#949;&#962;</span> &ldquo;Dead,&rdquo; and <span class="grk" title="hêrôes">&#7973;&#961;&#969;&#949;&#962;</span>
+&ldquo;Heroes,&rdquo; being looked upon as intermediate between the divine
+dynasties and those of human kings. It is impossible to estimate
+the duration of the period represented by the prehistoric
+cemeteries; that the two kingdoms existed throughout
+unchanged is hardly probable.</p>
+
+<p>According to the somatologist Elliott Smith, the most important
+change in the physical character of the people of Upper
+Egypt, in the entire range of Egyptian archaeology, took place
+at the beginning of the dynastic period; and he accounts for this
+by the mingling of the Lower with the Upper Egyptian population,
+consequent on the uniting of the two countries under one
+rule. From remains of the age of the IVth Dynasty he is able
+to define to some extent the type of the population of Lower
+Egypt as having a better cranial and muscular development than
+that of Upper Egypt, probably through immigration from Syria.
+The advent of the dynasties, however, produced a quickening
+rather than a dislocation in the development of civilization.</p>
+
+<p>It is doubtful whether we possess any writing of the prehistoric
+age. A few names of the kings of Lower Egypt are preserved
+in the first line of the Palermo stone, but no annals are attached
+to them. Petrie considers that one of the kings buried at
+Abydos, provisionally called Nar-mer and whose real name may
+be Mer or Beza, preceded Menes; of him there are several
+inscribed records, notably a magnificent carved and inscribed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page81" id="page81"></a>81</span>
+slate palette found at Hieraconpolis, with figures of the king
+and his vizier, war-standards and prisoners. To identify him
+with Bezau (Boethos) of the IInd Dynasty runs counter to much
+archaeological evidence. Sethe places him next after Menes and
+some would identify him with that king. Another inscribed
+palette may be pre-dynastic; it perhaps mentions a king named
+&ldquo;Scorpion.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Old Kingdom.</i>&mdash;The names of a number of kings attributable
+to the Ist Dynasty are known from their tombs at Abydos.
+Unfortunately, they are almost exclusively Horus
+titles <img style="width:84px; height:41px" src="images/img81a.jpg" alt="" />, in place of the personal names by
+<span class="sidenote">The earliest dynasties.</span>
+which they were recorded in the lists of Abydos and
+Manetho; some, however, of the latter are found, and prove
+that the scribes of the New Kingdom were unable to read
+them correctly. Important changes and improvements took
+place in the writing even during the Ist Dynasty. The personal
+name of Menes <img style="width:42px; height:19px" src="images/img81b.jpg" alt="" /> is given by one only of many relics of a
+king whose Horus-name was Aha, &ldquo;the Fighter.&rdquo; Doubts
+have been expressed about the identification with Menes, but
+it is strongly corroborated by the very archaic style of the
+remains. The name of Aha (Menes) was found in two tombs,
+one at Nag&#257;da north of Thebes and nearly opposite the road to
+the Red Sea, the other at Abydos. Manetho makes the
+Ist Dynasty Thinite, this being the capital of the nome in which
+Abydos lay. Upper Egypt always had precedence over Lower
+Egypt, and it seems clear that Menes came from the former and
+conquered the latter. According to tradition he founded
+Memphis which lay on the frontier of his conquest; probably
+he resided there as well as at Abydos; at any rate relics of one
+of the later kings of the Ist Dynasty have already been recognized
+in its vast necropolis. Of the eight kings of the Ist Dynasty,
+three&mdash;the fifth, sixth and seventh in the Ramesside list of Abydos&mdash;are
+positively identified by tomb-remains from Abydos, and
+others are scarcely less certain. Two of the kings have also
+left tablets at the copper and turquoise mines of Wadi Magh&#257;ra
+in Sinai. The royal tombs are built of brick, but one of them,
+that of Usaphais, had its floor of granite from Elephantine.
+They must have been filled with magnificent furniture and
+provisions of every kind, including annual record-tablets of the
+reigns, carved in ivory and ebony. From a fragment on the
+Palermo stone it is clear that material existed as late as the
+Vth Dynasty for a brief note of the height of the Nile and other
+particulars in each year of the reign of these kings.</p>
+
+<p>The IInd Dynasty of Manetho appears to have been separated
+from the Ist even on the Palermo stone; it also was Thinite,
+and the tombs of several of its nine (?) kings were found at
+Abydos. The IIIrd Dynasty is given as Memphite by Manetho.
+Two of the kings built huge mastaba-tombs at Bêt Khallaf near
+Abydos, but the architect and learned scribe Imh&#333;tp designed
+for one of these two kings, named Zoser, a second and mightier
+monument at Memphis, the great step-pyramid of Sakkara. In
+Ptolemaic times Imh&#333;tp was deified, and the traditional importance
+of Zoser is shown by a forged grant of the Dodecaschoenus
+to the cataract god Khnûm, purporting to be from his reign, but
+in reality dating from the Ptolemaic age. With Snefru, at the
+end of this dynasty, we reach the beginning of Egyptian history
+as it was known before the recent discoveries. Monuments and
+written records are henceforth more numerous and important,
+and the Palermo annals show a fuller scale of record. The
+events in the three years that are preserved include a successful
+raid upon the negroes, and the construction of ships and gates
+of cedar-wood which must have been brought from the forests
+of the Lebanon. Snefru also set up a tablet at Wadi Magh&#257;ra in
+Sinai. He built two pyramids, one of them at M&#275;d&#363;m in steps,
+the other, probably in the perfected form, at Dahsh&#363;r, both
+lying between Memphis and the Fay&#363;m.</p>
+
+<p>Pyramids did not cease to be built in Egypt till the New
+Kingdom; but from the end of the IIIrd to the VIth Dynasty
+is pre-eminently the time when the royal pyramid in stone was
+the chief monument left by each successive king. Zoser and
+Snefru have been already noticed. The personal name enclosed
+in a cartouche <img style="width:41px; height:19px" src="images/img81c.jpg" alt="" /> is henceforth the commonest title of the
+king. We now reach the IVth Dynasty containing the famous
+<span class="sidenote">The pyramid period.</span>
+names of Cheops (<i>q.v.</i>), Chephren (Khafrê) and Mycerinus
+(Menkeurê), builders respectively of the Great,
+the Second and the Third Pyramids of Giza. In the
+best art of this time there was a grandeur which was
+never again attained. Perhaps the noblest example of Egyptian
+sculpture in the round is a diorite statue of Chephren, one of
+several found by Mariette in the so-called Temple of the Sphinx.
+This &ldquo;temple&rdquo; proves to be a monumental gate at the lower
+end of the great causeway leading to the plateau on which the
+pyramids were built. A king Dedefrê, between Cheops and
+Chephren, built a pyramid at Abu-Ro&#257;sh. Shepseskaf is one
+of the last in the dynasty. Tablets of most of these kings have
+been found at the mines of Wadi Magh&#257;ra. In the neighbourhood
+of the pyramids there are numerous mastabas of the court
+officials with fine sculpture in the chapels, and a few decorated
+tombs from the end of this centralized dynasty of absolute
+monarchs are known in Upper Egypt. A tablet which describes
+Cheops as the builder of various shrines about the Great Sphinx
+has been shown to be a priestly forgery, but the Sphinx itself
+may have been carved out of the rock under the splendid rule
+of the IVth Dynasty.</p>
+
+<p>The Vth Dynasty is said to be of Elephantine, but this must
+be a mistake. Its kings worshipped R&#275;, the sun, rather than
+Horus, as their ancestor, and the title <img style="width:42px; height:42px" src="images/img81d.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;son of the Sun&rdquo;
+began to be written by them before the cartouche containing
+the personal name, while another &ldquo;solar&rdquo; cartouche, containing
+a name compounded with R&#275;, followed the title <img style="width:43px; height:41px" src="images/img81e.jpg" alt="" /> &ldquo;king
+of Upper and Lower Egypt.&rdquo; Sahur&#275; and the other kings of the
+dynasty built magnificent temples with obelisks dedicated to
+R&#275;, one of which, that of Neuserr&#275; at Abus&#299;r, has been thoroughly
+explored. The marvellous tales of the Westcar Papyrus, dating
+from the Middle Kingdom, narrate how three of the kings were
+born of a priestess of R&#275;. The pyramids of several of the kings
+are known. The early ones are at Abus&#299;r, and the best preserved
+of the pyramid temples, that of Sahur&#275;, excavated by the
+German Orient-Gesellschaft, in its architecture and sculptured
+scenes has revealed an astonishingly complete development of
+art and architecture as well as of warlike enterprise by sea and
+land at this remote period; the latest pyramid belonging to the
+Vth Dynasty, that of Unas at Sakk&#257;ra, is inscribed with long
+ritual and magical texts. Exquisitely sculptured tombs of this
+time are very numerous at Memphis and are found throughout
+Upper Egypt. Of work in the traditional temples of the country
+no trace remains, probably because, being in limestone, it has all
+perished. The annals of the Palermo stone were engraved and
+added to during this dynasty; the chief events recorded for
+the time are gifts and endowments for the temples. Evidently
+priestly influence was strong at the court. Expeditions to Sinai
+and Puoni (Punt) are commemorated on tablets.</p>
+
+<p>The VIth Dynasty if not more vigorous was more articulate;
+inscribed tombs are spread throughout the country. The most
+active of its kings was the third, named Pepi or Phiops, from
+whose pyramid at Sakkara the capital, hitherto known as
+&ldquo;White Walls,&rdquo; derived its later name of Memphis (<span class="sc">mn-nfr</span>,
+Mempi); a tombstone from Abydos celebrates the activity of a
+certain Una during the reigns of Pepi and his successor in organizing
+expeditions to the Sinai peninsula and south Palestine, and
+in transporting granite from Elephantine and other quarries.
+Herkhuf, prince of Elephantine and an enterprising leader of
+caravans to the south countries both in Nubia and the Libyan
+oases, flourished under Merenr&#275; and Pepi II. called Neferker&#275;.
+On one occasion he brought home a dwarf dancer from the Sudan,
+described as being like one brought from Puoni in the time of
+the fifth-dynasty king Assa; this drew from the youthful
+Pepi II. an enthusiastic letter which was engraved in full upon
+the façade of Herkhuf&rsquo;s tomb. The reign of the last-named
+king, begun early, lasted over ninety years, a fact so long
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page82" id="page82"></a>82</span>
+remembered that even Manetho attributes to him ninety-four
+years; its length probably caused the ruin of the dynasty. The
+local princelings and monarchs had been growing in culture,
+wealth and power, and after Pepi II. an ominous gap in the
+monuments, pointing to civil war, marks the end of the Old
+Kingdom. The VIIth and VIIIth Dynasties are said to have
+been Memphite, but of them no record survives beyond some
+names of kings in the lists.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Middle Kingdom.</i>&mdash;The long Memphite rule was broken
+by the IXth and Xth Dynasties, of Heracleopolis Magna (Hês)
+in Middle Egypt. Kheti or Achthoës was apparently
+a favourite name with the kings, but they are very
+<span class="sidenote">Heracleopolite period.</span>
+obscure. They may have spread their rule by conquest
+over Upper Egypt and then overthrown the Memphite
+dynasty. The chief monuments of the period are certain
+inscribed tombs at Assi&#363;t; it appears that one of the kings,
+whose praenomen was Mikerê, supported by a fleet and army
+from Upper Egypt, and especially by the prince of Assi&#363;t, was
+restored to his paternal city of Heracleopolis, from which he had
+probably been driven out; his pyramid, however, was built in
+the old royal necropolis at Memphis. Later the princes of
+Thebes asserted their independence and founded the XIth
+Dynasty, which pushed its frontiers northwards until finally it
+occupied the whole country. Its kings were named Menthotp,
+from Mont, one of the gods of Thebes; others, perhaps sub-kings,
+were named Enyotf (Antef). They were buried at Thebes,
+whence the coffins of several were obtained by the early collectors
+of the 19th century. Nibhôtp Menthotp I. probably established
+his rule over all Egypt. The funerary temple of Nebheprê
+Menthotp III., the last but one of these kings, has been excavated
+by the Egypt Exploration Fund at Deir el Bahri, and must have
+been a magnificent monument. His successor Sankhkerê
+Menthotp IV. is known to have sent an expedition by the
+Red Sea to Puoni.</p>
+
+<p>The XIIth Dynasty is the central point of the Middle Kingdom,
+to which the decline of the Memphite and the rise of the
+Heracleopolite dynasty mark the transition, while the growth
+of Thebes under the XIth Dynasty is its true starting-point.
+Monuments of the XIIth Dynasty are abundant and often of
+splendid design and workmanship, whereas previously there had
+been little produced since the VIth Dynasty that was not half
+barbarous. Although not much of the history of the XIIth
+Dynasty is ascertained, the Turin Papyrus and many dated
+inscriptions fix the succession and length of reign of the eight
+kings very accurately. The troubled times that the kingdom
+had passed through taught the long-lived monarchs the precaution
+of associating a competent successor on the throne.
+The nomarchs and the other feudal chiefs were inclined to
+strengthen themselves at the expense of their neighbours; a
+firm hand was required to hold them in check and distribute the
+honours as they were earned by faithful service. The tombs of
+the most favoured and wealthy princes are magnificent, particularly
+those of certain families in Middle Egypt at Beni Hasan,
+El Bersha, Assi&#363;t and Deir R&#299;fa, and it is probable that each had
+a court and organization within his nome like that of the royal
+palace in miniature. Eventually, in the reigns of Senwosri III.
+and Amenemhê III., the succession of strong kings appears
+to have centralized all authority very completely. The names
+in the dynasty are Amenemhê (Ammenemes) and Senwosri
+(formerly read Usertesen or Senusert). The latter seems to be
+the origin of the Sesostris (<i>q.v.</i>) and Sesoosis of the legends.
+Amenemhê I., the first king, whose connexion with the previous
+dynasty is not known, reigned for thirty years, ten of them being
+in partnership with his son Senwosri I. He had to fight for his
+throne and then reorganize the country, removing his capital
+or residence from Thebes to a central situation near Lisht about
+25 m. south of Memphis. His monuments are widespread in
+Egypt, the quarries and mines in the desert as far as Sinai bear
+witness to his great activity, and we know of an expedition which
+he made against the Nubians. The &ldquo;Instructions of Amenemhê
+to his son Senwosri,&rdquo; whether really his own or a later composition,
+refer to these things, to his care for his subjects, and to the
+ingratitude with which he was rewarded, an attempt on his life
+having been made by the trusted servants in his own palace.
+The story of Sinûhi is the true or realistic history of a soldier who,
+having overheard the secret intelligence of Amenemhê&rsquo;s death,
+fled in fear to Palestine or Syria and there became rich in the
+favour of the prince of the land; growing old, however, he
+successfully sued for pardon from Senwosri and permission to
+return and die in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Senwosri I. was already the executive partner in the time of
+the co-regency, warring with the Libyans and probably in the
+Sudan. After Amenemhê&rsquo;s death he fully upheld the greatness
+of the dynasty in his long reign of forty-five years. The obelisk
+of Heliopolis is amongst his best-known monuments, and the
+damming of the Lake of Moeris (<i>q.v.</i>) must have been in progress
+in his reign. He built a temple far up the Nile at Wadi Halfa
+and there set up a stela commemorating his victories over the
+tribes of Nubia. The fine tombs of Ameni at Beni Hasan and of
+Hepzefa at Assi&#363;t belong to his reign. The pyramids of both
+father and son are at Lisht.</p>
+
+<p>Amenemhê II. was buried at Dahsh&#363;r; he was followed by
+Senwosri II., whose pyramid is at Illah&#363;n at the mouth of the
+Fay&#363;m. In his reign were executed the fine paintings in the
+tomb of Khnemhotp at Beni Hasan, which include a remarkable
+scene of Semitic Bedouins bringing eye-paint to Egypt from the
+eastern deserts. In Manetho he is identified with Sesostris (see
+above), but Senwosri I., and still more Senwosri III., have a
+better claim to this distinction. The latter warred in Palestine
+and in Nubia, and marked the south frontier of his kingdom
+by a statue and stelae at Semna beyond the Second Cataract.
+Near his pyramid was discovered the splendid jewelry of some
+princesses of his family (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jewelry</a></span> ad init.). The tomb of
+Thethotp at El Bersha, celebrated for the scene of the transport
+of a colossus amongst its paintings, was finished in this reign.</p>
+
+<p>Amenemhê III. completed the work of Lake Moeris and began
+a series of observations of the height of the inundation at Semna
+which was continued by his successors. In his long reign of
+forty-six years he built a pyramid at Dahsh&#363;r, and at Haw&#257;ra
+near the Lake of Moeris another pyramid together with the
+Labyrinth which seems to have been an enormous funerary
+temple attached to the pyramid. His name was remembered
+in the Fay&#363;m during the Graeco-Roman period and his effigy
+worshipped there as Pera-marres, <i>i.e.</i> Pharaoh Marres (Marres
+being his praenomen graecized). Amenemhê IV.&rsquo;s reign was
+short, and the dynasty ended with a queen Sebeknefru
+(Scemiophris), whose name is found in the scanty remains of
+the Labyrinth. The XIIth Dynasty numbered eight rulers and
+lasted for 213 years. Great as it was, it created no empire
+outside the Nile valley, and its most imposing monument, which
+according to the testimony of the ancients rivalled the pyramids,
+is now represented by a vast stratum of chips.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the following period down to the rise of the New
+Empire is very obscure. Manetho gives us the XIIIth (Diospolite)
+Dynasty, the XIVth (Xoite from Xois in Lower Egypt),
+the XVth and XVIth (Hyksos) and the XVIIth (Diospolite),
+but his names are lost except for the Hyksos kings. The Abydos
+tablet ignores all between the XIIth and XVIIIth Dynasties.
+The Turin Papyrus preserves many names on its shattered
+fragments, and the monuments are for ever adding to the list,
+but it is difficult to assign them accurately to their places. The
+Hyksos names can in some cases be recognized by their foreign
+aspect, the peculiar style of the scarabs on which they are engraved
+or by resemblances to those recorded in Manetho. The
+kings of the XVIIth Dynasty too are generally recognizable
+by the form of their name and other circumstances. Manetho
+indicates marvellous crowding for the XIIIth and XIVth
+Dynasties, but it seems better to suggest a total duration of
+300 or 400 years for the whole period than to adopt Meyer&rsquo;s
+estimate of about 210 years (see above, Chronology).</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the kings of the XIIIth Dynasty (including perhaps
+the XIVth), not a few are represented by granite statues of
+colossal size and fine workmanship, especially at Thebes and
+Tanis, some by architectural fragments, some by graffiti on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page83" id="page83"></a>83</span>
+rocks about the First Cataract. Some few certainly reigned over
+all Egypt. Sebkhotp (Sekhotp, <span class="grk" title="Sochôtês">&#931;&#959;&#967;&#969;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>) is a favourite name,
+no doubt to be connected with the god of the Fay&#363;m. Several
+of the Theban kings named Antef (Enyotf) must be placed here
+rather than in the XIth Dynasty. A decree of one of them
+degrading a monarch who had sided with his enemies was found
+at Coptos engraved on a doorway of Senwosri I.</p>
+
+<p>In its divided state Egypt would fall an easy prey to the
+foreigner. Manetho says that the Hyksos (<i>q.v.</i>) gained Egypt
+without a blow. Their domination must have lasted
+a considerable time, the Rhind mathematical papyrus
+<span class="sidenote">The Hyksos period.</span>
+having been copied in the thirty-third year of a king
+Apophis. The monuments and scarabs of the Hyksos
+kings are found throughout Upper and Lower Egypt; those
+of Khian somehow spread as far as Crete and Bagdad. The
+Hyksos, in whom Josephus recognized the children of Israel,
+worshipped their own Syrian deity, identifying him with the
+Egyptian god Seth, and endeavoured to establish his cult
+throughout Egypt to the detriment of the native gods. It is
+to be hoped that definite light may one day be forthcoming on
+the whole of this critical episode which had such a profound
+effect on the character and history of the Egyptian people. The
+spirited overthrow of the Hyksos ushered in the glories in arms
+and arts which marked the New Empire. The XVIIth Dynasty
+probably began the struggle, at first as semi-independent kinglets
+at Thebes. Seqenenrê is here a leading name; the mummy
+of the third Seqenenrê, the earliest in the great find of royal
+mummies at Deir el Bahri, shows the head frightfully hacked
+and split, perhaps in a battle with the Hyksos.</p>
+
+<p><i>The New Empire.</i>&mdash;The epithet &ldquo;new&rdquo; is generally attached
+to this period, and &ldquo;empire&rdquo; instead of &ldquo;kingdom&rdquo; marks its
+wider power. The glorious XVIIIth Dynasty seems
+to have been closely related to the XVIIth. Its first
+<span class="sidenote">XVIIIth Dynasty.</span>
+task was to crush the Hyksos power in the north-east
+of the Delta; this was fully accomplished by its founder Ahmosi
+(dialectically Ahmasi, Am&#333;sis or Am&#257;sis I.) capturing their
+great stronghold of Av&#257;ris. Amasis next attacked them in
+S.W. Palestine, where he captured Sharuhen after a siege of three
+years. He fought also in Syria and in Nubia, besides overcoming
+factious opposition in his own land. The principal source for
+the history of this time is the biographical inscription at El Kab
+of a namesake of the king, Ahmosi son of Abana, a sailor and
+warrior whose exploits extend to the reign of Tethm&#333;sis I.
+Amen&#333;phis I. (Amenhotp), succeeding Amasis, fought in Libya
+and Ethiopia. Tethmosis I. (c. 1540 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>) was perhaps of another
+family, but obtained his title to the throne through his wife
+Ahmosi. After some thirty years of settled rule uninterrupted
+by revolt, Egypt was now strong and rich enough to indulge to
+the full its new taste for war and lust of conquest. It had
+become essentially a military state. The whole of the administration
+was in the hands of the king with his vizier and other
+court officials; no trace of the feudalism of the Middle Kingdom
+survived. Tethmosis thoroughly subdued Cush, which had
+already been placed under the government of a viceroy. This
+province of Cush extended from Napata just below the Fourth
+Cataract on the south to El Kab in the north, so that it included
+the first three nomes of Upper Egypt, which agriculturally were
+not greatly superior to Nubia. Turning next to Syria, Tethmosis
+carried his arms as far as the Euphrates. It is possible that his
+predecessor had also reached this point, but no record survives
+to prove it. These successful campaigns were probably not very
+costly, and prisoners, plunder and tribute poured in from them
+to enrich Egypt. Tethmosis I. made the first of those great
+additions to the temple of the Theban Ammon at Karnak by
+which the Pharaohs of the Empire rendered it by far the greatest
+of the existing temples in the world. The temple of Deir el
+Bahri also was designed by him. Towards the end of his reign,
+<span class="sidenote">Queen Hatshepsut.</span>
+his elder sons being dead, Tethmosis associated
+Hatshepsut, his daughter by Ahmosi, with himself
+upon the throne. Tethmosis I. was the first of the
+long line of kings to be buried in the Valley of the
+Tombs of the Kings of Thebes. At his death another son Tethmosis
+II. succeeded as the husband of his half-sister, but reigned
+only two or three years, during which he warred in Nubia and
+placed Tethmosis III., his son by a concubine &#274;si, upon the throne
+beside him (c. 1500 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>). After her husband&rsquo;s death the ambitious
+Hatshepsut assumed the full regal power; upon her monuments
+she wears the masculine garb and aspect of a king though the
+feminine gender is retained for her in the inscriptions. On some
+monuments of this period her name appears alone, on others
+in conjunction with that of Tethmosis III., while the latter again
+may appear without the queen&rsquo;s; but this extraordinary woman
+must have had a great influence over her stepson and was the
+acknowledged ruler of Egypt. Tethmosis, to judge by the
+evidence of his mummy and the chronology of his reign, was
+already a grown man, yet no sign of the immense powers which
+he displayed later has come down to us from the joint reign.
+Hatshepsut cultivated the arts of peace. She restored the
+worship in those temples of Upper and Lower Egypt which had
+not yet recovered from the religious oppression and neglect
+of the Hyksos. She completed and decorated the temple of Deir
+el Bahri, embellishing its walls with scenes calculated to establish
+her claims, representing her divine origin and upbringing under
+the protection of Ammon, and her association on the throne
+by her human father. The famous sculptures of the great
+expedition by water to Puoni, the land of incense on the Somali
+coast, are also here, with many others. At Karnak Hatshepsut
+laboured chiefly to complete the works projected in the reigns
+of Tethmosis I. and II., and set up two obelisks in front of the
+entrance as it then was. One of these, still standing, is the most
+brilliant ornament of that wonderful temple. A date of the
+twenty-second year of her reign has been found at Sinai, no doubt
+counted from the beginning of the co-regency with Tethmosis I.
+Not much later, in his twenty-second year, Tethmosis III. is
+reigning alone in full vigour. While she lived, the personality
+of the queen secured the devotion of her servants and held all
+ambitions in check. Not long after her death there was a violent
+reaction. Prejudice against the rule of a woman, particularly
+one who had made her name and figure so conspicuous, was
+probably the cause of this outbreak, and perhaps sought justification
+in the fact that, however complete was her right, she had
+in some degree usurped a place to which her stepson (who was
+also her nephew) had been appointed. Her cartouches began to
+be defaced or her monuments hidden up by other buildings,
+and the same rage pursued some of her most faithful servants in
+their tombs. But the beauty of the work seems to have
+restrained the hand of the destroyer. Then came the religious
+fanaticism of Akhenaton, mutilating all figures of Ammon and
+all inscriptions containing his name; this made havoc of the
+exquisite monuments of Hatshepsut; and the restorers of the
+XIXth Dynasty, refusing to recognize the legitimacy of the
+queen, had no scruples in replacing her names by those of the
+associate kings Tethmosis I., II. or III. These acts of vandalism
+took place throughout Egypt, but in the distant mines of Sinai
+the cartouches of Hatshepsut are untouched. In the royal lists
+of Seti I. and Rameses II. Hatshepsut has no place, nor is her
+reign referred to on any later monument.<a name="fa20c" id="fa20c" href="#ft20c"><span class="sp">20</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The immense energy of Tethmosis III. now found its outlet
+in war. Syria had revolted, perhaps on Hatshepsut&rsquo;s death,
+but by his twenty-second year the monarch was ready
+to lead his army against the rebels. The revolt, headed
+<span class="sidenote">Wars of Tethmosis III.</span>
+by the city of Kadesh on the Orontes, embraced the
+whole of western Syria. The movements of Tethmosis
+in this first campaign, including a battle with the Syrian chariots
+and infantry at Megiddo and the capture of that city, were
+chronicled from day to day, and an extract from this chronicle
+is engraved on the walls of the sanctuary of Karnak, together
+with a brief record of the subsequent expeditions. In a series
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page84" id="page84"></a>84</span>
+of five carefully planned campaigns he consolidated his conquests
+in southern Syria and secured the ports of Phoenicia (<i>q.v.</i>).
+Kadesh fell in the sixth campaign. In the next year Tethmosis
+revisited the Phoenician ports, chastised the rebellious and
+received the tribute of Syria, all the while preparing for further
+advance, which did not take place until another year had gone
+by. Then, in the thirty-third year of his reign, he marched
+through Kadesh, fought his way to Carchemish, defeated the
+forces that opposed him there and crossed over the Euphrates
+into the territory of the king of Mitanni. He set up a tablet by
+the side of that of Tethmosis I. and turned southward, following
+the river as far as Niy. Here he stayed to hunt a herd of 120
+elephants, and then, marching westwards, received the tribute
+of Naharina and gifts from the Hittites in Asia Minor and from
+the king of Babylon. In all he fought seventeen campaigns in
+Syria until the spirit of revolt was entirely crushed in a second
+capture of Kadesh. The wars in Libya and Ethiopia were of
+less moment. In the intervals of war Tethmosis III. proved to
+be a wonderfully efficient administrator, with his eye on every
+corner of his dominions. The Syrian expeditions occupied six
+months in most of his best years, but the remaining time was
+spent in activity at home, repressing robbery and injustice,
+rebuilding and adorning temples with the labour of his
+captives and the plunder and tribute of conquered cities, or
+designing with his own hand the gorgeous sacred vessels of the
+sanctuary of Ammon. In his later years some expeditions took
+place into Nubia. Tethmosis died in the fifty-fourth year of his
+reign. His mummy, found in the <i>cachette</i> at Deir el Bahri, is
+said to be that of a very old man. He was the greatest Pharaoh
+in the New Empire, if not in all Egyptian history.</p>
+
+<p>Tethmosis III. was succeeded by his son Amenophis II., whom
+he had associated on the throne at the end of his reign. One
+of the first acts of the new king was to lead an army into Syria,
+where revolt was again rife; he reached and perhaps crossed the
+Euphrates and returned home to Thebes with seven captive
+kings of Tikhsi and much spoil. The kings he sacrificed to
+Ammon and hanged six bodies on the walls, while the seventh
+was carried south to Napata and there exposed as a terror to the
+Ethiopians. Amenophis reigned twenty-six years and left his
+throne to his son Tethmosis IV., who is best remembered by a
+granite tablet recording his clearance of the Great Sphinx. He
+also warred in northern Syria and in Cush. His son Amenophis
+III., c. 1400 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, was a mighty builder, especially at Thebes,
+where his reign marks a new epoch in the history of the great
+temples, Luxor being his creation, while avenues of rams, pylons,
+&amp;c., were added on a vast scale to Karnak. He married a certain
+Taia, who, though apparently of humble parentage, was held in
+<span class="sidenote">Amenophis III.</span>
+great honour by her husband as afterwards by her son.
+Amenophis III. warred in Ethiopia, but his sway was
+long unquestioned from Napata to the Euphrates.
+Small objects with his name and that of Taia are found on the
+mainland and in the islands of Greece. Through the fortunate
+discovery of cuneiform tablets deposited by his successor in
+the archives at Tell el-Amarna, we can see how the rulers of the
+great kingdoms beyond the river, Mitanni, Assyria and even
+Babylonia, corresponded with Amenophis, gave their daughters
+to him in marriage, and congratulated themselves on having
+his friendship. The king of Cyprus too courted him; while
+within the empire the descendants of the Syrian dynasts conquered
+by his father, having been educated in Egypt, ruled
+their paternal possessions as the abject slaves of Pharaoh. A
+constant stream of tribute poured into Egypt, sufficient to defray
+the cost of all the splendid works that were executed. Amenophis
+caused a series of large scarabs unique in their kind to be engraved
+with the name and parentage of his queen Taia, followed by
+varying texts commemorating like medals the boundaries of
+his kingdom, his secondary marriage with Gilukhipa, daughter
+of the king of Mitanni, the formation of a sacred lake at Thebes,
+a great hunt of wild cattle, and the number of lions the king slew
+in the first ten years of his reign. The colossi known to the
+Greeks by the name of the Homeric hero Memnon, which look
+over the western plain of Thebes, represent this king and were
+placed before the entrance of his funerary temple, the rest of
+which has disappeared. His palace lay farther south on the west
+bank, built of crude brick covered with painted stucco. Towards
+the end of his reign of thirty-six years, Syria was invaded by the
+Hittites from the north and the people called the Khabiri from
+the eastern desert; some of the kinglets conspired with the
+invaders to overthrow the Egyptian power, while those who
+remained loyal sent alarming reports to their sovereign.</p>
+
+<p>Amenophis IV., son of Amenophis III. and Taia, was perhaps
+the most remarkable character in the long line of the Pharaohs.
+He was a religious fanatic, who had probably been high
+priest of the sun-god at Heliopolis, and had come to
+<span class="sidenote">Amenophis IV.</span>
+view the sun as the visible source of life, creation,
+growth and activity, whose power was demonstrated in foreign
+lands almost as clearly as in Egypt. Thrusting aside all the
+multitudinous deities of Egypt and all the mythology even of
+Heliopolis, he devoted himself to the cult of the visible sun-disk,
+applying to it as its chief name the hitherto rare word Aton,
+meaning &ldquo;sun&rdquo;; the traditional divine name Harakht (Horus
+of the horizon), given to the hawk-headed sun-god of Heliopolis,
+was however allowed to subsist and a temple was built at Karnak
+to this god. The worship of the other gods was officially recognized
+until his fifth year, but then a sweeping reform was initiated
+by which apparently the new cult alone was permitted. Of the
+old deities Ammon represented by far the wealthiest and most
+powerful interests, and against this long favoured deity the
+Pharaoh hurled himself with fury. He changed his own name
+from Amenhotp, &ldquo;Ammon is satisfied,&rdquo; to Akhenaton, &ldquo;pious
+to Aton,&rdquo; erased the name and figure of Ammon from the
+monuments, even where it occurred as part of his own father&rsquo;s
+name, abandoned Thebes, the magnificent city of Ammon, and
+built a new capital at El Amarna in the plain of Hermopolis, on
+a virgin site upon the edge of the desert. This with a large area
+around he dedicated to Aton in the sixth year, while splendid
+temples, palaces, houses and tombs for his god, for himself and
+for his courtiers were rising around him; apparently also this
+&ldquo;son of Aton&rdquo; swore an oath never to pass beyond the
+boundaries of Aton&rsquo;s special domain. There are signs also that the
+polytheistic word &ldquo;gods&rdquo; was obliterated on many of the monuments,
+but other divine names, though almost entirely excluded
+from Akhenaton&rsquo;s work, were left untouched where they already
+existed. In all local temples the worship of Aton was instituted.
+The confiscated revenues of Ammon and the tribute from Syria
+and Cush provided ample means for adorning Ekhaton (Akhetaton),
+&ldquo;the horizon of Aton,&rdquo; the new capital, and for richly
+rewarding those who adopted the Aton teaching fervently.
+But meanwhile the political needs of the empire were neglected;
+the dangers which threatened it at the end of the reign of
+Amenophis III. were never properly met; the dynasts in Syria
+were at war amongst themselves, intriguing with the great Hittite
+advance and with the Khabiri invaders. Those who relied on
+Pharaoh and remained loyal as their fathers had done sent letter
+after letter appealing for aid against their foes. But though a
+general was despatched with some troops, he seems to have done
+more harm than good in misjudging the quarrels. At length the
+tone of the letters becomes one of despair, in which flight to Egypt
+appears the only resource left for the adherents of the Egyptian
+cause. Before the end of the reign Egyptian rule in Syria had
+probably ceased altogether. Akhenaton died in or about the
+seventeenth year of his reign, c. 1350 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> He had a family of
+daughters, who appeared constantly with him in all ceremonies,
+but no son. Two sons-in-law followed him with brief reigns;
+but the second, Tutenkhaton, soon changed his name to Tutenkhamûn,
+and, without abandoning Ekhaton entirely, began to
+restore to Karnak its ancient splendour, with new monuments
+dedicated to Ammon. Akhenaton&rsquo;s reform had not reached
+deep amongst the masses of the population; they probably
+retained all their old religious customs and superstitions, while
+the priesthoods throughout the country must have been fiercely
+opposed to the heretic&rsquo;s work, even if silenced during his lifetime
+by force and bribes. One more adherent of his named Ay, a
+priest, ruled for a short time, but now Aton was only one of many
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page85" id="page85"></a>85</span>
+gods. At length a general named Harmahib, who had served
+under Akhenaton, came to the throne as a whole-hearted supporter
+of the old religion; soon Aton and his royal following suffered
+the fate that they had imposed upon Ammon; their monuments
+were destroyed and their names and figures erased, while those
+of Ammon were restored. From the time of Rameses II. onwards
+the years of the reigns of the heretics were counted to Harmahib,
+and Akhenaton was described as &ldquo;that criminal of Akhetaton.&rdquo;
+Harmahib had to bring order as a practical man into the long-neglected
+administration of the country and to suppress the
+extortions of the official classes by severe measures. His laws to
+this end were engraved on a great stela in the temple of Karnak,
+of which sufficient remains to bear witness to his high aims,
+while the prosperity of the succeeding reigns shows how well
+he realized the necessities of the state. He probably began also to
+re-establish the prestige of Egypt by military expeditions in the
+surrounding countries.</p>
+
+<p>Harmahib appears to have legitimated his rule by marriage
+to a royal princess, but it is probable that Rameses I., who succeeded
+as founder of the XIXth Dynasty, was not
+closely related to him. Rameses in his brief reign of
+<span class="sidenote">XIXth Dynasty.</span>
+two years planned and began the great colonnaded
+hall of Karnak, proving that he was a man of great ideas, though
+probably too old to carry them out; this task he left to his son
+Seti I., who reigned one year with his father and on the latter&rsquo;s
+death was ready at once to subdue the Bedouin Shasu, who had
+invaded Palestine and withheld all tribute. This task was quickly
+accomplished and Seti pushed onward to the Lebanon. Here
+cedars were felled for him by the Syrian princes, and the Phoenicians
+paid homage before he returned home in triumph. The
+Libyans had also to be dealt with, and afterwards Seti advanced
+again through Palestine, ravaged the land of the Amorites and
+came into conflict with the Hittites. The latter, however, were now
+firmly established in the Orontes valley, and a treaty with Mutallu,
+the king of Kheta, reigning far away in Cappadocia, probably
+ended the wars of Seti. In his ninth year he turned his attention
+to the gold mines in the eastern desert of Nubia and improved the
+road thither. Meanwhile the great work at Karnak projected
+by his father was going forward, and throughout Egypt the
+injuries done to the monuments by Akhenaton were thoroughly
+repaired; the erased inscriptions and figures were restored, not
+without many blunders. Seti&rsquo;s temple at Abydos and his
+galleried tomb in the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings stand out
+as the most splendid examples of their kind in design and in
+<span class="sidenote">Rameses II.</span>
+decoration. Rameses II. succeeded at an early age
+and reigned sixty-seven years, during which he
+finished much that was begun by Seti and filled all
+Egypt and Nubia with his own monuments, some of them beautiful,
+but most, necessarily entrusted to inferior workmen, of
+coarse execution. The excavation of the rock temple of Abu
+Simbel and the completion of the great hall of Karnak were his
+greatest achievements in architecture. His wars began in his
+second year, their field comprising the Nubians, the Libyans,
+the Syrians and the Hittites. In his fifth year, near Kadesh
+on the Orontes, his army was caught unprepared and divided
+by a strong force of chariots of the Hittites and their allies, and
+Rameses himself was placed in the most imminent danger; but
+through his personal courage the enemy was kept at bay till
+reinforcements came up and turned the disaster into a victory.
+The incidents of this episode were a favourite subject in the sculptures
+of his temples, where their representation was accompanied
+by a poetical version of the affair and other explanatory inscriptions.
+Kadesh, however, was not captured, and after further
+contests, in his twenty-first year Rameses and the Hittite king
+Khattusil (Kheta-sar) made peace, with a defensive alliance
+against foreign aggression and internal revolt (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hittites</a></span>).
+Thanks to Winckler&rsquo;s discoveries, the cuneiform text of this
+treaty from Boghaz Keui can now be compared with the hieroglyphic
+text at Karnak. In the thirty-fourth year, c. 1250 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>,
+Khattusil with his friend or subject the king of Kode came from
+his distant capital to see the wonders of Egypt in person, bringing
+one of his daughters to be wife of the splendid Pharaoh.
+Rameses II. paid much attention to the Delta, which had been
+neglected until the days of Seti I., and resided there constantly;
+the temple of Tanis must have been greatly enlarged and adorned
+by him; a colossus of the king placed here was over 90 ft. in
+height, exceeding in scale even the greatest of the Theban colossi
+which he had erected in his mortuary temple of the Ramesseum.
+Towards the end of the long reign the vigilance and energy of
+the old king diminished. The military spirit awakened in the
+struggle with the Hyksos had again departed from the Egyptian
+nation; mercenaries from the Sudan, from Libya and from the
+northern nations supplied the armies, while foreigners settled in
+the rich lands of the Delta and harried the coasts. It was a
+time too when the movements of the nations that so frequently
+occurred in the ancient world were about to be particularly active.
+Mineptah, c. 1225 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, succeeding his father Rameses II., had
+to fight many battles for the preservation of his kingdom and
+empire. Apparently most of the fighting was finished by the
+fifth year of his reign; in his mortuary temple at Thebes he set
+up a stela of that date recording a great victory over the Libyan
+immigrants and invaders, which rendered the much harried
+land of Egypt safe. The last lines picture this condition with
+the crushing of the surrounding tribes. Libya was wasted, the
+Hittites pacified, Canaan, Ashkelon (Ascalon), Gezer, Yenoam
+sacked and plundered: &ldquo;Israel is desolated, his seed is not,
+Khor (Palestine) has become a widow (without protector) for
+Egypt.&rdquo; The Libyans are accompanied by allies whose names,
+Sherden, Shekelesh, Ekwesh, Lukku, Teresh, suggest identifications
+with Sardinians, Sicels, Achaeans, Lycians and Tyrseni
+or Etruscans. The Sherden had been in the armies of
+Rameses II., and are distinguished by their remarkable helmets
+and apparently body armour of metal. The Lukku are certainly
+the same as the Lycians. Probably they were all sea-rovers
+from the shores and islands of the Mediterranean, who were
+willing to leave their ships and join the Libyans in raids on the
+rich lands of Egypt. Mineptah was one of the most unconscionable
+usurpers of the monuments of his predecessors, including
+those of his own father, who, it must be admitted, had set him
+the example. The coarse cutting of his cartouches contrasts with
+the splendid finish of the Middle Kingdom work which they
+disfigure. It may be questioned whether it was due to a wave
+of enthusiasm amongst the priests and people, leading them to
+rededicate the monuments in the name of their deliverer, or a
+somewhat insane desire of the king to perpetuate his own memory
+in a singularly unfortunate manner. Mineptah, the thirteenth
+son in the huge family of Rameses, must have been old when he
+ascended the throne; after his first years of reign his energies
+gave way, and he was followed by a quick succession of inglorious
+rulers, Seti II., the queen Tuosri, Amenmesse, Siptah; the names
+of the last two were erased from their monuments.</p>
+
+<p>A great papyrus written after the death of Rameses III. and
+recording his gifts to the temples briefly reviews the conditions
+of these troublous times. &ldquo;The land of Egypt was
+in the hands of chiefs and rulers of towns, great and
+<span class="sidenote">XXth Dynasty.</span>
+small slaying each other; afterwards a certain Syrian
+made himself chief; he made the whole land tributary before
+him; he united his companions and plundered their property
+(<i>i.e.</i> of the other chiefs). They made the gods like men, and no
+offerings were presented in the temples. But when the gods
+inclined themselves to peace ... they established their son
+Setenkhot (Setnekht) to be ruler of every land.&rdquo; Of the Syrian
+occupation we know nothing further. Setenkhot, c. 1200 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>,
+had a very short reign and was not counted as legitimate, but
+he established a lasting dynasty (probably by conciliating the
+priesthood). He was father of Rameses III., who revived the
+glories of the empire. The dangers that menaced Egypt now
+were similar to those which Mineptah had to meet at his accession.
+Again the Libyans and the &ldquo;peoples of the sea&rdquo; were acting
+in concert. The latter now comprised Peleset (the Cretans,
+ancestors of the Philistines), Thekel, Shekelesh, Denyen
+(Danaoi?) and Weshesh; they had invaded Syria from Asia
+Minor, reaching the Euphrates, destroying the Hittite cities
+and progressing southwards, while their ships gathered plunder
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page86" id="page86"></a>86</span>
+from the coasts of the Delta. This fleet joined the Libyan
+invaders, but was overthrown with heavy loss by the Egyptians,
+in whose ranks there actually served many Sherden and Kehaka,
+Sardinian and Libyan mercenaries. Egypt itself was thus clear
+of enemies; but the chariots and warriors of the Philistines and
+their associates were advancing through Syria, their families
+and goods following in ox-carts, and their ships accompanying
+them along the shore. Rameses led out his army and fleet
+against them and struck them so decisive a blow that the migrating
+swarm submitted to his rule and paid him tribute. In his
+eleventh year another Libyan invasion had to be met, and his
+suzerainty in Palestine forcibly asserted. His vigour was equal
+to all these emergencies and the later years of his reign were
+spent in peace. Rameses III., however, was not a great ruler.
+He was possessed by the spirit of decadence, imitative rather
+than originating. It is evident that Rameses II. was the model
+to which he endeavoured to conform, and he did not attempt
+to preserve himself from the weakening influences of priestcraft.
+To the temples he not only restored the property which had been
+given to them by former kings, but he also added greatly to their
+wealth; the Theban Ammon naturally received by far the
+greatest share, more than those of all the other gods together.
+The land held in the name of different deities is estimated at
+about 15% of the whole of Egypt; various temples of Ammon
+owned two-thirds of this, Re of Heliopolis and Ptah of Memphis
+being the next in wealth. His palace was at Medinet Habu on
+the west bank of Thebes in the south quarter; and here he
+built a great temple to Ammon, adorned with scenes from his
+victories and richly provided with divine offerings. Although
+Egypt probably was prosperous on the whole, there was undoubtedly
+great distress amongst certain portions of the population.
+We read in a papyrus of a strike of starving labourers in
+the Theban necropolis who would not work until corn was given
+to them, and apparently the government storehouse was empty
+at the time, perhaps in consequence of a bad Nile. Shortly before
+the death of the old king a plot in the harem to assassinate him,
+and apparently to place one of his sons on the throne, was discovered
+and its investigation ordered, leading after his death to
+the condemnation of many high-placed men and women. Nine
+kings of the name of Rameses now followed each other ingloriously
+in the space of about eighty years to the end of the XXth
+Dynasty, the power of the high priests of Ammon ever growing
+at their expense. At this time the Theban necropolis was being
+more systematically robbed than ever before. Under Rameses
+IX. an investigation took place which showed that one of the
+royal tombs before the western cliffs had been completely
+ransacked and the mummies burnt. Three years later the
+Valley of the Tombs of the Kings was attacked and the sepulchres
+of Seti I. and Rameses II. were robbed.</p>
+
+<p>The authority of the last king of the XXth Dynasty,
+Rameses XII., was shadowy. Hrihor, the high priest in his
+reign, gradually gathered into his own hands all real
+power, and succeeded him at Thebes, c. 1100 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>,
+<span class="sidenote">The Deltaic Dynasties; Libyan period.</span>
+while a prince at Tanis named Smendes (Esbentêti)
+founded a separate dynasty in the Delta (Dynasty
+XXI.). From this period dates a remarkable papyrus
+containing the report of an envoy named Unamûn, sent to Syria
+by Hrihor to obtain cedar timber from Byblus. He took with
+him an image of Ammon to bestow life and health on the prince
+of Byblus, but apparently no other provision for the journey
+or for the negotiations beyond a letter of recommendation to
+Smendes and a little gold and silver. Smendes had trading ships
+in the Phoenician ports, but even his influence was not greater
+than that of other commercial or pirate centres, while Hrihor was
+of no account except in so far as he might pay well for the cedar
+wood he required. Unamûn was robbed on the voyage, the prince
+of Byblus rebuffed him, and when at last the latter agreed to
+provide the timber it was only in exchange for substantial gifts
+hastily sent for from Egypt (including rolls of papyrus) and the
+promise of more to follow. The prince, however, seems to have
+acknowledged to some extent the divinity of Ammon and the
+debt owed by Phoenicia to Egyptian culture, and pitied the many
+misfortunes of Unamûn. The narrative shows the feebleness of
+Egypt abroad. The Tanite line of kings generally had the over-lordship
+of the high priests of Thebes; the descendants of Hrihor,
+however, sometimes by marriage with princesses of the other line,
+could assume cartouches and royal titles, and in some cases
+perhaps ruled the whole of Egypt. Ethiopia may have been
+ruled with the Thebais, but the records of the time are very
+scanty. Syria was wholly lost to Egypt. The mummies from
+the despoiled tombs of the kings were the object of much anxious
+care to the kings of this dynasty; after being removed from one
+tomb to another, they were finally deposited in a shaft near the
+temple of Deir el Bahri, where they remained for nearly three
+thousand years, until the demand for antiquities at last brought
+the plunderer once more to their hiding-place; eventually they
+were all secured for the Cairo museum, where they may now be
+seen.</p>
+
+<p>Libyan soldiers had long been employed in the army, and
+their military chiefs settled in the large towns and acquired
+wealth and power, while the native rulers grew weaker and weaker.
+The Tanite dynasty may have risen from a Libyan stock, though
+there is nothing to prove it; the XXIInd Dynasty are clearly
+from their names of foreign extraction, and their genealogy indicates
+distinctly a Libyan military origin in a family of rulers of
+Heracleopolis Magna, in Middle Egypt. Sheshonk (Shishak) I.,
+the founder of the dynasty, c. 950 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, seems to have fixed his
+residence at Bubastis in the Delta, and his son married the
+daughter of the last king of the Tanite dynasty. Heracleopolis
+seems henceforth for several centuries to have been capital of
+Middle Egypt, which was considered as a more or less distinct
+province. Sheshonk secured Thebes, making one of his sons
+high priest of Ammon, and whereas Solomon appears to have
+dealt with a king of Egypt on something like an equal footing,
+Sheshonk re-established Egyptian rule in Palestine and Nubia,
+and his expedition in the fifth year of Rehoboam subdued Israel
+as well as Judah, to judge by the list of city names which he
+inscribed on the wall of the temple of Karnak. Osorkon I.
+inherited a prosperous kingdom from his father, but no further
+progress was made. It required a strong hand to curb the
+Libyan chieftains, and divisions soon began to show themselves
+in the kingdom. The XXIInd Dynasty lasted through many
+generations; but there were rival kings, and M. Legrain thinks
+that he has proof that the XXIIIrd Dynasty was contemporaneous
+with the end of the XXIInd. The kings of the XXIIIrd
+Dynasty had little hold upon the subject princes, who spent the
+resources of the country in feuds amongst themselves. A native
+kingdom had meanwhile been established in Ethiopia. Our
+first knowledge of it is at this moment, when the Ethiopian king
+Pankhi already held the Thebais. The energetic prince of Sais,
+Tefnakht, followed by most of the princes of the Delta, subdued
+most of Middle Egypt, and by uniting these forces threatened
+the Ethiopian border. Heracleopolis Magna, however, with its
+petty king Pefteuaubasti, held out against Tefnakht, and
+Pankhi coming to its aid not only drove Tefnakht out of Middle
+Egypt, but also captured Memphis and received the submission
+of the princes and chiefs; in all these included four &ldquo;kings&rdquo;
+and fourteen other chiefs. According to Diodorus the Ethiopian
+state was theocratic, ruled through the king by the priests of
+Ammon. The account is probably exaggerated; but even in
+Pankhi&rsquo;s record the piety of the king, especially towards Ammon,
+is very marked.</p>
+
+<p>The XXIVth Dynasty consisted of a single Saite king named
+Bocchoris (Bekerrinf), son of Tefnachthus, apparently the above
+Tefnakht. Another Ethiopian invader, Shabako
+(Sabacon), is said to have burnt Bocchoris alive. The
+<span class="sidenote">Ethiopian Dynasty.</span>
+Ethiopian rule of the XXVth Dynasty was now firmly
+established, and the resources of the two countries together
+might have been employed in conquest in Syria and Phoenicia;
+but at this very time the Assyrian empire, risen to the highest
+pitch of military greatness, began to menace Egypt. The
+Ethiopian could do no more than encourage or support the
+Syrians in their fight for freedom against Sargon and Sennacherib.
+Shabako was followed by Shebitku and Shebitku by Tirhaka
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page87" id="page87"></a>87</span>
+(Tahrak, Taracos). Tirhaka was energetic in opposing the
+Assyrian advance, but in 670 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> Esarhaddon defeated his
+army on the border of Egypt, captured Memphis with the royal
+harem and took great spoil. The Egyptian resistance to the
+Assyrians was probably only half-hearted; in the north especially
+there must have been a strong party against the Ethiopian
+rule. Tirhaka laboured to propitiate the north country, and
+probably rendered the Ethiopian rule acceptable throughout
+Egypt. Notwithstanding, the Assyrian king entrusted the
+government and collection of tribute to the native chiefs; twenty
+princes in all are enumerated in the records, including one
+Assyrian to hold the key of Egypt at Pelusium. Scarcely had
+Esarhaddon withdrawn before Tirhaka returned from his refuge
+in the south and the Assyrian garrisons were massacred. Esarhaddon
+promptly prepared a second expedition, but died on the
+way to Egypt in 668 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>; his son Assur-bani-pal sent it forward,
+routed Tirhaka and reinstated the governors. At the head of
+these was Necho (Niku), king of Sais and Memphis, father of
+Psammetichus, the founder of the XXVIth Dynasty. We next
+hear that correspondence with Tirhaka was intercepted, and
+that Necho, together with Pekrûr of Psapt (at the entrance to
+the Wadi Tumilat) and the Assyrian governor of Pelusium, was
+taken to Nineveh in chains to answer the charge of treason.
+Whatever may have occurred, it was deemed politic to send
+Necho back loaded with honours and surrounded by a retinue
+of Assyrian officials. Upper Egypt, however, was loyal to Tirhaka,
+and even at Memphis the burial of an Apis bull was dated by
+the priests as in his reign. Immediately afterwards he died.
+His nephew Tandamane, received by the Upper country with
+acclamations, besieged and captured Memphis, Necho being
+probably slain in the encounter. But in 661 (?) Assur-bani-pal
+drove the Ethiopian out of Lower Egypt, pursued him up the
+Nile and sacked Thebes. This was the last and most tremendous
+visitation of the Assyrian scourge.</p>
+
+<p>Psammetichus (Psammêtk), 664-610 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, the son of Necho,
+succeeded his father as a vassal of Assyria in his possessions of
+Memphis and Sais, allied himself with Gyges, king of
+Lydia, and aided by Ionian and Carian mercenaries,
+<span class="sidenote">XXVIth Dynasty.</span>
+extended and consolidated his power.<a name="fa21c" id="fa21c" href="#ft21c"><span class="sp">21</span></a> By the ninth
+year of his reign he was in full possession of Thebes. Assur-bani-pal&rsquo;s
+energies throughout this crisis were entirely occupied
+with revolts nearer home, in Babylon, Elam and Arabia. The
+Assyrian arms again triumphed everywhere, but at the cost of
+complete exhaustion. Under the firm and wise rule of Psammetichus,
+Egypt recovered its prosperity after the terrible losses
+inflicted by internal wars and the decade of Assyrian invasions.
+The revenue went up by leaps and bounds. Psammetichus
+guarded the frontiers of Egypt with three strong garrisons,
+placing the Ionian and Carian mercenaries especially at the
+Pelusiac Daphnae in the N.E., from which quarter the most
+formidable enemy was likely to appear. The Assyrians did not
+move against him, but a great Scythian horde, destroying all
+before it in its southward advance, is said by Herodotus to
+have been turned back by presents and entreaties. Diplomacy
+backed up by vigorous preparations may have deterred the
+Scythians from the dangerous enterprise of crossing the desert
+to Egypt. Before his death Psammetichus had advanced into
+southern Palestine and captured Azotus.</p>
+
+<p>When Psammetichus began to reign the situation of Egypt
+was very different from what it had been under the Empire.
+The development of trade in the Mediterranean and contact
+with new peoples and new civilizations in peace and war had
+given birth to new ideas among the Egyptians and at the same
+time to a loss of confidence in their own powers. The Theban
+supremacy was gone and the Delta was now the wealthy and
+progressive part of Egypt; piety increased amongst the masses,
+unenterprising and unwarlike, but proud of their illustrious
+antiquity. Thebes and Ammon and the traditions of the Empire
+savoured too much now of the Ethiopian; the priests of the
+Memphite and Deltaic dynasty thereupon turned deliberately
+for their models to the times of the ancient supremacy of
+Memphis, and the sculptures and texts on tomb and temple had
+to conform as closely as possible to those of the Old Kingdom.
+In other than religious matters, however, the Egyptians were
+inventing and perhaps borrowing. To enumerate a few examples
+of this which are already definitely known: we find that the
+forms of legal and business documents became more precise;
+the mechanical arts of casting in bronze on a core and of moulding
+figures and pottery were brought to the highest pitch of excellence;
+and portraiture in the round on its highest plane was better
+than ever before and admirably lifelike, revealing careful study
+of the external anatomy of the individual.</p>
+
+<p>Psammetichus died in the fifty-fourth year of his reign and
+was succeeded by his son Necho, 610-594 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> Taking advantage
+of the helpless state of the Assyrians, whose capital was assailed
+by the Medes and the Babylonians, the new Pharaoh prepared
+an expedition to recover the ancient possessions of the Empire
+in Syria. Josiah alone, faithful to the king of Assyria, opposed
+him with his feeble force at Megiddo and was easily overcome
+and slain. Necho went forward to the Euphrates, put the land
+to tribute, and, in the case of Judah at any rate, filled the throne
+with his own nominee (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jehoiakim</a></span>). The fall of Nineveh
+and the division of the spoil gave to Nabopolasser, king of
+Babylon, the inheritance of the Assyrians in the west, and he at
+once despatched his son Nebuchadrezzar to fight Necho. The
+Babylonian and Egyptian forces met at Carchemish (605), and
+the rout of the latter was so complete that Necho relinquished
+Syria and might have lost Egypt as well had not the death of
+Nabopolasser recalled the victor to Babylon. Herodotus relates
+that in Necho&rsquo;s reign a Phoenician ship despatched from Egypt
+actually circumnavigated Africa, and the attempt was made
+to complete a canal through the Wadi Tumilat, which connected
+the Mediterranean and Red Seas by way of the Lower Egyptian
+Nile. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Suez</a></span>.) The next king, Psammetichus II., 594-589
+<span class="sc">b.c.</span>, according to one account made an expedition to Syria
+or Phoenicia, and apparently sent a mercenary force into Ethiopia
+as far as Abu Simbel. Pharaoh Hophra (Apries), 589-570 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>,
+fomented rebellion against the Babylonian suzerainty in Judah,
+but accomplished little there. Herodotus, however, describes
+his reign as exceedingly prosperous. The mercenary troops at
+Elephantine mutinied and attempted to desert to Ethiopia,
+but were brought back and punished. Later, however, a disastrous
+expedition sent to aid the Libyans against the Greek
+colony of Cyrene roused the suspicion and anger of the native
+soldiery at favours shown to the mercenaries, who of course had
+taken no part in it. Amasis (A&#7717;mosi) II. was chosen king by
+the former (570-525 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>), and his swarm of adherents overcame
+the Greek troops in Apries&rsquo; pay (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Amasis</a></span>). None the less
+Amasis employed Greeks in numbers, and cultivated the friendship
+of their tyrants. His rule was confined to Egypt (and
+perhaps Cyprus), but Egypt itself was very prosperous. At the
+beginning of his long reign of forty-four years he was threatened
+by Nebuchadrezzar; later he joined the league against Cyrus
+and saw with alarm the fall of his old enemy. A few months
+after his death, 525 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, the invading host of the Persians led
+by Cambyses reached Egypt and dethroned his son Psammetichus
+III.</p>
+
+<p>Cambyses at first conciliated the Egyptians and respected
+their religion; but, perhaps after the failure of his expedition
+into Ethiopia, he entirely changed his policy, and his
+memory was generally execrated. He left Egypt so
+<span class="sidenote">The Persian period, XXVIIth Dynasty.</span>
+completely crushed that the subsequent usurpation
+of the Persian throne was marked by no revolt in that
+quarter. Darius, 521-486 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, proved himself a
+beneficent ruler, and in a visit to Egypt displayed his consideration
+for the religion of the country. In the Great Oasis he
+built a temple to Ammon. The annual tribute imposed on the
+satrapy of Egypt and Cyrene was heavy, but it was probably
+raised with ease. The canal from the Nile to the Red Sea was
+completed or repaired, and commerce flourished. Documents
+dated in the thirty-fourth and thirty-fifth years of Darius are
+not uncommon, but apparently at the very end of his reign,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page88" id="page88"></a>88</span>
+some years after the disaster of Marathon, Egypt was induced
+to rebel. Xerxes, 486-467 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, who put down the revolt with
+severity, and his successor Artaxerxes, 466-425 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, like
+Cambyses, were hateful to the Egyptians. The disorders which
+marked the accession of Artaxerxes gave Egypt another opportunity
+to rebel. Their leaders were Inaros the Libyan of Marea
+and the Egyptian Amyrtaeus. Aided by an Athenian force,
+Inaros slew the satrap Achaemenes at the battle of Papremis
+and destroyed his army; but the garrison of Memphis held out,
+and a fresh host from Persia raised the siege and in turn besieged
+the Greek and Egyptian forces on the island of Papremis. At
+last, after two years, having diverted the river from its channel,
+they captured and burnt the Athenian ships and quickly ended
+the rebellion. The reigns of Xerxes II. and Darius II. are marked
+by no recorded incident in Egypt until a successful revolt about
+405 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> interrupted the Persian domination.</p>
+
+<p>Monuments of the Persian rule in Egypt are exceedingly
+scanty. The inscriptions of Pefteuauneit, priest of Neith at
+Sais, and from his position the native authority who was most
+likely to be consulted by Cambyses and Darius, tells of his
+relations with these two kings. For the following reigns Egyptian
+documents hardly exist, but some papyri written in Aramaic have
+been found at Elephantine and at Memphis. Those from the
+former locality show that a colony of Jews with a temple
+dedicated to Yahweh (Jehovah) had established themselves at
+that garrison and trading post (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Assuan</a></span>). Herodotus visited
+Egypt in the reign of Artaxerxes, about 440 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> His description
+of Egypt, partly founded on Hecataeus, who had been there
+about fifty years earlier, is the chief source of information for the
+history of the Saite kings and for the manners of the times,
+but his statements prove to be far from correct when they can
+be checked by the scanty native evidence.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. Ll. G.)</div>
+
+<p>Amyrtaeus (Amnertais) of Sais, perhaps a son of Pausiris and
+grandson of the earlier Amyrtaeus, revolted from Darius II.
+c. 405 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, and Egypt regained its independence for
+about sixty years. The next king Nefeur&#275;t
+<span class="sidenote">Dynasties XXVIII.-XXXI.</span>
+(Nepherites I.) was a Mendesian and founded the
+XXIXth Dynasty. After Hakor and Nefeur&#275;t II. the
+sovereignty passed to Dynasty XXX., the last native Egyptian
+line. Monuments of all these kings are known, and art flourished
+particularly under the Mendesian kings Nekhtharheb (Nectanebes
+or Nectanebus I.) and Nekhtnebf (Nectanebes II.). The former
+came to the throne when a Persian invasion was imminent,
+378 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> Hakor had already formed a powerful army, largely
+composed of Greek mercenaries. This army Nekhtharheb
+entrusted to the Athenian Chabrias. The Persians, however,
+succeeded in causing his recall and in gaining the services of
+his fellow-countryman Iphicrates. The invading army consisted
+of 200,000 barbarians under Pharnabazus and 20,000 Greeks
+under Iphicrates. After the Egyptians had experienced a
+reverse, Iphicrates counselled an immediate advance on Memphis.
+His advice was not followed by Pharnabazus; the Egyptian
+king collected his forces and won a pitched battle near Mendes.
+Pharnabazus retreated and Egypt was free.</p>
+
+<p>Nekhtharheb was succeeded by Tachos or Teos, whose short
+reign was occupied by a war with Persia, in which the king of
+Egypt secured the services of a body of Greek mercenaries under
+the Spartan king Agesilaus and a fleet under the Athenian general
+Chabrias. He entered Phoenicia with every prospect of success,
+but having offended Agesilaus he was dethroned in a military
+revolt which gave the crown to Nekhtnebf or Nectanebes II.,
+the last native king of Egypt. At this moment a revolt broke
+out. The prince of Mendes almost succeeded in overthrowing
+the new king. Agesilaus defeated the rival pretender and left
+Nekhtnebf established on the throne. But the opportunity of
+a decisive blow against Persia was lost. The new king,
+Artaxerxes III. Ochus, determined to reduce Egypt. A first
+expedition was defeated by the Greek mercenaries of Nekhtnebf,
+but a second, commanded by Ochus himself, subdued Egypt
+with no further resistance than that of the Greek garrison of
+Pelusium. Nekhtnebf, instead of endeavouring to relieve them,
+retreated to Memphis and fled thence to Ethiopia, 340 (?) <span class="sc">b.c.</span>
+Thus miserably fell the monarchy of the Pharaohs, after an
+unexampled duration of 3000 years, or as some think far longer.
+More than 2000 years have since passed, and though Egypt has
+from time to time been independent, not one native prince has
+sat on the throne of the Pharaohs. &ldquo;There shall be no more a
+prince of the land of Egypt&rdquo; (Ezek. xxx. 13) was prophesied
+in the days of Apries as the final state of the land.</p>
+
+<p>Ochus treated his conquest barbarously. From this brief
+re-establishment of Persian dominion (counted by Manetho as
+Dynasty XXXI.) no document survives except one papyrus that
+appears to be dated in the reign of Darius III.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. H. Breasted, <i>A History of Egypt from the Earliest Times to
+the Persian Conquest</i> (New York and London, 1905); <i>A History of the
+Ancient Egyptians</i> (New York and London, 1908); <i>Ancient Records
+of Egypt: Historical Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian
+Conquest, collected, edited and translated</i> (5 vols., Chicago, 1906-1907);
+W. M. F. Petrie, <i>A History of Egypt</i> (from the earliest times to the
+XXXth Dynasty) (3 vols., London, 1899-1905); E. A. W. Budge,
+<i>A History of Egypt</i>, vols. i-vii. (London, 1902); G. Maspero, <i>Histoire
+ancienne des peuples de l&rsquo;orient</i> (6th ed., 1904), <i>The Dawn of Civilization,
+The Struggle of the Nations, The Passing of the Empires</i> (London,
+1904, &amp;c.); P. E. Newberry and J. Garstang, <i>A Short History of
+Ancient Egypt</i> (London, 1904); G. Steindorff, <i>Die Blütezeit des
+Pharaonenreiches</i> (Dyn. XVIII.) (Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1900);
+H. Winckler, <i>The Tell el Amarna Letters</i> (Berlin, London and New
+York, 1896).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>The Conquest by Alexander.</i>&mdash;When, in 332 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, after the
+battle of Issus, Alexander entered Egypt, he was welcomed as
+a deliverer. The Persian governor had not forces enough to
+oppose him, and he nowhere experienced even the show of
+resistance. He visited Memphis, founded Alexandria, and went
+on pilgrimage to the oracle of Ammon (Oasis of Siwa). The god
+declared him to be his son, renewing thus an old Egyptian convention
+or belief; Olympias was supposed to have been in
+converse with Ammon, even as the mothers of Hatshepsut and
+Amenophis III. are represented in the inscriptions of the Theban
+temples to have received the divine essence. At this stage of his
+career the treasure and tribute of Egypt were of great importance
+to the Macedonian conqueror. He conciliated the inhabitants
+by the respect which he showed for their religion; he organized
+the government of the natives under two officers, who must have
+been already known to them (of these Petisis, an Egyptian, soon
+resigned his share into the charge of his colleague Doloaspis,
+who bears a Persian name.) But Alexander designed his Greek
+foundation of Alexandria to be the capital, and entrusted the
+taxation of Egypt and the control of its army and navy to Greeks.
+Early in 331 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> he was ready to depart, and led his forces away
+to Phoenicia. A granite gateway to the temple of Khn&#363;m at
+Elephantine bears his name in hieroglyphic, and demotic documents
+are found dated in his reign.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Ptolemaic Period.</i>&mdash;On the division of Alexander&rsquo;s
+dominions in 323 <span class="sc">b.c.</span>, Egypt fell to Ptolemy the son of Lagus,
+the founder of the Ptolemaic dynasty (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ptolemies</a></span>). Under
+these rulers the rich kingdom was heavily taxed to supply the
+sinews of war and to support every kind of lavish expenditure.
+Officials, and the higher ones were nearly all Greeks, were legion,
+but the whole system was so judiciously worked that there was
+little discontent amongst the patient peasantry. During the
+reign of Philadelphus the land gained from the bed of the lake
+of Moeris was assigned to veteran soldiers; the great armies
+of the Ptolemies were rewarded or supported by grants of farm
+lands, and men of Macedonian, Greek and Hellenistic extraction
+were planted in colonies and garrisons or settled themselves
+in the villages throughout the country. Upper Egypt, farthest
+from the centre of government, was probably least affected by
+the new influences, though the first Ptolemy established the
+Greek colony of Ptolemais to be its capital. Intermarriages,
+however, gradually had their effect; after the revolt of the
+natives in the reign of Ptolemy V., we find the Greek and
+Egyptian elements closely intermingled. Ptolemy I. had
+established the cult of the Memphite Serapis in a Graeco-Egyptian
+form, affording a common ground for native and
+Hellenistic worshippers. The greater number of the temples
+to the native deities in Upper Egypt and in Nubia (to 50 m. south
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page89" id="page89"></a>89</span>
+of the Cataract, within the Dodecaschoenus) were built under
+the Ptolemies. No serious effort was made to extend the Ptolemaic
+rule into Ethiopia, and Ergamenes, the Hellenizing king of
+Ethiopia, was evidently in alliance with Philopator; in the
+next reign two native kings, probably supported by Ethiopia,
+reigned in succession at Thebes. That famous city lost all except
+its religious importance under the Ptolemies; after the &ldquo;destruction&rdquo;
+or dismantling by Lathyrus it formed only a series
+of villages. The population of Egypt in the time of Ptolemy I.
+is put at 7,000,000 by Diodorus, who also says that it was greater
+then than it ever was before; at the end of the dynasty, in his
+own day, it was not much less though somewhat diminished.
+Civil wars and revolts must have greatly injured both Upper
+and Lower Egypt. It is remarkable that, while the building
+and decoration of temples continued in the reigns of Ptolemy
+Auletes and the later Ptolemies and Cleopatra, papyri of those
+times whether Greek or Egyptian are scarcely to be found.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Roman Period.</i>&mdash;In 30 <span class="sc">b.c.</span> Augustus took Egypt as the
+prize of conquest. He treated it as a part of his personal domain,
+free from any interference by the senate. In the main lines
+the Ptolemaic organization was preserved, but Romans were
+gradually introduced into the highest offices. On Egypt Rome
+depended for its supplies of corn; entrenched there, a revolting
+general would be difficult to attack, and by simply holding back
+the grain ships could threaten Rome with starvation. No senator
+therefore was permitted to take office or even to set foot in the
+country without the emperor&rsquo;s special leave, and by way of precaution
+the highest position, that of prefect, was filled by a
+Roman of equestrian rank only. As the representative of the
+emperor, this officer assumed the place occupied by the king
+under the old order, except that his power was limited by the
+right of appeal to Caesar. The first prefect, Cornelius Gallus,
+tamed the natives of Upper Egypt to the new yoke by force of
+arms, and meeting ambassadors from Ethiopia at Philae, established
+a nominal protectorate of Rome over the frontier district,
+which had been abandoned by the later Ptolemies. The third
+prefect, Gaius Petronius, cleared the neglected canals for irrigation;
+he also repelled an invasion of the Ethiopians and pursued
+them far up the Nile, finally storming the capital of Napata.
+But no attempt was made to hold Ethiopia. In succeeding
+reigns much trouble was caused by jealousies and quarrels
+between the Greeks and the Jews, to whom Augustus had
+granted privileges as valuable as those accorded to the Greeks.
+Aiming at the spice trade, Aelius Gallus, the second prefect of
+Egypt under Augustus, had made an unsuccessful expedition
+to conquer Arabia Felix; the valuable Indian trade, however,
+was secured by Claudius for Egypt at the expense of Arabia,
+and the Red Sea routes were improved. Nero&rsquo;s reign especially
+marks the commencement of an era of prosperity which lasted
+about a century. Under Vespasian the Jewish temple at Leontopolis
+in the Delta, which Onias had founded in the reign of
+Ptolemy Philometor, was closed; worse still, a great Jewish
+revolt and massacre of the Greeks in the reign of Trajan resulted,
+after a stubborn conflict of many months with the Roman army
+under Marcius Livianus Turbo, in the virtual extermination of
+the Jews in Alexandria and the loss of all their privileges.
+Hadrian, who twice visited Egypt (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 130, 134), founded
+Antinoë in memory of his drowned favourite. From this reign
+onwards buildings in the Graeco-Roman style were erected
+throughout the country. A new Sothic cycle began in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 139.
+Under Marcus Aurelius a revolt of the Bucolic or native troops
+recruited for home service was taken up by the whole of the
+native population and was suppressed only after several years
+of fighting. The Bucolic war caused infinite damage to the
+agriculture of the country and marks the beginning of its rapid
+decline under a burdensome taxation. The province of Africa
+was now of equal importance with Egypt for the grain supply
+of the capital. Avidius Cassius, who led the Roman forces in the
+war, usurped the purple, and was acknowledged by the armies
+of Syria and Egypt. On the approach of Marcus Aurelius, the
+adherents of Cassius slew him, and the clemency of the emperor
+restored peace. After the downfall of the house of the Antonines,
+Pescennius Niger, who commanded the forces in Egypt, was
+proclaimed emperor on the death of Pertinax (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 193). Severus
+overthrew his rival (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 194) and, the revolt having been a
+military one, did not punish the province; in 202 he gave a
+constitution to Alexandria and the nome capitals. In his reign
+the Christians of Egypt suffered the first of their many persecutions.
+When Christianity was planted in the country we do not
+know, but it must very early have gained adherents among the
+<span class="sidenote">Christianity.</span>
+learned Jews of Alexandria, whose school of thought
+was in some respects ready to welcome it. From them
+it rapidly passed to the Greeks. Ultimately the new
+religion spread to the Egyptians; their own creed was worn out,
+and they found in Christianity a doctrine of the future life for
+which their old belief had made them not unready; while the
+social teaching of Christianity came with special fitness to a
+subject race. The history of the Coptic Version has yet to be
+written. It presents some features of great antiquity, and,
+unlike all others, has the truly popular character of being written
+in the three dialects of the language. Side by side there grew
+up an Alexandrian church, philosophic, disputative, ambitious,
+the very centre of Christian learning, and an Egyptian church,
+ascetic, contemplative, mystical. The two at length influenced
+one another; still we can generally trace the philosophic teachers
+to a Greek origin, the mystics to an Egyptian.</p>
+
+<p>Caracalla, in revenge for an affront, massacred all the men
+capable of bearing arms in Alexandria. His granting of the
+Roman citizenship to all Egyptians in common with the other
+provincials was only to extort more taxes. Under Decius,
+<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 250, the Christians again suffered from persecution. When
+the empire broke up in the weak reign of Gallienus, the prefect
+Aemilianus, who took the surname Alexander or Alexandrinus,
+was made emperor by the troops at Alexandria, but was conquered
+by the forces of Gallienus. In his brief reign of only a few
+months he had driven back an invasion of the Blemmyes. This
+predatory tribe, issuing from Nubia, was long to be the terror
+of Upper Egypt. Zenobia, queen of Palmyra, after an unsuccessful
+invasion, on a second attempt conquered Egypt, which she
+added to her empire, but lost it when Aurelian made war upon
+her (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 272). The province was, however, unsettled, and the
+conquest of Palmyra was followed in the same year by the
+suppression of a revolt in Egypt (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 273). Probus, who had
+governed Egypt for Aurelian and Tacitus, was subsequently
+chosen by the troops to succeed Tacitus, and is the first governor
+of this province who obtained the whole of the empire. He
+expelled the Blemmyes, who were dominating the whole of the
+Thebaid. Diocletian invited the Nobatae to settle in the Dodecaschoenus
+as a barrier against their incursions, and subsidized
+both Blemmyes and Nobatae. The country, however, was still
+disturbed, and in <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 296 a formidable revolt broke out, led by
+Achilleus, who as emperor took the name Domitius Domitianus.
+Diocletian, finding his troops unable to determine the struggle,
+came to Egypt, captured Alexandria and put his rival to death
+(296). He then reorganized the whole province, and the well-known
+&ldquo;Pompey&rsquo;s Pillar&rdquo; was set up by the grateful and
+repentant Alexandrians to commemorate his gift to them of
+part of the corn tribute.</p>
+
+<p>The Coptic era of Diocletian or of the Martyrs dates from
+the accession of Diocletian (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 284). The edict of <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 303
+against the Christians, and those which succeeded it, were
+rigorously carried out in Egypt, where Paganism was still
+strong and face to face with a strong and united church.
+Galerius, who succeeded Diocletian in the government of the
+East, implacably pursued his policy, and this great persecution
+did not end until the persecutor, perishing, it is said, of the dire
+malady of Herod and Philip II. of Spain, sent out an edict of
+toleration (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 311).</p>
+
+<p>By the edict of Milan (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 313), Constantine, with the agreement
+of his colleague Licinius, acknowledged Christianity as
+having at least equal rights with other religions, and when he gained
+sole power he wrote to all his subjects advising them, like him,
+to become Christians (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 324). The Egyptian Church, hitherto
+free from schism, was now divided by a fierce controversy,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page90" id="page90"></a>90</span>
+in which we see two Greek parties, rather than a Greek and
+an Egyptian, in conflict. The council of Nicaea was called
+together (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 325) to determine between the Orthodox and the
+party of the Alexandrian presbyter Arius. At that council
+the native Egyptian bishops were chiefly remarkable for their
+manly protest against enforcing celibacy on the clergy. The
+most conspicuous controversialist on the Orthodox side was the
+young Alexandrian deacon Athanasius, who returned home to be
+made archbishop of Alexandria (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 326). After being four
+times expelled by the Arians, and once by the emperor Julian,
+he died, <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 373, at the moment when an Arian persecution
+began. So large a proportion of the population had taken
+religious vows that under Valens it became necessary to abolish
+the privilege of monks which exempted them from military
+service. The reign of Theodosius I. witnessed the overthrow
+of Arianism, and this was followed by the suppression of Paganism,
+against which a final edict was promulgated <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 390. In
+Egypt, the year before, the temple of Serapis at Alexandria had
+been captured after much bloodshed by the Christian mob and
+turned into a church. Generally the Coptic Christians were
+content to build their churches within the ancient temples,
+plastering over or effacing the sculptures which were nearest to
+the ground and in the way of the worshippers. They do not
+seem to have been very zealous in the work of destruction;
+the native religion was already dead and they had no fear of it.
+The prosperity of the church was the sign of its decay, and before
+long we find persecution and injustice disgracing the seat of
+Athanasius. Cyril, the patriarch of Alexandria (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 415), expelled
+the Jews from the capital with the aid of the mob, and by the
+murder of the beautiful philosopher Hypatia marked the lowest
+depth to which ignorant fanaticism could descend. A schism now
+produced lengthened civil war and alienated Egypt from the
+empire. The distinction between religion and politics seemed to
+be lost, and the government grew weaker and weaker. The
+system of local government by citizens had now entirely disappeared.
+Offices, with new Byzantine names, were now almost
+hereditary in the wealthy land-owning families. The Greek
+rulers of the Orthodox faith were unable to protect the tillers
+of the soil, and these being of the Monophysite persuasion and
+having their own church and patriarch, hated the Orthodox
+patriarch (who from the time of Justinian onwards was identical
+with the prefect) and all his following. Towards the middle of
+the 5th century, the Blemmyes, quiet since the reign of Diocletian,
+recommenced their incursions, and were even joined in them by
+the Nobatae. These tribes were twice brought to account
+severely for their misdoings, but not effectually checked. It
+was in these circumstances that Egypt fell without a conflict
+when attacked by Chosroës (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 616). After ten years of
+Persian dominion the success of Heraclius restored Egypt to
+the empire, and for a time it again received a Greek governor.
+The Monophysites, who had taken advantage of the Persian
+occupation, were persecuted and their patriarch expelled. The
+Arab conquest was welcomed by the native Christians, but with
+it they ceased to be the Egyptian nation. Their language is
+still used in their churches, but it is no longer spoken, and
+its literature, which is wholly ecclesiastical, has been long
+unproductive.</p>
+
+<p>The decline of Egypt was due to the purely military government
+of the Romans, and their subsequent alliance with the
+Greek party of Alexandria, which never represented the country.
+Under weak emperors, the rest of Egypt was exposed to the
+inroads of savages, and left to fall into a condition of barbarism.
+Ecclesiastical disputes tended to alienate both the native population
+and the Alexandrians. Thus at last the country was merely
+held by armed force, and the authority of the governor was little
+recognized beyond the capital, except where garrisons were
+stationed. There was no military spirit in a population unused
+to arms, nor any disinclination to be relieved from an arbitrary
+and persecuting rule. Thus the Moslem conquest was easy.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;<i>Hellenistic Period.</i>&mdash;See the special articles
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alexandria</a></span>, &amp;c., and especially <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ptolemies</a></span>; J. P. Mahaffy, <i>The
+Empire of the Ptolemies</i> (London, 1895), <i>A History of Egypt under</i>
+<i>the Ptolemaic Dynasty</i> (London, 1899); A. Bouché-Leclercq, <i>Histoire
+des Lagides</i> (4 vols., Paris, 1903-   ); E. A. W. Budge, <i>A History
+of Egypt</i>, vols. vii.-viii. (London, 1902); J. G. Milne, <i>A History
+of Egypt under Roman Rule</i> (London, 1898); E. Gibbon, <i>Decline
+and Fall of the Roman Empire</i> (edited by J. B. Bury) (London, 1900).
+The administration and condition of Egypt under the Ptolemaic
+and Roman rules are abundantly illustrated in recently discovered
+papyri, see especially the English publications of B. P. Grenfell and
+A. S. Hunt (<i>Memoirs of the Graeco-Roman Branch of the Egypt
+Exploration Fund</i>) and F. G. Kenyon (British Museum Catalogues);
+also Mr Kenyon&rsquo;s annual summaries in the <i>Archaeological Report of
+the Egypt Exploration Fund</i>. An ample selection of the Greek inscriptions
+from Egypt is to be found in W. Dittenberger, <i>Orientis
+Graeci inscriptiones selectae</i> (2 vols., Leipzig, 1903-1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. S. P.; F. Ll. G.)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2">2. <i>Mahommedan Period.</i></p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>Moslem Conquest of Egypt.</i>&mdash;In accordance with the scheme
+of universal conquest conceived by the founder of Islam, an
+army of some 4000 men was towards the end of the year <span class="sc">a.d.</span> 639
+sent against Egypt under the command of &lsquo;Amr (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">&lsquo;Amr-ibn-el-Ass</a></span>),
+by the second caliph, Omar I., who had some doubt
+as to the expediency of the enterprise. The commander marched
+from Syria through El-&lsquo;Ar&#299;sh, easily took Farama or Pelusium,
+and thence proceeded to Bilbeis, where he was delayed for a
+month; having captured this place, he proceeded to a point
+on the Nile called Umm Dunain, the siege of which also occasioned
+him some difficulty. After taking it, he crossed the Nile to the
+Fayum. On the 6th of June of the following year (640) a second
+army of 12,000 men, despatched by Omar, arrived at Heliopolis
+(On). &lsquo;Amr recrossed the river and joined it, but presently was
+confronted by a Roman army, which he defeated at the battle
+of Heliopolis (July 640); this victory was followed by the siege
+of Babylon, which after some futile attempts at negotiation was
+taken partly by storm and partly by capitulation on Good Friday,
+the 6th of April 641. &lsquo;Amr next proceeded in the direction of
+Alexandria, which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed
+on the 8th of November 641, under which it was to be occupied
+by the Moslems on the 29th of September of the following year.
+The interval was spent by him in founding the city Fostat
+(Fus&#7789;&#257;&#7789;), near the modern Cairo, and called after the camp
+(<i>Fossatum</i>) occupied by him while besieging Babylon; and in
+reducing those coast towns that still offered resistance. The
+Thebaid seems to have surrendered with scarcely any opposition.</p>
+
+<p>The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched
+from the Roman empire appears to have been due to the treachery
+of the governor of Egypt, Cyrus, patriarch of Alexandria, and
+the incompetence of the generals of the Roman forces. The
+former, called by the Arabs Mukaukis (Muqauqis) from his
+Coptic name Pkauchios, had for ten years before the arrival of
+&lsquo;Amr maintained a fierce persecution of the Jacobite sect, to
+which the bulk of the Copts belonged. During the siege of
+Babylon he had been recalled and exiled, but after the death of
+Heraclius had been reinstated as patriarch by Heraclonas, and
+been welcomed back to Alexandria with general rejoicing in
+September 641. Since Alexandria could neither have been
+stormed nor starved out by the Arabs, his motives for surrendering
+it, and with it the whole of Egypt, have been variously
+interpreted, some supposing him to have been secretly a convert
+to Islam. The notion that the Arab invaders were welcomed
+and assisted by the Copts, driven to desperation by the persecution
+of Cyrus, appears to be refuted by the fact that the invaders
+treated both Copts and Romans with the same ruthlessness;
+but the dissensions which prevailed in the Christian communities,
+leading to riots and even civil war in Alexandria and elsewhere,
+probably weakened resistance to the common enemy. An
+attempt was made in the year 645 with a force under Manuel,
+commander of the Imperial forces, to regain Alexandria for the
+Byzantine empire; the city was surprised, and held till the
+summer of 646, when it was again stormed by &lsquo;Amr. In 654 a
+fleet was equipped by Constans with a view to an invasion, but
+it was repulsed, and partly destroyed by storm. From that time
+no serious effort was made by the Eastern Empire to regain possession
+of the country. And it would appear that at the time of
+the attempt by Manuel the Arabs were actually assisted by the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page91" id="page91"></a>91</span>
+Copts, who at the first had found the Moslem lighter than the
+Roman yoke.</p>
+
+<p>A question often debated by Arabic authors is whether Egypt
+was taken by storm or capitulation, but, so far as the transference
+of the country was accomplished by the first
+taking of Alexandria, there seems no doubt that the
+<span class="sidenote">Terms of capitulation.</span>
+latter view is correct. The terms were those on
+which conquered communities were ordinarily taken
+under Moslem protection. In return for a tribute of money
+(<i>jizyah</i>) and food for the troops of occupation (<i>&#7693;ar&#299;bat-al-&#7789;a&rsquo;&#257;m</i>),
+the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were to be excused military
+service, and to be left free in the observance of their religion
+and the administration of their affairs.</p>
+
+<p>From 639 to 968 Egypt was a province of the Eastern Caliphate,
+and was ruled by governors sent from the cities which at
+different times ranked as capitals. Like other provinces of the
+later Abbasid Caliphate its rulers were, during this period, able
+to establish quasi-independent dynasties, such being those of
+the Tulunids who ruled from 868 to 905, and the Ikshidis from
+935-969. In 969 the country was conquered by Jauhar for
+the Fatimite caliph Mo&rsquo;izz, who transferred his capital from
+Mahdia (<i>q.v.</i>) in the Maghrib to Cairo. This dynasty lasted till
+1171, when Egypt was again embodied in the Abbasid empire
+by Saladin, who, however, was himself the founder of a quasi-independent
+dynasty called the Ayyubites or Ayyubids, which
+lasted till 1252. The Ayyubites were followed by the Mameluke
+dynasties, usually classified as Ba&#7717;ri from 1252-1382, and Burji
+from 1382-1517; these sovereigns were nominally under the
+suzerainty of Abbasid caliphs, who were in reality instruments
+of the Mameluke sultans, and resided at Cairo. In 1517 Egypt
+became part of the Ottoman empire and was governed by pashas
+sent from Constantinople, whose influence about 1707 gave way
+to that of officials chosen from the Mamelukes who bore the title
+Sheik al-balad. After the episode of the French occupation,
+government by pashas was restored; Mehemet Ali (appointed
+pasha in 1805) obtained from the Porte in 1841 the right to
+bequeath the sovereignty to his descendants, one of whom,
+Ismail Pasha, received the title Khedive, which is still held by
+Mehemet Ali&rsquo;s descendants.</p>
+
+<p>(2) The following is a list of the governors of Egypt in these
+successive periods:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p class="center pt2">(a) <i>During the undivided Caliphate.</i></p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&lsquo;Amr-ibn-el-Ass, A.H. 18-24 (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 639-645).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Abdallah b. Sa&rsquo;d b. Ab&#299; Sarh, 24-36 (645-656).</p>
+<p>Qais b. Sa&rsquo;d b. &rsquo;Ub&#257;dah, 36 (657-658).</p>
+<p>Mahommed b. Abu Bekr, 37-38 (658).</p>
+<p>Ashtar M&#257;lik b. al-H&#257;rith (appointed, but never governed).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Amr-ibn-el-Ass, 38-43 (658-663).</p>
+<p>&rsquo;Utbah b. Abu Sofi&#257;n, 43-44 (664-665).</p>
+<p>&rsquo;Utbah b. &rsquo;&#256;mir, 44-45 (665).</p>
+<p>Maslama b. Mukhallad, 45-62 (665-682).</p>
+<p>Sa&rsquo;&#299;d b. Yaz&#299;d b. &lsquo;Alqamah, 62-64 (682-684).</p>
+<p>Abdarrahman b. &rsquo;Utbah b. Jahdam, 64-65 (684).</p>
+<p>Abdalaz&#299;z (&lsquo;Abd al-&lsquo;Az&#299;z) b. Merw&#257;n, 65-86 (685-705).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Abdallah b. &lsquo;Abd al-Malik, 86-90 (705-708).</p>
+<p>Qurrah b. Shar&#299;k al-&lsquo;Abs&#299;, 90-96 (709-714).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Abd al-Malik b. Rif&#257;&rsquo;ah al-Fahm&#299;, 96-99 (715-717).</p>
+<p>Ayy&#363;b b. Shura&#7717;b&#299;l al-A&#7779;ba&#7717;&#299;, 99-101 (717-720).</p>
+<p>Bishr b. &#7778;afw&#257;n al-Kalb&#299;, 101-102 (720-721).</p>
+<p>&#7716;anzalah b. &#7778;afw&#257;n, 102-105 (721-724).</p>
+<p>Mahommed b. &lsquo;Abd al-Malik, 105 (724).</p>
+<p>&#7716;urr b. Y&#363;suf, 105-108 (724-727).</p>
+<p>&#7716;af&#7779; b. al-Wal&#299;d, 108 (727).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Abd al-Malik b. Rif&#257;&rsquo;ah, 109 (727).</p>
+<p>Wal&#299;d b. Rif&#257;&rsquo;ah, 109-117 (727-735).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Abd al-Ra&#7717;m&#257;n b. Kh&#257;lid, 117-118 (735).</p>
+<p>&#7716;an&#7827;alah b. &#7778;afw&#257;n, 118-124 (735-742).</p>
+<p>&#7716;af&#7779; b. al-Wal&#299;d, 124-127 (742-745).</p>
+<p>&#7716;ass&#257;n b. &lsquo;At&#257;hiyah al-Tu&rsquo;jib&#299;, 127 (745).</p>
+<p>&#7716;af&#7779; b. al-Wal&#299;d, 127 (745).</p>
+<p>Hautharah b. Suhail al-B&#257;hil&#299;, 128-131 (745-749).</p>
+<p>Mugh&#299;rah b. &rsquo;Ubaidallah al-Faz&#257;r&#299;, 131-132 (749).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Abd al-Malik b. Marw&#257;n al-Lakhm&#299;, 132 (750).</p>
+<p>&#7778;&#257;li&#7717; b. &lsquo;Al&#299;, 133 (750-751).</p>
+<p>Ab&#363; &lsquo;Aun &lsquo;Abdalmalik b. Yaz&#299;d, 133-136 (751-753).</p>
+<p>&#7778;&#257;li&#7717; b. &lsquo;Al&#299;, 136-137 (753-755)&mdash;second time.</p>
+<p>Ab&#363; &lsquo;Aun, 137-141 (755-758)&mdash;second time.</p>
+<p>M&#363;s&#257; b. Ka&rsquo;b b. &rsquo;Uyainah al-Tam&#299;m&#299;, 141 (758-759).</p>
+<p>Mahommed b. al-Ash&rsquo;ath b. &rsquo;Uqbah al-Khuz&#257; &#299;, 141-143 (759-760).</p>
+<p>&#7716;umaid b. Qa&#7717;&#7789;abah b. Shab&#299;b al-&#7788;&#257;&rsquo;&#299;, 143-144 (760-762).</p>
+<p>Yaz&#299;d b. &#7716;&#257;tim b. Kab&#299;sah al-Muhallab&#299;, 144-152 (762-769).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Abdallah b. &lsquo;Abdarra&#7717;m&#257;n b. Moawiya b. &#7716;udaij, 152-155 (769-772).</p>
+<p>Mahommed b. Abdarra&#7717;man b. Moawiya b. &#7716;udaij, 155 (772).</p>
+<p>M&#363;s&#257; b. &rsquo;Ulayy b. Rab&#257;h al-Lakhm&#299;, 155-161 (772-778).</p>
+<p>&rsquo;&#298;s&#257; b. Luqm&#257;n b. Mahommed al-Jumah&#299;, 161-162 (778).</p>
+<p>W&#257;&#7693;i&#7717;, 162 (779).</p>
+<p>Man&#7779;&#363;r b. Yaz&#299;d b. Man&#7779;&#363;r al-Ru&rsquo;ain&#299;, 162 (779).</p>
+<p>Ab&#363; &#7778;&#257;li&#7717; Ya&#7717;y&#257; b. D&#257;w&#363;d b. Mamd&#363;d, 162-164 (779-780).</p>
+<p>S&#257;lim b. Saw&#257;dah al-Tam&#299;m&#299;, 164 (780-781).</p>
+<p>Ibr&#257;h&#299;m b. &#7778;&#257;li&#7717; b. &lsquo;Al&#299;, 165-167 (781-784).</p>
+<p>M&#363;s&#257; b. Mus&rsquo;ab b. al-Rab&#299; al-Khath&rsquo;am&#299;, 167-168 (784-785).</p>
+<p>Us&#257;mah b. &lsquo;Amr b. &lsquo;Alqamah al-Ma&rsquo;&#257;fir&#299;, 168 (785).</p>
+<p>al Fa&#7693;l b. &#7778;&#257;li&#7717; b. &lsquo;Al&#299; al-&lsquo;Abb&#257;s&#299;, 168-169 (785-786).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Al&#299; b. Sulaim&#257;n b. &lsquo;Al&#299; al-&lsquo;Abb&#257;s&#299;, 169-171 (786-787).</p>
+<p>M&#363;s&#257; b. &rsquo;&#298;s&#257; b. M&#363;s&#257; al-&lsquo;Abb&#257;s&#299;, 171-172 (787-789).</p>
+<p>Maslamah b. Ya&#7717;y&#257; b. Qurrah al-B&#257;jil&#299;, 172-173 (789-790).</p>
+<p>Mahommed b. Zuhair al-Azd&#299;, 173 (790).</p>
+<p>D&#257;w&#363;d b. Yaz&#299;d b. &#7716;&#257;tim al-Muhallab&#299;, 174-175 (790).</p>
+<p>M&#363;s&#257; b. &rsquo;&#298;s&#257; al-&lsquo;Abb&#257;s&#299;, 175-176 (790-792).</p>
+<p>Ibr&#257;h&#299;m b. &#7778;&#257;li&#7717;, 176 (792).</p>
+<p>&#7778;&#257;li&#7717; b. Ibr&#257;h&#299;m, 176 (792).</p>
+<p>Abdallah b. al-Musayyib b. Zuhair al &#7692;abb&#299;, 176-177 (792-793).</p>
+<p>Is&#7717;&#257;q b. Sulaim&#257;n b. &lsquo;Al&#299; al-&lsquo;Abb&#257;s&#299;, 177-178 (793-794).</p>
+<p>Harthamah b. A&rsquo;yan, 178 (794-795).</p>
+<p>&rsquo;Obaidallah b. al-Mahd&#299;, 179 (795).</p>
+<p>M&#363;s&#257; b. &rsquo;&#298;s&#257; al-&lsquo;Abb&#257;s&#299;, 179-180 (795-796).</p>
+<p>&rsquo;Obaidallah b. al-Mahd&#299;, 180-181 (796-797)&mdash;second time.</p>
+<p>Ism&#257;&rsquo;&#299;l b. &#7778;&#257;li&#7717; b. &lsquo;Al&#299; al-&lsquo;Abb&#257;s&#299;, 181-182 (797-798).</p>
+<p>Ism&#257;&rsquo;&#299;l b. &rsquo;&#298;s&#257; b. M&#363;s&#257; al-&lsquo;Abb&#257;s&#299;, 182-183 (798).</p>
+<p>Laith b. al-Fa&#7693;l al-Ab&#299;ward&#299;, 183-187 (798-803).</p>
+<p>A&#7717;mad b. Ism&#257;&rsquo;&#299;l b. &lsquo;Al&#299; al-&lsquo;Abb&#257;s&#299;, 187-189 (803-805).</p>
+<p>&rsquo;Obaidallah b. Mahommed b. Ibr&#257;h&#299;m al-&lsquo;Abb&#257;s&#299;, 189-190 (805-806).</p>
+<p>&#7716;usain b. Jam&#299;l, 190-192 (806-808).</p>
+<p>M&#257;lik b. Dalham b. &rsquo;&#298;s&#257; al-Kalb&#299;, 192-193 (808).</p>
+<p>&#7716;asan b. al-Ta&#7717;t&#257;&#7717;, 193-194 (808-809).</p>
+<p>&#7716;&#257;tim b. Harthamah b. A&rsquo;yan, 194-195 (809-811).</p>
+<p>J&#257;bir b. al-Ash&rsquo;ath b. Ya&#7717;y&#257; al-&#7788;&#257;&rsquo;&#299;, 195-196 (811-812).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Abb&#257;d b. Mahommed b. &#7716;ayy&#257;n al-Balkh&#299;, 196-198 (812-813).</p>
+<p>Mo&#7789;&#7789;alib b. &lsquo;Abdallah b. M&#257;lik al-Khuz&#257;&rsquo;&#299;, 198 (813-814).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Abb&#257;s b. M&#363;s&#257; b. &rsquo;&#298;s&#257; al-&lsquo;Abb&#257;s&#299;, 198-199 (814).</p>
+<p>Mo&#7789;&#7789;alib b. &lsquo;Abdallah, 199-200 (814-816)&mdash;second time.</p>
+<p>Sar&#299; b. al-&#7716;akam b. Y&#363;suf, 200-201 (816).</p>
+<p>Sulaim&#257;n b. Gh&#257;lib b. Jibr&#299;l al-B&#257;jil&#299;, 201 (816-817).</p>
+<p>Sar&#299; b. al-&#7716;akam, 201-205 (817-820).</p>
+<p>Ab&#363; Na&#7779;r Mahommed b. al-Sar&#299;, 205 (820-821).</p>
+<p>&rsquo;Obaidallah b. al-Sar&#299;, 205-211 (821-826).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Abdallah b. &#7788;&#257;hir, 211-213 (826-829).</p>
+<p>Mahommed b. H&#257;r&#363;n (al-Mo&rsquo;tasim), 213-214 (829).</p>
+<p>&rsquo;Umair b. Al-Wal&#299;d al-Tam&#299;m&#299; al-B&#257;dhagh&#299;s&#299;, 214 (829).</p>
+<p>&rsquo;&#298;s&#257; b. Yaz&#299;d, 214 (829).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Abduyah b. Jabalah, 215-216 (830-831).</p>
+<p>&rsquo;&#298;s&#257; b. Man&#7779;&#363;r b. M&#363;s&#257; al-R&#257;fi&lsquo;&#299;, 216-217 (831-832).</p>
+<p>Na&#7779;r b. Abdallah Kaidar al-&#7778;afad&#299;, 217-219 (832-834).</p>
+<p>Muzaffar b. Kaidar, 219 (834).</p>
+<p>M&#363;s&#257; b. Abi&lsquo;l-&lsquo;Abb&#257;s Th&#257;bit al-Hanaf&#299;, 219-224 (834-839).</p>
+<p>M&#257;lik b. Kaidar al &#7778;afad&#299;, 224-226 (839-841).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Al&#299; b. Ya&#7717;y&#257; abu l-Hasan al-Arman&#299;, 226-228 (841-842).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Is&#257; b. Man&#7779;&#363;r al-R&#257;fi&lsquo;&#299;, 229-233 (843-847).</p>
+<p>Harthamah b. al-Na&#7693;ir al-Jabal&#299;, 233-234 (848-849).</p>
+<p>&#7716;&#257;tim b. Harthamah, 234 (849).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Al&#299; b. Ya&#7717;y&#257;, 234-235 (849-850).</p>
+<p>Ish&#257;q b. Ya&#7717;y&#257; al-Khatl&#257;n&#299;, 235-236 (850-851).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Abd al-W&#257;hid b. Ya&#7717;y&#257; b. Man&#7779;&#363;r, 236-238 (851-852).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Anbasa b. Ish&#257;q b. Shamir, 238-242 (852-856).</p>
+<p>Yaz&#299;d b. &lsquo;Abdallah b. D&#299;n&#257;r, 242-253 (856-867).</p>
+<p>Muz&#257;him b. Kh&#257;q&#257;n al-Turk&#299;, 253-254 (867-868).</p>
+<p>A&#7717;mad b. Muz&#257;him b. Kh&#257;q&#257;n, 254 (868).</p>
+<p>Urj&#363;z b. Ulugh &#7788;arkh&#257;n al-Turk&#299;, 254 (868).</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Tulunid house.</i></p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>A&#7717;mad b. &#7788;&#363;l&#363;n, 254-270 (868-884).</p>
+<p>Khom&#257;r&#363;ya b. A&#7717;mad, 270-282 (884-896).</p>
+<p>Jaish b. Khom&#257;r&#363;ya, 282 (896).</p>
+<p>H&#257;r&#363;n b. Khom&#257;r&#363;ya, 283-292 (896-904).</p>
+<p>Shaib&#257;n b. A&#7717;mad, 292 (905).</p>
+<p>&rsquo;&#298;s&#257; b. Mahommed al-Na&#363;shar&#299;, 292 (905).</p>
+<p>Mahommed b. &lsquo;Ali al-Khalanj&#299;, 292-293 (905-906).</p>
+<p>&rsquo;&#298;s&#257; al-Na&#363;shar&#299;, 293-297 (906-910)&mdash;second time.</p>
+<p>Tak&#299;n b. Abdallah al-Khazar&#299;, 297-302 (910-915).</p>
+<p>Dhuk&#257; al-R&#363;m&#299;, 303-307 (915-919).</p>
+<p>Tak&#299;n b. &lsquo;Abdallah, 307-309 (919-921)&mdash;second time.</p>
+<p>Ab&#363; Q&#257;b&#363;s Ma&#7717;m&#363;d b. &#7716;amal, 309 (921).</p>
+<p>Hil&#257;l b. Badr, 309-311 (921-923).</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page92" id="page92"></a>92</span></p>
+<p>A&#7717;mad b. Kaighlagh, 311 (923).</p>
+<p>Tak&#299;n b. Abdallah, 311-321 (923-933)&mdash;third time.</p>
+<p>Mahommed b. Tak&#299;n, 321 (933).</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><i>Iksh&#299;d&#299; house.</i></p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>Mahommed b. &#7788;ughj al-Iksh&#299;d, 321 (933).</p>
+<p>[A&#7717;mad b. Kaighlagh, 321-322 (933-934)].</p>
+<p>Mahommed b. &#7788;ughj, 323-334 (934-946)&mdash;second time.</p>
+<p>&#362;nj&#363;r b. al-Iksh&#299;d, 334-349 (946-961).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Al&#299; b. al-Iksh&#299;d, 349-355 (961-966).</p>
+<p>K&#257;f&#363;r b. Abdallah al-Iksh&#299;d&#299;, 355-357 (966-968).</p>
+<p>Abu&rsquo;l-Faw&#257;ris A&#7717;mad b. &lsquo;Al&#299; b. al-Iksh&#299;d, 357 (968).</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>(b) F&#257;&#7789;imite Caliphs</i>, 357-567 (969-1171).</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>Mo&lsquo;izz Ab&#363; Tam&#299;m Ma&rsquo;add (or li-d&#299;n all&#257;h), 357-365 (969-975).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Az&#299;z Ab&#363; Man&#7779;&#363;r Niz&#257;r (al-&lsquo;Az&#299;z bill&#257;h), 365-386 (975-996).</p>
+<p>&#7716;&#257;kim [Ab&#363; &lsquo;Al&#299; Man&#7779;&#363;r], 386-411 (996-1020).</p>
+<p>&#7826;&#257;hir [Abu&rsquo;l-&#7716;asan &lsquo;Al&#299;], 411-427 (1020-1035).</p>
+<p>Mostan&#7779;ir [Ab&#363; Tam&#299;m Ma&lsquo;add], 427-487 (1035-1094).</p>
+<p>Mosta&rsquo;l&#299; [Abu&rsquo;l-Q&#257;sim A&#7717;mad], 487-495 (1094-1101).</p>
+<p>Amir [Ab&#363; &lsquo;Al&#299; Man&#7779;&#363;r], 495-524 (1101-1130).</p>
+<p>&#7716;&#257;fiz [Abu&rsquo;l-Maim&#363;n &lsquo;Abd al-Maj&#299;d], 524-544 (1130-1149).</p>
+<p>&#7826;&#257;fir [Abu&rsquo;l-Man&#7779;&#363;r Ism&#257;&rsquo;&#299;l], 544-549 (1149-1154).</p>
+<p>F&#257;&rsquo;iz [Abu&rsquo;l-Q&#257;sim &rsquo;&#298;s&#257;], 549-555 (1154-1160).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;&#256;did [Ab&#363; Mahommed &lsquo;Abdallah], 555-567 (1160-1171).</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>(c) Ayy&#363;bite Sultans</i>, 564-648 (1169-1250).</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>Malik al-N&#257;&#7779;ir &#7778;al&#257;&#7717; al-d&#299;n Y&#363;suf b. Ayy&#363;b (<span class="sc">Saladin</span>), 564-589
+  (1169-1193).</p>
+<p>Malik al-&lsquo;Az&#299;z &lsquo;Im&#257;d al-d&#299;n Othman, 589-595 (1193-1198).</p>
+<p>Malik al-Man&#7779;&#363;r Mahommed, 595-596 (1198-1199).</p>
+<p>Malik al-&lsquo;Adil Saif al-d&#299;n Ab&#363; Bakr, 596-615 (1199-1218).</p>
+<p>Malik <span class="sc">al-K&#257;mil</span> Mahommed, 615-635 (1218-1238).</p>
+<p>Malik al-&rsquo;&#256;dil II. Saif al-d&#299;n Ab&#363; Bakr, 635-637 (1238-1240).</p>
+<p>Malik al-&#7778;&#257;li&#7717; Najm al-d&#299;n Ayy&#363;b, 637-647 (1240-1249).</p>
+<p>Malik al-Mo&lsquo;azzam T&#363;r&#257;nsh&#257;h, 647-648 (1249-1250).</p>
+<p>Malik al-Ashraf M&#363;s&#257;, 648-650 (1250-1252).</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>(d) Ba&#7717;ri Mamelukes</i>, 648-792 (1250-1390).</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>Shajar al-durr, 648 (1250).</p>
+<p>Malik al-Mo&rsquo;izz &lsquo;Izz al-d&#299;n Aibek, 648-655 (1250-1257).</p>
+<p>Malik al-Man&#7779;&#363;r Nureddin &lsquo;Al&#299;, 655-657 (1257-1259).</p>
+<p>Malik al-Mo&#7827;affar Saif al-d&#299;n <span class="sc">Kotuz</span>, 657-658 (1259-1260).</p>
+<p>Malik al-&#7826;&#257;hir [Rukn al-d&#299;n (Rukneddin) <span class="sc">Bibars</span> Bundukd&#257;r&#299;],
+       658-676 (1260-1277).</p>
+<p>Malik al-Sa&rsquo;id N&#257;&#7779;ir al-d&#299;n Barakah Kh&#257;n, 676-678 (1277-1279).</p>
+<p>Malik al-&rsquo;&#256;dil Badr al-d&#299;n Sal&#257;mish, 678 (1279).</p>
+<p>Malik al-Man&#7779;&#363;r Saif al-d&#299;n <span class="sc">Qal&#257;&rsquo;&#363;n</span>, 678-689 (1279-1290).</p>
+<p>Malik al-Ashraf [&#7778;al&#257;&#7717; al-d&#299;n <span class="sc">Khal&#299;l</span>], 689-693 (1290-1293).</p>
+<p>Malik al-N&#257;&#7779;ir [N&#257;&#7779;ir al-d&#299;n Mahommed], 693-694 (1293-1294).</p>
+<p>Malik al-&rsquo;&#256;dil [Zain al-d&#299;n <span class="sc">Kitboga</span>], 694-696 (1294-1296).</p>
+<p>Man&#7779;&#363;r [&#7716;us&#257;m al-d&#299;n <span class="sc">L&#257;j&#299;n</span>], 696-698 (1296-1298).</p>
+<p><span class="sc">N&#257;&#7779;ir Mahommed</span> (again), 698-708 (1298-1308).</p>
+<p>Mo&#7827;affar [Rukn al-d&#299;n Bibars J&#257;sheng&#299;r], 708-709 (1308-1310).</p>
+<p>N&#257;&#7779;ir Mahommed (third time), 709-741 (1310-1341).</p>
+<p>Man&#7779;&#363;r [Saif al-d&#299;n <span class="sc">Ab&#363; Bakr</span>], 741-742 (1341).</p>
+<p>Ashraf [Ala&rsquo;u &rsquo;l-d&#299;n <span class="sc">Kuchuk</span>], 742 (1341-1342).</p>
+<p>N&#257;&#7779;ir [Shih&#257;b al-d&#299;n A&#7717;mad], 742-743 (1342).</p>
+<p>&#7778;&#257;li&#7717; &lsquo;Im&#257;d al-d&#299;n Ism&#257;&rsquo;&#299;l], 743-746 (1342-1345).</p>
+<p>K&#257;mil [Saif al-d&#299;n <span class="sc">Sha&rsquo;ban</span>], 746-747 (1345-1346).</p>
+<p>Mo&#7827;affar [Saif al-d&#299;n <span class="sc">&#7716;ajji</span>], 747-748 (1346-1347).</p>
+<p>N&#257;&#7779;ir [N&#257;&#7779;ir al-d&#299;n &#7716;asan], 748-752 (1347-1351).</p>
+<p>&#7778;&#257;li&#7717; [&#7778;al&#257;&#7717; al-d&#299;n &#7778;&#257;li&#7717;], 752-755 (1351-1354).</p>
+<p>N&#257;&#7779;ir [&#7716;asan] (again), 755-762 (1354-1361).</p>
+<p>Man&#7779;&#363;r [&#7778;al&#257;&#7717; al-d&#299;n Mahommed], 762-764 (1361-1363).</p>
+<p>Ashraf [N&#257;&#7779;ir al-d&#299;n Sha&rsquo;b&#257;n], 764-778 (1363-1377).</p>
+<p>Man&#7779;&#363;r [&lsquo;Al&#257;&rsquo;u &rsquo;l-d&#299;n &lsquo;Al&#299;], 778-783 (1377-1381).</p>
+<p>&#7778;&#257;li&#7717; [&#7778;al&#257;&#7717; al-d&#299;n &#7716;&#257;jj&#299;, 783-784 (1381-1382).</p>
+<p>Bar&#7731;&#363;&#7731; or Barq&#363;q (see below), 784-791 (1382-1389).</p>
+<p>&#7716;&#257;jj&#299; again, with title of Mo&#7827;affar, 791-792 (1389-1390).</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>(e) Burji Mamelukes</i>, 784-922 (1382-1517).</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&#7826;&#257;hir [Saif al-d&#299;n Barq&#363;q], 784-801 (1382-1398) [interrupted
+  by &#7716;&#257;jj&#299;, 791-792].</p>
+<p>N&#257;&#7779;ir [N&#257;&#7779;ir al-d&#299;n <span class="sc">Faraj</span>], 801-808 (1398-1405).</p>
+<p>Man&#7779;&#363;r [&lsquo;Izz al-d&#299;n Abdalaziz (&lsquo;Abd al-&lsquo;Az&#299;z)], 808-809 (1405-1406).</p>
+<p>N&#257;&#7779;ir Faraj (again), 809-815 (1406-1412).</p>
+<p>&rsquo;&#256;dil Mosta&rsquo;&#299;n (Abbasid caliph), 815 (1412).</p>
+<p>Mu&lsquo;ayyad [Sheikh], 815-824 (1412-1421).</p>
+<p>Mo&#7827;affar [A&#7717;mad], 824 (1421).</p>
+<p>&#7826;&#257;hir [Saif al-d&#299;n Tat&#257;r], 824 (1421).</p>
+<p>&#7778;&#257;li&#7717; [N&#257;&#7779;ir al-d&#299;n Mahommed], 824-825 (1421-1422).</p>
+<p>Ashraf [Saif al-d&#299;n Barsbai], 825-842 (1422-1438).</p>
+<p>&lsquo;Az&#299;z [Jam&#257;l al-d&#299;n Y&#363;suf], 842 (1438).</p>
+<p>&#7826;&#257;hir [Saif al-d&#299;n Jakmak], 842-857 (1438-1453).</p>
+<p>Man&#7779;&#363;r [Fakhr al-d&#299;n Othman], 857 (1453).</p>
+<p>Ashraf [Saif al-d&#299;n &#298;n&#257;l], 857-865 (1453-1461).</p>
+<p>Mu&lsquo;ayyad [Shih&#257;b al-d&#299;n A&#7717;mad], 865 (1461).</p>
+<p>&#7826;&#257;hir [Saif al-d&#299;n Khoshkadam], 865-872 (1461-1467).</p>
+<p>&#7826;&#257;hir [Saif al-d&#299;n Yelbai or Bilbai], 872 (1467).</p>
+<p>&#7826;&#257;hir [T&#299;m&#363;rbogh&#257;], 872-873 (1467-1468).</p>
+<p>Ashraf [Saif al-d&#299;n (<span class="sc">Kait Bey</span>)], 873-901 (1468-1495).</p>
+<p>N&#257;&#7779;ir [Mahommed], 901-904 (1495-1498).</p>
+<p>&#7826;&#257;hir [K&#257;ns&#363;h], 904-905 (1498-1499).</p>
+<p>Ashraf [J&#257;nbal&#257;t or Jan Bel&#257;t], 905-906 (1499-1501).</p>
+<p>&rsquo;&#256;dil Tumanbey, 906 (1501).</p>
+<p>Ashraf [K&#257;ns&#363;h Gh&#363;ri], 906-922 (1501-1516).</p>
+<p>Ashraf [T&#363;m&#257;nbey], 922 (1516-1517).</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>(f) Turkish Governors after the Ottoman Conquest.</i></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 100%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Khair Bey, 923 (1517).</td> <td class="tcl">&#7716;osain, 1085 (1674).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mu&#7779;&#7789;af&#257; Pasha, 926 (1520).</td> <td class="tcl">&#7716;asan al-J&#257;nbal&#257;&#7789;, 1087 (1676).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">A&#7717;mad, 929 (1523).</td> <td class="tcl">Othm&#257;n, 1091 (1680).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Q&#257;sim, 930 (1524).</td> <td class="tcl">&#7716;asan al-Sila&#7717;d&#257;r, 1099 (1688).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ibr&#257;h&#299;m, 931 (1525).</td> <td class="tcl">A&#7717;mad, 1101 (1690).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Suleim&#257;n, 933 (1527).</td> <td class="tcl">&lsquo;Al&#299; Qilij, 1102 (1691).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">D&#257;w&#363;d, 945 (1538).</td> <td class="tcl">Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l, 1107 (1696).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&lsquo;Al&#299;, 956 (1549).</td> <td class="tcl">&#7716;osain, 1109 (1697).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mahommed, 961 (1554).</td> <td class="tcl">Qar&#257; Mahommed or A&#7717;mad, 1111 (1699).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Iskandar, 963 (1556).</td> <td class="tcl">Mahommed R&#257;m&#299;, 1116 (1704).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&lsquo;Al&#299; al-Kh&#257;dim, 968 (1561).</td> <td class="tcl">&lsquo;Al&#299; Muslim, 1118 (1706).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mu&#7779;&#7789;af&#257;, 969 (1561).</td> <td class="tcl">&#7716;osain Ketkhud&#257;, 1119 (1707).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&lsquo;Al&#299; al-S&#363;f&#299;, 971 (1563).</td> <td class="tcl">Ibr&#257;h&#299;m Qab&#363;d&#257;n, 1121 (1709).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ma&#7717;m&#363;d, 973 (1566).</td> <td class="tcl">Khal&#299;l, 1122 (1710).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sin&#257;n, 975 (1567).</td> <td class="tcl">Wal&#299;, 1123 (1711).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&#7716;osain, 980 (1573).</td> <td class="tcl">&rsquo;&#256;bid&#299;n, 1127 (1715).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mas&#299;&#7717;, 982 (1575).</td> <td class="tcl">&lsquo;Al&#299; Izm&#299;rli, 1129 (1717).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&#7716;asan al-Kh&#257;dim, 988 (1580).</td> <td class="tcl">Rajab, 1130 (1718).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ibr&#257;h&#299;m, 991 (1583).</td> <td class="tcl">Mahommed al-B&#257;shim&#299;, 1132 (1720).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sin&#257;n, 992 (1584).</td> <td class="tcl">&lsquo;Al&#299;, 1138 (1728).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Uwais, 994 (1585).</td> <td class="tcl">B&#257;k&#299;r, 1141 (1729).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&#7716;&#257;fiz A&#7717;mad, 999 (1591).</td> <td class="tcl">&lsquo;Abdallah Kub&#363;rlu, 1142 (1729).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Kur&#7789;, 1003 (1595).</td> <td class="tcl">Mahommed Sila&#7717;d&#257;r, 1144 (1732).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sayyid Mahommed, 1004 (1596).</td> <td class="tcl">Othman &#7716;alab&#299;, 1146 (1733).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Khi&#7693;r, 1006 (1598).</td> <td class="tcl">B&#257;k&#299;r, 1148 (1735).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&lsquo;Al&#299; al-Sila&#7717;d&#257;r, 1009 (1601).</td> <td class="tcl">Mu&#7779;&#7789;af&#257;, 1149 (1736).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ibr&#257;h&#299;m, 1012 (1604).</td> <td class="tcl">Sulaim&#257;n b. al-&lsquo;Az&#299;m, 1152 (1739).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mahommed al-K&#363;rj&#299;, 1013 (1605).</td> <td class="tcl">&lsquo;Al&#299; &#7716;ak&#299;m Oghlu, 1153 (1740).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&#7716;asan, 1014 (1605).</td> <td class="tcl">Ya&#7717;y&#257;, 1154 (1741).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mahommed al-S&#363;f&#299;, 1016 (1607).</td> <td class="tcl">Mahommed Yedkeshi,  1156 (1743).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">A&#7717;mad al-Daftard&#257;r, 1022 (1613).</td> <td class="tcl">Mahommed R&#257;ghib, 1158 (1745).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mu&#7779;&#7789;af&#257; Lafakli, 1026 (1617).</td> <td class="tcl">A&#7717;mad Kuruz&#299;r, 1161 (1748).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ja&rsquo;far, 1027 (1618).</td> <td class="tcl">Shar&#299;f &lsquo;Abdall&#257;h, 1163 (1750).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mu&#7779;&#7789;af&#257;, 1028 (1619).</td> <td class="tcl">Mahommed Am&#299;n, 1166 (1753).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&#7716;osain, 1028 (1619).</td> <td class="tcl">Mu&#7779;&#7789;af&#257;, 1166 (1753).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mahommed, 1031 (1622).</td> <td class="tcl">&lsquo;Al&#299; &#7716;ak&#299;m Oghlu, 1169 (1756).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ibr&#257;h&#299;m, 1031 (1622).</td> <td class="tcl">Mahommed Sa&rsquo;&#299;d, 1171 (1758).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mu&#7779;&#7789;af&#257;, 1032 (1623).</td> <td class="tcl">Mu&#7779;&#7789;af&#257;, 1173 (1759).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&lsquo;Al&#299;, 1032 (1623).</td> <td class="tcl">A&#7717;mad K&#257;mil, 1174 (1761).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mu&#7779;&#7789;af&#257;, 1032 (1624).</td> <td class="tcl">B&#257;k&#299;r, 1175 (1761).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Bair&#257;m, 1036 (1626).</td> <td class="tcl">&#7716;asan, 1176 (1761).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mahommed, 1037 (1627).</td> <td class="tcl">&#7716;amzah, 1179 (1765).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">M&#363;s&#257;, 1040 (1631).</td> <td class="tcl">Mahommed R&#257;qim, 1181 (1767).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Khal&#299;l al-Bust&#257;nj&#299;, 1041 (1631).</td> <td class="tcl">Mahommed Urflu, 1182 (1768).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">A&#7717;mad al-K&#363;rj&#299;, 1042 (1633).</td> <td class="tcl">A&#7717;mad, 1183 (1770).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&#7716;osain, 1045 (1636).</td> <td class="tcl">Qara Khal&#299;l, 1184 (1770).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mahommed b. A&#7717;mad, 1047 (1638).</td> <td class="tcl">Mu&#7779;&#7789;af&#257; N&#257;buls&#299;, 1188 (1774).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mu&#7779;&#7789;af&#257; al-Bust&#257;nj&#299;, 1049 (1639).</td> <td class="tcl">Ibr&#257;h&#299;m &lsquo;Arabg&#299;rli, 1189 (1775).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Maqs&#363;d, 1050 (1641).</td> <td class="tcl">Mahommed &lsquo;Izzet, 1190 (1776).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Suy&#257;n Bey, 1054 (1644).</td> <td class="tcl">Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l, 1193 (1779).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ayy&#363;b, 1055 (1645).</td> <td class="tcl">Mahommed M&#257;lik, 1195 (1781).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mahommed b. &#7716;aidar, 1057 (1647).</td> <td class="tcl">Shar&#299;f &lsquo;Al&#299; Qa&#7779;&#7779;&#257;b, 1196 (1782).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">A&#7717;mad, 1058 (1648).</td> <td class="tcl">Mahommed Sila&#7717;d&#257;r, 1198 (1783).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&lsquo;Abd al-Ra&#7717;m&#257;n, 1061 (1651).</td> <td class="tcl">Mahommed Yeyen, 1200 (1785).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mahommed al-Sila&#7717;d&#257;r, 1062 (1652).</td> <td class="tcl">&lsquo;&#256;bid&#299;n Shar&#299;f, 1201 (1787).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Gh&#257;z&#299;, 1066 (1655).</td> <td class="tcl">Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l T&#363;nis&#299;, 1203 (1788).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Omar, 1067 (1652).</td> <td class="tcl">&#7778;&#257;li&#7717; Qaisarli, 1209 (1794).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">A&#7717;mad, 1077 (1666).</td> <td class="tcl">Ab&#363; Bakr &#7788;ar&#257;buls&#299;,  1211 (1796).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ibr&#257;h&#299;m, 1078 (1667).</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>French Occupation.</i></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 100%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Khosrev, 1216 (1802).</td> <td class="tcl">Ali Jaz&#257;&rsquo;irl&#299;&rsquo; or &#7788;ar&#257;buls&#299;, 1218 (1803).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&#7788;&#257;hir, 1218 (1803).</td> <td class="tcl">Khorsh&#299;d, 1219 (1804).</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>(g) Hereditary Pashas (later Khedives), from 1220 (from 1805).</i></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 100%;" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Mehemet &lsquo;Al&#299;, 1220-1264 (1805-1848).</td> <td class="tcl">Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l 1280-1300 (1863-1882).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ibr&#257;h&#299;m, 1264 (1848).</td> <td class="tcl">Tewf&#299;k, 1300-1309 (1882-1892).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&lsquo;Abb&#257;s I., 1264-1270 (1848-1854).</td> <td class="tcl">Abb&#257;s II., 1309 (1892).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sa&lsquo;&#299;d, 1270-1280 (1854-1863).</td> <td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>(3) <i>Period under Governors sent from the Metropolis of the
+eastern Caliphate.</i>&mdash;The first governor of the newly acquired
+province was the conqueror &lsquo;Amr, whose jurisdiction was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page93" id="page93"></a>93</span>
+presently restricted to Lower Egypt; Upper Egypt, which was
+divided into three provinces, being assigned to Abdall&#257;h b. Sa&rsquo;d,
+on whom the third caliph conferred the government of Lower
+Egypt also, &lsquo;Amr being recalled, owing to his unwillingness to
+extort from his subjects as much money as would satisfy the
+caliph. In the troubles which overtook the Islamic empire with
+the accession of Othman, Egypt was greatly involved, and it
+had to be reconquered from the adherents of Ali for Moawiya
+(Mo&lsquo;awiyah) by &lsquo;Amr, who in A.H. 38 was rewarded for his services
+by being reinstated as governor, with the right to appropriate
+the surplus revenue instead of sending it as tribute to the
+metropolis. In the confusion which followed on the death of
+the Omayyad caliph Yaz&#299;d the Egyptian Moslems declared
+themselves for Abdall&#257;h b. Zobair, but their leader was defeated
+in a battle near Ain Shams (December 684) by Merw&#257;n b. &#7716;akam
+(Merw&#257;n I.), who had assumed the Caliphate, and the conqueror&rsquo;s
+son Abd al-&lsquo;Az&#299;z was appointed governor. They also declared
+themselves against the usurper Merw&#257;n II. in 745, whose lieutenant
+al-&#7716;autharah had to enter Fostat at the head of an army.
+In 750 Merw&#257;n II. himself came to Egypt as a fugitive from the
+Abbasids, but found that the bulk of the Moslem population
+had already joined with his enemies, and was defeated and slain
+in the neighbourhood of Giza in July of the same year. The
+Abbasid general, &#7778;&#257;li&#7717; b. Ali, who had won the victory, was then
+appointed governor.</p>
+
+<p>During the period that elapsed between the Moslem conquest
+and the end of the Omayyad dynasty the nature of the Arab
+occupation had changed from what had originally been intended,
+the establishment of garrisons, to systematic colonization.
+Conversions of Copts to Islam were at first rare, and the old
+system of taxation was maintained for the greater part of the first
+Islamic century. This was at the rate of a dinar per <i>feddan</i>, of
+which the proceeds were used in the first place for the pay of the
+troops and their families, with about half the amount in kind
+for the rations of the army. The process by which the first of
+these contributions was turned into coin is still obscure; it is
+clear that the corn when threshed was taken over by certain
+public officials who deducted the amount due to the state. In
+general the system is well illustrated by the papyri forming the
+Schott-Reinhardt collection at Heidelberg (edited by C.H. Becker,
+1906), which contain a number of letters on the subject from
+Qurrah b. Shar&#299;k, governor from A.H. 90 to 96. The old division
+of the country into districts (<i>nomoi</i>) is maintained, and to the
+inhabitants of these districts demands are directly addressed
+by the governor of Egypt, while the head of the community,
+ordinarily a Copt, but in some cases a Moslem, is responsible
+for compliance with the demand. An official called &ldquo;receiver&rdquo;
+(<i>qabb&#257;l</i>) is chosen by the inhabitants of each district to take
+charge of the produce till it is delivered into the public magazines,
+and receives 5% for his trouble. Some further details are
+to be found in documents preserved by the archaeologist
+Maqr&#299;z&#299;, from which it appears that the sum for which each
+district was responsible was distributed over the unit in such
+a way that artisans and tradesmen paid at a rate similar to that
+which was enforced on those employed in agriculture. It is not
+known at what time the practice of having the amount due
+settled by the community was altered into that according to
+which it was settled by the governor, or at what time the practice
+of deducting from the total certain expenses necessary for the
+maintenance of the community was abandoned. The researches
+of Wellhausen and Becker have made it clear that the difference
+which is marked in later Islam between a poll-tax (<i>jizyah</i>) and
+a land-tax (<i>khar&#257;j</i>) did not at first exist: the papyri of the 1st
+century know only of the jizyah, which, however, is not a poll-tax
+but a land-tax (in the main). The development of the poll-tax
+imposed on members of tolerated cults seems to be due to various
+causes, chief of them the acquisition of land by Moslems, who
+were not at first allowed to possess any, the conversion of Coptic
+landowners to Islam, and the enforcement (towards the end of
+the 1st century of Islam) of the poll-tax on monks. The treasury
+could not afford to lose the land-tax, which it would naturally
+forfeit by the first two of the above occurrences, and we read of
+various expedients being tried to prevent this loss. Such were
+making the Christian community to which the proselyte had
+belonged pay as much as it had paid when his lands belonged to
+it, making proselytes pay as before their conversion, or compelling
+them to abandon their lands on conversion. Eventually
+the theory spread that all land paid land-tax, whereas members
+of tolerated sects paid a personal tax also; but during the
+evolution of this doctrine the relations between conquerors and
+conquered became more and more strained, and from the time
+when the control of the finance was separated from the administration
+of the country (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 715) complaints of extortion became
+serious; under the predecessor of Qurrah, &lsquo;Abdall&#257;h b. &lsquo;Abd al-Malik,
+the country suffered from famine, and under this ruler it
+was unable to recover. Under the finance minister Obaidallah
+b. &#7716;ab&#7717;&#257;b (720-734) the first government survey by Moslems
+was made, followed by a census; but before this time the higher
+administrative posts had been largely taken out of the hands of
+Copts and filled with Arabs. The resentment of the Copts finally
+<span class="sidenote">Coptic revolt.</span>
+expressed itself in a revolt, which broke out in the year
+725, and was suppressed with difficulty. Two years
+after, in order that the Arab element in Egypt might
+be strengthened, a colony of North Arabians (Qaisites) was sent
+for and planted near Bilbeis, reaching the number of 3000
+persons; this immigration also restored the balance between
+the two branches of the Arab race, as the first immigrants had
+belonged almost exclusively to the South Arabian stock. Meanwhile
+the employment of the Arabic language had been steadily
+gaining ground, and in 706 it was made the official language of the
+bureaux, though the occasional use of Greek for this purpose
+is attested by documents as late as the year 780. Other revolts
+of the Copts are recorded for the year 739 and 750, the last
+year of Omayyad domination. The outbreaks in all cases are
+attributed to increased taxation.</p>
+
+<p>The Abbasid period was marked at its commencement by the
+erection of a new capital to the north of Fostat, bearing the
+name <i>&lsquo;Askar</i> or &ldquo;camp.&rdquo; Apparently at this time the practice
+of farming the taxes began, which naturally led to even greater
+extortion than before; and a fresh rising of the Copts is recorded
+for the fourth year of Abbasid rule. Governors, as will be seen
+from the list, were frequently changed. The three officials of
+importance whose nomination is mentioned by the historians in
+addition to that of the governor were the commander of the
+bodyguard, the minister of finance and the judge. Towards the
+beginning of the 3rd Islamic century the practice of giving
+Egypt in fief to a governor was resumed by the caliph Mam&#363;n,
+who bestowed this privilege on &lsquo;Abdall&#257;h b. &#7788;&#257;hir, who in 827
+was sent to recover Alexandria, which for some ten years had
+been held by exiles from Spain. &lsquo;Abdall&#257;h b. &#7788;&#257;hir decided to
+reside at Bagdad, sending a deputy to Egypt to govern for him;
+and this example was afterwards followed. In 828, when
+Mam&#363;n&rsquo;s brother Mota&#7779;im was feudal lord, a violent insurrection
+broke out in the &#7716;auf, occasioned, as usual, by excessive taxation;
+it was partly quelled in the next year by Mota&#7779;im, who
+marched against the rebels with an army of 4000 Turks. The
+rebellion broke out repeatedly in the following years, and in 831
+the Copts joined with the Arabs against the government; the
+state of affairs became so serious that the caliph Mam&#363;n himself
+visited Egypt, arriving at Fostat in February 832; his general
+Afsh&#299;n fought a decisive battle with the rebels at B&#257;shar&#363;d
+in the &#7716;auf region, at which the Copts were compelled to surrender;
+the males were massacred and the women and children
+sold as slaves.</p>
+
+<p>This event finally crushed the Coptic nation, which never
+again made head against the Moslems. In the following year the
+caliph Mota&#7779;im, who surrounded himself with a foreign bodyguard,
+withdrew the stipends of the Arab soldiers in Egypt;
+this measure caused some of the Arab tribes who had been long
+settled in Egypt to revolt, but their resistance was crushed, and
+the domination of the Arab element in the country from this
+time gave way to that of foreign mercenaries, who, belonging
+to one nation or another, held it for most of its subsequent
+history. Egypt was given in fief to a Turkish general Ashn&#257;s
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page94" id="page94"></a>94</span>
+(Ashinas), who never visited the country, and the rule of individuals
+of Turkish origin prevailed till the rise of the F&#257;&#7789;imites,
+who for a time interrupted it. The presence of Turks in Egypt
+is attested by documents as early as 808. While the governor
+<span class="sidenote">Turkish governors appointed.</span>
+was appointed by the feudal lord, the finance minister
+continued to be appointed by the caliph. On the
+death of Ashn&#257;s in 844 Egypt was given in fief to
+another Turkish general &#298;t&#257;kh, but in 850 this person
+fell out of favour, and the fief was transferred to Monta&#7779;ir, son
+of the caliph Motawakkil. In 856 it was transferred from him
+to the vizier Fat&#7717; b. Kh&#257;q&#257;n, who for the first time appointed
+a Turkish governor. The chief places in the state were also
+filled with Turks. The period between the rise of the Abbasids
+and the quasi-independent dynasties of Egypt was marked by
+much religious persecution, occasioned by the fanaticism of
+some of the caliphs, the victims being generally Moslem sectarians.
+(For Egypt under Motawakkil see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caliphate</a></span>, § c.
+par. 10.)</p>
+
+<p>The policy of these caliphs also led to severe measures being
+taken against any members of the Alid family or adherents of
+their cause who were to be found in Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 868 Egypt was given in fief to a Turkish general
+Bayikbeg, who sent thither as his representative his stepson
+A&#7717;mad b. &#7788;&#363;l&#363;n, the first founder of a quasi-independent
+dynasty. This personage was himself the
+<span class="sidenote">&#7788;&#363;l&#363;nid Dynasty.</span>
+son of a Turk who, originally sent as a slave to Bagdad,
+had risen to high rank in the service of the caliphs. A&#7717;mad b.
+&#7788;&#363;l&#363;n spent some of his early life in Tarsus, and on his return
+distinguished himself by rescuing his caravan, which conveyed
+treasure belonging to the caliph, from brigands who attacked
+it; he afterwards accompanied the caliph Mosta&lsquo;&#299;n into exile,
+and displayed some honourable qualities in his treatment of the
+fallen sovereign. He found a rival in Egypt in the person of
+Ibn al-Modabbir, the finance minister, who occupied an independent
+position, and who started the practice of surrounding
+himself with an army of his own slaves or freedmen; of these
+Ibn &#7788;&#363;l&#363;n succeeded in depriving the finance minister, and they
+formed the nucleus of an army by which he eventually secured
+his own independence. Insurrections by adherents of the Alids
+gave him the opportunity to display his military skill; and
+when in 870 his stepfather died, by a stroke of luck the fief was
+given to his father-in-law, who retained A&#7717;mad in the lieutenancy,
+and indeed extended his authority to Alexandria, which had till
+that time been outside it. The enterprise of a usurper in Syria
+in the year 872 caused the caliph to require the presence of
+A&#7717;mad in that country at the head of an army to quell it; and
+although this army was not actually employed for the purpose,
+it was not disbanded by A&#7717;mad, who on his return founded a
+fresh city called Ka&#7789;&#257;&rsquo;i&lsquo;, &ldquo;the fiefs,&rdquo; S.E. of modern Cairo, to
+house it. On the death of A&#7717;mad&rsquo;s father-in-law in the same
+year, when Egypt was given in fief to the caliph&rsquo;s brother
+Mowaffaq (famous for his defeat of the Zanj), A&#7717;mad secured
+himself in his post by extensive bribery at headquarters; and
+in the following year the administration of the Syrian frontier
+was conferred on him as well. By 875 he found himself strong
+enough to refuse to send tribute to Bagdad, preferring to spend
+the revenues of Egypt on the maintenance of his army and the
+erection of great buildings, such as his famous mosque; and
+though Mowaffaq advanced against him with an army, the
+project of reducing A&#7717;mad to submission had to be abandoned
+for want of means. In 877 and 878 A&#7717;mad advanced into Syria
+and obtained the submission of the chief cities, and at Tarsus
+entered into friendly relations with the representatives of the
+Byzantine emperor. During his absence his son &lsquo;Abb&#257;s revolted
+in Egypt; on the news of his father&rsquo;s return he fled to Barca,
+whence he endeavoured to conquer the Aghlabite dominions in
+the Maghrib; he was, however, defeated by the Aghlabite ruler,
+and returned to Barca, where he was again defeated by his
+father&rsquo;s forces and taken prisoner.</p>
+
+<p>In 882 relations between A&#7717;mad and Mowaffaq again became
+strained, and the former conceived the bold plan of getting the
+caliph Mo&rsquo;tamid into his power, which, however, was frustrated
+by Mowaffaq&rsquo;s vigilance; but an open rupture was the result,
+as Mowaffaq formally deprived A&#7717;mad of his lieutenancy, while
+A&#7717;mad  equally formally declared that Mowaffaq had forfeited
+the succession. A revolt that broke out at Tarsus caused A&#7717;mad
+to traverse Syria once more in 883, but illness compelled him
+to return, and on the 10th of May 884 he died at his residence in
+Ka&#7789;&#257;&rsquo;i&lsquo;. He was the first to establish the claim of Egypt to
+govern Syria, and from his time Egypt grew more and more
+independent of the Eastern caliphate. He appears to have
+invented the fiction which afterwards was repeatedly employed,
+by which the money spent on mosque-building was supposed to
+have been furnished by discoveries of buried treasure.</p>
+
+<p>He was succeeded by his son Khom&#257;r&#363;ya, then twenty years
+of age, who immediately after his accession had to deal with an
+attempt on the part of the caliph to recover Syria; this attempt
+failed chiefly through dissensions between the caliph&rsquo;s officers,
+but partly through the ability of Khom&#257;r&#363;ya&rsquo;s general, who
+succeeded in winning a battle after his master had run away
+from the field. By 886 Mowaffaq found it expedient to grant
+Khom&#257;r&#363;ya the possession of Egypt, Syria, and the frontier
+towns for a period of thirty years, and ere long, owing to the
+disputes of the provincial governors, Khom&#257;r&#363;ya found it possible
+to extend his domain to the Euphrates and even the Tigris.
+On the death of Mowaffaq in 891 the Egyptian governor was
+able to renew peaceful relations with the caliphs, and receive
+fresh confirmation in his possessions for thirty years. The
+security which he thereby gained gave him the opportunity to
+indulge his taste for costly buildings, parks and other luxuries,
+of which the chroniclers give accounts bordering on the fabulous.
+After the marriage of his daughter to the caliph, which was
+celebrated at enormous expense, an arrangement was made giving
+the &#7788;&#363;l&#363;nid sovereign the viceroyalty of a region extending
+from Barca on the west to H&#299;t on the east; but tribute, ordinarily
+to the amount of 300,000 dinars, was to be sent to the metropolis.
+His realm enjoyed peace till his death in 896, when he fell a
+victim to some palace intrigue at Damascus.</p>
+
+<p>His son and successor Abu&rsquo;l-&lsquo;As&#257;kir Jaish was fourteen years
+old at his accession, and being without adequate guidance soon
+revealed his incompetence, which led to his being murdered after
+a reign of six months by his troops, who gave his place to his
+brother H&#257;r&#363;n, who was of about the same age. In the eight
+years of his government the &#7788;&#363;l&#363;nid empire contracted, owing
+to the revolts of the deputies which H&#257;r&#363;n was unable to quell,
+though in 898 he endeavoured to secure a new lease of the
+sovereignty in Egypt and Syria by a fresh arrangement with
+the caliph, involving an increase of tribute. The following years
+witnessed serious troubles in Syria caused by the Carmathians,
+which called for the intervention of the caliph, who at last
+succeeded in defeating these fanatics; the officer Mahommed b.
+Solaim&#257;n, to whom the victory was due, was then commissioned
+by the caliph to reconquer Egypt from the &#7788;&#363;l&#363;nids, and after
+securing the allegiance of the Syrian prefects he invaded Egypt
+by sea and land at once. Before the arrival of these troops
+H&#257;r&#363;n had met his death at the hands of an assassin, or else in
+an affray, and his uncle Shaib&#257;n, who was placed on the throne,
+found himself without the means to collect an army fit to grapple
+with the invaders. Fostat was taken by Mahommed b. Solaim&#257;n
+after very slight resistance, at the beginning of 905, and after the
+infliction of severe punishment on the inhabitants Egypt was
+once more put under a deputy, &rsquo;&#298;s&#257; al-Naushar&#299;, appointed
+directly by the caliph.</p>
+
+<p>The old régime was not restored without an attempt made by
+an adherent of the &#7788;&#363;l&#363;nids to reconquer Egypt ostensibly for
+their benefit, and for a time the caliph&rsquo;s viceroy had to quit the
+capital. The vigorous measures of the authorities at Bagdad
+speedily quelled this rebellion, and the &#7788;&#363;l&#363;nid palace at Ka&#7789;&#257;&rsquo;i&lsquo;
+was then destroyed in order that there might be nothing to
+remind the Egyptians of the dynasty. In the middle of the year
+914 Egypt was invaded for the first time by a F&#257;&#7789;imite force
+sent by the caliph al-Mahd&#299; &rsquo;Obaidallah, now established at
+Kairaw&#257;n. The Mahdi&rsquo;s son succeeded in taking Alexandria,
+and advancing as far as the Fay&#363;m; but once more the Abbasid
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page95" id="page95"></a>95</span>
+caliph sent a powerful army to assist his viceroy, and the invaders
+were driven out of the country and pursued as far as Barca;
+the F&#257;&#7789;imite caliph, however, continued to maintain active
+propaganda in Egypt. In 919 Alexandria was again seized by
+the Mahdi&rsquo;s son, afterwards the caliph al-Q&#257;&rsquo;im, and while his
+forces advanced northward as far as Ushmunain (Eshmunain)
+he was reinforced by a fleet which arrived at Alexandria. This
+fleet was destroyed by a far smaller one sent by the Bagdad
+caliph to Rosetta; but Egypt was not freed from the invaders
+till the year 921, when reinforcements had been repeatedly
+sent from Bagdad to deal with them. The extortions necessitated
+by these wars for the maintenance of armies and the incompetence
+of the viceroys brought Egypt at this time into a miserable
+condition; and the numerous political crises at Bagdad prevented
+for a time any serious measures being taken to improve
+it. After a struggle between various pretenders to the viceroyalty,
+in which some pitched battles were fought, Mahommed
+b. &#7788;ughj, son of a &#7788;&#363;l&#363;nid prefect of Damascus, was sent by the
+caliph to restore order; he had to force his entrance into the
+country by an engagement with one of the pretenders, Ibn
+Kaighlagh, in which he was victorious, and entered Fostat in
+August 935.</p>
+
+<p>Mahommed b. &#7788;ughj was the founder of the Iksh&#299;d&#299; dynasty,
+so called from the title Iksh&#299;d, conferred on him at his request
+by the caliph shortly after his appointment to the
+governorship of Egypt; it is said to have had the
+<span class="sidenote">Ikshidite Dynasty.</span>
+sense of &ldquo;king&rdquo; in Ferghana, whence this person&rsquo;s
+ancestors had come to enter the service of the caliph Mota&#7779;im.
+He had himself served under the governor of Egypt, Tak&#299;n,
+whose son he displaced, in various capacities, and had afterwards
+held various governorships in Syria. One of the historians
+represents his appointment to Egypt as effected by bribery and
+even forgery. He united in his person the offices of governor
+and minister of finance, which had been separate since the time
+of the &#7788;&#363;l&#363;nids. He endeavoured to replenish the treasury not
+only by extreme economy, but by inflicting fines on a vast scale
+on persons who had held offices under his predecessor and others
+who had rendered themselves suspect. The disaffected in Egypt
+kept up communications with the F&#257;&#7789;imites, against whom the
+Iksh&#299;d collected a vast army, which, however, had first to be
+employed in resisting an invasion of Egypt threatened by Ibn
+R&#257;iq, an adventurer who had seized Syria; after an indecisive
+engagement at Laj&#363;n the Iksh&#299;d decided to make peace with
+Ibn R&#257;iq, undertaking to pay him tribute. The favour afterwards
+shown to Ibn R&#257;iq at Bagdad nearly threw the Iksh&#299;d into
+the arms of the F&#257;&#7789;imite caliph, with whom he carried on a friendly
+correspondence, one letter of which is preserved. He is even said
+to have given orders to substitute the name of the F&#257;&#7789;imite
+caliph for that of the Abbasid in public prayer, but to have been
+warned of the unwisdom of this course. In 941, after the death
+of Ibn R&#257;iq, the Iksh&#299;d took the opportunity of invading Syria,
+which the caliph permitted him to hold with the addition of the
+sacred cities of Mecca and Medina, which the &#7788;&#363;l&#363;nids had
+aspired to possess. He is said at this time to have started (in
+imitation of A&#7717;mad Ibn &#7788;&#363;l&#363;n) a variety of vexatious enactments
+similar to those afterwards associated with the name of H&#257;kim,
+<i>e.g.</i> compelling his soldiers to dye their hair, and adding to their
+pay for the purpose.</p>
+
+<p>In the year 944 he was summoned to Mesopotamia to assist
+the caliph, who had been driven from Bagdad by T&#363;z&#363;n and
+was in the power of the &#7716;amd&#257;nids; and he proposed, though
+unsuccessfully, to take the caliph with him to Egypt. At this
+time he obtained hereditary rights for his family in the government
+of that country and Syria. The &#7716;amd&#257;nid Saif addaula
+shortly after this assumed the governorship of Aleppo, and
+became involved in a struggle with the Iksh&#299;d, whose general,
+K&#257;f&#363;r, he defeated in an engagement between Homs and Hamah
+(Hamath). In a later battle he was himself defeated by the
+Iksh&#299;d, when an arrangement was made permitting Saif addaula
+to retain most of Syria, while a prefect appointed by the Iksh&#299;d
+was to remain in Damascus. The Buyid ruler, who was
+now supreme at Bagdad, permitted the Iksh&#299;d to remain in
+possession of his viceroyalty, but shortly after receiving this
+confirmation he died at Damascus in 946.</p>
+
+<p>The second of this dynasty was the Iksh&#299;d&rsquo;s son &#362;nj&#363;r, who
+had been proclaimed in his father&rsquo;s time, and began his government
+under the tutelage of the negro K&#257;f&#363;r. Syria was immediately
+overrun by Saif addaula, but he was defeated by K&#257;f&#363;r
+in two engagements, and was compelled to recognize the overlordship
+of the Egyptian viceroy. At the death of &#362;nj&#363;r in
+961 his brother Abu&rsquo;l-&#7716;asan &lsquo;Al&#299; was made viceroy with the
+caliph&rsquo;s consent by K&#257;f&#363;r, who continued to govern for his
+chief as before. The land was during this period threatened at
+once by the F&#257;&#7789;imites from the west; the Nubians from the
+south, and the Carmathians from the east; when the second
+Iksh&#299;d&#299; died in 965, K&#257;f&#363;r at first made a pretence of appointing
+his young son A&#7717;mad as his successor, but deemed it safer to
+assume the viceroyalty himself, setting an example which in
+Mameluke times was often followed. He occupied the post
+little more than three years, and on his death in 968 the aforementioned
+A&#7717;mad, called Abu&rsquo;l-Faw&#257;ris, was appointed successor,
+under the tutelage of a vizier named Ibn Fur&#257;t, who had
+long served under the Iksh&#299;d&#299;s. The accession of this prince
+was followed by an incursion of the Carmathians into Syria,
+before whom the Iksh&#299;d&#299; governor fled into Egypt, where he had
+for a time to undertake the management of affairs, and arrested
+Ibn Fur&#257;t, who had proved himself incompetent.</p>
+
+<p>The administration of Ibn Fur&#257;t was fatal to the Iksh&#299;d&#299;s and
+momentous for Egypt, since a Jewish convert, Jacob, son of
+Killis, who had been in the Iksh&#299;d&rsquo;s service, and was ill-treated
+by Ibn Fur&#257;t, fled to the F&#257;&#7789;imite sovereign, and persuaded
+him that the time for invading Egypt with a prospect of success
+had arrived, since there was no one in Fostat capable of organizing
+a plan of defence, and the dissensions between the Buyids
+at Bagdad rendered it improbable that any succour would arrive
+from that quarter. The F&#257;&#7789;imite caliph Mo&rsquo;izz li-d&#299;n all&#257;h was
+also in correspondence with other residents in Egypt, where
+the Alid party from the beginning of Abbasid times had always
+had many supporters; and the danger from the Carmathians
+rendered the presence of a strong government necessary. The
+F&#257;&#7789;imite general Jauhar (variously represented as of Greek,
+Slav and Sicilian origin), who enjoyed the complete confidence
+of the F&#257;&#7789;imite sovereign, was placed at the head of an army of
+100,000 men&mdash;if Oriental numbers are to be trusted&mdash;and
+started from Rakk&#257;da at the beginning of March 969 with the
+view of seizing Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>Before his arrival the administration of affairs had again been
+committed to Ibn Fur&#257;t, who, on hearing of the threatened
+invasion, at first proposed to treat with Jauhar for the peaceful
+surrender of the country; but though at first there was a
+prospect of this being carried out, the majority of the troops
+at Fostat preferred to make some resistance, and an advance
+was made to meet Jauhar in the neighbourhood of Giza. He
+had little difficulty in defeating the Egyptian army, and on the
+6th of July 969 entered Fostat at the head of his forces. The
+name of Mo&rsquo;izz was immediately introduced into public prayer,
+and coins were struck in his name. The Iksh&#299;d&#299; governor of
+Damascus, a cousin of Abu&rsquo;l-Faw&#257;ris A&#7717;mad, endeavoured to
+save Syria, but was defeated at Ramleh by a general sent by
+Jauhar and taken prisoner. Thus the Iksh&#299;d&#299; Dynasty came
+to an end, and Egypt was transferred from the Eastern to the
+Western caliphate, of which it furnished the metropolis.</p>
+
+<p>(4) <i>The F&#257;&#7789;imite period</i> begins with the taking of Fostat by
+Jauhar, who immediately began the building of a new city,
+al-K&#257;hira or Cairo, to furnish quarters for the army which he
+had brought. A palace for the caliph and a mosque for the
+army were immediately constructed, the latter still famous as
+al-Azhar, and for many centuries the centre of Moslem learning.
+Almost immediately after the conquest of Egypt, Jauhar found
+himself engaged in a struggle with the Carmathians (<i>q.v.</i>), whom
+the Iksh&#299;d&#299; prefect of Damascus had pacified by a promise of
+tribute; this promise was of course not held binding by the
+F&#257;&#7789;imite general (Ja&rsquo;far b. Fal&#257;h) by whom Damascus was taken,
+and the Carmathian leader al-&#7716;asan b. A&#7717;mad al-A&rsquo;&#7779;am received
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page96" id="page96"></a>96</span>
+aid from Bagdad for the purpose of recovering Syria to the
+Abbasids. The general Ja&rsquo;far, hoping to deal with this enemy
+independently of Jauhar, met the Carmathians without waiting
+for reinforcements from Egypt, and fell in battle, his army
+being defeated. Damascus was taken by the Carmathians, and
+the name of the Abbasid caliph substituted for that of Mo&rsquo;izz
+in public worship. &#7716;asan al-A&rsquo;&#7779;am advanced from Damascus
+through Palestine to Egypt, encountering little resistance on
+the way; and in the autumn of 971 Jauhar found himself
+besieged in his new city. By a timely sortie, preceded by the
+administration of bribes to various officers in the Carmathian
+host, Jauhar succeeded in inflicting a severe defeat on the
+besiegers, who were compelled to evacuate Egypt and part of
+Syria.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile Mo&rsquo;izz had been summoned to enter the palace
+that had been prepared for him, and after leaving a viceroy to
+take charge of his western possessions he arrived in Alexandria
+on the 31st of May 973, and proceeded to instruct his new subjects
+in the particular form of religion (Sh&#299;&rsquo;ism) which his family
+represented. As this was in origin identical with that professed
+by the Carmathians, he hoped to gain the submission of their
+leader by argument; but this plan was unsuccessful, and there
+was a fresh invasion from that quarter in the year after his arrival,
+and the caliph found himself besieged in his capital. The
+Carmathians were gradually forced to retreat from Egypt and
+then from Syria by some successful engagements, and by the
+judicious use of bribes, whereby dissension was sown among
+their leaders. Mo&rsquo;izz also found time to take some active
+measures against the Byzantines, with whom his generals
+fought in Syria with varying fortune. Before his death he was
+acknowledged as caliph in Mecca and Medina, as well as Syria,
+Egypt and North Africa as far as Tangier.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of the second Egyptian F&#257;&#7789;imite &lsquo;Az&#299;z billah,
+Jauhar, who appears to have been cashiered by Mo&rsquo;izz, was
+again employed at the instance of Jacob b. Killis, who had been
+raised to the rank of vizier, to deal with the situation in Syria,
+where a Turkish general Aftak&#299;n had gained possession of
+Damascus, and was raiding the whole country; on the arrival
+of Jauhar in Syria the Turks called the Carmathians to their
+aid, and after a campaign of many vicissitudes Jauhar had
+to return to Egypt to implore the caliph himself to take the
+field. In August 977 &lsquo;Az&#299;z met the united forces of Aftak&#299;n
+and his Carmathian ally outside Ramleh in Palestine and
+inflicted a crushing defeat on them, which was followed by the
+capture of Aftak&#299;n; this able officer was taken to Egypt, and
+honourably treated by the caliph, thereby incurring the jealousy
+of Jacob b. Killis, who caused him, it is said, to be poisoned.
+This vizier had the astuteness to see the necessity of codifying
+the doctrines of the F&#257;&#7789;imites, and himself undertook this
+task; in the newly-established mosque of el-Azhar he got his
+master to make provision for a perpetual series of teachers and
+students of his manual. It would appear, however, that a large
+amount of toleration was conceded by the first two Egyptian
+F&#257;&#7789;imites to the other sects of Islam, and to other communities.
+Indeed at one time in &lsquo;Az&#299;z&rsquo;s reign the vizierate of Egypt was
+held by a Christian, Jesus, son of Nestorius, who appointed as
+his deputy in Syria a Jew, Manasseh b. Abraham. These
+persons were charged by the Moslems with unduly favouring
+their co-religionists, and the belief that the Christians of Egypt
+were in league with the Byzantine emperor, and even burned
+a fleet which was being built for the Byzantine war, led to some
+persecution. Az&#299;z attempted without success to enter into
+friendly relations with the Buyid ruler of Bagdad, &lsquo;A&#7693;od addaula,
+who was disposed to favour the &lsquo;Alids, but caused the claim of
+the F&#257;&#7789;imites to descend from &lsquo;Ali to be publicly refuted. He
+then tried to gain possession of Aleppo, as the key to &lsquo;Ir&#257;k, but
+this was prevented by the intervention of the Byzantines.
+His North African possessions were maintained and extended
+by &lsquo;Ali, son of Bulukk&#299;n, whom Mo&rsquo;izz had left as his deputy;
+but the recognition of the F&#257;&#7789;imite caliph in this region was
+little more than nominal.</p>
+
+<p>His successor <i>Ab&#363; &lsquo;Al&#299; al-Man&#7779;&#363;r</i>, who reigned under the
+title <i>al-H&#257;&#7731;im bi&lsquo;amr all&#257;h</i>, came to the throne at the age of
+eleven, being the son of &lsquo;Az&#299;z by a Christian mother. He was
+at first under the tutelage of the Slav Burjuw&#257;n, whose
+policy it was to favour the Turkish element in the army as
+against the Maghribine, on which the strength of the F&#257;&#7789;imites
+had till then rested; his conduct of affairs was vigorous and
+successful, and he concluded a peace with the Greek emperor.
+After a few years&rsquo; regency he was assassinated at the instance
+of the young sovereign, who at an early age developed a dislike
+for control and jealousy of his rights as caliph. He is branded
+by historians as the Caligula of the East, who took a delight in
+imposing on his subjects a variety of senseless and capricious
+regulations, and persecuting different sections of them by cruel
+and arbitrary measures. It is observable that some of those
+with which &#7716;&#257;kim is credited are also ascribed to Ibn &#7788;&#363;l&#363;n
+and the Iksh&#299;d (Mahommed b. Tughj). He is perhaps best
+remembered by his destruction of the church of the Holy
+Sepulchre at Jerusalem (1010), a measure which helped to
+provoke the Crusades, but was only part of a general scheme
+for converting all Christians and Jews in his dominions to his
+own opinions by force. A more reputable expedient with the
+same end in view was the construction of a great library in
+Cairo, with ample provision for students; this was modelled on
+a similar institution at Bagdad. It formed part of the great
+palace of the F&#257;&#7789;imites, and was intended to be the centre of
+their propaganda. At times, however, he ordered the destruction
+of all Christian churches in Egypt, and the banishment of all
+who did not adopt Islam. It is strange that in the midst of
+these persecutions he continued to employ Christians in high
+official positions. His system of persecution was not abandoned
+till in the last year of his reign (1020) he thought fit to claim
+divinity, a doctrine which is perpetuated by the Druses (<i>q.v.</i>),
+called after one Daraz&#299;, who preached the divinity of &#7716;&#257;kim
+at the time; the violent opposition which this aroused among
+the Moslems probably led him to adopt milder measures towards
+his other subjects, and those who had been forcibly converted
+were permitted to return to their former religion and rebuild
+their places of worship. Whether his disappearance at the
+beginning of the year 1021 was due to the resentment of his
+outraged subjects, or, as the historians say, to his sister&rsquo;s fear
+that he would bequeath the caliphate to a distant relative to
+the exclusion of his own son, will never be known. In spite
+of his caprices he appears to have shown competence in the
+management of external affairs; enterprises of pretenders both
+in Egypt and Syria were crushed with promptitude; and his
+name was at times mentioned in public worship in Aleppo and
+Mosul.</p>
+
+<p>His son <i>Ab&#363;&rsquo;l-&#7716;asan &lsquo;Ali</i>, who succeeded him with the title
+<i>al-&#7826;&#257;hir li&lsquo;i&rsquo;z&#257;z d&#299;n all&#257;h</i>, was sixteen years of age at the time,
+and for four years his aunt Sitt al-Mulk acted as regent; she
+appears to have been an astute but utterly unscrupulous woman.
+After her death the caliph was in the power of various ministers,
+under whose management of affairs Syria was for a time lost to
+the Egyptian caliphate, and Egypt itself raided by the Syrian
+usurpers, of whom one, &#7778;&#257;li&#7717; b. Mird&#257;s, succeeded in establishing
+a dynasty at Aleppo, which maintained itself after Syria and
+Palestine had been recovered for the F&#257;&#7789;imites by Anushtakin
+al-Dizbar&#299; at the battle of Ukhuw&#257;nah in 1029. His career is
+said to have been marked by some horrible caprices similar to
+those of his father. After a reign of nearly sixteen years he died
+of the plague.</p>
+
+<p>His successor, <i>Ab&#363; Tam&#299;m Ma&lsquo;add</i>, who reigned with the title
+<i>al-Mostan&#7779;ir</i>, was also an infant at the time of his accession,
+being little more than seven years of age. The power was largely
+in the hands of his mother, a negress, who promoted the interests
+of her kinsmen at court, where indeed even in &#7716;&#257;kim&rsquo;s time they
+had been used as a counterpoise to the Maghribine and Turkish
+elements in the army. In the first years of this reign affairs
+were administered by the vizier al-Jarjar&#257;&lsquo;&#299;, by whose mismanagement
+Aleppo was lost to the F&#257;&#7789;imites. At his death in 1044
+the chief influence passed into the hands of Abu Sa&rsquo;d, a Jew,
+and the former master of the queen-mother, and at the end of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page97" id="page97"></a>97</span>
+four years he was assassinated at the instance of another Jew
+(&#7778;ada&#7731;ah, perhaps Zedekiah, b. Joseph al-Fal&#257;&#7717;&#299;), whom he
+had appointed vizier. In this reign Mo&rsquo;izz b. Badis, the 4th ruler
+of the dependent Zeirid dynasty which had ruled in the Maghrib
+since the migration of the F&#257;&#7789;imite Mo&rsquo;izz to Egypt, definitely
+abjured his allegiance (1049) and returned to Sunnite principles
+and subjection to the Bagdad caliphate. The Zeirids maintained
+Mahdia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Algiers</a></span>), while other cities of the Maghrib were
+colonized by Arab tribes sent thither by the Cairene vizier.
+This loss was more than compensated by the enrolment of
+Yemen among the countries which recognized the F&#257;&#7789;imite
+caliphate through the enterprise of one &lsquo;Ali b. Mahommed al-&#7778;ulai&#7717;&#299;,
+while owing to the disputes between the Turkish generals
+who claimed supremacy at Bagdad, Mostan&#7779;ir&rsquo;s name was mentioned
+in public prayer at that metropolis on the 12th of January
+1058, when a Turkish adventurer Bas&#257;s&#299;r&#299; was for a time in
+power. The Egyptian court, chiefly owing to the jealousy of the
+vizier, sent no efficient aid to Bas&#257;s&#299;r&#299;, and after a year Bagdad
+was retaken by the Selj&#363;k Toghrul Beg, and the Abbasid caliph
+restored to his rights. In the following years the troubles in
+Egypt caused by the struggles between the Turkish and negro
+elements in Mostan&#7779;ir&rsquo;s army nearly brought the country into
+the dominion of the Abbasids. After several battles of various
+issue the Turkish commander N&#257;&#7779;ir addaula b. Hamd&#257;n got
+possession of Cairo, and at the end of 1068 plundered the caliph&rsquo;s
+palace; the valuable library which had been begun by &#7716;&#257;kim
+was pillaged, and an accidental fire caused great destruction.
+The caliph and his family were reduced to destitution, and N&#257;&#7779;ir
+addaula began negotiations for restoring the name of the Abbasid
+caliph in public prayer; he was, however, assassinated before he
+could carry this out, and his assassin, also a Turk, appointed
+vizier. Mostan&#7779;ir then summoned to his aid Badr al-Jam&#257;l&#299;, an
+Armenian who had displayed competence in various posts which
+he had held in Syria, and this person early in 1074 arrived in
+Cairo accompanied by a bodyguard of Armenians; he contrived
+to massacre the chiefs of the party at the time in possession
+of power, and with the title Am&#299;r al-Juy&#363;sh (&ldquo;prince of the
+armies&rdquo;) was given by Mostan&#7779;ir complete control of affairs.
+The period of internal disturbances, which had been accompanied
+by famine and pestilence, had caused usurpers to spring
+up in all parts of Egypt, and Badr was compelled practically to
+reconquer the country. During this time, however, Syria was
+overrun by an invader in league with the Selj&#363;k Malik Shah, and
+Damascus was permanently lost to the F&#257;&#7789;imites; other cities
+were recovered by Badr himself or his officers. He rebuilt the
+walls of Cairo, of more durable material than that which had
+been employed by Jauhar&mdash;a measure rendered necessary partly
+by the growth of the metropolis, but also by the repeated sieges
+which it had undergone since the commencement of F&#257;&#7789;imite
+rule. The time of Mostan&#7779;ir is otherwise memorable for the rise
+of the Assassins (<i>q.v.</i>), who at the first supported the claims of
+his eldest son Niz&#257;r to the succession against the youngest &#7680;hmed,
+who was favoured by the family of Badr. When Badr died in
+1094 his influence was inherited by his son al-Af&#7693;al Sh&#257;hinsh&#257;h,
+and this, at the death of Mostan&#7779;ir in the same year, was thrown
+in favour of <i>A&#7717;med</i>, who succeeded to the caliphate with the title
+<i>al-Mosta&rsquo;l&#299; bill&#257;h</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Mosta&rsquo;l&#299;&rsquo;s succession was not carried through without an
+attempt on the part of Niz&#257;r to obtain his rights, the title which
+he chose being <i>al-Mo&#7779;&#7789;af&#257; lid&#299;n all&#257;h</i>; for a time he
+maintained himself in Alexandria, but the energetic
+<span class="sidenote">The Crusades.</span>
+measures of his brother soon brought the civil war to
+an end. The beginning of this reign coincided with the beginning
+of the Crusades, and al-Af&#7693;al made the fatal mistake of helping
+the Franks by rescuing Jerusalem from the Ortokids, thereby
+facilitating its conquest by the Franks in 1099. He endeavoured
+to retrieve his error by himself advancing into Palestine, but
+he was defeated in the neighbourhood of Ascalon, and compelled
+to retire to Egypt. Many of the Palestinian possessions of the
+F&#257;&#7789;imites then successively fell into the hands of the Franks.
+After a reign of seven years Mosta&rsquo;l&#299; died and the caliphate was
+given by al-Af&#7693;al to an infant son, aged five years at the time,
+who was placed on the throne with the title <i>al-&#256;mir biahk&#257;m
+all&#257;h</i>, and for twenty years was under the tutelage of al-Af&#7693;al.
+He made repeated attempts to recover the Syrian and Palestinian
+cities from the Franks, but with poor success. In 1118
+Egypt was invaded by Baldwin I., who burned the gates and
+the mosques of Farama, and advanced to Tinnis, whence illness
+compelled him to retreat. In August 1121 al-Af&#7693;al was assassinated
+in a street of Cairo, it is said, with the connivance of the
+caliph, who immediately began the plunder of his house, where
+fabulous treasures were said to be amassed. The vizier&rsquo;s offices
+were given to one of the caliph&rsquo;s creatures, Mahommed b. F&#257;tik
+al-Bat&#257;&rsquo;i&#7717;&#299;, who took the title <i>al-Ma&rsquo;m&#363;n</i>. His external policy
+was not more fortunate than that of his predecessor, as he lost
+Tyre to the Franks, and a fleet equipped by him was defeated
+by the Venetians. On the 4th of October 1125 he with his
+followers was seized and imprisoned by order of the Caliph &#256;mir,
+who was now resolved to govern by himself, with the assistance
+of only subordinate officials, of whom two were drawn from the
+Samaritan and Christian communities. The vizier was afterwards
+crucified with his five brothers. The caliph&rsquo;s personal
+government appears to have been incompetent, and to have been
+marked by extortions and other arbitrary measures. He was
+assassinated in October 1129 by some members of the sect who
+believed in the claims of Niz&#257;r, son of Mostan&#7779;ir.</p>
+
+<p>The succeeding caliph, <i>Abu&rsquo;l-Maim&#363;n &lsquo;Abd al-Maj&#299;d</i>, who
+took the title <i>al-&#7716;&#257;fi&#7827; lid&#299;n all&#257;h</i>, was not the son but the cousin
+of the deceased caliph, and of ripe age, being about fifty-eight
+years old at the time; for more than a year he was kept in
+prison by the new vizier, a son of al-Af&#7693;al, whom the army had
+placed in the post; but towards the end of 1131 this vizier fell
+by the hand of assassins, and the caliph was set free. The reign
+of &#7716;&#257;fi&#7827; was disturbed by the factions of the soldiery, between
+which several battles took place, ending in the subjection of the
+caliph for a time to various usurpers, one of these being his own
+son &#7716;asan, who had been provoked to rebel by the caliph
+nominating a younger brother as his successor. For some
+months the caliph was under this son&rsquo;s control; but the latter,
+who aimed at conciliating the people, speedily lost his popularity
+with the troops, and his father was able to get possession of his
+person and cause him to be poisoned (beginning of 1135).</p>
+
+<p>His son <i>Abu&rsquo;l-Man&#7779;&#363;r Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l</i>, who was seventeen years old at
+the time of &#7716;&#257;fi&#7827;&rsquo;s death, succeeded him with the title <i>al-Z&#257;fir
+lia&rsquo;d&#257; all&#257;h</i>. From this reign to the end of the F&#257;&#7789;imite period we
+have the journals of two eminent men, Us&#257;mah b. Muniqdh and
+Um&#257;rah of Yemen, which throw light on the leading characters.
+The civil dissensions of Egypt were notorious at the time. The
+new reign began by an armed struggle between two commanders
+for the post of vizier, which in January 1150 was decided in favour
+of the Amir Ibn Sall&#257;r. This vizier was presently assassinated
+by the direction of his stepson &lsquo;Abb&#257;s, who was raised to the
+vizierate in his place. This event was shortly followed by the
+loss to the F&#257;&#7789;imites of Ascalon, the last place in Syria which
+they held; its loss was attributed to dissensions between the
+parties of which the garrison consisted. Four years later (April
+1154) the caliph was murdered by his vizier &lsquo;Abb&#257;s, according
+to Us&#257;mah, because the caliph had suggested to his favourite,
+the vizier&rsquo;s son, to murder his father; and this was followed
+by a massacre of the brothers of Z&#257;fir, followed by the raising
+of his infant son <i>Abu&rsquo;l-Q&#257;sim &rsquo;&#298;s&#257;</i> to the throne.</p>
+
+<p>The new caliph, who was not five years old, received the title
+<i>al-F&#257;&rsquo;iz bina&#7779;r all&#257;h</i>, and was at first in the power of &lsquo;Abb&#257;s.
+The women of the palace, however, summoned to their aid &#7788;al&#257;&rsquo;i&rsquo;
+b. Ruzz&#299;k, prefect of Ushmunain, at whose arrival in Cairo the
+troops deserted &lsquo;Abb&#257;s, who was compelled to flee into Syria,
+taking his son and Us&#257;mah with him. &lsquo;Abb&#257;s was killed by
+the Franks near Ascalon, his son sent in a cage to Cairo where
+he was executed, while Us&#257;mah escaped to Damascus.</p>
+
+<p>The infant F&#257;&rsquo;iz, who had been permanently incapacitated
+by the scenes of violence which accompanied his accession, died
+in 1160. &#7788;al&#257;&rsquo;i&rsquo; chose to succeed him a grandson of &#7826;&#257;fir, who
+was nine years of age, and received the title <i>al-&lsquo;&#256;&#7693;id lid&#299;n all&#257;h</i>.
+&#7788;al&#257;&rsquo;i&rsquo;, who had complete control of affairs, introduced the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page98" id="page98"></a>98</span>
+practice of farming the taxes for periods of six months instead
+of a year, which led to great misery, as the taxes were demanded
+twice. His death was brought on by the rigour with which he
+treated the princesses, one of whom, with or without the connivance
+of the caliph, organized a plot for his assassination, and
+he died in September 1160. His son Ruzz&#299;k inherited his post
+and maintained himself in it for more than a year, when another
+prefect of Upper Egypt, Sh&#257;war b. Muj&#299;r, brought a force to
+Cairo, before which Ruzz&#299;k fled, to be shortly afterwards captured
+and beheaded. Sh&#257;war&rsquo;s entry into Cairo was at the beginning
+of 1163; after nine months he was compelled to flee before
+another adventurer, an officer in the army named &#7692;irgh&#257;m.
+Sh&#257;war&rsquo;s flight was directed to Damascus, where he was favourably
+received by the prince Nureddin, who sent with him to
+Cairo a force of Kurds under Asad al-d&#299;n Sh&#299;rg&#363;h. At the same
+time Egypt was invaded by the Franks, who raided and did much
+damage on the coast. Dirgh&#257;m was defeated and killed, but
+a dispute then arose between Sh&#257;war and his Syrian allies for
+<span class="sidenote">Frankish invasion.</span>
+the possession of Egypt. Sh&#257;war, being unable to
+cope with the Syrians, demanded help of the Frankish
+king of Jerusalem Amalric (Amauri) I., who hastened
+to his aid with a large force, which united with Sh&#257;war&rsquo;s and
+besieged Sh&#299;rg&#363;h in Bilbeis for three months; at the end of this
+time, owing to the successes of Nureddin in Syria, the Franks
+granted Sh&#299;rg&#363;h a free passage with his troops back to
+Syria, on condition of Egypt being evacuated (October 1164).
+Rather more than two years later Sh&#299;rg&#363;h persuaded Nureddin
+to put him at the head of another expedition to Egypt,
+which left Syria in January 1167, and, entering Egypt by the
+land route, crossed the Nile at Itf&#299;&#7717; (Atfih), and encamped at
+Giza; a Frankish army hastened to Sh&#257;war&rsquo;s aid. At the battle
+of B&#257;bain (April 11th, 1167) the allies were defeated by the forces
+commanded by Sh&#299;rg&#363;h and his nephew Saladin, who was
+<span class="sidenote">Saladin.</span>
+presently made prefect of Alexandria, which surrendered
+to Sh&#299;rg&#363;h without a struggle. Saladin was
+soon besieged by the allies in Alexandria; but after seventy-five
+days the siege was raised, Sh&#299;rg&#363;h having made a threatening
+movement on Cairo, where a Frankish garrison had been admitted
+by Sh&#257;war. Terms were then made by which both Syrians
+and Franks were to quit Egypt, though the garrison of Cairo
+remained; the hostile attitude of the Moslem population to
+this garrison led to another invasion at the beginning of 1168
+by King Amalric, who after taking Bilbeis advanced to Cairo.
+The caliph, who up to this time appears to have left the administration
+to the viziers, now sent for Sh&#299;rg&#363;h, whose speedy arrival
+in Egypt caused the Franks to withdraw. Reaching Cairo on
+the 6th of January 1169, he was soon able to get possession of
+Sh&#257;war&rsquo;s person, and after the prefect&rsquo;s execution, which
+happened some ten days later, he was appointed vizier by the
+caliph. After two months Sh&#299;rg&#363;h died of indigestion (23rd of
+March 1169), and the caliph appointed Saladin as successor to
+Sh&#299;rg&#363;h; the new vizier professed to hold office as a deputy
+of Nureddin, whose name was mentioned in public worship after
+that of the caliph. By appropriating the fiefs of the Egyptian
+officers and giving them to his Kurdish followers he stirred up
+much ill-feeling, which resulted in a conspiracy, of which the
+object was to recall the Franks with the view of overthrowing
+the new régime; but this conspiracy was revealed by a traitor
+and crushed. Nureddin loyally aided his deputy in dealing
+with Frankish invasions of Egypt, but the anomaly by which he,
+being a Sunnite, was made in Egypt to recognize a F&#257;&#7789;imite
+caliph could not long continue, and he ordered Saladin to weaken
+the F&#257;&#7789;imite by every available means, and then substitute the
+name of the Abbasid for his in public worship. Saladin and his
+ministers were at first afraid lest this step might give rise to
+disturbances among the people; but a stranger undertook to
+risk it on the 17th of September 1171, and the following Friday
+it was repeated by official order; the caliph himself died during
+the interval, and it is uncertain whether he ever heard of his
+deposition. The last of the F&#257;&#7789;imite caliphs was not quite
+twenty-one years old at the time of his death.</p>
+
+<p>(5) <i>Ayyubite Period.</i>&mdash;Saladin by the advice of his chief
+Nureddin cashiered the F&#257;&#7789;imite judges and took steps to
+encourage the study of orthodox theology and jurisprudence
+in Egypt by the foundation of colleges and chairs. On the
+death of the ex-caliph he was confirmed in the prefecture of
+Egypt as deputy of Nureddin; and on the decease of the latter
+in 1174 (12th of April) he took the title sultan, so that with this
+year the Ayyubite period of Egyptian history properly begins.
+During the whole of it Damascus rather more than Cairo counted
+as the metropolis of the empire. The Egyptian army, which was
+motley in character, was disbanded by the new sultan, whose
+troops were Kurds. Though he did not build a new metropolis
+he fortified Cairo with the addition of a citadel, and had plans
+made for a new wall to enclose both it and the double city; this
+latter plan was never completed, but the former was executed
+after his death, and from this time till the French occupation
+of Egypt the citadel of Cairo was the political centre of the
+country. It was in 1183 that Saladin&rsquo;s rule over Egypt and
+North Syria was consolidated. Much of Saladin&rsquo;s time was
+spent in Syria, and his famous wars with the Franks belong to
+the history of the Crusades and to his personal biography.
+Egypt was largely governed by his favourite Kar&#257;k&#363;sh, who lives
+in popular legend as the &ldquo;unjust judge,&rdquo; though he does not
+appear to have deserved that title.</p>
+
+<p>Saladin at his death divided his dominions between his sons,
+of whom &rsquo;Othman succeeded to Egypt with the title <i>Malik al-Az&#299;z
+&lsquo;Im&#257;l al-a&#299;n</i>. The division was not satisfactory to the
+heirs, and after three years (beginning of 1196) the Egyptian
+sultan conspired with his uncle Malik al-&lsquo;&#256;dil to deprive Saladin&rsquo;s
+son al-Af&#7693;al of Damascus, which had fallen to his lot. The war
+between the brothers was continued with intervals of peace,
+during which al-&lsquo;&#256;dil repeatedly changed sides: eventually he
+with al-&lsquo;Az&#299;z besieged and took Damascus, and sent al-Af&#7693;al
+to Sarkhad, while al-&lsquo;&#256;dil remained in possession of Damascus.
+On the death of al-&lsquo;Az&#299;z on the 29th of November 1198 in
+consequence of a hunting accident, his infant son Mahommed
+was raised to the throne with the title <i>Malik al-Man&#7779;&#363;r N&#257;&#7779;ir
+al-d&#299;n</i>, and his uncle al-Af&#7693;al sent for from Sarkhad to take the
+post of regent or At&#257;beg. So soon as al-Af&#7693;al had got possession
+of his nephew&rsquo;s person, he started on an expedition for the
+recovery of Damascus: al-&lsquo;&#256;dil not only frustrated this, but
+drove him back to Egypt, where on the 25th of January 1200 a
+battle was fought between the armies of the two at Bilbeis,
+resulting in the defeat of al-Af&#7693;al, who was sent back to
+Sarkhad, while al-&lsquo;&#256;dil assumed the regency, for which after a
+few months he substituted the sovereignty, causing his nephew
+to be deposed. He reigned under the title <i>Malik al-&lsquo;&#256;dil Saif
+al-d&#299;n</i>. His name was Ab&#363; Bakr.</p>
+
+<p>Though the early years of his reign were marked by numerous
+disasters, famine, pestilence and earthquake, of which the second
+seems to have been exceedingly serious, he reunited under his
+sway the whole of the empire which had belonged to his brother,
+and his generals conquered for him parts of Mesopotamia and
+Armenia, and in 1215 he got possession of Yemen. He followed
+the plan of dividing his empire between his sons, the eldest
+Mahommed, called <i>Malik al-K&#257;mil</i>, being his viceroy in Egypt,
+while al-Mu&lsquo;azzam &rsquo;&#298;s&#257; governed Syria, al-Ashraf M&#363;s&#257; his
+eastern and al-Malik al-Au&#7717;ad Ayy&#363;b his northern possessions.
+His attitude towards the Franks was at the first peaceful, but
+later in his reign he was compelled to adopt more strenuous
+measures. His death occurred at Alikin (1218), a village near
+Damascus, while the Franks were besieging Damietta&mdash;the first
+operation of the Fifth Crusade&mdash;which was defended by al-K&#257;mil,
+to whom his father kept sending reinforcements. The efforts of
+al-K&#257;mil after his accession to the independent sovereignty
+were seriously hindered by the endeavour of an amir named
+A&#7717;med b. Mash&#7789;&#363;b to depose him and appoint in his place a
+brother called al-F&#257;&rsquo;iz S&#257;biq al-d&#299;n Ibr&#257;h&#299;m: this attempt was
+frustrated by the timely interposition of al-Mu&lsquo;azzam &rsquo;&#298;s&#257;, who
+came to Egypt to aid his brother in February 1219, and compelled
+al-F&#257;&rsquo;iz to depart for Mosul. After a siege of sixteen and
+a half months Damietta was taken by the Franks on Tuesday
+the 6th of November 1219; al-K&#257;mil thereupon proclaimed the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page99" id="page99"></a>99</span>
+Jih&#257;d, and was joined at his fortified camp, afterwards the site
+of Man&#7779;&#363;ra, by troops from various parts of Egypt, Syria and
+Mesopotamia, including the forces of his brothers &rsquo;&#298;s&#257; and
+M&#363;s&#257;. With these allies, and availing himself of the advantages
+offered by the inundation of the Nile, al-K&#257;mil was able to cut
+off both the advance and the retreat of the invaders, and on
+the 31st of August 1221 a peace was concluded, by which the
+Franks evacuated Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>For some years the dominions of al-&lsquo;&#256;dil remained divided
+between his sons: when the affairs of Egypt were settled,
+al-K&#257;mil determined to reunite them as before, and to that end
+brought on the Sixth Crusade. Various cities in Palestine and
+Syria were yielded to Frederick II. as the price of his help against
+the son of Mu&lsquo;azzam &rsquo;&#298;s&#257;, who reigned at Damascus with the
+title of Malik al-N&#257;&#7779;ir. About 1231-32 K&#257;mil led a confederacy
+of Ayy&#363;bite princes against the Seljuk Kaikobad into Asia Minor,
+but his allies mistrusted him and victory rested with Kaikobad
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Seljuks</a></span>). Before K&#257;mil&rsquo;s death he was mentioned in public
+prayer at Mecca as lord of Mecca (Hej&#257;z), Yemen, Zab&#299;d, Upper
+and Lower Egypt, Syria and Mesopotamia.</p>
+
+<p>At his death (May 8th, 1238) at Damascus, his son Ab&#363; Bakr
+was appointed to succeed with the title <i>Malik al-&lsquo;&#256;dil Saif al-d&#299;n</i>;
+but his elder brother Malik al-S&#257;li&#7717; Najm al-d&#299;n Ayy&#363;b, having
+got possession of Damascus, immediately started for Egypt,
+with the view of adding that country to his dominions: meanwhile
+his uncle Ism&#257;&rsquo;il, prince of Hamath, with the prince of
+Homs, seized Damascus, upon hearing which the troops of
+Najm al-d&#299;n deserted him at Nablus, when he fell into the hands
+of Malik al-N&#257;&#7779;ir, prince of Kerak, who carried him off to that
+city and kept him a prisoner there for a time; after which he
+was released and allowed to return to Nablus. On the 31st of
+May 1240 the new sultan was arrested at Bilbeis by his own
+amirs, who sent for Najm al-d&#299;n to succeed him; and on the 19th
+of June of the same year Najm al-d&#299;n entered Cairo as sultan,
+and imprisoned his brother in the citadel, where he died in 1248.
+Meanwhile in 1244 Jerusalem had been finally wrested from
+the Franks. The administration of Najm al-d&#299;n is highly praised
+by Ibn Khallikan, who lived under it. He made large purchases
+of slaves (Mamelukes) for his army, and when the inhabitants of
+Cairo complained of their lawlessness, he built barracks for them
+on the island of Roda (Rau&#7693;a), whence they were called Bahr&#299;
+or Nile Mamelukes, which became the name of the first dynasty
+that originated from them. Much of his time was spent in campaigns
+in Syria, where the other Ayy&#363;bites allied themselves
+against him with the Crusaders, whereas he accepted the services
+of the Khwarizmians: eventually he succeeded in recovering
+most of the Syrian cities. His name is commemorated by the
+town of Salihia, which he built in the year 1246 as a resting-place
+for his armies on their marches through the desert from Egypt
+to Palestine. In 1249 he was recalled from the siege of Homs
+by the news of the invasion of Egypt by Louis IX. (the Seventh
+Crusade), and in spite of illness he hastened to Ushmum Tann&#257;,
+in the neighbourhood of Damietta, which he provisioned for a
+siege. Damietta was taken on the 6th of June 1249, owing to
+the desertion of his post by the commander Fakhr ud-d&#299;n, and
+the Ban&#363; Kin&#257;nah, to whom the defence of the place had been
+entrusted: fifty-four of their chieftains were afterwards executed
+by the sultan for this proceeding. On the 22nd of November
+the sultan died of disease at Man&#7779;&#363;ra, but his death was
+carefully concealed by the amirs L&#257;j&#299;n and Aktai, acting in
+concert with the Queen Shajar al-durr, till the arrival from
+Syria of the heir to the throne, <i>T&#363;r&#257;nsh&#257;h</i>, who was proclaimed
+some four months later. At the battle of F&#257;risk&#363;r, 6th of April
+1250, the invaders were utterly routed and the French king fell
+into the hands of the Egyptian sultan. The Egyptian authorities
+now resolved to raze Damietta, which, however, was rebuilt
+shortly after. The sultan, who himself had had no share in the
+victory, advanced after it from Man&#7779;&#363;ra to F&#257;risk&#363;r, where his
+conduct became menacing to the amirs who had raised him to
+the throne, and to Shajar al-durr; she in revenge organized an
+attack upon him which was successful, fire, water, and steel
+contributing to his end.</p>
+
+<p>(6) <i>Period of Ba&#7717;r&#299; Mamelukes.</i>&mdash;The dynasties that succeeded
+the Ayy&#363;bites till the conquest of Egypt by the Ottomans bore
+the title Dynasties of the Turks, but are more often called
+Mameluke dynasties, because the sultans were drawn from the
+enfranchised slaves who constituted the court, and officered
+the army. The family of the fourth of these sovereigns, Ka&rsquo;&#257;&rsquo;&#363;n
+(Qal&#257;&rsquo;&#363;n), reigned for 110 years, but otherwise no sultan was
+able to found a durable dynasty: after the death of a sultan
+he was usually succeeded by an infant son, who after a short
+time was dethroned by a new usurper.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of the Sultan T&#363;r&#257;nsh&#257;h, his step-mother at
+first was raised to the vacant throne, when she committed the
+administration of affairs to the captain of the retainers, Aibek;
+but the rule of a queen caused scandal to the Moslem world, and
+Shajar al-durr gave way to this sentiment by marrying Aibek
+and allowing the title sultan to be conferred on him instead of
+herself. For policy&rsquo;s sake, however, Aibek nominally associated
+with himself on the throne a scion of the Ayy&#363;bite house, Malik
+al-Ashraf Musa, who died in prison (1252 or 1254). Aibek
+meanwhile immediately became involved in war with the
+Ayy&#363;bite Malik al-N&#257;&#7779;ir, who was in possession of Syria, with
+whom the caliph induced him after some indecisive actions
+to make peace: he then successfully quelled a mutiny of Mamelukes,
+whom he compelled to take refuge with the last Abbasid
+caliph Mostasim in Bagdad and elsewhere. On the 10th of April
+1257 Aibek was murdered by his wife Shajar al-durr, who was
+indignant at his asking for the hand of another queen: but
+Aibek&rsquo;s followers immediately avenged his death, placing on
+the throne his infant son <i>Malik al-Man&#7779;&#363;r</i>, who, however, was
+almost immediately displaced by his guardian <i>Ko&#7789;uz</i>, on the
+plea that the Mongol danger necessitated the presence of a grown
+man at the head of affairs. In 1260 the Syrian kingdom of al-N&#257;&#7779;ir
+was destroyed by Hulaku (Hulagu), the great Mongol
+chief, founder of the Ilkhan Dynasty (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mongols</a></span>), who, having
+finally overthrown the caliph of Bagdad (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caliphate</a></span>, sect. c.
+§ 37), also despatched a threatening letter to Ko&#7789;uz; but later
+in the same year Syria was invaded by Ko&#7789;uz, who defeated
+Hulagu&rsquo;s lieutenant at the battle of &lsquo;Ain J&#257;l&#363;t (3rd of September
+1260), in consequence of which event the Syrian cities all rose
+against the Mongols, and the Egyptian sultan became master
+of the country with the exception of such places as were still
+held by the Crusaders.</p>
+
+<p>Before Ko&#7789;uz had reigned a year he was murdered at S&#257;lihia
+by his lieutenant Bibars (October 23rd, 1260), who was piqued,
+it is said, at the governorship of Aleppo being withheld
+from him. The sovereignty was seized by this
+<span class="sidenote">Rule of Bibars.</span>
+person with the title of <i>Malik al-Q&#257;hir</i>, presently
+altered to <i>al-Z&#257;hir</i>. He had originally been a slave of Malik
+al-S&#257;li&#7717;, had distinguished himself at the battle after which
+Louis IX. was captured, and had helped to murder T&#363;r&#257;nsh&#257;h.
+Sultan Bibars, who proved to be one of the most competent of
+the Ba&#7717;r&#299; Mamelukes, made Egypt the centre of the Moslem
+world by re-establishing in theory the Abbasid caliphate, which
+had lapsed through the taking of Bagdad by Hulagu, followed
+by the execution of the caliph. Bibars recognized the claim of a
+certain Abu&rsquo;l-Q&#257;sim A&#7717;med to be the son of Z&#257;hir, the 35th
+Abbasid caliph, and installed him as Commander of the Faithful
+<span class="sidenote">Abbasid caliphate revived.</span>
+at Cairo with the title <i>al-Mostan&#7779;ir bill&#257;h</i>. Mostan&#7779;ir
+then proceeded to confer on Bibars the title sultan,
+and to address to him a homily, explaining his duties.
+This document is preserved in the MS. life of Bibars,
+and translated by G. Weil. The sultan appears to have contemplated
+restoring the new caliph to the throne of Bagdad:
+the force, however, which he sent with him for the purpose of
+reconquering Irak was quite insufficient for the purpose, and
+Mostan&#7779;ir was defeated and slain. This did not prevent Bibars
+from maintaining his policy of appointing an Abbasid for the
+purpose of conferring legitimacy on himself; but he encouraged
+no further attempts at re-establishing the Abbasids at Bagdad,
+and his principle, adopted by successive sultans, was that the
+caliph should not leave Cairo except when accompanying the
+sultan on an expedition.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page100" id="page100"></a>100</span></p>
+
+<p>The reign of Bibars was spent largely in successful wars against
+the Crusaders, from whom he took many cities, notably Safad,
+Caesarea and Antioch; the Armenians, whose territory he repeatedly
+invaded, burning their capital Sis; and the Seljukids
+of Asia Minor. He further reduced the Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;lians or Assassins,
+whose existence as a community lasted on in Syria after it had
+nearly come to an end in Persia. He made Nubia tributary,
+therein extending Moslem arms farther south than they had
+been extended by any previous sultan. His authority was before
+his death recognized all over Syria (with the exception of the few
+cities still in the power of the Franks), over Arabia, with the
+exception of Yemen, on the Euphrates from Birah to Kerkesia
+(Circesium) on the Chaboras (Khabur), whilst the amirs of
+north-western Africa were tributary to him. His successes were
+won not only by military and political ability, but also by the
+most absolute unscrupulousness, neither flagrant perjury nor
+the basest treachery being disdained. He was the first sultan
+who acknowledged the equal authority of the four schools of law,
+and appointed judges belonging to each in Egypt and Syria;
+he was thus able to get his measures approved by one school when
+condemned by another.</p>
+
+<p>On the 1st of July 1277 Bibars died, and the events that
+followed set an example repeatedly followed during the period
+of the Mamelukes. The sultan&rsquo;s son <i>Malik al-Sa&lsquo;&#299;d</i>
+ascended the throne; but within little more than two
+<span class="sidenote">Kal&#257;&rsquo;&#363;n.</span>
+years he was compelled to abdicate in favour of his father-in-law
+<i>Kal&#257;&rsquo;&#363;n</i>, a Mameluke who had risen high in the former
+sovereign&rsquo;s service. The accession of Kal&#257;&rsquo;&#363;n was also marked
+by an attempt on the part of the governor of Damascus to form
+Syria into an independent kingdom, an attempt frequently
+imitated on similar occasions. The Syrian forces were defeated
+at the battle of Jaz&#363;rah (April 26th, 1280) and Kal&#257;&rsquo;&#363;n resumed
+possession of the country; but the disaffected Syrians
+entered into relations with the Mongols, who proceeded to invade
+Syria, but were finally defeated by Kal&#257;&rsquo;&#363;n on the 30th of
+October 1281 under the walls of Homs (Emesa).</p>
+
+<p>The conversion to Islam of Nikudar A&#7717;mad, the third of the
+Ilkhan rulers of Persia, and the consequent troubles in the western
+Mongol empire, let to a suspension of hostilities between Egypt
+and the Ilkhans (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Persia</a></span>: <i>History</i>, § B), though the latter
+did not cease to agitate in Europe for a renewal of the Crusades,
+with little result. Kal&#257;&rsquo;&#363;n, without pursuing any career of active
+conquest, did much to consolidate his dominions, and especially
+to extend Egyptian commerce, for which purpose he started
+passports enabling merchants to travel with safety through
+Egypt and Syria as far as India. After the danger from the
+Mongols had ceased, however, Kal&#257;&rsquo;&#363;n directed his energies
+towards capturing the last places that remained in the hands
+of the Franks, and proceeded to take Markab, Latakia, and
+Tripoli (April 26th, 1289). In 1290 he planned an attack on
+Acre, but died (November 10th) in the middle of all his preparations.
+Under Kal&#257;&rsquo;&#363;n we first hear of the Burjite Mamelukes,
+who owe their name to the citadel (Burj) of Cairo, where
+3700 of the whole number of 12,000 Mamelukes maintained
+by this sovereign were quartered. He also set an example,
+frequently followed, of the practice of dismissing all non-Moslems
+from government posts: this was often done by his successors
+with the view of conciliating the Moslems, but it was speedily
+found that the services of the Jewish and Christian clerks were
+again required. He further founded a hospital for clinical
+research on a scale formerly unknown.</p>
+
+<p>Kal&#257;&rsquo;&#363;n was followed by his son <i>Khal&#299;l</i> (<i>Malik al-Ashraf
+Sal&#257;h al-d&#299;n</i>), who carried out his father&rsquo;s policy of driving the
+Franks out of Syria and Palestine, and proceeded with the siege
+of Acre, which he took (May 18th, 1291) after a siege of forty-three
+days. The capture and destruction of this important
+place were followed by the capture of Tyre, Sidon, Haifa, Athlit
+and Beirut, and thus Syria was cleared of the Crusaders. He
+also planned an expedition against the prince of Lesser Armenia,
+which was averted by the surrender of Behesna, Marash and Tell
+Hamd&#363;n. The disputes between his favourite, the vizier Ibn
+al-Sa&rsquo;l&#363;s, and his viceroy Baidara, led to his being murdered by
+the latter (December 12th, 1293), who was proclaimed sultan,
+but almost immediately fell a victim to the vengeance of the
+deceased sultan&rsquo;s party, who placed a younger son of Kal&#257;&rsquo;&#363;n,
+<span class="sidenote">Malik al-N&#257;&#7779;ir.</span>
+<i>Mahommed Malik al-N&#257;&#7779;ir</i>, on the throne. This
+prince had the singular fortune of reigning three times,
+being twice dethroned: he was first installed on the
+14th of December 1293, when he was nine years old, and the
+affairs of the kingdom were undertaken by a cabinet, consisting
+of a vizier (&lsquo;Alam al-d&#299;n Sinjar), a viceroy (Kitboga), a war
+minister (&#7716;us&#257;m al-d&#299;n L&#257;j&#299;n al-R&#363;m&#299;), a prefect of the palace
+(Rokneddin Bibars J&#257;shengir) and a secretary of state (Rokneddin
+Bibars Man&#7779;&#363;r&#299;). This cabinet naturally split into rival
+camps, in consequence of which Kitboga, himself a Mongol,
+with the aid of other Mongols who had come into Egypt after
+the battle of Homs, succeeded in ousting his rivals, and presently,
+with the aid of the surviving assassins of the former sultan,
+compelling Malik al-N&#257;&#7779;ir to abdicate in his favour (December 1st,
+1294). The usurper was, however, able to maintain himself for
+two years only, famine and pestilence which prevailed in Egypt
+and Syria during his reign rendering him unpopular, while his
+arbitrary treatment of the amirs also gave offence. He was
+dethroned in 1296, and one of the murderers of Khalil, &#7716;us&#257;m
+al-d&#299;n <i>L&#257;j&#299;n</i>, son-in-law of the sultan Bibars and formerly
+governor of Damascus, installed in his palace (November 26th,
+1296). It had become the practice of the Egyptian sultans to
+bestow all offices of importance on their own freedmen (Mamelukes)
+to the exclusion of the older amirs, whom they could not
+trust so well, but who in turn became still more disaffected.
+&#7716;us&#257;m al-d&#299;n fell a victim to the jealousy of the older amirs
+whom he had incensed by bestowing arbitrary power on his own
+<span class="sidenote">Mongol Wars.</span>
+Mameluke Mengutimur, and was murdered on the
+16th of January 1299. His short reign was marked
+by some fairly successful incursions into Armenia,
+and the recovery of the fortresses Marash and Tell Hamd&#363;n,
+which had been retaken by the Armenians. He also instituted
+a fresh survey and division of land in Egypt and Syria, which
+occasioned much discontent. After his murder the deposed
+sultan Malik al-N&#257;&#7779;ir, who had been living in retirement at
+Kerak, was recalled by the army and reinstated as sultan in
+Cairo (February 7th, 1299), though still only fourteen years of
+age, so that public affairs were administered not by him, but by
+Sal&#257;r the viceroy, and Bibars J&#257;shengir, prefect of the palace.
+The 7th Ilkhan, Ghazan Mahmud, took advantage of the disorder
+in the Mameluke empire to invade Syria in the latter half of 1299,
+when his forces inflicted a severe defeat on those of the new sultan,
+and seized several cities, including the capital Damascus, of
+which, however, they were unable to storm the citadel; in 1300,
+when a fresh army was collected in Egypt, the Mongols evacuated
+Damascus and made no attempt to secure their other conquests.
+The fear of further Mongolian invasion led to the imposition of
+fresh taxes in both Egypt and Syria, including one of 33% on
+rents, which occasioned many complaints. The invasion did not
+take place till 1303, when at the battle of Marj al-&#7778;affar (April
+20th) the Mongols were defeated. This was the last time that
+the Ilkhans gave the Egyptian sultans serious trouble; and in
+the letter written in the sultan&rsquo;s name to the Ilkhan announcing
+the victory, the former suggested that the caliphate of Bagdad
+should be restored to the titular Abbasid caliph who had accompanied
+the Egyptian expedition, a suggestion which does not
+appear to have led to any actual steps being taken. The fact
+that the Mongols were in ostensible alliance with Christian
+princes led to a renewal by the sultan of the ordinances against
+Jews and Christians which had often been abrogated, as often
+renewed and again fallen into abeyance; and their renewal led
+to missions from various Christian princes requesting milder
+terms for their co-religionists. The amirs Sal&#257;r and Bibars having
+usurped the whole of the sultan&rsquo;s authority, he, after some futile
+attempts to free himself of them, under the pretext of pilgrimage
+to Mecca, retired in March 1309 to Kerak, whence he sent his
+abdication to Cairo; in consequence of which, on the 5th of
+April 1309, <i>Bibars J&#257;shengir</i> was proclaimed sultan, with the
+title <i>Malik al-Mo&#7827;affar</i>. This prince was originally a freedman
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page101" id="page101"></a>101</span>
+of Kal&#257;&lsquo;&#363;n, and was the first Circassian who ascended the throne
+of Egypt. Before the year was out the new sultan had been
+rendered unpopular by the occurrence of a famine, and Malik
+al-N&#257;&#7779;ir was easily able to induce the Syrian amirs to return to
+his allegiance, in consequence of which Bibars in his turn abdicated,
+and Malik al-N&#257;&#7779;ir re-entered Cairo as sovereign on the
+5th of March 1310. He soon found the means to execute both
+Bibars and Sal&#257;r, while other amirs who had been eminent under
+the former régime fled to the Mongols. The relations between
+their Ilkhan and the Egyptian sultan continued strained, and the
+8th Ilkhan Oeljeitu (1304-1316) addressed letters to Philip the
+Fair and the English king Edward I. (answered by Edward II.
+in 1307), desiring aid against Malik al-N&#257;&#7779;ir; and for many
+years the courts of the sultan and the Ilkhan continued to be the
+refuge of malcontents from the other kingdom. Finally in 1322
+terms of peace and alliance were agreed on between the sultan
+and Ab&#363; Sa&lsquo;&#299;d the 9th Ilkhan. The sultan also entered into
+relations with the Mongols of the Golden Horde and in 1319
+married a daughter of the reigning prince Uzbeg Khan (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mongols</a></span>: <i>Golden Horde</i>). Much of Malik al-N&#257;&#7779;ir&rsquo;s third
+administration was spent in raids into Nubia, where he endeavoured
+to set up a creature of his own as sovereign, in
+attempts at bringing the Bedouins of south-eastern Egypt into
+subordination, and in persecuting the Nosair&#299;s, whose heresy
+became formidable about this time. Like other Egyptian
+sultans he made considerable use of the Assassins, 124 of whom
+were sent by him into Persia to execute Kara Sonkor, at one
+time governor of Damascus, and one of the murderers of Malik
+al-Ashraf; but they were all outwitted by the exile, who was
+finally poisoned by the Ilkhan in recompense for a similar service
+rendered by the Egyptian sultan. For a time Malik al-N&#257;&#7779;ir
+was recognized as suzerain in north Africa, the Arabian Irak,
+and Asia Minor, but he was unable to make any permanent
+conquests in any of these countries. He brought Medina, which
+had previously been governed by independent sher&#299;fs, to acknowledge
+his authority. His diplomatic relations were more extensive
+than those of any previous sultan, and included Bulgarian,
+Indian, and Abyssinian potentates, as well as the pope, the king
+of Aragon and the king of France. He appears to have done
+his utmost to protect his Christian subjects, incurring thereby
+the reproaches of the more fanatical Moslems, especially in the
+year 1320 when owing to incendiarism in Cairo there was danger
+of a general massacre of the Christian population. His internal
+administration was marked by gross extravagance, which led
+to his viziers being forced to practise violent extortion for which
+they afterwards suffered. He paid considerable attention to
+sheep-breeding and agriculture, and by a canal which he had
+dug from Fuah to Alexandria not only assisted commerce but
+brought 100,000 feddans under cultivation. His taste for
+building and street improvement led to the beautifying of Cairo,
+and his example was followed by the governors of other great
+cities in the empire, notably Aleppo and Damascus. He paid
+exceptionally high prices for Mamelukes, many of whom were
+sold by their Mongol parents to his agents, and accustomed
+them to greater luxury than was usual under his predecessors.
+In 1315 he instituted a survey of Egypt, and of the twenty-four
+parts into which it was divided ten were assigned to the sultan
+and fourteen to the amirs and the army. He took occasion to
+abolish a variety of vexatious imposts, and the new budget fell
+less heavily on the Christians than the old. Among the literary
+ornaments of his reign was the historian and geographer Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l
+Abulfeda (<i>q.v.</i>), to whom Malik al-N&#257;&#7779;ir restored the government
+of Hamath, which had belonged to his ancestors, and even gave
+the title sultan. He died on the 7th of June 1341. The son,
+<i>Abu Bakr</i>, to whom he had left the throne, was able to maintain
+himself only a few months on it, being compelled to abdicate
+on the 4th of August 1341 in favour of his infant brother <i>Kuchuk</i>;
+the revolution was brought about by Kaus&#363;n, a powerful Mameluke
+of the preceding monarch. This person&rsquo;s authority was,
+however, soon overthrown by a party formed by the Syrian
+prefects, and on the 11th of January <i>Malik al-N&#257;&#7779;ir A&#7717;mad</i>, an
+elder son of the former sultan of the same title, was installed
+in his place, though he did not actually arrive in Cairo till the
+6th of November, being unwilling to leave Kerak, where he had
+been living in retirement. After a brief sojourn in Cairo he
+speedily returned thither, thereby forfeiting his throne, which
+was conferred by the amirs on his brother <i>Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l al-Malik al-S&#257;li&#7717;</i>
+(June 27th, 1342). This sultan was mainly occupied
+during his short reign with besieging and taking Kerak, whither
+A&#7717;mad had taken refuge, and himself died on the 3rd of August
+1345, when another son of Malik al-N&#257;&#7779;ir, named <i>Sha&lsquo;b&#257;n</i>, was
+placed on the throne. The constant changes of sultan led to
+<span class="sidenote">Decline of the Bahri power.</span>
+great disorder in the provinces, and many of the
+subject principalities endeavoured to shake off the
+Egyptian yoke. Sha&lsquo;b&#257;n proved no more competent
+than his predecessors, being given to open debauchery
+and profligacy, an example followed by his amirs; and fresh
+discontent led to his being deposed by the Syrian amirs, when
+his brother <i>&#7716;&#257;jj&#299;</i> was proclaimed sultan in his place (September
+18th, 1346). &#7716;&#257;jj&#299; was deposed and killed on the 10th of
+December 1347, and another infant son of Malik al-N&#257;&#7779;ir, <i>&#7716;asan</i>,
+who took his father&rsquo;s title, was proclaimed, the real power being
+shared by three amirs, Sheikhun, Menjek and Yelbogha Arus.
+During this reign (1348-1349) Egypt was visited by the &ldquo;Black
+Death,&rdquo; which is said to have carried off 900,000 of the inhabitants
+of Cairo and to have raged as far south as Assuan. Towards
+the beginning of 1351 the sultan got rid of his guardians and
+attempted to rule by himself; but though successful in war, his
+arbitrary measures led to his being dethroned on the 21st of
+August 1351 by the amirs, who proclaimed his brother S&#257;li&#7717; with
+the title of <i>Malik al-S&#257;li&#7717;</i>. He too was only fourteen years of
+age. The power was contested for by various groups of amirs,
+whose struggles ended with the deposition of the sultan S&#257;li&#7717;
+on the 20th of October 1354, and the reinstatement of his brother
+<i>&#7716;asan</i>, who was again dethroned on the 16th of March 1361
+by an amir Yelbogha, whom he had offended, and who, having
+got possession of the sultan&rsquo;s person, murdered him. The next
+day a son of the dethroned sultan &#7716;&#257;jj&#299; was proclaimed sultan
+with the title <i>Malik al-Man&#7779;&#363;r</i>. On the 29th of May 1363 this
+sultan was also dethroned on the ground of incompetence, and
+his place was given to another grandson of Malik al-N&#257;&#7779;ir,
+<i>Sha&lsquo;b&#257;n</i>, son of &#7716;osain, then ten years old. The amir Yelbogha
+at first held all real power and is said to have acquired a degree
+of authority which no other subject ever held. During this reign,
+on the 8th of October 1365, a landing was effected at Alexandria
+by a Frankish fleet under Peter I. of Cyprus, which presently
+took possession of the city; the Franks were speedily compelled
+to embark again after plundering the city, for which compensation
+was afterwards demanded by Yelbogha from the Christian
+population of Egypt and Syria. Alexandria was further made
+the seat of a viceroy, having previously only had a prefect.
+On the 11th of December 1366 Yelbogha was himself attacked
+by the sultan, captured and slain. His successor in the office
+of first minister was a mere tool in the hands of his Mamelukes,
+who compelled him to institute and depose governors, &amp;c., at
+their pleasure. In 1374 the Egyptians raided Cilicia and captured
+Leo VI., prince of Lesser Armenia, which now became an
+Egyptian province with a Moslem governor. On the 15th of
+March 1377 the sultan was murdered by the Mamelukes, owing
+to his refusing a largess of money which they demanded. The
+infant son of the late sultan <i>&lsquo;Al&#299;</i>, a lad of eight years, was proclaimed
+with the title <i>Malik al-Man&#7779;&#363;r</i>; the power was in the
+hands of the ministers Kartai and Ibek, the latter of whom overthrew
+the former with the aid of his own Mamelukes, Berekeh
+and Bark&#363;k. An insurrection in Syria which spread to Egypt
+presently caused the fall of Ibek, and led to the occupation
+of the highest posts by the Circassian freedmen Berekeh and
+Bark&#363;k, of whom the latter ere long succeeded in ousting the
+former and usurping the sultan&rsquo;s place; on the 19th of May
+1381, when the sultan &lsquo;Al&#299; died, his place was given to an infant
+brother &#7716;&#257;jj&#299;, but on the 26th of November 1382, <i>Bark&#363;k</i> set
+this child aside and had himself proclaimed sultan (with the title
+<i>Malik al-Z&#257;hir</i>), thereby ending the Bahr&#299; dynasty and commencing
+that of the Circassians. For a short period, however, &#7716;&#257;jj&#299;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page102" id="page102"></a>102</span>
+was restored, when on the 1st of June 1389 Cairo was taken by
+Yelbogha, governor of Damascus, and Bark&#363;k expelled; &#7716;&#257;jj&#299;
+reigned at first under the guardianship of Yelbogha, who was
+then overthrown by Mint&#257;sh; Bark&#363;k, who had been relegated
+to Kerak, succeeded in again forming a party, and in a battle
+fought at Shakhab, January 1390, succeeded in gaining possession
+of the person of the sultan &#7716;&#257;jj&#299;, and on the 21st of January
+he was again proclaimed sultan in Cairo.</p>
+
+<p>(7) <i>Period of Burj&#299; Mamelukes.</i>&mdash;Bark&#363;k presently entered
+into relations with the Ottoman sultan B&#257;yez&#299;d I., and by
+slaying an envoy of Timur incurred the displeasure of the world-conqueror;
+and in 1394 led an army into Syria with the view
+of restoring the Jelairid Ilkhan A&#7717;mad to Bagdad (as Bark&#363;k&rsquo;s
+vassal), and meeting the Mongol invasion. Bark&#363;k, however,
+died (June 20th, 1399) before Timur had time to invade Syria.
+According to the custom that had so often proved disastrous,
+a young son of Bark&#363;k, <i>Faraj</i>, then aged thirteen, was appointed
+sultan under the guardianship of two amirs. Incursions were
+immediately made by the Ottoman sultan into the territory of
+Egyptian vassals at Derendeh and Albistan (Ablestin), and
+Malatia was besieged by his forces. Timur, who was at this
+time beginning his campaign against B&#257;yez&#299;d, turned his attention
+<span class="sidenote">Timur in Syria.</span>
+first to Syria, and on the 30th of October 1400
+defeated the Syrian amirs near Aleppo, and soon got
+possession of the city and the citadel. He proceeded
+to take Hamah, Homs (Emesa) and other towns, and on the
+20th of December started for Damascus. An endeavour was
+made by the Egyptian sultan to relieve Damascus, but the news
+of an insurrection in Cairo caused him to retire and leave the
+place to its fate. In the first three months of 1401 the whole
+of Northern Syria suffered from Timur&rsquo;s marauders. In the
+following year (September 29th, 1402) Timur who had in the
+interval inflicted a crushing defeat on the Ottoman sultan, sent
+to demand homage from Faraj, and his demand was readily
+granted, together with the delivery of the princes who had sought
+refuge from Timur in Egyptian territory. The death of Timur
+in February 1405 restored Egyptian authority in Syria, which,
+however, became a rendezvous for all who were discontented
+with the rule of Faraj and his amirs, and two months after
+Timur&rsquo;s death was in open rebellion against Faraj. Although
+Faraj succeeded in defeating the rebels, he was compelled by
+insubordination on the part of his Circassian Mamelukes to
+abdicate (September 20th, 1405), when his brother <i>Abd al-al-&lsquo;aziz</i>
+was proclaimed with the title <i>Malik al-Man&#7779;&#363;r</i>; after two
+months this prince was deposed, and Faraj, who had been in
+hiding, recalled. Most of his reign was, however, occupied
+with revolts on the part of the Syrian amirs, to quell whom he
+repeatedly visited Syria; the leaders of the rebels were the
+amirs Newruz and Sheik Ma&#7717;m&#363;d&#299;, afterwards sultan. Owing
+to disturbances and misgovernment the population of Egypt
+and Syria is said to have shrunk to a third in his time, and he
+offended public sentiment not only by debauchery, but by
+having his image stamped on his coins. On the 23rd of May
+1412, after being defeated and shut up in Damascus, he was
+compelled by Sheik Ma&#7717;m&#363;d&#299; to abdicate, and an Abbasid
+caliph, Mosta&lsquo;&#299;n, was proclaimed sultan, only to be forced to
+abdicate on the 6th of November of the same year in <i>Sheik&rsquo;s</i>
+favour, who took the title <i>Malik al-Mu&lsquo;ayyad</i>, his colleague
+Newruz having been previously sent to Syria, where he was to be
+autocrat by the terms of their agreement. In the struggle
+which naturally followed between the two, Newruz was shut up
+in Damascus, defeated and slain. Sheik himself invaded Asia
+Minor and forced the Turkoman states to acknowledge his
+suzerainty. After the sultan&rsquo;s return they soon rebelled, but
+were again brought into subjection by Sheik&rsquo;s son Ibr&#257;h&#299;m;
+his victories excited the envy of his father, who is said to have
+poisoned him. Sheik himself died a few months after the
+decease of his son (January 13th, 1421), and another infant son,
+<i>A&#7717;mad</i>, was proclaimed with the title <i>Malik al-Mo&#7827;affar</i>, the
+proclamation being followed by the usual dissensions between
+the amirs, ending with the assumption of supreme power by the
+amir <i>Tatar</i>, who, after defeating his rivals, on the 29th of August
+1421 had himself proclaimed sultan with the title <i>Malik al-&#7826;&#257;hir</i>.
+This usurper, however, died on the 30th of November of the
+same year, leaving the throne to an infant son <i>Mohammed</i>, who
+was given the title <i>Malik al-&#7778;&#257;li&#7717;</i>; the regular intrigues between
+the amirs followed, leading to his being dethroned on the following
+1st of April 1422, when the amir appointed to be his tutor,
+<i>Barsbai</i>, was proclaimed sultan with the title <i>Malik al-Ashraf</i>.
+<span class="sidenote">Wars with European Powers.</span>
+This sultan avenged the attacks on Alexandria repeatedly
+made by Cyprian ships, for he sent a fleet
+which burned Limasol, and another which took
+Famagusta (August 4th, 1425), but failed in the
+endeavour to annex the island permanently. An expedition
+sent in the following year (1426) succeeded in taking captive the
+king of Cyprus, who was brought to Cairo and presently released
+for a ransom of 200,000 dinars, on condition of acknowledging
+the suzerainty of the Egyptian sultan and paying him an annual
+tribute. Barsbai appears to have excelled his predecessors
+in the invention of devices for exacting money from merchants
+and pilgrims, and in juggling with the exchange. This led to a
+naval demonstration on the part of the Venetians, who secured
+better terms for their trade, and to the seizure of Egyptian
+vessels by the king of Aragon and the prince of Catalonia. In
+a census made during Barsbai&rsquo;s reign, it was found that the
+total number of towns and villages in Egypt had sunk to 2170,
+whereas in the 4th century A.H. it had stood at 10,000. Much
+of Barsbai&rsquo;s attention was occupied with raids into Asia Minor,
+where the Dhu &lsquo;l-Kadiri Turkomans frequently rebelled, and
+with wars against Kara Yelek, prince of Amid, and Shah Rokh,
+son of Timur. Barsbai died on the 7th of June 1438. In accordance
+with the custom of his predecessors he left the throne to a
+son still in his minority, <i>Abu&rsquo;l-Mah&#257;sin Y&#363;suf</i>, who took the title
+<i>Malik al-&lsquo;Az&#299;z</i>, but as usual after a few months he was displaced
+by the regent <i>Jakmak</i>, who on the 9th of September 1438 was
+proclaimed sultan with the title <i>Malik al-&#7826;&#257;hir</i>. In the years
+1442-1444 this sultan sent three fleets against Rhodes, where the
+third effected a landing, but was unable to make any permanent
+conquest. In consequence of a lengthy illness Jakmak abdicated
+on the 1st of February 1453, when his son <i>&lsquo;Othman</i> was proclaimed
+sultan with the title <i>Malik al-Man&#7779;&#363;r</i>. Though not a
+minor, he had no greater success than the sons of the usurpers
+who preceded him, being dethroned after six weeks (March 15th,
+1453) in favour of the amir <i>Inal al-&lsquo;Al&#257;&lsquo;&#299;</i>, who took the title
+<i>Malik al-Ashraf</i>. His reign was marked by friendly relations
+with the Ottoman sultan Mahommed II., whose capture of
+Constantinople (1453) was the cause of great rejoicings in Egypt,
+but also by violent excesses on the part of the Mamelukes, who
+dictated the sultan&rsquo;s policy. On his death on the 26th of February
+1461 his son <i>A&#7717;mad</i> was proclaimed sultan with the title <i>Malik
+al-Mu&lsquo;ayyad</i>; he had the usual fate of sultans&rsquo; sons, earned
+in his case by an attempt to bring the Mamelukes under discipline;
+he was compelled to abdicate on the 28th of June 1461,
+when the amir <i>Khoshkadam</i>, who had served as a general, was
+proclaimed sultan. Unlike the other Mameluke sovereigns,
+who were Turks or Circassians, this man had originally been a
+Greek slave.</p>
+
+<p>In his reign (1463) there began the struggle between the
+Egyptian and the Ottoman sultanates which finally led to the
+incorporation of Egypt in the Ottoman empire. The
+dispute began with a struggle over the succession in
+<span class="sidenote">Early relations with Turkey.</span>
+the principality of Karaman, where the two sultans
+favoured rival candidates, and the Ottoman sultan
+Mahommed II. supported the claim of his candidate with force
+of arms, obtaining as the price of his assistance several towns
+in which the suzerainty of the Egyptian sultan had been acknowledged.
+Open war did not, however, break out between the
+two states in Khoshkadam&rsquo;s time. This sultan is said to have
+taken money to permit innocent persons to be ill-treated or
+executed. He died on the 9th of October 1467, when the At&#257;beg
+<i>Yelbai</i> was selected by the Mamelukes to succeed him, and was
+proclaimed sultan with the title of <i>Malik al-&#7826;&#257;hir</i>. This person,
+proving incompetent, was deposed by a revolution of the Mamelukes
+on the 4th of December 1467, when the At&#257;beg <i>Timurbogha</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page103" id="page103"></a>103</span>
+was proclaimed with the title <i>Malik al-&#7826;&#257;hir</i>. In a month&rsquo;s time,
+however, there was another palace revolution, and the new
+At&#257;beg <i>Kait Bey</i> or <i>Kaietbai</i> (January 31st, 1468) was proclaimed
+sultan, the dethroned Timurbogha being, however, permitted
+to go free whither he pleased. Much of Kait Bey&rsquo;s reign was
+spent in struggles with &#362;z&#363;n Hasan, prince of Di&#257;rbekr, and
+Shah Siw&#257;r, chief of the Dhu&rsquo;l-K&#257;diri Turkomans. He also
+offended the Ottoman sultan B&#257;yezid II. by entertaining his
+brother Jem, who was afterwards poisoned in Europe. Owing to
+this, and also to the fact that an Indian embassy to the Ottoman
+sultan was intercepted by the agents of Kait Bey, B&#257;yezid II.
+declared war against Egypt, and seized Adana, Tarsus and other
+places within Egyptian territory; extraordinary efforts were
+made by Kait Bey, whose generals inflicted a severe defeat on
+the Ottoman invaders. In 1491, however, after the Egyptians
+had repeatedly defeated the Ottoman troops, Kait Bey made
+proposals of peace which were accepted, the keys of the towns
+which the Ottomans had seized being restored to the Egyptian
+sultan. Kait Bey endeavoured to assist his co-religionists in
+Spain who were threatened by King Ferdinand, by threatening
+the pope with reprisals on Syrian Christians, but without effect.
+As the consequence of a palace intrigue, which Kait Bey was too
+old to quell, on the 7th of August 1496, a day before his death,
+his son <i>Mahommed</i> was proclaimed sultan with the title <i>Malik
+al-N&#257;&#7779;ir</i>; this was in order to put the supreme power into the
+hands of the At&#257;beg K&#257;ns&#363;h, since the new sultan was only
+fourteen years old. An attempt of the At&#257;beg to oust the new
+sultan, however, failed. After a reign of little more than two
+years, filled mainly with struggles between rival amirs, <i>Malik
+al-N&#257;&#7779;ir</i> was murdered (October 31st, 1498), and his uncle and
+vizier <i>K&#257;ns&#363;h</i> proclaimed sultan with the title <i>Malik al-&#7826;&#257;hir</i>.
+His reign only lasted about twenty months; on the 30th of June
+1500 he was dethroned by T&#363;m&#257;nbey, who caused <i>J&#257;n Bel&#257;t</i>,
+the At&#257;beg, to be proclaimed sultan. A few months later
+<i>T&#363;m&#257;nbey</i>, at the suggestion of Kasrawah, governor of Damascus,
+whom he had been sent to reduce to subjection, ousted J&#257;n
+Bel&#257;t, and was himself proclaimed sultan with the title <i>Malik
+al-&lsquo;&#256;dil</i> (January 25th, 1501). His reign lasted only one hundred
+days, when he was displaced by <i>K&#257;ns&#363;h al-Gh&#363;r&#299;</i> (April 20th,
+1501). His reign was remarkable for a naval conflict between
+the Egyptians and the Portuguese, whose fleet interfered with
+the pilgrim route from India to Mecca, and also with the trade
+between India and Egypt; K&#257;ns&#363;h caused a fleet to be built
+which fought naval battles with the Portuguese with varying
+results.</p>
+
+<p>In 1515 there began the war with the Ottoman sultan Selim I.
+which led to the close of the Mameluke period, and the incorporation
+of Egypt and its dependencies in the Ottoman
+empire (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Turkey</a></span>: <i>History</i>). K&#257;ns&#363;h was charged
+<span class="sidenote">The Turkish conquest.</span>
+by Selim with giving the envoys of the &#7778;afawid
+Isma&lsquo;il passage through Syria on their way to Venice
+to form a confederacy against the Turks, and with harbouring
+various refugees. The actual declaration of war was not made
+by Selim till May 1515, when the Ottoman sultan had made all
+his preparations; and at the battle of Merj Dabik, on the 24th
+of August 1515, K&#257;ns&#363;h was defeated by the Ottoman forces
+and fell fighting. Syria passed quickly into the possession of
+the Turks, whose advent was in many places welcome as meaning
+deliverance from the Mamelukes. In Cairo, when the news of
+the defeat and death of the Egyptian sultan arrived, the governor
+who had been left by K&#257;ns&#363;h, <i>T&#363;m&#257;nbey</i>, was proclaimed sultan
+(October 17th, 1516). On the 20th of January 1517 Cairo was
+taken by the Ottomans, and Selim shortly after declared sultan
+of Egypt. T&#363;m&#257;nbey continued the struggle for some months,
+but was finally defeated, and after being captured and kept in
+prison seventeen days was executed on the 15th of April 1517.</p>
+
+<p>(8) <i>The Turkish Period.</i>&mdash;The sultan Selim left with his viceroy
+Khair Bey a guard of 5000 janissaries, but otherwise made few
+changes in the administration of the country. The register by
+which a great portion of the land was a fief of the Mamelukes
+was left unchanged, and it is said that a proposal made by the
+sultan&rsquo;s vizier to appropriate these estates was punished with
+death. The Mameluke amirs were to be retained in office as
+heads of twelve sanjaks into which Egypt was divided; and
+under the next sultan, Suleiman I., two chambers were created,
+called respectively the Greater and the Lesser Divan, in which
+both the army and the ecclesiastical authorities were represented,
+to aid the pasha by their deliberations. Six regiments altogether
+were constituted by the conqueror Selim for the protection of
+Egypt; to these Suleiman added a seventh, of Circassians.
+As will be seen from the tables, it was the practice of the Porte
+to change the governor of Egypt at very short intervals&mdash;after
+a year or even some months. The third governor, A&#7717;mad
+Pasha, hearing that orders for this execution had come from
+Constantinople, endeavoured to make himself an independent
+ruler and had coins struck in his own name. His schemes were
+frustrated by two of the amirs whom he had imprisoned and
+who, escaping from their confinement, attacked him in his bath
+and killed him. In 1527 the first survey of Egypt under the
+Ottomans was made, in consequence of the official copy of the
+former registers having perished by fire; yet this new survey did
+not come into use until 1605. Egyptian lands were divided in it
+into four classes&mdash;the sultan&rsquo;s domain, fiefs, land for the maintenance
+of the army, and lands settled on religious foundations.</p>
+
+<p>It would seem that the constant changes in the government
+caused the army to get out of control at an early period of the
+Ottoman occupation, and at the beginning of the 11th
+Islamic century mutinies became common; in 1013
+<span class="sidenote">Troubles with the army.</span>
+(1604) the governor Ibrahim Pasha was murdered by
+the soldiers, and his head set on the Bab Zuw&#275;la. The
+reason for these mutinies was the attempt made by successive
+pashas to put a stop to the extortion called <i>Tulbah</i>, a forced
+payment exacted by the troops from the inhabitants of the
+country by the fiction of debts requiring to be discharged,
+which led to grievous ill-usage. In 1609 something like civil
+war broke out between the army and the pasha, who had on his
+side some loyal regiments and the Bedouins. The soldiers went
+so far as to choose a sultan, and to divide provisionally the regions
+of Cairo between them. They were defeated by the governor
+Mahommed Pasha, who on the 5th of February 1610 entered
+Cairo in triumph, executed the ringleaders, and banished many
+others to Yemen. The contemporary historian speaks of this
+event as a second conquest of Egypt for the Ottomans. A great
+financial reform was now effected by Mahommed Pasha, who
+readjusted the burdens imposed on the different communities
+of Egypt in accordance with their means. With the troubles
+that beset the metropolis of the Ottoman empire, the governors
+appointed thence came to be treated by the Egyptians with
+continually decreasing respect. In July 1623 there came an order
+from the Porte dismissing Mu&#7779;&#7789;af&#257; Pasha and appointing &lsquo;Al&#299;
+Pasha governor in his place. The officers met and demanded
+from the newly-appointed governor&rsquo;s deputy the customary
+gratuity; when this was refused they sent letters to the Porte
+declaring that they wished to have Mu&#7779;&#7789;af&#257; Pasha and not &lsquo;Al&#299;
+Pasha as governor. Meanwhile &lsquo;Al&#299; Pasha had arrived at Alexandria,
+and was met by a deputation from Cairo telling him that
+he was not wanted. He returned a mild answer; and, when a
+rejoinder came in the same style as the first message, he had the
+leader of the deputation arrested and imprisoned. Hereupon the
+garrison of Alexandria attacked the castle and rescued the
+prisoner; whereupon &lsquo;Al&#299; Pasha was compelled to embark.
+Shortly after a rescript arrived from Constantinople confirming
+Mu&#7779;&#7789;af&#257; Pasha in the governorship. Similarly in 1631 the army
+took upon themselves to depose the governor M&#363;s&#257; Pasha, in
+indignation at his execution of K&#299;t&#257;s Bey, an officer who was
+to have commanded an Egyptian force required for service in
+Persia. The pasha was ordered either to hand over the executioners
+to vengeance or to resign his place; as he refused to do
+the former he was compelled to do the latter, and presently a
+rescript came from Constantinople, approving the conduct of
+the army and appointing one Khal&#299;l Pasha as M&#363;s&#257;&rsquo;s successor.
+Not only was the governor unsupported by the sultan against
+the troops, but each new governor regularly inflicted a fine upon
+his outgoing predecessor, under the name of money due to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page104" id="page104"></a>104</span>
+treasury; and the outgoing governor would not be allowed to
+leave Egypt till he had paid it. Besides the extortions to which
+this practice gave occasion the country suffered greatly in these
+centuries from famine and pestilence. The latter in the spring
+of 1619 is said to have carried off 635,000 persons, and in 1643
+completely desolated 230 villages.</p>
+
+<p>By the 18th century the importance of the pasha was quite
+superseded by that of the beys, and two offices, those of Sheik
+al-Balad and Am&#299;r al-&#7716;&#257;jj, which were held by these
+persons, represented the real headship of the community.
+<span class="sidenote">Rise of the Beys.</span>
+The process by which this state of affairs
+came about is somewhat obscure, owing to the want of good
+chronicles for the Turkish period of Egyptian history. In
+1707 the Sheik al-Balad, Q&#257;sim Iyw&#257;z, is found at the head of
+one of two Mameluke factions, the Q&#257;simites and the Fiq&#257;rites,
+between whom the seeds of enmity were sown by the pasha
+of the time, with the result that a fight took place between the
+factions outside Cairo, lasting eighty days. At the end of that
+time Q&#257;sim Iyw&#257;z was killed and the office which he had held
+was given to his son Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l. Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l held this office for sixteen
+years, while the pashas were constantly being changed, and
+succeeded in reconciling the two factions of Mamelukes. In 1724
+this person was assassinated through the machinations of the
+pasha, and Shirkas Bey, of the opposing faction, elevated to the
+office of Sheik al-Balad in his place. He was soon driven from
+his post by one of his own faction called Dhu&rsquo;l-Fiq&#257;r, and fled
+to Upper Egypt. After a short time he returned at the head of
+an army, and some engagements ensued, in the last of which
+Shirkas Bey met his end by drowning; Dhu&rsquo;l-Fiq&#257;r was himself
+assassinated in 1730 shortly after this event. His place was
+filled by Othman Bey, who had served as his general in this war.
+In 1743 Othman Bey, who had governed with wisdom and
+moderation, was forced to fly from Egypt by the intrigues of
+two adventurers, Ibr&#257;h&#299;m and Ri&#7693;w&#257;n Bey, who, when their
+scheme had succeeded, began a massacre of beys and others
+thought to be opposed to them; they then proceeded to govern
+Egypt jointly, holding the two offices mentioned above in
+alternate years. An attempt made by one of the pashas to rid
+himself of these two persons by a <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> signally failed
+owing to the loyalty of their armed supporters, who released
+Ibr&#257;h&#299;m and Ri&#7693;w&#257;n from prison and compelled the pasha
+to fly to Constantinople. An attempt made by a subsequent
+pasha in accordance with secret orders from Constantinople was
+so far successful that some of the beys were killed. Ibr&#257;h&#299;m and
+Ri&#7693;w&#257;n escaped, and compelled the pasha to resign his governorship
+and return to Constantinople. Ibr&#257;h&#299;m shortly afterwards
+fell by the hand of an assassin who had aspired to occupy one of
+the vacant beyships himself, which was conferred instead on
+&lsquo;Al&#299;, who as &lsquo;Al&#299; Bey was destined to play an important part in
+the history of Egypt. The murder of Ibr&#257;h&#299;m Bey took place
+in 1755, and his colleague Ri&#7693;w&#257;n perished in the disputes that
+followed upon it.</p>
+
+<p>&lsquo;Al&#299; Bey, who had first distinguished himself by defending
+a caravan in Arabia against bandits, set himself the task of
+avenging the death of his former master Ibr&#257;h&#299;m, and
+spent eight years in purchasing Mamelukes and winning
+<span class="sidenote">&lsquo;Al&#299; Bey.</span>
+other adherents. He thereby excited the suspicions of the Sheik
+al-Balad Khal&#299;l Bey, who organized an attack upon him in the
+streets of Cairo, in consequence of which he fled to Upper Egypt.
+Here he met one &#7778;&#257;l&#7717; Bey, who had injuries to avenge on Khal&#299;l
+Bey, and the two organized a force with which they returned
+to Cairo and defeated Khal&#299;l, who was forced to fly to &#7788;an&#7789;a,
+where for a time he concealed himself; eventually, however,
+he was discovered, sent to Alexandria and finally strangled.
+The date of &lsquo;Al&#299; Bey&rsquo;s victory was 1164 A.H. (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1750), and
+after it he was made Sheik al-Balad. In that capacity he executed
+the murderer of his former master Ibr&#257;h&#299;m; but the
+resentment which this act aroused among the beys caused him
+to leave his post and fly to Syria, where he won the friendship
+of the governor of Acre, &#7826;&#257;hir b. Omar, who obtained for him
+the goodwill of the Porte and reinstatement in his post as Sheik
+al-Balad. In 1766, after the death of his supporter the grand
+vizier R&#257;ghib Pasha, he was again compelled to fly from Egypt
+to Yemen, but in the following year he was told that his party at
+Cairo was strong enough to permit of his return. Resuming his
+office he raised eighteen of his friends to the rank of bey, among
+them Ibr&#257;h&#299;m and Mur&#257;d, who were afterwards at the head of
+affairs, as well as Mahommed Abu&rsquo;l-Dhahab, who was closely
+connected with the rest of &lsquo;Al&#299; Bey&rsquo;s career. He appears to have
+done his utmost to bring Egyptian affairs into order, and by
+very severe measures repressed the brigandage of the Bedouins of
+Lower Egypt. He appears to have aspired to found an independent
+monarchy, and to that end endeavoured to disband
+all forces except those which were exclusively under his own
+control. In 1769 a demand came to &lsquo;Al&#299; Bey for a force of 12,000
+men to be employed by the Porte in the Russian war. It was
+suggested, however, at Constantinople that &lsquo;Al&#299; would employ
+this force when he collected it for securing his own independence,
+and a messenger was sent by the Porte to the pasha with orders
+for his execution. &lsquo;Al&#299;, being apprised by his agents at the
+metropolis of the despatch of this messenger, ordered him to be
+waylaid and killed; the despatches were seized and read by &lsquo;Al&#299;
+before an assembly of the beys, who were assured that the order
+for execution applied to all alike, and he urged them to fight for
+their lives. His proposals were received with enthusiasm by
+the beys whom he had created. Egypt was declared independent
+and the pasha given forty-eight hours to quit the country.
+&#7826;&#257;hir Pasha of Acre, to whom was sent official information of the
+step taken by &lsquo;Al&#299; Bey, promised his aid and kept his word by
+compelling an army sent by the pasha of Damascus against
+Egypt to retreat.</p>
+
+<p>The Porte was not able at the time to take active measures
+for the suppression of &lsquo;Al&#299; Bey, and the latter endeavoured to
+consolidate his dominions by sending expeditions against marauding
+tribes, both in north and south Egypt, reforming the finance,
+and improving the administration of justice. His son-in-law,
+Abu&rsquo;l-Dhahab, was sent to subject the Haww&#257;rah, who had
+occupied the land between Assuan and Assiut, and a force of
+20,000 was sent to conquer Yemen. An officer named Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l
+Bey was sent with 8000 to acquire the eastern shore of the Red
+Sea, and one named &#7716;asan Bey to occupy Jidda. In six months
+the greater part of the Arabian peninsula was subject to &lsquo;Al&#299;
+Bey, and he appointed as sher&#299;f of Mecca a cousin of his own,
+who bestowed on &lsquo;Al&#299; by an official proclamation the titles
+Sultan of Egypt and Kh&#257;k&#257;n of the Two Seas. He then, in
+virtue of this authorization, struck coins in his own name
+(1185 A.H.) and ordered his name to be mentioned in public
+worship.</p>
+
+<p>His next move turned out fatally. Abu&rsquo;l-Dhahab was sent
+with a force of 30,000 men in the same year (<span class="sc">a.d.</span> 1771) to conquer
+Syria; and agents were sent to negotiate alliances with Venice
+and Russia. Abu&rsquo;l-Dhahab&rsquo;s progress through Palestine and
+Syria was triumphant. Reinforced by &lsquo;Al&#299; Bey&rsquo;s ally &#7826;&#257;hir,
+he easily took the chief cities, ending with Damascus; but at
+this point he appears to have entered into secret negotiations
+with the Porte, by which he undertook to restore Egypt to
+Ottoman suzerainty. He then proceeded to evacuate Syria,
+and marched with all the forces he could collect to Upper Egypt,
+occupying Assiut in April 1772. Having collected some additional
+troops from the Bedouins, he marched on Cairo. Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l
+Bey was sent by &lsquo;Al&#299; Bey with a force of 3000 to check his
+advance; but at Bas&#257;t&#299;n Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l with his troops joined Abu&rsquo;l-Dhahab.
+&lsquo;Al&#299; Bey intended at first to defend himself so long as
+possible in the citadel at Cairo; but receiving information to
+the effect that his friend &#7826;&#257;hir of Acre was still willing to give him
+refuge, he left Cairo for Syria (8th of April 1772), one day before
+the entrance of Abu&rsquo;l-Dhahab.</p>
+
+<p>At Acre &lsquo;Al&#299;&rsquo;s fortune seemed to be restored. A Russian
+vessel anchored outside the port, and, in accordance with the
+agreement which he had made with the Russian empire, he was
+supplied with stores and ammunition, and a force of 3000
+Albanians. He sent one of his officers, &lsquo;Al&#299; Bey al-&#7788;an&#7789;&#257;w&#299;, to
+recover the Syrian towns evacuated by Abu&rsquo;l-Dhahab, and now
+in the possession of the Porte. He himself took Jaffa and Gaza,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page105" id="page105"></a>105</span>
+the former of which he gave to his friend &#7826;&#257;hir of Acre. On the
+1st of February 1773 he received information from Cairo that
+Abu&rsquo;l-Dhahab had made himself Sheik al-Balad, and in that
+capacity was practising unheard-of extortions, which were
+making Egypt with one voice call for the return of &lsquo;Al&#299; Bey.
+He accordingly started for Egypt at the head of an army of
+8000 men, and on the 19th of April met the army of Abu&rsquo;l-Dhahab
+at S&#257;lihia. &lsquo;Al&#299;&rsquo;s forces were successful at the first
+engagement; but when the battle was renewed two days later
+he was deserted by some of his officers, and prevented by illness
+and wounds from himself taking the conduct of affairs. The
+result was a complete defeat for his army, after which he declined
+to leave his tent; he was captured after a brave resistance, and
+taken to Cairo, where he died seven days later.</p>
+
+<p>After &lsquo;Al&#299; Bey&rsquo;s death Egypt became once more a dependency
+of the Porte, governed by Abu&rsquo;l-Dhahab as Sheik al-Balad with
+the title pasha. He shortly afterwards received permission from
+the Porte to invade Syria, with the view of punishing &lsquo;Al&#299; Bey&rsquo;s
+supporter &#7826;&#257;hir, and left as his deputies in Cairo Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l Bey
+and Ibr&#257;h&#299;m Bey, who, by deserting &lsquo;Al&#299; at the battle of S&#257;lihia,
+had brought about his downfall. After taking many cities in
+Palestine Abu&rsquo;l-Dhahab died, the cause being unknown; and
+Mur&#257;d Bey (another of the deserters at S&#257;lihia) brought his
+forces back to Egypt (26th of May 1775).</p>
+
+<p>Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l Bey now became Sheik al-Balad, but was soon involved
+in a dispute with Ibr&#257;h&#299;m and Mur&#257;d, who after a time succeeded
+in driving Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l out of Egypt and establishing a joint rule (as
+Sheik al-Balad and Am&#299;r al-&#7716;&#257;jj respectively) similar to that
+which had been tried previously. The two were soon involved
+in quarrels, which at one time threatened to break out into open
+war; but this catastrophe was averted, and the joint rule was
+maintained till 1786, when an expedition was sent by the Porte
+to restore Ottoman supremacy in Egypt. Mur&#257;d Bey attempted
+to resist, but was easily defeated; and he with Ibr&#257;h&#299;m decided
+to fly to Upper Egypt and await the trend of events. On the
+1st of August 1782 the Turkish commander entered Cairo, and,
+after some violent measures had been taken for the restoration
+of order, Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l Bey was again made Sheik al-Balad and a new
+pasha installed as governor. In January 1791 a terrible plague
+began to rage in Cairo and elsewhere in Egypt, to which Ism&#257;&lsquo;&#299;l
+Bey and most of his family fell victims. Owing to the need for
+competent rulers Ibr&#257;h&#299;m and Mur&#257;d Bey were sent for from
+Upper Egypt and resumed their dual government. These two
+persons were still in office when Bonaparte entered Egypt.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Moslem Authorities.</i>&mdash;Arabic literature being cosmopolitan, and
+Arabic authors accustomed to travel from place to place to collect
+traditions and obtain oral instruction from contemporary authorities,
+or else to enjoy the patronage of Maecenates, the literary history of
+Egypt cannot be dissociated from that of the other Moslem countries
+in which Arabic was the chief literary vehicle. Hence the list of
+authors connected with Egypt, which occupies pages 161-275 of
+Suy&#363;&#7789;&#299;&rsquo;s work, <i>Husn al-mu&#7717;&#257;darah fi akhb&#257;ri Misr wal-Q&#257;hirah</i>
+(Cairo, 1321 A.H.), contains the names of persons like Mutanabb&#299;,
+who stayed there for a short time in the service of some patron; Ab&#363;
+Tamm&#257;m, who lived there before he acquired fame as a poet; &rsquo;Um&#257;ra
+of Yemen, who came there at a mature age to spend some years
+in the service of F&#257;&#7789;imite viziers; each of whom figures in lists of
+authors belonging to some other country also. So long as the centre
+of the Islamic world was not in Egypt, the best talent was attracted
+elsewhere; but after the fall of Bagdad, Cairo became the chief seat
+of Islamic learning, and this rank, chiefly owing to the university of
+Azhar, it has ever since continued to maintain. The following
+composed special histories of Egypt: Ibn &lsquo;Abd al-&#7716;akam, d. 257
+A.H.; &lsquo;Abd al-Ra&#7717;&#299;m b. Y&#363;nus, d. 347; Mahommed b. Y&#363;suf
+al-Kind&#299;, d. somewhat later; Ibn Z&#363;l&#257;q, d. 387; &lsquo;Izz al-Mulk
+Mahommed al-Musabbih&#299;, d. 420; Mahommed b. Sal&#257;mah al-Qod&#257;&lsquo;&#299;,
+d. 454; Jam&#257;l al-d&#299;n &lsquo;Al&#299; al-Qif&#7789;&#299;, d. 568; Jam&#257;l al-d&#299;n
+al-&#7716;alab&#299;, d. 623; &lsquo;Abd al-La&#7789;&#299;f al-Baghd&#257;d&#299;, d. 629; Mahommed b.
+&lsquo;Abd al-Az&#299;z al-Idr&#299;s&#299; (history of Upper Egypt), d. 649; his son
+Ja&rsquo;far (history of Cairo), d. 676; Ibn Sa&lsquo;&#299;d, d. 685; Ibr&#257;h&#299;m b.
+Wa&#7779;&#299;f Sh&#257;h; Ibn al-Mutawwaj, d. 703; Mahommed b. Dani&rsquo;&#257;l,
+d. 710; Ja&rsquo;far b. Tha&rsquo;lab Kam&#257;l al-d&#299;n al-Adfu&lsquo;&#299; (history of Upper
+Egypt), d. 730; &lsquo;Abd al-Qar&#363;n al-&#7716;alab&#299;, d. 735; Ibn &#7716;ab&#299;b,
+d. 779; Ibn Duqm&#257;q, d. 790; Ibn Tugh&#257;n, Shih&#257;b al-d&#299;n al-Au&#7717;ad&#299;,
+d. 790; Ibn al-Mulaqqin, d. 806; Maqr&#299;z&#299;, Taqiyy al-d&#299;n
+A&#7717;mad, d. 840; Ibn &#7716;ajar al-&lsquo;Asqal&#257;n&#299;, d. 852; al-Sakh&#257;w&#299;, d. 902;
+Abu&rsquo;l-Mah&#257;sin b. Taghr&#299;bird&#299;, d. 874; Jal&#257;l al-d&#299;n al-Suy&#363;&#7789;&#299;, d. 911;
+Ibn Zunbul al-Ramm&#257;l; Ibn Iy&#257;s, d. after 928; Mahommed b.
+Ab&#299; Sur&#363;r, d. after 1017; Zain al-d&#299;n al Karam&#299;, d. 1033; &lsquo;Abd
+al-Ra&#7717;m&#257;n Jabart&#299;, d. after 1236. Of many of the Mameluke sultans
+there are special chronicles preserved in various European and
+Oriental libraries. The works of many of the authors enumerated
+are topographical and biographical as well as purely historical.
+To these there should be added the Survey of Egypt, called <i>al-tu&#7717;fah
+al-saniyyah</i> of Ibn J&#299;&rsquo;&#257;n, belonging to the time of Kait Bey;
+the treatise on the Egyptian constitution called <i>Zubdat Kashf
+al-Mam&#257;lik</i>, by Khal&#299;l al-&#7826;&#257;hir&#299;, of the same period; and the
+encyclopaedic work on the same subject called <i>&#7778;ub&#7717; al-Insh&#257;</i>, by
+al-Qalqashand&#299;, d. 821.</p>
+
+<p>Arabic poetry is in the main encomiastic and personal, and from
+the beginning of the Omayyad period sovereigns and governors
+paid poets to celebrate their achievements; of those of importance
+who are connected with Egypt we may mention Nusaib, encomiast
+of &lsquo;Abd al-Az&#299;z b. Merw&#257;n, d. 180; the greater N&#257;shi (Abu l-Abb&#257;s
+&lsquo;Abdallah), d. 293; Ibn &#7788;ab&#257;&#7789;ab&#257;, d. 345; Abu&rsquo;l-Raqa&rsquo;maq,
+encomiast of al-Mo&rsquo;izz, d. 399; &#7778;ar&#299;&rsquo; al-Dil&#257; (&lsquo;Al&#299; b. &lsquo;Abd al-W&#257;hid),
+encomiast of the F&#257;&#7789;imite al-&#7826;&#257;hir, d. 412; Sanaj&#257;t al-&#7693;au&#7717;
+(Mahommed b. al-Q&#257;sim), encomiast of &#7716;&#257;kim; &lsquo;Al&#299; b. &lsquo;Abb&#257;d
+al-Iskandar&#299;, encomiast of the vizier al-Af&#7693;al, executed by &#7716;&#257;fi&#7827;;
+Ibn Qal&#257;qis al-Iskandar&#299;, encomiast of the Ayy&#363;bites, d. 607;
+Muhaddhab b. Mam&#275;t&#299;, encomiast of the Ayy&#363;bites, d. 616; Ibn
+Sana&rsquo; al-Mulk, encomiast of the Ayy&#363;bites, d. 658; Ibn al-Munajjim,
+d. 626; Ibn Ma&#7789;r&#363;&#7717;, encomiast of the Ayy&#363;bites, d. 654; Bah&#257;&rsquo; al-d&#299;n
+Zuhair, encomiast of al-&#7778;&#257;li&#7717;, d. 656; Ibn &lsquo;Amm&#257;r, d. 675;
+al-Mi&rsquo;m&#257;r, d. 749; Ibn Nub&#257;tah, d. 768; Ibn Ab&#299; &#7716;ajalah, d. 776;
+Burh&#257;n al-din al-Q&#299;r&#257;&#7789;&#299;, d. 801; Ibn Muk&#257;nis, d. 864; Ibn &#7716;ijjah
+al-&#7716;amaw&#299;, d. 837. Poets distinguished for special lines are al-&#7716;ak&#299;m
+b. D&#257;n&#299;&rsquo; &#257;l, d. 608, author of the Shadow-play; and al-B&#363;s&#299;r&#299;
+(Mahommed b. Sa&lsquo;&#299;d), d. 694, author of the ode in praise of the
+prophet called Burdah. The poets of Egypt are reckoned with
+those of Syria in the <i>Yat&#299;mah</i> of Tha&rsquo; &#257;lib&#299;; a special work upon
+them was written by Ibn Fa&#7693;l all&#257;h (d. 740); and a list of poets of
+the 11th century is given by Khaf&#257;j&#299; in his <i>Rai&#7717;&#257;nat al-alibb&#257;</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The needs of the Egyptian court produced a number of elegant
+letter-writers, of whom the most famous were &lsquo;Abd al-Ra&#7717;&#299;m b.
+&lsquo;Al&#299; al-Bais&#257;ni, ordinarily known as al-Q&#257;&#7693;&#299;&rsquo; al-F&#257;&#7693;il, d. 596, secretary
+of state to Saladin and other Ayy&#363;bite sultans; &lsquo;Im&#257;d al-d&#299;n al-Ispah&#257;n&#299;,
+d. 597, also secretary of state and official chronicler; and
+Ibn &lsquo;Abd al-&#7826;&#257;hir, d. 692, secretary of state to Bibars I. and succeeding
+sultans; he was followed by his son Fa&#7789;&#7717; al-d&#299;n, to whom the
+title &ldquo;Secret writer&rdquo; was first given.</p>
+
+<p>In the subject of law Egypt boasts that the Im&#257;m Sh&#257;fi&lsquo;&#299;, founder
+of one of the schools, resided at Fos&#7789;&#257;&#7789; from 195 till his death in 204;
+his system, though displaced for a time by that invented by the
+F&#257;&#7789;imites, and since the Turkish conquest by the &#7716;anifite system,
+has always been popular in Egypt: in Ayy&#363;bite times it was
+dominant, whereas in Mameluke times all four systems were officially
+recognized. The eminent jurists who flourished in Moslem Egypt
+form a very lengthy list. Among the Egyptian traditionalists the
+most eminent is D&#257;raqu&#7789;n&#299;, d. 385.</p>
+
+<p>Among Egyptian mystics the most famous as authors are the poet
+Ibn al-F&#257;ri&#7693;, d. 632, and Abd al-Wahh&#257;b Sha r&#257;n&#299;, d. 973. Abu&rsquo;l-&#7716;asan
+al-Sh&#257;dhil&#299; (d. 656) is celebrated as the founder of the Sh&#257;dhil&#299;
+order; but there were many others of note. The dictionary of
+physicians, compiled in the 7th century, enumerates nearly sixty
+men of science who resided in Egypt; the best-known among them
+are Sa&lsquo;&#299;d b. Bi&#7789;r&#299;q, Moses Maimonides and Ibn Bai&#7789;&#257;r. Of Egyptian
+miscellaneous writers two of the most celebrated are Ibn Daq&#299;q
+al&rsquo;-&#299;d, d. 702, and Jal&#257;l al-din Suy&#363;&#7789;&#299;.</p>
+
+<p><i>European Authorities.</i>&mdash;For the Moslem conquest, A. J. Butler,
+<i>The Arab Conquest of Egypt</i> (Oxford, 1902); for the period before the
+F&#257;&#7789;imites, Wüstenfeld, &ldquo;Die Statthalter von Ägypten,&rdquo; in <i>Abhandlungen
+der königlichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Göttingen</i>,
+vols. xx. and xxi.; for the F&#257;&#7789;imite period, Wüstenfeld, &ldquo;Geschichte
+der Fatimiden-Chalifen,&rdquo; ibid. vols. xxvi. and xxvii.; for the
+Ayy&#363;bite period, Ibn Khallikan&rsquo;s <i>Biographical Dictionary</i>, translated
+by M&rsquo;G. de Slane (London, 1842-1871); for the Mameluke period,
+Weil, <i>Geschichte der Chalifen</i>, vols. iv. and v. (also called <i>Geschichte
+des Abbasidenchalifats in Ägypten</i>), (Stuttgart, 1860-1862); Sir
+W. Muir, <i>The Mameluke or Slave Dynasty of Egypt</i> (London, 1896);
+for the Turkish period, G. Zaidan, <i>History of Modern Egypt</i> (Arabic),
+vol. ii. (Cairo, 1889). See also Maqrizi, <i>Description topographique
+et historique de l&rsquo;Égypte</i>, translated by Bouriant (Paris, 1895,
+&amp;c.); C. H. Becker, <i>Beiträge zur Geschichte Ägyptens</i> (Strassburg,
+1902).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. S. M.*)</div>
+
+<p>(9) <i>From the French Occupation to the Rise of Mehemet Ali.</i>&mdash;The
+ostensible object of the French expedition to Egypt was to
+reinstate the authority of the Sublime Porte, and suppress the
+Mamelukes; and in the proclamation printed with the Arabic
+types brought from the Propaganda press, and issued shortly
+after the taking of Alexandria, Bonaparte declared that he
+reverenced the prophet Mahomet and the Koran far more than
+the Mamelukes reverenced either, and argued that all men were
+equal except so far as they were distinguished by their intellectual
+and moral excellences, of neither of which the Mamelukes had
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page106" id="page106"></a>106</span>
+any great share. In future all posts in Egypt were to be open
+to all classes of the inhabitants; the conduct of affairs was to
+be committed to the men of talent, virtue, and learning; and
+in proof of the statement that the French were sincere Moslems
+the overthrow of the papal authority in Rome was alleged.
+That there might be no doubt of the friendly feeling of the
+French to the Porte, villages and towns which capitulated to
+the invaders were required to hoist the flags of both the Porte
+and the French republic, and in the thanksgiving prescribed
+to the Egyptians for their deliverance from the Mamelukes,
+prayer was to be offered for both the sultan and the French army.
+It does not appear that the proclamation convinced many of the
+Egyptians of the truth of these professions. After the battle
+of Ambabah, at which the forces of both Mur&#257;d Bey and Ibr&#257;h&#299;m
+Bey were dispersed, the populace readily plundered the houses of
+the beys, and a deputation was sent from al-Azhar to Bonaparte
+to ascertain his intentions; these proved to be a repetition of
+the terms of his proclamation, and, though the combination of
+loyalty to the French with loyalty to the sultan was unintelligible,
+a good understanding was at first established between the
+invaders and the Egyptians. A municipal council was established
+in Cairo, consisting of persons taken from the ranks of the
+sheiks, the Mamelukes and the French; and presently delegates
+from Alexandria and other important towns were added. This
+council did little more than register the decrees of the French
+commander, who continued to exercise dictatorial power. The
+<span class="sidenote">Battle of the Nile.</span>
+destruction of the French fleet at the battle of the
+Nile, and the failure of the French forces sent to Upper
+Egypt (where they reached the first cataract) to obtain
+possession of the person of Mur&#257;d Bey, shook the faith of the
+Egyptians in their invincibility; and in consequence of a series
+of unwelcome innovations the relations between conquerors and
+conquered grew daily more strained, till at last, on the occasion
+of the introduction of a house tax, an insurrection broke out in
+Cairo on the 22nd of October 1798, of which the headquarters
+were in the Moslem university of Azhar. On this occasion the
+French general Dupuy, lieutenant-governor of Cairo, was killed.
+The prompt measures of Bonaparte, aided by the arrival from
+Alexandria of General J. B. Kléber, quickly suppressed this
+rising; but the stabling of the French cavalry in the mosque
+of Azhar gave great and permanent offence. In consequence of
+this affair, the deliberative council was suppressed, but on the
+25th of December a fresh proclamation was issued, reconstituting
+the two divans which had been created by the Turks; the special
+divan was to consist of 14 persons chosen by lot out of 60 government
+nominees, and was to meet daily. The general divan was
+to consist of functionaries, and to meet on emergencies.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of despatches which reached Bonaparte on
+the 3rd of January 1799, announcing the intention of the Porte
+to invade the country with the object of recovering it by force,
+Bonaparte resolved on his Syrian expedition, and appointed
+governors for Cairo, Alexandria, and Upper Egypt, to govern
+during his absence. From that ill-fated expedition he returned
+at the beginning of June. Advantage had been taken of this
+opportunity by Mur&#257;d Bey and Ibr&#257;h&#299;m Bey to collect their
+forces and attempt a joint attack on Cairo, but this Bonaparte
+arrived in time to defeat, and in the last week of July he inflicted
+a crushing defeat on the Turkish army that had landed at
+Aboukir, aided by the British fleet commanded by Sir Sidney
+Smith. Shortly after his victory Bonaparte left Egypt, having
+appointed Kléber to govern in his absence, which he informed
+the sheiks of Cairo was not to last more than three months.
+Kléber himself regarded the condition of the French invaders
+as extremely perilous, and wrote to inform the French republic
+of the facts. A double expedition shortly after Bonaparte&rsquo;s
+departure was sent by the Porte for the recovery of Egypt, one
+force being despatched by sea to Damietta, while another under
+Y&#363;suf Pasha took the land route from Damascus by al-Arish.
+Over the first some success was won, in consequence of which
+the Turks agreed to a convention (signed January 24, 1800),
+by virtue of which the French were to quit Egypt. The Turkish
+troops advanced to Bilbeis, where they were received by the
+sheiks from Cairo, and the Mamelukes also returned to that
+city from their hiding-places. Before the preparations for the
+departure of the French were completed, orders came to Sir
+Sidney Smith from the British government, forbidding the
+carrying out of the convention unless the French army were
+treated as prisoners of war; and when these were communicated
+to Kléber he cancelled the orders previously given to the troops,
+and proceeded to put the country in a state of defence. His
+departure with most of the army to attack the Turks at Mataria
+led to riots in Cairo, in the course of which many Christians were
+slaughtered; but the national party were unable to get possession
+of the citadel, and Kléber, having defeated the Turks, was soon
+able to return to the capital. On the 14th of April he bombarded
+Bulak, and proceeded to bombard Cairo itself, which was taken
+the following night. Order was soon restored, and a fine of
+twelve million francs imposed on the rioters. Mur&#257;d Bey
+sought an interview with Kléber and succeeded in obtaining
+from him the government of Upper Egypt. He died shortly
+afterwards and was succeeded by Osman Bey al-Bard&#299;s&#299;.</p>
+
+<p>On the 14th of June Kléber was assassinated by a fanatic
+named Suleiman of Aleppo, said to have been incited to the deed
+by a Janissary refugee at Jerusalem, who had brought letters
+to the sheiks of the Azhar, who, however, refused to give him
+any encouragement. Three of these, nevertheless, were executed
+by the French as accessories before the fact, and the assassin
+himself was impaled, after torture, in spite of a promise of pardon
+having been made to him on condition of his naming his associates.
+The command of the army then devolved on General J. F.
+(Baron de) Menou (1750-1810), a man who had professed Islam,
+and who endeavoured to conciliate the Moslem population by
+various measures, such as excluding all Christians (with the
+exception of one Frenchman) from the divan, replacing the Copts
+who were in government service by Moslems, and subjecting
+French residents to taxes. Whatever popularity might have
+been gained by these measures was counteracted by his declaration
+of a French protectorate over Egypt, which was to count
+as a French colony.</p>
+
+<p>In the first weeks of March 1801 the English, under Sir R.
+Abercromby, effected a landing at Aboukir, and proceeded to
+invest Alexandria, where on the 21st they were attacked
+by Menou; the French were repulsed, but the English
+<span class="sidenote">French evacuation.</span>
+commander was mortally wounded in the action. On
+the 25th fresh reinforcements arrived under Husain,
+the Kapudan Pasha, or high admiral; and a combined English
+and Turkish force was sent to take Rosetta. On the 30th of
+May, General A. D. Belliard, who had been left in charge at
+Cairo, was assailed on two sides by the British forces under
+General John Hely Hutchinson (afterwards 2nd earl of Donoughmore),
+and the Turkish under Y&#363;suf Pasha; after negotiations
+Belliard agreed to evacuate Cairo and to sail with his 13,734
+troops to France. On the 30th of August, Menou at Alexandria
+was compelled to accept similar conditions, and his force of
+10,000 left for Europe in September. This was the termination
+of the French occupation of Egypt, of which the chief permanent
+monument was the <i>Description de l&rsquo;Égypte</i>, compiled by the
+French savants who accompanied the expedition. Further
+than this, &ldquo;it brought to the attention of a few men in Egypt
+a keen sense of the great advantage of an orderly government,
+and a warm appreciation of the advance that science and learning
+had made in Europe&rdquo; (Hajji Browne, <i>Bonaparte in Egypt and
+the Egyptians of to-day</i>, 1907, p. 268).</p>
+
+<p>Soon after the evacuation of Egypt by the French, the country
+became the scene of more severe troubles, in consequence of the
+attempts of the Turks to destroy the power of the Mamelukes.
+In defiance of promises to the British government, orders were
+transmitted from Constantinople to Husain Pasha, the Turkish
+high admiral, to ensnare and put to death the principal beys.
+Invited to an entertainment, they were, according to the
+Egyptian contemporary historian al-Jabarti, attacked on board
+the flag-ship; Sir Robert Wilson and M. F. Mengin, however,
+state that they were fired on, in open boats, in the Bay of Aboukir.
+They offered an heroic resistance, but were overpowered, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page107" id="page107"></a>107</span>
+some killed, some made prisoners; among the last was Osman
+Bey al-Bard&#299;s&#299;, who was severely wounded. General Hutchinson,
+<span class="sidenote">British, Turks and Mamelukes.</span>
+informed of this treachery, immediately assumed
+threatening measures against the Turks, and in
+consequence the killed, wounded and prisoners were
+given up to him. At the same time Y&#363;suf Pasha
+arrested all the beys in Cairo, but was shortly compelled by the
+British to release them. Such was the beginning of the disastrous
+struggle between the Mamelukes and the Turks.</p>
+
+<p>Mahommed Khosrev was the first Turkish governor of Egypt
+after the expulsion of the French. The form of government,
+however, was not the same as that before the French invasion,
+for the Mamelukes were not reinstated. The pasha, and through
+him the sultan, endeavoured on several occasions either to
+ensnare them or to beguile them into submission; but
+these efforts failing, Mahommed Khosrev took the field, and a
+Turkish detachment 7000 strong was despatched against them
+to Damanhur, whither they had descended from Upper Egypt,
+and was defeated by a small force under al-Alf&#299;; or, as Mengin
+says, by 800 men commanded by al-Bard&#299;s&#299;, when al-Alf&#299; had
+left the field. Their ammunition and guns fell into the hands
+of the Mamelukes.</p>
+
+<p>In March 1803 the British evacuated Alexandria, and Mahommed
+Bey al-Alf&#299; accompanied them to England to consult
+respecting the means to be adopted for restoring the former
+power of the Mamelukes, who meanwhile took Minia and interrupted
+communication between Upper and Lower Egypt. About
+six weeks after, the Arnaut (or Albanian) soldiers in the service
+of Khosrev tumultuously demanded their pay, and surrounded
+the house of the defterd&#257;r (or finance minister), who in vain
+appealed to the pasha to satisfy their claims. The latter opened
+fire from the artillery of his palace on the insurgent soldiery in
+the house of the defterd&#257;r, across the Ezbekia. The citizens of
+Cairo, accustomed to such occurrences, immediately closed their
+shops, and every man who possessed any weapon armed himself.
+The tumult continued all the day, and the next morning a body
+of troops sent out by the pasha failed to quell it. T&#257;hir, the
+commander of the Albanians, then repaired to the citadel, gained
+admittance through an embrasure, and, having obtained possession
+of it, began to cannonade the pasha over the roofs of the
+intervening houses, and then descended with guns to the Ezbekia
+and laid close siege to the palace. On the following day
+Mahommed Khosrev made good his escape, with his women
+and servants and his regular troops, and fled to Damietta by
+the river. This revolt marks the beginning in Egypt of the
+breach between the Albanians and Turks, which ultimately led
+to the expulsion of the latter, and of the rise to power of the
+Albanian Mehemet Ali (<i>q.v.</i>), who was destined to rule the country
+for nearly forty years and be the cause of serious European
+complications.</p>
+
+<p>T&#257;hir Pasha assumed the government, but in twenty-three
+days he met with his death from exactly the same cause as that
+of the overthrow of his predecessor. He refused the
+pay of certain of the Turkish troops, and was immediately
+<span class="sidenote">First appearance of Mehemet Ali.</span>
+assassinated. A desperate conflict ensued between
+the Albanians and Turks; and the palace was set on
+fire and plundered. The masters of Egypt were now
+split into these two factions, animated with the fiercest animosity
+against each other. Mehemet Ali, then in command of an
+Albanian regiment, became the head of the former, but his party
+was the weaker, and he therefore entered into an alliance with
+the Mameluke leaders Ibrahim Bey and &rsquo;Osm&#257;n Bey al-Bard&#299;s&#299;.
+A certain Ahmed Pasha, who was about to proceed to a province
+in Arabia, of which he had been appointed governor, was raised
+to the important post of pasha of Egypt, through the influence
+of the Turks and the favour of the sheiks; but Mehemet Ali,
+who with his Albanians held the citadel, refused to assent to
+their choice; the Mamelukes moved over from El-Giza, whither
+they had been invited by T&#257;hir Pasha, and Ahmed Pasha betook
+himself to the mosque of al-&#7826;&#257;hir, which the French had converted
+into a fortress. He was compelled to surrender by the
+Albanians; the two chiefs of the Turks who killed T&#257;hir Pasha
+were taken with him and put to death, and he himself was detained
+a prisoner. In consequence of the alliance between
+Mehemet Ali and al-Bard&#299;s&#299;, the Albanians gave the citadel over
+to the Mamelukes; and soon after, these allies marched against
+Khosrev Pasha, who having been joined by a considerable body
+of Turks, and being in possession of Damietta, was enabled to
+offer an obstinate resistance. After much loss on both sides,
+he was taken prisoner and brought to Cairo; but he was treated
+with respect. The victorious soldiery sacked the town of
+Damietta, and were guilty of the barbarities usual with them on
+such occasions.</p>
+
+<p>A few days later, Ali Pasha Jaz&#257;irli landed at Alexandria
+with an imperial firm&#257;n constituting him pasha of Egypt, and
+threatened the beys, who now were virtual masters of Upper
+Egypt, as well as of the capital and nearly the whole of Lower
+Egypt. Mehemet Ali and al-Bard&#299;s&#299; therefore descended to
+Rosetta, which had fallen into the hands of a brother of Ali
+Pasha, and having captured the town and its commander, al-Bard&#299;s&#299;
+purposed to proceed against Alexandria; but the troops
+demanded arrears of pay which it was not in his power to give,
+and the pasha had cut the dyke between the lakes of Aboukir
+and Mareotis, thus rendering the approach to Alexandria more
+difficult. Al-Bard&#299;s&#299; and Mehemet Ali therefore returned to
+Cairo. The troubles of Egypt were now increased by an insufficient
+inundation, and great scarcity prevailed, aggravated
+by the taxation to which the beys were compelled to resort in
+order to pay the troops; while murder and rapine prevailed
+in the capital, the riotous soldiery being under little or no
+control. Meanwhile, Ali Pasha, who had been behaving with
+violence towards the Franks in Alexandria, received a <i>hatt-i-sherif</i>
+from the sultan, which he sent by his secretary to Cairo.
+It announced that the beys should live peaceably in Egypt, with
+an annual pension each of fifteen purses (a &ldquo;purse&rdquo; = 500
+piastres) and other privileges, but that the government should
+be in the hands of the pasha. To this the beys assented,
+but with considerable misgivings; for they had intercepted
+letters from Ali to the Albanians, endeavouring to alienate them
+from their side to his own. Deceptive answers were returned
+<span class="sidenote">The Mamelukes and Ali Pasha.</span>
+to these, and Ali was induced by them to advance
+towards Cairo at the head of 3000 men. The forces
+of the beys, with the Albanians, encamped near him
+at Shalak&#257;n, and he fell back on a place called Zufeyta.
+They next seized his boats conveying soldiers, servants, and his
+ammunition and baggage; and, following him, they demanded
+wherefore he brought with him so numerous a body of men, in
+opposition to usage and to their previous warning. Finding
+they would not allow his troops to advance, forbidden himself
+to retreat with them to Alexandria, and being surrounded by
+the enemy, he would have hazarded a battle, but his men refused
+to fight. He therefore went to the camp of the beys, and his
+army was compelled to retire to Syria. In the hands of the beys
+Ali Pasha again attempted treachery. A horseman was seen to
+leave his tent one night at full gallop; he was the bearer of a
+letter to Osm&#257;n Bey Hasan, the governor of Kine. This offered
+a fair pretext to the Mamelukes to rid themselves of a man
+proved to be a perfidious tyrant. He was sent under a guard
+of forty-five men towards the Syrian frontier; and about a
+week after, news was received that in a skirmish with some of
+his own soldiers he had fallen mortally wounded.</p>
+
+<p>The death of Ali Pasha produced only temporary tranquillity;
+in a few days (February 12, 1804) the return of Mahommed Bey
+al-Alf&#299; (called the Great) from England was the signal for fresh
+disturbances, which, by splitting the Mamelukes into two parties,
+accelerated their final overthrow. An ancient jealousy existed
+between al-Alf&#299; and the other most powerful bey, al-Bard&#299;s&#299;.
+The latter was now supreme among the Mamelukes, and this
+fact considerably heightened their old enmity. While the guns
+of the citadel, those at Old Cairo, and even those of the palace
+of al-Bard&#299;s&#299;, were thrice fired in honour of al-Alf&#299;, preparations
+were immediately begun to oppose him. His partisans were
+collected opposite Cairo, and al-Alf&#299; the Less held Giza; but
+treachery was among them; Husain Bey (a relative of al-Alf&#299;)
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page108" id="page108"></a>108</span>
+was assassinated by emissaries of al-Bard&#299;s&#299;, and Mehemet Ali,
+with his Albanians, gained possession of Giza, which was, as
+usual, given over to the troops to pillage. In the meanwhile
+al-Alf&#299; the Great embarked at Rosetta, and not apprehending
+opposition, was on his way to Cairo, when a little south of the
+town of Man&#363;f he encountered a party of Albanians, and with
+difficulty made his escape. He gained the eastern branch of the
+Nile, but the river had become dangerous, and he fled to the
+desert. There he had several hairbreadth escapes, and at last
+secreted himself among a tribe of Arabs at R&#257;s al-W&#257;d&#299;. A
+change in the fortune of al-Bard&#299;s&#299;, however, favoured his plans
+for the future. That chief, in order to satisfy the demands of
+the Albanians for their pay, gave orders to levy heavy contributions
+from the citizens of Cairo; and this new oppression
+roused them to rebellion. The Albanians, alarmed for their
+safety, assured the populace that they would not allow the order
+to be executed; and Mehemet Ali himself caused a proclamation
+to be made to that effect. Thus the Albanians became the
+favourites of the people, and took advantage of their opportunity.
+Three days later (March 12th, 1804) they beset the house
+of the aged Ibrahim Bey, and that of al-Bard&#299;s&#299;, both of whom
+effected their escape with difficulty. The Mamelukes in the
+citadel directed a fire of shot and shell on the houses of the
+Albanians which were situated in the Ezbek&#299;a; but, on hearing
+of the flight of their chiefs, they evacuated the place; and
+Mehemet Ali, on gaining possession of it, once more proclaimed
+Mahommed Khosrev pasha of Egypt. For one day and a half
+he enjoyed the title; the friends of the late T&#257;hir Pasha then
+accomplished his second degradation,<a name="fa22c" id="fa22c" href="#ft22c"><span class="sp">22</span></a> and Cairo was again the
+scene of terrible enormities, the Albanians revelling in the houses
+of the Mameluke chiefs, whose hareems met with no mercy at
+their hands. These events were the signal for the reappearance
+of al-Alf&#299;.</p>
+
+<p>The Albanians now invited Ahmed Pasha Khorsh&#299;d to assume
+the reins of government, and he without delay proceeded from
+Alexandria to Cairo. The forces of the partisans of al-Bard&#299;s&#299;
+were ravaging the country a few miles south of the capital and
+intercepting the supplies of corn by the river; a little later they
+passed to the north of Cairo and successively took Bilbeis and
+Kalyub, plundering the villages, destroying the crops, and
+slaughtering the herds of the inhabitants. Cairo was itself in
+a state of tumult, suffering severely from a scarcity of grain, and
+the heavy exactions of the pasha to meet the demands of his
+turbulent troops, at that time augmented by a Turkish detachment.
+The shops were closed, and the unfortunate people
+assembled in great crowds, crying &ldquo;Y&#257; Lat&#299;f! Y&#257; Lat&#299;f!&rdquo; (&ldquo;O
+Gracious [God]!&rdquo;) Al-Alf&#299; and Osm&#257;n Bey Hasan had professed
+allegiance to the pasha; but they soon after declared against
+him, and they were now approaching from the south; and
+having repulsed Mehemet Ali, they took the two fortresses of
+Tur&#257;. These Mehemet Ali speedily retook by night with 4000
+infantry and cavalry; but the enterprise was only partially
+successful. On the following day the other Mamelukes north
+of the metropolis actually penetrated into the suburbs; but a
+few days later were defeated in a battle fought at Shubra, with
+heavy loss on both sides. This reverse in a measure united the
+two great Mameluke parties, though their chiefs remained at
+enmity. Al-Bard&#299;s&#299; passed to the south of Cairo, and the Mamelukes
+gradually retreated towards Upper Egypt. Thither the
+pasha despatched three successive expeditions (one of which was
+commanded by Mehemet Ali), and many battles were fought,
+but without decisive result.</p>
+
+<p>At this period another calamity befell Egypt; about 3000
+Del&#299;s (Kurdish troops) arrived in Cairo from Syria. These troops
+had been sent for by Khorsh&#299;d in order to strengthen himself
+against the Albanians; and the events of this portion of the
+history afford sad proof of their ferocity and brutal enormities,
+in which they far exceeded the ordinary Turkish soldiers and
+even the Albanians. Their arrival immediately recalled Mehemet
+Ali and his party from the war, and instead of aiding Khorsh&#299;d
+was the proximate cause of his overthrow.</p>
+
+<p>Cairo was ripe for revolt; the pasha was hated for his tyranny
+and extortion, and execrated for the deeds of his troops, especially
+those of the Del&#299;s: the sheiks enjoined the people to close
+their shops, and the soldiers clamoured for pay. At this juncture
+a firm&#257;n arrived from Constantinople conferring on Mehemet
+Ali the pashalic of Jedda; but the occurrences of a few days
+raised him to that of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>On the 12th of Safar 1220 (May 12th, 1805) the sheiks, with
+an immense concourse of the inhabitants, assembled in the house
+of the &#7731;&#257;&#7693;&#299;; and the ulem&#257;, amid the prayers and
+cries of the people, wrote a full statement of the heavy
+<span class="sidenote">Struggle between Khorsh&#299;d and Mehemet Ali.</span>
+wrongs which they had endured under the administration
+of the pasha. The ulem&#257;, in answer, were desired
+to go to the citadel; but they were apprised of
+treachery; and on the following day, having held
+another council at the house of the &#7731;&#257;&#7693;&#299;, they proceeded to
+Mehemet Ali and informed him that the people would no longer
+submit to Khorsh&#299;d. &ldquo;Then whom will ye have?&rdquo; said he.
+&ldquo;We will have <i>thee</i>,&rdquo; they replied, &ldquo;to govern us according to
+the laws; for we see in thy countenance that thou art possessed
+of justice and goodness.&rdquo; Mehemet Ali seemed to hesitate, and
+then complied, and was at once invested. On this, a bloody
+struggle began between the two pashas. Khorsh&#299;d, being
+informed of the insurrection, immediately prepared to stand a
+siege in the citadel. Two chiefs of the Albanians joined his
+party, but many of his soldiers deserted. Mehemet Ali&rsquo;s great
+strength lay in the devotion of the citizens of Cairo, who looked
+on him as a deliverer from their afflictions; and great numbers
+armed themselves, advising constantly with Mehemet Ali,
+having the sayyid Omar and the sheiks at their head, and
+guarding the town at night. On the 19th of the same month
+Mehemet Ali began to besiege Khorsh&#299;d. After the siege had
+continued many days, Khorsh&#299;d gave orders to cannonade and
+bombard the town; and for six days his commands were executed
+with little interruption, the citadel itself also lying between two
+fires. Mehemet Ali&rsquo;s position at this time was very critical:
+his troops became mutinous for their pay; the sil&#257;hd&#257;r, who
+had commanded one of the expeditions against the Mamelukes,
+advanced to the relief of Khorsh&#299;d; and the latter ordered the
+Del&#299;s to march to his assistance. The firing ceased on the
+Friday, but began again on the eve of Saturday and lasted until
+the next Friday. On the day following (May 28th) news came
+of the arrival at Alexandria of a messenger from Constantinople.
+The ensuing night in Cairo presented a curious spectacle; many
+of the inhabitants, believing that this envoy would put an end
+to their miseries, fired off their weapons as they paraded the
+streets with bands of music. The sil&#257;hd&#257;r, imagining the noise
+to be a fray, marched in haste towards the citadel, while its
+garrison sallied forth and began throwing up entrenchments
+in the quarter of Arab al-Yes&#257;r, but were repulsed by the armed
+inhabitants and the soldiers stationed there; and during all this
+time the cannonade and bombardment from the citadel, and on it
+from the batteries on the hill, continued unabated.</p>
+
+<p>The envoy brought a firm&#257;n confirming Mehemet Ali and
+ordering Khorsh&#299;d to go to Alexandria, there to await further
+orders; but this he refused to do, on the ground that
+he had been appointed by a <i>hatt-i-sher&#299;f</i>. The firing
+<span class="sidenote">Mehemet Ali granted the pashalic.</span>
+ceased on the following day, but the troubles of the
+people were rather increased than assuaged; murders
+and robberies were daily committed by the soldiery,
+the shops were all shut and some of the streets barricaded. While
+these scenes were being enacted, al-Alf&#299; was besieging Damanhur,
+and the other beys were returning towards Cairo, Khorsh&#299;d
+having called them to his assistance; but Mehemet Ali forced
+them to retreat.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after this, a squadron under the command of the Turkish
+high admiral arrived at Aboukir Bay, with despatches confirming
+the firm&#257;n brought by the former envoy, and authorizing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page109" id="page109"></a>109</span>
+Mehemet Ali to continue to discharge the functions of governor.
+Khorsh&#299;d at first refused to yield; but at length, on condition
+that his troops should be paid, he evacuated the citadel and
+embarked for Rosetta.</p>
+
+<p>Mehemet Ali now possessed the title of Governor of Egypt,
+but beyond the walls of Cairo his authority was everywhere
+disputed by the beys, who were joined by the army of the
+sil&#257;hd&#257;r of Khorsh&#299;d; and many Albanians deserted from his
+ranks. To replenish his empty coffers he was also compelled to
+levy exactions, principally from the Copts. An attempt was
+made to ensnare certain of the beys, who were encamped north
+of Cairo. On the 17th of August 1805 the dam of the canal of
+Cairo was to be cut, and some chiefs of Mehemet Ali&rsquo;s party
+wrote, informing them that he would go forth early on that
+morning with most of his troops to witness the ceremony, inviting
+them to enter and seize the city, and, to deceive them, stipulating
+for a certain sum of money as a reward. The dam, however,
+was cut early in the preceding night, without any ceremony.
+On the following morning, these beys, with their Mamelukes,
+a very numerous body, broke open the gate of the suburb
+al-Husainia, and gained admittance into the city from the north,
+through the gate called B&#257;b el-Fut&#363;&#7717;. They marched along the
+principal street for some distance, with kettle-drums behind each
+company, and were received with apparent joy by the citizens.
+At the mosque called the Ashrafia they separated, one party
+proceeding to the Azhar and the houses of certain sheiks, and
+the other continuing along the main street, and through the
+gate called B&#257;b Zuw&#275;la, where they turned up towards the
+citadel. Here they were fired on by some soldiers from the
+houses; and with this signal a terrible massacre began. Falling
+back towards their companions, they found the bye-streets
+closed; and in that part of the main thoroughfare called Bain al-Kasrain
+they were suddenly placed between two fires. Thus
+shut up in a narrow street, some sought refuge in the collegiate
+mosque Barkukia, while the remainder fought their way through
+their enemies and escaped over the city-wall with the loss of
+their horses. Two Mamelukes had in the meantime succeeded,
+by great exertions, in giving the alarm to their comrades in the
+quarter of the Azhar, who escaped by the eastern gate called
+B&#257;b al-Ghoraib. A horrible fate awaited those who had shut
+themselves up in the Barkukia. Having begged for quarter
+<span class="sidenote">First massacre of the Mamelukes.</span>
+and surrendered, they were immediately stripped nearly
+naked, and about fifty were slaughtered on the spot;
+and about the same number were dragged away, with
+every brutal aggravation of their pitiful condition, to
+Mehemet Ali. Among them were four beys, one of
+whom, driven to madness by Mehemet Ali&rsquo;s mockery, asked for
+a drink of water; his hands were untied that he might take the
+bottle, but he snatched a dagger from one of the soldiers, rushed
+at the pasha, and fell covered with wounds. The wretched
+captives were then chained and left in the court of the pasha&rsquo;s
+house; and on the following morning the heads of their comrades
+who had perished the day before were skinned and stuffed
+with straw before their eyes. One bey and two others paid their
+ransom and were released; the rest, without exception, were
+tortured and put to death in the course of the ensuing night.
+Eighty-three heads (many of them those of Frenchmen and
+Albanians) were stuffed and sent to Constantinople, with a
+boast that the Mameluke chiefs were utterly destroyed. Thus
+ended Mehemet Ali&rsquo;s first massacre of his too confiding enemies.</p>
+
+<p>The beys, after this, appear to have despaired of regaining
+their ascendancy; most of them retreated to Upper Egypt,
+and an attempt at compromise failed. Al-Alf&#299; offered his submission
+on the condition of the cession of the Fayum and other
+provinces; but this was refused, and that chief gained two
+successive victories over the pasha&rsquo;s troops, many of whom
+deserted to him.</p>
+
+<p>At length, in consequence of the remonstrances of the English,
+and a promise made by al-Alf&#299; of 1500 purses, the Porte consented
+to reinstate the twenty-four beys and to place al-Alf&#299; at their
+head; but this measure met with the opposition of Mehemet Ali
+and the determined resistance of the majority of the Mamelukes,
+who, rather than have al-Alf&#299; at their head, preferred their
+present condition; for the enmity of al-Bard&#299;s&#299; had not subsided,
+and he commanded the voice of most of the other beys. In
+pursuance of the above plan, a squadron under S&#257;lih Pasha,
+shortly before appointed high admiral, arrived at Alexandria
+on the 1st of July 1806 with 3000 regular troops and a successor
+to Mehemet Ali, who was to receive the pashalik of Salonica.
+This wily chief professed his willingness to obey the commands
+of the Porte, but stated that his troops, to whom he owed a
+vast sum of money, opposed his departure. He induced the
+ulem&#257; to sign a letter, praying the sultan to revoke the command
+for reinstating the beys, persuaded the chiefs of the Albanian
+troops to swear allegiance to him, and sent 2000 purses contributed
+by them to Constantinople. Al-Alf&#299; was at that time
+besieging Damanhur, and he gained a signal victory over the
+pasha&rsquo;s troops; but the dissensions of the beys destroyed their
+last chance of a return to power. Al-Alf&#299; and his partisans were
+unable to pay the sum promised to the Porte; S&#257;lih Pasha
+received plenipotentiary powers from Constantinople, in consequence
+of the letter from the ulem&#257;; and, on the condition
+of Mehemet Ali&rsquo;s paying 4000 purses to the Porte, it was decided
+that he should continue in his post, and the reinstatement of
+the beys was abandoned. Fortune continued to favour the
+pasha. In the following month al-Bard&#299;s&#299; died, aged forty-eight
+years; and soon after, a scarcity of provisions excited the troops
+of al-Alf&#299; to revolt. That bey very reluctantly raised the siege
+of Damanhur, being in daily expectation of the arrival of an
+English army; and at the village of Shubra-ment he was
+attacked by a sudden illness, and died on the 30th of January
+1807, at the age of fifty-five. Thus was the pasha relieved of
+his two most formidable enemies; and shortly after he defeated
+Sh&#257;h&#299;n Bey, with the loss to the latter of his artillery and baggage
+and 300 men killed or taken prisoners.</p>
+
+<p>On the 17th of March 1807 a British fleet appeared off Alexandria,
+having on board nearly 5000 troops, under the command
+of General A. Mackenzie Fraser; and the place,
+being disaffected towards Mehemet Ali, opened its
+<span class="sidenote">The British expedition of 1807.</span>
+gates to them. Here they first heard of the death
+of al-Alf&#299;, upon whose co-operation they had founded
+their chief hopes of success; and they immediately despatched
+messengers to his successor and to the other beys, inviting them
+to Alexandria. The British resident, Major Missett, having represented
+the importance of taking Rosetta and Rahmanieh, to secure
+supplies for Alexandria, General Fraser, with the concurrence
+of the admiral, Sir John Duckworth, detached the 31st regiment
+and the Chasseurs Britanniques, accompanied by some field
+artillery under Major-General Wauchope and Brigadier-General
+Meade, on this service; and these troops entered Rosetta
+without encountering any opposition; but as soon as they
+had dispersed among the narrow streets, the garrison opened a
+deadly fire on them from the latticed windows and the roofs of
+the houses. They effected a retreat on Aboukir and Alexandria,
+after a very heavy loss of 185 killed and 281 wounded, General
+Wauchope and three officers being among the former, and General
+Meade and nineteen officers among the latter. The heads of
+the slain were fixed on stakes on each side of the road crossing
+the Ezbek&#299;a in Cairo.</p>
+
+<p>Mehemet Ali, meanwhile, was conducting an expedition
+against the beys in Upper Egypt, and he had defeated them
+near Assiut, when he heard of the arrival of the British. In
+great alarm lest the beys should join them, especially as they
+were far north of his position, he immediately sent messengers
+to his rivals, promising to comply with all their demands
+if they should join in expelling the invaders; and this proposal
+being agreed to, both armies marched towards Cairo on opposite
+sides of the river.</p>
+
+<p>To return to the unfortunate British expedition. The possession
+of Rosetta being deemed indispensable, Brigadier-Generals
+Sir William Stewart and Oswald were despatched thither with
+2500 men. For thirteen days a cannonade of the town was
+continued without effect; and on the 20th of April, news
+having come in from the advanced guard at Ham&#257;d of large
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page110" id="page110"></a>110</span>
+reinforcements to the besieged, General Stewart was compelled
+to retreat; and a dragoon was despatched to Lieutenant-colonel
+Macleod, commanding at Ham&#257;d, with orders to fall back.
+The messenger, however, was unable to penetrate to the spot;
+and the advanced guard, consisting of a detachment of the 31st,
+two companies of the 78th, one of the 35th, and De Roll&rsquo;s
+regiment, with a picquet of dragoons, the whole mustering
+733 men, was surrounded, and, after a gallant resistance, the
+survivors, who had expended all their ammunition, became
+prisoners of war. General Stewart regained Alexandria with the
+remainder of his force, having lost, in killed, wounded and
+missing, nearly 900 men. Some hundreds of British heads
+were now exposed on stakes in Cairo, and the prisoners were
+marched between these mutilated remains of their countrymen.</p>
+
+<p>The beys became divided in their wishes, one party being
+desirous of co-operating with the British, the other with the
+pasha. These delays proved ruinous to their cause; and
+General Fraser, despairing of their assistance, evacuated Alexandria
+on the 14th of September. From that date to the spring
+of 1811 the beys from time to time relinquished certain of their
+demands; the pasha on his part granted them what before had
+been withheld; the province of the Fayum, and part of those
+of Giza and Ben&#299;-Suef, were ceded to Sh&#257;h&#299;n; and a great
+portion of the Sa&lsquo;&#299;d, on the condition of paying the land-tax,
+to the others. Many of them took up their abode in Cairo, but
+tranquillity was not secured; several times they met the pasha&rsquo;s
+forces in battle and once gained a signal victory. Early in the
+year 1811, the preparations for an expedition against the Wahh&#257;b&#299;s
+in Arabia being complete, all the Mameluke beys then in
+Cairo were invited to the ceremony of investing Mehemet Ali&rsquo;s
+favourite son, T&#363;s&#363;n, with a pelisse and the command of the
+army. As on the former occasion, the unfortunate Mamelukes
+fell into the snare. On the 1st of March, Sh&#257;h&#299;n Bey and the
+other chiefs (one only excepted) repaired with their retinues to
+the citadel, and were courteously received by the pasha. Having
+taken coffee, they formed in procession, and, preceded and
+followed by the pasha&rsquo;s troops, slowly descended the steep and
+narrow road leading to the great gate of the citadel; but as
+soon as the Mamelukes arrived at the gate it was suddenly
+closed before them. The last of those to leave before the gate
+was shut were Albanians under S&#257;lih Kush. To these troops
+their chief now made known the pasha&rsquo;s orders to massacre
+all the Mamelukes within the citadel; therefore, having returned
+<span class="sidenote">Final massacre of the Mamelukes.</span>
+by another way, they gained the summits of the walls
+and houses that hem in the road in which the Mamelukes
+were confined, and some stationed themselves
+upon the eminences of the rock through which that
+road is partly cut. Thus securely placed, they began
+a heavy fire on their victims; and immediately the troops who
+closed the procession, and who had the advantage of higher
+ground, followed their example. Of the betrayed chiefs, many
+were laid low in a few moments; some, dismounting, and
+throwing off their outer robes, vainly sought, sword in hand, to
+return, and escape by some other gate. The few who regained
+the summit of the citadel experienced the same fate as the rest,
+for no quarter was given. Four hundred and seventy Mamelukes
+entered the citadel; and of these very few, if any, escaped.
+One of these is said to have been a bey. According to some,
+he leapt his horse from the ramparts, and alighted uninjured,
+though the horse was killed by the fall; others say that he was
+prevented from joining his comrades, and discovered the treachery
+while waiting without the gate. He fled and made his way to
+Syria. This massacre was the signal for an indiscriminate
+slaughter of the Mamelukes throughout Egypt, orders to this
+effect being transmitted to every governor; and in Cairo itself
+the houses of the beys were given over to the soldiery. During
+the two following days the pasha and his son T&#363;s&#363;n rode about
+the streets and tried to stop the atrocities; but order was not
+restored until 500 houses had been completely pillaged. The
+heads of the beys were sent to Constantinople.</p>
+
+<p>A remnant of the Mamelukes fled to Nubia, and a tranquillity
+was restored to Egypt to which it had long been unaccustomed.
+In the year following the massacre the unfortunate exiles were
+attacked by Ibrahim Pasha, the eldest son of Mehemet Ali, in
+the fortified town of Ibr&#299;m, in Nubia. Here the want of provisions
+forced them to evacuate the place; a few who surrendered
+were beheaded, and the rest went farther south and built the
+town of New Dongola (correctly Dunkulah), where the venerable
+Ibrahim Bey died in 1816, at the age of eighty. As their numbers
+thinned, they endeavoured to maintain their little power by
+training some hundreds of blacks; but again, on the approach of
+Ismail, another son of the pasha of Egypt, sent with an army in
+1820 to subdue Nubia and Senn&#257;r, some returned to Egypt and
+settled in Cairo, while the rest, amounting to about 100 persons,
+fled in dispersed parties to the countries adjacent to Senn&#257;r.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. A Paton, <i>History of the Egyptian Revolution</i> (2 vols., 2nd
+ed., enlarged 1870); and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">French Revolutionary Wars</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. S. P.; S. L.-P.; D. S. M.*)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2">3. <i>Modern History.</i></p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>Rule of Mehemet Ali.</i>&mdash;Mehemet Ali was now undisputed
+master of Egypt, and his efforts henceforth were directed primarily
+to the maintenance of his practical independence. The
+suzerainty of the sultan he acknowledged, and at the reiterated
+commands of the Porte he despatched in 1811 an army of 8000
+men, including 2000 horse, under the command of his son T&#363;s&#363;n,
+a youth of sixteen, against the Wahh&#257;b&#299;s (<i>q.v.</i>). After a successful
+advance, this force met with a serious repulse at the pass
+of Jedeida, near Safra, and retreated to Yembo&rsquo; (Yambu). In
+the following year T&#363;s&#363;n, having received reinforcements, again
+assumed the offensive, and captured Med&#299;na after a prolonged
+siege. He next took Jidda and Mecca, defeating the Wahh&#257;b&#299;s
+beyond the latter place and capturing their general. But some
+mishaps followed, and Mehemet Ali, who had determined to
+conduct the war in person, left Egypt for that purpose in the
+summer of 1813. In Arabia he encountered serious obstacles
+from the nature of the country and the harassing mode of
+<span class="sidenote">Wars in Arabia.</span>
+warfare adopted by his adversaries. His arms met
+with various fortunes; but on the whole his forces
+proved superior to those of the enemy. He deposed
+and exiled the sharif of Mecca, and after the death of the Wahh&#257;b&#299;
+leader Saud II. he concluded in 1815 a treaty with Saud&rsquo;s son
+and successor, Abdullah. Hearing of the escape of Napoleon
+from Elba&mdash;and fearing danger to Egypt from the plans of France
+or Great Britain&mdash;Mehemet Ali returned to Cairo by way of
+Kosseir and Kena. He reached the capital on the day of the
+battle of Waterloo. His return was hastened by reports that
+the Turks, whose cause he was upholding in Arabia, were
+treacherously planning an invasion of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>During Mehemet Ali&rsquo;s absence in Arabia his representative
+at Cairo had completed the confiscation, begun in 1808, of almost
+all the lands belonging to private individuals, who were forced
+to accept instead inadequate pensions. By this revolutionary
+method of land &ldquo;nationalization&rdquo; Mehemet Ali became proprietor
+of nearly all the soil of Egypt, an iniquitous measure
+against which the Egyptians had no remedy. The attempt which
+in this year (1815) the pasha made to reorganize his troops on
+European lines led, however, to a formidable mutiny in Cairo.
+Mehemet Ali&rsquo;s life was endangered, and he sought refuge by night
+in the citadel, while the soldiery committed many acts of plunder.
+The revolt was reduced by presents to the chiefs of the insurgents,
+and Mehemet Ali ordered that the sufferers by the disturbances
+should receive compensation from the treasury. The project
+of the <i>Niz&#257;m Gedid</i> (New System), as the European system was
+called, was, in consequence of this mutiny, abandoned for a time.</p>
+
+<p>T&#363;s&#363;n returned to Egypt on hearing of the military revolt at
+Cairo, but died in 1816 at the early age of twenty. Mehemet Ali,
+dissatisfied with the treaty concluded with the Wahh&#257;b&#299;s, and
+with the non-fulfilment of certain of its clauses, determined to
+send another army to Arabia, and to include in it the soldiers
+who had recently proved unruly. This expedition, under his
+eldest son Ibrahim Pasha, left in the autumn of 1816. The war
+was long and arduous, but in 1818 Ibrahim captured the Wahh&#257;b&#299;
+capital of Deraiya. Abdullah, their chief, was made prisoner,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page111" id="page111"></a>111</span>
+and with his treasurer and secretary was sent to Constantinople,
+where, in spite of Ibrahim&rsquo;s promise of safety, and of Mehemet
+Ali&rsquo;s intercession in their favour, they were put to death. At
+the close of the year 1819, Ibrahim returned to Cairo, having
+subdued all present opposition in Arabia.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile the pasha had turned his attention to the improvement
+of the manufactures of Egypt, and engaged very largely
+in commerce. He created for himself a monopoly in the chief
+products of the country, to the further impoverishment of the
+people, and set up and kept going for years factories which never
+paid. But some of his projects were sound. The work of digging
+(1819-1820) the new canal of Alexandria, called the Mahmudiya
+(after the reigning sultan of Turkey), was specially important.
+The old canal had long fallen into decay, and the necessity of a
+safe channel between Alexandria and the Nile was much felt.
+Such was the object of the canal then excavated, and it answered
+its purpose; but the sacrifice of life was enormous (fully 20,000
+workmen perished), and the labour of the unhappy fellahin was
+forced. Another notable fact in the economic progress of the
+country was the development of the cultivation of cotton in
+the Delta in 1822 and onwards. The cotton grown had been
+brought from the Sudan by Maho Bey, and the organization of
+the new industry&mdash;from which in a few years Mehemet Ali
+was enabled to extract considerable revenues&mdash;was entrusted
+to a Frenchman named Jumel.</p>
+
+<p>In 1820 Mehemet Ali ordered the conquest of the eastern
+Sudan to be undertaken. He first sent an expedition westward
+(Feb. 1820) which conquered and annexed the oasis of
+Siwa. Among the pasha&rsquo;s reasons for wishing to
+<span class="sidenote">Conquest of the Sudan begun.</span>
+extend his rule southward were the desire to capture
+the valuable caravan trade then going towards the Red
+Sea, and to secure the rich gold mines which he believed to exist
+in Senn&#257;r. He also saw in the campaign a means of getting rid
+of the disaffected troops, and of obtaining a sufficient number of
+captives to form the nucleus of the new army. The forces
+destined for this service were led by Ismail, then the youngest
+son of Mehemet Ali; they consisted of between 4000 and 5000
+men, Turks and Arabs, and left Cairo in July 1820. Nubia at
+once submitted, the Shagia Arabs immediately beyond the
+province of Dongola were worsted, the remnant of the Mamelukes
+dispersed, and Senn&#257;r reduced without a battle. Mahommed
+Bey, the defterd&#257;r, with another force of about the same strength,
+was then sent by Mehemet Ali against Kordofan with a like
+result, but not without a hard-fought engagement. In October
+1822 Ismail was, with his retinue, burnt to death by Nimr, the
+<i>mek</i> (king) of Shendi; and the defterd&#257;r, a man infamous for his
+cruelty, assumed the command of those provinces, and exacted
+terrible retribution from the innocent inhabitants. Khartum was
+founded at this time, and in the following years the rule of the
+Egyptians was largely extended and control obtained of the
+Red Sea ports of Suakin and Massawa (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sudan</a></span>: <i>History</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In 1824 a native rebellion of a religious character broke out
+in Upper Egypt headed by one A&#7717;mad, an inhabitant of Es-S&#257;limiya,
+a village situated a few miles above Thebes. He proclaimed
+himself a prophet, and was soon followed by between
+20,000 and 30,000 insurgents, mostly peasants, but some of them
+deserters from the &ldquo;Niz&#257;m Gedid,&rdquo; for that force was yet in a
+half-organized state, and in part declared for the impostor.
+The insurrection was crushed by Mehemet Ali, and about one-fourth
+of Ahmad&rsquo;s followers perished, but he himself escaped
+and was never after heard of. Few of these unfortunates
+possessed any other weapon than the long staff (<i>nebbut</i>) of the
+Egyptian peasant; still they offered an obstinate resistance,
+and the combat in which they were defeated resembled a
+massacre. This movement was the last internal attempt to
+destroy the pasha&rsquo;s authority.</p>
+
+<p>The fellahin, a patient, long-suffering race save when stirred
+by religious fanaticism, submitted to the kurbash,
+freely used by the Turkish and Bashi Bazuk tax-gatherers
+employed by Mehemet Ali to enforce his
+<span class="sidenote">Sufferings of the fellahin.</span>
+system of taxation, monopolies, corvée and conscription.
+Under this régime the resources of the country were
+impoverished, while the finances fell into complete and incomprehensible
+chaos.</p>
+
+<p>A vivid picture of the condition to which Egypt was reduced
+is painted in the report drawn up in 1838 by the British consul-general,
+Colonel Campbell:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The government (he wrote), possessing itself of the necessaries of
+life at prices fixed by itself, disposes of them at arbitrary prices.
+The fellah is thus deprived of his harvest and falls into arrears
+with his taxes, and is harassed and bastinadoed to force him to pay
+his debts. This leads to deterioration of agriculture and lessens the
+production. The pasha having imposed high taxes has caused
+the high prices of the necessaries of life. It would be difficult for a
+foreigner now coming to Egypt to form a just idea of the actual state
+of the country as compared with its former state. In regard to the
+general rise in prices, all the ground cultivated under the Mamelukes
+was employed for producing food&mdash;wheat, barley, beans, &amp;c.&mdash;in
+immense quantities. The people reared fowls, sheep, goats, &amp;c.,
+and the prices were one-sixth, or even one-tenth, of those at present.
+This continued until Mehemet Ali became viceroy in 1805. From
+that period until the establishment of monopolies prices have
+gradually increased; but the great increase has chiefly taken place
+since 1824, when the pasha established his regular army, navy and
+factories.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The conclusion in 1838 of a commercial treaty with Turkey,
+negotiated by Sir Henry Bulwer (Lord Dalling), struck a death-blow
+to the system of monopolies, though the application of the
+treaty to Egypt was delayed for some years. The picture of
+Egypt under Mehemet Ali is nevertheless not complete without
+regard being had to the beneficent side of his rule. Public order
+was rendered perfect; the Nile and the highways were secure
+to all travellers, Christian or Moslem; the Bedouin tribes were
+won over to peaceful pursuits, and genuine efforts were made
+to promote education and the study of medicine. To European
+merchants, on whom he was dependent for the sale of his exports,
+Mehemet Ali showed much favour, and under his influence the
+port of Alexandria again rose into importance. It was also
+under Mehemet Ali&rsquo;s encouragement that the overland transit
+of goods from Europe to India via Egypt was resumed.</p>
+
+<p>Mehemet Ali was fully conscious that the empire which he had
+so laboriously built up might at any time have to be defended
+by force of arms against his master Sultan Mahmud II., whose
+whole policy had been directed to curbing the power of his too
+ambitious valis, and who was under the influence of the personal
+enemies of the pasha of Egypt, notably of Khosrev, the grand
+vizier, who had never forgiven his humiliation in Egypt in 1803.
+Mahmud also was already planning reforms borrowed from the
+West, and Mehemet Ali, who had had plenty of opportunity of
+observing the superiority of European methods of warfare,
+was determined to anticipate the sultan in the creation of a fleet
+and an army on modern lines, partly as a measure of precaution,
+partly as an instrument for the realization of yet wider schemes
+of ambition. Before the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence
+in 1821 he had already expended much time and energy
+in organizing a fleet and in training, under the supervision of
+French instructors, native officers and artificers; though it was
+not till 1829 that the opening of a dockyard and arsenal at Alexandria
+enabled him to build and equip his own vessels. By 1823,
+moreover, he had succeeded in carrying out the reorganization
+of his army on European lines, the turbulent Turkish and
+Albanian elements being replaced by negroes and fellahin.<a name="fa23c" id="fa23c" href="#ft23c"><span class="sp">23</span></a>
+His foresight was rewarded by the invitation of the sultan to
+help him in the task of subduing the Greek insurgents, offering
+<span class="sidenote">Ibrahim in the Morea.</span>
+as reward the pashaliks of the Morea and of Syria.
+Mehemet Ali had already, in 1821, been appointed
+governor of Crete, which he had occupied with a small
+Egyptian force. In the autumn of 1824 a fleet of sixty
+Egyptian war-ships carrying a large force of disciplined troops
+concentrated in Suda Bay, and, in the following March, Ibrahim
+as commander-in-chief landed in the Morea. But for the action
+of European powers the intervention of Mehemet Ali would have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page112" id="page112"></a>112</span>
+been decisive. His naval superiority wrested from the Greeks
+the command of the sea, on which the fate of the insurrection
+ultimately depended, while on land the Greek irregular bands
+ were everywhere routed by Ibrahim&rsquo;s disciplined troops. The
+history of the events that led up to the battle of Navarino
+and the liberation of Greece is told elsewhere (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Navarino</a></span>
+and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Independence, War of</a></span>); the withdrawal of the
+Egyptians from the Morea was ultimately due to the action of
+Admiral Sir Edward Codrington, who early in August 1828
+appeared before Alexandria and induced the pasha, by no means
+sorry to have a reasonable excuse, by a threat of bombardment,
+to sign a convention undertaking to recall Ibrahim and his army.</p>
+
+<p>Before the final establishment of the new kingdom of Greece,
+the Eastern question had late in 1831 entered into a new and
+more perilous phase, owing to the revolt of Mehemet
+Ali against the sultan on pretext of chastising the
+<span class="sidenote">The Syrian campaigns.</span>
+ex-slave Abdullah, pasha of Acre, for refusing to
+send back Egyptian fugitives from the effects of Mehemet Ali&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;reforms.&rdquo; The true reason was the refusal of Sultan Mahmud
+to hand over Syria according to agreement, and Mehemet Ali&rsquo;s
+determination to obtain at all hazards what had been from
+time immemorial an object of ambition to the rulers of Egypt.
+For ten years from this date the relations of sultan and pasha
+remained in the forefront of the questions which agitated the
+diplomatic world. It was not only the very existence of the
+Ottoman empire that seemed to be at stake, but Egypt itself
+had become more than ever an object of attention, to British
+statesmen especially, and in the issue of the struggle were involved
+the interests of Great Britain in the two routes to India
+by the Isthmus of Suez and the valley of the Euphrates. The
+diplomatic and military history of this period will be found
+sketched in the article on Mehemet Ali. Here it will suffice to
+say that the victorious career of Ibrahim, who once more commanded
+in his father&rsquo;s name, beginning with the storming of
+Acre on the 27th of May 1832, and culminating in the rout and
+capture of Reshid Pasha at Konia on the 21st of December, was
+arrested by the intervention of Russia. As the result of endless
+discussions between the representatives of the powers, the Porte
+and the pasha, the convention of Kutaya was signed on the
+14th of May 1833, by which the sultan agreed to bestow on
+Mehemet Ali the pashaliks of Syria, Damascus, Aleppo and
+Itcheli, together with the district of Adana. The announcement
+of the pasha&rsquo;s appointment had already been made in the usual
+way in the annual firman issued on the 3rd of May. Adana,
+reserved for the moment, was bestowed on Ibrahim under
+the style of <i>muhassil</i>, or collector of the crown
+revenues, a few days later.</p>
+
+<p>Mehemet Ali now ruled over a virtually independent
+empire, subject only to a moderate tribute,
+stretching from the Sudan to the Taurus Mountains.
+But though he was hailed, especially in
+France, as the pioneer of European civilization in
+the East, the unsound foundations of his authority
+were not long in revealing themselves. Scarcely a
+year from the signing of the convention of Kutaya
+the application by Ibrahim of Egyptian methods
+of government, notably of the monopolies and
+conscription, had driven Syrians, Druses and
+Arabs, who had welcomed him as a deliverer, into
+revolt. The unrest was suppressed by Mehemet
+Ali in person, and the Syrians were terrorized and
+disarmed. But their discontent encouraged Sultan
+Mahmud to hope for revenge, and a renewal of the
+conflict was only staved off by the anxious efforts
+of the powers. At last, in the spring of 1839,
+the sultan ordered his army, concentrated under
+Reshid in the border district of Bìr on the
+Euphrates, to advance over the Syrian frontier.
+Ibrahim, seeing his flank menaced, attacked it at
+Nezib on the 24th of June. Once more the Ottomans
+were utterly routed. Six days later, before
+the news reached Constantinople, Mahmud died.
+Once more the Ottoman empire lay at the feet of Mehemet Ali;
+but the powers were now more prepared to meet a contingency
+which had been long foreseen. Their intervention was prompt;
+and the dubious attitude of France, which led to her exclusion
+from the concert and encouraged Mehemet Ali to resist, only
+led to his obtaining less favourable terms. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mehemet Ali</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The end was reached early in 1841. New firmans were issued
+which confined the pasha&rsquo;s authority to Egypt, the Sinai peninsula
+and certain places on the Arabian side of the Red Sea,
+and to the Sudan. The most important of these documents
+are dated the 13th of February 1841. The government of the
+pashalik of Egypt was made hereditary in the family of Mehemet
+Ali.<a name="fa24c" id="fa24c" href="#ft24c"><span class="sp">24</span></a> A map showing the boundaries of Egypt accompanied
+the firman granting Mehemet Ali the pashalik, a duplicate copy
+being retained by the Porte. The Egyptian copy is supposed
+to have been lost in a fire which destroyed a great part of the
+Egyptian archives. The Turkish copy has never been produced
+and its existence now appears doubtful. The point is of importance,
+as in 1892 and again in 1906 boundary disputes arose
+between Turkey and Egypt (see below). Various restrictions
+were laid upon Mehemet Ali, emphasizing his position of vassalage.
+<span class="sidenote">Mehemet Ali&rsquo;s authority confined to Egypt.</span>
+He was forbidden to maintain a fleet, and his
+army was not to exceed 18,000 men. The pasha was
+no longer a figure in European politics, but he continued
+to occupy himself with his improvements, real or
+imaginary, in Egypt. The condition of the country
+was deplorable; in 1842 a murrain of cattle was followed
+by a destructive Nile flood; in 1843 there was a plague
+of locusts, whole villages were depopulated. Meantime the
+uttermost farthing was wrung from the wretched fellahin, while
+they were forced to the building of magnificent public works
+by unpaid labour. In 1844-1845 there was some improvement
+in the condition of the country as a result of financial reforms
+the pasha was compelled to execute. Mehemet Ali, who had
+been granted the honorary rank of grand vizier in 1842, paid
+a visit to Stamboul in 1846, where he became reconciled to his
+old enemy Khosrev Pasha, whom he had not seen since he
+spared his life at Cairo in 1803. In 1847 Mehemet Ali laid the
+foundation stone of the great barrage across the Nile at the
+beginning of the Delta. He was barely persuaded from ordering
+the barrage to be built with stone from the pyramids! Towards
+the end of 1847 the aged pasha&rsquo;s mind began to give way, and
+by the following June he was no longer capable of administering
+the government. In September 1848 Ibrahim was acknowledged
+by the Porte as ruler of the pashalik, but he died in the November
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page113" id="page113"></a>113</span>
+following. Mehemet Ali survived another eight months, dying
+on the 2nd of August 1849, aged eighty. He had done a great
+work in Egypt; the most permanent being the weakening of
+the tie binding the country to Turkey, the starting of the great
+cotton industry, the recognition of the advantages of European
+science, and the conquest of the Sudan.</p>
+<div class="author">(F. R. C.)</div>
+
+<p>(2) <i>From the Death of Mehemet Ali to the British Occupation.</i>&mdash;On
+Ibrahim&rsquo;s death in November 1848 the government of Egypt
+fell to his nephew Abbas I (<i>q.v.</i>), the son of Tusun.
+Abbas put an end to the system of commercial monopolies,
+<span class="sidenote">Abbas I. and Said Pasha.</span>
+and during his reign the railway from Alexandria
+to Cairo was begun at the instigation of the British
+government. Opposed to European ways, Abbas lived in great
+seclusion, and after a reign of less than six years he was murdered
+(July 1854) by two of his slaves. He was succeeded by his uncle
+Said Pasha, the favourite son of Mehemet Ali, who lacked the
+strength of mind or physical health needed to execute the
+beneficent projects which he conceived. His endeavour, for
+instance, to put a stop to the slave raiding which devastated the
+Sudan provinces was wholly ineffectual. He had a genuine
+regard for the welfare of the fellahin, and a land law of 1858
+secured to them an acknowledgment of freehold as against the
+crown. The pasha was much under French influence, and in
+1856 was induced to grant to Ferdinand de Lesseps a concession
+for the construction of the Suez Canal. Lord Palmerston was
+opposed to this project, and the British opposition delayed the
+ratification of the concession by the Porte for two years. To
+the British Said also made concessions&mdash;one to the Eastern
+Telegraph Company, and another (1854) allowing the establishment
+of the Bank of Egypt. He also began the national debt
+by borrowing £3,293,000 from Messrs Frühling &amp; Göschen,
+the actual amount received by the pasha being £2,640,000. In
+January 1863 Said Pasha died and was succeeded by his nephew
+Ismail, a son of Ibrahim Pasha.</p>
+
+<p>The reign of Ismail (<i>q.v.</i>), from 1863 to 1879, was for a while
+hailed as introducing a new era into modern Egypt. In spite
+of his vast schemes of reform and the <i>éclat</i> of his
+Europeanizing innovations, his oriental extravagance
+<span class="sidenote">Ismail&rsquo;s megalomania</span>
+led to bankruptcy, and his reign is historically important
+simply for its compelling European intervention
+in the internal affairs of Egypt. Yet in its earlier years
+much was done which seemed likely to give Ismail a more
+important place in history. In 1866 he was granted by the sultan
+a firman&mdash;obtained on condition of the increase of the tribute
+from £376,000 to £720,000&mdash;by which the succession to the
+throne of Egypt was made to descend &ldquo;to the eldest of thy male
+children and in the same manner to the eldest sons of thy successors,&rdquo;
+instead of, after Turkish law, to the eldest male of the
+family. In the following year another firman bestowed upon him
+the title of <i>khedive</i> in lieu of that of <i>vali</i>, borne by Mehemet Ali
+and his immediate successors. In 1873 a further firman placed
+the khedive in many respects in the position of an independent
+sovereign. Ismail re-established and improved the administrative
+system organized by Mehemet Ali, and which had fallen
+into decay under Abbas&rsquo;s indolent rule; he caused a thorough
+remodelling of the customs system, which was in an anarchic
+state, to be made by English officials; in 1865 he established
+the Egyptian post office; he reorganized the military schools
+of his grandfather, and gave some support to the cause of
+education. Railways, telegraphs, lighthouses, the harbour
+works at Suez, the breakwater at Alexandria, were carried out
+by some of the best contractors of Europe. Most important of
+all, the Suez Canal was opened in 1869. But the funds required
+for these public works, as well as the actual labour, were remorselessly
+extorted from a poverty-stricken population.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A striking picture of the condition of the people at this period is
+given by Lady Duff Gordon in <i>Last Letters from Egypt</i>. Writing in
+1867 she said: &ldquo;I cannot describe the misery here now&mdash;every day
+some new tax. Every beast, camel, cow, sheep, donkey and horse
+is made to pay. The fellaheen can no longer eat bread; they are
+living on barley-meal mixed with water, and raw green stuff, vetches, |
+&amp;c. The taxation makes life almost impossible: a tax on every
+crop, on every animal first, and again when it is sold in the market;
+on every man, on charcoal, on butter, on salt.... The people in
+Upper Egypt are running away by wholesale, utterly unable to pay
+the new taxes and do the work exacted. Even here (Cairo) the
+beating for the year&rsquo;s taxes is awful.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the years that followed the condition of things grew
+worse. Thousands of lives were lost and large sums expended
+in extending Ismail&rsquo;s dominions in the Sudan (<i>q.v.</i>)
+and in futile conflicts with Abyssinia. In 1875 the
+<span class="sidenote">Steps leading to the deposition of Ismail.</span>
+impoverishment of the fellah had reached such a
+point that the ordinary resources of the country no
+longer sufficed for the most urgent necessities of
+administration; and the khedive Ismail, having repeatedly
+broken faith with his creditors, could not raise any more loans
+on the European market. The taxes were habitually collected
+many months in advance, and the colossal floating debt was
+increasing rapidly. In these circumstances Ismail had to
+realize his remaining assets, and among them sold 176,602 Suez
+Canal shares to the British government for £3,976,582<a name="fa25c" id="fa25c" href="#ft25c"><span class="sp">25</span></a> (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Beaconsfield</a></span>). This comparatively small financial operation
+brought about the long-delayed crisis and paved the way for
+the future prosperity of Egypt, for it induced the British government
+to inquire more carefully into the financial condition of the
+country. In December 1875 Mr Stephen Cave, M.P., and Colonel
+(afterwards Sir John) Stokes, R.E., were sent to Egypt to inquire
+into the financial situation; and Mr Cave&rsquo;s report, made
+public in April 1876, showed that under the existing administration
+national bankruptcy was inevitable. Other commissions
+of inquiry followed, and each one brought Ismail more under
+European control. The establishment of the Mixed Tribunals
+in 1876, in place of the system of consular jurisdiction in civil
+actions, made some of the courts of justice international. The
+Caisse de la Dette, instituted in May 1876 as a result of the Cave
+mission, led to international control over a large portion of the
+revenue. Next came (in November 1876) the mission of Mr
+(afterwards Lord) Goschen and M. Joubert on behalf of the
+British and French bondholders, one result being the establishment
+of Dual Control, <i>i.e.</i> an English official to superintend the
+revenue and a French official the expenditure of the country.
+Another result was the internationalization of the railways and
+the port of Alexandria. Then came (May 1878) a commission
+of inquiry of which the principal members were Sir Rivers
+Wilson, Major Evelyn Baring (afterwards Lord Cromer) and
+MM. Kremer-Baravelli and de Blignières. One result of that
+inquiry was the extension of international control to the enormous
+landed property of the khedive. Driven to desperation,
+Ismail made a virtue of necessity and accepted, in September
+1878, in lieu of the Dual Control, a constitutional ministry,
+under the presidency of Nubar Pasha (<i>q.v.</i>), with Rivers Wilson
+as minister of finance and de Blignières as minister of public
+works. Professing to be quite satisfied with this arrangement,
+he pompously announced that Egypt was no longer in Africa,
+but a part of Europe; but before seven months had passed he
+found his constitutional position intolerable, got rid of his
+irksome cabinet by means of a secretly-organized military riot
+in Cairo, and reverted to his old autocratic methods of government.
+England and France could hardly sit still under this
+affront, and decided to administer chastisement by the hand
+of the suzerain power, which was delighted to have an opportunity
+of asserting its authority. On the 26th of June 1879
+Ismail suddenly received from the sultan a curt telegram,
+addressed to him as ex-khedive of Egypt, informing him that
+his son Tewfik was appointed his successor. Taken unawares,
+he made no attempt at resistance, and Tewfik was at once
+proclaimed khedive.</p>
+
+<p>After a short period of inaction, when it seemed as if the
+change might be for the worse, England and France summoned
+up courage to look the situation boldly in the face, and, in
+November 1879, re-established the Dual Control in the persons
+of Major Baring and M. de Blignières. For two years the Dual
+Control governed Egypt, and initiated the work of progress
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page114" id="page114"></a>114</span>
+that England was to continue alone. Its essential defect
+was what might be called insecurity of tenure. Without any
+<span class="sidenote">Re-establishment of Dual Control.</span>
+efficient means of self-protection and coercion at its
+disposal, it had to interfere with the power, privileges
+and perquisites of a class which had long misgoverned
+the country. This class, so far as its civilian
+members were concerned, was not very formidable, because
+these were not likely to go beyond the bounds of intrigue and
+passive resistance; but it contained a military element who
+had more courage, and who had learned their power when
+Ismail employed them for overturning his constitutional ministry.
+<span class="sidenote">Arabi and the revolt of 1882.</span>
+Among the mutinous soldiers on that occasion was a
+fellah officer calling himself Ahmed Arabi the Egyptian.
+He was not a man of exceptional intelligence or
+remarkable powers of organization, but he was a
+fluent speaker, and could exercise some influence over the masses
+by a rude kind of native eloquence. Behind him were a group of
+men, much abler than himself, who put him forward as the
+figurehead of a party professing to aim at protecting the
+Egyptians from the grasping tyranny of their Turkish and
+European oppressors. The movement began among the Arab
+officers, who complained of the preference shown to the officers
+of Turkish origin; it then expanded into an attack on the privileged
+position and predominant influence of foreigners, many
+of whom, it must be confessed, were of a by no means respectable
+type; finally, it was directed against all Christians, foreign and
+native.<a name="fa26c" id="fa26c" href="#ft26c"><span class="sp">26</span></a> The government, being too weak to suppress the agitation
+and disorder, had to make concessions, and each concession
+produced fresh demands. Arabi was first promoted, then made
+under-secretary for war, and ultimately a member of the cabinet.
+The danger of a serious rising brought the British and French
+fleets in May 1882 to Alexandria, and after a massacre (11th of
+June) had been perpetrated by the Arab mob in that city, the
+British admiral bombarded the forts (11th of July 1882). The
+leaders of the national movement prepared to resist further
+aggression by force. A conference of ambassadors was held in
+Constantinople, and the sultan was invited to quell the revolt;
+but he hesitated to employ his troops against Mussulmans who
+were professing merely to oppose Christian aggression.</p>
+
+<p>(3) <i>Egypt occupied by the British.</i>&mdash;At last the British government
+determined to employ armed force, and invited France
+to co-operate. The French government declined, and a similar
+invitation to Italy met with a similar refusal. England therefore,
+having to act alone, landed troops at Ismailia under Sir Garnet
+Wolseley, and suppressed the revolt by the battle of Tell-el-Kebir
+on the 13th of September 1882. The khedive, who had taken
+refuge in Alexandria, returned to Cairo, and a ministry was
+formed under Sherif Pasha, with Riaz Pasha as one of its leading
+members. On assuming office, the first thing it had to do was
+to bring to trial the chiefs of the rebellion. Had the khedive
+and Riaz been allowed a free hand, Arabi and his colleagues
+would have found little mercy. Thanks to the intervention
+of the British government, their lives were spared. Arabi
+pleaded guilty, was sentenced to death, the sentence being
+commuted by the khedive to banishment; and Riaz resigned
+in disgust. This solution of the difficulty was brought about
+by Lord Dufferin, then British ambassador at Constantinople,
+who had been sent to Egypt as high commissioner to adjust
+affairs and report on the situation. One of his first acts, after
+preventing the application of capital punishment to the ringleaders
+of the revolt, was to veto the project of protecting the
+khedive and his government by means of a Praetorian guard
+recruited from Asia Minor, Epirus, Austria and Switzerland,
+and to insist on the principle that Egypt must be governed in
+a truly liberal spirit. Passing in review all the departments of
+the administration, he laid down the general lines on which
+the country was to be restored to order and prosperity, and
+endowed, if possible, with the elements of self-government for
+future use.</p>
+
+<p>The laborious task of putting these general indications into a
+practical shape fell to Sir Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer), who
+arrived as consul-general and diplomatic agent, in
+succession to Sir Edward Malet, in January 1884.
+<span class="sidenote">Sir Evelyn Baring appointed consul-general, 1884.</span>
+At that moment the situation was singularly like that
+which had existed on two previous occasions: firstly,
+when Ismail was deposed; and secondly, when the
+Dual Control had undermined the existing authority
+without having any power to enforce its own. For the third
+time in little more than three years the existing authority had
+been destroyed and a new one had to be created. But there was
+one essential difference: the power that had now to reorganize
+the country possessed in the British army of occupation a
+support sufficient to command respect. Without that support
+Sir Evelyn Baring could have done little or nothing; with it
+he did perhaps more than any other single man could have done.
+His method may be illustrated by an old story long current in
+Cairo. Mehemet Ali was said to have appointed as <i>mudir</i> or
+governor in a turbulent district a young and inexperienced
+Turk, who asked, &ldquo;But how am I to govern these people?&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Listen,&rdquo; replied the pasha; &ldquo;buy the biggest and heaviest
+<i>kurbash</i> you can find; hang it up in the centre of the <i>mudirieh</i>,
+well within your reach, and you will very seldom require to use
+it.&rdquo; The British army of occupation was Sir Evelyn&rsquo;s <i>kurbash</i>;
+it was well within his reach, as all the world knew, and its
+simple presence sufficed to prevent disorder and enforce obedience.
+He had one other advantage over previous English reformers
+in Egypt: his position towards France was more independent.
+The Dual Control had been abolished by a khedivial decree of
+18th January 1883, and replaced by an English financial adviser.
+France naturally objected; but having refused to co-operate
+with England in suppressing the revolt, she could not reasonably
+complain that her offer of co-operation in the work of reorganization
+was declined. But though Dual Control was at an end, the
+Caisse de la Dette remained, and this body was to prove a constant
+clog on the financial measures of the Egyptian government.</p>
+
+<p>At first the intention of the British government was simply
+to restore the power of the khedive, to keep his highness for
+some time in the right path by friendly advice, and to
+withdraw the British troops as soon as possible. As
+<span class="sidenote">The Policy of evacuation.</span>
+Lord Granville explained in a circular to the powers,
+the position of England in Egypt imposed on her &ldquo;the
+duty of giving advice with the object of securing that the order
+of things to be established shall be of a satisfactory character
+and possess the elements of stability and progress.&rdquo; But there
+was to be no embarking on a general scheme of reforms, which
+would increase unnecessarily the responsibilities of the protecting
+power and necessitate the indefinite prolongation of the military
+occupation. So far, therefore, as the British government had
+a definite policy in Egypt, it was a <i>politique de replâtrage</i>. Even
+this policy was not strictly adhered to. Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s cabinet
+was as unstable as the public opinion it sought to conciliate.
+It had its hot fits and its cold fits, and it gave orders now to
+advance and now to retreat. In the long run circumstances
+proved too strong for it, and it had to undertake a great deal
+more than it originally intended. Each little change in the
+administration engendered a multitude of others, so that the
+modest attempts at reform were found to be like the letting out
+of water. A tiny rill gradually became a boisterous stream, and
+the boisterous stream grew into a great river, which spread to
+all sections of the administration and ended by inundating the
+whole country.</p>
+
+<p>Of the numerous questions awaiting solution, the first to
+claim immediate attention was that of the Sudan. The British
+government had begun by excluding it from the
+problem, and by declaring that for events in these
+<span class="sidenote">The Sudan question.</span>
+outlying territories it must not be held responsible.
+In that sphere of activity, therefore, the Egyptian government
+might do as it thought fit. The principle of limited liability
+which this attitude assumed was soon found to be utterly
+untenable. The Sudan was an integral part of the khedive&rsquo;s
+dominions, and caused, even in ordinary times, a deficit of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page115" id="page115"></a>115</span>
+£200,000 to the Egyptian treasury. At that moment it was in a
+state of open rebellion, stirred up by a religious fanatic who
+proclaimed himself a mahdi of Islam. An army of 10,000 men
+under an English officer, Colonel William Hicks, formerly of
+the Bombay army, otherwise Hicks Pasha, had been sent to
+suppress the revolt, and had been annihilated in a great battle
+fought on the 5th of November 1883, near Obeid. The Egyptian
+government wished to make a new attempt to recover the lost
+province, and the idea was certainly very popular among the
+governing class, but Sir Evelyn Baring vetoed the project on
+the ground that Egypt had neither soldiers nor money to carry
+it out. In vain the khedive and his prime minister, Sherif Pasha,
+threatened to resign, and the latter actually carried out his threat.
+The British representative remained firm, and it was decided
+that the Sudan should be, for the moment at least, abandoned
+to its fate. Nubar, though as strongly opposed to the abandonment
+policy as Sherif, consented to take his place and accepted
+somewhat reluctantly the new régime, which he defined as
+&ldquo;the administration of Egypt under the government of Baring.&rdquo;
+By this time the Mahdi was master of the greater part of the
+Sudan, but Khartum and some other fortified points still held
+out. The efforts made to extricate the garrisons, including the
+mission of General Gordon, the fall of Khartum, and the Nile
+Expedition under Lord Wolseley, are described below separately
+in the section of this article dealing with the military operations.
+The practical result was that the khedive&rsquo;s authority was limited
+to the Nile valley north of Wadi Halfa.</p>
+
+<p>With the internal difficulties Sir Evelyn Baring had been
+struggling bravely ever since his appointment, trying to evolve
+out of the ever-changing policy and contradictory
+orders of the British government some sort of coherent
+<span class="sidenote">Internal reorganization</span>
+line of action, and to raise the administration to a higher
+standard. For two or three years it seemed doubtful
+whether he would succeed. All over Egypt there was a feeling
+of unrest, and the well-meant but not very successful efforts
+of the British to improve the state of things were making them
+very unpopular. The introduction of English officials and
+English influence into all the administrative departments was
+resented by the native officials, and the action of the irrigation
+officers in preventing the customary abuses of the distribution
+of water was resented by the great landowners, who had been,
+from time immemorial, in the habit of taking as much as they
+wanted, to the detriment of the fellahin. Even these latter, who
+gained most by the reforms, considered that they had good
+reason to complain, for the defeat of Arabi and the re-establishment
+of order had enabled the Christian money-lenders to return
+and insist on the payment of claims, which were supposed to
+have been extinguished by the rebellion. Worst of all, the government
+was drifting rapidly towards insolvency, being quite unable
+to fulfil its obligations to the bondholders and meet the expenses
+of administration. All departments were being starved, and even
+the salaries of poorly paid officials were in arrear. To free itself
+from its financial difficulties the government adopted a heroic
+remedy which only created fresh troubles. On the advice of
+Lord Northbrook, who was sent out to Cairo in September 1884
+to examine the financial situation, certain revenues which should
+have been paid into the Caisse for the benefit of the bondholders
+were paid into the treasury for the ordinary needs of the administration.
+Immediately the powers protested against this infraction
+of the law of liquidation, and the Caisse applied for a
+writ to the Mixed Tribunals. In this way the heroic remedy
+failed, and to the internal difficulties were added international
+complications.</p>
+
+<p>Fortunately for Egypt, the British government contrived to
+solve the international difficulty by timely concessions to the
+powers, and succeeded in negotiating the London Convention of
+March 1885, by which the Egyptian government was relieved
+from some of the most onerous stipulations of the law of liquidation,
+and was enabled to raise a loan of £9,000,000 for an annual
+payment of £135,000. After paying out of the capital the sums
+required for the indemnities due for the burning of Alexandria
+and the deficits of the years 1882 and 1883, it still had a million
+sterling, and boldly invested it in the improvement of irrigation.
+The investment proved most remunerative, and helped very
+materially to save the country from bankruptcy and internationalism.
+The danger of being again subjected to the evils
+of an international administration was very great, for the London
+Convention contained a stipulation to the effect that if Egypt
+could not pay her way at the end of two years, another international
+commission would be appointed.</p>
+
+<p>To obviate this catastrophe the British reformers set to work
+most energetically. Already something in the way of retrenchment
+and reform had been accomplished. The public accounts
+had been put in order, and the abuses in the collection of the land
+tax removed. The constant drain of money and men for the
+Sudan had been stopped. A beginning had been made for
+creating a new army to replace the one that had been disbanded
+and to allow of a portion of the British garrison being withdrawn.
+In this work Sir Evelyn Wood had shown much sound judgment
+as well as great capacity for military organization, and had
+formed an efficient force out of very unpromising material
+(see the section above on the <i>Egyptian Army</i>). His colleague
+in the department of public works, Sir Colin Scott-Moncrieff,
+had been not less active. By mitigating the hardships of the
+<i>corvée</i>, and improving the irrigation system, on which the prosperity
+of the country mainly depends, he had conferred enormous
+benefits on the fellahin, and had laid the foundation of permanent
+budgetary equilibrium for the future. Not less active was Sir
+Edgar Vincent, the financial adviser, who kept a firm hold on
+the purse-strings and ruthlessly cut down expenditure in all
+departments except that of irrigation (see § Finance).</p>
+
+<p>The activity of the British officials naturally produced a certain
+amount of discontent and resistance on the part of their Egyptian
+colleagues, and Lord Granville was obliged to declare very plainly
+that such resistance could not be tolerated. Writing (January
+1884) to Sir Evelyn Baring, he said:</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;It should be made clear to the Egyptian Ministers and Governors
+of Provinces that the responsibility which for the time rests on
+England obliges H.M. Government to insist on the adoption of the
+policy which they recommend; and that it will be necessary that
+those Ministers and Governors who do not follow this course should
+cease to hold their offices.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Nubar Pasha, who continued to be prime minister, resisted
+occasionally. What he chiefly objected to was direct interference
+in the provincial administration and the
+native tribunals, and he succeeded for a time in
+<span class="sidenote">Relations between British and native officials.</span>
+preventing such interference. Sir Benson Maxwell
+and Mr Clifford Lloyd, who had been sent out to
+reform the departments of justice and the interior,
+after coming into conflict with each other were both recalled,
+and the reforming activity was for a time restricted to the
+departments of war, public works and finance. Gradually the
+tension between natives and foreigners relaxed, and mutual
+confidence was established. Experience had evolved the working
+principle which was officially formulated at a much later period:
+&ldquo;Our task is not to rule the Egyptians, but as far as possible
+to teach the Egyptians to rule themselves.... European
+initiative suggests measures to be executed by Egyptian agency,
+while European supervision controls the manner in which they
+are executed.&rdquo; If that principle had been firmly laid down
+and clearly understood at the beginning, a good deal of needless
+friction would have been avoided.</p>
+
+<p>The international difficulty remained. The British position
+in Egypt was anomalous, and might easily give rise to international
+complications. The sultan might well protest
+against the military occupation of a portion of his
+<span class="sidenote">International problems.</span>
+empire by foreign troops. It was no secret that France
+was ready to give him diplomatic support, and other
+powers might adopt a similar attitude. Besides this, the British
+government was anxious to terminate the occupation as soon
+as possible. With a view to regularizing the situation and
+accelerating the evacuation, Sir Henry Drummond Wolff was
+sent to Constantinople in August 1885 on a special mission.
+On the 24th of October of that year he concluded a preliminary
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page116" id="page116"></a>116</span>
+convention by which an Ottoman and a British high commissioner,
+acting in concert with the khedive, should reorganize the
+Egyptian army, tranquillize the Sudan by pacific means, and
+consider what changes might be necessary in the civil administration.
+When the two commissioners were assured of the security
+of the frontier and the good working and stability of the Egyptian
+government, they should present reports to their respective
+governments, and these should consult as to the conclusion of
+a convention regulating the withdrawal of the English troops.
+Mukhtar Pasha and Sir Henry Drummond Wolfe were appointed
+commissioners, and their joint inquiry lasted till the end of 1886,
+when the former presented his report and the latter went home
+to report orally. The remaining stipulations of the preliminary
+convention were duly carried out. Sir Henry Drummond Wolff
+proceeded to Constantinople and signed on the 22nd of May 1887
+the definitive convention, according to which the occupation
+should come to an end in three years, but England should have
+a right to prolong or renew it in the event of internal peace
+or external security being seriously threatened. The sultan
+authorised the signature of this convention, but under pressure
+of France and Russia he refused to ratify it. Technically,
+therefore, the preliminary convention still remains in force,
+and in reality the Ottoman commissioner continued to reside
+in Cairo till the close of 1908.</p>
+
+<p>The steadily increasing prosperity of the country during
+the years 1886 and 1887 removed the danger of national bankruptcy
+and international interference, and induced
+Sir Evelyn Baring to widen the area of administrative
+<span class="sidenote">Progress of reform.</span>
+reforms. In the provinces the local administration
+and the methods of dispensing justice were still scandalously
+unsatisfactory, and this was the field to which the British representative
+next directed his efforts. Here he met with unexpected
+opposition on the part of the prime minister, Nubar Pasha, and
+a conflict ensued which ended in Nubar&rsquo;s retirement in June
+1888. Riaz Pasha took his place, and remained in office till
+May 1891. During these three years the work of reform and
+the prosperity of the country made great progress. The new
+Egyptian army was so far improved that it gained successes over
+the forces of the Mahdi; the burden of the national debt was
+lightened by a successful conversion; the <i>corvée</i> was abolished;<a name="fa27c" id="fa27c" href="#ft27c"><span class="sp">27</span></a>
+the land tax was reduced 30% in the poorest provinces, and in
+spite of this and other measures for lightening the public burdens,
+the budgetary surplus constantly increased; the quasi-judicial
+special commissions for brigandage, which were at once barbarous
+and inefficient, were abolished; the native tribunals were improved,
+and Mr (afterwards Sir John) Scott, an Indian judge
+of great experience and sound judgment, was appointed judicial
+adviser to the khedive. This appointment was opposed by Riaz
+Pasha, and led to his resignation on the plea of ill-health. His
+successor, Mustafa Pasha Fehmi, continued the work and co-operated
+cordially with the English officials. The very necessary
+reform of the native tribunals was then taken seriously in hand.
+The existing procedure was simplified and accelerated; the
+working of the courts was greatly improved by a carefully
+organized system of inspection and control; the incompetent
+judges were eliminated and replaced by men of better education
+and higher moral character; and for the future supply of well-qualified
+judges, barristers, and law officials, an excellent school
+of law was established. Later on the reforming activity was
+extended to prisons, public health, and education, and has
+attained very satisfactory results.</p>
+
+<p>In January 1892 the khedive Tewfik, who had always maintained
+cordial relations with Sir Evelyn Baring, died suddenly,
+and was succeeded by his son, Abbas Hilmi, a young
+man without political experience, who failed at first
+<span class="sidenote">Accession of Abbas.</span>
+to understand the peculiar situation in which a khedive
+ruling under British protection is necessarily placed. Aspiring
+to liberate himself at once from foreign control, he summarily
+dismissed Mustafa Pasha Fehmi (15th January 1893), whom he
+considered too amenable to English influence, and appointed
+in his place Fakhri Pasha, who was not a <i>persona grata</i> at the
+British Agency. Such an incident, which might have constituted
+a precedent for more important acts of a similar kind, could
+hardly be overlooked by the British representative. He had
+always maintained that what Egypt most required, and would
+require for many years to come, was an order of things which
+would render practically impossible any return to that personal
+system of government which had well-nigh ruined the country.
+In this view the British agent was warmly supported by Lord
+Rosebery, then secretary of state for foreign affairs. The young
+khedive was made therefore to understand that he must not
+make such changes in the administration without a previous
+agreement with the representative of the protecting power;
+and a compromise was effected by which Fakhri Pasha retired,
+and the post of premier was confided once more to Riaz. With
+this compromise the friction between the khedive and Sir Evelyn
+Baring, who had now become Lord Cromer, did not end. For
+some time Abbas Hilmi clung to his idea of liberating himself
+from all control, and secretly encouraged a nationalist and anti-British
+agitation in the native press; but he gradually came
+to perceive the folly, as well as the danger to himself, of such a
+course, and accordingly refrained from giving any overt occasion
+for complaint or protest. In like manner the relations between
+the British officials and their Egyptian colleagues gradually
+became more cordial, so that it was found possible at last to
+reform the local administration in the provinces according to the
+recommendations of Mr (afterwards Sir) Eldon Gorst, who had
+been appointed adviser to the ministry of the interior. Nubar
+Pasha, it is true, who succeeded Riaz as prime minister in April
+1894, objected to some of Mr Gorst&rsquo;s recommendations, and in
+November 1895 resigned. He was succeeded by Mustafa Fehmi,
+who had always shown a conciliatory spirit, and who had been
+on that account, as above stated, summarily dismissed by the
+khedive in January 1893. After his reinstatement the Anglo-Egyptian
+condominium worked without serious friction.</p>
+
+<p>The success of the Anglo-Egyptian condominium, and the
+consequent economic and financial prosperity of Egypt proper,
+rendered it possible, during 1896-1898, to recover
+from the Mahdists the Sudanese provinces (see <i>Military
+Operations</i>), <span class="sidenote">Fashoda.</span> and to delimit in that part of Africa, in accordance
+with Anglo-Egyptian interests, the respective spheres of influence
+of Great Britain and France. The arrangement was not effected
+without serious danger of a European conflict. Taking advantage
+of the temporary weakness of Egypt, the French government
+formed the project of seizing the Upper Nile valley and
+uniting her possessions in West Africa with those at the entrance
+to the Red Sea. With this object a small force under Major
+Marchand was sent from the French Congo into the Bahr-el-Ghazal,
+with orders to occupy Fashoda on the Nile; whilst a
+Franco-Abyssinian Expedition was despatched from the eastward,
+to join hands with Major Marchand. The small force from
+the French Congo reached its destination, and a body of Abyssinian
+troops, accompanied by French officers, appeared for a
+short time a little higher up the river; but the grand political
+scheme was frustrated by the victorious advance of an Anglo-Egyptian
+force under General Kitchener and the resolute attitude
+of the British government. Major Marchand had to retire from
+Fashoda, and as a concession to French susceptibilities he was
+allowed to retreat by the Abyssinian route. By an agreement
+signed by Lord Salisbury and the French ambassador on the
+21st of March 1899, and appended to Art. IV. of the Anglo-French
+convention of June 14th, 1898, which dealt with the
+British and French spheres of influence in the region of the Niger,
+France was excluded from the basin of the Nile, and a line
+marking the respective spheres of influence of the two countries
+was drawn on the map from the northern frontier of the Congo
+Free State to the southern frontier of the Turkish province of
+Tripoli.</p>
+
+<p>The administration of the Sudan (<i>q.v.</i>) was organized on the
+basis of an agreement between the British and Egyptian governments
+signed on the 19th of January 1899. According to that
+agreement the British and Egyptian flags are used together,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page117" id="page117"></a>117</span>
+and the supreme military and civil command is vested in a
+governor-general, who is appointed by the khedive on the recommendation
+<span class="sidenote">The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.</span>
+of the British government, and who cannot
+be removed without the British government&rsquo;s consent.
+Neither consular jurisdiction, nor that of the
+mixed tribunals, was permitted, the Sudan being made
+absolutely free of the international fetters which bound Egypt.
+Sir Reginald Wingate, the sirdar of the Egyptian army (in which
+post he succeeded Lord Kitchener at the close of 1899) was
+named governor-general, and in the work of regeneration of the
+country, the officials, British, Egyptian and Sudanese, had the
+cordial co-operation of the majority of the inhabitants.</p>
+
+<p>The growing prosperity of Egypt in the opening years of the
+20th century was very marked, and is reflected in the annual
+reports on the country supplied to the British foreign
+office by Lord Cromer. Thus, in 1901 he was able to
+<span class="sidenote">Egypt&rsquo;s growing prosperity.</span>
+declare that &ldquo;the foundations on which the well-being
+and material prosperity of a civilized community
+should rest have been laid.... The institution of slavery is
+virtually defunct. The <i>corvée</i> has been practically abolished.
+Law and order everywhere reign supreme. The <i>curbash</i> is no
+longer employed as an instrument of government.&rdquo; So little
+danger to internal peace was apprehended that during this year
+Arabi Pasha, who had been in exile in Ceylon since 1882, was
+permitted to return to Egypt. This happy condition had been
+brought about largely as the result of giving fiscal reform, accompanied
+by substantial relief to the taxpayers, the first place
+in the government&rsquo;s programme, and with the abolition of octroi
+duties in 1902 disappeared the last of the main defects in the
+fiscal system as existing at the time of the British occupation.
+In these conditions the machinery of government, despite its
+many imperfections and anomalies, worked smoothly. Land
+increased in value as irrigation schemes were completed, and
+European capital was increasingly eager to find employment
+in the country. The bulk of the fellahin enjoyed a material
+prosperity to which they had been strangers for centuries. In
+the midst of this return of plenty Lord Cromer (in his report
+for 1903) sounded a note of warning:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;As regards moral progress (he wrote), all that can be said is that
+it must necessarily be slower than advance in a material direction.
+I hope and believe, however, that some progress is being made.
+In any case the machinery which will admit of progress has been
+created. The schoolmaster is abroad.... Every possible facility
+and every encouragement are afforded for the Egyptians to advance
+along the path of moral improvement. More than this no government
+can do. It remains for the Egyptians to take advantage of
+the opportunities offered to them.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The facilities enjoyed by the British and Egyptian governments
+for securing the material if not the moral development
+of Egypt were greatly enlarged in 1904, as the result
+of the understanding then come to between France
+<span class="sidenote">The Anglo-French understanding of 1904.</span>
+and Great Britain. The natural irritation in France
+arising from the British occupation of the Nile valley,
+and the non-fulfilment of the pledge to withdraw the
+British garrison from Egypt, which had grown less acute with
+the passing of years, flamed out afresh at the time of the Fashoda
+crisis, while the Anglo-Boer war of 1899-1902 led to another
+access of irritation against England. During 1903 a great change
+came over public opinion on both sides of the Channel, with the
+result that the statesmen of both countries were enabled to
+complete negotiations settling many points in dispute between
+the two nations. On the 8th of April 1904 a declaration was
+signed by the representatives of France and Great Britain which
+virtually recognized the dominant position of France in Morocco
+and of Britain in Egypt. The chief provisions concerning
+Egypt were:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;His Britannic Majesty&rsquo;s government declare that they have no
+intention of altering the political status of Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;The government of the French Republic, for their part, declare
+that they will not obstruct the action of Great Britain in that country
+by asking that a limit of time be fixed for the British occupation,
+or in any other manner.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;His Britannic Majesty&rsquo;s government, for their part, will respect
+the rights which France, in virtue of treaties, conventions and usage,
+enjoys in Egypt.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Similar declarations and engagements were made by Germany,
+Austria and Italy. Annexed to the Anglo-French agreement
+was the text of a proposed khedivial decree altering the relations
+between Egypt and the foreign bondholders. With the consent
+of the powers this decree (promulgated on the 28th of November
+1904) came into operation on the 1st of January 1905. The
+combined effect of the declaration and the khedivial decree was
+great. The first-named put an end to an anomalous situation
+and gave a practically valid sanction to the presence of Britain
+in Egypt, removing all ground for the reproach that Great
+Britain was not respecting its international obligations. In
+effect it was a European recognition that Britain was the protecting
+power in Egypt. It put a period to a question which had
+long embittered the relations between England and France,
+and locally it caused the cessation of the systematic opposition
+of the French agents in Cairo to everything tending to strengthen
+the British position&mdash;however beneficial to Egypt the particular
+scheme opposed might be. Scarcely less important were the
+results of the khedivial decree. By it Egypt achieved in effect
+financial independence. The power of the Caisse de la Dette,
+which had virtually controlled the execution of the international
+agreements concerning the finances, was swept away, together
+with almost all the other financial fetters binding Egypt. The
+Railway and Port of Alexandria Board ceased to exist. For
+the first time since 1875 Egypt was free to control her own
+revenue. In return she pledged the greater part of the land tax
+to the service of the debt. The functions of the Caisse were
+restricted to the receipt of the funds necessary for this service.
+It was entirely deprived of its former power to interfere in the
+machinery of government. Moreover, some £10,000,000, being
+accumulated surpluses in the hands of the Caisse after meeting
+the charges of the debt, were handed over to the Egyptian
+treasury. The Egyptian government was henceforth free
+to take full advantage of the financial prosperity of the
+country.</p>
+
+<p>In one respect the Anglo-French agreement made no alteration&mdash;it
+left untouched the extra-territoriality enjoyed by Europeans
+in Egypt in virtue of the treaties with Turkey, <i>i.e.</i>
+the system of Capitulations. One of the anomalies
+<span class="sidenote">Evils of the Capitulations.</span>
+under that system had, it is true, been got rid of, for,
+as has been stated, consular jurisdiction in civil matters
+had been replaced in 1876 by that of the Mixed Tribunals. In
+criminal cases, however, foreign consuls still exercised jurisdiction,
+but the main evil of the Capitulations régime was the
+absence of any proper machinery for enacting laws applicable
+to the whole of the inhabitants of Egypt. No change could be
+made in any law applicable to Europeans without the unanimous
+consent of fifteen foreign powers&mdash;a state of affairs wholly
+incompatible with the condition of Egypt in the 20th century,
+&ldquo;an oriental country which has assimilated a very considerable
+portion of European civilization and which is mainly governed
+by European methods.&rdquo; It was, however, far easier to acknowledge
+that the Capitulations régime was defective and had outlived
+its time than to devise a remedy and get all the nations
+interested to accept it. The solution favoured by Lord Cromer
+(vide Blue-books, <i>Egypt No. 1</i> (1906), pp. 1-8, and <i>Egypt No. 1</i>
+(1907), pp. 10-26) was the creation of a council&mdash;distinct from the
+existing native legislative council and assembly&mdash;composed of
+Europeans, which should have the power to pass legislation which
+when promulgated by the Egyptian government, with the assent
+of the British government, would bind all foreigners resident in
+Egypt. Every reservation for the benefit of British subjects
+should enure for the benefit of subjects of other powers. The
+jurisdiction exercised by consuls in civil and criminal affairs
+Lord Cromer proposed should cease <i>pari passu</i> with the provision
+by the Egyptian government, under the powers conferred by
+the treaty required to set up the new council, of courts having
+competence to deal with such matters, various safeguards being
+introduced to prevent injustice in criminal cases. As to civil
+cases the proposal was to make permanent the Mixed Tribunals,
+hitherto appointed for quinquennial periods (so that if not
+reappointed consular jurisdiction in civil cases would revive).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page118" id="page118"></a>118</span></p>
+
+<p>While the removal of ancient jealousies among the European
+powers interested in Egypt helped to smooth the path pursued
+by the Egyptian administration under the guiding
+hand of Great Britain, the intrigues of the Turks and
+<span class="sidenote">The pan-Islamic movement.</span>
+the danger of a revival of Moslem fanaticism threatened
+during 1905-1906 to disturb the peace of the country.
+A party had also arisen, whose best-known leader was Mustafa
+Kamel Pasha (1874-1908), which held that Egypt was ready for
+self-government and which saw in the presence of the British
+a hindrance to the attainment of their ideal. This &ldquo;national&rdquo;
+party lent what weight it had to the pan-Islamic agitation which
+arose in the summer and autumn of 1905, regardless of the fact
+that a pan-Islamic triumph meant the re-assertion of direct
+Turkish rule in Egypt and the end of the liberty the Egyptians
+enjoyed. The pan-Islamic press, allowed full licence by the
+Cairo authorities, spread abroad rumours that the Egyptian
+government intended to construct fortifications in the Sinai
+peninsula with the design of menacing the railway, under
+construction by Turkey, from Damascus to Mecca. This baseless
+report led to what is known as the Taba incident (see below).
+This incident inflamed the minds of many Egyptians, and almost
+all the opposition elements in the country were united by the
+appeal to religious fanaticism, of which the incident was partly
+the effect and partly the cause. The inflammatory writing of
+the newspapers indicated, encouraged by many persons holding
+high positions both inside and outside Egypt, created, by every
+process of misrepresentation, an anti-Christian and anti-European
+feeling among the mass of the people. After more than a quarter
+of a century of just rule, <i>i.e.</i> since the accession of Tewfik, the
+tyranny of the Turkish system was apt to be forgotten, while
+the appeal to rally in support of their khalif found a response
+in the hearts of many Egyptians. The feeling entertained by
+large numbers even of the educated class of Egyptians was
+strikingly illustrated by the terms of an anonymous letter
+received by Lord Cromer in May 1906. The writer, probably
+a member of the Ulema class, addressing the British agent as
+the reformer of Egypt, said:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo; ... He must be blind who sees not what the English have
+wrought in Egypt; the gates of justice stand open to the poor; the
+streams flow through the land and are not stopped by order of the
+strong; the poor man is lifted up and the rich man pulled down,
+the hand of the oppressor and the briber is struck when outstretched
+to do evil. Our eyes see these things and they know from whom
+they come.... While peace is in the land the spirit of Islam
+sleeps.... But it is said, &rsquo;There is war between England and
+Abdul Hamid Khan.&rsquo; If that be so a change must come. The words
+of the Imam are echoed in every heart, and every Moslem hears
+only the cry of the Faith.... Though the Khalif were hapless
+as Bayezid, cruel as Murad, or mad as Ibrahim, he is the shadow of
+God, and every Moslem must leap up at his call.... You will say,
+&rsquo;The Egyptian is more ungrateful than a dog, which remembers
+the hand that fed him. He is foolish as the madman who pulls down
+the roof-tree of his house upon himself.&rsquo; It may be so to worldly
+eyes, but in the time of danger to Islam the Moslem turns away from
+the things of this world and thirsts only for the service of his Faith,
+even though he looks in the face of death....&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To establish confidence in the minds of the Egyptian public
+that the authorities could maintain order and tranquillity, it
+was determined to increase permanently the strength of the
+British garrison. An incident occurred in June 1906 which
+illustrated the danger which might arise if anything happened
+to beget the idea that the protecting power had weakened its
+hold. While mounted infantry of the British army were marching
+from Cairo to Alexandria, five officers went (on the 13th of
+<span class="sidenote">Denshawai.</span>
+June) to the village of Denshawai to shoot pigeons.<a name="fa28c" id="fa28c" href="#ft28c"><span class="sp">28</span></a>
+An attack was made on the party by the villagers.
+The officers were told by their guide that they might
+shoot, but the villagers had not given permission and were
+incensed at the shooting of their pigeons by other officers in the
+previous year. A premeditated attack was made on the officers;
+a gun seized from one of them went off and slightly injured four
+natives&mdash;one a woman. The attack had been preceded by a
+trifling fire at a threshing floor, either accidentally caused (but
+not by the officers&rsquo; shots) or lit as a signal for the assault. Captain
+S. C. Bull of the 6th Dragoons received serious injuries and died
+a few hours later, and two other officers were seriously injured.
+A number of persons were arrested and tried by a special tribunal
+created in 1895 to deal with offences against the army of occupation.
+On the 27th of the same month four of the ringleaders
+were sentenced to death, others received various terms of
+imprisonment,<a name="fa29c" id="fa29c" href="#ft29c"><span class="sp">29</span></a> and seven were sentenced to fifty lashes. The
+executions and floggings were carried out the next day at the
+scene of the outrage and in the presence of some five hundred
+natives. The quieting effect that this drastic action might have
+had was marred by the fact that certain members of the British
+parliament called in question the justice of the sentences&mdash;passed
+unanimously by a court of which the best English and the best
+native judge were members. For a time there was considerable
+ferment in Egypt. The Anglo-Egyptian authorities received,
+however, the firm support of Sir Edward Grey, the foreign
+secretary in the liberal administration formed in December 1905.
+As far as responsible statesmen were concerned the change of
+government in Great Britain made no difference in the conduct
+of Egyptian affairs.</p>
+
+<p>The Taba incident, to which reference has been made, arose
+in the beginning of 1906 over the claim of the sultan of Turkey
+to jurisdiction in the Sinai peninsula. The origin of
+the dispute dated back, however, to 1892, when Abbas
+<span class="sidenote">The Taba incident.</span>
+Hilmi became khedive. Mehemet Ali and his successors
+up to and including Tewfik had not only administered
+the Sinai peninsula but certain posts on the Hejaz or Arabian
+side of the gulf of Akaba. The firman of investiture issued by
+the sultan on the occasion of the succession of Abbas differed,
+however, from the text of former firmans, the intention being,
+apparently, to exclude Egypt from the administration of the
+Sinai peninsula. The British government intervened and after
+considerable pressure upon Turkey obtained a telegram (dated
+the 8th of April 1892) from the grand vizier in which it was
+declared that the <i>status quo</i> was maintained in the Sinai peninsula,
+but that the sultan resumed possession of the posts in the Hejaz
+heretofore garrisoned by Egypt. To this last course Great
+Britain raised no objection. As officially stated by the British
+government at the time, the eastern frontier of the Sinai peninsula
+was taken to be a line running in a south-easterly direction from
+Rafa, a place on the Mediterranean, east of El Arish, to the head
+of the gulf of Akaba. The fort of Akaba and other posts farther
+east Egypt abandoned. So matters rested until in 1905 in consequence
+of lawlessness among the Bedouins of the peninsula
+a British official was appointed commandant and inspector of
+the peninsula and certain administrative measures taken.
+The report was spread by pan-Islamic agents that the intention
+of the Egyptian government was to construct fortifications on
+the frontier near Akaba, to which place the Turks were building
+a branch railway from the Damascus-Mecca line. In January
+1906 the sultan complained to the British ambassador at Constantinople
+of Egyptian encroachments on Turkish territory,
+whereupon the khedive asked that the frontier should be
+delimited, a request which Turkey rejected. A small Egyptian
+force was then directed to occupy Taba, a port near Akaba but
+on the western side of the gulf. Before this force could reach
+Taba that place had been seized by the Turkish commandant at
+Akaba. A period of considerable tension ensued, the Turks
+removing the boundary posts at Rafa and sending strong
+reinforcements to the frontier. The British government intervened
+on behalf of the khedive and consistently maintained that
+the Rafa-Akaba line must be the frontier. In April a conference
+was held between the khedive and Mukhtar Pasha, the Ottoman
+commissioner. It then appeared that Turkey was unwilling to
+recognize the British interpretation of the telegram of the 8th of
+April 1892. Turkey claimed that the peninsula of Sinai consisted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page119" id="page119"></a>119</span>
+only of the territory south of a straight line from Akaba to Suez,
+and that Egyptian territory north of that line was traced from
+Rafa to Suez. As a compromise Mukhtar Pasha suggested as
+the frontier a line drawn direct from Rafa to Ras Mahommed
+(the most southern point of the Sinai peninsula), which would
+have left the whole of the gulf of Akaba in Turkish territory.
+In other words the claim of the Porte was, to quote Lord
+Cromer:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;to carry the Turkish frontier and strategical railways to Suez
+on the banks of the canal; or that if the Ras Mahommed line were
+adopted, the Turkish frontier would be advanced to the neighbourhood
+of Nekhl, <i>i.e.</i> within easy striking distance of Egypt, and
+that ... the gulf of Akaba ... would practically become a <i>mare
+clausum</i> in the possession of Turkey and a standing menace to the
+security of the trade route to the East.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Such proposals could not be entertained by Great Britain;
+and as the sultan remained obstinate the British ambassador
+on the 3rd of May presented a note to the Porte requiring compliance
+with the British proposals within ten days. The Turkish
+ambassador in London was informed by Sir Edward Grey, foreign
+secretary, that if it were found that Turkish suzerainty in Egypt
+were incompatible with the rights of the British government to
+interfere in Egyptian affairs, and with the British occupation,
+the British position in Egypt would be upheld by the whole force
+of the empire. Thereupon the sultan gave way and agreed (on
+the 14th of May) that the line of demarcation should start at
+Rafa and run towards the south-east &ldquo;in an approximately
+straight line as far as a point on the gulf of Akaba at least 3 m.
+distant from Akaba.&rdquo;<a name="fa30c" id="fa30c" href="#ft30c"><span class="sp">30</span></a> The Turkish troops were withdrawn
+from Taba, and the delimitation of the frontier was undertaken
+by a joint Turco-Egyptian commission. An agreement was
+signed on the 1st of October finally settling the frontier line.</p>
+
+<p>With the ending of this dispute and the strengthening of the
+British garrison in Egypt a demonstration was given of the ability
+of the protecting power to maintain its position. At the same
+time encouragement was given to that section of Egyptian
+society which sought the reform of various Moslem institutions
+without injury to the principles underlying the faith of Islam:
+a more truly national movement than that of the agitators who
+clamoured for parliamentary government.</p>
+
+<p>In April 1907, a few days after the appearance of his report
+for 1906, in which the &ldquo;Nationalist&rdquo; and pan-Islamic movements
+were shown to be detrimental to the welfare of
+Egypt, Lord Cromer resigned his post of British agent
+<span class="sidenote">Resignation of Lord Cromer.</span>
+and consul-general. His resignation, dictated by
+reasons of health, was described by Sir Edward Grey
+as &ldquo;the greatest personal loss which the public service of this
+country (Britain) could suffer.&rdquo; Lord Cromer&rsquo;s work was in a
+sense complete. He left the country in a state of unexampled
+material prosperity, free from the majority of the international
+fetters with which it was bound when he took up his task in
+1883, and with the legitimate expectation that the work he had
+done would endure. The magnitude of the task he had accomplished
+is shown by the preceding pages, and it need only be
+added that the transformation effected in Egypt and the Sudan,
+during his twenty-four years&rsquo; occupancy of the British Agency,
+was carried out in every department under his guidance and
+inspiration. Lord Cromer was succeeded by Sir Eldon Gorst,
+who had served in Egypt eighteen years under him, and was
+at the time of his appointment to Cairo an assistant under
+secretary of state for foreign affairs.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding, or, rather, as a consequence of, the unexampled
+material prosperity of the country, 1907 was a year of
+severe financial crisis, due to over-trading, excessive credit and
+the building mania induced by the rapid economic progress of
+Egypt, and aggravated by the unfavourable monetary conditions
+existing in America and Europe during the latter part of the year.
+Though the crisis had results disastrous to the speculators, the
+position of the fellahin was hardly affected; the cotton crop
+was marketed with regularity and at an average price higher
+than that of 1906, while public revenue showed a satisfactory
+increase. The noisy &ldquo;Nationalist&rdquo; agitation which was maintained
+during this period of financial stringency reacted unfavourably
+on public order. Although the degree of insecurity
+prevailing in the provinces was greatly exaggerated&mdash;serious
+crime in 1907 being less than in the preceding year&mdash;an increasing
+number of crimes were left untraced to their authors. The
+release of the Denshawai prisoners in January 1908 and the
+death of Mustafa Kamel in the following month had a quieting
+effect on the public mind; while the fact that in the elections
+(December 1907) for the legislative council and the general
+assembly only 5% of the electors went to the polls, afforded
+a striking commentary alike on the appreciation of the average
+Egyptian of the value of parliamentary institutions and of
+the claims of the &ldquo;Nationalist&rdquo; members of the assembly to
+represent the Egyptian people. The &ldquo;Nationalists&rdquo; were, too,
+divided into many warring sections&mdash;Mahommed Bey Ferid,
+chosen as successor to Mustafa Kamel, had to contend with the
+pretensions of several other &ldquo;leaders.&rdquo; The khedive, moreover,
+markedly abstained from any association with the agitation
+of the Nationalists, who viewed with disfavour his highness&rsquo;s
+personal friendship with Sir Eldon Gorst. The agitators gained
+their chief strength from the support accorded them by certain
+Radical politicians in England. A number of members of the
+council and assembly visited England in July 1908 and were
+received by Sir Edward Grey, who gave them assurances that
+Great Britain would always strive to remedy the legitimate
+grievances of Egyptians.</p>
+
+<p>The establishment of constitutional rule in Turkey in the
+summer of 1908 excited the hopes of the Egyptian Nationalists,
+and a deputation was sent to Constantinople to confer with the
+Young Turk committee. From the Young Turks, however, the
+deputation received no encouragement for their agitation and
+returned with the advice to work in co-operation with the British.
+In view of the rumours current, Sir Eldon Gorst, in the form of
+an interview in <i>El Mokattam</i>, a widely read native paper, restated
+(October 1908) the British view as to the occupation of the
+country and the demand for a parliament. Great Britain, he
+declared, had no intention of proclaiming a protectorate over
+Egypt; on the other hand, recent events in Turkey in no way
+affected the question of self-government in Egypt. It would
+be folly to think of introducing unrestricted parliamentary
+government at present, the conditions for its successful working
+not existing. The &ldquo;wild and foolish&rdquo; agitation on this question
+only served to confirm the impression that the Egyptians were
+not yet fit to govern themselves. At the same time steps were
+being taken to give them a much greater part in the management
+of local affairs. If the Egyptians showed that the existing
+institutions and the new provincial councils could do useful
+work, it would prove the best argument for extending their
+powers. Sir Eldon Gorst&rsquo;s statements were approved by the
+British government.</p>
+
+<p>In November 1908 Mustafa Fehmi, who had been premier
+since 1895, resigned, and was succeeded by Boutros Pasha, a
+Copt of marked ability, who had been for several years foreign
+minister. Boutros incurred the enmity of the &ldquo;Nationalists&rdquo;
+and was murdered in February 1910.</p>
+<div class="author">(D. M. W.; F. R. C.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;D. A. Cameron, <i>Egypt in the Nineteenth Century</i>
+(London, 1898), a clear and useful summary of events up to 1882;
+E. Dicey, <i>The Story of the Khedivate</i> (London, 1902); J. C. McCoan,
+<i>Egypt under Ismail</i> (London, 1899); P. Mouriez, <i>Histoire de Méhémet-Ali</i>
+(4 vols., Paris, 1855-1858); L. Bréhier, <i>L&rsquo;Égypte de 1789 à 1900</i>
+(Paris, 1901); C. de Freycinet, <i>La Question d&rsquo;Égypte</i> (Paris, 1905).
+See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mehemet Ali</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>For the period immediately preceding and during the British
+occupation the standard authority is Lord Cromer&rsquo;s <i>Modern Egypt</i>
+(2 vols., London, 1908). In this invaluable work the history of
+Egypt from 1875 to 1892 and that of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan
+from 1882 to 1907 is treated fully. Lord Cromer&rsquo;s annual reports
+(1888-1906) to the British government on the affairs of Egypt
+should also be consulted. Next in interest are Alfred (Lord) Milner&rsquo;s
+<i>England in Egypt</i> (11th ed., London, 1904), and Sir A. Colvin&rsquo;s <i>The
+Making of Modern Egypt</i> (London, 1906). Consult also <i>Khedives and
+Pashas</i> (London, 1884), by C. F. Moberly Bell (published anonymously);
+D. M. Wallace, <i>Egypt and the Egyptian Question</i> (London,
+1883); W. S. Blunt, <i>Secret History of the English Occupation of Egypt</i>
+(2nd ed., London, 1907), a partisan record; C. v. Malortie, <i>Egypt</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page120" id="page120"></a>120</span>
+<i>Native Rulers and Foreign Interference</i>, 2 vols. (London, 1883);
+O. Borelli, <i>Choses politiques d&rsquo;Égypte</i>, 1883-1895 (Paris, 1895); H.
+Resener, <i>Ägypten unter englischer Okkupation</i> (Berlin, 1896). Morley&rsquo;s
+<i>Life of Gladstone</i> and Fitzmaurice&rsquo;s <i>Life of Granville</i> throw considerable
+light on the inner history of the period 1880-1893. See further
+the historical works cited in <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sudan</a></span>: <i>Anglo-Egyptian</i>, and those
+given at the end of the first section of this article.</p>
+
+<p>For military operations 1882-1899 see C. Royle, <i>The Egyptian
+Campaigns 1882 to 1899</i>, revised ed. (London, 1900); H. Brackenbury,
+<i>Narrative of the Advance of the River Column of the Nile Expeditionary
+Force</i> (Edinburgh, 1885); Sir W. F. Butler, <i>Campaign of
+the Cataracts</i> (London, 1887); Count A. E. W. Gleichen, <i>With the
+Camel Corps up the Nile</i> (London, 1888); <i>Gordon&rsquo;s Last Journal</i>
+(London, 1885); Sir C. W. Wilson, <i>From Korti to Khartum</i> (Edinburgh,
+1886); J. Grant, <i>Cassell&rsquo;s History of the War in the Soudan</i>,
+6 vols. (London, 1885 et seq.); &ldquo;An Officer,&rdquo; <i>Sudan Campaigns</i>
+1896-1899 (London, 1899); G. W. Steevens, <i>With Kitchener to
+Khartum</i> (Edinburgh, 1898); W. S. Churchill, <i>The River War</i>, new
+edition (London, 1902).</p>
+
+<p>Bibliographical notes for each section of this article are given in
+their several places. The following bibliographies may be consulted:
+Ibrahim Hilmi, <i>Literature of Egypt and the Soudan</i>, 2 vols. (London,
+1886-1888); H. Jolowicz, <i>Bibliotheca aegyptiaca</i> (Leipzig, 1858;
+supplement, 1861); M. Hartmann, <i>The Arabic Press of Egypt</i>
+(London, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. R. C.)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">Military Operations of 1882-1885</p>
+
+<p>In February 1879 a slight outbreak of discharged officers and
+soldiers occurred at Cairo, which led to the despatch of British
+and French ships to Alexandria. On the 26th of June of that year
+Ismail Pasha was removed from Egypt, and Tewfik assumed the
+khediviate, becoming practically the <i>protégé</i> of the two western
+powers. On the 1st of February 1881 a more serious disturbance
+arose at Cairo from the attempt to try three colonels, Ahmed
+Arabi, Ali Fehmy, and Abd-el-Al, who had been arrested as
+the ringleaders of the military party. The prisoners were released
+by force, and proceeded to dictate terms to the khedive.
+Again British and French warships were despatched to Alexandria,
+and were quickly withdrawn, their presence having produced
+no apparent impression. It soon became clear that the
+khedive was powerless, and that the military party, headed by
+Arabi, threatened to dominate the country. The &ldquo;dual note,&rdquo;
+communicated to the khedive on the 6th of January 1881, contained
+an intimation that Great Britain and France were prepared
+to afford material support if necessary; but the fall of
+Gambetta&rsquo;s ministry produced a reaction, and both governments
+proceeded to minimize the meaning of their language. The
+khedive was practically compelled to form a government in which
+Arabi was minister of war and Mahmud Sami premier, and Arabi
+took steps to extend his influence throughout his army. The
+situation now became critically serious: for the third time ships
+were sent to Alexandria, and on the 25th of May 1882 the consuls-general
+of the two powers made a strong representation to
+Mahmud Sami which produced the resignation of the Egyptian
+ministry, and a demand, to which the khedive yielded, by the
+military party for the reinstatement of Arabi. The attitude of
+the troops in Alexandria now became threatening; and on the
+29th the British residents pointed out that they were &ldquo;absolutely
+defenceless.&rdquo; This warning was amply justified by the massacres
+of the 11th of June, during which more than one hundred persons,
+including an officer and two seamen, were killed in the streets of
+<span class="sidenote">Bombardment of Alexandria.</span>
+Alexandria, almost under the guns of the ships in
+harbour. It was becoming clear that definite action
+would have to be taken, and on the 15th the channel
+squadron was ordered to Malta. By the end of June
+twenty-six warships, representing the navies of Great Britain,
+France, Germany, Italy, Austria, Russia, the United States,
+Spain, Greece and Turkey, lay off the port of Alexandria, and
+large numbers of refugees were embarked. The order received
+by Admiral Sir Beauchamp Seymour (afterwards Lord Alcester)
+on the 3rd of July was as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Prevent any attempt to bar channel into port. If work is resumed
+on earthworks, or fresh guns mounted, inform military commander
+that you have orders to prevent it; and if not immediately discontinued,
+destroy earthworks and silence batteries if they open fire,
+having given sufficient notice to population, shipping and foreign
+men-of-war.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On the 9th the admiral received a report that working
+parties had been seen in Fort Silsileh &ldquo;parbuckling two smoothbore
+guns&mdash;apparently 32-pounders&mdash;towards their respective
+carriages and slides, which were facing in the direction of the
+harbour.&rdquo; Fort Silsileh was an old work at the extreme east
+of the defences of Alexandria, and its guns do not bear on the
+harbour. On the 10th an ultimatum was sent to Toulba Pasha,
+the military commandant, intimating that the bombardment
+would commence at sunrise on the following morning unless
+&ldquo;the batteries on the isthmus of Ras-el-Tin and the southern
+shore of the harbour of Alexandria&rdquo; were previously surrendered
+&ldquo;for the purpose of disarming.&rdquo; The fleet prepared for action,
+and the bearer of the reply, signed by the president of the council,
+and offering to dismount three guns in the batteries named,
+only succeeded in finding the flagship late at night. This
+proposal was rejected, and at 7 A.M. on the 11th of July the
+&ldquo;Alexandra&rdquo; opened fire and the action became general. The
+attacking force was disposed in three groups: (1) the &ldquo;Alexandra,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Sultan&rdquo; and &ldquo;Superb,&rdquo; outside the reef, to engage
+the Ras-el-Tin and the earthworks under weigh; (2) the
+&ldquo;Monarch,&rdquo; &ldquo;Invincible&rdquo; and &ldquo;Penelope,&rdquo; inside the harbour,
+to engage the Meks batteries; and (3) the &ldquo;Inflexible&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Temeraire,&rdquo; to take up assigned stations outside the reef
+and to co-operate with the inshore squadron. The gunboats
+&ldquo;Beacon,&rdquo; &ldquo;Bittern,&rdquo; &ldquo;Condor,&rdquo; &ldquo;Cygnet&rdquo; and &ldquo;Decoy&rdquo;
+were to keep out of fire at first and seek opportunities of engaging
+the Meks batteries. Meks fort was silenced by about 12.45 P.M.,
+and a party from the &ldquo;Invincible&rdquo; landed and disabled the
+guns. As the fire delivered under weigh was not effective, the
+offshore squadron anchored at about 10.30 A.M., and succeeded
+in silencing Fort Ras-el-Tin at about 12.30 P.M., and Fort Adda,
+by the explosion of the main magazine, at 1.35 P.M. The &ldquo;Inflexible&rdquo;
+weighed soon after 8 A.M. and engaged Ras-el-Tin,
+afterwards attacking Forts Pharos and Adda. The &ldquo;Condor,&rdquo;
+followed by the &ldquo;Beacon,&rdquo; &ldquo;Bittern&rdquo; and &ldquo;Decoy,&rdquo; engaged
+Fort Marabout soon after 8 A.M. till 11 A.M., when the gunboats
+were recalled. After the works were silenced, the ships moved
+in closer, with a view to dismount the Egyptian guns. The
+bombardment ceased at 5 P.M.; but a few rounds were fired
+by the &ldquo;Inflexible&rdquo; and &ldquo;Temeraire&rdquo; on the morning of the
+12th at the right battery in Ras-el-Tin lines.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The bombardment of the forts of Alexandria is interesting as a
+gauge of the effect to be expected from the fire of ships under specially
+favourable conditions. The Egyptians at different times during the
+day brought into action about 33 R.M.L. guns (7-in. to 10-in.),
+3 R.B.L. guns (40 prs.), and 120 S.B. guns (6.5-in. and 10-in.), with
+a few mortars. These guns were disposed over a coast-line of about
+10 sea miles, and were in many cases indifferently mounted. The
+Egyptian gunners had been little trained, and many of them had
+never once practised with rifled ordnance. Of seventy-five hits on
+the hulls of the ships only five can with certainty be ascribed to
+projectiles from rifled guns, and thirty were unquestionably due to
+the old smoothbores, which were not provided with sights. The
+total loss inflicted was 6 killed and 27 wounded. The British ships
+engaged fired 1741 heavy projectiles (7-in. to 16-in.) and 1457 light
+(7-prs. to 64-prs.), together with 33,493 machine-gun and rifle bullets.
+The result was comparatively small. About 8 rifled guns and 19
+smoothbores were dismounted or disabled and 4 and 1 temporarily
+put out of action respectively. A considerable portion of this injury
+was inflicted, after the works had been silenced, by the deliberate
+fire of the ships. As many as twenty-eight rifled guns and 140
+smoothbores would have opened fire on the following day. The
+Egyptians made quite as good a stand as could be expected, but were
+driven from their guns, which they were unable to use with adequate
+effect; and the bombardment of Alexandria confirms previous
+experience that the fire of ships cannot really compete with that
+of well-mounted and well-handled guns on shore.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the afternoon of the 12th, fires, which were the work of
+incendiaries, began to break out in the best quarters of Alexandria;
+and the town was left to murder and pillage till the
+following day, when a party of bluejackets and marines was
+landed at about 3 P.M.</p>
+
+<p>Military intervention being now imperatively demanded,
+a vote of credit for £2,300,000 was passed in the British House
+of Commons on the 27th of July. Five days later the French
+government failed to secure a similar vote, and Great Britain
+was left to deal with the Egyptian question alone. An
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page121" id="page121"></a>121</span>
+expeditionary force detailed from home stations and from Malta
+was organized in two divisions, with a cavalry division, corps
+<span class="sidenote">British expedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley.</span>
+troops, and a siege train, numbering in all about
+25,000 men. An Indian contingent numbering about
+7000 combatants, complete in all arms and with its own
+transport, was prepared for despatch to Suez. General
+Sir Garnet Wolseley was appointed commander-in-chief,
+with Lieutenant-General Sir J. Adye as chief of the
+staff. The plan of operations contemplated the seizure of Ismailia
+as the base for an advance on Cairo, Alexandria and its suburbs
+to be held defensively, and the Egyptian forces in the neighbourhood
+to be occupied by demonstrations. The expeditionary
+force having rendezvoused at Alexandria, means were taken by
+Rear-Admiral Hoskins and Sir W. Hewett for the seizure of the
+Suez canal. Under orders from the former, Captain Fairfax,
+R.N., occupied Port Said on the night of 19th August, and
+Commander Edwards, R.N., proceeded down the canal, taking
+possession of the <i>gares</i> and dredgers, while Captain Fitzroy, R.N.,
+occupied Ismailia after slight opposition. Before nightfall on
+the 20th of August the canal was wholly in British hands.
+Meanwhile, leaving Sir E. Hamley in command at Alexandria,
+Sir G. Wolseley with the bulk of the expeditionary force arrived
+at Port Said on the 20th of August, a naval demonstration
+having been made at Abukir with a view to deceive the enemy
+as to the object of the great movement in progress. The advance
+from Ismailia now began. On the 21st Major-General Graham
+moved from Ismailia with about 800 men and a small naval
+force, occupying Nefiche, the junction with the Suez line, at
+1.30 A.M. without opposition. On the 22nd he made a reconnaissance
+towards Suez, and on the 23rd another to El-Magfar,
+4 m. from Nefiche. It now appeared that the enemy had dammed
+the sweet-water canal and blocked the railway at Tell-el-Mahuta,
+where entrenchments had been thrown up and resistance seemed
+to be contemplated. At 4 A.M. on the 24th Sir Garnet Wolseley
+advanced with 3 squadrons of cavalry, 2 guns, and about 1000
+infantry, placed under the orders of Lieutenant-General Willis.
+The enemy showed in force, estimated at 7000 with 12 guns,
+and a somewhat desultory action ensued. Reinforcements
+from Ismailia were ordered up, and the British cavalry, operating
+on the right, helped to check the enemy&rsquo;s attack, which showed
+little vigour. At night the troops, now reinforced by the Guards
+Brigade, an infantry battalion, 2 cavalry regiments and 10 guns,
+bivouacked on the ground. Early on the morning of the 25th
+the advance was continued to Tell-el-Mahuta, which the enemy
+evacuated, while the mounted troops and horse artillery pressed
+on to Mahsama, capturing the Egyptian camp, with 7 guns
+and large quantities of ammunition and supplies. On the same
+evening Major-General Graham, with about 1200 marines
+(artillery and light infantry), reached Mahsama, and on the
+following day he occupied Kassassin without opposition. The
+advance guard had now outrun its communications and was
+actually short of food, while a considerable force was distributed
+at intervals along the line Ismailia-Kassassin. The situation
+on the 27th tempted attack by an enterprising enemy, and
+Major-General Graham&rsquo;s force, consisting of a squadron of the
+19th Hussars, the York and Lancaster Regiment, the duke of
+Cornwall&rsquo;s Light Infantry, the Marine Artillery Battalion and
+two R.H.A. guns, short of ammunition, was in danger of being
+overwhelmed by vastly superior numbers from Tell-el-Kebir.
+On the 28th Major-General Graham&rsquo;s troops were attacked,
+and after repulsing the enemy, made a general advance about
+6.45 P.M. The cavalry, summoned by heliograph from Mahsama,
+co-operated, and in a moonlight charge inflicted considerable
+loss. The British casualties amounted to 14 killed and 83
+wounded. During the lull which followed the first action of
+Kassassin, strenuous efforts were made to bring up supplies
+and troops and to open up railway communication to the front.
+On the 9th of September the Egyptians again attacked Kassassin,
+but were completely repulsed by 9 A.M., with a loss of 4 guns,
+and were pursued to within extreme range of the guns of Tell-el-Kebir.
+The British casualties were 3 killed and 78 wounded.
+The three following days were occupied in concentrating troops
+at Kassassin for the attack on Tell-el-Kebir, held by about
+38,000 men with 60 guns. The Egyptian defences consisted of
+<span class="sidenote">Tell-el-Kebir.</span>
+a long line of trench (2½ m.) approximately at right
+angles to the railway and the sweet-water canal. At
+11 P.M. on the 12th of September the advance of
+about 15,000 men commenced; the 1st division, under Lieutenant-General
+Willis, was on the right, and the 2nd division,
+under Lieutenant-General Hamley, was on the left. Seven
+batteries of artillery, under Brigadier-General Goodenough,
+were placed in the centre. The cavalry, under Major-General
+Drury Lowe, was on the right flank, and the Indian contingent,
+under Major-General Macpherson, starting one hour later, was
+ordered to move south of the sweet-water canal. The night
+was moonless, and the distance to be covered about 6¼ m. The
+ground was perfectly open, slightly undulating, and generally
+firm gravel. The conditions for a night march were thus ideal;
+but during the movement the wings closed towards each other,
+causing great risk of an outbreak of firing. The line was, however,
+rectified, and after a halt the final advance began. By a fortunate
+accident the isolated outwork was just missed in the
+darkness by the left flank of the 2nd Division; otherwise
+a premature alarm would have been given, which must have
+changed all the conditions of the operation. At dawn the
+Highland Brigade of the 2nd Division struck the enemy&rsquo;s trenches,
+and carried them after a brief struggle. The 1st Division
+attacked a few minutes later, and the cavalry swept round the
+left of the line of entrenchments, cutting down any fugitives
+who attempted resistance and reaching the enemy&rsquo;s camp in
+rear. The Indian contingent, on the south of the canal, co-operated,
+intercepting the Egyptians at the canal bridge. The
+opposition encountered at some points was severe, but by 6 A.M.
+all resistance was at an end. The British loss amounted to 58
+killed, 379 wounded and 22 missing; nearly 2000 Egyptians
+were killed, and more than 500 wounded were treated in hospital.
+An immediate pursuit was ordered, and the Indian contingent,
+under Major-General Macpherson, reached Zagazig, while the
+cavalry, under Major-General Drury Lowe, occupied Belbeis
+and pushed on to Cairo, 65 m. from Tell-el-Kebir, next day.
+On the evening of the 14th the 10,000 troops occupying Abbasia
+barracks, and 5000 in the citadel of Cairo, surrendered. On
+the 15th General Sir Garnet Wolseley, with the brigade of
+Guards under H.R.H. the duke of Connaught, entered the
+city.</p>
+
+<p>The prompt following up of the victory at Tell-el-Kebir saved
+Cairo from the fate of Alexandria and brought the rebellion
+to an end. The Egyptian troops at Kafr Dauar, Abukir and
+Rosetta surrendered without opposition, and those at Damietta
+followed on the 23rd of September, after being threatened with
+attack. On the 25th the khedive entered Cairo, where a review
+of the British troops was held on the 30th. The expeditionary
+force was now broken up, leaving about 10,000 men, under
+Major-General Sir A. Alison, to maintain the authority of the
+khedive. In twenty-five days, from the landing at Ismailia to
+the occupation of Cairo, the rebellion was completely suppressed,
+and the operations were thus signally successful.</p>
+
+<p>The authority of the khedive and the maintenance of law
+and order now depended absolutely on the British forces left
+in occupation. Lord Dufferin, who had been sent to
+Cairo to draw up a project of constitutional reforms,
+<span class="sidenote">The Sudan question.</span>
+advocated the re-establishment of a native army, not
+to exceed 5000 to 6000 men, with a proportion of British officers,
+for purely defence purposes within the Delta; and on the 13th
+of December 1882 Sir Evelyn Wood left England to undertake
+the organization of this force, with the title of sirdar. Lord
+Dufferin further advised the formation of a gendarmerie, which
+&ldquo;should be in a great measure a mounted force and empowered
+with a semi-military character&rdquo; (despatch of January 1st, 1883).
+The strength of this military police force was fixed at 4400 men
+with 2562 horses, and Baker Pasha (General Valentine Baker)
+was entrusted with its formation, with the title of inspector-general.</p>
+
+<p>In a despatch of the 6th of February 1883 Lord Dufferin dealt
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122"></a>122</span>
+with the Sudan, and stated that Egypt &ldquo;could hardly be expected
+to acquiesce&rdquo; in a policy of withdrawal from her Southern
+territories. At the same time he pointed out that,</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Unhappily, Egyptian administration in the Sudan had been almost
+uniformly unfortunate. The success of the present mahdi in raising
+the tribes and extending his influence over great tracts of country
+was a sufficient proof of the government&rsquo;s inability either to reconcile
+the inhabitants to its rule or to maintain order. The consequences
+had been most disastrous. Within the last year and a half the
+Egyptians had lost something like 9000 men, while it was estimated
+that 40,000 of their opponents had perished.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Moreover, to restore tranquillity in the Sudan,</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;the first step necessary was the construction of a railway from
+Suakin to Berber, or what, perhaps, would be more advisable, to
+Shendi, on the Nile. The completion of this enterprise would at
+once change all the elements of the problem.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The immense responsibilities involved were most imperfectly
+understood by the British government. Egyptian sovereignty
+in the Sudan dates from 1820, when Mehemet Ali sent a large
+force into the country, and ultimately established his authority
+over Sennar and Kordofan. In 1865 Suakin and Massawa were
+assigned to Egyptian rule by the sultan, and in 1870 Sir Samuel
+Baker proceeded up the Nile to the conquest of the Equatorial
+provinces, of which General Gordon was appointed governor-general
+in 1874. In the same year Darfur and Harrar were
+annexed, and in 1877 Gordon became governor-general of the
+Sudan, where, with the valuable assistance of Gessi Pasha, he
+laboured to destroy the slave trade and to establish just government.
+In August 1879 he returned to Cairo, and was succeeded
+by Raouf Pasha. Misrule and oppression in every form now
+again prevailed throughout the Sudan, while the slave traders,
+exasperated by Gordon&rsquo;s stern measures, were ready to revolt.
+The authority of Egypt was represented by scattered garrisons
+of armed men, badly officered, undisciplined and largely
+demoralized. In such conditions a leader only was required
+to ensure widespread and dangerous rebellion. A leader appeared
+in the person of Mahommed Ahmed, born in 1848, who had taken
+up his abode on Abba Island, and, acquiring great reputation for
+sanctity, had actively fomented insurrection. In August 1881
+a small force sent by Raouf Pasha to arrest Mahommed Ahmed
+was destroyed, and the latter, proclaiming himself the mahdi,
+stood forth as the champion of revolt. Thus, at the time when
+the Egyptian army was broken up at Tell-el-Kebir, the Sudan
+was already in flames. On the 7th of June 1882, 6000 men under
+Yusef Pasha, advancing from Fashoda, were nearly annihilated
+by the mahdists. Payara and Birket in Kordofan quickly
+fell, and a few days before the battle of Tell-el-Kebir was fought,
+the mahdi, with a large force, was besieging El Obeid. That
+town was captured, after an obstinate defence, on the 17th of
+January 1883, by which time almost the whole of the Sudan
+south of Khartum was in open rebellion, except the Bahr-el-Ghazal
+and the Equatorial provinces, where for a time Lupton
+Bey and Emin Pasha were able to hold their own. Abd-el-Kader,
+who had succeeded Raouf, telegraphed to Cairo for 10,000 additional
+troops, and pointed out that if they were not sent at once
+four times this number would be required to re-establish the
+authority of the government in the Sudan. After gaining some
+small successes, Abd-el-Kader was superseded by Suliman Niagi
+on the 20th of February 1883, and on the 26th of March Ala-ed-din
+Pasha was appointed governor-general. Meanwhile 5000
+men, who had served in the Egyptian army, were collected
+and forcibly despatched to Khartum via Suakin. In March
+<span class="sidenote">Disaster to Hicks Pasha.</span>
+1883 Colonel William Hicks, late of the Bombay army,
+who in January had been appointed by the khedive
+chief of the staff of the army of the Sudan, found
+himself at Khartum with nine European officers and
+about 10,000 troops of little military value. The reconquest of
+the Sudan having been determined upon, although Sir E. Malet
+reported that the Egyptian government could not supply the
+necessary funds, and that there was great risk of failure, Colonel
+Hicks, who had resigned his post on the 23rd of July, and had
+been appointed commander-in-chief, started from Khartum on
+9th September, with a total force of about 10,000 men, including
+non-combatants, for Kordofan. On the 22nd of May Sir E.
+Malet had informed Sherif Pasha that,</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;although Colonel Hicks finds it convenient to communicate with
+Lord Dufferin or with me, it must not be supposed that we endorse
+in any way the contents of his telegrams.... Her Majesty&rsquo;s
+government are in no way responsible for his operations in the Sudan,
+which have been undertaken under the authority of His Highness&rsquo;s
+government.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Colonel Hicks was fully aware of the unfitness of his rabble
+forces for the contemplated task, and on the 5th of August he
+telegraphed: &ldquo;I am convinced it would be best to keep the two
+rivers and province of Sennar, and wait for Kordofan to settle
+itself.&rdquo; Early in November the force from Khartum was caught
+by the mahdists short of water at Kashgil, near El Obeid, and
+was almost totally destroyed, Colonel Hicks, with all his
+European officers, perishing. Sinister rumours having reached
+Cairo, Sir E. Baring (Lord Cromer), who had succeeded Sir E.
+Malet, telegraphed that &ldquo;if Colonel Hicks&rsquo;s army is destroyed,
+the Egyptian government will lose the whole of the Sudan, unless
+some assistance from the outside is given,&rdquo; and advised the
+withdrawal to some post on the Nile. On the following day
+Lord Granville replied: &ldquo;We cannot lend English or Indian
+troops; if consulted, recommend abandonment of the Sudan
+within certain limits&rdquo;; and on the 25th he added that &ldquo;Her
+Majesty&rsquo;s government can do nothing in the matter which would
+throw upon them the responsibilities for operations in the
+Sudan.&rdquo; In a despatch of the 3rd of December Sir E. Baring
+forcibly argued against British intervention in the affairs of the
+Sudan, and on the 13th of December Lord Granville telegraphed
+that &ldquo;Her Majesty&rsquo;s government recommend the ministers of
+khedive to come to an early decision to abandon all territory
+south of Assuan, or, at least, of Wadi Halfa.&rdquo; On the 4th of
+January 1884 Sir E. Baring was directed to insist upon the policy
+of evacuation, and on the 18th General Gordon left London to
+assist in its execution.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1883 brought a great accession of power to the
+mahdi, who had captured about 20,000 rifles, 19 guns and large
+stores of ammunition. On the Red Sea littoral Osman
+Digna, a slave dealer of Suakin, appointed amir of the
+<span class="sidenote">Defeat of General Baker.</span>
+Eastern Sudan, raised the local tribes and invested
+Sinkat and Tokar. On the 16th of October and the
+4th of November Egyptian reinforcements intended for the
+former place were destroyed, and on the 2nd of December a force
+of 700 men was annihilated near Tamanieb. On the 23rd of
+December General Valentine Baker, followed by about 2500 men,
+gendarmerie, blacks, Sudanese and Turks, with 10 British
+officers, arrived at Suakin to prepare for the relief of Sinkat and
+Tokar. The khedive appears to have been aware of the risks
+to be incurred, and in a private letter he informed the general
+that &ldquo;I rely upon your prudence and ability not to engage the
+enemy except under the most favourable circumstances.&rdquo;
+The tragedy of Kashgil was repeated on the 4th of February
+1884, when General Baker&rsquo;s heterogeneous force, on the march
+from Trinkitat to Tokar, was routed at El Teb by an inferior
+body of tribesmen. Of 3715 men, 2375, with 11 European
+officers, were killed. Suakin was now in danger, and on the 6th
+of February British bluejackets and marines were landed for
+the defence of the town.</p>
+
+<p>Two expeditions in the Sudan led by British officers having
+thus ended in disaster, and General Gordon with Lieutenant-Colonel
+J. D. Stewart having reached Khartum on
+the 18th of February, the policy of British non-intervention
+<span class="sidenote">British expedition under Sir G. Graham: battles of El Teb and Tamanieb.</span>
+in regard to Sudan affairs could no longer be
+maintained. Public opinion in England was strongly
+impressed by the fact that the Egyptian garrisons of
+Tokar and Sinkat were perishing within striking distance
+of the Red Sea littoral. A British force about 4400
+strong, with 22 guns, made up of troops from Egypt and from
+units detained on passage from India, was rapidly concentrated
+at Suakin and placed under the orders of Major-General Sir
+G. Graham, with Major-Generals Sir R. Buller and J. Davis as
+brigadiers. News of the fall of Sinkat, where the starving
+garrison, under Tewfik Bey, made a gallant sortie and was cut
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123"></a>123</span>
+to pieces, reached Suakin on the 12th of February. On the 24th
+General Graham&rsquo;s force disembarked at Trinkitat and received
+information of the surrender of Tokar. At 8 A.M. on the 29th
+the force advanced towards Tokar in square, and came under fire
+at 11.20 A.M. from the enemy entrenched at El Teb. The tribesmen
+made desperate efforts to rush the square, but were repulsed,
+and the position was taken by 2 P.M. The cavalry, 10th and 19th
+Hussars, under Brigadier-General Sir H. Stewart, became involved
+in a charge against an unbroken enemy, and suffered
+somewhat severely. The total British loss was 34 killed and
+155 wounded; that of the tribesmen was estimated at 1500
+killed. On the following day Tokar was reached, and on the
+2nd of March the force began its return to Suakin, bringing away
+about 700 people belonging to the late garrison and the civil
+population, and destroying 1250 rifles and a quantity of ammunition
+found in a neighbouring village. On the 9th of March
+the whole force was back at Suakin, and on the evening of the
+11th an advance to Tamai began, and the force bivouacked
+and formed a zeriba in the evening. Information was brought
+by a native that the enemy had assembled in the Khor Ghob,
+a deep ravine not far from the zeriba. At about 8.30 A.M. on the
+13th the advance began in echelon of brigade squares from
+the left. The left and leading square (2nd Brigade) moved
+towards the khor, approaching at a point where a little ravine
+joined it. The enemy showing in front, the leading face of the
+square was ordered to charge up to the edge of the khor. This
+opened the square, and a mass of tribesmen rushed in from
+the small ravine. The brigade was forced back in disorder, and
+the naval guns, which had been left behind, were temporarily
+captured. After a severe hand-to-hand struggle, in which the
+troops behaved with great gallantry, order was restored and the
+enemy repulsed, with the aid of the fire from the 1st Brigade square
+and from dismounted cavalry. The 1st Brigade square, having a
+sufficient field of fire, easily repelled all attempts to attack, and
+advancing as soon as the situation had been restored, occupied
+the village of Tamai. The British loss was 109 killed and 104
+wounded; of the enemy nearly 2000 were killed. On the
+following day the force returned to Suakin.</p>
+
+<p>Two heavy blows had now been inflicted on the followers of
+Osman Digna, and the road to Berber could have been opened, as
+General Graham and Brigadier-General Sir H. Stewart suggested.
+General Gordon, questioned on the point, telegraphed from
+Khartum, on the 7th of March, that he might be cut off by a
+rising at Shendi, adding, &ldquo;I think it, therefore, most important
+to follow up the success near Suakin by sending a small force to
+Berber.&rdquo; He had previously, on the 29th of February, urged
+that the Suakin-Berber road should be opened up by Indian
+troops. This, and General Gordon&rsquo;s proposal to send 200 British
+troops to Wadi Halfa, was opposed by Sir E. Baring, who,
+realizing soon afterwards the gravity of the situation, telegraphed
+on the 16th of March:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;It has now become of the utmost importance not only to open
+the road between Suakin and Berber, but to come to terms with
+the tribes between Berber and Khartum.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The government refused to take this action, and Major-General
+Graham&rsquo;s force was employed in reconnaissances and small
+skirmishes, ending in the destruction of the villages in the
+Tamanieb valley on 27th March. On the 28th the whole force
+was reassembled at Suakin, and was then broken up, leaving
+one battalion to garrison the town.</p>
+
+<p>The abrupt disappearance of the British troops encouraged
+the tribesmen led by Osman Digna, and effectually prevented the
+formation of a native movement, which might have
+been of great value. The first attempt at intervention
+<span class="sidenote">Entanglement of General Gordon at Khartum.</span>
+in the affairs of the Sudan was made too late to save
+Sinkat and Tokar. It resulted only in heavy slaughter
+of the tribesmen, which afforded no direct or indirect
+aid to General Gordon or to the policy of evacuation. The
+public announcement of the latter was a grave mistake, which
+increased General Gordon&rsquo;s difficulties, and the situation at
+Khartum grew steadily worse. On the 24th of March Sir E.
+Baring telegraphed:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The question now is, how to get General Gordon and Colonel
+Stewart away from Khartum.... Under present circumstances,
+I think an effort should be made to help General Gordon from
+Suakin, if it is at all a possible military operation.... We all
+consider that, however difficult the operations from Suakin may
+be, they are more practicable than any operations from Korosko
+and along the Nile.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A telegram from General Gordon, received at Cairo on the
+19th of April, stated that</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;We have provisions for five months and are hemmed in.... Our
+position will be much strengthened when the Nile rises.... Sennar,
+Kassala and Dongola are quite safe for the present.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>At the same time he suggested &ldquo;an appeal to the millionaires
+of America and England&rdquo; to subscribe money for the cost of
+&ldquo;2000 or 3000 nizams&rdquo; (Turkish regulars) to be sent to Berber.
+A cloud now settled down upon Khartum, and subsequent
+communications were few and irregular. The foreign office and
+General Gordon appeared to be somewhat at cross purposes.
+The former hoped that the garrisons of the Sudan could be extricated
+without fighting. The latter, judging from the tenor
+of some of his telegrams, believed that to accomplish this work
+entailed the suppression of the mahdi&rsquo;s revolt, the strength of
+which he at first greatly underestimated. He had pressed
+strongly for the employment of Zobeir as &ldquo;an absolute necessity
+for success&rdquo; (3rd of March); but this was refused, since Sir H.
+Gordon advised at this time that it would be dangerous. On the
+9th of March General Gordon proposed, &ldquo;if the immediate
+evacuation of Khartum is determined upon irrespective of outlying
+towns,&rdquo; to send down the &ldquo;Cairo <i>employés</i>&rdquo; and the
+garrison to Berber with Lieutenant-Colonel J. D. Stewart, to
+resign his commission, and to proceed with the stores and the
+steamers to the equatorial provinces, which he would consider
+as placed under the king of the Belgians. On the 13th of March
+Lord Granville gave full power to General Gordon to &ldquo;evacuate
+Khartum and save that garrison by conducting it himself to
+Berber without delay,&rdquo; and expressed a hope that he would not
+resign his commission.</p>
+
+<p>By the end of March 1884 Sir E. Baring and the British officers
+in Egypt were convinced that force would have to be employed,
+and the growing danger of General Gordon, with the
+grave national responsibility involved, began to be
+<span class="sidenote">Relief expedition: question of route.</span>
+realized in Great Britain. Sir Henry Gordon, however,
+who was in personal communication with Mr Gladstone,
+considered that his brother was in no peril, and for some
+time disbelieved in the need for a relief expedition. Meanwhile
+it was at least necessary to evolve some plan of action, and on
+the 8th of April the adjutant-general addressed a memorandum
+to the secretary of state for war detailing the measures required
+for placing 6500 British troops &ldquo;in the neighbourhood of Shendi.&rdquo;
+The battle of the routes began much earlier, and was continued
+for some months. Practically the choice lay between the Nile
+and the Suakin-Berber road. The first involved a distance of
+1650 m. from Cairo along a river strewn with cataracts, which
+obstructed navigation to all but small boats, except during the
+period of high water. So great was this obstruction that the
+Nile had never been a regular trade route to the Sudan. The
+second entailed a desert march of about 250 m., of which one
+section, Obak-Bir Mahoba (52 m.), was waterless, and the rest
+had an indifferent water supply (except at Ariab, about half-way
+to Berber), capable, however, of considerable development.
+From Berber the Nile is followed (210 m.) to Khartum. This
+was an ancient trade route with the Sudan, and had been used
+without difficulty by the reinforcements sent to Hicks Pasha in
+1883, which were accompanied by guns on wheels. The authorities
+in Egypt, headed by General Stephenson, subsequently
+supported by the Admiral Lord John Hay, who sent a naval
+officer to examine the river as far as Dongola, were unanimous
+in favour of the Suakin-Berber route. From the first Major-General
+Sir A. Clarke, then inspector-general of fortifications,
+strongly urged this plan, and proposed to begin at once a metre
+gauge railway from Suakin, to be constructed by Indian labour
+under officers skilled in laying desert lines. Some preliminary
+arrangements were made, and on the 14th of June the government
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124"></a>124</span>
+sanctioned certain measures of preparation at Suakin. On the
+other side were the adjutant-general (Lord Wolseley) and a small
+number of officers who had taken part in the Red River expedition
+of 1870. The memorandum of the adjutant-general
+above referred to was based on the hypothesis that Khartum
+could not hold out beyond the 15th of November, and that the
+expedition should reach Berber by the 20th of October. Steamers
+were to be employed in such reaches as proved practicable, but
+the force was to be conveyed in special whale-boats, by which
+&ldquo;the difficulty of transport is reduced to very narrow limits.&rdquo;
+The mounted force was to consist of 400 men on native horses
+and 450 men on horses or camels. The question of routes continued
+to be the subject of animated discussion, and on the 29th
+of July a committee of three officers who had served in the Red
+River expedition reported:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;We believe that a brigade can easily be conveyed in small boats
+from Cairo to Dongola in the time stated by Lord Wolseley; and,
+further, that should it be necessary to send a still larger force by
+water to Khartum, that operation will present no insuperable
+difficulties.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This most inconclusive report, and the baseless idea that the
+adoption of the Nile route would involve no chance of bloodshed,
+which the government was anxious to avoid, seem to
+have decided the question. On the 8th of August the
+<span class="sidenote">Lord Wolseley sent out; Nile route adopted.</span>
+secretary of state for war informed General Stephenson
+that &ldquo;the time had arrived when some further
+measures for obtaining accurate information as to
+his (General Gordon&rsquo;s) position, and, if necessary, for tendering
+him assistance, should be adopted.&rdquo; General Stephenson still
+urged the Suakin-Berber route, and was informed on the 26th
+of August that Lord Wolseley would be appointed to take over
+the command in Egypt for the purposes of the expedition, for
+which a vote of credit had been taken in the House of Commons
+on the 5th of August. On the 9th of September Lord Wolseley
+arrived at Cairo, and the plan of operations was somewhat
+modified. A camel corps of 1100 men selected from twenty-eight
+regiments at home was added, and the &ldquo;fighting force to be
+placed in line somewhere in the neighbourhood of Shendi&rdquo; was
+fixed at 5400.  The construction of whale-boats began on the
+12th of August, and the first batch arrived at Wadi Halfa on
+the 14th of October, and on the 25th the first boat was hauled
+through the second cataract. The mounted forces proceeded
+up the banks, and the first half-battalion embarked at Gemai,
+870 m. from Khartum, on the 5th of November, ten days before
+the date to which it had been assumed General Gordon could
+hold out. In a straggling procession the boats worked their
+way up to Korti, piloted by Canadian <i>voyageurs</i>. The labour
+was very great, and the troops, most of whom were having their
+first lesson in rowing, bore the privations of their unaccustomed
+conditions with admirable cheerfulness. By the 25th of
+December 2220 men had reached Korti, of whom about 800 only
+had been conveyed by the whale-boats, the last of which did not
+arrive till the 27th of January. Beyond Korti lay the very
+difficult section of the river to Abu Hamed, which was quite
+unknown. Meanwhile news of the loss of the &ldquo;Abbas&rdquo; and of
+the murder of Colonel J. D. Stewart and his party on the 18th of
+September had been received. A letter from Gordon, dated the
+4th of November and received on the 17th of November, stated
+that his steamers would await the expedition at Metemma, and
+added, &ldquo;We can hold out forty days with ease; after that it
+will be difficult.&rdquo; In his diary, on the 13th of December, when
+his difficulties had become extreme, he noted that &ldquo;if the
+expeditionary force does not come in ten days, the town may
+fall.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It was clear at Korti that something must be done at once;
+and on the 13th of December 1100 men, with 2200 camels, under
+General Sir H. Stewart, were despatched to occupy Jakdul wells,
+96 m. on the desert route to Metemma. Stewart returned on
+the 5th of January, and started again on the 8th, with orders
+to establish a fort at Abu Klea and to occupy Metemma. The
+Desert Column, 1800 men, with 2880 camels in poor condition
+and 153 horses, found the enemy in possession of Abu Klea wells
+on the 16th, and was desperately attacked on the 17th. The
+want of homogeneity of the force, and the unaccustomed tactics
+imposed upon the cavalry, somewhat hampered the defence,
+<span class="sidenote">Stewart&rsquo;s Desert Column; battle of Abu Klea wells.</span>
+and the square was broken at the left rear corner.
+Driven back upon the camels in the centre, the troops
+fought hand to hand with the greatest gallantry. Order
+was quickly restored, and the attack was repulsed, with
+a loss of 74 killed and 94 wounded. At least 1100 of
+the enemy were killed. The wells being occupied and a
+zeriba formed, the column started on the evening of the 18th.
+The wrong road was taken, and great confusion occurred,
+during the night, but at dawn this was rectified; and after
+forming a rough fort under fire, by which General Sir H. Stewart
+was fatally wounded, an advance was made at 3 P.M. The
+square was again heavily attacked, but the Arabs could not get
+to close quarters and in the evening a bivouac was formed on
+the Nile. The British losses on this day were 23 killed and 98
+wounded. The Desert Column was now greatly exhausted.
+On the 20th the village of Gubat was occupied; and on the
+following day Sir C. Wilson, on whom the command had devolved,
+advanced against Metemma, which was found too strong to
+assault. On this day General Gordon&rsquo;s four steamers arrived;
+and on the morning of the 24th Sir C. Wilson, with 20 British
+soldiers in red coats and about 280 Sudanese, started in the
+&ldquo;Bordein&rdquo; and &ldquo;Telahawiyeh&rdquo; for Khartum. The &ldquo;Bordein&rdquo;
+grounded on the following day, and again on the 26th, by which
+twenty-four hours were lost. At 11 A.M. on the 28th Khartum
+was sighted, and it soon became clear that the town was in the
+hands of the enemy. After reconnoitring farther, the steamers
+turned and proceeded down stream under a heavy fire, the
+Sudanese crews showing signs of disaffection. The &ldquo;Telahawiyeh&rdquo;
+was wrecked on the 29th of January and the
+&ldquo;Bordein&rdquo; on the 31st, Sir C. Wilson&rsquo;s party being rescued on
+the 4th of February by Lord C. Beresford in the &ldquo;Safieh,&rdquo;
+which had come up from Gubat on receipt of news carried there
+by Lieutenant Stuart Wortley in a row-boat. Khartum had
+been taken and General Gordon killed on the morning of the
+26th of January 1885, having thus held out thirty-four days
+beyond the date when he had expected the end. The garrison
+<span class="sidenote">Failure of relief expedition.</span>
+had been reduced to starvation; and the arrival of
+twenty British soldiers, with orders to return at once,
+could not have affected the situation. The situation
+of the Desert Column and of its transport was most
+imperfectly understood at Korti, where impossible plans were
+formed. Fortunately Major-General Sir R. Buller, who arrived
+at Gubat on the 11th of February, decided upon withdrawal,
+thus averting impending disaster, and by the 16th of March the
+Desert Column had returned to Korti.</p>
+
+<p>The advance from Korti of the River Column, under Major-General
+Earle, began on the 28th of December, and great difficulties
+of navigation were encountered. On the 10th of February
+an action was fought at Kirbekan with about 800 of the enemy,
+entailing a loss of 10 killed, including Major-General Earle,
+and 47 wounded. The column, now commanded by Brigadier-General
+Brackenbury, continued its slow advance, and on the
+morning of the 24th of February it was about 26 m. below Abu
+Hamed, a point where the Korosko desert route strikes the Nile,
+350 m. from Khartum. Here it received orders to retire, and
+it reached Korti on the 8th of March.</p>
+
+<p>The verbal message received from General Gordon on the
+30th of December 1884 rendered the extreme danger of the
+position at Khartum painfully apparent, and the
+secretary of state for war, acting on Sir E. Baring&rsquo;s
+<span class="sidenote">Suakin operations.</span>
+advice, offered to make an active demonstration from
+Suakin. To this proposal Lord Wolseley demurred, but asked
+that ships of war should be sent to Suakin, and that &ldquo;marines in
+red coats should be frequently landed and exercised.&rdquo; Lord
+Hartington replied that the government did not consider that
+a demonstration of this kind could be effective, and again
+suggested stronger measures. On the 8th of January 1885 Lord
+Wolseley repeated that &ldquo;the measures you propose will not assist
+my operations against Khartum,&rdquo; adding:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>125</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;I have from first endeavoured to impress on government that I
+am strong enough to relieve Khartum, and believe in being able to
+send a force, when returning by way of Berber, to Suakin, to open
+road and crush Osman Digna.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>On this very day the small Desert Column started from Korti
+on its hazardous mission to the relief of a town fully 270 m.
+distant, held by a starving garrison, and invested by 30,000
+fighting men, mostly armed with good rifles. Before reaching
+the Nile the Desert Column had lost 300 men and was unable
+to take Metemma, while its transport had completely broken
+down. On the 8th of February Lord Wolseley telegraphed,
+&ldquo;The sooner you can now deal with Osman Digna the better,&rdquo;
+and recommended the despatch of Indian troops to Suakin, to
+&ldquo;co-operate with me in keeping road to Berber open.&rdquo; On
+the 11th of February, the day on which Sir R. Buller most
+wisely decided to withdraw the Desert Column from a position
+of extreme danger, it was determined at Korti that the River
+Column should proceed to attack Berber, and Lord Wolseley
+accepted the proposal of the government to make a railway
+from Suakin, telegraphing to Lord Harrington:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;By all means make railway by contract to Berber, or as far as
+you can, during summer. It will be invaluable as a means of
+supply, and I recommend it being begun immediately. Contract
+to be, if possible, for so much per ton military stores and supplies
+and men carried, per mile.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Every effort was now concentrated upon sending an expeditionary
+force to Suakin, and before the end of March about
+13,000 men, including a brigade from India and a field battery
+from New South Wales, with nearly 7000 camels and 1000 mules,
+were there assembled. Lieutenant-General Sir G. Graham was
+placed in command of this force, with orders to break down the
+power of Osman Digna and to press the construction of the
+railway towards Berber. The troops at Suakin, on arrival,
+were much harassed by small night attacks, which ceased as
+soon as the scattered camps were drawn together. On the 19th
+of March Sir G. Graham, with the cavalry brigade and the
+infantry of the Indian contingent, reconnoitred as far as Hashin,
+finding the country difficult on account of the dense mimosa
+scrub. The enemy occupied the hills and fired upon the cavalry.
+On the 20th Sir G. Graham, with about 9000 men, again advanced
+<span class="sidenote">Battle of Hashin.</span>
+to Hashin, and Dehilbat hill was taken by the Berkshire
+regiment and the Royal Marines. A squadron
+of the 9th Royal Lancers, which was dismounted in
+the thick bush, was driven back with the loss of 9 men; but
+elsewhere the Arabs never succeeded in closing, and the troops
+returned to Suakin in the afternoon, leaving the East Surrey
+regiment in a zeriba covering some low hills near Hashin village.
+The total British loss was 9 killed and 39 wounded.</p>
+
+<p>On the 22nd of March a force, consisting of two British and
+three Indian battalions, with a naval brigade, a squadron of
+lancers, two companies of engineers, and a large
+convoy of camels carrying water and supplies, under
+<span class="sidenote">McNeill&rsquo;s zeriba.</span>
+Major-General Sir J. McNeill, started from Suakin for
+Tamai, with orders to form a half-way zeriba. The advance
+was much impeded by the dense bush, and the force halted at
+Tofrik, about 6 m. out, at 10.30 A.M. A native had brought
+information that the enemy intended to attack while the zeriba
+was being formed, and this actually occurred. The force was
+caught partly unprepared soon after 2.30 P.M., and severe fighting
+took place. The enemy were repulsed in about twenty minutes,
+the naval brigade, the Berkshire regiment, the Royal Marines,
+and the 15th Sikhs showing the greatest gallantry. The
+casualties, including those among non-combatants, were 150
+killed, 148 missing, and 174 wounded. More than 500 camels
+were killed. The tribesmen lost more than 1000 killed. As soon
+as firing was heard at Suakin, Sir G. Graham, with two battalions
+of Guards and a battery of horse artillery, started for Tofrik,
+but returned on being assured that reinforcements were not
+required. On the 24th and 26th convoys proceeding in square
+to Tofrik were attacked, the enemy being repulsed without
+difficulty. On the 2nd of April a force exceeding 7000 men,
+with 14 guns and 1600 transport animals, started from Suakin
+at 4.30 A.M., and bivouacked twelve hours later at Tesela Hill.
+Next morning an advance was made towards Tamai, and a
+number of huts in the Khor Ghob were burned. The force
+then returned to Suakin. The railway was now pushed on
+without interruption, reaching Otao on the 30th. On the night
+of the 6th of May a combined movement was made from Suakin
+and Otao, which resulted in the surprise and break-up of a force
+of the enemy under Mahommed Sardun, and the capture of a
+large number of sheep and goats. The moral effect of this
+operation was marked, and large numbers of tribesmen placed
+themselves unconditionally at the disposal of Sir G. Graham.
+A great native movement could now have been organized,
+which would have kept the route to Berber and enabled the
+railway to be rapidly pushed forward.</p>
+
+<p>Meanwhile many communications had passed between the
+war office and Lord Wolseley, who at first believed that Berber
+could be taken before the summer. In a long despatch
+of the 6th of March he discussed the general situation,
+<span class="sidenote">Political and military situation at end of operations.</span>
+and pointed out that although the force at his disposal
+&ldquo;was amply sufficient&rdquo; for raising the siege of Khartum
+and defeating the mahdi, the conditions were changed
+by the fall of the town. It was now &ldquo;impossible ...
+to undertake any offensive operations until about the end of
+the summer,&rdquo; when twelve additional British battalions, four
+strong squadrons of British cavalry, and two R.H.A. batteries,
+together with a large extension of the Wadi Halfa railway,
+eleven steamers, and three hundred more whale-boats, would
+be required. He considered it necessary to hold Dongola, and
+he reported that he was &ldquo;distributing this army along the left
+bank of the Nile, on the open reach of water&rdquo; between the
+Hannek cataract and Abu Dom, opposite Merawi. On the 30th
+of March Lord Wolseley quitted the army and proceeded to
+Cairo. A cloud having arisen on the frontiers of Afghanistan,
+the withdrawal of the troops from the Sudan was ordered on
+the 11th of May. On the formation of Lord Salisbury&rsquo;s cabinet,
+the new secretary of state for war, Mr W. H. Smith, inquired
+whether the retirement could be arrested, but Major-General
+Sir R. Buller reported that the difficulties of reoccupation would
+be great, and that if Dongola was to be held, a fresh expedition
+would be required. On the 22nd of June, before the British
+rearguard had left Dongola, the mahdi died. The withdrawal
+of the Suakin force began on the 17th of May, and the friendly
+tribes, deprived of support, were compelled to make terms
+with Osman Digna, who was soon able to turn his attention to
+Kassala, which capitulated in August, nearly at the same time
+as Sennar.</p>
+
+<p>The failure of the operations in the Sudan had been absolute
+and complete, and the reason is to be sought in a total misconception
+of the situation, which caused vacillation and delay, and
+in the choice of a route by which, having regard to the date of
+the decision, the relief of General Gordon and Khartum was
+impossible.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. S. C.)</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">Military Operations in Egypt and the Sudan,
+1885 to 1896</p>
+
+<p>The operations against Mahdism during the eleven years
+from the end of the Nile expedition and the withdrawal from
+the Sudan to the commencement of the Dongola campaign will
+be more easily understood if, instead of narrating them in one
+chronological sequence, the operations in each province are
+considered separately. The mahdi, Mahommed Ahmed, died
+at Omdurman on the 22nd of June 1885. He was succeeded
+by the principal khalifa, Abdullah el Taaisha, a Baggara Arab,
+who for the next thirteen years ruled the Sudan with despotic
+power. Cruel, vicious, unscrupulous and strong, the country
+groaned beneath his oppression. He removed all possible rivals,
+concentrated at Omdurman a strong military force composed
+of men of his own tribe, and maintained the ascendancy of that
+tribe over all others. As the British troops retired to Upper
+Egypt, his followers seized the evacuated country, and the
+khalifa cherished the idea, already formulated by the mahdi,
+of the conquest of Egypt, but for some years he was too much
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>126</span>
+occupied in quelling risings, massacring the Egyptians in the
+Sudan, and fighting Abyssinia, to move seriously in the
+matter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Upper Egypt.</i>&mdash;Mahommed el Kheir, dervish amir of Dongola,
+however, advanced towards the frontier in the autumn of 1885,
+and at the end of November came in touch with the frontier
+field force, a body of some 3000 men composed in nearly equal
+parts of British and Egyptian troops. A month of harassing
+skirmishes ensued, during which the Egyptian troops showed
+their mettle at Mograka, where 200 of them held the fort
+against a superior number of dervishes, and in combats at
+Ambigol, Kosha and Firket. Sir Frederick Stephenson, commanding
+the British army of occupation in Egypt, then concentrated
+the frontier field force at Firket, and attacked the main
+body of the enemy at Ginnis on the 30th of December 1885,
+completely defeating it and capturing two guns and twenty
+banners. It was here the new Egyptian army received its
+baptism of fire and acquitted itself very creditably. Although
+checked, the dervishes were not discouraged, and continued
+to press upon the frontier in frequent raids, and thus in many
+bloody skirmishes the fighting qualities of the Egyptian troops
+were developed. In April 1886 the frontier was drawn back to
+Wadi Halfa, a fortified camp at the northern end of the desolate
+defile, Batn-el-Hagar, through which the Nile tumbles amid
+black, rocky hills in a succession of rapids, and debouches on
+a wide plain. The protection of the frontier was now left in the
+hands of the Egyptian army, a British force remaining at Assuan,
+200 m. to the north, as a reserve in case of emergency, and two
+years later even this precaution was deemed unnecessary.</p>
+
+<p>In October 1886 Wad en Nejumi, the amir who had defeated
+Hicks Pasha in Kordofan three years before, and led the assault
+at Khartum when General Gordon was slain in January 1885,
+replaced Mahommed el Kheir as &ldquo;commander of the force for
+the conquest of Egypt,&rdquo; and brought large reinforcements to
+Dongola. An advanced column under Nur-el-Kanzi occupied
+Sarras in April 1887, was attacked by the Egyptian force under
+Colonel H. Chermside on the 28th of that month, and after a
+stubborn resistance was defeated with great loss. Nur-el-Kanzi
+was killed and ten standards taken.</p>
+
+<p>The troubles in Darfur and with Abyssinia (<i>q.v.</i>) induced the
+khalifa to reduce the garrisons of the north; nevertheless, the
+dervishes reoccupied Sarras, continued active in raids and skirmishes,
+and destroyed the railway south of Sarras, which during
+the Nile expedition of 1884 and 1885 had been carried as far as
+Akasha. It was not until May 1889 that an invasion of the
+frontier on a large scale was attempted. At this time the power
+and prestige of the khalifa were at their height: the rebellions
+in Darfur and Kordofan had been stamped out, the anti-mahdi
+was dead, and even the dervish defeat by the Abyssinians had
+been converted by the death of King John and the capture of
+his body into a success. It was therefore an opportune time to
+try to sweep the Turks and the British into the sea. On the 22nd
+of June Nejumi was at Sarras with over 6000 fighting men and
+8000 followers. On the 2nd of July Colonel J. Wodehouse
+headed off a part of this force from the river at Argin, and, after
+a sharp action, completely defeated it, killing 900, among whom
+were many important amirs, and taking 500 prisoners and 12
+banners, with very small loss to his own troops. A British
+brigade was on its way up stream, but the sirdar, who had already
+arrived to take the command in person, decided not to wait for
+it. The Egyptian troops, with a squadron of the 20th Hussars,
+<span class="sidenote">Battle of Toski.</span>
+concentrated at Toski, and thence, on the 3rd of August,
+General Grenfell, with slight loss, gained a decisive
+victory. Wad en Nejumi, most of his amirs, and more
+than 1200 Arabs were killed; 4000 prisoners and 147 standards
+were taken, and the dervish army practically destroyed. No
+further serious attempts were made to disturb the frontier, of
+which the most southerly outpost was at once advanced to Sarras.</p>
+
+<p>The escape from Omdurman of Father Ohrwalder and of two
+of the captive nuns in December 1891, of Father Rossignoli in
+October 1894, and of Slatin Bey in February 1895, revealed the
+condition of the Sudan to the outside world, threw a vivid light
+on the rule of the khalifa, and corroborated information already
+received of the discontent which existed among the tribes with
+the oppression and despotism under which they lived.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Eastern Sudan.</i>&mdash;In 1884 Colonel Chermside, governor
+of the Red Sea littoral, entered into arrangements with King
+John of Abyssinia for the relief of the beleaguered Egyptian
+garrisons. Gera, Amadib, Senhit and Gallabat were, in consequence,
+duly succoured, and their garrisons and Egyptian
+populations brought away to the coast by the Abyssinians in
+1885. Unfortunately famine compelled the garrison of Kassala
+to capitulate on the 30th of July of that year, and Osman Digna
+hurried there from Tamai to raise a force with which to meet
+the Abyssinian general, Ras Alula, who was preparing for its
+relief. By the end of August Osman Digna had occupied Kufit,
+in the Barea country, with 10,000 men and entrenched himself.
+On the 23rd of September Ras Alula attacked him there with an
+equal number of men and routed him with great slaughter.
+Over 3000 dervishes with their principal amirs, except Osman
+Digna, lay dead on the field, and many more were killed in the
+pursuit. The Abyssinians lost 40 officers and 1500 men killed,
+besides many more wounded. Instead of marching on to Kassala,
+Ras Alula, who at this time was much offended by the transfer
+of Massawa by the Egyptians to Italy, made a triumphant entry
+into Asmara, and absolutely refused to make any further efforts
+to extricate Egyptian garrisons from the grip of the khalifa.
+Meanwhile Osman Digna, who had fled from Kufit to Kassala,
+wreaked his vengeance upon the unhappy captives at Kassala.</p>
+
+<p>In the neighbourhood of Suakin there were many tribes
+disaffected to the khalifa&rsquo;s cause, and in the autumn of 1886
+Colonel H. Kitchener, who was at the time governor of the Red
+Sea littoral, judiciously arranged a combination of them to
+overthrow Osman Digna, with the result that his stronghold at
+Tamai was captured on the 7th of October, 200 of his men killed,
+and 50 prisoners, 17 guns and a vast store of rifles and ammunition
+captured. For about a year there was comparative quiet.
+Then at the end of 1887 Osman Digna again advanced towards
+<span class="sidenote">Handub.</span>
+Suakin, but his force at Taroi was routed by the
+&ldquo;Friendlies,&rdquo; and he fell back on Handub. Kitchener
+unsuccessfully endeavoured to capture Osman Digna on the 17th
+of January 1888, but in the attack was himself severely wounded,
+and was shortly after invalided. Later in the year Osman Digna
+collected a large force and besieged Suakin. In December the
+sirdar arrived with reinforcements from Cairo, and on the 20th
+sallied out and attacked the dervishes in their trenches at
+Gemaiza, clearing the whole line and inflicting considerable
+loss on the enemy, who retired towards Handub, and the country
+was again fairly quiet for a time. During 1889 and 1890 Tokar
+became the centre of dervish authority, while Handub continued
+to be occupied for the khalifa. In January 1891 Osman Digna
+showed signs of increased activity, and Colonel (afterwards
+Sir Charles) Holled Smith, then governor of the Red Sea littoral,
+attacked Handub successfully on the 27th and occupied it, then
+seized Trinkitat and Teb, and on the 19th of February fought
+the decisive action of Afafit, occupied Tokar, and drove Osman
+<span class="sidenote">Battle of Afafit.</span>
+Digna back to Temrin with a loss of 700 men, including
+all his chief amirs. This action proved the final blow
+to the dervish power in the neighbourhood of Suakin,
+for although raiding continued on a small scale, the tribes were
+growing tired of the khalifa&rsquo;s rule and refused to support Osman
+Digna.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1891 an agreement was made between England
+and Italy by which the Italian forces in Eritrea were at liberty,
+if they were able, to capture and occupy Kassala, which lay close
+to the western boundary of their new colony, on condition that
+they restored it to Egypt at a future day when required to do so.
+Three years passed before they availed themselves of this agreement.
+In 1893 the dervishes, 12,000 strong, under Ahmed Ali,
+invaded Eritrea, and were met on the 29th of December at
+Agordat by Colonel Arimondi with 2000 men of a native force.
+Ahmed Ali&rsquo;s force was completely routed and himself killed,
+and in the following July Colonel Baratieri, with 2500 men,
+made a fine forced march from Agordat, surprised and captured
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>127</span>
+Kassala on the 17th of that month, and continued to hold it for
+three years and a half.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Abyssinian Frontier.</i>&mdash;On the Abyssinian frontier Ras Adal
+was in command of a considerable force of Abyssinians early in 1886,
+and in June of that year he invaded Gallabat and defeated the
+dervishes on the plain of Madana; the dervish amir Mahommed
+Wad Ardal was killed and his camp captured. In the following
+year the amir Yunis ed Dekeim made two successful raids into Abyssinian
+territory, upon which Ras Adal collected an enormous army,
+said to number 200,000 men, for the invasion of the Sudan. The
+khalifa sent the amir Hamdan Abu Angar, a very skilful leader, with
+an army of over 80,000 men against him. Abu Angar entered
+Abyssinia and, in August 1887, attacked Ras Adal in the plain of
+Debra Sin and, after a prolonged battle, defeated the Abyssinians,
+captured their camp, and marched on Gondar, the ancient capital
+of Abyssinia, which he sacked, and then returned into Gallabat.
+King John, the negus of Abyssinia, burning to avenge this defeat,
+marched, in February 1889, with an enormous army to Gallabat,
+where the amir Zeki Tumal commanded the khalifa&rsquo;s forces, some
+60,000 strong, and had strongly fortified the town and the camp.
+On the 9th of March 1889 the Abyssinians made a terrific onslaught,
+stormed and burnt the town, and took thousands of prisoners.
+A small party of dervishes still held a zeriba when King John was
+struck by a stray bullet. The Abyssinians decided to retire, fighting
+ceased, and they moved off with their prisoners and the wounded
+negus. That night the king died, and the greater part of the army
+having gone ahead with the prisoners, a party of Arabs pursued the
+rearguard, which consisted of the king&rsquo;s bodyguard, routed them,
+and captured the king&rsquo;s body, which was sent to Omdurman to
+confirm the report of a brilliant victory sent by Zeki Tumal to the
+khalifa. Internal strife prevented the new negus of Abyssinia from
+prosecuting the war, which thus, in spite of the Abyssinian success,
+resulted in the increased prestige of the khalifa. From this time,
+however, the dervishes ceased to trouble the Abyssinians.</p>
+
+<p><i>Darfur and Kordofan.</i>&mdash;On the outbreak of the mahdi&rsquo;s rebellion
+Slatin Bey was governor of the province, and when Madibbo, the
+insurgent sheikh of Rizighat, attacked and occupied Shakka and
+was following up his success, Slatin twice severely defeated him,
+and, having concentrated his forces at El Fasher, repulsed the
+enemy again at Om Shanga. Mahdism, however, spread over Darfur
+in spite of Slatin&rsquo;s efforts to stay it. He fought no fewer than
+twenty-seven actions in various parts of his province, but his own
+troops, in course of time, became infected with the new faith and
+deserted him. He was obliged to surrender at Dara in December
+1883, and was a prisoner, first at Obeid and then at Omdurman,
+until he escaped in 1895. In January 1884 Zogal, the new dervish
+amir of the province, attacked El Fasher, where Said Bey Guma
+and an Egyptian garrison 1000 strong with 10 guns was still holding
+out, and captured it. He also reduced the Jebel Marra district,
+where the loyal hill-people gave him some trouble.</p>
+
+<p>After the death of the mahdi in 1885, Madibbo revolted against
+the khalifa, but was defeated by Karamalla, the dervish amir
+of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, and was caught and executed. A war then
+sprang up between Karamalla and Sultan Yusef, who had succeeded
+Zogal as amir of Darfur. Yusef was joined in 1887 by Sultan
+Zayid, the black ruler of Jebel Marra, and Karamalla&rsquo;s trusted
+general, Ketenbur, was defeated with great slaughter at El Towaish
+on the 29th of June 1887. Osman wad Adam (Ganu), amir of
+Kordofan, was sent by the khalifa to Karamalla&rsquo;s assistance. He
+forced back the Darfurians near Dara on the 26th of December,
+routed Zayid in a second battle, entered El Fasher, and, in 1888,
+became complete master of the situation, the two sultans being
+killed. The Darfurian chiefs then allied themselves with Abu
+Gemaiza, sheikh of the Masalit Arabs, who had proclaimed himself
+&ldquo;Khalifa Osman,&rdquo; and was known as the anti-mahdi. The revolt
+assumed large proportions, and became the more dangerous to
+Abdullah, the khalifa, by reason of its religious character, wild
+rumours spreading over the country and reaching to Egypt and
+Suakin of the advent to power of an opposition mahdi. Abu
+Gemaiza attacked a portion of Osman Adam&rsquo;s force, under Abd-el-Kader,
+at Kebkebia, 30 m. from El Fasher, and almost annihilated
+it on the 16th of October 1888; and a week later another large
+force of Osman Adam met with the same fate at the same place.
+Instead of following up his victories, Abu Gemaiza retired to Dar
+Tama to augment his army, to which thousands flocked as the news
+of his achievements spread far and wide. He again advanced to El
+Fasher in February 1889, but was seized with smallpox. His army,
+however, under Fiki Adam, fought a fierce battle close to El Fasher
+on the 22nd, which resulted in its defeat and dispersion, and Abu
+Gemaiza himself dying the following day, the movement collapsed.</p>
+
+<p>In 1891 Darfur and Kordofan were again disturbed, and Sultan
+Abbas succeeded in turning the dervishes out of the Jebel Marra
+district. Two years later a saint of Sokoto, Abu Naal Muzil el
+Muhan, collected many followers and for a time threatened the
+khalifa&rsquo;s power, but the revolt gradually died out.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Bahr-el-Ghazal.</i>&mdash;The first outbreak in favour of Mahdism
+in the Bahr-el-Ghazal took place at Liffi in August 1882, when the
+Dinka tribe, under Jango, revolted and was defeated by Lupton
+Bey with considerable slaughter at Tel Gauna, and again in 1883
+near Liffi. In September of that year Lupton&rsquo;s captain, Rufai Aga,
+was massacred with all his men at Dembo, and Lupton, short of
+ammunition, was forced to retire to Dem Suliman, where he was
+completely cut off from Khartum. After gallantly fighting for
+eighteen months he was compelled by the defection of his troops
+to surrender on the 21st of April 1884 to Karamalla, the dervish
+amir of the province. He died at Omdurman in 1888.</p>
+
+<p>In 1890 the Shilluks in the neighbourhood of Fashoda rose against
+the khalifa, and the dervish amir of Gallabat, Zeki Tumal, was
+engaged for two years in suppressing the rebellion. He got the upper
+hand in 1892, and was recalled to oppose an Italian force said to be
+advancing from Massawa; but on reporting that it was impossible
+to invade Eritrea, as the khalifa wished him to do, he was summoned
+to Omdurman and put to death. The country then relapsed into its
+original barbarous condition, and dervish influence was nominal only.
+In 1892 the Congo State expedition established posts up to the
+seventh parallel of north latitude. In 1893 the dervish amir, Abu
+Mariam, fought with the Dinka tribe and was killed and his force
+destroyed, the fugitives taking refuge in Shakka. In the following
+year the Congo expedition established further posts, and in consequence
+the khalifa sent 3000 men, under the amir Khatem Musa,
+from Shakka to reoccupy the Bahr-el-Ghazal. The Belgians at
+Liffi retired before him, and he entered Faroga. Famine and disease
+broke out in Khatem Musa&rsquo;s camp in 1895, and a retreat was made
+towards Kordofan.</p>
+
+<p><i>Equatoria.</i>&mdash;In the Equatorial Province, which extended from
+the Albert Nyanza to Lado, Emin Bey, who had a force of 1300
+Egyptian troops and 3000 irregulars, distributed among many
+stations, held out, hoping for reinforcements. In March 1885,
+however, Amadi fell to the dervishes, and on the 18th of April
+Karamalla arrived near Lado, the capital, and sent to inform Emin
+of the fall of Khartum. Emin and Captain Casati, an Italian,
+moved south to Wadelai, giving up the northern posts, and opened
+friendly relations with Kabarega, king of Unyoro. On the 26th of
+February 1886 Emin received despatches from Cairo via Zanzibar,
+from which he learned all that had occurred during the previous
+three years, and that &ldquo;he might take any step he liked, should he
+decide to leave the country.&rdquo; He determined to remain where he
+was and &ldquo;hold together, as long as possible, the remnant of the
+last ten years.&rdquo; His troops were in a mutinous state, wishing to
+go north rather than south, as Emin had ordered them to do, and
+unsuccessfully endeavoured to carry him with them by force.</p>
+
+<p>His communications to Europe through Zanzibar led to the
+relief expedition under H. M. Stanley, which went to his rescue by
+way of the Congo in 1887, and after encountering incredible dangers
+and experiencing innumerable sufferings, met with Emin and Casati
+at Nsabé, on the Albert Nyanza, on the 29th of April 1888. Stanley
+went back in May to pick up his belated rearguard, leaving Mounteney
+Jephson and a small escort to accompany Emin round his province.
+The southern garrisons decided to go with Emin, but the troops at
+Labore mutinied, and a general revolt broke out, headed by Fadl-el-Maula,
+governor of Fabbo. On arriving at Dufile in August 1888,
+Emin and Jephson were made prisoners by the Egyptian mutineers.
+In the meantime the arrival of Stanley at Lake Albert had caused
+rumours, which quickly spread to Omdurman, of a great invading
+white pasha, with the result that in July the khalifa sent up the river
+three steamers and six barges, containing 4000 troops, to oppose
+this new-comer. In October Omar-Saleh, the Mahdist commander,
+took Rejaf and sent messengers to Dufile to summon Emin to
+surrender; but on the 15th of November the mutineers released
+both Emin and Jephson, who returned to Lake Albert with some
+600 refugees, and joined Stanley in February 1889. The expedition
+arrived at Zanzibar at the end of the year.</p>
+
+<p>Emin&rsquo;s mutinous troops kept the dervishes at bay between
+Wadelai and Rejaf, and eventually severely defeated them, driving
+them back to Rejaf. They did not, however, follow up their victory,
+and under the leadership of Fadl-el-Maula Bey remained about
+Wadelai, while the dervishes strengthened their post at Rejaf.
+In 1893 Fadl-el-Maula Bey and many of his men took service with
+Baert of the Congo State expedition. The bey was killed fighting
+the dervishes at Wandi in January 1894, and the remnant of his
+men eventually were found by Captain Thruston from Uganda on
+the 23rd of March 1894 at Mahagi, on the Albert Nyanza, whither
+they had drifted from Wadelai in search of supplies. They were
+enlisted by Thruston and brought back under the British flag to
+Uganda.</p>
+
+<p>In consequence of the Franco-Congolese Treaty of 1894, Major
+Cunningham and Lieutenant Vandeleur were sent from Uganda to
+Dufile, where they planted the British flag on the 15th of January
+1895.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="center pt2 sc">Sudan Operations, 1896-1900</p>
+
+<p>The wonderful progress&mdash;political, economical and social&mdash;which
+Egypt had made during British occupation, so ably set
+forth in Sir Alfred Milner&rsquo;s <i>England in Egypt</i> (published in 1892),
+together with the revelation in so strong a light of the character
+of the khalifa&rsquo;s despotism in the Sudan and the miserable condition
+of his misgoverned people, as detailed in the accounts
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>128</span>
+of their captivity at Omdurman by Father Ohrwalder and Slatin
+Bey (published in 1892 and 1896), stirred public opinion in Great
+<span class="sidenote">Dongola campaign, 1896.</span>
+Britain, and brought the question of the recovery of the
+Sudan into prominence. A change of ministry took
+place in 1895, and Lord Salisbury&rsquo;s cabinet, which had
+consistently assailed the Egyptian policy of the old,
+was not unwilling to consider whether the flourishing condition of
+Egyptian finance, the prosperity of the country and the settled
+state of its affairs, with a capable and proved little army ready
+to hand, did not warrant an attempt being made to recover
+gradually the Sudan provinces abandoned by Egypt in 1885 on
+the advice of Mr Gladstone&rsquo;s government.</p>
+
+<p>Such being the condition of public and official sentiment, the
+crushing defeat of the Italians by the Abyssinians at the battle
+of Adowa on the 1st of March 1896, and the critical state of
+Kassala&mdash;held by Italy at British suggestion, and now closely
+invested by the dervishes&mdash;made it not only desirable but
+necessary to take immediate action.</p>
+
+<p>On the 14th of March 1896 Major-General Sir H. Kitchener,
+who succeeded Sir Francis Grenfell as sirdar of the Egyptian
+army in 1892, received orders to reoccupy Akasha, 50 m. south
+of Sarras, and to carry the railway on from Sarras. Subsequent
+operations were to depend upon the amount of resistance he
+encountered. On the 20th of March Akasha was occupied
+without opposition by an advanced column of Egyptian troops
+under Major J. Collinson, who formed an entrenched camp there.
+The reserves of the Egyptian army were called out, and responded
+with alacrity. The troops were concentrated at Wadi Halfa;
+the railway reconstruction, under Lieutenant E. P. Girouard,
+R.E., pushed southward; and a telegraph line followed the
+advance. At the commencement of the campaign the Egyptian
+army, including reserves, consisted of 16 battalions of infantry,
+of which 6 were Sudanese, 10 squadrons of cavalry, 5 batteries
+of artillery, 3 companies of garrison artillery, and 8 companies
+of camel corps, and it possessed 13 gunboats for river work.
+Colonel H. M. L. Rundle was chief of the staff; Major F. R.
+Wingate was head of the intelligence department, with Slatin
+Bey as his assistant; and Colonel A. Hunter was in command
+of Sarras, and south. The 1st battalion of the North Staffordshire
+regiment moved up from Cairo to join the Egyptian
+army.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime the advance to Akasha had already relieved
+the pressure at Kassala, Osman Digna having withdrawn a
+considerable force from the investing army and proceeded with
+it to Suakin. To meet Osman Digna&rsquo;s movement Lieutenant-Colonel
+G. E. Lloyd, the Suakin commandant, advanced to the
+Taroi Wells, 19 m. south of Suakin, on the 15th of April to
+co-operate with the &ldquo;Friendlies,&rdquo; and with Major H. M. Sidney,
+advancing with a small force from Tokar. His cavalry, under
+Major M. A. C. B. Fenwick, went out to look for Sidney&rsquo;s force,
+and were surprised by a large number of dervishes. Fenwick,
+with some 40 officers and men, seized an isolated hill and held
+it through the night, repulsing the dervishes, who were the same
+night driven back with such heavy loss in attacking Lloyd&rsquo;s
+zeriba that they retired to the hills, and comparative quiet again
+reigned at Suakin. At the end of May an Indian brigade arrived
+for garrison duty, and the Egyptian troops were released for
+service on the Nile.</p>
+
+<p>The dervishes first came in contact with the Egyptian cavalry
+on the Nile near Akasha, on the 1st of May, and were repulsed.
+The army concentrated at Akasha early in June, and on the
+6th Kitchener moved to the attack of Firket 16 m. away, where
+the amir Hamuda, with 3000 men, was encamped. The attack
+was made in two columns: one, under Colonel Hunter, marching
+along the river-bank, approached Firket from the north; while
+the other, under Major Burn-Murdoch, making a detour through
+the desert, approached it from the south. The co-operation
+of the two columns was admirably timed, and on the morning of
+the 7th the dervish camp was surrounded, and, after a sharp
+fight, Hamuda and many amirs and about 1000 men were killed,
+and 500 prisoners taken. The dash and discipline of the Egyptian
+troops in this victory were a good augury for the future.</p>
+
+<p>By the end of June the railway was advanced beyond Akasha,
+and headquarters were at Kosha, 10 m. farther south. Cholera
+and fever were busy both with the North Staffordshire regiment
+at Gemai, whither they had been moved on its approach, and
+with the Egyptian troops at the front, and carried off many
+officers and men. The railway reached Kosha early in August;
+the cholera disappeared, and stores were collected and arrangements
+steadily made for a farther advance. The North Staffordshire
+moved up to the front, and in September the army moved on
+Kerma, which was found to be evacuated, the dervishes having
+crossed the river to Hafir. There they were attacked by the gunboats
+and Kitchener&rsquo;s artillery from the opposite bank, and forced
+to retire, with their commander, Wad Bishara, seriously wounded.
+Dongola was bombarded by the gunboats and captured by the
+army on the 23rd of September. Bishara and his men retreated,
+but were pursued by the Egyptians until the retreat became a
+hopeless rout. Guns, small arms and ammunition, with large
+stores of grain and dates, were captured, many prisoners taken,
+while hundreds surrendered voluntarily, among them a brother
+of the amir Wad en Nejumi. The dervish Dongola army had
+practically ceased to exist. Debba was seized on the 3rd October,
+Korti and Merawi occupied soon after, and the principal sheiks
+came in and submitted to the sirdar. The Dongola campaign
+was over, and the province recovered to Egypt. The Indian
+brigade at Suakin returned to India, and was replaced by
+Egyptians. The North Staffordshire returned to Cairo. The
+work of consolidation began, and preparations were made for
+a farther advance when everything should be ready.</p>
+
+<p>The railway up the right bank of the Nile was continued to
+Kerma, in order to evade the difficulties of the 3rd cataract;
+but the sirdar had conceived the bold project of cutting
+off the great angle of the Nile from Wadi Halfa to Abu
+<span class="sidenote">The Sudan campaign, 1897.</span>
+Hamed, involving nearly 600 m. of navigation and
+including the 4th cataract, by constructing a railway
+across the Nubian desert, and so bringing his base at Wadi Halfa
+within a few hours of his force, when it should have advanced
+to Abu Hamed, instead of ten days. Early in 1897 this new line
+of railway was commenced from Wadi Halfa across the great
+Nubian desert 230 m. to Abu Hamed. The first-mentioned
+line reached Kerma in May, and by July the second had advanced
+130 m. into the desert towards Abu Hamed, when it became
+necessary, before it was carried farther, to secure that terminus
+by an advance from Merawi.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime the khalifa was not idle. He occupied Abu
+Klea wells and Metemma; recalled the amir Ibrahim Khalil,
+with 4000 men, from the Ghezira; brought to Omdurman the
+army of the west under Mahmud&mdash;some 10,000 men; entrusted
+the line of the Atbara&mdash;Ed Darner, Adarama, Asubri and El
+Fasher&mdash;to Osman Digna; constructed defences in the Shabluka
+gorge; and personally superintended the organization and drill
+of the forces gathered at Omdurman, and the collection of vast
+stores of food and supplies of camels for offensive expeditions.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the end of June the chief of the Jaalin tribe, Abdalla
+wad Said, who occupied Metemma, angered by the khalifa,
+made his submission to Kitchener and asked for support, at the
+same time foolishly sending a defiant letter to the khalifa. The
+sirdar sent him rifles and ammunition across the desert from
+Korti; but before they arrived, Mahmud&rsquo;s army, sent by the
+khalifa, swept down on Metemma on the 1st of July and massacred
+Abdalla wad Said and his garrison.</p>
+
+<p>On the 29th of July, after several reconnaissances, Major-General
+Hunter, with a flying column, marched up the Nile
+from near Merawi to Abu Hamed, 133 m. distant, along the edge
+of the Monassir desert. He arrived on the 7th of August and
+captured it by storm, the dervishes losing 250 killed and 50
+prisoners. By the end of the month the gunboats had surmounted
+the 4th cataract and reached Abu Hamed. Berber was
+found to be deserted, and occupied by Hunter on the 5th of
+September, and in the following month a large force was entrenched
+there. The khalifa, fearing an attack on Omdurman,
+moved Osman Digna from Adarama to Shendi. In the 23rd of
+October Hunter, with a flying column lightly equipped, left
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>129</span>
+Berber for Adarama, which he burned on the 2nd of November,
+and after reconnoitring for 40 m. up the Atbara, returned to
+Berber. The Nile was falling, and Kitchener decided to keep the
+gunboats above the impassable rapid at Um Tuir, 4 m. north of
+the confluence of the Atbara with the Nile, where he constructed
+a fort. The gunboats made repeated reconnaissances up the
+river, bombarding Metemma with effect. The railway reached
+Abu Hamed on the 4th of November, and was pushed rapidly
+forward along the right bank of the Nile towards Berber.</p>
+
+<p>The forces of the khalifa remaining quiet, the sirdar visited
+Kassala and negotiated with the Italian General Caneva for its
+restoration to Egypt. The Italians were anxious to leave it; and
+on Christmas day 1897 Colonel (afterwards General Sir Charles)
+Parsons, with an Egyptian force from Suakin, took it formally
+over, together with a body of Arab irregulars employed by the
+Italians. These troops were at once despatched to capture the
+dervish posts at Asabri and El Fasher, which they did with small
+loss.</p>
+
+<p>On his return from Kassala to Berber the sirdar received
+information of an intended advance of the khalifa northward.
+He at once ordered a concentration of Egyptian troops
+towards Berber, and telegraphed to Cairo for a British
+<span class="sidenote">Sudan campaign, 1898.</span>
+brigade. By the end of January the concentration
+was complete, and the British brigade, under Major-General
+Gatacre, was at Dakhesh, south of Abu Hamed. Disagreement
+among the khalifa&rsquo;s generals postponed the dervish
+advance and gave Kitchener much-needed time. But at the
+end of February, Mahmud crossed the Nile to Shendi with some
+12,000 fighting men, and with Osman Digna advanced along
+the right bank of the Nile to Aliab, where he struck across the
+desert to Nakheila, on the Atbara, intending to turn Kitchener&rsquo;s
+left flank at Berber. The sirdar took up a position at Ras el
+Hudi, on the Atbara. His force consisted of Gatacre&rsquo;s British
+brigade (1st Warwicks, Lincolns, Seaforths and Camerons) and
+Hunter&rsquo;s Egyptian division (3 brigades under Colonels Maxwell,
+MacDonald and Lewis respectively), Broadwood&rsquo;s cavalry,
+Tudway&rsquo;s camel corps and Long&rsquo;s artillery. The dervish army
+reached Nakheila on the 20th of March, and entrenched themselves
+there in a formidable zeriba. After several reconnaissances
+in which fighting took place with Mahmud&rsquo;s outposts, it was
+ascertained from prisoners that their army was short of provisions
+and that great leakage was going on. Kitchener, therefore,
+did not hurry. He sent his flotilla up the Nile and captured
+Shendi, the dervish depôt, on the 27th of March. On the 4th
+of April he advanced to Abadar. A final reconnaissance was
+made on the 5th. On the following day he bivouacked at
+Umdabia, where he constructed a strong zeriba, which was
+garrisoned by an Egyptian battalion, and on the night of the
+7th he marched to the attack of Mahmud&rsquo;s zeriba, which, after
+an hour&rsquo;s bombardment on the morning of the 8th of April,
+was stormed with complete success. Mahmud and several
+hundred dervishes were captured, 40 amirs and 3000 Arabs
+killed, and many more wounded; the rest escaped to Gedaref.
+The sirdar&rsquo;s casualties were 80 killed and 472 wounded.</p>
+
+<p>Preparations were now made for the attack on the khalifa&rsquo;s
+force at Omdurman; and in the meantime the troops were
+camped in the neighbourhood of Berber, and the railway carried
+on to the Atbara. At the end of July reinforcements were
+forwarded from Cairo; and on the 24th of August the following
+troops were concentrated for the advance at Wad Hamad, above
+Metemma, on the western bank of the 6th cataract:&mdash;British
+division, under Major-General Gatacre, consisting of 1st Brigade,
+commanded by Colonel A. G. Wauchope (1st Warwicks, Lincolns,
+Seaforths and Camerons), and 2nd Brigade, commanded by
+Colonel the Hon. N. G. Lyttelton (1st Northumberlands and
+Grenadier Guards, 2nd Lancashire and Rifle Brigade); Egyptian
+division, under Major-General Hunter, consisting of four brigades,
+commanded by Colonels MacDonald, Maxwell, Lewis and
+Collinson; mounted troops&mdash;21st Lancers, camel corps, and
+Egyptian cavalry; artillery, under Colonel Long, 2 British
+batteries, 5 Egyptian batteries, and 20 machine guns; detachment
+of Royal Engineers. The flotilla, under Commander
+Keppel, R.N., consisted of 10 gunboats and 5 transport steamers.
+The total strength was nearly 26,000 men.</p>
+
+<p>While the army moved along the west bank of the river, a
+force of Arab irregulars or &ldquo;Friendlies&rdquo; marched along the east
+bank, under command of Major Stuart-Wortley and
+Lieutenant Wood, to clear it of the enemy as far as
+<span class="sidenote">Battle of Omdurman.</span>
+the Blue Nile; and on the 1st of September the gunboats
+bombarded the forts on both sides of the river
+and breached the great wall of Omdurman. Kitchener met with
+no opposition; and on the 1st of September the army bivouacked
+in zeriba at Egeiga, on the west bank of the Nile, within 4 m. of
+Omdurman. Here, on the morning of the 2nd of September,
+the khalifa&rsquo;s army, 40,000 strong, attacked the zeriba, but was
+repulsed with slaughter. Kitchener then moved out and marched
+towards Omdurman, when he was again twice fiercely attacked
+on the right flank and rear, MacDonald&rsquo;s brigade bearing the
+brunt. MacDonald distinguished himself by his tactics, and
+completely repulsed the enemy. The 21st Lancers gallantly
+charged a body of 2000 dervishes which was unexpectedly met in
+a khor on the left flank, and drove them westward, the Lancers
+losing a fifth of their number in killed and wounded. The
+khalifa was now in full retreat, and the sirdar, sending his
+cavalry in pursuit, marched into Omdurman. The dervish loss
+was over 10,000 killed, as many wounded, and 5000 prisoners.
+The khalifa&rsquo;s black flag was captured and sent home to Queen
+Victoria. The British and Egyptian casualties together were
+under 500. The European prisoners of the khalifa found in
+Omdurman&mdash;Charles Neufeld, Joseph Ragnotti, Sister Teresa
+Grigolini, and some 30 Greeks&mdash;were released; and on Sunday
+the 4th of September the sirdar, with representatives from every
+regiment, crossed the river to Khartum, where the British and
+Egyptian flags were hoisted, and a short service held in memory
+of General Gordon, near the place where he met his death.</p>
+
+<p>The results of the battle of Omdurman were the practical
+destruction of the khalifa&rsquo;s army, the extinction of Mahdism
+in the Sudan, and the recovery of nearly all the country formerly
+under Egyptian authority.</p>
+
+<p>The khalifa fled with a small force to Obeid in Kordofan.
+The British troops were quickly sent down stream to Cairo,
+and the sirdar, shortly afterwards created Lord Kitchener of
+Khartum, was free to turn his attention to the reduction of the
+country to some sort of order.</p>
+
+<p>He had first, however, to deal with a somewhat serious matter&mdash;the
+arrival of a French expedition at Fashoda, on the White
+Nile, some 600 m. above Khartum. He started for the
+south on the 10th of September, with 5 gunboats and
+<span class="sidenote">Captain Marchand at Fashoda.</span>
+a small force, dispersed a body of 700 dervishes at
+Reng on the 15th, and four days later arrived at
+Fashoda, to find the French Captain Marchand, with 120 Senegalese
+soldiers, entrenched there and the French flag flying.
+He arranged with Marchand to leave the political question
+to be settled by diplomacy, and contented himself with hoisting
+the British and Egyptian flags to the south of the French flag,
+and leaving a gunboat and a Sudanese battalion to guard them.
+He then steamed up the river and established a post at Sobat;
+and after sending a gunboat up the Bahr-el-Ghazal to establish
+another post at Meshra-er-Rek, he returned to Omdurman.
+The French expedition had experienced great difficulties in the
+swampy region of the Bahr-el-Ghazal, and had reached Fashoda
+on the 10th of July. It had been attacked by a dervish force
+on the 25th of August, and was expecting another attack when
+Kitchener arrived and probably saved it from destruction.
+The Fashoda incident was the subject of important diplomatic
+negotiations, which at one time approached an acute phase;
+but ultimately the French position was found to be untenable,
+and on the 11th of December Marchand and his men returned
+to France by the Sobat, Abyssinia and Jibuti. In the following
+March the spheres of interest of Great Britain and France in the
+Nile basin were defined by a declaration making an addition
+to Article IV. of the Niger convention of the previous year.</p>
+
+<p>During the sirdar&rsquo;s absence from Omdurman Colonel Hunter
+commanded an expedition up the Blue Nile, and by the end of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>130</span>
+September had occupied and garrisoned Wad Medani, Sennar,
+Karkoj and Roseires. In the meantime Colonel Parsons marched
+with 1400 men from Kassala on the 7th of September, to capture
+Gedaref. He encountered 4000 dervishes under the amir Saadalla
+outside the town, and after a desperate fight, in which he lost
+50 killed and 80 wounded, defeated them and occupied the
+town on the 22nd. The dervishes left 500 dead on the field,
+among whom were four amirs. Having strongly entrenched
+himself, Parsons beat off, with heavy loss to the dervishes, two
+impetuous attacks made on the 28th by Ahmed Fedil. But the
+garrison of Gedaref suffered from severe sickness, and Colonel
+Collinson was sent to their aid with reinforcements from Omdurman.
+He steamed up the Blue Nile and the Rahad river to
+Ain-el-Owega, whence he struck across the desert, reaching
+Gedaref on the 21st of October, to find that Ahmed Fedil had
+gone south with his force of 5000 men towards Roseires. Colonel
+Lewis, who was at Karkoj with a small force, moved to Roseires,
+where he received reinforcements from Omdurman, and on the
+26th of December caught Ahmed Fedil&rsquo;s force as it was crossing
+the Blue Nile at Dakheila, and after a very severe fight cut it up.
+The dervish loss was 500 killed, while the Egyptians had 24
+killed and 118 wounded. Two thousand five hundred fighting
+men surrendered later, and the rest escaped with Ahmed Fedil
+to join the khalifa in Kordofan.</p>
+
+<p>On the 25th of January 1899 Colonel Walter Kitchener was
+despatched by his brother, in command of a flying column of
+2000 Egyptian troops and 1700 Friendlies, which had
+been concentrated at Faki Kohi, on the White Nile,
+<span class="sidenote">Operations in the Sudan, 1899.</span>
+some 200 m. above Khartum, to reconnoitre the
+khalifa&rsquo;s camp at Sherkela, 130 m. west of the river,
+in the heart of the Baggara country in Kordofan, and if possible
+to capture it. The position was found to be a strong one,
+occupied by over 6000 men; and as it was not considered
+prudent to attack it with an inferior force at such a distance
+from the river base, the flying column returned. No further
+attempt was made to interfere with the khalifa in his far-off
+retreat until towards the end of the year, when, good order
+having been generally established throughout the rest of the
+Sudan, it was decided to extend it to Kordofan.</p>
+
+<p>In the autumn of 1899 the khalifa was at Jebel Gedir, a hill
+in southern Kordofan, about 80 m. from the White Nile, and
+was contemplating an advance. Lord Kitchener concentrated
+8000 men at Kaka, on the river, 380 m. south of Khartum, and
+moved inland on the 20th of October. On arriving at Fongor
+it was ascertained that the khalifa had gone north, and the
+cavalry and camel corps having reconnoitred Jebel Gedir, the expedition
+returned. On the 13th November the amir Ahmed Fedil
+debouched on the river at El Alub, but retired on finding Colonel
+Lewis with a force in gunboats. Troops and transport were then
+concentrated at Faki Kohi, and Colonel Wingate sent with
+reinforcements from Khartum to take command of the expedition
+and march to Gedid, where it was anticipated the khalifa would
+be obliged to halt. A flying column, comprising a squadron of
+cavalry, a field battery, 6 machine guns, 6 companies of the
+camel corps, and a brigade of infantry and details, in all 3700
+men, under Wingate, left Faki Kohi on the 21st of November.
+The very next day he encountered Ahmed Fedil at Abu Aadel,
+drove him from his position with great loss, and captured his
+camp and a large supply of grain he was convoying to the
+khalifa. Gedid was reached on the 23rd, and the khalifa was
+ascertained to be at Om Debreikat. Wingate marched at
+midnight of the 24th, and was resting his troops on high ground
+in front of the khalifa&rsquo;s position, when at daybreak of the 25th
+his picquets were driven in and the dervishes attacked. They
+<span class="sidenote">Death of the khalifa.</span>
+were repulsed with great slaughter, and Wingate
+advancing, carried the camp. The khalifa Abdullah
+el Taaisha, unable to rally his men, gathered many of
+his principal amirs around him, among whom were
+his sons and brothers, Ali Wad Helu, Ahmed Fedil, and other
+well-known leaders, and they met their death unflinchingly
+from the bullets of the advancing Sudanese infantry. Three
+thousand men and 29 amirs of importance, including Sheik-ed-din,
+the khalifa&rsquo;s eldest son and intended successor, surrendered.
+The dervish loss in the two actions was estimated at 1000 killed
+and wounded, while the Egyptian casualties were only 4 killed
+and 29 wounded. Thus ended the power of the khalifa and of
+Mahdism.</p>
+
+<p>On the 19th of January 1900 Osman Digna, who had been
+so great a supporter of Mahdism in the Eastern Sudan, and had
+always shown great discretion in securing the safety of his own
+person, was surrounded and captured at Jebel Warriba, as he
+was wandering a fugitive among the hills beyond Tokar.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The reconquest of Dongola and the Sudan provinces during the
+three years from March 1896 to December 1898, considering the
+enormous extent and difficulties of the country, was achieved at an
+unprecedentedly small cost, while the main item of expenditure&mdash;the
+railway&mdash;remains a permanent benefit to the country. The
+figures are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Railways</td> <td class="tcr">£E.1,181,372</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Telegraphs</td> <td class="tcr">21,825</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Gunboats</td> <td class="tcr">154,934</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Military</td> <td class="tcr">996,223</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">Total</td> <td class="tcr">£E.2,354,354</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Towards this expense the British government gave a grant-in-aid of
+£800,000, and the balance was borne by the Egyptian treasury.
+The railway, delayed by the construction of the big bridge over the
+Atbara, was opened to the Blue Nile opposite Khartum, 187 m. from
+the Atbara, at the end of 1899.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. H. V.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> By the Greek and Roman geographers Egypt was usually
+assigned to Libya (Africa), but by some early writers the Nile was
+thought to mark the division between Libya and Asia. The name
+occurs in Homer as <span class="grk" title="Aigyptos">&#913;&#7988;&#947;&#965;&#960;&#964;&#959;&#962;</span>, but is of doubtful origin.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> A vivid description of Cairo during the prevalence of plague in
+1835 will be found in A. W. Kinglake&rsquo;s <i>Eothen</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> A <i>kantar</i> equals 99 &#8468;.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> To the ministry of public instruction was added in 1906 a department
+of agriculture and technical instruction.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5c" id="ft5c" href="#fa5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The place of publication is London unless otherwise stated.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6c" id="ft6c" href="#fa6c"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The figures of the debt are always given in £ sterling. The
+budget figures are in £E. (pounds Egyptian), equal to £1, 0s. 6d.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7c" id="ft7c" href="#fa7c"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Egypt</i>, No. 1 (1905), p. 20.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8c" id="ft8c" href="#fa8c"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Similar mortality, though on a smaller scale, recurred in 1889,
+when Sudanese battalions coming from Suakin were detained
+temporarily in Cairo.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9c" id="ft9c" href="#fa9c"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Formerly transcribed <i>hau</i> or &ldquo;heap&rdquo;-problems.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10c" id="ft10c" href="#fa10c"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Clepsydras inscribed in hieroglyphic are found soon after the
+Macedonian conquest.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11c" id="ft11c" href="#fa11c"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Annual reports of the progress of the work are printed in the
+<i>Sitzungsberichte</i> of the Berlin Academy of Sciences; see also Erman,
+<i>Zur ägyptischen Sprachforschung</i>, ib. for 1907, p. 400, showing the
+general trend of the results.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12c" id="ft12c" href="#fa12c"><span class="fn">12</span></a> In the temple of Philae, where the worship of Isis was permitted
+to continue till the reign of Justinian, Brugsch found demotic
+inscriptions with dates to the end of the 5th century.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13c" id="ft13c" href="#fa13c"><span class="fn">13</span></a> The Arabic dialects, which gradually displaced Coptic as
+Mahommedanism supplanted Christianity, adopted but few words
+of the old native stock.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14c" id="ft14c" href="#fa14c"><span class="fn">14</span></a> In the articles referring to matters of Egyptology in this edition,
+Graecized forms of Old Egyptian names, where they exist, are
+commonly employed; in other cases names are rendered by their
+actual equivalents in Coptic or by analogous forms. Failing all
+such means, recourse is had to the usual conventional renderings
+of hieroglyphic spelling, a more precise transcription of the consonants
+in the latter being sometimes added.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15c" id="ft15c" href="#fa15c"><span class="fn">15</span></a> It seems that &ldquo;acrophony&rdquo; (giving to a sign the value of the
+first letter of its name) was indulged in only by priests of the latest
+age, inventing fantastic modes of writing their &ldquo;vain repetitions&rdquo;
+on the temple walls.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16c" id="ft16c" href="#fa16c"><span class="fn">16</span></a> In the prehistoric age when absolute dating is out of reach a
+&ldquo;sequence dating&rdquo; by means of the sequence of types in pottery,
+tools, &amp;c., has been proposed in Petrie&rsquo;s <i>Diospolis Parva</i>, pp. 4 et
+sqq. The earliest prehistoric graves yet known are placed at S.D.
+30, and shortly before S.D. 80 the period of the first historic dynasty
+is entered.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17c" id="ft17c" href="#fa17c"><span class="fn">17</span></a> Ten-day periods as subdivisions of the month can be traced
+as far back as the Middle Kingdom. The day consisted of twenty-four
+hours, twelve of day (counted from sunrise to sunset) and twelve
+of night; it began at sunrise.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18c" id="ft18c" href="#fa18c"><span class="fn">18</span></a> For the &ldquo;sequence&rdquo; dating (S.D.) used by archaeologists for
+the prehistoric period see above (§ Art and Archaeology, ad init. note).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19c" id="ft19c" href="#fa19c"><span class="fn">19</span></a> Reisner (<i>Early Dynastic Cemeteries</i>, p. 126), from his work in the
+prehistoric cemeteries, believes that Egypt was too uncivilized at
+that early date to have performed this scientific feat.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20c" id="ft20c" href="#fa20c"><span class="fn">20</span></a> The history of Hatshepsut has been very obscure, and the
+mutilations of her cartouches have been variously accounted for.
+Recent discoveries by M. Legrain at Karnak and Prof. Petrie at
+Sinai have limited the field of conjecture. The writer has followed
+M. Naville&rsquo;s guidance in his biography of the queen (in T. M. Davis,
+<i>The Tomb of Hatshopsîtû</i>, London, 1906, pp. 1 et seq.), made with
+very full knowledge of the complicated data.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21c" id="ft21c" href="#fa21c"><span class="fn">21</span></a> This, it may be remarked, is the time vaguely represented by
+the Dodecarchy of Herodotus.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft22c" id="ft22c" href="#fa22c"><span class="fn">22</span></a> Khosrev Pasha afterwards filled several of the highest offices at
+Constantinople. He died on the 1st of February 1855. He was a
+bigot of the old school, strongly opposed to the influences of Western
+civilization, and consequently to the assistance of France and Great
+Britain in the Crimean War.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft23c" id="ft23c" href="#fa23c"><span class="fn">23</span></a> The work was carried out under the supervision of the Frenchman,
+Colonel Sève, who had turned Mahommedan and was known
+in Islam as Suleiman Pasha. The effectiveness of the new force
+was first tried in the suppression of a revolt of the Albanians in Cairo
+(1823) by six disciplined Sudanese regiments; after which Mehemet
+Ali was no more troubled with military <i>émeutes</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft24c" id="ft24c" href="#fa24c"><span class="fn">24</span></a></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="caption sc">The Dynasty of Mehemet Ali.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:629px; height:493px" src="images/img112.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><a name="ft25c" id="ft25c" href="#fa25c"><span class="fn">25</span></a> Part of this money was devoted to an expedition sent against
+Abyssinia in 1876 to avenge losses sustained in the previous year.
+The new campaign was, however, equally unsuccessful.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft26c" id="ft26c" href="#fa26c"><span class="fn">26</span></a> Lord Cromer, writing in 1905, declared that the movement
+&ldquo;was, in its essence, a genuine revolt against misgovernment,&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;was not essentially anti-European&rdquo; (vide <i>Egypt No. 1</i>, 1905, p. 2).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft27c" id="ft27c" href="#fa27c"><span class="fn">27</span></a> Except in so far as it was necessary to call out men to guard the
+banks of the Nile in the season of high flood.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft28c" id="ft28c" href="#fa28c"><span class="fn">28</span></a> The Egyptians keep large numbers of pigeons, which are allowed
+to be shot only by permission of the village omdeh (head-man).
+After the occurrence here related, officers were prohibited from
+shooting pigeons in any circumstances.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft29c" id="ft29c" href="#fa29c"><span class="fn">29</span></a> On the 8th of January 1908, the anniversary of the khedive&rsquo;s
+accession, the whole of the Denshawai prisoners were pardoned and
+released. For the Denshawai incident see the British parliamentary
+papers, <i>Egypt No. 3</i> and <i>Egypt No. 4</i> of 1906.]</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft30c" id="ft30c" href="#fa30c"><span class="fn">30</span></a> See <i>Egypt No. 2</i> (1906), Correspondence respecting the Turco-Egyptian
+Frontier in the Sinai Peninsula (with a map).]</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EHRENBERG, CHRISTIAN GOTTFRIED<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (1795-1876),
+German naturalist, was born at Delitzsch in Saxony on the 19th
+of April 1795. After studying at Leipzig and Berlin, where he
+took the degree of doctor of medicine in 1818, he was appointed
+professor of medicine in the university of Berlin (1827). Meanwhile
+in 1820 he was engaged in a scientific exploration conducted
+by General von Minutoli in Egypt. They investigated parts of
+the Libyan desert, the Nile valley and the northern coasts of
+the Red Sea, where Ehrenberg made a special study of the corals.
+Subsequently parts of Syria, Arabia and Abyssinia were examined.
+Some results of these travels and of the important
+collections that had been made were reported on by Humboldt
+in 1826; and afterwards Ehrenberg was enabled to bring out
+two volumes <i>Symbolae physicae</i> (1828-1834), in which many
+particulars of the mammals, birds, insects, &amp;c., were made public.
+Other observations were communicated to scientific societies. In
+1829 he accompanied Humboldt through eastern Russia to the
+Chinese frontier. On his return he gave his attention to microscopical
+researches. These had an important bearing on some
+of the infusorial earths used for polishing and other economic
+purposes; they added, moreover, largely to our knowledge of
+the microscopic organisms of certain geological formations,
+especially of the chalk, and of the modern marine and freshwater
+accumulations. Until Ehrenberg took up the study it was not
+known that considerable masses of rock were composed of
+minute forms of animals or plants. He demonstrated also that
+the phosphorescence of the sea was due to organisms. He
+continued until late in life to investigate the microscopic organisms
+of the deep sea and of various geological formations. He
+died in Berlin on the 27th of June 1876.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Publications.</span>&mdash;<i>Die Infusionsthierchen als vollkommene Organismen</i>
+(2 vols. fol., Leipzig, 1838); <i>Mikrogeologie</i> (2 vols. fol., Leipzig,
+1854); and &ldquo;Fortsetzung der mikrogeologischen Studien,&rdquo; in
+<i>Abhandl. der k. Akad. der Wissenschaft</i> (Berlin, 1875).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EHRENBREITSTEIN,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian
+Rhine province, on the right bank of the Rhine, facing Coblenz,
+with which it is connected by a railway bridge and a bridge of
+boats, on the main line of railway Frankfort-on-Main-Cologne.
+Pop. (including the garrison) 5300. It has an Evangelical and
+two Roman Catholic churches, a Capuchin monastery, tanneries,
+soap-works and a considerable trade in wine. Above the town,
+facing the mouth of the Mosel, on a rock 400 ft. high, lies the
+magnificent fortress of Ehrenbreitstein, considered practically
+impregnable. The sides towards the Rhine and the south and
+south-east are precipitous, and on the south side, on which is
+the winding approach, strongly defended. The central fort or
+citadel is flanked by a double line of works with three tiers of
+casemate batteries. The works towards the north and north-east
+end in a separate outlying fort. The whole forms a part of the system of
+fortifications which surround Coblenz.</p>
+
+<p>The site of the castle is said to
+have been occupied by a Roman fort built in the time of the emperor
+Julian. In the rith century the castle was held by a noble named
+Erembert, from whom it is said to have derived its name. In the 12th
+century it came into the possession of Archbishop Hillin (de Fallemagne)
+of Trier, who strengthened the defences in 1153. These were again
+extended by Archbishop Henry II. (de Fénétrange) in 1286, and by
+Archbishop John II. of Baden in 1481. In 1631 it was surrendered by the
+archbishop elector Philip Christopher von Soetern to the French, but was
+recovered by the Imperialists in 1637 and given to the archbishop
+elector of Cologne. It was restored to the elector of Trier in 1650, but
+was not strongly fortified until 1672. In 1688 the French bombarded it
+in vain, but in 1759 they took it and held it till 1762. It was again
+blockaded in 1795, 1796 and 1797, in vain; but in 1799 they starved
+it into surrender, and at the peace of Lunéville in 1801 blew it up
+before evacuating it. At the second peace of Paris the French paid
+15,000,000 francs to the Prussian government for its restoration, and
+from 1816 to 1826 the fortress was reconstructed by General E. L. Aster
+(1778-1855).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</pre>
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+</body>
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@@ -0,0 +1,19175 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 9, Slice 1, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 9, Slice 1
+       "Edwardes" to "Ehrenbreitstein"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: June 17, 2010 [EBook #32860]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 9 SL 1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Hieroglyphic symbols are indicated by [HRG] and ancient letters by
+      [SGN].
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    Article EGG: "The outermost, or third, layer of this shell often
+      takes the form of a glaze, as of porcelain, as for example in the
+      burnished egg of the ostrich ..." 'porcelain' amended from
+      'procelain'.
+
+    Article EGLINTON, EARLS OF: "This earl's successor was his
+      grandson, Archibald William, the 13th earl (1812-1861), who was
+      born at Palermo on the 29th of September 1812." 'on' amended from
+      'in'.
+
+    Article EGYPT: "While the worship of the gods 55 tended more and
+      more to become a monopoly of the state and the priests ..."
+      'monopoly' amended from 'monoply'.
+
+    Article EGYPT: "... the home of the dead in the heavens was a
+      fertile region not very different from Egypt itself, intersected by
+      canals and abounding in corn and fruit ..." 'from' amended from
+      'form'.
+
+    Article EGYPT: "The celebrated Israel stele from this temple is his
+      principal inscription. The rock shrines at Silsila are of small
+      importance." 'is' amended from 'in'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+             VOLUME IX, SLICE I
+
+        Edwardes to Ehrenbreitstein
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  EDWARDES, SIR HERBERT BENJAMIN     EGER (town of Austria)
+  EDWARDS, AMELIA ANN BLANDFORD      EGER (town of Hungary)
+  EDWARDS, BELA BATES                EGERIA
+  EDWARDS, BRYAN                     EGERTON, SIR PHILIP DE MALPAS GREY
+  EDWARDS, GEORGE                    EGG, AUGUSTUS LEOPOLD
+  EDWARDS, HENRY THOMAS              EGG
+  EDWARDS, JONATHAN                  EGGENBERG, HANS ULRICH VON
+  EDWARDS, LEWIS                     EGGER, EMILE
+  EDWARDS, RICHARD                   EGGLESTON, EDWARD
+  EDWARDS, THOMAS CHARLES            EGHAM
+  EDWARDSVILLE (Illinois, U.S.A.)    EGIN
+  EDWARDSVILLE (Pennsylvania, U.S.A) EGLANTINE
+  EDWIN (king of Northumbria)        EGLINTON, EARLS OF
+  EDWIN, JOHN                        EGMONT, EARLS OF
+  EDWY                               EGMONT LAMORAL
+  EECKHOUT, GERBRAND VAN DEN         EGOISM
+  EEL                                EGORIEVSK
+  EFFENDI                            EGREMONT, EARLS OF.
+  EFFIGIES, MONUMENTAL               EGREMONT
+  EGAN, PIERCE                       EGRESS
+  EGBO                               EGYPT
+  EGEDE, HANS                        EHRENBERG, CHRISTIAN GOTTFRIED
+  EGER, AQIBA                        EHRENBREITSTEIN
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDES, SIR HERBERT BENJAMIN (1819-1868), English soldier-statesman in
+India, was born at Frodesley in Shropshire on the 12th of November 1819.
+His father was Benjamin Edwardes, rector of Frodesley, and his
+grandfather Sir John Edwardes, baronet, eighth holder of a title
+conferred on one of his ancestors by Charles I. in 1644. He was educated
+at a private school and at King's College, London. Through the influence
+of his uncle, Sir Henry Edwardes, he was nominated in 1840 to a
+cadetship in the East India Company; and on his arrival in India, at the
+beginning of 1841, he was posted as ensign in the 1st Bengal Fusiliers.
+He remained with this regiment about five years, during which time he
+mastered the lessons of his profession, obtained a good knowledge of
+Hindustani, Hindi and Persian, and attracted attention by the political
+and literary ability displayed in a series of letters which appeared in
+the _Delhi Gazette_.
+
+In November 1845, on the breaking out of the first Sikh War, Edwardes
+was appointed aide-de-camp to Sir Hugh (afterwards Viscount) Gough, then
+commander-in-chief in India. On the 18th of December he was severely
+wounded at the battle of Mudki. He soon recovered, however, and fought
+by the side of his chief at the decisive battle of Sobraon (February 10,
+1846). He was soon afterwards appointed third assistant to the
+commissioners of the trans-Sutlej territory; and in January 1847 was
+named first assistant to Sir Henry Lawrence, the resident at Lahore.
+Lawrence became his great exemplar and in later years he was accustomed
+to attribute to the influence of this "father of his public life"
+whatever of great or good he had himself achieved. He took part with
+Lawrence in the suppression of a religious disturbance at Lahore in the
+spring of 1846, and soon afterwards assisted him in reducing, by a rapid
+movement to Jammu, the conspirator Imam-ud-din. In the following year a
+more difficult task was assigned him--the conduct of an expedition to
+Bannu, a district on the Waziri frontier, in which the people would not
+tolerate the presence of a collector, and the revenue had consequently
+fallen into arrear. By his rare tact and fertility of resource, Edwardes
+succeeded in completely conquering the wild tribes of the valley without
+firing a shot, a victory which he afterwards looked back upon with more
+satisfaction than upon others which brought him more renown. His fiscal
+arrangements were such as to obviate all difficulty of collection for
+the future. In the spring of 1848, in consequence of the murder of Mr
+vans Agnew and Lieutenant Anderson at Multan, by order of the diwan
+Mulraj, and of the raising of the standard of revolt by the latter,
+Lieutenant Edwardes was authorized to march against him. He set out
+immediately with a small force, occupied Leiah on the left bank of the
+Indus, was joined by Colonel van Cortlandt, and, although he could not
+attack Multan, held the enemy at bay and gave a check at the critical
+moment to their projects. He won a great victory over a greatly superior
+Sikh force at Kinyeri (June 18), and received in acknowledgment of his
+services the local rank of major. In the course of the operations which
+followed near Multan, Edwardes lost his right hand by the explosion of a
+pistol in his belt. On the arrival of a large force under General Whish
+the siege of Multan was begun, but was suspended for several months in
+consequence of the desertion of Shere Singh with his army and artillery.
+Edwardes distinguished himself by the part he took in the final
+operations, begun in December, which ended with the capture of the city
+on the 4th of January 1849. For his services he received the thanks of
+both houses of parliament, was promoted major by brevet, and created
+C.B. by special statute of the order. The directors of the East India
+Company conferred on him a gold medal and a good service pension of L100
+per annum.
+
+After the conclusion of peace Major Edwardes returned to England for the
+benefit of his health, married during his stay there, and wrote and
+published his fascinating account of the scenes in which he had been
+engaged, under the title of _A Year on the Punjab Frontier in
+1848-1849_. His countrymen gave him fitting welcome, and the university
+of Oxford conferred on him the degree of D.C.L. In 1851 he returned to
+India and resumed his civil duties in the Punjab under Sir Henry
+Lawrence. In November 1853 he was entrusted with the responsible post of
+commissioner of the Peshawar frontier, and this he held when the Mutiny
+of 1857 broke out. It was a position of enormous difficulty, and
+momentous consequences were involved in the way the crisis might be met.
+Edwardes rose to the height of the occasion. He saw as if by inspiration
+the facts and the needs, and by the prompt measures which he adopted he
+rendered a service of incalculable importance, by effecting a
+reconciliation with Afghanistan, and securing the neutrality of the amir
+and the frontier tribes during the war. So effective was his procedure
+for the safety of the border that he was able to raise a large force in
+the Punjab and send it to co-operate in the siege and capture of Delhi.
+In 1859 Edwardes once more went to England, his health so greatly
+impaired by the continual strain of arduous work that it was doubtful
+whether he could ever return to India. During his stay he was created
+K.C.B., with the rank of brevet colonel; and the degree of LL.D. was
+conferred upon him by the university of Cambridge. Early in 1862 he
+again sailed for India, and was appointed commissioner of Umballa and
+agent for the Cis-Sutlej states. He had been offered the governorship of
+the Punjab, but on the ground of failing health had declined it. In
+February 1865 he was compelled to finally resign his post and return to
+England. A second good service pension was at once conferred on him; in
+May 1866 he was created K.C. of the Star of India; and early in 1868 was
+promoted major-general in the East Indian Army. He had been for some
+time engaged on a life of Sir Henry Lawrence, and high expectations were
+formed of the work; but he did not live to complete it, and after his
+death it was put into the hands of Mr Herman Merivale. He died in London
+on the 23rd of December 1868. Great in council and great in war, he was
+singularly beloved by his friends, generous and unselfish to a high
+degree, and a man of deep religious convictions.
+
+  See _Memorials of the Life and Letters of Sir Herbert Benjamin
+  Edwardes_, by his wife (2 vols., London, 1886); T. R. E. Holmes, _Four
+  Soldiers_ (London, 1889); J. Ruskin, _Bibl. pastorum_, iv. "A Knight's
+  Faith" (1885), passages from the life of Edwardes.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDS, AMELIA ANN BLANDFORD (1831-1892), English author and
+Egyptologist, the daughter of one of Wellington's officers, was born in
+London on the 7th of June 1831. At a very early age she displayed
+considerable literary and artistic talent. She became a contributor to
+various magazines and newspapers, and besides many miscellaneous works
+she wrote eight novels, the most successful of which were _Debenham's
+Vow_ (1870) and _Lord Brackenbury_ (1880). In the winter of 1873-1874
+she visited Egypt, and was profoundly impressed by the new openings for
+archaeological research. She learnt the hieroglyphic characters, and
+made a considerable collection of Egyptian antiquities. In 1877 she
+published _A Thousand Miles up the Nile_, with illustrations by herself.
+Convinced that only by proper scientific investigations could the
+wholesale destruction of Egyptian antiquities be avoided, she devoted
+herself to arousing public opinion on the subject, and ultimately, in
+1882, was largely instrumental in founding the Egypt Exploration Fund,
+of which she became joint honorary secretary with Reginald Stuart Poole.
+For the business of this Fund she abandoned her other literary work,
+writing only on Egyptology. In 1889-1890 she went on a lecturing tour in
+the United States. The substance of her lectures was published in volume
+form in 1891 as _Pharaohs, Fellahs, and Explorers_. She died at
+Weston-super-Mare, Somerset, on the 15th of April 1892, bequeathing her
+valuable collection of Egyptian antiquities to University College,
+London, together with a sum to found a chair of Egyptology. Miss Edwards
+received, shortly before her death, a civil list pension from the
+British government.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDS, BELA BATES (1802-1852), American man of letters, was born at
+Southampton, Massachusetts, on the 4th of July 1802. He graduated at
+Amherst College in 1824, was a tutor there in 1827-1828, graduated at
+Andover Theological Seminary in 1830, and was licensed to preach. From
+1828 to 1833 he was assistant secretary of the American Education
+Society (organized in Boston in 1815 to assist students for the
+ministry), and from 1828 to 1842 was editor of the society's organ,
+which after 1831 was called the _American Quarterly Register_. He also
+founded (in 1833) and edited the _American Quarterly Observer_; in
+1836-1841 edited the _Biblical Repository_ (after 1837 called the
+_American Biblical Repository_) with which the _Observer_ was merged in
+1835; and was editor-in-chief of the _Bibliotheca Sacra_ from 1844 to
+1851. In 1837 he became professor of Hebrew at Andover, and from 1848
+until his death was associate professor of sacred literature there. He
+died at Athens, Georgia, on the 20th of April 1852. Among his numerous
+publications were _A Missionary Gazetteer_ (1832), _A Biography of Self
+Taught Men_ (1832), a once widely known _Eclectic Reader_ (1835), a
+translation, with Samuel Harvey Taylor (1807-1871), of Kuhner's
+_Schulgrammatik der Griechischen Sprache_ and _Classical Studies_
+(1844), essays in ancient literature and art written in collaboration
+with Barnas Sears and C. C. Felton.
+
+  Edwards' _Addresses and Sermons_, with a memoir by Rev. Edwards A.
+  Park, were published in two volumes at Boston in 1853.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDS, BRYAN (1743-1800), English politician and historian, was born
+at Westbury, Wiltshire, on the 21st of May 1743. His father died in
+1756, when his maintenance and education were undertaken by his maternal
+uncle, Zachary Bayly, a wealthy merchant of Jamaica. About 1759 Bryan
+went to Jamaica, and joined his uncle, who engaged a private tutor to
+complete his education, and when Bayly died his nephew inherited his
+wealth, succeeding also in 1773 to the estate of another Jamaica
+resident named Hume. Edwards soon became a leading member of the
+colonial assembly of Jamaica, but in a few years he returned to England,
+and in 1782 failed to secure a seat in parliament as member for
+Chichester. He was again in Jamaica from 1787 to 1792, when he settled
+in England as a West India merchant, making in 1795 another futile
+attempt to enter parliament, on this occasion as the representative of
+Southampton. In 1796, however, he became member of parliament for
+Grampound, retaining his seat until his death at Southampton on the 15th
+or 16th of July 1800. In general Edwards was a supporter of the slave
+trade, and was described by William Wilberforce as a powerful opponent.
+By his wife, Martha, daughter of Thomas Phipps of Westbury, he left an
+only son, Hume.
+
+In 1784 Edwards wrote _Thoughts on the late Proceedings of Government
+respecting the Trade of the West India Islands with the United States of
+America_, in which he attacked the restrictions placed by the government
+upon trade with the United States. In 1793 he published in two volumes
+his great work, _History, Civil and Commercial, of the British Colonies
+in the West Indies_, and in 1797 published his _Historical Survey of the
+French Colony in the Island of St Domingo_. In 1801 a new edition of
+both these works with certain additions was published in three volumes
+under the title of _History of the British Colonies in the West Indies_.
+This has been translated into German and parts of it into French and
+Spanish, and a fifth edition was issued in 1819. When Mungo Park
+returned in 1796 from his celebrated journey in Africa, Edwards, who was
+secretary of the Association for Promoting the Discovery of the Interior
+Parts of Africa, drew up from Park's narrative an account of his
+travels, which was published by the association in their _Proceedings_,
+and when Park wrote an account of his journeys he availed himself of
+Edwards' assistance. Edwards also wrote some poems and some other works
+relating to the history of the West Indies.
+
+  He left a short sketch of his life which was prefixed to the edition
+  of the _History of the West Indies_, published in 1801.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDS, GEORGE (1693-1773), English naturalist, was born at Stratford,
+Essex, on the 3rd of April 1693. In his early years he travelled
+extensively over Europe, studying natural history, and gained some
+reputation for his coloured drawings of animals, especially birds. In
+1733, on the recommendation of Sir Hans Sloane, he was appointed
+librarian to the Royal College of Physicians in London. In 1743 he
+published the first volume of his _History of Birds_, the fourth volume
+of which appeared in 1751, and three supplementary volumes, under the
+title _Gleanings of Natural History_, were issued in 1758, 1760 and
+1764. The two works contain engravings and descriptions of more than 600
+subjects in natural history not before described or delineated. He
+likewise added a general index in French and English, which was
+afterwards supplied with Linnaean names by Linnaeus himself, with whom
+he frequently corresponded. About 1764 he retired to Plaistow, Essex,
+where he died on the 23rd of July 1773. He also wrote _Essays of Natural
+History_ (1770) and _Elements of Fossilogy_ (1776).
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDS, HENRY THOMAS (1837-1884), Welsh divine, was born on the 6th of
+September 1837 at Llan ym Mawddwy, Merioneth, where his father was
+vicar. He was educated at Westminster and at Jesus College, Oxford
+(B.A., 1860), and after teaching for two years at Llandovery went to
+Llangollen as his father's curate. He became vicar of Aberdare in 1866
+and of Carnarvon in 1869. Here he began his lifelong controversy with
+Nonconformity, especially as represented by the Rev. Evan Jones
+(Calvinistic Methodist) and Rev. E. Herber Evans (Congregationalist). In
+1870 he fought in vain for the principle of all-round denominationalism
+in the national education system, and in the same year addressed a
+famous letter to Mr Gladstone on "The Church of the Cymry," pointing out
+that the success of Nonconformity in Wales was largely due to "the
+withering effect of an alien episcopate." One immediate result of this
+was the appointment of the Welshman Joshua Hughes (1807-1889) to the
+vacant see of St Asaph. Edwards became dean of Bangor in 1876 and at
+once set about restoring the cathedral, and he promoted a clerical
+education society for supplying the diocese with educated Welsh-speaking
+clergy. He was a popular preacher and an earnest patriot; his chief
+defect was a lack of appreciation of the theological attainments of
+Nonconformity, and a Welsh commentary on St Matthew, which he had worked
+at for many years and published in two volumes in 1882, was severely
+handled by a Bangor Calvinistic Methodist minister. Edwards suffered
+from overwork and insomnia and a Mediterranean cruise in 1883 failed to
+restore his health; and he died by his own hand on the 24th of May 1884
+at Ruabon.
+
+  See V. Morgan, _Welsh Religious Leaders in the Victorian Era_.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDS, JONATHAN (1703-1758), American theologian and philosopher, was
+born on the 5th of October 1703 at East (now South) Windsor,
+Connecticut. His earliest known ancestor was Richard Edwards, Welsh by
+birth, a London clergyman in Elizabeth's reign. His father Timothy
+Edwards (1669-1758), son of a prosperous merchant of Hartford, had
+graduated at Harvard, was minister at East Windsor, and eked out his
+salary by tutoring boys for college. His mother, a daughter of the Rev.
+Solomon Stoddard, of Northampton, Mass., seems to have been a woman of
+unusual mental gifts and independence of character. Jonathan, the only
+son, was the fifth of eleven children. The boy was trained for college
+by his father and by his elder sisters, who all received an excellent
+education. When ten years old he wrote a semi-humorous tract on the
+immateriality of the soul; he was interested in natural history, and at
+the age of twelve wrote a remarkable essay on the habits of the "flying
+spider." He entered Yale College in 1716, and in the following year
+became acquainted with Locke's _Essay_, which influenced him profoundly.
+During his college course he kept note books labelled "The Mind,"
+"Natural Science" (containing a discussion of the atomic theory, &c.),
+"The Scriptures" and "Miscellanies," had a grand plan for a work on
+natural and mental philosophy, and drew up for himself rules for its
+composition. Even before his graduation in September 1720 as
+valedictorian and head of his class, he seems to have had a well
+formulated philosophy. The two years after his graduation he spent in
+New Haven studying theology. In 1722-1723 he was for eight months stated
+supply of a small Presbyterian church in New York city, which invited
+him to remain, but he declined the call, spent two months in study at
+home, and then in 1724-1726 was one of the two tutors at Yale, earning
+for himself the name of a "pillar tutor" by his steadfast loyalty to the
+college and its orthodox teaching at the time when Yale's rector
+(Cutler) and one of her tutors had gone over to the Episcopal Church.
+
+The years 1720 to 1726 are partially recorded in his diary and in the
+resolutions for his own conduct which he drew up at this time. He had
+long been an eager seeker after salvation and was not fully satisfied as
+to his own "conversion" until an experience in his last year in college,
+when he lost his feeling that the election of some to salvation and of
+others to eternal damnation was "a horrible doctrine," and reckoned it
+"exceedingly pleasant, bright and sweet." He now took a great and new
+joy in the beauties of nature, and delighted in the allegorical
+interpretation of the Song of Solomon. Balancing these mystic joys is
+the stern tone of his Resolutions, in which he is almost ascetic in his
+eagerness to live earnestly and soberly, to waste no time, to maintain
+the strictest temperance in eating and drinking. On the 15th of February
+1727 he was ordained minister at Northampton and assistant to his
+grandfather, Solomon Stoddard. He was a student minister, not a visiting
+pastor, his rule being thirteen hours of study a day. In the same year
+he married Sarah Pierrepont, then aged seventeen, daughter of James
+Pierrepont (1659-1714), a founder of Yale, and through her mother
+great-granddaughter of Thomas Hooker. Of her piety and almost nun-like
+love of God and belief in His personal love for her, Edwards had known
+when she was only thirteen, and had written of it with spiritual
+enthusiasm; she was of a bright and cheerful disposition, a practical
+housekeeper, a model wife and the mother of his twelve children. Solomon
+Stoddard died on the 11th of February 1729, leaving to his grandson the
+difficult task of the sole ministerial charge of one of the largest and
+wealthiest congregations in the colony, and one proud of its morality,
+its culture and its reputation.
+
+In 1731 Edwards preached at Boston the "Public Lecture" afterwards
+published under the title _God Glorified in Man's Dependence_. This was
+his first public attack on Arminianism. The leading thought was God's
+absolute sovereignty in the work of redemption: that while it behoved
+God to create man holy, it was of His "good pleasure" and "mere and
+arbitrary grace" that any man was now made holy, and that God might deny
+this grace without any disparagement to any of His perfections. In 1733
+a revival of religion began in Northampton, and reached such intensity
+in the winter of 1734 and the following spring as to threaten the
+business of the town. In six months nearly three hundred were admitted
+to the church. The revival gave Edwards an opportunity of studying the
+process of conversion in all its phases and varieties, and he recorded
+his observations with psychological minuteness and discrimination in _A
+Faithful Narrative of the Surprising Work of God in the Conversion of
+Many Hundred Souls in Northampton_ (1737). A year later he published
+_Discourses on Various Important Subjects_, the five sermons which had
+proved most effective in the revival, and of these none, he tells us,
+was so immediately effective as that on the _Justice of God in the
+Damnation of Sinners_, from the text, "That every mouth may be stopped."
+Another sermon, published in 1734, on the _Reality of Spiritual Light_
+set forth what he regarded as the inner, moving principle of the
+revival, the doctrine of a "special" grace in the immediate and
+supernatural divine illumination of the soul. In the spring of 1735 the
+movement began to subside and a reaction set in. But the relapse was
+brief, and the Northampton revival, which had spread through the
+Connecticut valley and whose fame had reached England and Scotland, was
+followed in 1739-1740 by the Great Awakening, distinctively under the
+leadership of Edwards. The movement met with no sympathy from the
+orthodox leaders of the church. In 1741 Edwards published in its defence
+_The Distinguishing Marks of a Work of the Spirit of God_, dealing
+particularly with the phenomena most criticized, the swoonings, outcries
+and convulsions. These "bodily effects," he insisted, were not
+"distinguishing marks" of the work of the Spirit of God; but so bitter
+was the feeling against the revival in the more strictly Puritan
+churches that in 1742 he was forced to write a second apology, _Thoughts
+on the Revival in New England_, his main argument being the great moral
+improvement of the country. In the same pamphlet he defends an appeal to
+the emotions, and advocates preaching terror when necessary, even to
+children, who in God's sight "are young vipers ... if not Christ's." He
+considers "bodily effects" incidentals to the real work of God, but his
+own mystic devotion and the experiences of his wife during the Awakening
+(which he gives in detail) make him think that the divine visitation
+usually overpowers the body, a view in support of which he quotes
+Scripture. In reply to Edwards, Charles Chauncy anonymously wrote _The
+Late Religious Commotions in New England Considered_ (1743), urging
+conduct as the sole test of conversion; and the general convention of
+Congregational ministers in the Province of Massachusetts Bay protested
+"against disorders in practice which have of late obtained in various
+parts of the land." In spite of Edwards's able pamphlet, the impression
+had become widespread that "bodily effects" were recognized by the
+promoters of the Great Awakening as the true tests of conversion. To
+offset this feeling Edwards[1] preached at Northampton during the years
+1742 and 1743 a series of sermons published under the title of
+_Religious Affections_ (1746), a restatement in a more philosophical and
+general tone of his ideas as to "distinguishing marks." In 1747 he
+joined the movement started in Scotland called the "concert in prayer,"
+and in the same year published _An Humble Attempt to Promote Explicit
+Agreement and Visible Union of God's People in Extraordinary Prayer for
+the Revival of Religion and the Advancement of Christ's Kingdom on
+Earth_. In 1749 he published a memoir of David Brainerd; the latter had
+lived in his family for several months, had been constantly attended by
+Edwards's daughter Jerusha, to whom he had been engaged to be married,
+and had died at Northampton on the 7th of October 1747; and he had been
+a case in point for the theories of conversion held by Edwards, who had
+made elaborate notes of Brainerd's conversations and confessions.
+
+In 1748 there had come a crisis in his relations with his congregation.
+The Half-Way Covenant adopted by the synods of 1657 and 1662 had made
+baptism alone the condition to the civil privileges of church
+membership, but not of participation in the sacrament of the Supper.
+Edwards's grandfather and predecessor, Solomon Stoddard, had been even
+more liberal, holding that the Supper was a converting ordinance and
+that baptism was a sufficient title to all the privileges of the church.
+As early as 1744 Edwards, in his sermons on the Religious Affections,
+had plainly intimated his dislike of this practice. In the same year he
+had published in a church meeting the names of certain young people,
+members of the church, who were suspected of reading improper books,[2]
+and also the names of those who were to be called as witnesses in the
+case. But witnesses and accused were not distinguished on this list, and
+the congregation was in an uproar. A great many, fearing a scandal, now
+opposed an investigation which all had previously favoured. Edwards's
+preaching became unpopular; for four years no candidate presented
+himself for admission to the church; and when one did in 1748, and was
+met with Edwards's formal but mild and gentle tests, as expressed in the
+_Distinguishing Marks_ and later in _Qualifications for Full Communion_
+(1749) the candidate refused to submit to them; the church backed him
+and the break was complete. Even permission to discuss his views in the
+pulpit was refused him. The ecclesiastical council voted by 10 to 9 that
+the pastoral relation be dissolved. The church by a vote of more than
+200 to 23 ratified the action of the council, and finally a town meeting
+voted that Edwards should not be allowed to occupy the Northampton
+pulpit, though he did this on occasion as late as May 1755. He evinced
+no rancour or spite; his "Farewell Sermon" was dignified and temperate;
+nor is it to be ascribed to chagrin that in a letter to Scotland after
+his dismissal he expresses his preference for Presbyterian to
+Congregational church government. His position at the time was not
+unpopular throughout New England, and it is needless to say that his
+doctrine that the Lord's Supper is not a cause of regeneration and that
+communicants should be professing Christians has since (very largely
+through the efforts of his pupil Joseph Bellamy) become a standard of
+New England Congregationalism.
+
+Edwards with his large family was now thrown upon the world, but offers
+of aid quickly came to him. A parish in Scotland could have been
+procured, and he was called to a Virginia church. He declined both, to
+become in 1750 pastor of the church in Stockbridge and a missionary to
+the Housatonic Indians. To the Indians he preached through an
+interpreter, and their interests he boldly and successfully defended by
+attacking the whites who were using their official position among them
+to increase their private fortunes. In Stockbridge he wrote the _Humble
+Relation_, also called _Reply to Williams_ (1752), which was an answer
+to Solomon Williams (1700-1776), a relative and a bitter opponent of
+Edwards as to the qualifications for full communion; and he there
+composed the treatises on which his reputation as a philosophical
+theologian chiefly rests, the essay on _Original Sin_, the _Dissertation
+concerning the Nature of True Virtue_, the _Dissertation concerning the
+End for which God created the World_, and the great work on the Will,
+written in four months and a half, and published in 1754 under the
+title, _An Inquiry into the Modern Prevailing Notions Respecting that
+Freedom of the Will which is supposed to be Essential to Moral Agency_.
+
+In 1757, on the death of President Burr, who five years before had
+married Edwards's daughter Esther, he reluctantly accepted the
+presidency of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University),
+where he was installed on the 16th of February 1758. Almost immediately
+afterwards he was inoculated for smallpox, which was raging in Princeton
+and vicinity, and, always feeble, he died of the inoculation on the 28th
+of March 1758. He was buried in the old cemetery at Princeton. He was
+slender and fully six feet tall, and with his oval, gentle, almost
+feminine face looked the scholar and the mystic.
+
+  _The Edwardean System._--It is difficult to separate Edwards's
+  philosophy from his theology, except as the former is contained in the
+  early notes on the Mind, where he says that matter exists only in
+  idea; that space is God; that minds only are real; that in
+  metaphysical strictness there is no being but God; that entity is the
+  greatest and only good; and that God as infinite entity, wherein the
+  agreement of being with being is absolute, is the supreme excellency,
+  the supreme good. It seems certain that these conclusions were
+  independent of Berkeley and Malebranche, and were not drawn from
+  Arthur Collier's _Clavis universalis_ (1713), with which they have
+  much in common, but were suggested, in part at least, by Locke's
+  doctrine of ideas, Newton's theory of colours, and Cudworth's
+  Platonism, with all of which Edwards was early familiar. But they were
+  never developed systematically, and the conception of the material
+  universe here contended for does not again explicitly reappear in any
+  of his writings. The fundamental metaphysical postulate that being and
+  God are ultimately identical remained, however, the philosophical
+  basis of all his thinking, and reverence for this being as the supreme
+  good remained the fundamental disposition of his mind. That he did not
+  interpret this idea in a Spinozistic sense was due to his more
+  spiritual conception of "being" and to the reaction on his philosophy
+  of his theology. The theological interest, indeed, came in the end to
+  predominate, and philosophy to appear as an instrument for the defence
+  of Calvinism. Perhaps the best criticism of Edwards's philosophy as a
+  whole is that, instead of being elaborated on purely rational
+  principles, it is mixed up with a system of theological conceptions
+  with which it is never thoroughly combined, and that it is exposed to
+  all the disturbing effects of theological controversy. Moreover, of
+  one of his most central convictions, that of the sovereignty of God in
+  election, he confesses that he could give no account.
+
+  Edwards's reputation as a thinker is chiefly associated with his
+  treatise on the Will, which is still sometimes called "the one large
+  contribution that America has made to the deeper philosophic thought
+  of the world." The aim of this treatise was to refute the doctrine of
+  free-will, since he considered it the logical, as distinguished from
+  the sentimental, ground of most of the Arminian objections to
+  Calvinism. He defines the will as that by which the "mind chooses
+  anything." To act voluntarily, he says, is to act electively. So far
+  he and his opponents are agreed. But choice, he holds, is not
+  arbitrary; it is determined in every case by "that motive which as it
+  stands in the view of the mind is the strongest," and that motive is
+  strongest which presents in the immediate object of volition the
+  "greatest apparent good," that is, the greatest degree of
+  agreeableness or pleasure. What this is in a given case depends on a
+  multitude of circumstances, external and internal, all contributing to
+  form the "cause" of which the voluntary act and its consequences are
+  the "effect." Edwards contends that the connexion between cause and
+  effect here is as "sure and perfect" as in the realm of physical
+  nature and constitutes a "moral necessity." He reduces the opposite
+  doctrine to three assumptions, all of which he shows to be untenable:
+  (1) "a self-determining power in the will"; (2) "indifference,... that
+  the mind previous to the act of volition (is) in equilibrio"; (3)
+  "contingence ... as opposed to ... any fixed and certain connexion (of
+  the volition) with some previous ground or reason for its existence."
+  Although he denies liberty to the will in this sense--indeed, strictly
+  speaking, neither liberty nor necessity, he says, is properly applied
+  to the will, "for the will itself is not an agent that has a will"--he
+  nevertheless insists that the subject willing is a free moral agent,
+  and argues that without the determinate connexion between volition
+  and motive which he asserts and the libertarians deny, moral agency
+  would be impossible. Liberty, he holds, is simply freedom from
+  constraint, "the power ... that any one has to do as he pleases." This
+  power man possesses. And that the right or wrong of choice depends not
+  on the cause of choice but on its nature, he illustrates by the
+  example of Christ, whose acts were necessarily holy, yet truly
+  virtuous, praiseworthy and rewardable. Even God Himself, Edwards here
+  maintains, has no other liberty than this, to carry out without
+  constraint His will, wisdom and inclination.
+
+  There is no necessary connexion between Edwards's doctrine of the
+  motivation of choice and the system of Calvinism with which it is
+  congruent. Similar doctrines have more frequently perhaps been
+  associated with theological scepticism. But for him the alternative
+  was between Calvinism and Arminianism, simply because of the
+  historical situation, and in the refutation of Arminianism on the
+  assumptions common to both sides of the controversy, he must be
+  considered completely successful. As a general argument his account of
+  the determination of the will is defective, notably in his abstract
+  conception of the will and in his inadequate, but suggestive,
+  treatment of causation, in regard to which he anticipates in important
+  respects the doctrine of Hume. Instead of making the motive to choice
+  a factor within the concrete process of volition, he regards it as a
+  cause antecedent to the exercise of a special mental faculty. Yet his
+  conception of this faculty as functioning only in and through motive
+  and character, inclination and desire, certainly carries us a long way
+  beyond the abstraction in which his opponents stuck, that of a bare
+  faculty without any assignable content. Modern psychology has
+  strengthened the contention for a fixed connexion between motive and
+  act by reference to subconscious and unconscious processes of which
+  Edwards, who thought that nothing could affect the mind which was
+  unperceived, little dreamed; at the same time, at least in some of its
+  developments, especially in its freer use of genetic and organic
+  conceptions, it has rendered much in the older forms of statement
+  obsolete, and has given a new meaning to the idea of
+  self-determination, which, as applied to an abstract power, Edwards
+  rightly rejected as absurd.
+
+  Edwards's controversy with the Arminians was continued in the essay on
+  _Original Sin_, which was in the press at the time of his death. He
+  here breaks with Augustine and the Westminster Confession by arguing,
+  consistently with his theory of the Will, that Adam had no more
+  freedom of will than we have, but had a special endowment, a
+  supernatural gift of grace, which by rebellion against God was lost,
+  and that this gift was withdrawn from his descendants, not because of
+  any fictitious imputation of guilt, but because of their real
+  participation in his guilt by actual identity with him in his
+  transgression.
+
+  The _Dissertation on the Nature of True Virtue_, posthumously
+  published, is justly regarded as one of the most original works on
+  ethics of the 18th century, and is the more remarkable as reproducing,
+  with no essential modification, ideas on the subject written in the
+  author's youth in the notes on the Mind. Virtue is conceived as the
+  beauty of moral qualities. Now beauty, in Edwards's view, always
+  consists in a harmonious relation in the elements involved, an
+  agreement of being with being. He conceives, therefore, of virtue, or
+  moral beauty, as consisting in the cordial agreement or consent to
+  intelligent being. He defines it as benevolence (good-will), or rather
+  as a disposition to benevolence, towards being in general. This
+  disposition, he argues, has no regard primarily to beauty in the
+  object, nor is it primarily based on gratitude. Its first object is
+  being, "simply considered," and it is accordingly proportioned, other
+  things being equal, to the object's "degree of existence." He admits,
+  however, benevolent being as a second object, on the ground that such
+  an object, having a like virtuous propensity, "is, as it were,
+  enlarged, extends to, and in some sort comprehends being in general."
+  In brief, since God is the "being of beings" and comprehends, in the
+  fullest extent, benevolent consent to being in general, true virtue
+  consists essentially in a supreme love to God. Thus the principle of
+  virtue--Edwards has nothing to say of "morality"--is identical with
+  the principle of religion. From this standpoint Edwards combats every
+  lower view. He will not admit that there is any evidence of true
+  virtue in the approbation of virtue and hatred of vice, in the
+  workings of conscience or in the exercises of the natural affections;
+  he thinks that these may all spring from self-love and the association
+  of ideas, from "instinct" or from a "moral sense of a secondary kind"
+  entirely different from "a sense or relish of the essential beauty of
+  true virtue." Nor does he recognize the possibility of a natural
+  development of true virtue out of the sentiments directed on the
+  "private systems"; on the contrary, he sets the love of particular
+  being, when not subordinated to being in general, in opposition to the
+  latter and as equivalent to treating it with the greatest contempt.
+  All that he allows is that the perception of natural beauty may, by
+  its resemblance to the primary spiritual beauty, quicken the
+  disposition to divine love in those who are already under the
+  influence of a truly virtuous temper.
+
+  Closely connected with the essay on Virtue is the boldly speculative
+  _Dissertation on the End for which God Created the World_. As,
+  according to the doctrine of virtue, God's virtue consists primarily
+  in love to Himself, so His final end in creation is conceived to be,
+  not as the Arminians held, the happiness of His creatures, but His
+  own glory. Edwards supposes in the nature of God an original
+  disposition to an "emanation" of His being, and it is the excellency
+  of this divine being, particularly in the elect, which is, in his
+  view, the final cause and motive of the world.
+
+  Edwards makes no attempt to reconcile the pantheistic element in his
+  philosophy with the individuality implied in moral government. He
+  seems to waver between the opinion that finite individuals have no
+  independent being and the opinion that they have it in an
+  infinitesimal degree; and the conception of "degrees of existence" in
+  the essay on Virtue is not developed to elucidate the point. His
+  theological conception of God, at any rate, was not abstractly
+  pantheistic, in spite of the abstractness of his language about
+  "being," but frankly theistic and trinitarian. He held the doctrine of
+  the trinitarian distinctions indeed to be a necessity of reason. His
+  _Essay on the Trinity_, first printed in 1903, was long supposed to
+  have been withheld from publication because of its containing Arian or
+  Sabellian tendencies. It contains in fact nothing more questionable
+  than an attempted deduction of the orthodox Nicene doctrine,
+  unpalatable, however, to Edwards's immediate disciples, who were too
+  little speculative to appreciate his statement of the subordination of
+  the "persons" in the divine "oeconomy," and who openly derided the
+  doctrine of the eternal generation of the Son as "eternal nonsense";
+  and this perhaps was the original reason why the essay was not
+  published.
+
+  Though so typically a scholar and abstract thinker on the one hand and
+  on the other a mystic, Edwards is best known to the present generation
+  as a preacher of hell fire. The particular reason for this seems to
+  lie in a single sermon preached at Enfield, Connecticut, in July 1741
+  from the text, "Their foot shall slide in due time," and commonly
+  known from its title, _Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God_. The
+  occasion of this sermon is usually overlooked. It was preached to a
+  congregation who were careless and loose in their lives at a time when
+  "the neighbouring towns were in great distress for their souls." A
+  contemporary account of it says that in spite of Edwards's academic
+  style of preaching, the assembly was "deeply impressed and bowed down,
+  with an awful conviction of their sin and danger. There was such a
+  breathing of distress and weeping, that the preacher was obliged to
+  speak to the people and desire silence, that he might be heard."
+  Edwards preached other sermons of this type, but this one was the most
+  extreme. The style of the imprecatory sermon, however, was no more
+  peculiar to him than to his period. He was not a great preacher in the
+  ordinary meaning of the word. His gestures were scanty, his voice was
+  not powerful, but he was desperately in earnest, and he held his
+  audience whether his sermon contained a picturesque and detailed
+  description of the torments of the damned, or, as was often the case,
+  spoke of the love and peace of God in the heart of man. He was an
+  earnest, devout Christian, and a man of blameless life. His insight
+  into the spiritual life was profound. Certainly the most able
+  metaphysician and the most influential religious thinker of America,
+  he must rank in theology, dialectics, mysticism and philosophy with
+  Calvin and Fenelon, Augustine and Aquinas, Spinoza and Novalis; with
+  Berkeley and Hume as the great English philosophers of the 18th
+  century; and with Hamilton and Franklin as the three American thinkers
+  of the same century of more than provincial importance.
+
+  Edwards's main aim had been to revivify Calvinism, modifying it for
+  the needs of the time, and to promote a warm and vital Christian
+  piety. The tendency of his successors was--to state the matter
+  roughly--to take some one of his theories and develop it to an
+  extreme. Of his immediate followers Joseph Bellamy is distinctly
+  Edwardean in the keen logic and in the spirit of his _True Religion
+  Delineated_, but he breaks with his master in his theory of general
+  (not limited) atonement. Samuel Hopkins laid even greater stress than
+  Edwards on the theorem that virtue consists in disinterested
+  benevolence; but he went counter to Edwards in holding that
+  unconditional resignation to God's decrees, or more concretely,
+  willingness to be damned for the glory of God, was the test of true
+  regeneration; for Edwards, though often quoted as holding this
+  doctrine, protested against it in the strongest terms. Hopkins,
+  moreover, denied Edwards's identity theory of original sin, saying
+  that our sin was a result of Adam's and not identical with it; and he
+  went much further than Edwards in his objection to "means of grace,"
+  claiming that the unregenerate were more and more guilty for continual
+  rejection of the gospel if they were outwardly righteous and availed
+  themselves of the means of grace. Stephen West (1735-1819), too,
+  out-Edwardsed Edwards in his defence of the treatise on the _Freedom
+  of the Will_, and John Smalley (1734-1820) developed the idea of a
+  natural (not moral) inability on the part of man to obey God. Emmons,
+  like Hopkins, considered both sin and holiness "exercises" of the
+  will. Timothy Dwight (1752-1847) urged the use of the means of grace,
+  thought Hopkins and Emmons pantheistic, and boldly disagreed with
+  their theory of "exercises," reckoning virtue and sin as the result of
+  moral choice or disposition, a position that was also upheld by Asa
+  Burton (1752-1836), who thought that on regeneration the disposition
+  of man got a new relish or "taste."
+
+  JONATHAN EDWARDS[3] the younger (1745-1801), second son of the
+  philosopher, born at Northampton, Massachusetts, on the 26th of May
+  1745, also takes an important place among his followers. He lived in
+  Stockbridge in 1751-1755 and spoke the language of the Housatonic
+  Indians with ease, for six months studied among the Oneidas, graduated
+  at Princeton in 1765, studied theology at Bethlehem, Connecticut,
+  under Joseph Bellamy, was licensed to preach in 1766, was a tutor at
+  Princeton in 1766-1769, and was pastor of the White Haven Church, New
+  Haven, Connecticut, in 1769-1795, being then dismissed for the nominal
+  reason that the church could not support him, but actually because of
+  his opposition to the Half-Way Covenant as well as to slavery and the
+  slave trade. He preached at Colebrook, Connecticut, in 1796-1799 and
+  then became president of Union College, Schenectady, New York, where
+  he died on the 1st of August 1801. His studies of the Indian dialects
+  were scholarly and valuable. He edited his father's incomplete
+  _History of the Work of Redemption_, wrote in answer to Stephen West,
+  _A Dissertation Concerning Liberty and Necessity_ (1797), which
+  defended his father's work on the Will by a rather strained
+  interpretation, and in answer to Chauncy on universal salvation
+  formulated what is known as the "Edwardean," New England or
+  Governmental theory of the atonement in _The Necessity of the
+  Atonement and its Consistency with Free Grace in Forgiveness_ (1785).
+  His collected works were edited by his grandson Tryon Edwards in two
+  volumes, with memoir (Andover, 1842). His place in the Edwardean
+  theology is principally due to his defence against the Universalists
+  of his father's doctrine of the atonement, namely, that Christ's
+  death, being the equivalent of the eternal punishment of sinners,
+  upheld the authority of the divine law, but did not pay any debt, and
+  made the pardon of all men a possibility with God, but not a
+  necessity.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--There have been various editions of Edwards's works.
+  His pupil, Samuel Hopkins, in 1765 published two volumes from
+  manuscript containing eighteen sermons and a memoir; the younger
+  Jonathan Edwards with Dr Erskine published an edition in 4 volumes
+  (1744 sqq.), and Samuel Austin in 1808 edited an edition in 8 volumes.
+  In 1829 Sereno E. Dwight, a great-grandson of Edwards, published the
+  _Life and Works_ in 10 volumes, the first volume containing the
+  memoir, which is still the most complete and was the standard until
+  the publication (Boston, 1889) of _Jonathan Edwards_, by A. V. G.
+  Allen, who attempts to "distinguish what he (Edwards) meant to affirm
+  from what he actually teaches." In 1865 the Rev. Alexander B. Grosart
+  edited from original manuscripts _Selections from the Unpublished
+  Writings of Jonathan Edwards of America_ (Edinburgh, 1865, printed for
+  private circulation). This was the only part of a complete edition
+  planned by Grosart that ever appeared. It contained the important
+  Treatise on Grace, Annotations on the Bible, Directions for Judging of
+  Persons' Experiences, and Sermons, the last for the most part merely
+  in outline. E. C. Smyth published from a copy _Observations Concerning
+  the Scripture Oeconomy of the Trinity and Covenant of Redemption_ (New
+  York, 1880), a careful edition from the manuscript of the essay on the
+  Flying Spider (in the _Andover Review_, January 1890) and "Some Early
+  Writings of Jonathan Edwards," with specimens from the manuscripts (in
+  _Proceedings of the American Antiquarian Society_, October, 1895). In
+  1900 on the death of Prof. Edwards A. Park, the entire collection of
+  Edwards's manuscripts loaned to him by Tryon Edwards was transferred
+  to Yale University. Professor Park, like Mr Grosart before him, had
+  been unable to accomplish the great task of editing this mass of
+  manuscript. "A Study of the Manuscripts of Jonathan Edwards" was
+  published by F. B. Dexter in the _Proceedings of the Massachusetts
+  Historical Society_, series 2, vol. xv. (Boston, 1902), and in the
+  same volume of the _Proceedings_ appeared "A Study of the Shorthand
+  Writings of Jonathan Edwards," by W. P. Upham. The long sought for
+  essay on the Trinity was edited (New York, 1903) with valuable
+  introduction and appendices by G. P. Fisher under the title, _An
+  Unpublished Essay of Edwards's on the Trinity_. The only other edition
+  of Edwards (in whole or in part) of any importance is _Selected
+  Sermons of Jonathan Edwards_ (New York, 1904), edited by H. N.
+  Gardiner, with brief biographical sketch and annotations on seven
+  sermons, one of which had not previously been published.
+
+  For estimates of Edwards consult: _The Volume of the Edwards Family
+  Meeting at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, September 6-7, A.D. 1870_
+  (Boston, 1871); _Jonathan Edwards, a Retrospect, Being the Addresses
+  Delivered in Connecticut with the Unveiling of a Memorial in the
+  First Church of Christ in Northampton, Massachusetts, on the One
+  Hundred and Fiftieth Anniversary of his Dismissal from the Pastorate
+  of that Church_, edited by H. N. Gardiner (Boston, 1901); _Exercises
+  Commemorating the Two Hundredth Anniversary of the Birth of Jonathan
+  Edwards, held at Andover Theological Seminary, October 4-5, 1903_
+  (Andover, 1904); and among the addresses delivered at Stockbridge in
+  October 1903, John De Witt, "Jonathan Edwards: A Study," in the
+  _Princeton Theological Review_ (January, 1904). Also H. C. King,
+  "Edwards as Philosopher and Theologian," in _Hartford Theological
+  Seminary Record_, vol. xiv. (1903), pp. 23-57; H. N. Gardiner, "The
+  Early Idealism of Jonathan Edwards," in the _Philosophical Review_,
+  vol. ix. (1900), pp. 573-596; E. C. Smyth, _American Journal of
+  Theology_, vol. i. (1897), pp. 960-964; Samuel P. Hayes, "An
+  Historical Study of the Edwardean Revivals," in _American Journal of
+  Psychology_, vol. xiii. (1902), pp. 550 ff.; J. H. MacCracken,
+  "Philosophical Idealism of Edwards" in _Philosophical Review_, vol.
+  xi. (1902), pp. 26-42, suggesting that Edwards did not know Berkeley,
+  but Collier, and the same author's _Jonathan Edwards' Idealismus_
+  (Halle, 1899); F. J. E. Woodbridge, "Jonathan Edwards," in
+  _Philosophical Review_, vol. xiii. (1904), pp. 393-408; W. H. Squires,
+  _Jonathan Edwards und seine Willenslehre_ (Leipzig, 1901); Samuel
+  Simpson, "Jonathan Edwards, A Historical Review," in _Hartford
+  Seminary Record_, vol. xiv. (1903), pp. 3-22; and _The Edwardean, a
+  Quarterly Devoted to the History of Thought in America_ (Clinton, New
+  York, 1903-1904), edited by W. H. Squires, of which only four parts
+  appeared, all devoted to Edwards and all written by Squires.
+       (H. N. G.; R. WE.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Edwards recognized the abuse of impulses and impressions, opposed
+    itinerant and lay preachers, and defended a well-ordered and
+    well-educated clergy.
+
+  [2] These were probably not fiction like _Pamela_, as Sir Leslie
+    Stephen suggested, for Edwards listed several of Richardson's novels
+    for his own reading, and considered _Sir Charles Grandison_ a very
+    moral and excellent work.
+
+  [3] Besides the younger Jonathan many of Edwards's descendants were
+    great, brilliant or versatile men. Among them were: his son
+    Pierrepont (1750-1826), a brilliant but erratic member of the
+    Connecticut bar, tolerant in religious matters and bitterly hated by
+    stern Calvinists, a man whose personal morality resembled greatly
+    that of Aaron Burr; his grandsons, William Edwards (1770-1851), an
+    inventor of important leather rolling machinery; Aaron Burr the son
+    of Esther Edwards; Timothy Dwight (1752-1817), son of Mary Edwards,
+    and his brother Theodore Dwight, a Federalist politician, a member,
+    the secretary and the historian of the Hartford Convention; his
+    great-grandsons, Tryon Edwards (1809-1894) and Sereno Edwards Dwight,
+    theologian, educationalist and author; and his great-great-grandsons,
+    Theodore William Dwight, the jurist, and Timothy Dwight, second of
+    that name to be president of Yale.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDS, LEWIS (1809-1887), Welsh Nonconformist divine, was born in the
+parish of Llanbadarn Fawr, Cardiganshire, on the 27th of October 1809.
+He was educated at Aberystwyth and at Llangeitho, and then himself kept
+school in both these places. He had already begun to preach for the
+Calvinistic Methodists when, in December 1830, he went to London to take
+advantage of the newly-opened university. In 1832 he settled as minister
+at Laugharne in Carmarthenshire, and the following year went to
+Edinburgh, where a special resolution of the senate allowed him to
+graduate at the end of his third session. He was now better able to
+further his plans for providing a trained ministry for his church.
+Previously, the success of the Methodist preachers had been due mainly
+to their natural gifts. Edwards made his home at Bala, and there, in
+1837, with David Charles, his brother-in-law, he opened a school, which
+ultimately became the denominational college for north Wales. He died on
+the 19th of July 1887.
+
+Edwards may fairly be called one of the makers of modern Wales. Through
+his hands there passed generation after generation of preachers, who
+carried his influence to every corner of the principality. By fostering
+competitive meetings and by his writings, especially in _Y Traethodydd_
+("The Essayist"), a quarterly magazine which he founded in 1845 and
+edited for ten years, he did much to inform and educate his countrymen
+on literary and theological subjects. A new college was built at Bala in
+1867, for which he raised L10,000. His chief publication was a
+noteworthy book on _The Doctrine of the Atonement_, cast in the form of
+a dialogue between master and pupil; the treatment is forensic, and
+emphasis is laid on merit. It was due to him that the North and South
+Wales Calvinistic Methodist Associations united to form an annual
+General Assembly; he was its moderator in 1866 and again in 1876. He was
+successful in bringing the various churches of the Presbyterian order
+into closer touch with each other, and unwearying in his efforts to
+promote education for his countrymen.
+
+  See _Bywyd a Llythyrau y Parch_, (i.e. Life and Letters of the Rev.)
+  _Lewis Edwards, D.D._, by his son T. C. Edwards.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDS, RICHARD (c. 1523-1566), English musician and playwright, was
+born in Somersetshire, became a scholar of Corpus Christi College,
+Oxford, in 1540, and took his M.A. degree in 1547. He was appointed in
+1561 a gentleman of the chapel royal and master of the children, and
+entered Lincoln's Inn in 1564, where at Christmas in that year he
+produced a play which was acted by his choir boys. On the 3rd of
+September 1566 his play, _Palamon and Arcite_, was performed before
+Queen Elizabeth in the Hall of Christ Church, Oxford. Another play,
+_Damon and Pithias_, tragic in subject but with scenes of vulgar farce,
+entered at Stationers' Hall in 1567-8, appeared in 1571 and was
+reprinted in 1582; it may be found in Dodsley's _Old Plays_, vol. i.,
+and _Ancient British Drama_, vol. i. It is written in rhymed lines of
+rude construction, varying in length and neglecting the _caesura_. A
+number of the author's shorter pieces are preserved in the _Paradise of
+Dainty Devices_, first published in 1575, and reprinted in the _British
+Bibliographer_, vol. iii.; the best known are the lines on May, the
+_Amantium Irae_, and the _Commendation of Music_, which has the honour
+of furnishing a stanza to _Romeo and Juliet_. The _Historie of Damocles
+and Dionise_ is assigned to him in the 1578 edition of the _Paradise_.
+Sir John Hawkins credited him with the part song "In going to my lonely
+bed"; the words are certainly his, and probably the music. In his own
+day Edwards was highly esteemed. The fine poem, "The Soul's Knell," is
+supposed to have been written by him when dying.
+
+  See _Grove's Dict. of Music_ (new edition); the _Shakespeare Soc.
+  Papers_, vol. ii. art. vi.; Ward, _English Dram. Literature_, vol. i.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDS, THOMAS CHARLES (1837-1900), Welsh Nonconformist divine and
+educationist, was born at Bala, Merioneth, on the 22nd of September
+1837, the son of Lewis Edwards (q.v.). His resolve to become a minister
+was deepened by the revival of 1858-1859. After taking his degrees at
+London (B.A. 1861, M.A. 1862), he matriculated at St Alban Hall, Oxford,
+in October 1862, the university having just been opened to dissenters.
+He obtained a scholarship at Lincoln College in 1864, and took a first
+class in the school of Literae Humaniores in 1866. He was especially
+influenced by Mark Pattison and Jowett, who counselled him to be true to
+the church of his father, in which he had already been ordained. Early
+in 1867 he became minister at Windsor Street, Liverpool, but left it to
+become first principal of the University College of Wales at
+Aberystwyth, which had been established through the efforts of Sir Hugh
+Owen and other enthusiasts. The college was opened with a staff of three
+professors and twenty-five students in October 1872, and for some years
+its career was chequered enough. Edwards, however, proved a skilful
+pilot, and his hold on the affection of the Welsh people enabled him to
+raise the college to a high level of efficiency. When it was destroyed
+by fire in 1885 he collected L25,000 to rebuild it; the remainder of the
+necessary L40,000 being given by the government (L10,000) and by the
+people of Aberystwyth (L5000). In 1891 he gave up what had been the main
+work of his life to accept an undertaking that was even nearer his
+heart, the principalship of the theological college at Bala. A stroke of
+paralysis in 1894 fatally weakened him, but he continued at work till
+his death on the 22nd of March 1900. The Calvinistic Methodist Church of
+Wales bestowed on him every honour in their possession, and he received
+the degree of D.D. from the universities of Edinburgh (1887) and Wales
+(1898). His chief works were a _Commentary on 1 Corinthians_ (1885), the
+_Epistle to the Hebrews_ ("Expositor's Bible" series, 1888), and _The
+God-Man_ ("Davies Lecture," 1895).
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Madison county, Illinois,
+U.S.A., in the south-western part of the state, on Cahokia Creek, about
+18 m. N.E. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 3561; (1900) 4157 (573
+foreign-born); (1910) 5014. Edwardsville is served by the Toledo, St
+Louis & Western, the Wabash, the Litchfield & Madison, and the Illinois
+Terminal railways, and is connected with St Louis by three electric
+lines. It has a Carnegie library. The city's principal manufactures are
+carriages, ploughs, brick, machinery, sanitary ware and plumber's goods.
+Bituminous coal is extensively mined in the vicinity. Adjoining
+Edwardsville is the co-operative village Leclaire (unincorporated), with
+the factory of the N.O. Nelson Manufacturing Co., makers of plumber's
+supplies, brass goods, sanitary fixtures, &c.; the village was founded
+in 1890 by Nelson O. Nelson (b. 1844), and nearly all of the residents
+are employed by the company of which he is the head; they share to a
+certain extent in its profits, and are encouraged to own their own
+homes. The company supports a school, Leclaire Academy, and has built a
+club-house, bowling alleys, tennis-courts, base-ball grounds, &c. The
+first settlement on the site of Edwardsville was made in 1812, and in
+1815 the town was laid out and named in honour of Ninian Edwards
+(1775-1833), the governor of the Illinois Territory (1809-1818), and
+later United States senator (1818-1824) and governor of the state of
+Illinois (1826-1830). Edwardsville was incorporated in 1819 and received
+its present charter in 1872.
+
+
+
+
+EDWARDSVILLE, a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the
+north branch of the Susquehanna river, adjoining Kingston and close to
+the north-western limits of Wilkes-Barre (on the opposite side of the
+river), in the north-eastern part of the state; the official name of the
+post office is Edwardsdale. Pop. (1890), 3284; (1900), 5165, of whom
+2645 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 8407. It is served by the
+electric line of the Wilkes-Barre & Wyoming Valley Traction Co. Coal
+mining and brewing are the chief industries. Edwardsville was
+incorporated in 1884.
+
+
+
+
+EDWIN, AEDUINI or EDWINE (585-633), king of Northumbria, was the son of
+Ella of Deira. On the seizure of Deira by AEthelfrith of Bernicia
+(probably 605), Edwin was expelled and is said to have taken refuge with
+Cadfan, king of Gwynedd. After the battle of Chester, in which
+AEthelfrith defeated the Welsh, Edwin fled to Roedwald, the powerful
+king of East Anglia, who after some wavering espoused his cause and
+defeated and slew AEthelfrith at the river Idle in 617. Edwin thereupon
+succeeded to the Northumbrian throne, driving out the sons of
+AEthelfrith. There is little evidence of external activity on the part of
+Edwin before 625. It is probable that the conquest of the Celtic kingdom
+of Elmet, a district in the neighbourhood of the modern Leeds, ruled
+over by a king named Cerdic (Ceredig) is to be referred to this period,
+and this may have led to the later quarrel with Cadwallon, king of
+Gwynedd. Edwin seems also to have annexed Lindsey to his kingdom by 625.
+In this year he entered upon negotiations with Eadbald of Kent for a
+marriage with his sister AEthelberg. It was made a condition that
+Christianity should be tolerated in Northumbria, and accordingly
+Paulinus was consecrated bishop by Justus in 625, and was sent to
+Northumbria with AEthelberg. According to Bede, Edwin was favourably
+disposed towards Christianity owing to a vision he had seen at the court
+of Roedwald, and in 626 he allowed Eanfled, his daughter by AEthelberg,
+to be baptized. On the day of the birth of his daughter, the king's life
+had been attempted by Eomer, an emissary of Cwichelm, king of Wessex.
+Preserved by the devotion of his thegn Lilla, Edwin vowed to become a
+Christian if victorious over his treacherous enemy. He was successful in
+the ensuing campaign, and abstained from the worship of the gods of his
+race. A letter of Pope Boniface helped to decide him, and after
+consulting his friends and counsellors, of whom the priest Coifi
+afterwards took a prominent part in destroying the temple at Goodmanham,
+he was baptized with his people and nobles at York, at Easter 627. In
+this town he granted Paulinus a see, built a wooden church and began one
+of stone. Besides York, Yeavering and Maelmin in Bernicia, and Catterick
+in Deira, were the chief scenes of the work of Paulinus. It was the
+influence of Edwin which led to the conversion of Eorpwald of East
+Anglia. Bede notices the peaceful state of Britain at this time, and
+relates that Edwin was preceded on his progresses by a kind of standard
+like that borne before the Roman emperors. In 633 Cadwallon of North
+Wales and Penda of Mercia rose against Edwin and slew him at Hatfield
+near Doncaster. His kinsman Osric succeeded in Deira, and Eanfrith the
+son of AEthelfrith in Bernicia. Bede tells us that Edwin had subdued the
+islands of Anglesey and Man, and the _Annales Cambriae_ record that he
+besieged Cadwallon (perhaps in 632) in the island of Glannauc (Puffin
+Island). He was definitely recognized as overlord by all the other
+Anglo-Saxon kings of his day except Eadbald of Kent.
+
+  See Bede, _Hist. Eccl._ (ed. Plummer, Oxford, 1896), ii. 5, 9, 11, 12,
+  13, 15, 16, 18, 20; Nennius (ed. San Marte, 1844), S 63; _Vita S.
+  Oswaldi_, ix. Simeon of Durham (ed. Arnold, London, 1882-1885, vol. i.
+  R.S.).     (F. G. M. B.)
+
+
+
+
+EDWIN, JOHN (1749-1790), English actor, was born in London on the 10th
+of August 1749, the son of a watchmaker. As a youth, he appeared in the
+provinces, in minor parts; and at Bath in 1768 he formed a connexion
+with a Mrs Walmsley, a milliner, who bore him a son, but whom he
+afterwards deserted. His first London appearance was at the Haymarket in
+1776 as Flaw in Samuel Foote's _The Cozeners_, but when George Colman
+took over the theatre he was given better parts and became its leading
+actor. In 1779 he was at Covent Garden, and played there or at the
+Haymarket until his death on the 31st of October 1790. Ascribed to him
+are _The Last Legacy of John Edwin_, 1780; _Edwin's Jests_ and _Edwin's
+Pills to Purge Melancholy_.
+
+His son, JOHN EDWIN (1768-1805), made a first appearance on the stage at
+the Haymarket as Hengo in Beaumont and Fletcher's _Bonduca_ in 1778, and
+from that time acted frequently with his father, and managed the private
+theatricals organized by his intimate friend Lord Barrymore at Wargrave,
+Berks. In 1791 he married Elizabeth Rebecca Richards, an actress already
+well known in juvenile parts, and played at the Haymarket and elsewhere
+thereafter with her. He died in Dublin on the 22nd of February 1805. His
+widow joined the Drury Lane company (then playing, on account of the
+fire of 1809, at the Lyceum), and took all the leading characters in the
+comedies of the day. She died on the 3rd of August 1854.
+
+
+
+
+EDWY (EADWIG), "THE FAIR" (c. 940-959), king of the English, was the
+eldest son of King Edmund and AElfgifu, and succeeded his uncle Eadred
+in 955, when he was little more than fifteen years old. He was crowned
+at Kingston by Archbishop Odo, and his troubles began at the coronation
+feast. He had retired to enjoy the company of the ladies AEthelgifu
+(perhaps his foster-mother) and her daughter AElfgifu, whom the king
+intended to marry. The nobles resented the king's withdrawal, and he was
+induced by Dunstan and Cynesige, bishop of Lichfield, to return to the
+feast. Edwy naturally resented this interference, and in 957 Dunstan was
+driven into exile. By the year 956 AElfgifu had become the king's wife,
+but in 958 Archbishop Odo of Canterbury secured their separation on the
+ground of their being too closely akin. Edwy, to judge from the
+disproportionately large numbers of charters issued during his reign,
+seems to have been weakly lavish in the granting of privileges, and soon
+the chief men of Mercia and Northumbria were disgusted by his partiality
+for Wessex. The result was that in the year 957 his brother, the
+AEtheling Edgar, was chosen as king by the Mercians and Northumbrians.
+It is probable that no actual conflict took place, and in 959, on Edwy's
+death, Edgar acceded peaceably to the combined kingdoms of Wessex,
+Mercia and Northumbria.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_Saxon Chronicle_ (ed. Earle and Plummer, Oxford), _sub
+  ann._; _Memorials of St Dunstan_ (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series); William
+  of Malmesbury, _Gesta regum_ (ed. Stubbs, Rolls Series); Birch,
+  _Cartularium Saxonicum_, vol. ii. Nos. 932-1046; Florence of
+  Worcester.
+
+
+
+
+EECKHOUT, GERBRAND VAN DEN (1621-1674), Dutch painter, born at Amsterdam
+on the 19th of August 1621, entered early into the studio of Rembrandt.
+Though a companion pupil to F. Bol and Govaert Flinck, he was inferior
+to both in skill and in the extent of his practice; yet at an early
+period he assumed Rembrandt's manner with such success that his pictures
+were confounded with those of his master; and, even in modern days, the
+"Resurrection of the Daughter of Jairus," in the Berlin museum, and the
+"Presentation in the Temple," in the Dresden gallery, have been held to
+represent worthily the style of Rembrandt. As evidence of the fidelity
+of Eeckhout's imitation we may cite his "Presentation in the Temple," at
+Berlin, which is executed after Rembrandt's print of 1630, and his
+"Tobit with the Angel," at Brunswick, which is composed on the same
+background as Rembrandt's "Philosopher in Thought." Eeckhout not merely
+copies the subjects; he also takes the shapes, the figures, the Jewish
+dress and the pictorial effects of his master. It is difficult to form
+an exact judgment of Eeckhout's qualities at the outset of his career.
+His earliest pieces are probably those in which he more faithfully
+reproduced Rembrandt's peculiarities. Exclusively his is a tinge of
+green in shadows marring the harmony of the work, a certain gaudiness of
+jarring tints, uniform surface and a touch more quick than subtle.
+Besides the pictures already mentioned we should class amongst early
+productions on this account the "Woman taken in Adultery," at Amsterdam;
+"Anna presenting her Son to the High Priest," in the Louvre; the
+"Epiphany," at Turin; and the "Circumcision," at Cassel. Eeckhout
+matriculated early in the Gild of Amsterdam. A likeness of a lady at a
+dressing-table with a string of beads, at Vienna, bears the date of
+1643, and proves that the master at this time possessed more imitative
+skill than genuine mastery over nature. As he grew older he succeeded
+best in portraits, a very fair example of which is that of the historian
+Dappers (1669), in the Stadel collection. Eeckhout occasionally varied
+his style so as to recall in later years the "small masters" of the
+Dutch school. Waagen justly draws attention to his following of Terburg
+in "Gambling Soldiers," at Stafford House, and a "Soldiers'
+Merrymaking," in the collection of the marquess of Bute. A "Sportsman
+with Hounds," probably executed in 1670, now in the Vander Hoo gallery,
+and a "Group of Children with Goats" (1671), in the Hermitage, hardly
+exhibit a trace of the artist's first education. Amongst the best of
+Eeckhout's works "Christ in the Temple" (1662), at Munich, and the
+"Haman and Mordecai" of 1665, at Luton House, occupy a good place.
+Eeckhout died at Amsterdam on the 22nd of October 1674.
+
+
+
+
+EEL. The common freshwater eel (Lat. _anguilla_; O. Eng. _oel_) belongs
+to a group of soft-rayed fishes distinguished by the presence of an
+opening to the air-bladder and the absence of the pelvic fins. With its
+nearest relatives it forms the family _Muraenidae_, all of which are of
+elongated cylindrical form. The peculiarities of the eel are the
+rudimentary scales buried in the skin, the well-developed pectoral fins,
+the rounded tail fin continuous with the dorsal and ventral fins. Only
+one other species of the family occurs in British waters, namely, the
+conger, which is usually much larger and lives in the sea. In the conger
+the eyes are larger than in the eel, and the upper jaw overlaps the
+lower, whereas in the eel the lower jaw projects beyond the upper. Both
+species are voracious and predatory, and feed on almost any animal food
+they can obtain, living or dead. The conger is especially fond of squid
+or other Cephalopods, while the eel greedily devours carrion. The common
+eel occurs in all the rivers and fresh waters of Europe, except those
+draining towards the Arctic Ocean, the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea. It
+also occurs on the Atlantic side of North America. The conger has a
+wider range, extending from the western and southern shores of Britain
+and Ireland to the East Indian Archipelago and Japan. It is common in
+the Mediterranean.
+
+The ovaries of the eel resemble somewhat those of the salmon in
+structure, not forming closed sacs, as in the majority of Teleostei, but
+consisting of laminae exposed to the body cavity. The laminae in which
+the eggs are produced are very numerous, and are attached transversely
+by their inner edges to a membranous band running nearly the whole
+length of the body-cavity. The majority of the eels captured for market
+are females with the ovaries in an immature condition. The male eel was
+first discovered in 1873 by Syrski at Trieste, the testis being
+described by him as a lobed elongated organ, in the same relative
+position as the ovary in the female, surrounded by a smooth surface
+without laminae. He did not find ripe spermatozoa. He discovered the
+male by examining small specimens, all the larger being female. L.
+Jacoby, a later observer, found no males exceeding 19 in. in length,
+while the female may reach a length of 39 in. or more. Dr C. G. J.
+Petersen, in a paper published in 1896, states that in Denmark two kinds
+of eels are distinguished by the fishermen, namely, yellow eels and
+silver eels. The silver eels are further distinguished by the shape of
+the snout and the size of the eyes. The snout in front of the eyes is
+not flat, as in the yellow eels, but high and compressed, and therefore
+appears more pointed, while the eyes are much larger and directed
+outwards. In both kinds there are males and females, but Petersen shows
+that the yellow eels change into silver eels when they migrate to the
+sea. The sexual organs in the silver eels are more developed than in the
+yellow eels, and the former have almost or entirely ceased to take food.
+The male silver eels are from 11-1/2 to 19 in. in length, the females
+from 16-1/2 to about 39 in. It is evident, therefore, that if eels only
+spawn once, they do not all reach the same size when they become
+sexually mature. The male conger was first described in 1879 by Hermes,
+who obtained a ripe specimen in the Berlin Aquarium. This specimen was
+not quite 2-1/2 ft. in length, and of the numerous males which have been
+identified at the Plymouth Laboratory, none exceeded this length. The
+large numbers of conger above this size caught for the market are all
+immature females. Female conger of 5 or 6 ft. in length and weighing
+from 30 to 50 lb. are common enough, and occasionally they exceed these
+limits. The largest recorded was 8 ft. 3 in. long, and weighed 128 lb.
+
+There is every reason to believe that eels and conger spawn but once in
+their lives, and die soon after they have discharged their generative
+products. When kept in aquaria, both male and female conger are vigorous
+and voracious. The males sooner or later cease to feed, and attain to
+the sexually mature condition, emitting ripe milt when handled and
+gently squeezed. They live in this condition five or six months, taking
+no food and showing gradual wasting and disease of the bodily organs.
+The eyes and skin become ulcerated, the sight is entirely lost, and the
+bones become soft through loss of lime. The females also after a time
+cease to feed, and live in a fasting condition for five or six months,
+during which time the ovaries develop and reach great size and weight,
+while the bones become soft and the teeth disappear. The female,
+however, always dies in confinement before the ova are perfectly ripe
+and before they are liberated from the ovarian tissue. The absence of
+some necessary condition, perhaps merely of the pressure which exists at
+the bottom of the sea, evidently prevents the complete development of
+the ovary. The invariable death of the fish in the same almost ripe
+condition leads to the conclusion that under normal conditions the fish
+dies after the mature ova have been discharged. G. B. Grassi states that
+he obtained ripe male eels, and ripe specimens of _Muraena_, another
+genus of the family, in the whirlpools of the Strait of Messina. A ripe
+female _Muraena_ has also been described at Zanzibar. Gravid female
+eels, i.e. specimens with ovaries greatly enlarged, have been
+occasionally obtained in fresh water, but there is no doubt that,
+normally, sexual maturity is attained only in the sea.
+
+Until recent years nothing was known from direct observation concerning
+the reproduction of the common eel or any species of the family. It was
+a well-known fact that large eels migrated towards the sea in autumn,
+and that in the spring small transparent eels of 2 in. in length and
+upwards were common on the shore under stones, and ascended rivers and
+streams in vast swarms. It was reasonable, therefore, to infer that the
+mature eels spawned in the sea, and that there the young were developed.
+
+[Illustration: Leptocephali. (By permission of J. & A. Churchill.)]
+
+A group of peculiar small fishes were, however, known which were called
+Leptocephali, from the small proportional size of the head. The first of
+these described was captured in 1763 near Holyhead, and became the type
+of _L. Morrisii_, other specimens of which have been taken either near
+the shore or at the surface of the sea. Other forms placed in the same
+genus had been taken by surface fishing in the Mediterranean and in
+tropical ocean currents. The chief peculiarities of Leptocephali, in
+addition to the smallness of the head, are their ribbon-like shape and
+their glassy transparency during life. The body is flattened from side
+to side, and broad from the dorsal to the ventral edge. Like the eels,
+they are destitute of pelvic fins and no generative organs have been
+observed in them (see fig.).
+
+In 1864 the American naturalist, T. N. Gill, published the conclusion
+that _L. Morrisii_ was the young or larva of the conger, and
+Leptocephali generally the young stages of species of _Muraenidae_. In
+1886 this conclusion was confirmed from direct observation by Yves
+Delage, who kept alive in a tank at Roscoff a specimen of _L. Morrisii_,
+and saw it gradually transformed into a young conger. From 1887 to 1892
+Professor Grassi and Dr Calandruccio carried on careful and successful
+researches into the development of the Leptocephali at Catania, in
+Sicily. The specimens were captured in considerable numbers in the
+harbour, and the transformation of _L. Morrisii_ into young conger, and
+of various other forms of Leptocephalus into other genera of
+_Muraenidae_, such as _Muraena_, _Congromuraena_ and _Ophichthys_, was
+observed. In 1894 the same authors published the announcement that
+another species of Leptocephalus, namely, _L. brevirostris_, was the
+larva of the common eel. This larval form was captured in numbers with
+other Leptocephali in the strong currents of the Strait of Messina. In
+the metamorphosis of all Leptocephali a great reduction in size occurs.
+The _L. brevirostris_ reaches a length of 8 cm., or a little more than
+2-1/2 in., while the perfectly-formed young eel is 2 in. long or a
+little more.
+
+The Italian naturalists have also satisfied themselves that certain
+pelagic fish eggs originally described by Raffaele at Naples are the
+eggs of _Muraenidae_, and that among them are the eggs of _Conger_ and
+_Anguilla_. They believe that these eggs, although free in the water,
+remain usually near the bottom at great depths, and that fertilization
+takes place under similar conditions. No fish eggs of the kind to which
+reference is here made have yet been obtained on the British coasts,
+although conger and eels are so abundant there. Raffaele described and
+figured the larva newly hatched from one of the eggs under
+consideration, and it is evident that this larva is the earliest stage
+of a Leptocephalus.
+
+Although young eels, some of them more or less flat and transparent, are
+common enough on the coasts of Great Britain and north-western Europe in
+spring, neither eggs nor specimens of _Leptocephalus brevirostris_ have
+yet been taken in the North Sea, English Channel or other shallow waters
+in the neighbourhood of the British Islands, or in the Baltic. Marked
+eels have been proved to migrate from the inmost part of the Baltic to
+the Kattegat. Recently, however, search has been made for the larvae in
+the more distant and deeper portions of the Atlantic Ocean. In May 1904
+a true larval specimen was taken at the surface south-west of the Faeroe
+Islands, and another was taken 40 m. north by west of Achill Head,
+Ireland. In 1905 numbers were taken in deep water in the Atlantic. The
+evidence at present available indicates that the spawning of mature eels
+takes place beyond the 100 fathom line, and that the young eels which
+reach the coast are already a year old. As eels, both young and old, are
+able to live for a long time out of water and have the habit of
+travelling at night over land in wet grass and in damp weather, there is
+no difficulty in explaining their presence in wells, ponds or other
+isolated bodies of fresh water at any distance from the sea.
+
+  See "The Eel Question," _Report U.S. Commissioner of Fisheries for
+  1879_ (Washington, 1882); J. T. Cunningham, "Reproduction and
+  Development of the Conger," _Journ. Mar. Biol. Assn._ vol. ii.; C. G.
+  J. Petersen, _Report Dan. Biol. Station_, v. (1894); G. B. Grassi,
+  _Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci._ vol. xxxix. (1897).     (J. T. C.)
+
+
+
+
+EFFENDI (a Turkish word, corrupted from the Gr. [Greek: authentes], a
+lord or master), a title of respect, equivalent to the English "sir," in
+the Turkish empire and some other eastern countries. It follows the
+personal name, when that is used, and is generally given to members of
+the learned professions, and to government officials who have no higher
+rank, such as Bey, Pasha, &c. It may also indicate a definite office, as
+_Hakim effendi_, chief physician to the sultan. The possessive form
+_effendim_ (my master) is used by servants and in formal intercourse.
+
+
+
+
+EFFIGIES, MONUMENTAL. An "effigy" (Lat. _effigies_, from _effingere_, to
+fashion) is, in general, a material image or likeness of a person; and
+the practice of hanging or burning people "in effigy," i.e. their
+semblance only, preserves the more general sense of the word. Such
+representations may be portraits, caricatures or models. But, apart from
+general usages of the term (see e.g. Wax Figures), it is more
+particularly applied in the history of art to a particular class of
+sculptured figures, in the flat or the round, associated with Christian
+sepulchral monuments, dating from the 12th century. The earliest of
+these attempts at commemorative portraiture were executed in low relief
+upon coffin-lids of stone or purbeck marble, some portions of the
+designs for the most part being executed by means of incised lines, cut
+upon the raised figure. Gradually, with the increased size and the
+greater architectural dignity of monumental structures, effigies
+attained to a high rank as works of art, so that before the close of the
+13th century very noble examples of figures of this order are found to
+have been executed in full relief; and, about the same period, similar
+figures also began to be engraved, either upon monumental slabs of stone
+or marble, or upon plates of metal, which were affixed to the surfaces
+of slabs that were laid in the pavements of churches.
+
+Engraved plates of this class, known as "Brasses" (see BRASSES,
+MONUMENTAL), continued in favour until the era of the Reformation, and
+in recent times their use has been revived. It seems probable that the
+introduction and the prevalence of flat engraved memorials, in place of
+commemorative effigies in relief, was due, in the first instance, to the
+inconvenience resulting from increasing numbers of raised stones on the
+pavement of churches; while the comparatively small cost of engraved
+plates, their high artistic capabilities, and their durability, combined
+to secure for them the popularity they unquestionably enjoyed. If
+considerably less numerous than contemporary incised slabs and engraved
+brasses, effigies sculptured in relief--with some exceptions in full
+relief--continued for centuries to constitute the most important
+features in many medieval monuments. In the 13th century, their origin
+being apparently derived from the endeavour to combine a monumental
+effigy with a monumental cross upon the same sepulchral stone (whether
+in sculpture or by incised lines), parts only of the human figure
+sometimes were represented, such as the head or bust, and occasionally
+also the feet; in some of the early examples of this curious class the
+cross symbol was not introduced, and after awhile half-length figures
+became common.
+
+Except in very rare instances, that most important element, genuine
+face-portraiture, is not to be looked for, in even the finest sculptured
+effigies, earlier than about the middle of the 15th century. In works of
+the highest order of art, indeed, the memorials of personages of the
+most exalted rank, effigies from an early period in their existence may
+be considered occasionally to have been portraits properly so called;
+and yet even in such works as these an approximately correct general
+resemblance but too frequently appears to have been all that was
+contemplated or desired. At the same time, in the earliest monumental
+effigies we possess contemporary examples of vestments, costume,[1]
+armour, weapons, royal and knightly insignia, and other personal
+appointments and accessories, in all of which accurate fidelity has been
+certainly observed with scrupulous care and minute exactness. Thus,
+since the monumental effigies of England are second to none in artistic
+merit, while they have been preserved in far greater numbers, and
+generally in better condition than those in other countries, they
+represent in unbroken continuity an unrivalled series of original
+personal representations of successive generations, very many of them
+being, in the most significant acceptation of that term, veritable
+contemporaneous portraits.
+
+Once esteemed to be simply objects of antiquarian curiosity, and either
+altogether disregarded or too often subjected to injurious indignity,
+the monumental effigies in England long awaited the formation of a just
+estimate of their true character and their consequent worth in their
+capacity as authorities for face-portraiture. In the original contract
+for the construction of the monument at Warwick to Richard Beauchamp,
+the fifth earl, who died in 1439, it is provided that an effigy of the
+deceased noble should be executed in bronze gilt, with all possible
+care, by the most skilful and experienced artists of the time; and the
+details of the armour and the ornaments of the figure are specified with
+minute precision. It is remarkable, however, that the effigy itself is
+described only in the general and indefinite terms--"an image of a man
+armed." There is no provision that the effigy should be "an image" of
+the earl; and much less is anything said as to its being such a
+"counterfeit presentment" of the features and person of the living man,
+as the contemporaries of Shakespeare had learned to expect in what they
+would accept as true portraiture. The effigy, almost as perfect as when
+it left the sculptor's hands, still bears witness, as well to the
+conscientious care with which the conditions of the contract were
+fulfilled, as to the eminent ability of the artists employed. So
+complete is the representation of the armour, that this effigy might be
+considered actually to have been equipped in the earl's own favourite
+suit of the finest Milan steel. The cast of the figure also was
+evidently studied from what the earl had been when in life, and the
+countenance is sufficiently marked and endowed with the unmistakable
+attributes of personal character. Possibly such a resemblance may have
+been the highest aim in the image-making of the period, somewhat before
+the middle of the 15th century. Three-quarters of a century later, a
+decided step towards fidelity in true portraiture is shown to have been
+taken, when, in his will (1510 A.D.), Henry VII. spoke of the effigies
+of himself and of his late queen, Elizabeth of York, to be executed for
+their monument, as "an image of our figure and another of hers." The
+existing effigies in the Beauchamp chapel and in Henry VII.'s chapel,
+with the passages just quoted from the contract made by the executors of
+the Lancastrian earl, strikingly illustrate the gradual development of
+the idea of true personal portraiture in monumental effigies, during the
+course of the 15th and at the commencement of the 16th century in
+England.
+
+Study of the royal effigies still preserved must commence in Worcester
+Cathedral with that of King John. This earliest example of a series of
+effigies of which the historical value has never yet been duly
+appreciated is rude as a work of art, and yet there is on it the impress
+of such individuality as demonstrates that the sculptor did his best to
+represent the king. Singularly fine as achievements of the sculptor's
+art are the effigies of Henry III., Queen Eleanor of Castile, and her
+ill-fated son Edward II., the two former in Westminster Abbey, the last
+in Gloucester cathedral; and of their fidelity also as portraits no
+doubt can be entertained. In like manner the effigies of Edward III. and
+his queen Philippa, and those of their grandson Richard II. and his
+first consort, Anne of Bohemia (all at Westminster), and of their other
+grandson, Henry of Lancaster, with his second consort, Joan of Navarre,
+at Canterbury--all convince us that they are true portraits. Next follow
+the effigies of Henry VII. and Elizabeth of York,--to be succeeded, and
+the royal series to be completed, by the effigies of Queen Elizabeth and
+Mary Stuart, all of them in Westminster Abbey. Very instructive would be
+a close comparison between the two last-named works and the painted
+portraits of the rival queens, especially in the case of Mary, the
+pictures of whom differ so remarkably from one another.
+
+As the 15th century advanced, the rank of the personage represented and
+the character of the art that distinguishes any effigy goes far to
+determine its portrait qualities. Still later, when more exact
+face-portraiture had become a recognized element, sculptors must be
+supposed to have aimed at the production of such resemblance as their
+art would enable them to give to their works; and accordingly, when we
+compare effigies with painted portraits of the same personages, we find
+that they corroborate one another. The prevalence of portraiture in the
+effigies of the 16th and 17th centuries, when their art generally
+underwent a palpable decline, by no means raises all works of this
+class, or indeed the majority of them, to the dignity of true portraits;
+on the contrary, in these effigies, as in those of earlier periods, it
+is the character of the art in each particular example that affects its
+merit, value and authority as a portrait. In judging of these latter
+effigies, however, we must estimate them by the standard of art of their
+own era; and, as a general rule, the effigies that are the best as works
+of art in their own class are the best also and the most faithful in
+their portraiture. The earlier effigies, usually produced without any
+express aim at exact portraiture, as we now employ that expression, have
+nevertheless strong claims upon our veneration. Often their sculpture is
+very noble; and even when they are rudest as works of art, there is
+rarely lacking a rough grandeur about them, as exhibited in the fine
+bold figure of Fair Rosamond's son, Earl William of the Long Sword,
+which reposes in such dignified serenity in his own cathedral at
+Salisbury. These effigies may not bring us closely face to face with
+remote generations, but they do place before us true images of what the
+men and women of those generations were.
+
+Observant students of monumental effigies will not fail to appreciate
+the singular felicity with which the medieval sculptors adjusted their
+compositions to the recumbent position in which their "images"
+necessarily had to be placed. Equally worthy of notice is the manner in
+which many monumental effigies, particularly those of comparatively
+early date, are found to have assumed an aspect neither living nor
+lifeless, and yet impressively life-like. The sound judgment also, and
+the good taste of those early sculptors, were signally exemplified in
+their excluding, almost without exception, the more extravagant fashions
+in the costume of their era from their monumental sculpture, and
+introducing only the simpler but not less characteristic styles of dress
+and appointments. Monumental effigies, as commonly understood, represent
+recumbent figures, and the accessories of the effigies themselves have
+been adjusted to that position. With the exceptions when they appear on
+one side resting on the elbow (as in the case of Thomas Owen (d. 1598)
+and Sir Thomas Heskett (d. 1605), both in Westminster Abbey), these
+effigies lie on their backs, and as a general rule (except in the case
+of episcopal figures represented in the act of benediction, or of
+princes and warriors who sometimes hold a sceptre or a sword) their
+hands are uplifted and conjoined as in supplication. The crossed-legged
+attitude of numerous armed effigies of the era of mail-armour has been
+supposed to imply the personages so represented to have been crusaders
+or Knights of the Temple; but in either case the supposition is
+unfounded and inconsistent with unquestionable facts. Much beautiful
+feeling is conveyed by figures of ministering angels being introduced as
+in the act of supporting and smoothing the pillows or cushions that are
+placed in very many instances to give support to the heads of the
+recumbent effigies. The animals at the feet of these effigies, which
+frequently have an heraldic significance, enabled the sculptors, with
+equal propriety and effectiveness, to overcome one of the special
+difficulties inseparable from the recumbent position. In general,
+monumental effigies were carved in stone or marble, or cast in bronze,
+but occasionally they were of wood: such is the effigy of Robert
+Curthose, son of William I. (d. 1135), whose altar tomb in Gloucester
+cathedral was probably set up about 1320.
+
+In addition to recumbent statues, upright figures must receive notice
+here, especially those set in wall-monuments in churches mainly. These
+usually consisted in half-length figures, seen full-face, placed in a
+recess within an architectural setting more or less elaborate. They
+belong mainly to the 16th and 17th centuries. Among the many examples in
+old St Paul's cathedral (destroyed in the Great Fire of 1666) were those
+of Dean Colet (d. 1519), William Aubrey (1595) and Alexander Nowell (d.
+1601). In St Giles's, Cripplegate, is the similarly designed effigy of
+John Speed (d. 1629); while that of John Stow (d. 1605) is a
+full-length, seated figure. This, like the figure of Thomas Owen, is in
+alabaster, but since its erection has always been described as
+terra-cotta--a material which came into considerable favour for the
+purpose of busts and half-lengths towards the end of the 16th century,
+imported, of course, from abroad. Sometimes the stone monuments were
+painted to resemble life, as in the monuments to Shakespeare and John
+Combe (the latter now over-painted white), in Holy Trinity Church,
+Stratford-on-Avon.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Among the more noteworthy publications are the
+  following: _Monumental Effigies in Great Britain_ (Norman Conquest to
+  Henry VIII.), by C. A. Stothard, folio (London, 1876); _The Recumbent
+  Monumental Effigies in Northamptonshire_, by A. Hartshorne (4to,
+  London, 1867-1876); _Sepulchral Memorials_ (Northamptonshire), by W.
+  H. Hyett (folio, London, 1817); _Ancient Sepulchral Effigies and
+  Monumental Sculpture of Devon_, by W. H. H. Rogers (4to, Exeter,
+  1877); _The Ancient Sepulchral Monuments of Essex_, ed. by C. M.
+  Carlton (4to, Chelmsford, 1890); and other works dealing with the
+  subject according to counties. Of particular value is the _Report of
+  the Sepulchral Monuments Committee_ of the Society of Antiquaries,
+  laboriously compiled at the request of the Office of Works, arranged
+  (1) personally and chronologically, and (2) locally (1872).
+       (C. B.; M. H. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] It is well known that the costume of effigies nearly always
+    represented what was actually worn by the remains of the person
+    commemorated, when prepared for interment and when lying in state;
+    and, in like manner, the aspect of the lifeless countenance, even if
+    not designedly reproduced by medieval "image" makers, may long have
+    exercised a powerful influence upon their ideas of consistent
+    monumental portraiture.
+
+
+
+
+EGAN, PIERCE (1772-1849), English sporting writer, was born in London in
+1772. He began life as sporting reporter for the newspapers, and was
+soon recognized as the best of his day. In 1814 he wrote, set and
+printed a book about the relations of the prince regent (afterwards
+George IV.) and Miss Robinson, called _The Mistress of Royalty, or the
+Loves of Florizel and Perdita_. But his best-known work is _Life in
+London, or Days and Nights of Jerry Hawthorne and his Elegant Friend
+Corinthian Tom_ (1821), a book describing the amusements of sporting
+men, with illustrations by Cruikshank. This book took the popular fancy
+and was one of Thackeray's early favourites (see his _Roundabout
+Papers_). It was repeatedly imitated, and several dramatic versions were
+produced in London. A sequel containing more of country sports and
+misadventures probably suggested Dickens's _Pickwick Papers_. In 1824
+_Pierce Egan's Life in London and Sporting Guide_ was started, a weekly
+newspaper afterwards incorporated with _Bell's Life_. Among his numerous
+other books are _Boxiana_ (1818), _Life of an Actor_ (1824), _Book of
+Sports_ (1832), and the _Pilgrims of the Thames_ (1838). Egan died at
+Pentonville on the 3rd of August 1849.
+
+His son, Pierce Egan (1814-1880), illustrated his own and his father's
+books, and wrote a score of novels of varying merit, of which _The Snake
+in the Grass_ (1858) is perhaps the best.
+
+
+
+
+EGBO, a secret society flourishing chiefly among the Efiks of the
+Calabar district, West Africa. Egbo or Ekpe is a mysterious spirit who
+lives in the jungle and is supposed to preside at the ceremonies of the
+society. Only males can join, boys being initiated about the age of
+puberty. Members are bound by oath of secrecy, and fees on entrance are
+payable. The Egbo-men are ranked in seven or nine grades, for promotion
+to each of which fresh initiation ceremonies, fees and oaths are
+necessary. The society combines a kind of freemasonry with political and
+law-enforcing aims. For instance any member wronged in an Egbo district,
+that is one dominated by the society, has only to address an Egbo-man or
+beat the Egbo drum in the Egbo-house, or "blow Egbo" as it is called,
+i.e. sound the Egbo horn before the hut of the wrong-doer, and the whole
+machinery of the society is put in force to see justice done. Formerly
+the society earned as bad a name as most secret sects, from the
+barbarous customs mingled with its rites; but the British authorities
+have been able to make use of it in enforcing order and helping on
+civilization. The Egbo-house, an oblong building like the nave of a
+church, usually stands in the middle of the villages. The walls are of
+clay elaborately painted inside and ornamented with clay figures in
+relief. Inside are wooden images, sometimes of an obscene nature, to
+which reverence is paid. Much social importance attaches to the highest
+ranks of Egbo-men, and it is said that very large sums, sometimes more
+than a thousand pounds, are paid to attain these dignities. At certain
+festivals in the year the Egbo-men wear black wooden masks with horns
+which it is death for any woman to look on.
+
+  See Mary H. Kingsley, _West African Studies_ (1901); Rev. Robt. H.
+  Nassau, _Fetichism in West Africa_ (1904); C. Partridge, _Cross River
+  Natives_ (1905).
+
+
+
+
+EGEDE, HANS (1686-1758), Norwegian missionary, was born in the vogtship
+of Senjen, Norway, on the 31st of January 1686. He studied at the
+university of Copenhagen, and in 1706 became pastor at Vaagen in the
+Lofoten islands, but the study of the chronicles of the northmen having
+awakened in him the desire to visit the colony of Northmen in Greenland,
+and to convert them to Christianity, he resigned his charge in 1717; and
+having, after great difficulty, obtained the sanction and help of the
+Danish government in his enterprise, he set sail with three ships from
+Bergen on the 3rd of May 1721, accompanied by his wife and children. He
+landed on the west coast of Greenland on the 3rd of July, but found to
+his dismay that the Northmen were entirely superseded by the Eskimo, in
+whom he had no particular interest, and whose language he would be able
+to master, if at all, only after years of study. But, though compelled
+to endure for some years great privations, and at one time to see the
+result of his labours almost annihilated by the ravages of small-pox, he
+remained resolutely at his post. He founded the colony of Godthaab, and
+soon gained the affections of the people. He converted many of them to
+Christianity, and established a considerable commerce with Denmark.
+Ill-health compelling him to return home in 1736, he was made principal
+of a seminary at Copenhagen, in which workers were trained for the
+Greenland mission; and from 1740 to 1747 he was superintendent of the
+mission. He died on the 5th of November 1758. He is the author of a book
+on the natural history of Greenland.
+
+His work in Greenland was continued, on his retirement, by his son PAUL
+EGEDE (1708-1789), who afterwards returned to Denmark and succeeded his
+father as superintendent of the Greenland mission. Paul Egede also
+became professor of theology in the mission seminary. He published a
+Greenland-Danish-Latin dictionary (1750), Greenland grammar (1760) and
+Greenland catechism (1756). In 1766 he completed the translation begun
+by his father of the New Testament into the Greenland tongue; and in
+1787 he translated Thomas a Kempis. In 1789 he published a journal of
+his life in Greenland.
+
+
+
+
+EGER, AQIBA (1761-1837), Jewish scholar, was for the last twenty-five
+years of his life rabbi of Posen. He was a rigorous casuist of the old
+school, and his chief works were legal notes on the Talmud and the code
+of Qaro (q.v.). He believed that religious education was enough, and
+thus opposed the party which favoured secular schools. He was a
+determined foe of the reform movement, which began to make itself felt
+in his time.
+
+
+
+
+EGER (Czech, _Cheb_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 148 m. W.N.W. of
+Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 23,665. It is situated on the river Eger, at
+the foot of one of the spurs of the Fichtelgebirge, and lies in the
+centre of a German district of about 40,000 inhabitants, who are
+distinguished from the surrounding population by their costumes,
+language, manners and customs. On the rock, to the N.W. of the town,
+lies the Burg or Castle, built probably in the 12th century, and now in
+ruins. It possesses a massive black tower, built of blocks of lava, and
+in the courtyard is an interesting chapel, in Romanesque style with
+fantastic ornamentations, which was finished in the 13th century. In the
+banquet-room of this castle Wallenstein's officers Terzky, Kinsky, Illo
+and Neumann were assassinated a few hours before Wallenstein himself was
+murdered by Captain Devereux. The murder took place on the 25th of
+February 1634 in the town-house, which was at that time the
+burgomaster's house. The rooms occupied by Wallenstein have been
+transformed since 1872 into a museum, which contains many historical
+relics and antiquities of the town of Eger. The handsome and imposing St
+Nicholas church was built in the 13th century and restored in 1892.
+There is a considerable textile industry, together with the manufacture
+of shoes, machinery and milling. Eger was the birthplace of the novelist
+and playwright Braun von Braunthal (1802-1866). About 3 m. N.W. of Eger
+is the well-known watering place of Franzensbad (q.v.).
+
+The district of Eger was in 870 included in the new margraviate of East
+Franconia, which belonged at first to the Babenbergs, but from 906 to
+the counts of Vohburg, who took the title of margraves of Eger. By the
+marriage, in 1149, of Adela of Vohburg with the emperor Frederick I.,
+Eger came into the possession of the house of Swabia, and remained in
+the hands of the emperors until the 13th century. In 1265 it was taken
+by Ottakar II. of Bohemia, who retained it for eleven years. After being
+repeatedly transferred from the one power to the other, according to the
+preponderance of Bohemia or the empire, the town and territory were
+finally incorporated with Bohemia in 1350, after the Bohemian king
+became the emperor Charles IV. Several imperial privileges, however,
+continued to be enjoyed by the town till 1849. It suffered severely
+during the Hussite war, during the Swedish invasion in 1631 and 1647,
+and in the War of the Austrian Succession in 1742.
+
+  See Drivok, _Altere Geschichte der deutschen Reichstadt Eger und des
+  Reichsgebietes Egerland_ (Leipzig, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+EGER (Ger. _Erlau_, Med. Lat. _Agria_), a town of Hungary, capital of
+the county of Heves, 90 m. E.N.E. of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900)
+24,650. It is beautifully situated in the valley of the river Eger, an
+affluent of the Theiss, and on the eastern outskirts of the Matra
+mountains. Eger is the see of an archbishopric, and owing to its
+numerous ecclesiastical buildings has received the name of "the
+Hungarian Rome." Amongst the principal buildings are the beautiful
+cathedral in the Italian style, with a handsome dome 130 ft. high,
+erected in 1831-1834 by the archbishop Ladislaus Pyrker (1772-1847); the
+church of the Brothers of Mercy, opposite which is a handsome minaret,
+115 ft. high, the remains of a mosque dating from the Turkish
+occupation, other Roman Catholic churches, and an imposing Greek church.
+The archiepiscopal palace; the lyceum, with a good library and an
+astronomical observatory; the seminary for Roman priests; and the
+town-hall are all noteworthy. On an eminence N.E. of the town, laid out
+as a park, are the ruins of the old fortress, and a monument of Stephen
+Dobo, the heroic defender of the town against the assaults of the Turks
+in 1552. The chief occupation of the inhabitants is the cultivation of
+the vineyards of the surrounding hills, which produce the red Erlauer
+wine, one of the best in Hungary. To the S.W. of Eger, in the same
+county of Heves, is situated the town of Gyongyos (pop. 15,878). It lies
+on the south-western outskirts of the Matra mountains, and carries on a
+brisk trade in the Erlauer wine, which is produced throughout the
+district. The Hungarians defeated the Austrians at Gyongyos on the 3rd
+of April 1849. To the S.W. of Gyongyos is situated the old town of
+Hatvan (pop. 9698), which is now a busy railway junction, and possesses
+several industrial establishments.
+
+Eger is an old town, and owes its importance to the bishopric created by
+King Stephen in 1010, which was one of the richest in the whole of
+Hungary. In 1552 Eger resisted the repeated assaults of a large Turkish
+force; in 1596, however, it was given up to the Turks by the Austrian
+party in the garrison, and remained in their possession until 1687. It
+was created an archbishopric in 1814. During the revolution of
+1848-1849, Eger was remarkable for the patriotic spirit displayed by its
+inhabitants; and it was here that the principal campaigns against the
+Austrians were organized.
+
+
+
+
+EGERIA, an ancient Italian goddess of springs. Two distinct localities
+were regarded as sacred to her,--the grove of Diana Nemorensis at
+Aricia, and a spring in the immediate neighbourhood of Rome at the Porta
+Capena. She derives her chief importance from her legendary connexion
+with King Numa, who had frequent interviews with her and consulted her
+in regard to his religious legislation (Livy i. 19; Juvenal iii. 12).
+These meetings took place on the spot where the sacred shield had fallen
+from heaven, and here Numa dedicated a grove to the Camenae, like Egeria
+deities of springs. After the death of Numa, Egeria was said to have
+fled into the grove of Aricia, where she was changed into a spring for
+having interrupted the rites of Diana by her lamentations (Ovid,
+_Metam._ xv. 479). At Aricia there was also a Manius Egerius, a male
+counterpart of Egeria. Her connexion with Diana Nemorensis, herself a
+birth goddess, is confirmed by the fact that her aid was invoked by
+pregnant women. She also possessed the gift of prophecy; and the
+statement (Dion. Halic. ii. 60) that she was one of the Muses is due to
+her connexion with the Camenae, whose worship was displaced by them.
+
+
+
+
+EGERTON, SIR PHILIP DE MALPAS GREY, Bart. (1806-1881), English
+palaeontologist, was born on the 13th of November 1806, the son of the
+9th baronet. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, where he
+graduated B.A. in 1828. While at college his interest in geology was
+aroused by the lectures of W. Buckland, and by his acquaintance with
+W.D. Conybeare. Subsequently when travelling in Switzerland with Lord
+Cole (afterwards 3rd earl of Enniskillen) they were introduced to Prof.
+L. Agassiz at Neufchatel, and determined to make a special study of
+fossil fishes. During the course of fifty years they gradually gathered
+together two of the largest and finest of private collections--that of
+Sir Philip Grey Egerton being at Oulton Park, Tarporley, Cheshire. He
+described the structure and affinities of numerous species in the
+publications of the Geological Society of London, the _Geological
+Magazine_ and the Decades of the Geological Survey; and in recognition
+of his services the Wollaston medal was awarded to him in 1873 by the
+Geological Society. He was elected F.R.S. in 1831, and was a trustee of
+the British Museum. As a member of Parliament he represented the city of
+Chester in 1830, the southern division of Cheshire from 1835 until 1868,
+and the western division from 1868 to 1881. He died in London on the 6th
+of April 1881. His collection of fossil fishes is now in the British
+Museum.
+
+
+
+
+EGG, AUGUSTUS LEOPOLD (1816-1863), English painter, was born on the 2nd
+of May 1816 in London, where his father carried on business as a
+gun-maker. He had some schooling at Bexley, and was not at first
+intended for the artistic profession; but, developing a faculty in this
+line, he entered in 1834 the drawing class of Mr Sass, and in 1836 the
+school of the Royal Academy. His first exhibited picture appeared in
+1837 at the Suffolk Street gallery. In 1838 he began exhibiting in the
+Academy, his subject being a "Spanish Girl"; altogether he sent
+twenty-seven works to this institution. In 1848 he became an associate
+and in 1860 a full member of the Academy: he had considerable means,
+apart from his profession. In 1857 he took a leading part in selecting
+and arranging the modern paintings in the Art-Treasures Exhibition in
+Manchester. His constitution being naturally frail, he went in 1853,
+with Dickens and Wilkie Collins, to Italy for a short trip, and in 1863
+he visited Algeria. Here he benefited so far as his chronic lung-disease
+was concerned; but exposure to a cold wind while out riding brought on
+an attack of asthma, from which he died on the 26th of March 1863 at
+Algiers, near which city his remains were buried.
+
+Egg was a gifted and well-trained painter of genre, chiefly in the way
+of historical anecdote, or of compositions from the poets and novelists.
+Among his principal pictures may be named: 1843, the "Introduction of
+Sir Piercie Shafton and Halbert Glendinning" (from Scott's _Monastery_);
+1846, "Buckingham Rebuffed"; 1848, "Queen Elizabeth discovers she is no
+longer young"; 1850, "Peter the Great sees Catharine for the first
+time"; 1854, "Charles I. raising the Standard at Nottingham" (a study);
+1855, the "Life and Death of Buckingham"; 1857 and 1858, two subjects
+from Thackeray's _Esmond_; 1858, "Past and Present, a triple picture of
+a faithless wife"; 1859, the "Night before Naseby"; 1860, his last
+exhibited work, the Dinner Scene from _The Taming of the Shrew_. The
+Tate Gallery contains one of his earlier pictures, Patricio entertaining
+two Ladies, from the _Diable boiteux_; it was painted in 1844.
+
+Egg was rather below the middle height, with dark hair and a handsome
+well-formed face; the head of Peter the Great (in the picture of Peter
+and Catharine, which may be regarded as his best work, along with the
+Life and Death of Buckingham) was studied, but of course considerably
+modified, from his own countenance. He was manly, kind-hearted,
+pleasant, and very genial and serviceable among brother-artists; social
+and companionable, but holding mainly aloof from fashionable circles.
+As an actor he had uncommon talent. He appeared among Dickens's company
+of amateurs in 1852 in Lord Lytton's comedy _Not so Bad as we Seem_, and
+afterwards in Wilkie Collins's _Frozen Deep_, playing the humorous part
+of Job Want.
+
+
+
+
+EGG (O.E. _aeg_, cf. Ger. _Ei_, Swed. _aegg_, and prob. Gr. [Greek:
+oon], Lat. _ovum_), the female reproductive cell or ovum of animals,
+which gives rise generally only after fertilization to the young. The
+largest eggs are those of birds; and this because, to the minute
+essential portion of the egg, or germ, from which the young bird grows,
+there is added a large store of food-material--the yolk and white of the
+egg--destined to nourish the growing embryo while the whole is enclosed
+within a hard shell.
+
+The relative sizes of eggs depend entirely on the amount of the
+food-yolk thus enclosed with the germ; while the form and texture of the
+outer envelope are determined by the nature of the environment to which
+the egg is exposed. Where the food material is infinitesimal in quantity
+the egg is either not extruded--the embryo being nourished by the
+maternal tissues,--or it passes out of the parental body and gives rise
+at once to a free-living organism or "larva" (see LARVAL FORMS), as in
+the case of many lowly freshwater and marine animals. In such cases no
+"egg" in the usual sense of the term is produced.
+
+The number of eggs periodically produced by any given individual depends
+on the risks of destruction to which they, and the young to which they
+give rise, are exposed: not more than a single egg being annually laid
+by some species, while with others the number may amount to millions.
+
+
+_Birds' Eggs._--The egg of the bird affords, for general purposes, the
+readiest example of the modifications imposed on eggs by the external
+environment. Since it must be incubated by the warmth of the parent's
+body, the outer envelope has taken the form of a hard shell for the
+protection of the growing chick from pressure, while the dyes which
+commonly colour the surface of this shell serve as a screen to hide it
+from egg-eating animals.
+
+Carbonate of lime forms the principal constituent of this shell; but in
+addition phosphate of lime and magnesia are also present. In section,
+this shell will be found to be made up of three more or less distinct
+crystalline layers, traversed by vertical canals, whereby the shell is
+made porous so as to admit air to the developing chick.
+
+The outermost, or third, layer of this shell often takes the form of a
+glaze, as of porcelain, as for example in the burnished egg of the
+ostrich: or it may assume the character of a thick, chalky layer as in
+some cuckoos (_Guira_, _Crotophaga ani_), cormorants, grebes and
+flamingoes: while in some birds as in the auks, gulls and tinamous, this
+outer layer is wanting; yet the tinamous have the most highly glazed
+eggs of all birds, the second layer of the shell developing a surface
+even more perfectly burnished than that formed by the outermost, third
+layer in the ostrich.
+
+While the eggs of some birds have the shell so thin as to be
+translucent, e.g. kingfisher, others display considerable thickness, the
+maximum being reached in the egg of the extinct _Aepyornis_.
+
+Though in shape differing but little from that of the familiar hen's
+egg, certain well-marked modifications of form are yet to be met with.
+Thus the eggs of the plover are pear-shaped, of the sand-grouse more or
+less cylindrical, of the owls and titmice spherical and of the grebes
+biconical.
+
+In the matter of coloration the eggs of birds present a remarkable
+range. The pigments to which this coloration is due have been shown, by
+means of their absorption spectra (Sorby, _Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1875), to
+be seven in number. The first of these, oorhodeine, is brown-red in
+tone, and rarely absent: the second and third, oocyanin, and banded
+oocyanin, are of a beautiful blue, and though differing
+spectroscopically give rise to the same product when oxidized: the
+fourth and fifth are yellow, and rufous ooxanthine, the former combining
+with oocyanin gives rise to the wonderful malachite green of the emu's
+egg, while the latter occurs only in the eggs of tinamous: the sixth is
+lichenoxanthine, a pigment not yet thoroughly known but present in the
+shells of all eggs having a peculiar brick-red colour. Still less is
+known of the seventh pigment which is, as yet, nameless. It is a
+substance giving a banded absorption spectrum, and which, mixed with
+other pigments, imparts an abnormally browner tint. The origin of these
+pigments is yet uncertain, but it is probable that they are derived from
+the haemoglobin or red colouring matter of the blood. This being so,
+then the pigments of the egg-shell differ entirely in their nature from
+those which colour the yolk or the feathers.
+
+While many eggs are either colourless or of one uniform tint, the
+majority have the surface broken up by spots or lines, or a combination
+of both, of varying tints: the pigment being deposited as the egg passes
+down the lower portion of the oviduct. That the egg during this passage
+turns slowly on its long axis is shown by the fact that the spots and
+lines have commonly a spiral direction; though some of the markings are
+made during periods of rest, as is shown by their sharp outlines,
+movement giving a blurred effect. Where the egg is pyriform, the large
+end makes way for the smaller. Many eggs display, in addition to the
+strongly marked spots, more or fewer fainter spots embedded in a deeper
+layer of the shell, and hence such eggs are said to be "double-spotted,"
+e.g. rails and plovers.
+
+Among some species, as in birds of prey, the intensity of this
+coloration is said to increase with age up to a certain point, when it
+as gradually decreases. Frequently, especially where but two eggs are
+laid (Newton), all the dye will be deposited, sometimes on the first,
+sometimes on the last laid, leaving the other colourless. But although
+of a number of eggs in a "clutch"--as the full complement of eggs in a
+nest is called--no two are exactly alike, they commonly bear a very
+close resemblance. Among certain species, however, which lay several
+eggs, one of the number invariably differs markedly from the rest, as
+for example in the eggs of the house-sparrow or in those of the
+sparrow-hawk, where, of a clutch of six, two generally differ
+conspicuously from the rest. Differing though these eggs do from the
+rest of the clutch, all yet present the characters common to the
+species. But the eggs of some birds, such as the Australian swamp quail,
+_Synoecus australis_, present a remarkably wide range of variation in
+the matter of coloration, no two clutches being alike, the extremes
+ranging from pure white to eggs having a greenish ground colour and
+rufous spots or blotches. But a still more interesting illustration of
+variation equally marked is furnished by the chikor partridge (_Caccabis
+chukar_), since here the variation appears to be correlated with the
+geographical distribution of the species. Thus eggs taken in Greece are
+for the most part cream-coloured and unspotted; those from the Grecian
+Archipelago are generally spotted and blotched; while more to the
+eastward spots are invariably present, and the blotches attain their
+maximum development.
+
+But in variability the eggs of the guillemot (_Lomvia troile_) exceed
+all others: both in the hue of the ground colour and in the form of the
+superimposed markings, these eggs exhibit a wonderful range for which no
+adequate explanation has yet been given.
+
+Individual peculiarities of coloration are commonly reproduced, not only
+with this species but also in others, year after year.
+
+
+  Significance of colour.
+
+The coloration of the egg bears no sort of relation to the coloration of
+the bird which lays it; but it bears on the other hand a more or less
+direct relation to the nature of the environment during incubation.
+
+White eggs may generally be regarded as representing the primitive type
+of egg, since they agree in this particular with the eggs of reptiles.
+And it will generally be found that eggs of this hue are deposited in
+holes or in domed nests. So long indeed as nesting-places of this kind
+are used will the eggs be white. And this because coloured eggs would be
+invisible in dimly lighted chambers of this description, and therefore
+constantly exposed to the risk of being broken by the sitting bird, or
+rolling out of reach where the chamber was large enough to admit of
+this, whereas white eggs are visible so long as they can be reached by
+the faintest rays of light. Pigeons invariably lay white eggs; and while
+some deposit them in holes others build an open nest, a mere platform
+of sticks. These exceptions to the rule show that the depredations of
+egg-eating animals are sufficiently guarded against by the overhanging
+foliage, as well as by the great distance from the ground at which the
+nest is built. Birds which have reverted to the more ancient custom of
+nesting in holes after having developed pigmented eggs, have adopted the
+device of covering the shell with a layer of chalky matter (e.g.
+puffins), or, to put the case more correctly, they have been enabled to
+maintain survival after their return to the more ancient mode of
+nidification, because this reversion was accompanied by the tendency to
+cover the pigmented surface of the shell with this light-reflecting
+chalky incrustation.
+
+Eggs which are deposited on the bare ground, or in other exposed
+situations, are usually protectively coloured: that is to say, the hue
+of the shell more or less completely harmonizes with the ground on which
+the egg is placed. The eggs of the plover tribe afford the most striking
+examples of this fact.
+
+But the majority of birds deposit their eggs in a more or less
+elaborately constructed nest, and in such cases the egg, so far from
+being protectively coloured, often displays tints that would appear
+calculated rather to attract the attention of egg-stealing animals;
+bright blue or blue spotted with black being commonly met with. It may
+be, however, that coloration of this kind is less conspicuous than is
+generally supposed, but in any case the safety of the egg depends not so
+much on its coloration as on the character of the nest, which, where
+protective devices are necessary, must harmonize sufficiently with its
+surroundings to escape observation from prowling egg-stealers of all
+kinds.
+
+The size of the egg depends partly on the number produced and partly on
+the conditions determining the state of the young bird at hatching:
+hence there is a great disparity in the relative sizes of the eggs of
+different birds. Thus it will be found that young birds which emerge in
+the world blind, naked and helpless are the product of relatively small
+eggs, while on the contrary young hatched from relatively large eggs are
+down-clad and active from birth.
+
+The fact that the eggs must be brooded by the parent is also a
+controlling factor in so far as number is concerned, for no more can be
+hatched than can be covered by the sitting bird. Other factors, however,
+less understood, also exercise a controlling influence in this matter.
+Thus the ostrich lays from 12 to 16, the teal 15, the partridge 12-20,
+while among many other species the number is strictly limited, as in the
+case of the hornbills and guillemots, which lay but a single egg; the
+apteryx, divers, petrels and pigeons never lay more than 2, while the
+gulls and plovers never exceed 4. Tropical species are said to lay fewer
+eggs than their representatives in temperate regions, and further
+immature birds lay more and smaller eggs than when fully adult.
+
+Partly owing to the uniformity of shape, size and texture of the shell,
+the eggs of birds are by no means easy to distinguish, except in so far
+as their family resemblances are concerned: that is to say, except in
+particular cases, they cannot be specifically distinguished, and hence
+they are of but little or no value for the purposes of classification.
+
+Save only among the megapodes, all birds brood their eggs, the period of
+incubation varying from 13 days, as in small passerine birds, to 8
+weeks, as in the cassowary, though eggs of the rhea and of _Struthio_
+hatch in from 5 to 6 weeks. But the megapodes deposit their eggs in
+mounds of decaying vegetable matter or in sand in the neighbourhood of
+hot springs, and there without further apparent care leave them. Where
+the nestling is active from the moment of hatching the eggs have a
+relatively longer incubation period than in cases where the nestlings
+are for a long while helpless.
+
+
+_Eggs of Mammals._--Only in the spiny ant-eater, or _Echidna_, and the
+duck-billed platypus, or _Ornithorhynchus_, among the Mammalia, are the
+eggs provided with a large store of yolk, enclosed within a shell, and
+extruded to undergo development apart from the maternal tissues. In the
+case of the echidna the eggs, two in number, are about as large as those
+of a sparrow, similar in shape, and have a white, parchment-like shell.
+After expulsion they are transferred by the beak of the mother to a
+pouch resembling that of the marsupial kangaroos, and there they undergo
+development. The _Ornithorhynchus_, on the other hand, lays from two to
+four eggs, which in size and general appearance resemble those of the
+echidna. They are, however, deposited in a loosely constructed nest at
+the end of a long burrow and there brooded. In Marsupials, the eggs are
+smaller than those of _Echidna_ and _Ornithorhynchus_, and they contain
+a larger proportion of yolk than occurs in higher mammals.
+
+
+_Eggs of Reptiles._--The eggs of reptiles are invariably provided with a
+large amount of food yolk and enclosed with a firm test or shell, which
+though generally parchment-like in texture may be calcareous as in
+birds, as, for example, in many of the tortoises and turtles and in the
+crocodiles.
+
+Among reptiles the egg is always white or yellowish, while the number
+laid often far exceeds that in the case of birds. The tuatara of New
+Zealand, however, lays but ten--white hard-shelled, long and oval--at
+intervals between November and January. The long intervals between the
+appearance of the successive eggs is a characteristic feature of the
+reptiles, but is met with among the birds only in the megapodes, which,
+like the reptiles, do not "brood" their eggs.
+
+Among the Chelonia the number of eggs varies from two to four in some of
+the tortoises, to 200 in some of the turtles: while in the crocodiles
+between 20 and 30 are produced, hard-shelled and white.
+
+The eggs of the lizards are always white or yellowish, and generally
+soft-shelled; but the geckos and the green lizard lay hard-shelled eggs.
+Many of the soft-shelled eggs are remarkable for the fact that they
+increase in size after extrusion, owing to the stretching of the
+membranous shell by the growing embryo. In the matter of number lizards
+are less prolific than many of the Chelonia, a dozen eggs being the
+general number, though as many as thirty may be produced at a time, as
+in the case of the common chameleon.
+
+While as a general rule the eggs of lizards are laid in burrows or
+buried, some are retained within the body of the parent until the young
+are ready to emerge; or they may even hatch within the oviduct. This
+occurs with some chameleons and some lizards, e.g. the slow-worm. The
+common English lizard is also viviparous. Normally the young leaves the
+egg immediately after its extrusion, but if by any chance this extrusion
+is delayed they escape while yet in the oviduct.
+
+The majority of the snakes lay eggs, but most of the vipers and the
+aquatic snakes are viviparous, as also are a few terrestrial species.
+The shell of the egg is always soft and parchment-like. As a rule the
+number of eggs produced among the snakes is not large, twenty or thirty
+being common, but some species of python lay as many as a hundred.
+Generally, among the oviparous snakes the eggs are buried, but some
+species of boas jealously guard them, enclosing them within the coils of
+the body.
+
+
+_Eggs of Amphibia._--Among the amphibia a greater variety obtains in the
+matter of the investment of the egg, as well as in the number, size and
+method of their disposal. The outer covering is formed by a toughening
+of the surface of a thick gelatinous coat which surrounds the essential
+parts of the egg. This coat in many species of salamander--using this
+name in the wide sense--is produced into threads which serve either to
+anchor the eggs singly or to bind them together in bunches.
+
+Viviparity occurs both among the limbless and the tailed Amphibia, the
+eggs hatching before they leave the oviduct or immediately after
+extrusion. The number of young so produced is generally not large, but
+the common salamander (_Salamandra maculosa_) may produce as many as
+fifty at a birth, though fifteen is the more normal figure. When the
+higher number is reached the young are relatively small and weak.
+
+As a rule among the Amphibia the young leave the egg in the form of
+larvae, generally known as "tadpoles"; but many species produce eggs
+containing a sufficient amount of food material to enable the whole of
+the larval phase to be completed before hatching.
+
+Among the tailless Amphibia (frogs and toads) there are wide differences
+in the number of eggs produced, while the methods by which these eggs
+are disposed of present a marvellous variety.
+
+As a rule vast quantities of eggs are shed by the female into the water
+in the form of "spawn." In the common toad as many as 7000 eggs may be
+extruded at a time. These leave the body in the form of two long
+strings--one from each oviduct--of translucent globules, gelatinous in
+texture, and enclosing a central sphere of yolk, the upper pole of which
+is black. The spawn of the common frog differs from that of the toad in
+that the eggs all adhere to form a huge jelly-like mass. But in many
+species the number of eggs produced are few; and these may be
+sufficiently stored with food-yolk to allow of the tadpole stage being
+passed before hatching, as in frogs of the genus _Hylodes_. In many
+cases the eggs are deposited out of the water and often in quite
+remarkable ways.
+
+
+_Eggs of Fishes._--The eggs of fishes present an extremely wide range of
+form, and a no less extensive range in the matter of number. Both among
+the cartilaginous and bony fishes viviparity occurs. Most of the sharks
+and rays are viviparous, but in the oviparous species the eggs present
+some interesting and peculiar forms. Large in size, the outer coat or
+"shell" is in all cases horn-like and flexible, but differs greatly in
+shape. Thus in the egg of the larger spotted dog-fish it is oblong in
+shape, flattened from side to side, and has the angles produced into
+long, slender tendrils. As the egg is laid the lower tendrils project
+from the vent, and the mother rubs herself against some fixed body. The
+tendrils soon catch fast in some slight projection, when the egg is
+dragged forth there to remain till hatching takes place. A couple of
+narrow slits at each corner of the upper end serve to admit fresh water
+to the imprisoned embryo during the later stages of development; when
+development is complete escape is made through the end of the shell. In
+the rays or "skates," long spines take the place of tendrils, the egg
+simply resting at the bottom of the sea. The empty egg-cases of the rays
+are often found on the seashore, and are known as "Mermaids' purses."
+The egg of the Port Jackson shark (_Cestracion_) is of enormous size,
+pear-shaped, and provided with a spiral flange extending along the whole
+length of the capsule. In the _Chimaera_ the egg is long, more or less
+spindle-shaped, and produced on each side into a broad flange having a
+fringed edge, so that the whole bears a close resemblance to a long
+leaf, broad and notched at one end, pointed at the other. This likeness
+to the seaweed among which it rests is doubtless a protective device,
+akin to that of protectively coloured birds' eggs.
+
+Among the bony fishes the eggs generally take the form of small spheres,
+enclosed within a tough membrane or capsule. But they present many
+important differences, being in some fishes heavy and remaining at the
+bottom of the water, in other light and floating on the surface. While
+in some species they are distributed separately, in others they adhere
+together in masses. The eggs of the salmon, for example, are heavy, hard
+and smooth, and deposited separately in a trough dug by the parent and
+afterwards covered to prevent them from being carried away by the
+stream. In the perch they are adhesive and form long band-like masses of
+spawn adhering to water-plants. In the gobies the egg is spindle-shaped,
+and attached by one end by means of a network of fibres, resembling
+rootlets; while in the smelt the egg is loosely suspended by a membrane
+formed by the peeling off of a part of the outer sheath of the capsule.
+The eggs of the garfish (_Belone vulgaris_) and of the flying-fish of
+the genus _Exocoetus_, attach themselves to foreign objects, or to one
+another, by means of threads or cords developed at opposite poles of the
+egg.
+
+Among a number of fishes the eggs float at the surface of the sea, often
+in enormous masses, when they are carried about at the mercy of tides
+and currents. An idea of the size which such masses attain may be
+gathered from the fact that the spawn of the angler-fish, _Lophius
+piscatorius_, takes the form of a sheet from 2 to 3 ft. wide, and 30 ft.
+long. Another remarkable feature of these floating eggs is their
+transparency, inasmuch as they are extremely difficult to see, and hence
+they probably escape the rapacious maws of spawn-eating animals. The cod
+tribe and flat-fishes lay floating eggs of this description.
+
+The maximum number of eggs laid by fishes varies greatly, some species
+laying relatively few, others an enormous number. But in all cases the
+number increases with the weight and age of the fish. Thus it has been
+calculated that the number laid by the salmon is roughly about 1000 to
+every pound weight of the fish, a 15 lb. salmon laying 15,000 eggs. The
+sturgeon lays about 7,000,000; the herring 50,000; the turbot
+14,311,000; the sole 134,000; the perch 280,000. Briefly, the number is
+greatest where the risks of destruction are greatest.
+
+The eggs of the degenerate fishes known as the lampreys and hag-fishes
+are remarkable for the fact that in the latter they are large in size,
+cylindrical in shape, and provided at each end with hooklets whereby
+they adhere one to another; while in the lampreys they are extremely
+small and embedded in a jelly.
+
+
+_Molluscs._--Among the Mollusca, Crustacea and Insecta yolk-stored eggs
+of very remarkable forms are commonly produced.
+
+In variety, in this connexion, the Mollusca must perhaps be given the
+first place. This diversity, indeed, is strikingly illustrated by the
+eggs of the Cephalopoda. In the squids (_Loligo_), for example, the eggs
+are enclosed in long cylindrical cases, of which there are several
+hundreds, attached by one end to a common centre; the whole series
+looking strangely like a rough mop-head. Each case, in such a cluster,
+contains about 250 eggs, or about 40,000 in all. By way of contrast the
+eggs of the true cuttle-fish (_Sepia_) are deposited separately, each
+enclosed in a tough, black, pear-shaped capsule which is fastened by a
+stalk to fronds of sea-weed or other object. They appear to be extruded
+at short intervals, till the full complement is laid, the whole forming
+a cluster looking like a bunch of grapes. The octopus differs yet again
+in this matter, its eggs being very small, berry-like, and attached to a
+stalk which runs through the centre of the mass.
+
+The eggs of the univalve Mollusca are hardly less varied in the shapes
+they take. In the common British _Purpura lapillus_ they resemble
+delicate pink grains of rice set on stalks; in _Busycon_ they are
+disk-shaped, and attached to a band nearly 3 ft. long. The eggs of the
+shell-bearing slugs (_Testacella_) are large, and have the outer coat so
+elastic that if dropped on a stone floor they will rebound several
+inches; while some of the snails (_Bulimus_) lay eggs having a white
+calcareous and slightly iridescent shell, in size and shape closely
+resembling the egg of the pigeon. Some are even larger than the egg of
+the wood-pigeon. The beautiful violet-snail (_Ianthina_)--a marine
+species--carries its eggs on the under side of a gelatinous raft. No
+less remarkable are the eggs of the whelk; since, like those of the
+squids, they are not laid separately but enveloped in capsules, and
+these to the number of many hundreds form the large, ball-like masses so
+commonly met with on the seashore. When the eggs in these capsules
+hatch, the crowd of embryos proceed to establish an internecine warfare,
+devouring one another till only the strongest survives!
+
+With the Mollusca, as with other groups of animals, where the eggs are
+exposed to great risks they are small, produced in great numbers, and
+give rise to larvae. This is well illustrated by the common oyster which
+annually disperses about 60,000,000 eggs. But where the risk of
+destruction is slight, the eggs are large and produce young differing
+from the parent only in size, as in the case of the pigeon-like eggs of
+_Bulimus_.
+
+
+_Crustaceans._--Among the higher Crustacea, as a rule, the eggs are
+carried by the female, attached to special appendages on the under side
+of the body. But in some--Squillas--they are deposited in burrows.
+Generally they are relatively small so that the young which emerge
+therefrom differ markedly in appearance from the parents, but in
+deep-sea and freshwater species the eggs are large, when the young, on
+emerging, differ but little from the adults in appearance.
+
+
+_Insects, &c._--The eggs of insects though minute, are also remarkable
+for the great variety of form which they present, while they are
+frequently objects of great beauty owing to the sculptured markings of
+the shell. They are generally laid in clusters, either on the ground, on
+the leaves of plants, or in the water. Some of the gnats (_Culex_) lay
+them on the water. Cylindrical in shape they are packed closely
+together, set on end, the whole mass forming a kind of floating raft.
+Frequently, as in the case of the stick and leaf insect, the eggs are
+enclosed in capsules of very elaborate shapes and highly ornamented.
+
+As to the rest of the Invertebrata--above the Protozoa the eggs are laid
+in water, or in damp places. In the former case they are as a rule
+small, and give rise to larvae; while eggs hatched on land are sometimes
+enclosed in capsules, "cocoons," as in the case of the earthworm, where
+this capsule is filled with a milky white fluid, of a highly nutritious
+character, on which the embryos feed.
+
+Among some invertebrates two different kinds of eggs are laid by the
+same individual. The water-flea, _Daphnia_ (a crustacean), lays two
+kinds of eggs known as "summer" and "winter" eggs. The summer eggs are
+carried by the female in a "brood-pouch" on the back. The "winter" eggs,
+produced at the approach of winter, differ markedly in appearance from
+the summer eggs, being larger, darker in colour, thicker shelled, and
+enclosed in a capsule formed from the shell or carapace, of the parent's
+body. "Winter eggs," however, may be produced in the height of summer.
+While the "summer eggs" are unfertilized, the winter eggs are fertilized
+by the male, and possess the remarkable power of lying dormant for
+months or even years before they develop. The production of these two
+kinds of eggs is a device to overcome the cold of winter, or the drying
+up of the pools in which the species lives, during the heat of the
+summer. The power of resistance which such eggs possess may be seen in
+the fact that a sample of mud which had been kept dry for ten years
+still contained living eggs. In deep water where neither drought nor
+winter cold can seriously affect the _Daphnias_, they propagate all the
+year round by unfertilized "summer" eggs.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For further details on this subject the following
+  authors should be consulted:--_Mammals_: F. E. Beddard, "Remarks on
+  the Ovary of Echidna," _Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin._ vol. viii.
+  (1885); W. H. Caldwell, "The Embryology of Monotremata and
+  Marsupialia," _Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc._ vol. 178 (1887); E. B. Poulton,
+  "The Structures connected with the Ovarian Ovum of the Marsupialia and
+  Monotremata," _Quart. Journ. Micros. Sci._ vol. xxiv. (1884). _Birds,
+  Systematic_:--H. Seebohm, _Coloured Figures of the Eggs of British
+  Birds_ (1896); A. Newton, _Ootheca Wooleyana_ (1907); E. Oates, _Cat.
+  Birds' Eggs Brit. Mus._ (appearing), vols. i.-iv. published.
+  _General_:--A. Newton, _Dictionary of Birds_ (1896). _Colouring
+  matter_:--Newbegin, _Colour in Nature_ (1898). _Reptiles and
+  Amphibia_:--H. Gadow, "Reptiles," _Camb. Nat. Hist._ (1901); G. A.
+  Boulenger, "The Tailless Batrachians of Europe," _Ray Soc._ (1896).
+  _Fishes_:--Bridge and Boulenger, "Fishes, Ascidians, &c.," _Camb. Nat.
+  Hist._ (1904); B. Dean, _Fishes Living and Fossil_ (1895); J. T.
+  Cunningham, _Marketable Marine Fishes_ (1896). _Invertebrate_:--G. H.
+  Carpenter, _Insects. Their Structure and Life_ (1899); L. C. Miall, _A
+  History of Aquatic Insects_ (1895); T. R. R. Stebbing, _Crustacea_,
+  Internat. Sci. series (1893); M. C. Cooke, "Mollusca," _Camb. Nat.
+  Hist._ (1906). For further references to the above and other
+  Invertebrate groups see various text-books on Entomology, Zoology.
+       (W. P. P.)
+
+
+
+
+EGGENBERG, HANS ULRICH VON, PRINCE (1568-1634), Austrian statesman, was
+a son of Siegfried von Eggenberg (d. 1594), and began life as a soldier
+in the Spanish service, becoming about 1596 a trusted servant of the
+archduke of Styria, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand II. Having become a
+Roman Catholic, he was soon the chancellor and chief adviser of
+Ferdinand, whose election as emperor he helped to secure in 1619. He
+directed the imperial policy during the earlier part of the Thirty
+Years' War, and was in general a friend and supporter of Wallenstein,
+and an opponent of Maximilian I., duke of Bavaria, and of Spain. He was
+largely responsible for Wallenstein's return to the imperial service
+early in 1632, and retired from public life just after the general's
+murder in February 1634, dying at Laibach, on the 18th of October 1634.
+Eggenberg's influence with Ferdinand was so marked that it was commonly
+said that Austria rested upon three hills (_Berge_): Eggenberg,
+Questenberg and Werdenberg. He was richly rewarded for his services to
+the emperor. Having received many valuable estates in Bohemia and
+elsewhere, he was made a prince of the Empire in 1623, and duke of
+Krumau in 1625.
+
+  See H. von Zwiedineck-Sudenhorst, _Hans Ulrich, Furst von Eggenberg_
+  (Vienna, 1880); and F. Mares, _Beitrage zur Geschichte der Beziehungen
+  des Fursten J. U. von Eggenberg zu Kaiser Ferdinand II und zu
+  Waldstein_ (Prague, 1893).
+
+
+
+
+EGGER, EMILE (1813-1885), French scholar, was born in Paris on the 18th
+of July 1813. From 1840 till 1855 he was assistant professor, and from
+1855 till his death professor of Greek literature in the Faculte; des
+Lettres at Paris University. In 1854 he was elected a member of the
+Academie des Inscriptions and in 1873 of the Conseil superieur de
+l'instruction publique. He was a voluminous writer, a sound and
+discerning scholar, and his influence was largely responsible for the
+revival of the study of classical philology in France. His most
+important works were _Essai sur l'histoire de la critique chez les
+Grecs_ (1849), _Notions elementaires de grammaire comparee_ (1852),
+_Apollonius Dyscole, essai sur l'histoire des theories grammalicales
+dans l'antiquite_ (1854), _Memoires de litterature ancienne_ (1862),
+_Memoires d'histoire ancienne et de philologie_ (1863), _Les Papyrus
+grecs du Musee du Louvre et de la Bibliotheque Imperiale_ (1865),
+_Etudes sur les traites publics chez les Grecs et les Romains_ (1866),
+_L'Hellenisme en France_ (1869), _La Litterature grecque_ (1890). He was
+also the author of _Observations et reflexions sur le developpement de
+l'intelligence et du langage chez les enfants_ (1879). Egger died in
+Paris on the 1st of September 1885.
+
+
+
+
+EGGLESTON, EDWARD (1837-1902), American novelist and historian, was born
+in Vevay, Indiana, on the 10th of December 1837, of Virginia stock.
+Delicate health, by which he was more or less handicapped throughout his
+life, prevented his going to college, but he was naturally a diligent
+student. He was a Methodist circuit rider and pastor in Indiana and
+Minnesota (1857-1866); associate editor (1866-1867) of _The Little
+Corporal_, Chicago; editor of _The National Sunday School Teacher_,
+Chicago (1867-1870); literary editor and later editor-in-chief of _The
+Independent_, New York (1870-1871); and editor of _Hearth and Home_ in
+1871-1872. He was pastor of the church of Christian Endeavour, Brooklyn,
+in 1874-1879. From 1880 until his death on the 2nd of September 1902, at
+his home on Lake George, New York, he devoted himself to literary work.
+His fiction includes _Mr Blake's Walking Stick_ (1869), for children;
+_The Hoosier Schoolmaster_ (1871); _The End of the World_ (1872); _The
+Mystery of Metropolisville_ (1873); _The Circuit Rider_ (1874); _Roxy_
+(1878); The _Hoosier Schoolboy_ (1883); _The Book of Queer Stories_
+(1884), for children; _The Graysons_ (1888), an excellent novel; _The
+Faith Doctor_ (1891); and _Duffels_ (1893), short stories. Most of his
+stories portray the pioneer manners and dialect of the Central West, and
+the _Hoosier Schoolmaster_ was one of the first examples of American
+local realistic fiction; it was very popular, and was translated into
+French, German and Danish. During the last third of his life Eggleston
+laboured on a _History of Life in the United States_, but he lived to
+finish only two volumes--_The Beginners of a Nation_ (1896) and _The
+Transit of Civilization_ (1900). In addition he wrote several popular
+compendiums of American history for schools and homes.
+
+  See G. C. Eggleston, _The First of the Hoosiers_ (Philadelphia, 1903),
+  and Meredith Nicholson, _The Hoosiers_ (1900).
+
+His brother GEORGE CARY EGGLESTON (1839-   ), American journalist and
+author, served in the Confederate army; was managing editor and later
+editor-in-chief of _Hearth and Home_ (1871-1874); was literary editor of
+the _New York Evening Post_ (1875-1881), literary editor and afterwards
+editor-in-chief of the New York _Commercial Advertiser_ (1884-1889), and
+editorial writer for _The World_ (New York) from 1889 to 1900. Most of
+his books are stories for boys; others, and his best, are romances
+dealing with life in the South especially in the Virginias and the
+Carolinas--before and during the Civil War. Among his publications may
+be mentioned: _A Rebel's Recollections_ (1874); _The Last of the
+Flatboats_ (1900); _Camp Venture_ (1900); _A Carolina Cavalier_ (1901);
+_Dorothy South_ (1902); _The Master of Warlock_ (1903); _Evelyn Byrd_
+(1904); _A Daughter of the South_ (1905); _Blind Alleys_ (1906); _Love
+is the Sum of it all_ (1907); _History of the Confederate War_ (1910);
+and _Recollections of a Varied Life_ (1910).
+
+
+
+
+EGHAM, a town in the Chertsey parliamentary division of Surrey, England,
+on the Thames, 21 m. W.S.W. of London by the London & South Western
+railway. Pop. (1901) 11,895. The church of St John the Baptist is a
+reconstruction of 1817; it contains monuments by John Flaxman. Above the
+right bank of the river a low elevation, Cooper's Hill, commands fine
+views over the valley, and over Windsor Great Park to the west. On the
+hill was the Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, commonly called
+Cooper's Hill College, of which Sir George Tomkyns Chesney was the
+originator and first president (1871). It educated men for the public
+works, accounts, railways and telegraph departments of India, and
+included a school of forestry; but it was decided, in the face of some
+opposition, to close it in 1906, on the theory that it was unnecessary
+for a college with such a specialized object to be maintained by the
+government, in view of the readiness with which servants for these
+departments could be recruited elsewhere. Part of the organization,
+including the school of forestry, was transferred to Oxford University.
+Cooper's Hill gives name to a famous poem of Sir John Denham (1642). A
+large and handsome building houses the Royal Holloway College for Women
+(1886), founded by Thomas Holloway; in the neighbourhood is the
+sanatorium of the same founder (1885) for the treatment of mental
+ailments, accommodating about 250 patients. The college for women,
+surrounded by extensive grounds, commands a wide view from the wooded
+slope on which it stands. The recreation hall, with its fine art
+collection, is the most notable room in this handsome building, which
+can receive 250 students. Within the parish, bordering the river, is the
+field of Runnymede, which, with Magna Charta Island lying off it, is
+famous in connexion with the signature of the charter by King John.
+Virginia Water, a large and picturesque artificial lake to the south of
+Windsor Great Park, is much frequented by visitors. It was formed under
+the direction of the duke of Cumberland, about 1750, and was the work of
+the brothers Thomas and Paul Sandby.
+
+
+
+
+EGIN (Armenian _Agn_, "the spring"), an important town in the Mamuret
+el-Aziz vilayet of Asiatic Turkey (altitude 3300 ft.). Pop. about
+20,000, fairly equally divided between Armenian Christians and Moslems.
+It is picturesquely situated in a theatre of lofty, abrupt rocks, on the
+right bank of the western Euphrates, which is crossed by a wooden
+bridge. The stone houses stand in terraced gardens and orchards, and the
+streets are mere rock ladders. Egin was settled by Armenians who
+emigrated from Van in the 11th century with Senekherim. On the 8th of
+November 1895 and in the summer of 1896 many Armenians were massacred
+here.     (D. G. H.)
+
+
+
+
+EGLANTINE (E. Frisian, _egeltiere_; Fr. _aiglantier_), a plant-name of
+which Dr R. C. A. Prior (_Popular Names of British Plants_, p. 70) says
+that it "has been the subject of much discussion, both as to its exact
+meaning and as to the shrub to which it properly belongs." The eglantine
+of the herbalists was the sweet-brier, _Rosa rubiginosa_. The
+signification of the word seems to be thorn-tree or thorn-bush, the
+first two syllables probably representing the Anglo-Saxon _egla_,
+_egle_, a prick or thorn, while the termination is the Dutch _tere_,
+_taere_, a tree. Eglantine is frequently alluded to in the writings of
+English poets, from Chaucer downwards. Milton, in _L'Allegro_, is
+thought by the term "twisted eglantine" to denote the honeysuckle,
+_Lonicera Periclymenum_, which is still known as eglantine in north-east
+Yorkshire.
+
+
+
+
+EGLINTON, EARLS OF. The title of earl of Eglinton has been held by the
+famous Scottish family of Montgomerie since 1508. The attempts made to
+trace the descent of this house to Roger of Montgomery, earl of
+Shrewsbury (d. 1094), one of William the Conqueror's followers, will not
+bear examination, and the sure pedigree of the family only begins with
+Sir John Montgomerie, lord of Eaglesham, who fought at the battle of
+Otterbourne in 1388 and died about 1398. His grandson, Sir Alexander
+Montgomerie (d. c. 1460), was made a lord of the Scottish parliament
+about 1445 as Lord Montgomerie, and Sir Alexander's great-grandson Hugh,
+the 3rd lord (c. 1460-1545), was created earl of Eglinton, or Eglintoun,
+in 1508. Hugh, who was a person of importance during the minority of
+James V., was succeeded by his grandson Hugh (d. 1546), and then by the
+latter's son Hugh (c. 1531-1585), who became 3rd earl of Eglinton. This
+nobleman was a firm supporter of Mary queen of Scots, for whom he fought
+at Langside, and of the Roman Catholic Church; his son and successor,
+Hugh, was murdered in April 1586 by the Cunninghams, a family with which
+his own had an hereditary blood feud. In 1612, by the death of Hugh, the
+5th earl, the male line of the Montgomeries became extinct.
+
+Having no children Earl Hugh had settled his title and estates on his
+cousin, Sir Alexander Seton of Foulstruther (1588-1661), a younger son
+of Robert Seton, 1st earl of Wintoun (c. 1550-1603), and his wife
+Margaret, daughter of the 3rd earl of Eglinton. Alexander, who thus
+became the 6th earl of Eglinton and took the name of Montgomerie, was
+commonly called Greysteel; he was a prominent Covenanter and fought
+against Charles I. at Marston Moor. Later, however, he supported the
+cause of Charles II., and fell into the hands of Cromwell, who
+imprisoned him. His fifth son, Robert Montgomerie (d. 1684), a soldier
+of distinction, fought against Cromwell at Dunbar and at Worcester,
+afterwards escaping from the Tower of London and serving in Denmark.
+Robert's elder brother, Hugh, 7th earl of Eglinton (1613-1669), who also
+fought against Cromwell, was the grandfather of Alexander, the 9th earl
+(c. 1660-1729), who married, for his third wife, Susannah (1689-1780),
+daughter of Sir Archibald Kennedy, Bart., of Culzean, a lady celebrated
+for her wit and beauty. Alexander, the 10th earl (1723-1769), a son of
+the 9th earl, was one of the first of the Scottish landowners to carry
+out improvements on his estates. He was shot near Ardrossan by an excise
+officer named Mungo Campbell on the 24th of October 1769. His brother
+and successor, Archibald, the 11th earl (1726-1796), raised a regiment
+of Highlanders with which he served in America during the Seven Years'
+War. As he left no male issue he was succeeded in the earldom by his
+kinsman Hugh Montgomerie (1739-1819), a descendant of the 6th earl, who
+was created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron Ardrossan in 1806.
+Before succeeding to the earldom Hugh had served in the American war and
+had been a member of parliament; after this event he began to rebuild
+Eglinton castle on a magnificent scale and to construct a harbour at
+Ardrossan.
+
+This earl's successor was his grandson, Archibald William, the 13th earl
+(1812-1861), who was born at Palermo on the 29th of September 1812. His
+father was Archibald, Lord Montgomerie (1773-1814), the eldest son of
+the 12th earl, and his mother was Mary (d. 1848), a daughter of the 11th
+earl. Educated at Eton, the young earl's main object of interest for
+some years was the turf; he kept a large racing stud and won success and
+reputation in the sporting world. In 1839 his name became more widely
+known in connexion with the famous tournament which took place at
+Eglinton castle and is said to have cost him L30,000 or L40,000. This
+was made the subject of much ridicule and was partly spoiled by the
+unfavourable weather, the rain falling in torrents. Yet it was a real
+tournament and the "knights" broke their spears in the orthodox way.
+Prince Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III.) took part in it, and Lady Seymour,
+a daughter of Thomas Sheridan and the wife of Lord Seymour, afterwards
+12th duke of Somerset, was the queen of beauty. A list of the
+challengers with an account of the jousts and the melee will be found in
+the volume on the tournament written by John Richardson, with drawings
+by J. H. Nixon. It is also described by Disraeli in _Endymion_. Eglinton
+was a staunch Tory, and in February 1852 he became lord-lieutenant of
+Ireland under the earl of Derby. He retired with the ministry in the
+following December, having by his princely hospitality made himself one
+of the most popular of Irish viceroys. When Derby returned to office in
+February 1858 he was again appointed lord-lieutenant, and he discharged
+the duties of this post until June 1859. In this year he was created
+earl of Winton, an earldom which had been held by his kinsfolk, the
+Setons, from 1600 until 1716, when George Seton, the 5th earl (c.
+1678-1749), was deprived of his honours for high treason. The earl died
+on the 4th of October 1861, and was succeeded by his eldest son
+Archibald William (1841-1892). When this earl died in 1892 his younger
+brother George Arnulph (b. 1848) became 15th earl of Eglinton and 3rd
+earl of Winton.
+
+  See Sir W. Fraser, _Memorials of the Montgomeries, earls of Eglinton_
+  (1859).
+
+
+
+
+EGMONT, EARLS OF. John Perceval, 1st earl of Egmont (1683-1748), Irish
+politician, and partner with J. E. Oglethorpe in founding the American
+colony of Georgia, was created earl in 1733. He claimed descent from the
+Egmonts of Flanders, but his title was taken from the place in County
+Cork where the family residence stood. Its name of Burton House, and
+that of Burton manor which formed part of the family estates, were a
+reminiscence of Burton in Somerset, where was the earlier English family
+property of his great-great-grandfather Richard Perceval (1550-1620),
+Burghley's secret agent, and author of a Spanish dictionary published in
+1591, whose son Sir Philip Perceval (1605-1647) acquired the Irish
+estates by judicious use of his opportunities as commissioner for land
+titles and of his interest at court. Sir Philip's son John, grandfather
+of the 1st earl, was made a baronet in 1661. The first earl of Egmont
+(who had been made Baron Perceval in 1715, and Viscount Perceval in
+1723) is chiefly important for his connexion with the colonization of
+Georgia, and for his voluminous letters and writings on biography and
+genealogy.
+
+John Perceval, 2nd earl of Egmont (1711-1770), his eldest son, was an
+active politician, first lord of the admiralty (1763-1766), and
+political pamphleteer, and like his father an ardent genealogist. He was
+twice married, and had eight sons and eight daughters. One of his
+younger sons was Spencer Perceval, prime minister of England. His eldest
+son succeeded as 3rd earl, and the eldest by his second marriage (with
+Catherine Compton, baroness of Arden in Ireland) was in 1802 created
+Baron Arden of the United Kingdom, a title which subsequently became
+merged in the Egmont earldom.
+
+
+
+
+EGMONT (EGMOND), LAMORAL, COUNT OF, prince of Gavre (1522-1568), was
+born in Hainaut in 1522. He was the younger of the two sons of John IV.,
+count of Egmont, by his wife Francoise of Luxemburg, princess of Gavre.
+On the death of his elder brother Charles, about 1541, he succeeded to
+his titles and estates. In this year he served his apprenticeship as a
+soldier in the expedition of the emperor Charles V. to Algiers,
+distinguishing himself in the command of a body of cavalry. In 1544 he
+married Sabina, sister of the elector palatine Frederick III., and the
+wedding was celebrated at Spires with great pomp in the presence of the
+emperor and his brother Ferdinand, afterwards emperor. Created knight of
+the Golden Fleece in 1546, he accompanied Philip of Spain in his tour
+through the Netherland towns, and in 1554 he went to England at the head
+of a special embassy to ask the hand of Mary of England for Philip, and
+was afterwards present at the wedding ceremony at Winchester. In the
+summer of 1557 Egmont was appointed commander of the Flemish cavalry in
+the war between Spain and France; and it was by his vehement persuasion
+that the battle of St Quentin was fought. The victory was determined by
+the brilliant charge that he led against the French. The reputation
+which he won at St Quentin was raised still higher in 1558, when he
+encountered the French army under de Thermes at Gravelines, on its march
+homewards after the invasion of Flanders, totally defeated it, and took
+Marshal de Thermes prisoner. The battle was fought against the advice of
+the duke of Alva, and the victory made Alva Egmont's enemy. But the
+count now became the idol of his countrymen, who looked upon him as the
+saviour of Flanders from the devastations of the French. He was
+nominated by Philip stadtholder of Flanders and Artois. At the
+conclusion of the war by the treaty of Cateau Cambresis, Egmont was one
+of the four hostages selected by the king of France as pledges for its
+execution.
+
+The attempt made by King Philip to convert the Netherlands into a
+Spanish dependency and to govern it by Spanish ministers excited the
+resentment of Egmont and other leading members of the Netherlands
+aristocracy. Between him and Cardinal Granvella, the all-powerful
+minister of the regent Margaret of Parma, there was no love lost. As a
+member of the council of state Egmont joined the prince of Orange in a
+vigorous protest addressed to Philip (1561) against the autocratic
+proceedings of the minister; and two years later he again protested in
+conjunction with the prince of Orange and Count Horn. In the spring of
+1564 Granvella left the Netherlands, and the malcontent nobles once more
+took their places in the council of state. The resolve, however, of
+Philip to enforce the decrees of the council of Trent throughout the
+Netherlands once more aroused their resentment. Although himself a good
+Catholic, Egmont had no wish to see the Spanish Inquisition established
+in his native country. Orange, Egmont and others were convinced that the
+enforcement of the decrees in the Netherlands was impossible, and, in
+January 1665, Egmont accepted a special mission to Spain to make known
+to Philip the state of affairs and the disposition of the people. At
+Madrid the king gave him an ostentatiously cordial reception, and all
+the courtiers vied with one another in lavishing professions of respect
+upon him. They knew his vain and somewhat unstable character, and hoped
+to win him over without conceding anything to the wishes of the
+Netherlanders. The king gave him plenty of flatteries and promises, but
+steadily evaded any serious discussion of the object of his mission, and
+Egmont finally returned home without having accomplished anything. At
+the same time Philip sent further instructions to the regent to abate
+nothing of the severity of the persecution.
+
+Egmont was naturally indignant at the treatment he had received, while
+the terrors of the Inquisition were steadily rousing the people to a
+state of frenzied excitement. In 1566 a confederacy of the lesser
+nobility was formed (_Les Gueux_) whose principles were set out in a
+document known as the Compromise. From this league Egmont held aloof; he
+declined to take any step savouring of actual disloyalty to his
+sovereign. He withdrew to his government of Flanders, and as stadtholder
+took active measures for the persecution of heretics. But in the eyes of
+Philip he had long been a marked man. The Spanish king had temporized
+only until the moment arrived when he could crush opposition by force.
+In the summer of 1567 the duke of Alva was despatched to the Netherlands
+at the head of an army of veterans to supersede the regent Margaret and
+restore order in the discontented provinces. Orange fled to Germany
+after having vainly warned Egmont and Horn of the dangers that
+threatened them. Alva was at pains to lull their suspicions, and then
+suddenly seized them both and threw them in the castle of Ghent. Their
+trial was a farce, for their fate had already been determined before
+Alva left Spain. After some months of imprisonment they were removed to
+Brussels, where sentence was pronounced upon them (June 4) by the
+infamous Council of Blood erected by Alva. They were condemned to death
+for high treason. It was in vain that the most earnest intercessions
+were made in behalf of Egmont by the emperor Maximilian, by the knights
+of the order of the Golden Fleece, by the states of Brabant, and by
+several of the German princes. Vain, too, was the pathetic pleading of
+his wife, who with her eleven children was reduced to want, and had
+taken refuge in a convent. Egmont was beheaded at Brussels in the square
+before the town hall on the day after his sentence had been publicly
+pronounced (June 5, 1568). He met his fate with calm resignation; and in
+the storm of terror and exasperation to which this tragedy gave rise
+Egmont's failings were forgotten, and he and his fellow-victim to
+Spanish tyranny were glorified in the popular imagination as martyrs of
+Flemish freedom. From this memorable event, which Goethe made the theme
+of his play _Egmont_ (1788), is usually dated the beginning of the
+famous revolt of the Netherlands. In 1865 a monument to Counts Egmont
+and Horn, by Fraiken, was erected on the spot where they were beheaded.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--T. Juste, _Le Comte d'Egmont et le comte de Hornes_
+  (Brussels, 1862), _Les Pays-Bas sous Philippe II_, 1555-1565 (2 vols.,
+  Brussels, 1855); J. L. Motley, _Rise of the Dutch Republic_, 1555-1584
+  (3 vols., London, 1856); J. P. Blok, _History of the People of the
+  Netherlands_ (tr. from Dutch), vol. iii. (New York, 1900); R. Fruin,
+  _Het voorspel van den tastigjarigen oorlag_ (Amsterdam, 1866); E.
+  Marx, _Studien zur Geschichte des niederlandischen Aufstandes_
+  (Leipzig, 1902).     (G. E.)
+
+
+
+
+EGOISM (from Gr. and Lat. _ego_, I, the 1st personal pronoun), a modern
+philosophical term used generally, in opposition to "Altruism," for any
+ethical system in which the happiness or the good of the individual is
+the main criterion of moral action. Another form of the word, "Egotism,"
+is really interchangeable, though in ordinary language it is often used
+specially (and similarly "egoism," as in George Meredith's _Egoist_) to
+describe the habit of magnifying one's self and one's achievements, or
+regarding all things from a selfish point of view. Both these ideas
+derive from the original meaning of _ego_, myself, as opposed to
+everything which is outside myself. This antithesis of ego and non-ego,
+self and not-self, may be understood in several senses according to the
+connexion in which it is used. Thus the self may be held to include
+one's family, property, business, and an indefinitely wider range of
+persons or objects in which the individual's interest is for the moment
+centred, i.e. everything which I can call "mine." In this, its widest,
+sense "a man's Self is the sum total of all that he _can_ call his" (Wm.
+James, _Principles of Psychology_, chap x.). This self may be divided up
+in many ways according to the various forms in which it may be
+expressed. Thus James (ibid.) classifies the various "selves" as the
+material, the spiritual, the social and the "pure." Or again the self
+may be narrowed down to a man's own person, consisting of an individual
+mind and body. In the true philosophical sense, however, the conception
+of the ego is still further narrowed down to the individual
+consciousness as opposed to all that is outside it, i.e. can be its
+object. This conception of the self belongs mainly to metaphysics and
+involves the whole problem of the relation between subject and object,
+the nature of reality, and the possibility of knowledge of self and of
+object. The ordinary idea of the self as a physical entity, obviously
+separate from others, takes no account of the problem as to how and in
+what sense the individual is conscious of himself; what is the relation
+between subject and object in the phenomenon of self-consciousness, in
+which the mind reflects upon itself both past and present? The mind is
+in this case both subject and object, or, as William James puts it, both
+"I" and "me." The phenomenon has been described in various ways by
+different thinkers. Thus Kant distinguished the two selves as rational
+and empirical, just as he distinguished the two egos as the noumenal or
+real and the phenomenal from the metaphysical standpoint. A similar
+distinction is made by Herbart. Others have held that the self has a
+complex content, the subject self being, as it were, a fuller expression
+of the object-self (so Bradley); or again the subject self is the active
+content of the mind, and the object self the passive content which for
+the moment is exciting the attention. The most satisfactory and also the
+most general view is that consciousness is complex and unanalysable.
+
+The relation of the self to the not-self need not to be treated here
+(see METAPHYSICS). It may, however, be pointed out that in so far as an
+object is cognized by the mind, it becomes in a sense part of the
+complex self-content. In this sense the individual is in himself his own
+universe, his whole existence being, in other words, the sum total of
+his psychic relations, and nothing else being _for him_ in existence at
+all. A similar idea is prominent in many philosophico-religious systems
+wherein the idea of God or the Infinite is, as it were, the union of the
+ego and the non-ego, of subject and object. The self of man is regarded
+as having limitations, whereas the Godhead is infinite and
+all-inclusive. In many mystical Oriental religions the perfection of the
+human self is absorption in the infinite, as a ripple dies away on the
+surface of water. The problems of the self may be summed up as follows.
+The psychologist investigates the ideal construction of the self, i.e.
+the way in which the conception of the self arises, the different
+aspects or contents of the self and the relation of the subject to the
+object self. At this point the epistemologist takes up the question of
+empirical knowledge and considers the kind of validity, if any, which it
+can possess. What existence has the known object for the knowing
+subject? The result of this inquiry is generally intellectual scepticism
+in a greater or less degree, namely, that the object has no existence
+for the knower except a relative one, i.e. in so far as it is "known"
+(see RELATIVITY OF KNOWLEDGE). Finally the metaphysician, and in another
+sphere the theologian, consider the nature of the pure or transcendental
+self apart from its relations, i.e. the absolute self.
+
+In ethics, egoistic doctrines disregard the ultimate problems of
+selfhood, and assume the self to consist of a man's person and those
+things in which he is or ought to be directly interested. The general
+statement that such doctrines refer all moral action to criteria of the
+individual's happiness, preservation, moral perfection, raises an
+obvious difficulty. Egoism merely asserts that the self is all-important
+in the application of moral principles, and does not in any way supply
+the material of these principles. It is a purely formal direction, and
+as such merely an adjunct to a substantive ethical criterion. A
+practical theory of ethics seeks to establish a particular moral ideal;
+if it is an absolute criterion, then the altruist would place first the
+attainment of that ideal by others, while the egoist would seek it for
+himself. The same is true of ethical theories which may be described as
+material. Of the second type are those, e.g. of Hobbes and Spinoza,
+which advocate self-preservation as the ideal, as contrasted with modern
+evolutionist moralists who advocate race-preservation. Again, we may
+contrast the early Greek hedonists, who bade each man seek the greatest
+happiness (of whatever kind), with modern utilitarian and social
+hedonists, who prefer the greatest good or the greatest happiness of the
+greatest number. It is with hedonistic and other empirical theories that
+egoism is generally associated. As a matter of fact, however, egoism has
+been no less prominent in intuitional ethics. Thus the man who seeks
+only or primarily his own moral perfection is an egoist par excellence.
+Such are ascetics, hermits and the like, whose whole object is the
+realization of their highest selves.
+
+The distinction of egoistical and altruistic action is further
+complicated by two facts. In the first place, many systems combine the
+two. Thus Christian ethics may be said to insist equally on duty to self
+and duty to others, while crudely egoistic systems become unworkable if
+a man renders himself obnoxious to his fellows. On the other hand, every
+deliberate action based on an avowedly altruistic principle necessarily
+has a reference to the agent; if it is right that A should do a certain
+action for the benefit of B, then it tends to the moral self-realization
+of A that he should do it. Upon whatsoever principle the rightness of an
+action depends, its performance is right _for the agent_. The
+self-reference is inevitable in every action in so far as it is regarded
+as voluntary and chosen as being of a particular moral quality.
+
+It is this latter fact which has led many students of human character to
+state that men do in fact aim at the gratification of their personal
+desires and impulses. The laws of the state and the various rules of
+conduct laid down by religion or morality are merely devices adopted for
+general convenience. The most remarkable statement of this point of view
+is that of Friedrich Nietzsche, who went so far as to denounce all forms
+of self-denial as cowardice:--let every one who is strong seek to make
+himself dominant at the expense of the weak.
+
+
+
+
+EGORIEVSK, a town of Russia, in the government of Ryazan, 70 m. by rail
+E.S.E. of Moscow, by a branch line (15 m.) connecting with the Moscow to
+Ryazan main line. The cotton mills and other factories give occupation
+to 6000 persons. Egorievsk has important fairs for grain, hides, &c.,
+which are exported. Pop. (1897) 23,932.
+
+
+
+
+EGREMONT, EARLS OF. In 1749 Algernon Seymour, 7th duke of Somerset, was
+created earl of Egremont, and on his childless death in February 1750
+this title passed by special remainder to his nephew, Sir Charles
+Wyndham or Windham, Bart. (1710-1763), a son of Sir William Wyndham of
+Orchard Wyndham, Somerset. Charles, who had succeeded to his father's
+baronetcy in 1740, inherited Somerset's estates in Cumberland and
+Sussex. He was a member of parliament from 1734 to 1750, and in October
+1761 he was appointed secretary of state for the southern department in
+succession to William Pitt. His term of office, during which he acted in
+concert with his brother-in-law, George Grenville, was mainly occupied
+with the declaration of war on Spain and with the negotiations for peace
+with France and Spain, a peace the terms of which the earl seems to have
+disliked. He was also to the fore during the proceedings against Wilkes,
+and he died on the 21st of August 1763. Horace Walpole perhaps rates
+Egremont's talents too low when he says he "had neither knowledge of
+business, nor the smallest share of parliamentary abilities."
+
+The 2nd earl's son and successor, George O'Brien Wyndham (1751-1837),
+was more famous as a patron of art and an agriculturist than as a
+politician, although he was not entirely indifferent to politics. For
+some time the painter Turner lived at his Sussex residence, Petworth
+House, and in addition to Turner, the painter Leslie, the sculptor
+Flaxman and other talented artists received commissions from Egremont,
+who filled his house with valuable works of art. Generous and
+hospitable, blunt and eccentric, the earl was in his day a very
+prominent figure in English society. Charles Greville says, "he was
+immensely rich and his munificence was equal to his wealth"; and again
+that in his time Petworth was "like a great inn." The earl died
+unmarried on the 11th of November 1837, and on the death of his nephew
+and successor, George Francis Wyndham, the 4th earl (1785-1845), the
+earldom of Egremont became extinct. Petworth, however, and the large
+estates had already passed to George Wyndham (1787-1869), a natural son
+of the 3rd earl, who was created Baron Leconfield in 1859.
+
+
+
+
+EGREMONT, a market town in the Egremont parliamentary division of
+Cumberland, England, 5 m. S.S.E. of Whitehaven, on a joint line of the
+London & North Western and Furness railways. Pop. of urban district
+(1901) 5761. It is pleasantly situated in the valley of the Ehen. Ruins
+of a castle command the town from an eminence. It was founded c. 1120 by
+William de Meschines; it is moated, and retains a Norman doorway and
+some of the original masonry, as well as fragments of later date. The
+church of St Mary is a modern reconstruction embodying some of the
+Norman features of the old church. Iron ore and limestone are raised in
+the neighbourhood.
+
+It seems impossible to find any history for Egremont until after the
+Norman Conquest, when Henry I. gave the barony of Coupland to William de
+Meschines, who erected a castle at Egremont around which the town grew
+into importance. The barony afterwards passed by marriage to the
+families of Lucy and Multon, and finally came to the Percys, earls of
+Northumberland, from whom are descended the present lords of the manor
+of Egremont. The earliest evidence that Egremont was a borough occurs in
+a charter, granted by Richard de Lucy in the reign of King John, which
+gave the burgesses right to choose their reeve, and set out the customs
+owing to the lord of the manor, among which was that of providing twelve
+armed men at his castle in the time of war. The borough was represented
+by two members in the parliament of 1295, but in the following year was
+disfranchised, on the petition of the burgesses, on account of the
+expense of sending members. In 1267 Henry III. granted Thomas de Multon
+a market every Wednesday at Egremont, and a fair every year on the eve,
+day and morrow of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary. In the _Quo Warranto_
+rolls he is found to have claimed by prescription another weekly market
+on Saturday. The market rights were purchased from Lord Leconfield in
+1885, and the market on Saturday is still held. Richard de Lucy's
+charter shows that dyeing, weaving and fulling were carried on in the
+town in his time.
+
+
+
+
+EGRESS (Lat. _egressus_, going out), in astronomy, the end of the
+apparent transit of a small body over the disk of a larger one;
+especially of a transit of a satellite of Jupiter over the disk of that
+planet. It designates the moment at which the smaller body is seen to
+leave the limb of the other.
+
+
+
+
+EGYPT, a country forming the N.E. extremity of Africa.[1] In the
+following account a division is made into (I.) _Modern Egypt_, and (II.)
+_Ancient Egypt_; but the history from the earliest times is given as a
+separate section (III.).
+
+  Section I. includes Geography, Economics, Government, Inhabitants,
+  Finance and Army. Section II. is subdivided into:--(A) Exploration and
+  Research; (B) The Country in Ancient Times; (C) Religion; (D) Language
+  and Writing; (E) Art and Archaeology; (F) Chronology. Section III. is
+  divided into three main periods:--(1) Ancient History; (2) the
+  Mahommedan Period; (3) Modern History (from Mehemet Ali).
+
+
+I. MODERN EGYPT
+
+_Boundaries and Areas._--Egypt is bounded N. by the Mediterranean, S. by
+the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, N.E. by Palestine, E. by the Red Sea, W. by
+Tripoli and the Sahara. The western frontier is ill-defined. The
+boundary line between Tripoli and Egypt is usually taken to start from a
+point in the Gulf of Sollum and to run S. by E. so as to leave the oasis
+of Siwa to Egypt. South of Siwa the frontier, according to the Turkish
+firman of 1841, bends eastward, approaching the cultivated Nile-land
+near Wadi Halfa, i.e. the southern frontier. This southern frontier is
+fixed by agreement between Great Britain and Egypt at the 22 deg. N. The
+N.E. frontier is an almost direct line drawn from Taba, near the head of
+the Gulf of Akaba, the eastern of the two gulfs into which the Red Sea
+divides, to the Mediterranean at Rafa in 34 deg. 15' E. The peninsula of
+Sinai, geographically part of Asia, is thus included in the Egyptian
+dominions. The total area of the country is about 400,000 sq. m., or
+more than three times the size of the British Isles. Of this area
+14/15ths is desert. Canals, roads, date plantations, &c., cover 1900 sq.
+m.; 2850 sq. m. are comprised in the surface of the Nile, marshes,
+lakes, &c. A line corresponding with the 30 deg. N., drawn just S. of
+Cairo, divides the country into Lower and Upper Egypt, natural
+designations in common use, Lower Egypt being the Delta and Upper Egypt
+the Nile valley. By the Arabs Lower Egypt is called Er-Rif, the
+cultivated or fertile; Upper Egypt Es Sa'id, the happy or fortunate.
+Another division of the country is into Lower, Middle and Upper Egypt,
+Middle Egypt in this classification being the district between Cairo and
+Assiut.
+
+_General Character._--The distinguishing features of Egypt are the Nile
+and the desert. But for the river there would be nothing to
+differentiate the country from other parts of the Sahara. The Nile,
+however, has transformed the land through which it passes. Piercing the
+desert, and at its annual overflow depositing rich sediment brought from
+the Abyssinian highlands, the river has created the Delta and the
+fertile strip in Upper Egypt. This cultivable land is Egypt proper; to
+it alone is applicable the ancient name--"the black land." The _Misr_ of
+the Arabs is restricted to the same territory. Beyond the Nile valley
+east and west stretch great deserts, containing here and there fertile
+oases. The general appearance of the country is remarkably uniform. The
+Delta is a level plain, richly cultivated, and varied alone by the lofty
+dark-brown mounds of ancient cities, and the villages set in groves of
+palm-trees, standing on mounds often, if not always, ancient. Groves of
+palm-trees are occasionally seen besides those around the villages, but
+other trees are rare. In Upper Egypt the Nile valley is very narrow and
+is bounded by mountains of no great height. They form the edge of the
+desert on either side of the valley, of which the bottom is level rock.
+The mountains rarely take the form of peaks. Sometimes they approach the
+river in bold promontories, and at others are divided by the dry beds of
+ancient watercourses. The bright green of the fields, the reddish-brown
+or dull green of the great river, contrasting with the bare yellow
+rocks, seen beneath a brilliant sun and a deep-blue sky, present views
+of great beauty. In form the landscape varies little and is not
+remarkable; in colour its qualities are always splendid, and under a
+general uniformity show a continual variety.
+
+  _The Coast Region._--Egypt has a coast-line of over 600 m. on the
+  Mediterranean and about 1200 m. on the Red Sea. The Mediterranean
+  coast extends from the Gulf of Sollum on the west to Rafa on the east.
+  From the gulf to the beginning of the Delta the coast is rock-bound,
+  but slightly indented, and possesses no good harbourage. The cliffs
+  attain in places a height of 1000 ft. They are the termination of a
+  stony plateau, containing several small oases, which southward joins
+  the more arid and uninhabitable wastes of the Libyan Desert. The Delta
+  coast-line, composed of sandhills and, occasionally, limestone rocks,
+  is low, with cape-like projections at the Nile mouths formed by the
+  river silt. Two bays are thus formed, the western being the famous Bay
+  of Aboukir. It is bounded W. by a point near the ancient Canopic
+  mouth, eastward by the Rosetta mouth. Beyond the Delta eastward the
+  coast is again barren and without harbours. It rises gradually
+  southward, merging into the plateau of the Sinai peninsula. The Red
+  Sea coast is everywhere mountainous. The mountains are the northern
+  continuation of the Abyssinian table-land, and some of the peaks are
+  over 6000 ft. above the sea. The highest peaks, going from north to
+  south, are Jebels Gharib, Dukhan, Es Shayib, Fatira, Abu Tiur, Zubara
+  and Hammada (Hamata). The coast has a general N.N.W. and S.S.E. trend,
+  and, save for the two gulfs into which it is divided by the massif of
+  Sinai, is not deeply indented. Where the frontier between Egypt and
+  the Sudan reaches the sea is Ras Elba (see further RED SEA).
+
+  _The Nile Valley_ (see also NILE).--Entering Egypt proper, a little
+  north of the Second Cataract, the Nile flows through a valley in
+  sandstone beds of Cretaceous age as far as 25 deg. N., and throughout
+  this part of its course the valley is extremely narrow, rarely
+  exceeding 2 m. in width. At two points, namely, Kalabsha--the valley
+  here being only 170 yds. wide and the river over 100 ft. deep--and
+  Assuan (First Cataract), the course of the river is interrupted by
+  outcrops of granites and other crystalline rocks, which have been
+  uncovered by the erosion of the overlying sandstone, and to-day form
+  the mass of islands, with numerous small rapids, which are described
+  not very accurately as cataracts; no good evidence exists in support
+  of the view that they are the remains of a massive barrier, broken
+  down and carried away by some sudden convulsion. From 25 deg. N.
+  northwards for 518 m. the valley is of the "rift-valley" type, a level
+  depression in a limestone plateau, enclosed usually by steep cliffs,
+  except where the tributary valleys drained into the main valley in
+  early times, when there was a larger rainfall, and now carry off the
+  occasional rainstorms that burst on the desert. The cliffs are highest
+  between Esna and Kena, where they reach 1800 ft. above sea-level. The
+  average width of the cultivated land is about 10 m., of which the
+  greater part lies on the left (western) bank of the river; and outside
+  this is a belt, varying from a few hundred yards to 3 or 4 m., of
+  stony and sandy ground, reaching up to the foot of the limestone
+  cliffs, which rise in places to as much as 1000 ft. above the valley.
+  This continues as far as 29 deg. N., after which the hills that close
+  in the valley become lower, and the higher plateaus lie at a distance
+  of 10 or 15 m. back in the desert.
+
+  _The Fayum._--The fertile province of the Fayum, west of the Nile and
+  separated from it by some 6 m. of desert, seems to owe its existence
+  to movements similar to those which determined the valley itself.
+  Lying in a basin sloping in a series of terraces from an altitude of
+  65 ft. above sea-level in the east to about 140 ft. _below_ sea-level
+  on the north-west, at the margin of the Birket-el-Kerun, this province
+  is wholly irrigated by a canalized channel, the Bahr Yusuf, which,
+  leaving the Nile at Derut esh Sherif in Upper Egypt, follows the
+  western margin of the cultivation in the Nile valley, and at length
+  enters the Fayum through a gap in the desert hills by the XIIth
+  Dynasty pyramids of Lahun and Hawara (see FAYUM).
+
+  _The Delta._--About 30 deg. N., where the city of Cairo stands, the
+  hills which have hitherto run parallel with the Nile turn W.N.W. and
+  E.N.E., and the triangular area between them is wholly deltaic. The
+  Delta measures 100 m. from S. to N., having a width of 155 m. on the
+  shore of the Mediterranean between Alexandria on the west and Port
+  Said on the east. The low sandy shore of the Delta, slowly increasing
+  by the annual deposit of silt by the river, is mostly a barren area of
+  sand-hills and salty waste land. This is the region of the lagoons and
+  marshes immediately behind the coast-line. Southwards the quality of
+  the soil rapidly improves, and becomes the most fertile part of Egypt.
+  This area is watered by the Damietta and the Rosetta branches of the
+  Nile, and by a network of canals. The soil of the Delta is a dark grey
+  fine sandy soil, becoming at times almost a stiff clay by reason of
+  the fineness of its particles, which consist almost wholly of
+  extremely small grains of quartz with a few other minerals, and often
+  numerous flakes of mica. This deposit varies in thickness, as a rule,
+  from 55 to 70 ft., at which depth it is underlain by a series of
+  coarse and fine yellow quartz sands, with occasional pebbles, or even
+  banks of gravel, while here and there thin beds of clay occur. These
+  sand-beds are sharply distinguished by their colour from the overlying
+  Nile deposit, and are of considerable thickness. A boring made in 1886
+  for the Royal Society at Zagazig attained a depth of 375 ft. without
+  reaching rock, and another, subsequently sunk near Lake Aboukir (close
+  to Alexandria), reached a depth of 405 ft. with the same result.
+  Numerous other borings to depths of 100 to 200 ft. have given similar
+  results, showing the Nile deposit to rest generally on these yellow
+  sands, which provide a constant though not a very large supply of good
+  water; near the northern limits of the Delta this cannot, however, be
+  depended on, since the well water at these depths has proved on
+  several occasions to be salt. The surface of the Delta is a wide
+  alluvial plain sloping gently towards the sea, and having an altitude
+  of 29 ft. above it at its southern extremity. Its limits east and west
+  are determined by the higher ground of the deserts, to which the
+  silt-laden waters of the Nile in flood time cannot reach. This silt
+  consists largely of alumina (about 48%) and calcium carbonate (18%)
+  with smaller quantities of silica, oxide of iron and carbon. Although
+  the Nile water is abundantly charged with alluvium, the annual deposit
+  by the river, except under extraordinary circumstances, is smaller
+  than might be supposed. The mean ordinary rate of the increase of the
+  soil of Egypt is calculated as about 4-1/2 in. in a century.
+
+  _The Lakes._--The lagoons or lakes of the Delta, going from west to
+  east, are Mareotis (Mariut), Edku, Burlus and Menzala. The land
+  separating them from the Mediterranean is nowhere more than 10 m.
+  wide. East of the Damietta mouth of the Nile this strip is in places
+  not more than 200 yds. broad. All the lakes are shallow and the water
+  in them salt or brackish. Mareotis, which bounds Alexandria on the
+  south side, varies considerably in area according to the rise or fall
+  of the Nile; when the Nile is low there is a wide expanse of marsh,
+  when at its highest the lake covers about 100 sq. m. In ancient times
+  Mareotis was navigable and was joined by various canals to the Nile.
+  The country around was cultivated and produced the famous Mareotic
+  wine. The canals being neglected, the lake decreased in size, though
+  it was still of considerable area in the 15th and 16th centuries, and
+  was then noted for the value of its fisheries. When the French army
+  occupied Egypt in 1798, Mareotis was found to be largely a sandy
+  plain. In April 1801 the British army besieging Alexandria cut through
+  the land between Aboukir and the lake, admitting the waters of the sea
+  into the ancient bed of Mareotis and laying under water a large area
+  then in cultivation. This precedent was twice imitated, first by the
+  Turks in 1803 and a second time by the British in 1807. Mareotis has
+  no outlet, and the water is kept at a uniform level by means of
+  powerful pumps which neutralize the effect of the Nile flood. A
+  western arm has been cut off from the lake by a dyke, and in this arm
+  a thick crust of salt is formed each year after the evaporation of the
+  flood water. Near the shores of the lake wild flowers grow in rich
+  profusion. Like all the Delta lakes, Mareotis abounds in wild-fowl.
+  North-east of Mareotis was Lake Aboukir, a small sheet of water, now
+  dry, lying S.W. of Aboukir Bay. East of this reclaimed marsh and
+  reaching to within 4 m. of the Rosetta branch of the Nile, lies Edku,
+  22 m. long and in places 16 wide, with an opening, supposed to be the
+  ancient Canopic mouth of the Nile, into Aboukir Bay. Burlus begins a
+  little eastward of the Rosetta channel, and stretches bow-shaped for
+  64 m. Its greatest width is about 16 m. Adjoining it S.E. is an
+  expanse of sandy marsh. Several canals or canalized channels enter the
+  lake. Opposite the spot where the Bahr-mit Yezir enters is an opening
+  into the Mediterranean. Canal and opening indicate the course of the
+  ancient Sebennytic branch of the Nile. Burlus is noted for its
+  water-melons, which are yellow within and come into season after those
+  grown on the banks of the Nile.
+
+  Menzala greatly exceeds the other Delta lakes in size, covering over
+  780 sq. m. It extends from very near the Damietta branch of the Nile
+  to Port Said. It receives the waters of the canalized channels which
+  were once the Tanitic, Mendesian and Pelusiac branches. The northern
+  shore is separated from the sea by an extremely narrow strip of land,
+  across which, when the Mediterranean is stormy and the lake full, the
+  waters meet. Its average length is about 40 m., and its average
+  breadth about 15. The depth is greater than that of the other lakes,
+  and the water is salt, though mixed with fresh. It contains a large
+  number of islands, and the whole lake abounds in reeds of various
+  kinds. Of the islands Tennis (anciently Tennesus) contains ruins of
+  the Roman period. The lake supports a considerable population of
+  fishermen, who dwell in villages on the shore and islands and live
+  upon the fish of the lake. The reeds are cover for waterfowl of
+  various kinds, which the traveller sees in great numbers, and wild
+  boars are found in the marshes to the south. The Suez Canal runs in a
+  straight line for 20 m. along the eastern edge of the lake. That part
+  of the lake east of where the canal was excavated is now marshy plain,
+  and the Tanitic and Pelusiac mouths of the Nile are dry. East of
+  Menzala is the site of Serbonis, another dried-up lake, which had the
+  general characteristics of the Delta lagoons. In the Isthmus of Suez
+  are Lake Timsa and the Great and Little Bitter Lakes, occupying part
+  of the ancient bed of the Red Sea. All three were dry or marshy
+  depressions previously to the cutting of the Suez Canal, at which time
+  the waters of the Mediterranean and Red Sea were let into them (see
+  SUEZ CANAL).
+
+  A chain of natron lakes (seven in number) lies in a valley in the
+  western desert, 70 to 90 m. W.N.W. of Cairo. In the Fayum province
+  farther south is the Birket-el-Kerun, a lake, lying below the level of
+  the Nile, some 30 m. long and 5 wide at its broadest part. Kerun is
+  all that is left of the Lake of Moeris, an ancient artificial sheet of
+  water which played an important part in the irrigation schemes of the
+  Pharaohs. The water of el-Kerun is brackish, though derived from the
+  Nile, which has at all seasons a much higher level. It is bounded on
+  the north by the Libyan Desert, above which rises a bold range of
+  mountains; and it has a strange and picturesque wildness. Near the
+  lake are several sites of ancient towns, and the temple called
+  Kasr-Karun, dating from Roman times, distinguishes the most important
+  of these. South-west of the Fayum is the Wadi Rayan, a large and deep
+  depression, utilizable in modern schemes for re-creating the Lake of
+  Moeris (q.v.).
+
+  [Illustration: Nile Delta.]
+
+  _The Desert Plateaus._--From the southern borders of Egypt to the
+  Delta in the north, the desert plateaus extend on either side of the
+  Nile valley. The eastern region, between the Nile and the Red Sea,
+  varies in width from 90 to 350 m. and is known in its northern part as
+  the Arabian Desert. The western region has no natural barrier for many
+  hundreds of miles; it is part of the vast Sahara. On its eastern edge,
+  a few miles west of Cairo, stand the great pyramids (q.v.) of Gizeh or
+  Giza. North of Assuan it is called the Libyan Desert. In the north the
+  desert plateaus are comparatively low, but from Cairo southwards they
+  rise to 1000 and even 1500 ft. above sea-level. Formed mostly of
+  horizontal strata of varying hardness, they present a series of
+  terraces of minor plateaus, rising one above the other, and
+  intersected by small ravines worn by the occasional rainstorms which
+  burst in their neighbourhood. The weathering of this desert area is
+  probably fairly rapid, and the agents at work are principally the
+  rapid heating and cooling of the rocks by day and night, and the
+  erosive action of sand-laden wind on the softer layers; these, aided
+  by the occasional rain, are ceaselessly at work, and produce the
+  successive plateaus, dotted with small isolated hills and cut up by
+  valleys (wadis) which occasionally become deep ravines, thus forming
+  the principal type of scenery of these deserts. From this it will be
+  seen that the desert in Egypt is mainly a rock desert, where the
+  surface is formed of disintegrated rock, the finer particles of which
+  have been carried away by the wind; and east of the Nile this is
+  almost exclusively the case. Here the desert meets the line of
+  mountains which runs parallel to the Red Sea and the Gulf of Suez. In
+  the western desert, however, those large sand accumulations which are
+  usually associated with a desert are met with. They occur as lines of
+  dunes formed of rounded grains of quartz, and lie in the direction of
+  the prevalent wind, usually being of small breadth as compared with
+  their length; but in certain areas, such as that lying S.W. and W. of
+  the oases of Farafra and Dakhla, these lines of dunes, lying parallel
+  to each other and about half a mile apart, cover immense areas,
+  rendering them absolutely impassable except in a direction parallel
+  to the lines themselves. East of the oases of Baharia and Farafra is a
+  very striking line of these sand dunes; rarely more than 3 miles wide,
+  it extends almost continuously from Moghara in the north, passing
+  along the west side of Kharga Oasis to a point near the Nile in the
+  neighbourhood of Abu Simbel--having thus a length of nearly 550 m. In
+  the northern part of this desert the dunes lie about N.W.-S.E., but
+  farther south incline more towards the meridian, becoming at last very
+  nearly north and south.
+
+  _Oases._--In the western desert lie the five large oases of Egypt,
+  namely, Siwa, Baharia, Farafra, Dakhla and Kharga or Great Oasis,
+  occupying depressions in the plateau or, in the case of the last
+  three, large indentations in the face of limestone escarpments which
+  form the western versant of the Nile valley hills. Their fertility is
+  due to a plentiful supply of water furnished by a sandstone bed 300 to
+  500 ft. below the surface, whence the water rises through natural
+  fissures or artificial boreholes to the surface, and sometimes to
+  several feet above it. These oases were known and occupied by the
+  Egyptians as early as 1600 B.C., and Kharga (q.v.) rose to special
+  importance at the time of the Persian occupation. Here, near the town
+  of Kharga, the ancient Hebi, is a temple of Ammon built by Darius I.,
+  and in the same oasis are other ruins of the period of the Ptolemies
+  and Caesars. The oasis of Siwa (Jupiter Ammon) is about 150 m. S. of
+  the Mediterranean at the Gulf of Sollum and about 300 m. W. of the
+  Nile (see SIWA). The other four oases lie parallel to and distant 100
+  to 150 m. from the Nile, between 25 deg. and 29 deg. N., Baharia being
+  the most northerly and Kharga the most southerly.
+
+  Besides the oases the desert is remarkable for two other valleys. The
+  first is that of the natron lakes already mentioned. It contains four
+  monasteries, the remains of the famous anchorite settlement of
+  Nitriae. South of the Wadi Natron, and parallel to it, is a sterile
+  valley called the Bahr-bela-Ma, or "River without Water."
+
+  _The Sinai Peninsula._--The triangular-shaped Sinai peninsula has its
+  base on the Mediterranean, the northern part being an arid plateau,
+  the desert of Tih. The apex is occupied by a massif of crystalline
+  rocks. The principal peaks rise over 8500 ft. Owing to the slight
+  rainfall, and the rapid weathering of the rocks by the great range of
+  temperature, these hills rise steeply from the valleys at their feet
+  as almost bare rock, supporting hardly any vegetation. In some of the
+  valleys wells or rock-pools filled by rain occur, and furnish
+  drinking-water to the few Arabs who wander in these hills (see also
+  SINAI).
+
+  [_Geology._--Just as the Nile valley forms the chief geographical
+  feature of Egypt, so the geology of the country is intimately related
+  to it. The north and south direction of the river has been largely
+  determined by faults, though the geologists of the Egyptian Survey are
+  finding that the influence of faulting in determining physical outline
+  has, in some cases, been overestimated. The oldest rocks, consisting
+  of crystalline schists with numerous intrusions of granite, porphyry
+  and diorite, occupy the eastern portion of the country between the
+  Nile south of Assuan and the Red Sea. The intrusive rocks predominate
+  over the schists in extent of area covered. They furnished the chief
+  material for the ancient monuments. At Assuan (Syene) the well-known
+  syenite of Werner occurs. It is, however, a hornblende granite and
+  does not possess the mineralogical composition of the syenites of
+  modern petrology. Between Thebes and Khartum the western banks of the
+  Nile are composed of Nubian Sandstone, which extends westward from the
+  river to the edge of the great Libyan Desert, where it forms the bed
+  rock. The age of this sandstone has given rise to much dispute. The
+  upper part certainly belongs to the Cretaceous formation; the lower
+  part has been considered to be of Karroo age by some geologists, while
+  others regard the whole formation to be of Cretaceous age. In the
+  Kharga Oasis the upper portion consists of variously coloured
+  unfossiliferous clays with intercalated bands of sandstone containing
+  fossil silicified woods (_Nicolia Aegyptiaca_ and _Araucarioxylon
+  Aegypticum_). They are conformably overlain by clays and limestones
+  with _Exogyra Overwegi_ belonging to the Lower Danian, and these by
+  clays and white chalk with _Ananchytes ovata_ of the Upper Danian. In
+  many instances the Tertiary formation, which occurs between Esna and
+  Cairo, unconformably overlies the Cretaceous, the Lower Eocene being
+  absent. The fluvio-marine deposits of the Upper Eocene and Oligocene
+  formations contain an interesting mammalian fauna, proving that the
+  African continent formed a centre of radiation for the mammalia in
+  early Tertiary times. _Arsinoitherium_ is the precursor of the horned
+  Ungulata; while _Moeritherium_ and _Palaeomastodon_ undoubtedly
+  include the oldest known elephants. Miocene strata are absent in the
+  southern Tertiary areas, but are present at Moghara and in the north.
+  Marine Pliocene strata occur to the south of the pyramids of Giza and
+  in the Fayum province, where, in addition, some gravel terraces, at a
+  height of 500 ft. above sea-level, are attributed to the Pliocene
+  period. The Lake of Moeris, as a large body of fresh water, appears to
+  have come into existence in Pleistocene times. It is represented now
+  by the brackish-water lake of the Birket-el-Kerun. The superficial
+  sands of the deserts and the Nile mud form the chief recent
+  formations. The Nile deposits its mud over the valley before reaching
+  the sea, and consequently the Delta receives little additional
+  material. At Memphis the alluvial deposits are over 50 ft. thick. The
+  superficial sands of the desert region, derived in large part from the
+  disintegration of the Nubian Sandstone, occupy the most extensive
+  areas in the Libyan Desert. The other desert regions of Egypt are
+  elevated stony plateaus, which are diversified by extensively
+  excavated valleys and oases, and in which sand frequently plays quite
+  a subordinate part. These regions present magnificent examples of dry
+  erosion by wind-borne sand, which acts as a powerful sand blast
+  etching away the rocks and producing most beautiful sculpturing. The
+  rate of denudation in exposed positions is exceedingly rapid; while
+  spots sheltered from the sand blast suffer a minimum of erosion, as
+  shown by the preservation of ancient inscriptions. Many of the
+  Egyptian rocks in the desert areas and at the cataracts are coated
+  with a highly polished film, of almost microscopic thinness,
+  consisting chiefly of oxides of iron and manganese with salts of
+  magnesia and lime. It is supposed to be due to a chemical change
+  within the rock and not to deposition on the surface.]
+
+  _Minerals._--Egypt possesses considerable mineral wealth. In ancient
+  times gold and precious stones were mined in the Red Sea hills. During
+  the Moslem period mining was abandoned, and it was not until the
+  beginning of the 20th century that renewed efforts were made to
+  develop the mining industry. The salt obtained from Lake Mareotis at
+  Meks, a western suburb of Alexandria, supplies the salt needed for the
+  country, except a small quantity used for curing fish at Lake Menzala;
+  while the lakes in the Wadi Natron, 45 m. N.W. of the pyramids of
+  Giza, furnish carbonate of soda in large quantities. Alum is found in
+  the western oases. Nitrates and phosphates are also found in various
+  parts of the desert and are used as manures. The turquoise mines of
+  Sinai, in the Wadi Maghara, are worked regularly by the Arabs of the
+  peninsula, who sell the stones in Suez; while there are emerald mines
+  at Jebel Zubara, south of Kosseir. Petroleum occurs at Jebel Zeit, on
+  the west shore of the Gulf of Suez. Considerable veins of haematite of
+  good quality occur both in the Red Sea hills and in Sinai. At Jebel
+  ed-Dukhan are porphyry quarries, extensively worked under the Romans,
+  and at Jebel el-Fatira are granite quarries. At El-Hammamat, on the
+  old way from Coptos to Philoteras Portus, are the breccia verde
+  quarries, worked from very early times, and having interesting
+  hieroglyphic inscriptions. At the various mines, and on the routes to
+  them and to the Red Sea, are some small temples and stations, ranging
+  from the Pharaonic to the Roman period. The quarries of Syene (Assuan)
+  are famous for extremely hard and durable red granite (syenite), and
+  have been worked since the days of the earliest Pharaohs. Large
+  quantities of this syenite were used in building the Assuan dam
+  (1898-1902). The cliffs bordering the Nile are largely quarried for
+  limestone and sandstone.
+
+  Gold-mining recommenced in 1905 at Um Rus, a short distance inland
+  from the Red Sea and some 50 m. S. of Kosseir, where milling
+  operations were started in March of that year. Another mine opened in
+  1905 was that of Um Garaiat, E.N.E. of Korosko, and 65 m. distant from
+  the Nile.
+
+  _Climate._--Part of Upper Egypt is within the tropics, but the greater
+  part of the country is north of the Tropic of Cancer. Except a narrow
+  belt on the north along the Mediterranean shore, Egypt lies in an
+  almost rainless area, where the temperature is high by day and sinks
+  quickly at night in consequence of the rapid radiation under the
+  cloudless sky. The mean temperature at Alexandria and Port Said varies
+  between 57 deg. F. in January and 81 deg. F. in July; while at Cairo,
+  where the proximity of the desert begins to be felt, it is 53 deg. F.
+  in January, rising to 84 deg. F. in July. January is the coldest
+  month, when occasionally in the Nile valley, and more frequently in
+  the open desert, the temperature sinks to 32 deg. F., or even a degree
+  or two below. The mean maximum temperatures are 99 deg. F. for
+  Alexandria and 110 deg. F. for Cairo. Farther south the range of
+  temperature becomes greater as pure desert conditions are reached.
+  Thus at Assuan the mean maximum is 118 deg. F., the mean minimum 42
+  deg. F. At Wadi Halfa the figures in each case are one degree lower.
+
+  The relative humidity varies greatly. At Assuan the mean value for the
+  year is only 38%, that for the summer being 29%, and for the winter
+  51%; while for Wadi Halfa the mean is 32%, and 20% and 42% are the
+  mean values for summer and winter respectively. A white fog, dense and
+  cold, sometimes rises from the Nile in the morning, but it is of short
+  duration and rare occurrence. In Alexandria and on all the
+  Mediterranean coast of Egypt rain falls abundantly in the winter
+  months, amounting to 8 in. in the year; but southwards it rapidly
+  decreases, and south of 31 deg. N. little rain falls.
+
+  Records at Cairo show that the rainfall is very irregular, and is
+  furnished by occasional storms rather than by any regular rainy
+  season; still, most falls in the winter months, especially December
+  and January, while, on the other hand, none has been recorded in June
+  and July. The average annual rainfall does not exceed 1.50 in. In the
+  open desert rain falls even more rarely, but it is by no means
+  unknown, and from time to time heavy storms burst, causing sudden
+  floods in the narrow ravines, and drowning both men and animals. These
+  are more common in the mountainous region of the Sinai peninsula,
+  where they are much dreaded by the Arabs. Snow is unknown in the Nile
+  valley, but on the mountains of Sinai and the Red Sea hills it is not
+  uncommon, and a temperature of 18 deg. F. at an altitude of 2000 ft.
+  has been recorded in January.
+
+  The atmospheric pressure varies between a maximum in January and a
+  minimum in July, the mean difference being about 0.29 in. In a series
+  of records extending over 14 years the mean pressure varied between
+  29.84 and 29.90 in.
+
+  The most striking meteorological factor in Egypt is the persistence of
+  the north wind throughout the year, without which the climate would be
+  very trying. It is this "Etesian" wind which enables sailing boats
+  constantly to ascend the Nile, against its strong and rapid current.
+  In December, January and February, at Cairo, the north wind slightly
+  predominates, though those from the south and west often nearly equal
+  it, but after this the north blows almost continuously for the rest of
+  the year. In May and June the prevailing direction is north and
+  north-north-east, and for July, August, September and October north
+  and north-west. From the few observations that exist, it seems that
+  farther south the southern winter winds decrease rapidly, becoming
+  westerly, until at Assuan and Wadi Haifa the northerly winds are
+  almost invariable throughout the year. The _khamsin_, hot sand-laden
+  winds of the spring months, come invariably from the south. They are
+  preceded by a rapid fall of the barometer for about a day, until a
+  gradient from south to north is formed, then the wind commences to
+  blow, at first gently, from the south-east; rapidly increasing in
+  violence, it shifts through south to south-west, finally dropping
+  about sunset. The same thing is repeated on the second and sometimes
+  the third day, by which time the wind has worked round to the north
+  again. During a khamsin the temperature is high and the air extremely
+  dry, while the dust and sand carried by the wind form a thick yellow
+  fog obscuring the sun. Another remarkable phenomenon is the _zobaa_, a
+  lofty whirlwind of sand resembling a pillar, which moves with great
+  velocity. The southern winds of the summer months which occur in the
+  low latitudes north of the equator are not felt much north of Khartum.
+
+  One of the most interesting phenomena of Egypt is the mirage, which is
+  frequently seen both in the desert and in the waste tracts of
+  uncultivated land near the Mediterranean; and it is often so truthful
+  in its appearance that one finds it difficult to admit the illusion.
+
+  _Flora._--Egypt possesses neither forests nor woods and, as
+  practically the whole of the country which will support vegetation is
+  devoted to agriculture, the flora is limited. The most important tree
+  is the date-palm, which grows all over Egypt and in the oases. The
+  lower branches being regularly cut, this tree grows high and assumes a
+  much more elegant form than in its natural state. The dom-palm is
+  first seen a little north of 26 deg. N., and extends southwards. The
+  vine grows well, and in ancient times was largely cultivated for wine;
+  oranges, lemons and pomegranates also abound. Mulberry trees are
+  common in Lower Egypt. The sunt tree (_Acacia nilotica_) grows
+  everywhere, as well as the tamarisk and the sycamore. In the deserts
+  halfa grass and several kinds of thorn bushes grow; and wherever rain
+  or springs have moistened the ground, numerous wild flowers thrive.
+  This is especially the case where there is also shade to protect them
+  from the midday sun, as in some of the narrow ravines in the eastern
+  desert and in the palm groves of the oases, where various ferns and
+  flowers grow luxuriantly round the springs. Among many trees which
+  have been imported, the "lebbek" (_Albizzia lebbek_), a thick-foliaged
+  mimosa, thrives especially, and has been very largely employed. The
+  weeping-willow, myrtle, elm, cypress and eucalyptus are also used in
+  the gardens and plantations.
+
+  The most common of the fruits are dates, of which there are nearly
+  thirty varieties, which are sold half-ripe, ripe, dried, and pressed
+  in their fresh moist state in mats or skins. The pressed dates of Siwa
+  are among the most esteemed. The Fayum is celebrated for its grapes,
+  and chiefly supplies the market of Cairo. The most common grape is
+  white, of which there is a small kind far superior to the ordinary
+  sort. The black grapes are large, but comparatively tasteless. The
+  vines are trailed on trelliswork, and form agreeable avenues in the
+  gardens of Cairo. The best-known fruits, besides dates and grapes, are
+  figs, sycamore-figs and pomegranates, apricots and peaches, oranges
+  and citrons, lemons and limes, bananas, which are believed to be of
+  the fruits of Paradise (being always in season), different kinds of
+  melons (including some of aromatic flavour, and the refreshing
+  water-melon), mulberries, Indian figs or prickly pears, the fruit of
+  the lotus and olives. Among the more usual cultivated flowers are the
+  rose (which has ever been a favourite among the Arabs), the jasmine,
+  narcissus, lily, oleander, chrysanthemum, convolvulus, geranium,
+  dahlia, basil, the henna plant (_Lawsonia alba_, or Egyptian privet,
+  which is said to be a flower of Paradise), the helianthus and the
+  violet. Of wild flowers the most common are yellow daisies, poppies,
+  irises, asphodels and ranunculuses. The _Poinsettia pulcherrima_ is a
+  bushy tree with leaves of brilliant red.
+
+  Many kinds of reeds are found in Egypt, though they were formerly much
+  more common. The famous byblus or papyrus no longer exists in the
+  country, but other kinds of _cyperi_ are found. The lotus, greatly
+  prized for its flowers by the ancient inhabitants, is still found in
+  the Delta, though never in the Nile itself. There are two varieties of
+  this water-lily, one with white flowers, the other with blue.
+
+  _Fauna._--The chief quadrupeds are all domestic animals. Of these the
+  camel and the ass are the most common. The ass, often a tall and
+  handsome creature, is indigenous. When the camel was first introduced
+  into Egypt is uncertain--it is not pictured on the ancient monuments.
+  Neither is the buffalo, which with the sheep is very numerous in
+  Egypt. The horses are of indifferent breed, apparently of a type much
+  inferior to that possessed by the ancient Egyptians. Wild animals are
+  few. The principal are the hyena, jackal and fox. The wild boar is
+  found in the Delta. Wolves are rare. Numerous gazelles inhabit the
+  deserts. The ibex is found in the Sinaitic peninsula and the hills
+  between the Nile and the Red Sea, and the mouflon, or maned sheep, is
+  occasionally seen in the same regions. The desert hare is abundant in
+  parts of the Fayum, and a wild cat, or lynx, frequents the marshy
+  regions of the Delta. The ichneumon (Pharaoh's rat) is common and
+  often tame; the coney and jerboa are found in the eastern mountains.
+  Bats are very numerous. The crocodile is no longer found in Egypt, nor
+  the hippopotamus, in ancient days a frequenter of the Nile. The common
+  or pariah dog is generally of sandy colour; in Upper Egypt there is a
+  breed of wiry rough-haired black dogs, noted for their fierceness.
+  Among reptiles are several kinds of venomous snakes--the horned viper,
+  the hooded snake and the echis. Lizards of many kinds are found,
+  including the monitor. There are many varieties of beetle, including a
+  number of species representing the scarabaeus of the ancients. Locusts
+  are comparatively rare. The scorpion, whose sting is sometimes fatal,
+  is common. There are many large and poisonous spiders and flies; fleas
+  and mosquitoes abound. Fish are plentiful in the Nile, both scaled and
+  without scales. The scaly fish include members of the carp and perch
+  kind. The _bayad_, a scaleless fish commonly eaten, reaches sometimes
+  3-1/2 ft. in length. A somewhat rare fish is the _Polypterus_, which
+  has thick bony scales and 16 to 18 long dorsal fins. The _Tetrodon_,
+  or ball fish, is found in the Red Sea, as well as in the Nile.
+
+  Some 300 species of birds are found in Egypt, and one of the most
+  striking features of a journey up the Nile is the abundance of bird
+  life. Many of the species are sedentary, others are winter visitants,
+  while others again simply pass through Egypt on their way to or from
+  warmer or colder regions. Birds of prey are very numerous, including
+  several varieties of eagles--the osprey, the spotted, the golden and
+  the imperial. Of vultures the black and white Egyptian variety
+  (_Neophron percnopterus_) is most common. The griffon and the black
+  vulture are also frequently seen. There are many kinds of kites,
+  falcons and hawks, kestrel being numerous. The long-legged buzzard is
+  found throughout Egypt, as are owls. The so-called Egyptian eagle owl
+  (_Bubo ascalaphus_) is rather rare, but the barn owl is common. The
+  kingfisher is found beside every watercourse, a black and white
+  species (_Ceryle rudis_) being much more numerous than the common
+  kingfisher. Pigeons and hoopoes abound in every village. There are
+  various kinds of plovers--the black-headed species (_Pluvianus
+  Aegyptius_) is most numerous in Upper Egypt; the golden plover and the
+  white-tailed species are found chiefly in the Delta. The spurwing is
+  supposed to be the bird mentioned by Herodotus as eating the parasites
+  covering the inside of the mouth of the crocodile. Of game-birds the
+  most plentiful are sandgrouse, quail (a bird of passage) and snipe.
+  Red-legged and other partridges are found in the eastern desert and
+  the Sinai hills. Of aquatic birds there is a great variety. Three
+  species of pelican exist, including the large Dalmatian pelican.
+  Storks, cranes, herons and spoonbills are common. The sacred ibis is
+  not found in Egypt, but the buff-backed heron, the constant companion
+  of the buffalo, is usually called an ibis. The glossy ibis is
+  occasionally seen. The flamingo, common in the lakes of Lower Egypt,
+  is not found on the Nile. Geese, duck and teal are abundant. The most
+  common goose is the white-fronted variety; the Egyptian goose is more
+  rare. Both varieties are depicted on the ancient monuments; the
+  white-fronted goose being commonly shown. Several birds of gorgeous
+  plumage come north into Egypt in the spring, among others the golden
+  oriole, the sun-bird, the roller and the blue-cheeked bee-eater.
+
+  _Egypt as a Health Resort._--The country is largely resorted to during
+  the winter months by Europeans in search of health as well as
+  pleasure. Upper Egypt is healthier than Lower Egypt, where, especially
+  near the coast, malarial fevers and diseases of the respiratory organs
+  are not uncommon. The least healthy time of the year is the latter
+  part of autumn, when the inundated soil is drying. In the desert, at a
+  very short distance from the cultivable land, the climate is uniformly
+  dry and unvaryingly healthy. The most suitable places for the
+  residence of invalids are Helwan, where there are natural mineral
+  springs, in the desert, 14 m. S. of Cairo, and Luxor and Assuan in
+  Upper Egypt.
+
+  The diseases from which Egyptians suffer are very largely the result
+  of insanitary surroundings. In this respect a great improvement has
+  taken place since the British occupation in 1882. Plague, formerly one
+  of the great scourges of the country, seems to have been stamped out,
+  the last visitation having been in 1844, but cholera epidemics
+  occasionally occur.[2] Cholera rarely extends south of Cairo. In 1848
+  it is believed that over 200,000 persons died from cholera, but later
+  epidemics have been much less fatal. Smallpox is not uncommon, and
+  skin diseases are numerous, but the two most prevalent diseases among
+  the Egyptians are dysentery and ophthalmia. The objection entertained
+  by many natives to entering hospitals or to altering their traditional
+  methods of "cure" renders these diseases much more malignant and fatal
+  than they would be in other circumstances. The government, however,
+  enforces certain health regulations, and the sanitary service is under
+  the direction of a European official.
+
+_Chief Towns._--Cairo (q.v.) the capital, a city of Arab foundation, is
+built on the east bank of the Nile, about 12 m, above the point where
+the river divides, and in reference to its situation at the head of the
+Delta has been called by the Arabs "the diamond stud in the handle of
+the fan of Egypt." It has a population (1907) of 654,476 and is the
+largest city in Africa. Next in importance of the cities of Egypt and
+the chief seaport is Alexandria (q.v.), pop. (with Ramleh) 370,009, on
+the shore of the Mediterranean at the western end of the Delta. Port
+Said (q.v.), pop. 49,884, at the eastern end of the Delta, and at the
+north entrance to the Suez Canal, is the second seaport. Between
+Alexandria and Port Said are the towns of Rosetta (q.v.), pop. 16,810,
+and Damietta (q.v.), pop. 29,354, each built a few miles above the mouth
+of the branch of the Nile of the same name. In the middle ages, when
+Alexandria was in decay, these two towns were busy ports; with the
+revival of Alexandria under Mehemet Ali and the foundation of Port Said
+(c. 1860), their trade declined. The other ports of Egypt are Suez
+(q.v.), pop. 18,347, at the south entrance of the canal, Kosseir (794)
+on the Red Sea, the seat of the trade carried on between Upper Egypt and
+Arabia, Mersa Matruh, near the Tripolitan frontier, and El-Arish, pop.
+5897, on the Mediterranean, near the frontier of Palestine, and a
+halting-place on the caravan route from Egypt to Syria. In the interior
+of the Delta are many flourishing towns, the largest being Tanta, pop.
+54,437, which occupies a central position. Damanhur (38,752) lies on the
+railway between Tanta and Alexandria; Mansura (40,279) is on the
+Damietta branch of the Nile, to the N.E. of Tanta; Zagazig (34,999) is
+the largest town in the Delta east of the Damietta branch; Bilbeis
+(13,485) lies N.N.E. of Cairo, on the edge of the desert and in the
+ancient Land of Goshen. Ismailia (10,373) is situated midway on the Suez
+Canal. All these towns, which depend largely on the cotton industry, are
+separately noticed.
+
+Other towns in Lower Egypt are: Mehallet el-Kubra, pop. 47,955, 16 m. by
+rail N.E. of Tanta, with manufactories of silk and cottons; Salihia
+(6100), E.N.E. of and terminus of a railway from Zagazig, on the edge of
+the desert south of Lake Menzala, and the starting-point of the caravans
+to Syria; Mataria (15,142) on Lake Menzala and headquarters of the
+fishing industry; Zifta (15,850) on the Damietta branch and the site of
+a barrage; Samanud (14,408), also on the Damietta branch, noted for its
+pottery, and Fua (14,515), where large quantities of tarbushes are made,
+on the Rosetta branch. Shibin el-Kom (21,576), 16 m. S. of Tanta, is a
+cotton centre, and Menuf (22,316), 8 m. S.W. of Shibin, in the fork
+between the branches of the Nile, is the chief town of a rich
+agricultural district. There are many other towns in the Delta with
+populations between 10,000 and 20,000.
+
+In Upper Egypt the chief towns are nearly all in the narrow valley of
+the Nile. The exceptions are the towns in the oases comparatively
+unimportant, and those in the Fayum province. The capital of the Fayum,
+Medinet el-Fayum, has a population (1907) of 37,320. The chief towns on
+the Nile, taking them in their order in ascending the river from Cairo,
+are Beni Suef, Minia, Assiut, Akhmim, Suhag, Girga, Kena, Luxor, Esna,
+Edfu, Assuan and Korosko. Beni Suef (23,357) is 77 m. from Cairo by
+rail. It is on the west bank of the river, is the capital of a _mudiria_
+and a centre for the manufacture of woollen goods. Minia (27,221) is 77
+m. by rail farther south. It is also the capital of a mudiria, has a
+considerable European colony, possesses a large sugar factory and some
+cotton mills. It is the starting-point of a road to the Baharia oasis.
+Assiut (q.v.), pop. 39,442, is 235 m. S. of Cairo by rail, and is the
+most important commercial centre in Upper Egypt. At this point a barrage
+is built across the river. Suhag (17,514) is 56 m. by rail S. of Assiut
+and is the headquarters of Girga mudiria. The ancient and celebrated
+Coptic monasteries El Abiad (the white) and El Ahmar (the red) are 3 to
+4 m. W. and N.W. respectively of Suhag. A few miles above Suhag, on the
+opposite (east) side of the Nile is Akhmim (q.v.) or Ekhmim (23,795),
+where silk and cotton goods are made. Girga (q.v.), pop. 19,893, is 22
+m. S. by rail of Suhag, and on the same (the west) side of the river. It
+is noted for its pottery. Kena (q.v.), pop. 20,069, is on the east bank
+of the Nile, 145 m. by rail from Assiut. It is the chief seat of the
+manufacture of the porous earthenware water-bottles used all over Egypt.
+Luxor (q.v.), pop. (with Karnak) 25,229, marks the site of Thebes. It is
+418 m. from Cairo, and here the gauge of the railway is altered from
+broad to narrow. Esna (q.v.), pop. 19,103, is another place where
+pottery is made in large quantities. It is on the west bank of the Nile,
+36 m. by rail S. of Luxor. Edfu (q.v.), pop. 19,262, is also on the west
+side of the river, 30 m. farther south. It is chiefly famous for its
+ancient temple. Assuan (q.v.), pop. 12,618, is at the foot of the First
+Cataract and 551 m. S. of Cairo by rail. Three miles farther south, at
+Shellal, the Egyptian railway terminates. Korosko, 118 m. by river above
+Assuan, is a small place notable as the northern terminus of the caravan
+route from the Sudan across the Nubian desert. Since the building of the
+railway--which starts 96 m. higher up, at Wadi Halfa--to Khartum, this
+route is little used, and Korosko has lost what importance it had.
+
+_Ancient Cities and Monuments._--Many of the modern cities of Egypt are
+built on the sites of ancient cities, and they generally contain some
+monuments of the time of the Pharaohs, Greeks or Romans. The sites of
+other ancient cities now in complete ruin may be indicated. Memphis, the
+Pharaonic capital, was on the west bank of the Nile, some 14 m. above
+Cairo, and Heliopolis lay some 5 m. N.N.E. of Cairo. The pyramids of
+Giza or Gizeh, on the edge of the desert, 8 m. west of Cairo, are the
+largest of the many pyramids and other monuments, including the famous
+Sphinx, built in the neighbourhood of Memphis. The site of Thebes has
+already been indicated. Syene stood near to where the town of Assuan now
+is; opposite, on an island in the Nile, are scanty ruins of the city of
+Elephantine, and a little above, on another island, is the temple of
+Philae. The ancient Coptos (Keft) is represented by the village of Kuft,
+between Luxor and Kena. A few miles north of Kena is Dendera, with a
+famous temple. The ruins of Abydos, one of the oldest places in Egypt,
+are 8 m. S.W. of Balliana, a small town in Girga mudiria. The ruined
+temples of Abu Simbel are on the west side of the Nile, 56 m. above
+Korosko. On the Red Sea, south of Kosseir, are the ruins of Myos Hormos
+and Berenice. Of the ancient cities in the Delta there are remains,
+among others, of Sais, Iseum, Tanis, Bubastis, Onion, Sebennytus,
+Pithom, Pelusium, and of the Greek cities Naucratis and Daphnae. There
+are, besides the more ancient cities and monuments, a number of Coptic
+towns, monasteries and churches in almost every part of Egypt, dating
+from the early centuries of Christianity. The monasteries, or _ders_,
+are generally fort-like buildings and are often built in the desert.
+Tombs of Mahommedan saints are also numerous, and are often placed on
+the summit of the cliffs overlooking the Nile. The traveller in Egypt
+thus views, side by side with the activities of the present day, where
+occident and orient meet and clash, memorials of every race and
+civilization which has flourished in the valley of the Nile.
+
+_Trade Routes and Communications._--Its geographical position gives
+Egypt command of one of the most important trade routes in the world. It
+is, as it were, the fort which commands the way from Europe to the East.
+This has been the case from time immemorial, and the provision, in 1869,
+of direct maritime communication between the Mediterranean and the Red
+Sea, by the completion of the Suez Canal, ensured for the Egyptian route
+the supremacy in sea-borne traffic to Asia, which the discovery of the
+passage to India by way of the Cape of Good Hope had menaced for three
+and a half centuries. The Suez Canal is 87 m. long, 66 actual canal and
+21 lakes. It has sufficient depth to allow vessels drawing 27 ft. of
+water to pass through. It is administered by a company whose
+headquarters are in Paris, and no part of its revenue reaches the
+Egyptian exchequer (see SUEZ CANAL). Besides the many steamship lines
+which use the Suez Canal, other steamers run direct from European ports
+to Alexandria. There is also a direct mail service between Suez and Port
+Sudan.
+
+  The chief means of internal communication are, in the Delta the
+  railways, in Upper Egypt the railway and the river. The railways are
+  of two kinds: (1) those state-owned and state-worked, (2) agricultural
+  light railways owned and worked by private companies. Railway
+  construction dates from 1852, when the line from Alexandria to Cairo
+  was begun, by order of Abbas I. The state railways, unless otherwise
+  indicated, have a gauge of 4 ft. 8-1/2 in. The main system is
+  extremely simple. Trunk lines from Alexandria (via Damanhur and Tanta)
+  and from Port Said (via Ismailia) traverse the Delta and join at
+  Cairo. From Cairo the railway is continued south up the valley of the
+  Nile and close to the river. At first it follows the west bank,
+  crossing the stream at Nag Hamadi, 354 m. from Cairo, by an iron
+  bridge 437 yds. long. Thence it continues on the east bank to Luxor,
+  where the broad gauge ceases. From Luxor the line continues on the
+  standard African gauge (3 ft. 6 in.) to Shellal, 3 m. above Assuan and
+  685 m. from Alexandria. This main line service is supplemented by a
+  steamer service on the Nile from Shellal to Wadi Halfa, on the
+  northern frontier of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, whence there is direct
+  railway communication with Khartum and the Red Sea (see SUDAN).
+
+  Branch lines connect Cairo and Alexandria with Suez and with almost
+  every town in the Delta. From Cairo to Suez via Ismailia is a distance
+  of 160 m. Before the Suez Canal was opened passengers and goods were
+  taken to Suez from Cairo by a railway 84 m. long which ran across the
+  desert. This line, now disused, had itself superseded the "overland
+  route" organized by Lieut. Thomas Waghorn, R.N., c. 1830, for the
+  conveyance of passengers and mails to India. In Upper Egypt a line, 40
+  m. long, runs west from Wasta, a station 56 m. S. of Cairo, to Abuksa
+  in the Fayum mudiria. Another railway goes from Kharga Junction, a
+  station on the main line 24 m. S. of Girga, to the oasis of Kharga.
+  These lines are privately owned.
+
+  In the Delta the light railways supplement the ordinary lines and
+  connect the villages with the towns and seaports. There are over 700
+  m. of these lines. The railway development of Egypt has not been very
+  rapid. In 1880 944 m. of state lines were open; in 1900 the figure was
+  1393, and in 1905, 1688. For several years before 1904 the
+  administration of the railways was carried on by an international or
+  mixed board for the security of foreign creditors. In the year named
+  the railways came directly under the control of the Egyptian
+  government, which during the next four years spent LE.3,000,000 on
+  improving and developing the lines. In the five years 1902-1906 the
+  capital value of the state railways increased from LE.20,383,000 to
+  LE.23,200,000 and the net earnings from LE.1,059,000 to LE. 1,475,000.
+  The number of passengers carried in the same period rose from 12-1/2
+  to over 22 millions, and the weight of goods from slightly under
+  3,000,000 to nearly 6,750,000 tons. In 1906 the light railways carried
+  nearly a million tons of goods and over 6,800,000 passengers.
+
+  Westward from Alexandria a railway, begun in 1904 by the khedive,
+  Abbas II., runs parallel with the coast, and is intended to be
+  continued to Tripoli. The line forms the eastern end of the great
+  railway system which will eventually extend from Tangier to
+  Alexandria.
+
+  The Nile is navigable throughout its course in Egypt, and is largely
+  used as a means of cheap transit of heavy goods. Lock and bridge tolls
+  were abolished in 1899 and 1901 respectively. As a result, river
+  traffic greatly increased. Above Cairo the Nile is the favourite
+  tourist route, while between Shellal (Assuan) and the Sudan frontier
+  it is the only means of communication. Among the craft using the river
+  the dahabiya is a characteristic native sailing vessel, somewhat
+  resembling a house-boat. From the Nile, caravan routes lead westward
+  to the various oases and eastward to the Red Sea, the shortest (120
+  m.) and most used of the eastern routes being that from Kena to
+  Kosseir. Roads suitable for wheeled vehicles are found in Lower Egypt,
+  but the majority of the tracks are bridle-paths, goods being conveyed
+  on the backs of donkeys, mules and camels.
+
+  _Posts and Telegraphs._--The Egyptian postal system is highly
+  organized and efficient, and in striking contrast with its condition
+  in 1870, when there were but nineteen post-offices in the country. All
+  the branches of business transacted in European post-offices are
+  carried on by the Egyptian service, Egypt being a member of the Postal
+  Union. It was the first foreign country to establish a penny postage
+  with Great Britain, the reduction from 2-1/2d. being made in 1905. The
+  inland letters and packages carried yearly exceed 20,000,000 and
+  foreign letters (30% to England) number over 4,000,000. Over
+  L17,000,000 passes yearly through the post. A feature of the service
+  are the travelling post-offices, of which there are some 200.
+
+  All the important towns are connected by telegraph, the telegraphs
+  being state-owned and worked by the railway administration. Egypt is
+  also connected by cables and land-lines with the outside world. One
+  land-line connects at El-Arish with the line through Syria and Asia
+  Minor to Constantinople. Another line connects at Wadi Halfa with the
+  Sudan system, affording direct telegraphic communication via Khartum
+  and Gondokoro with Uganda and Mombasa. The Eastern Telegraph Company,
+  by concessions, have telegraph lines across Egypt from Alexandria via
+  Cairo to Suez, and from Port Said to Suez, connecting their cables to
+  Europe and the East. The principal cables are from Alexandria to
+  Malta, Gibraltar and England; from Alexandria to Crete and Brindisi;
+  from Suez to Aden, Bombay, China and Australia.
+
+  The telephone is largely used in the big towns, and there is a trunk
+  telephone line connecting Alexandria and Cairo.
+
+  _Standard Time._--The standard time adopted in Egypt is that of the
+  longitude of Alexandria, 30 deg. E., i.e. two hours earlier than
+  Greenwich time. It thus corresponds with the standard time of British
+  South Africa.
+
+_Agriculture and Land Tenure._--The chief industry of Egypt is
+agriculture. The proportions of the industry depend upon the area of
+land capable of cultivation. This again depends upon the fertilizing
+sediment brought down by the Nile and the measure in which lands beyond
+the natural reach of the flood water can be rendered productive by
+irrigation. By means of canals, "basins," dams and barrages, the Nile
+flood is now utilized to a greater extent than ever before (see
+IRRIGATION: _Egypt_). The result has been a great increase in the area
+of cultivated or cultivable land.
+
+At the time of the French occupation of Egypt in 1798, it was found that
+the cultivable soil covered 4,429,400 acres, but the quantity actually
+under cultivation did not exceed 3,520,000 acres, or six-elevenths of
+the entire surface. Under improved conditions the area of cultivated
+land, or land in process of reclamation, had risen in 1906 to 5,750,000
+acres, while another 500,000 acres of waste land awaited reclamation.
+
+Throughout Egypt the cultivable soil does not present any very great
+difference, being always the deposit of the river; it contains, however,
+more sand near the river than at a distance from it. Towards the
+Mediterranean its quality is injured by the salt with which the air is
+impregnated, and therefore it is not so favourable to vegetation. Of the
+cultivated land, some three-fourths is held, theoretically, in life
+tenancy. The state, as ultimate proprietor, imposes a tax which is the
+equivalent of rent. These lands are _Kharaji_ lands, in distinction from
+the _Ushuri_ or tithe-paying lands. The _Ushuri_ lands were originally
+granted in fee, and are subject to a quit-rent. All tenants are under
+obligation to guard or repair the banks of the Nile in times of flood,
+or in any case of sudden emergency. Only to this extent does the
+_corvee_ now prevail. The land-tax is proportionate, i.e. land under
+perennial irrigation pays higher taxes than land not so irrigated (see
+below, _Finance_). The unit of land is the _feddan_, which equals 1.03
+acre. Out of 1,153,759 proprietors of land in 1905, 1,005,705 owned less
+than 5 _feddans_. The number of proprietors owning over 50 _feddans_ was
+12,475. The acreage held by the first class was 1,264,084, that by the
+second class, 2,356,602. Over 1,600,000 _feddans_ were held in holdings
+of from 5 to 50 _feddans_. The state domains cover over 240,000
+_feddans_, and about 600,000 _feddans_ are owned by foreigners. The
+policy of the government is to maintain the small proprietors, and to do
+nothing tending to oust the native in favour of European landowners.
+
+The kind of crops cultivated depends largely on whether the land is
+under perennial, flood or "basin" irrigation. Perennial irrigation is
+possible where there are canals which can be supplied with water all the
+year round from the Nile. This condition exists throughout the Delta and
+Middle Egypt, but only in parts of Upper Egypt. Altogether some
+4,000,000 acres are under perennial irrigation. In these regions two and
+sometimes three crops can be harvested yearly. In places where perennial
+irrigation is impossible, the land is divided by rectangular dikes into
+"basins." Into these basins--which vary in area from 600 to 50,000
+acres--water is led by shallow canals when the Nile is in flood. The
+water is let in about the middle of August and the basins are begun to
+be emptied about the 1st of October. The land under basin irrigation
+covers about 1,750,000 acres. In the basins only one crop can be grown
+in the year. This basin system is of immemorial use in Egypt, and it was
+not until the time of Mehemet Ali (c. 1820) that perennial irrigation
+began. High land near the banks of the Nile which cannot be reached by
+canals is irrigated by raising water from the Nile by steam-pumps,
+water-wheels (_sakias_) worked by buffaloes, or water-lifts (_shadufs_)
+worked by hand. There are several thousand steam-pumps and over 100,000
+_sakias_ or _shadufs_ in Egypt. The _fellah_ divides his land into
+little square plots by ridges of earth, and from the small canal which
+serves his holding he lets the water into each plot as needed. The same
+system obtains on large estates (see further IRRIGATION: _Egypt_).
+There are three agricultural seasons: (1) summer (_sefi_), 1st of April
+to 31st of July, when crops are grown only on land under perennial
+irrigation; (2) flood (_Nili_), 1st of August to 30th of November; and
+(3) winter (_shetwi_), 1st of December to 31st of March. Cotton, sugar
+and rice are the chief summer crops; wheat, barley, flax and vegetables
+are chiefly winter crops; maize, millet and "flood" rice are _Nili_
+crops; millet and vegetables are also, but in a less degree, summer
+crops. The approximate areas under cultivation in the various seasons
+are, in summer, 2,050,000 acres; in flood, 1,500,000 acres; in winter,
+4,300,000 acres. The double-cropped area is over 2,000,000 acres.
+Although on the large farms iron ploughs, and threshing and
+grain-cleaning machines, have been introduced, the small cultivator
+prefers the simple native plough made of wood. Corn is threshed by a
+_norag_, a machine resembling a chair, which moves on small iron wheels
+or thin circular plates fixed to axle-trees, and is drawn in a circle by
+oxen.
+
+  _Crops._--Egypt is third among the cotton-producing countries of the
+  world. Its production per acre is the greatest of any country but,
+  owing to the restricted area available, the bulk raised is not more
+  than one-tenth of that of the United States and about half that of
+  India. Some 1,600,000 acres of land, five-sixths being in Lower Egypt,
+  are devoted to cotton growing. The climate of Lower Egypt being very
+  suitable to the growth of the plant, the cotton produced there is of
+  excellent quality. The seed is sown at the end of February or
+  beginning of March and the crop is picked in September and October.
+  The cotton crop increased from 1,700,000 _kantars_[3] in 1878 to
+  4,100,000 in 1890, had reached 5,434,000 in 1900, and was 6,750,000 in
+  1905. Its average value, 1897-1905, was over L14,000,000 a year. The
+  cotton exported was valued in 1907 at LE.23,598,000, in 1908 at
+  LE.17,091,612.
+
+  While cotton is grown chiefly in the Delta, the sugar plantations,
+  which cover about 100,000 acres, are mainly in Upper Egypt. The canes
+  are planted in March and are cut in the following January or February.
+  Although since 1884 the production of sugar has largely increased,
+  there has not been a corresponding increase in its value, owing to the
+  low price obtained in the markets of the world. Beetroot is also grown
+  to a limited extent for the manufacture of sugar. The sugar exported
+  varied in annual value in the period 1884-1905 from L400,000 to
+  L765,000.
+
+  A coarse and strong tobacco was formerly extensively grown, but its
+  cultivation was prohibited in 1890. Flax and hemp are grown in a few
+  places.
+
+  Maize in Lower Egypt and millet (of which there are several varieties)
+  in Upper Egypt are largely grown for home consumption, these grains
+  forming a staple food of the peasantry. The stalk of the maize is also
+  a very useful article. It is used in the building of the houses of the
+  fellahin, as fuel, and, when green, as food for cattle. Wheat and
+  barley are important crops, and some 2,000,000 acres are sown with
+  them yearly. The barley in general is not of good quality, but the
+  desert or "Mariut" barley, grown by the Bedouins in the coast region
+  west of Alexandria, is highly prized for the making of beer. Beans and
+  lentils are extensively sown, and form an important article of export.
+  The annual value of the crops is over L3,000,000. Rice is largely
+  grown in the northern part of the Delta, where the soil is very wet.
+  Two kinds are cultivated: _Sultani_, a summer crop, and _Sabaini_, a
+  flood crop. _Sabaini_ is a favourite food of the fellahin, while
+  _Sultani_ rice is largely exported. In the absence of grass, the chief
+  green food for cattle and horses is clover, grown largely in the basin
+  lands of Upper Egypt. To a less extent vetches are grown for the same
+  purpose.
+
+  _Vegetables and Fruit._--Vegetables grow readily, and their
+  cultivation is an important part of the work of the fellahin. The
+  onion is grown in great quantities along the Nile banks in Upper
+  Egypt, largely for export. Among other vegetables commonly raised are
+  tomatoes (the bulk of which are exported), potatoes (of poor quality),
+  leeks, marrows, cucumbers, cauliflowers, lettuce, asparagus and
+  spinach.
+
+  The common fruits are the date, orange, citron, fig, grape, apricot,
+  peach and banana. Olives, melons, mulberries and strawberries are also
+  grown, though not in very large numbers. The olive tree flourishes
+  only in the Fayum and the oases. The Fayum also possesses extensive
+  vineyards. The date is a valuable economic asset. There are some
+  6,000,000 date-palms in the country, 4,000,000 being in Upper Egypt.
+  The fruit is one of the chief foods of the people. The value of the
+  crop is about L1,500,000 a year.
+
+  _Roses and Dyes._--There are fields of roses in the Fayum, which
+  supply the market with rose-water. Of plants used for dyeing, the
+  principal are bastard saffron, madder, woad and the indigo plant. The
+  leaves of the henna plant are used to impart a bright red colour to
+  the palms of the hands, the soles of the feet, and the nails of both
+  hands and feet, of women and children, the hair of old ladies and the
+  tails of horses. Indigo is very extensively employed to dye the
+  shirts of the natives of the poorer classes; and is, when very dark,
+  the colour of mourning; therefore, women at funerals, and generally
+  after a death, smear themselves with it.
+
+  _Domestic Animals._--The Egyptians are not particularly a pastoral
+  people, though the wealth of the Bedouin in the Eastern or Arabian
+  Desert consists in their camels, horses, sheep and goats. In the Nile
+  valley the chief domestic animals are the camel, donkey, mule, ox,
+  buffalo, sheep and goat. Horses are comparatively few, and are seldom
+  seen outside the large towns, the camel and donkey being the principal
+  beasts of burden. The cattle are short-horned, rather small and well
+  formed. They are quiet in disposition, and much valued for
+  agricultural labour by the people, who therefore very rarely slaughter
+  them for meat. Buffaloes of an uncouth appearance and of a dark slaty
+  colour, strikingly contrasting with the neat cattle, abound in Egypt.
+  They are very docile, and the little children of the villagers often
+  ride them to or from the river. The buffaloes are largely employed for
+  turning the _sakias_. Sheep (of which the greater number are black)
+  and goats are abundant, and mutton is the ordinary butcher's meat. The
+  wool is coarse and short. Swine are very rarely kept, and then almost
+  wholly for the European inhabitants, the Copts generally abstaining
+  from eating their meat. Poultry is plentiful and eggs form a
+  considerable item in the exports. Pigeons are kept in every village
+  and their flesh is a common article of food.
+
+  _Fishing._--The chief fishing-ground is Lake Menzala, where some 4000
+  persons are engaged in the industry, but fish abound in the Nile also,
+  and are caught in large quantities along the coast of the Delta. The
+  salting and curing of the fish is done chiefly at Mataria, on Lake
+  Menzala, and at Damietta. Dried and salted fish eggs, called
+  _batarekh_, command a ready market. The average annual value of the
+  fisheries is about L200,000.
+
+  _Canals._--The irrigation canals, which are also navigable by small
+  craft, are of especial importance in a country where the rainfall is
+  very slight. The Delta is intersected by numerous canals which derive
+  their supply from four main channels. The Rayya Behera, known in its
+  lower courses first as the Khatatba and afterwards as the Rosetta
+  canal, follows the west bank of the Rosetta branch of the Nile and has
+  numerous offshoots. The most important is the Mahmudia (50 m. long),
+  which connects Alexandria with the Rosetta branch, taking a similar
+  direction to that of the ancient canal which it succeeded. This canal
+  supplies Alexandria with fresh water.
+
+  The Rayya Menufia, or Menuf canal, connects the two branches of the
+  Nile and supplies water to the large number of canals in the central
+  part of the Delta. Following the right (eastern) bank of the Damietta
+  branch is the Rayya Tewfiki, known below Benha as the Mansuria, and
+  below Mansura as the Fareskur, canal. This canal has many branches.
+  Farther east are other canals, of which the most remarkable occupy in
+  part the beds of the Tanitic and Pelusiac branches. That following the
+  old Tanitic channel is called the canal of Al-Mo'izz, the first
+  Fatimite caliph who ruled in Egypt, having been dug by his orders, and
+  the latter bears the name of the canal of Abu-l-Muneggi, a Jew who
+  executed this work, under the caliph Al-Amir, in order to water the
+  province called the Sharkia. From this circumstance this canal is also
+  known as the Sharkawia. From a town on its bank it is called in its
+  lower course the Shibini canal. The superfluous water from all the
+  Delta canals is drained off by _bahrs_ (rivers) into the coast lakes.
+  The Ismailia or Fresh-water canal branches from the Nile at Cairo and
+  follows, in the main, the course of the canal which anciently joined
+  the Nile and the Red Sea. It dates from Pharaonic times, having been
+  begun by "Sesostris," continued by Necho II. and by Darius Hystaspes,
+  and at length finished by Ptolemy Philadelphus. This canal, having
+  fallen into disrepair, was restored in the 7th century A.D. by the
+  Arabs who conquered Egypt, but appears not long afterwards to have
+  again become unserviceable. The existing canal was dug in 1863 to
+  supply fresh water to the towns on the Suez Canal. Although designed
+  for irrigation purposes, the Delta canals are also used for the
+  transport of passengers and goods.
+
+  In Upper Egypt the most important canals are the Ibrahimia and the
+  Bahr Yusuf (the River of Joseph). They are both on the west side of
+  the Nile. The Ibrahimia takes its water from the Nile at Assiut, and
+  runs south to below Beni Suef. It now supplies the Bahr Yusuf, which
+  runs parallel with and west of the Ibrahimia, until it diverges to
+  supply the Fayum--a distance of some 350 m. It leaves the Ibrahimia at
+  Derut near its original point of departure from the Nile. Although the
+  Joseph whence it takes its name is the celebrated Saladin, it is
+  related that he merely repaired it, and it is not doubted to be of a
+  much earlier period. Most probably it was executed under the Pharaohs.
+  By some authorities it is believed to be a natural channel canalized.
+  Besides supplying the canals of the Fayum with summer water, it fills
+  many of the "basins" of Upper Egypt with water in flood time.
+
+_Manufactures and Native Industries._--Although essentially an
+agricultural country, Egypt possesses several manufactures. In connexion
+with the cotton industry there are a few mills where calico is made or
+oil crushed, and ginning-mills are numerous. In Upper Egypt there are a
+number of factories for sugar-crushing and refining, and one or two
+towns of the Delta possess rice mills. Flour mills are found in every
+part of the country, the maize and other grains being ground for home
+consumption. Soap-making and leather-tanning are carried on, and there
+are breweries at Alexandria and Cairo. The manufacture of tobacco into
+cigarettes, carried on largely at Alexandria and Cairo, is another
+important industry. Native industries include the weaving of silk,
+woollen, linen and cotton goods, the hand-woven silk shawls and
+draperies being often rich and elegant. The silk looms are chiefly at
+Mehallet el-Kubra, Cairo and Damietta. The Egyptians are noted for the
+making of pottery of the commoner kinds, especially water-jars. There is
+at Cairo and in other towns a considerable industry in ornamental wood
+and metal work, inlaying with ivory and pearl, brass trays, copper
+vessels, gold and silver ornaments, &c. At Cairo and in the Fayum, attar
+of roses and other perfumes are manufactured. Boat-building is an
+important trade.
+
+  _Commerce._--The trade of Egypt has developed enormously since the
+  British occupation in 1882 ensured to all classes of the community the
+  enjoyment of the profit of their labour. The total value of the
+  exterior trade increased in the 20 years 1882 to 1902 from L19,000,000
+  to L32,400,000. The wealth of Egypt lying in the cultivation of its
+  soil, almost all the exports are agricultural produce, while the
+  imports are mostly manufactured goods, minerals and hardware. The
+  chief exports in order of importance are: raw cotton, cotton seed,
+  sugar, beans, cigarettes, onions, rice and gum-arabic. The gum is not
+  of native produce, being in transit from the Sudan. Of less importance
+  are the exports of hides and skins, eggs, wheat and other grains,
+  wool, quails, lentils, dates and Sudan produce in transit. The
+  principal articles imported are: cotton goods and other textiles,
+  coal, iron and steel, timber, tobacco, machinery, flour, alcoholic
+  liquors, petroleum, fruits, coffee and live animals. There is an _ad
+  valorem_ duty of 8% on imports and of about 1% on exports. Tobacco and
+  precious stones and metals pay heavier duties. The tobacco is imported
+  chiefly from Turkey and Greece, is made into cigarettes in Egypt, and
+  in this form exported to the value of about L500,000 yearly.
+
+  In comparison with cotton, all other exports are of minor account. The
+  cotton exported, of which Great Britain takes more than half, is worth
+  over three-fourths of the total value of goods sent abroad. Next to
+  cotton, sugar is the most important article exported. A large
+  proportion of the sugar manufactured is, however, consumed in the
+  country and does not figure in the trade returns. Of the imports the
+  largest single item is cotton goods, nearly all being sent from
+  England. Woollen goods come chiefly from England, Austria and Germany,
+  silk goods from France. Large quantities of ready-made clothes and
+  fezes are imported from Austria. Iron and steel goods, machinery,
+  locomotives, &c., come chiefly from England, Belgium and Germany, coal
+  from England, live stock from Turkey and the Red Sea ports, coffee
+  from Brazil, timber from Russia, Turkey and Sweden.
+
+  A British consular report (No. 3121, annual series), issued in 1904,
+  shows that in the period 1887-1902 the import trade of Egypt nearly
+  doubled. In the same period the proportion of imports from the United
+  Kingdom fell from 39.63 to 36.76%. Though the percentage decreased,
+  the value of imports from Great Britain increased in the same period
+  from L2,500,000 to L4,500,000. In addition to imports from the United
+  Kingdom, British possessions took 6.0% of the import trade. Next to
+  Great Britain, Turkey had the largest share of the import trade, but
+  it had declined in the sixteen years from 19 to 15%. France about 10%,
+  and Austria 6.72%, came next, but their import trade was declining,
+  while that of Germany had risen from less than 1 to over 3%, and
+  Belgium imports from 1.74 to 4.27%.
+
+  In the same period (1887-1902) Egyptian exports to Great Britain
+  decreased from 63.25 to 52.30%, Germany and the United States showing
+  each an increase of over 6.0%. Exports to Germany had increased from
+  0.13 to 6.75%, to the United States from 0.26 to 6.70%. Exports to
+  France had remained practically stationary at 8.0%; those to Austria
+  had dropped from 6.3% to 4.0%, to Russia from 9.11 to 8.43%.
+
+  For the quinquennial period 1901-1905, the average annual value of the
+  exterior trade was:--imports L17,787,296; exports L18,811,588; total
+  L36,598,884. In 1907 the total value of the merchandise imported and
+  exported, exclusive of transit, re-exportation and specie, was
+  LE.54,134,000--constituting a record trade return. The value of the
+  imports was LE.26,121,000, of the exports LE.28,013,000.
+
+  _Shipping._--More than 90% of the external trade passes through the
+  port of Alexandria. Port Said, which in consequence of its position at
+  the northern entrance of the Suez Canal has more frequent and regular
+  communication with Europe, is increasing in importance and is the port
+  where mails and passengers are landed. Over 3000 ships enter and clear
+  harbour at Alexandria every year. The total tonnage entering the port
+  increased in the five years 1901-1905 from 2,555,259 to 3,591,281. In
+  the same period the percentage of British shipping, which before 1900
+  was nearly 50, varied from 40 to 45. No other nation had more than 12%
+  of the tonnage, Italy, France, Austria and Turkey each having 9 to
+  12%. The tonnage of German ships increased in the five years mentioned
+  from 3 to 7%. In number of steamships entering the harbour Great
+  Britain is first, with some 800 yearly, or about 50% of all steamers
+  entering. The sailing boats entering the harbour are almost entirely
+  Turkish. They are vessels of small tonnage.
+
+  The transit trade with the East, which formerly passed overland
+  through Egypt, has been diverted to the Suez Canal, the traffic
+  through which has little to do with the trade or shipping of Egypt.
+  The number of ships using the canal increased in the 20 years
+  1880-1900 from 2000 to 4000, while in the same period the tonnage rose
+  from 4,300,000 to 14,000,000. In 1905 the figures were:--Number of
+  ships that passed through the canal, 4116 (2484 being British and 600
+  German), net tonnage 13,134,105 (8,356,940 British and 2,113,484
+  German). Next to British and German the nationality of ships using the
+  canal in order of importance is French, Dutch, Austrian, Italian and
+  Russian. About 250,000 passengers (including some 40,000 pilgrims to
+  Mecca) pass through the canal in a year (see further SUEZ).
+
+  _Currency._--The monetary system in force dates from 1885, when
+  through the efforts of Sir Edgar Vincent the currency was placed on a
+  sound basis. The system is based on the single gold standard. The unit
+  is a gold coin called a pound and equal to L1, 0s. 6d. in English
+  currency. The Egyptian pound (LE.) is divided into 100 piastres, of
+  which there are coins in silver of 20, 10, 5 and 2 piastres. One, 1/2,
+  1/5 and 1/10 piastre pieces are coined in nickel and 1/20 and 1/40
+  piastre pieces in bronze. The one piastre piece is worth a fraction
+  over 2-1/2d. The 1/40 of a piastre is popularly called a para and the
+  native population generally reckon in paras. The legal piastre is
+  called the piastre tariff (P.T.), to distinguish it from the 1/2
+  piastre, which in local usage in Cairo and Alexandria is called a
+  piastre. Officially the 1/2 piastre is known as 5 milliemes, and so
+  with the coins of lower denomination, the para being 1/4 millieme. The
+  old terms _kis_ or "purse" (500 piastres) and _khazna_ or "treasury"
+  (1000 purses) are still occasionally used. Formerly European coins of
+  all kinds were in general circulation, now the only foreign coins
+  current are the English sovereign, the French 20 franc piece and the
+  Turkish mejidie, a gold coin worth 18 shillings. For several years no
+  Egyptian gold pieces have been coined. Egyptian silver money is minted
+  at Birmingham, and nickel and bronze money at Vienna. Bank-notes, of
+  the National Bank, are issued for LE.100, LE.50, LE.10, LE.5 and LE.1,
+  and for 50 piastres. The notes are not legal tender, but are accepted
+  by the government in payment of taxes.
+
+  The history of the currency reform in Egypt is interesting as
+  affording a practical example of a system much discussed in connexion
+  with the currency question in India, namely, a gold standard without a
+  gold coinage. The Egyptian pound is practically nonexistent, nearly
+  all that were coined having been withdrawn from circulation. Their
+  place has been taken by foreign gold, principally the English
+  sovereign, which circulates at a value of 97-1/2 piastres. In practice
+  the system works perfectly smoothly, the gold flowing in and out of
+  the country through the agency of private banking establishments in
+  proportion to the requirements of the circulation. It is, moreover,
+  very economical for the government. As in most agricultural countries,
+  there is a great expansion of the circulation in the autumn and winter
+  months in order to move the crops, followed by a long period of
+  contracted circulation throughout the rest of the year. Under the
+  existing system the fluctuating requirements of the currency are met
+  without the expense of alternately minting and melting down.
+
+  _Weights and Measures._--The metrical system of weights and measures
+  is in official but not in popular use, except in the foreign quarters
+  of Cairo, Alexandria, &c. The most common Egyptian measures are the
+  _fitr_, or space measured by the extension of the thumb and first
+  finger; the _shibr_, or span; and the cubit (of three kinds = 22-2/3,
+  25 and 26-1/2 in.). The measure of land is the _feddan_, equal to 1.03
+  acres, subdivided into 24 _kirats_. The _ardeb_ is equal to about 5
+  bushels, and is divided into 6 _waybas_, and each _wayba_ into 24
+  _rubas_. The _okieh_ equals 1.32 oz., the _rotl_ .99 lb., the _oke_
+  2.75 lb., the _kantar_ (or 100 _rotls_ or 36 _okes_) 99.04 lb.
+
+_Constitution and Administration._--Egypt is a tributary state of the
+Turkish empire, and is ruled by an hereditary prince with the style of
+khedive, a Persian title regarded as the equivalent of king. The
+succession to the throne is by primogeniture. The central administration
+is carried on by a council of ministers, appointed by the khedive, one
+of whom acts as prime minister. To these is added a British financial
+adviser, who attends all meetings of the council of ministers, but has
+not a vote; on the other hand, no financial decision may be taken
+without his consent. The ministries are those of the interior, finance,
+public works, justice, war, foreign affairs and public instruction,[4]
+and in each of these are prepared the drafts of decrees, which are then
+submitted to the council of ministers for approval, and on being signed
+by the khedive become law. No important decision, however, has been
+taken since 1882 without the concurrence of the British minister
+plenipotentiary. With a few exceptions, laws cannot, owing to the
+Capitulations, be enforced against foreigners except with the consent of
+the powers.
+
+While the council of ministers with the khedive forms the legislative
+authority, there are various representative bodies with strictly limited
+powers. The legislative council is a consultative body, partly elective,
+partly nominative. It examines the budget and all proposed
+administrative laws, but cannot initiate legislation, nor is the
+government bound to adopt its suggestions. The general assembly consists
+of the legislative council and the ministers of state, together with
+popularly elected members, who form a majority of the whole assembly. It
+has no legislative functions, but no new direct personal tax nor land
+tax can be imposed without its consent. It must meet at least once in
+every two years.
+
+For purposes of local government the chief towns constitute
+governorships (_moafzas_), the rest of the country being divided into
+_mudirias_ or provinces. The governors and _mudirs_ (heads of provinces)
+are responsible to the ministry of the interior. The provinces are
+further divided into districts, each of which is under a _mamur_, who in
+his turn supervises and controls the _omda_, mayor or head-man, of each
+village in his district.
+
+The governorships are: Cairo; Alexandria, which includes an area of 70
+sq. m.; Suez Canal, including Port Said and Ismailia; Suez and El-Arish.
+Lower Egypt is divided into the provinces of: Behera, Gharbia, Menufia,
+Dakahlia, Kaliubia, Sharkia. The oasis of Siwa and the country to the
+Tripolitan frontier are dependent on the province of Behera. Upper
+Egypt: Giza, Beni Suef, Fayum, Minia, Assiut, Girga, Kena, Assuan. The
+peninsula of Sinai is administered by the war office.
+
+_Justice._--There are four judicial systems in Egypt: two applicable to
+Egyptian subjects only, one applicable to foreigners only, and one
+applicable to foreigners and, to a certain extent, natives also. This
+multiplicity of tribunals arises from the fact that, owing to the
+Capitulations, which apply to Egypt as part of the Turkish empire,
+foreigners are almost entirely exempt from the jurisdiction of the
+native courts. It will be convenient to state first the law as regards
+foreigners, and secondly the law which concerns Egyptians. Criminal
+jurisdiction over foreigners is exercised by the consuls of the fifteen
+powers possessing such right by treaty, according to the law of the
+country of the offender. These consular courts also judge civil cases
+between foreigners of the same nationality.
+
+Jurisdiction in civil matters between natives and foreigners and between
+foreigners of different nationalities is no longer exercised by the
+consular courts. The grave abuse to which the consular system was
+subject led to the establishment, in February 1876, at the instance of
+Nubar Pasha and after eight years of negotiation, of International or
+"Mixed" Tribunals to supersede consular jurisdiction to the extent
+indicated. The Mixed Tribunals employ a code based on the _Code
+Napoleon_ with such additions from Mahommedan law as are applicable.
+There are three tribunals of first instance, and an appeal court at
+Alexandria. These courts have both foreign and Egyptian judges--the
+foreign judges forming the majority of the bench. In certain designated
+matters they enjoy criminal jurisdiction, including, since 1900,
+offences against the bankruptcy laws. Cases have to be conducted in
+Arabic, French, Italian and English, English having been admitted as a
+"judicial language" by khedivial decree of the 17th of April 1905.
+Besides their judicial duties, the courts practically exercise
+legislative functions, as no important law can be made applicable to
+Europeans without the consent of the powers, and the powers are mainly
+guided by the opinions of the judges of the Mixed Courts.
+
+The judicial systems applicable solely to Egyptians are supervised by
+the ministry of justice, to which has been attached since 1890 a British
+judicial adviser. Two systems of laws are administered:--(1) the
+_Mehkemehs_, (2) the Native Tribunals. The _mehkemehs_, or courts of the
+cadis, judge in all matters of personal status, such as marriage,
+inheritance and guardianship, and are guided in their decisions by the
+code of laws founded on the Koran. The grand cadi, who must belong to
+the sect of the _Hanifis_, sits at Cairo, and is aided by a council of
+_Ulema_ or learned men. This council consists of the sheikh or religious
+chief of each of the four orthodox sects, the sheikh of the mosque of
+Azhar, who is of the sect of the _Shafi'is_, the chief (_nakib_) of the
+_Sherifs_, or descendants of Mahomet, and others. The cadis are chosen
+from among the students at the Azhar university. (In the same manner, in
+matters of personal law, Copts and other non-Moslem Egyptians are, in
+general, subject to the jurisdiction of their own religious chiefs.)
+
+For other than the purposes indicated, the native judicial system, both
+civil and criminal, was superseded in 1884 by tribunals administering a
+jurisprudence modelled on that of the French code. It is, in the words
+of Lord Cromer, "in many respects ill adapted to meet the special needs
+of the country" (_Egypt_, No. 1, 1904, p. 33). The system was, on the
+advice of an Anglo-Indian official (Sir John Scott), modified and
+simplified in 1891, but its essential character remained unaltered. In
+1904, however, more important modifications were introduced. Save on
+points of law, the right of appeal in criminal cases was abolished, and
+assize courts, whose judgments were final, established. At the same time
+the penal code was thoroughly revised, so that the Egyptian judges were
+"for the first time provided with a sound working code" (Ibid. p. 49).
+The native courts have both native and foreign judges. There are courts
+of summary jurisdiction presided over by one judge, central tribunals
+(or courts of first instance) with three judges, and a court of appeal
+at Cairo. A committee of judicial surveillance watches the working of
+the courts of first instance and the summary courts, and endeavours, by
+letters and discussions, to maintain purity and sound law. There is a
+_procureur-general_, who, with other duties, is entrusted with criminal
+prosecutions. His representatives are attached to each tribunal, and
+form the _parquet_ under whose orders the police act in bringing
+criminals to justice. In the _markak_ (district) tribunals, created in
+1904 and presided over by magistrates with jurisdiction in cases of
+misdemeanour, the prosecution is, however, conducted directly by the
+police. Special Children's Courts have been established for the trial of
+juvenile offenders.
+
+The police service, which has been subject to frequent modification, was
+in 1895 put under the orders of the ministry of the interior, to which a
+British adviser and British inspectors are attached. The provincial
+police is under the direction of the local authorities, the _mudirs_ or
+governors of provinces, and the _mamurs_ or district officials; to the
+_omdas_, or village head-men, who are responsible for the good order of
+the villages, a limited criminal jurisdiction has been entrusted.
+
+_Religion._--The great majority of the inhabitants are Mahommedans. In
+1907 the Moslems numbered over ten millions, or 91.8% of the entire
+population. The Christians in the same year numbered 880,000, or 8% of
+the population. Of these the Coptic Orthodox church had some 667,000
+adherents. Among other churches represented were the Greek Orthodox, the
+Armenian, Syrian and Maronite, the Roman Catholic and various Protestant
+bodies. The last-named numbered 37,000 (including 24,000 Copts). There
+were in 1907 over 38,000 Jews in Egypt.
+
+The Mahommedans are Sunnites, professing the creed commonly termed
+"orthodox," and are principally of the persuasion of the _Shafi'is_,
+whose celebrated founder, the imam ash-Shafi'i, is buried in the great
+southern cemetery of Cairo. Many of them are, however, _Hanifis_ (to
+which persuasion the Turks chiefly belong), and in parts of Lower, and
+almost universally in Upper, Egypt, _Malikis_. Among the Moslems the
+_Sheikh-el-Islam_, appointed by the khedive from among the _Ulema_
+(learned class), exercises the highest religious and, in certain
+subjects, judicial authority. There is also a grand cadi, nominated by
+the sultan of Turkey from among the _Ulema_ of Stamboul. Valuable
+property is held by the Moslems in trust for the promotion of religion
+and for charitable purposes, and is known as the Wakfs administration.
+The revenue derived is over L250,000 yearly.
+
+The Coptic organization includes in Egypt three metropolitans and
+twelve bishops, under the headship of the patriarch of Alexandria. The
+minor orders are arch-priests, priests, archdeacons, deacons, readers
+and monks (see COPTS: _Coptic Church_).
+
+_Education._--Two different systems of education exist, one founded on
+native lines, the other European in character. Both systems are more or
+less fully controlled by the ministry of public instruction. The
+government has primary, secondary and technical schools, training
+colleges for teachers, and schools of agriculture, engineering, law,
+medicine and veterinary science. The government system, which dates back
+to a period before the British occupation, is designed to provide, in
+the main, a European education. In the primary schools Arabic is the
+medium of instruction, the use of English for that purpose being
+confined to lessons in that language itself. The school of law is
+divided into English and French sections according to the language in
+which the students study law. Besides the government primary and
+secondary schools, there are many other schools in the large towns owned
+by the Moslems, Copts, Hebrews, and by various missionary societies, and
+in which the education is on the same lines. A movement initiated among
+the leading Moslems led in 1908 to the establishment as a private
+enterprise of a national Egyptian university devoted to scientific,
+literary and philosophical studies. Political and religious subjects are
+excluded from the curriculum and no discrimination in regard to race or
+religion is allowed.
+
+  Education on native lines is given in _kuttabs_ and in the Azhar
+  university in Cairo. _Kuttabs_ are schools attached to mosques, found
+  in every village and in every quarter of the larger towns. In these
+  schools the instruction given before the British occupation was very
+  slight. All pupils were taught to recite portions of the Koran, and a
+  proportion of the scholars learnt to read and write Arabic and a
+  little simple arithmetic. Those pupils who succeeded in committing to
+  memory the whole of the Koran were regarded as _fiki_ (learned in
+  Mahommedan law), and as such escaped liability to military
+  conscription. The government has improved the education given in the
+  _kuttabs_, and numbers of them have been taken under the direct
+  control of the ministry of public instruction. In these latter schools
+  an excellent elementary secular education is given, in addition to the
+  instruction in the Koran, to which half the school hours are devoted.
+  The number of pupils in 1905 was over 12,000 boys and 2000 girls.
+  Grants-in-aid are given to other schools where a sufficiently good
+  standard of instruction is maintained. No grant is made to any
+  _kuttab_ where any language other than Arabic is taught. In all there
+  are over 10,000 kuttabs, attended by some 250,000 scholars. The number
+  of pupils in private schools under government inspection was in 1898,
+  the first year of the grant-in-aid system, 7536; in 1900, 12,315; in
+  1905, 145,691. The number of girls in attendance rose from 598 in 1898
+  to 997 in 1900 and 9611 in 1905. The Copts have about 1000 primary
+  schools, in which the teaching of Coptic is compulsory, a few
+  industrial schools, and one college for higher instruction.
+
+  Cairo holds a prominent place as a seat of Moslem learning, and its
+  university, the Azhar, is considered the first of the eastern world.
+  Its professors teach "grammatical inflexion and syntax, rhetoric,
+  versification, logic, theology, the exposition of the Koran, the
+  traditions of the Prophet, the complete science of jurisprudence, or
+  rather of religious, moral, civil and criminal law, which is chiefly
+  founded on the Koran and the traditions, together with arithmetic as
+  far as it is useful in matters of law. Lectures are also given on
+  algebra and on the calculations of the Mahommedan calendar, the times
+  of prayer, &c." (E. W. Lane, _Modern Egyptians_). The students come
+  from all parts of the Mahommedan world. They number about 8000, of
+  whom some 2000 are resident. The students pay no fees, and the
+  professors receive no salaries. The latter maintain themselves by
+  private teaching and by copying manuscripts, and the former in the
+  same manner, or by reciting the Koran. To meet the demand for better
+  qualified judges for the Moslem courts a training college for cadis
+  was established in 1907. Besides the subjects taught at the Azhar
+  university, instruction is given in literature, mathematics and
+  physical science. The necessity for a reorganization of the Azhar
+  system itself being also recognized by the high Moslem dignitaries in
+  Egypt, a law was passed in 1907 creating a superior board of control
+  under the presidency of the Sheikh el-Azhar to supervise the
+  proceedings of the university and other similar establishments. This
+  attempt to reform the Azhar met, however, with so much opposition that
+  in 1909 it was, for the time, abandoned.
+
+  In 1907, of the sedentary Egyptian population over seven years of age,
+  some 12% of the Moslems could read and write, female literacy having
+  increased 50% since 1897; of the foreign population over seven years
+  of age 75% could read and write. Of the Coptic community about 50% can
+  read and write.
+
+  _Literature and the Press._--Since the British occupation there has
+  been a marked renaissance of Arabic learning and literature in Egypt.
+  Societies formed for the encouragement of Arabic literature have
+  brought to light important texts bearing on Mahommedan history,
+  antiquities and religion. Numbers of magazines and reviews are
+  published in Arabic which cater both for the needs of the moment and
+  the advancement of learning. Side by side with these literary organs
+  there exists a vernacular press largely devoted to nationalist
+  propaganda. Prominent among these papers is _Al Lewa_ (_The
+  Standard_), founded in 1900. Other papers of a similar character are
+  _Al Omma_, _Al Moayad_ and _Al Gerida_. The _Mokattam_ represents the
+  views of the more enlightened and conservative section of the native
+  population. In Cairo and Alexandria there are also published several
+  newspapers in English and French.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--(a) General descriptions, geography, travel, &c.:
+  _Description de l'Egypte_, 10 folio vols. and atlas of 10 vols.
+  (Paris, 1809-1822), compiled by the scientific commission sent to
+  Egypt by Bonaparte; Clot Bey, _Apercu general sur l'Egypte_, 2 vols.
+  (Paris, 1840); Boinet Bey, _Dictionnaire geographique de l'Egypte_
+  (Cairo, 1899); Murray's and Baedeker's handbooks and _Guide Joanne_;
+  G. Ebers, _Egypt, Descriptive, Historical and Picturesque_, translated
+  from the German edition of 1879 by Clara Bell, new edition, 2 vols.
+  (London, 1887); Sir Gardiner Wilkinson, _Modern Egypt and Thebes_ (2
+  vols., London, 1843); Lady Duff Gordon, _Letters from Egypt_, complete
+  edition (London, 1902), an invaluable account of social conditions in
+  the period 1862-1869; A. B. Edwards, _A Thousand Miles up the Nile_
+  (2nd edition, London, n.d. [1889]); _Pharaohs, Fellahs and Explorers_
+  (London, 1892); H. W. Mardon, _Geography of Egypt ..._ (London, 1902),
+  an excellent elementary text-book; D. G. Hogarth, _The Nearer East_
+  (London, 1902), contains brief but suggestive chapters on Egypt; S.
+  Lane Poole, _Egypt_ (London, 1881); A. B. de Guerville, _New Egypt_,
+  translated from the French (London, 1905); R. T. Kelly, _Egypt Painted
+  and Described_ (London, 1902). The best maps are those of the Survey
+  Department, Cairo, on the scale of 1:50000 (1.3 in. to the mile).
+
+  (b) Administration: Sir John Bowring's _Report on Egypt ..._ to Lord
+  Palmerston (London, 1840) shows the system obtaining at that period.
+  For the study of the state of Egypt at the time of the British
+  occupation, 1882, and the development of the country since, the most
+  valuable documents[5] are:
+
+  I. _Official._--The _Reports on the Finances, Administration and
+  Condition of Egypt_, issued yearly since 1892 (the reports 1888-1891
+  were exclusively financial). Up to 1906 the reports were by Lord
+  Cromer (Sir Evelyn Baring). They clearly picture the progress of the
+  country. The following reports are specially valuable as exhibiting
+  the difficulties which at the outset confronted the British
+  administrators:--_Correspondence respecting the Reorganization of
+  Egypt_ (1883); _Reports by Mr Villiers Stuart respecting
+  Reorganization of Egypt_ (1883 and 1895); _Despatch from Lord Dufferin
+  forwarding the Decree constituting the New Political Institutions of
+  Egypt_ (1883); _Reports on the State of Egypt and the Progress of
+  Administrative Reforms_ (1885); _Reports by Sir H. D. Wolff on the
+  Administration of Egypt_ (1887). Annual returns are published in Cairo
+  in English or French by the various ministries, and British consular
+  reports on the trade of Egypt and of Alexandria and of the tonnage and
+  shipping of the Suez Canal are also issued yearly.
+
+  II. _Non-official._--Lord Cromer, _Modern Egypt_ (2 vols., 1908), an
+  authoritative record; Alfred (Lord) Milner, _England in Egypt_, first
+  published in 1892, the story being brought up to 1904 in the 11th
+  edition; Sir A. Colvin, _The Making of Modern Egypt_ (1906); J. Ward,
+  _Pyramids and Progress_ (1900); A. S. White, _The Expansion of Egypt_
+  (1899); and F. W. Fuller, _Egypt and the Hinterland_ (1901). See also
+  the works cited in _History_, last section.
+
+  (c) Law: H. Lamba, _De l'evolution de la condition juridique des
+  Europeens en Egypte_ (Paris, 1896); J. H. Scott, _The Law affecting
+  Foreigners in Egypt ..._ (Edinburgh, 1907); _The Egyptian Codes_
+  (London, 1892).
+
+  (d) Irrigation, agriculture, geology, &c.: _Despatch from Sir Evelyn
+  Baring enclosing Report on the Condition of the Agricultural
+  Population in Egypt_ (1888); _Notes on Egyptian Crops_ (Cairo, 1896);
+  Yacub Artin Bey, _La Propriete fonciere en Egypte_ (Bulak, 1885);
+  _Report on Perennial Irrigation and Flood Protection for Egypt_, 1
+  vol. and atlas (Cairo, 1894). The reports (_Egypt_, No. 2, 1901, and
+  _Egypt_, No. 2, 1904), by Sir William Garstin on irrigation projects
+  on the Upper Nile are very valuable records--notably the 1904 report.
+  W. Willcocks, _Egyptian Irrigation_ (2nd ed., 1899); H. G. Lyons, _The
+  Physiography of the River Nile and its Basin_ (Cairo, 1906); Leigh
+  Canney, _The Meteorology of Egypt and its Influence on Disease_
+  (1897). Annual meteorological reports are issued by the Public Works
+  Department, Cairo. The same department issues special irrigation
+  reports. See for geology Carl von Zittel, _Beitrage zur Geologie und
+  Palaontologie der libyschen Wuste_ (Cassel, 1883); _Reports of the
+  Geological Survey of Egypt_ (Cairo, 1900, et seq.).
+
+  (e) Natural history, anthropology, &c.: F. Pruner, _Agyptens
+  Naturgeschichte und Anthropologie_ (Erlangen, 1848); R. Hartmann,
+  _Naturgeschichtliche Skizze der Nillander_ (Berlin, 1866); Captain G.
+  E. Shelley, _Birds of Egypt_ (London, 1872).     (F. R. C.)
+
+
+_Inhabitants._
+
+The population enumerated at the census taken in April 1907 was
+11,189,978. In these figures nomad Arabs or Bedouins, estimated to
+number 97,381, are not included. The total population was thus returned
+at 11,287,359, or some 16% more than in 1897 when the inhabitants
+numbered 9,734,405. The figures for 1897 compared with 6,813,919 in
+1882, an increase of 43.5% in fifteen years. Thus, during the first
+twenty-five years of the British occupation of the country the
+population increased by nearly 4,500,000. In 1800 the French estimated
+the population at no more than 2,460,000; the census of 1846 gave the
+figures at 4,476,440. From that year to 1882 the average annual increase
+was 1.25%. If the desert regions be excluded, the population of Egypt is
+extremely dense, being about 939 per sq. m. This figure may be compared
+with that of Belgium, the most densely populated country in Europe, 589
+per sq. m., and with that of Bengal, 586 per sq. m. In parts of Menufia,
+a Delta province, the density rises to 1352 per sq. m., and in the Kena
+province of Upper Egypt to 1308.
+
+The population is generally divisible into--
+
+  1. The fellahin or peasantry and the native townsmen.
+  2. The Bedouins or nomad Arabs of the desert.
+  3. The Nuba, Nubians or Berberin, inhabitants of the Nile valley
+       between Assuan and Dongola.
+  4. Foreigners.
+
+The first of these divisions includes both the Moslem and Coptic
+inhabitants. The Bedouins, or the Arabs of the desert, are of two
+different classes: first, Arabic-speaking tribes who range the deserts
+as far south as 26 deg. N.; secondly, the tribes inhabiting the desert
+from Kosseir to Suakin, namely the Hadendoa, Bisharin and the Ababda
+tribes. This group speak a language of their own, and are probably
+descendants of the Blemmyes, who occupied these parts in ancient times
+(see ARABS; BEDOUINS; HADENDOA; BISHARIN; &c.). The Nubas are of mixed
+negro and Arab blood. They are mainly agriculturists, though some are
+keen traders (see NUBIA).
+
+Foreigners number over 150,000 and form 1-1/2% of the total population.
+They are chiefly Greeks--of whom the majority live in
+Alexandria--Italians, British and French. Syrians and Levantines are
+numerous, and there is a colony of Persians. The Turkish element is not
+numerically strong--a few thousands only--but holds a high social
+position.
+
+Of the total population, about 20% is urban. In addition to the 97,000
+pure nomads, there are half a million Bedouins described as
+"semi-sedentaries," i.e. tent-dwelling Arabs, usually encamped in those
+parts of the desert adjoining the cultivated land. The rural classes are
+mainly engaged in agriculture, which occupies over 62% of the adults.
+The professional and trading classes form about 10% of the whole
+population, but 50% of the foreigners are engaged in trade. Of the total
+population the males exceed the females by some 46,000.
+
+
+    Physical characteristics of the Egyptians.
+
+  The Coptic inhabitants are described in the article COPTS, and the
+  rural population under FELLAH. It remains here to describe
+  characteristics and customs common to the Moslem Egyptians and
+  particularly to those of the cities. In some respects the manner of
+  life of the natives has been modified by contact with Europeans, and
+  what follows depicts in general the habits of the people where little
+  affected by western culture. With regard to physical characteristics
+  the Egyptians are of full average height (the men are mostly 5 ft. 8
+  in. or 5 ft. 9 in), and both sexes are remarkably well proportioned
+  and of strong physique. The Cairenes and the inhabitants of Lower
+  Egypt generally have a clear complexion and soft skin of a light
+  yellowish colour; those of Middle Egypt have a tawny skin, and the
+  dwellers in Upper Egypt a deep bronze or brown complexion. The face of
+  the men is of a fine oval, forehead prominent but seldom high,
+  straight nose, eyes deep set, black and brilliant, mouth well formed,
+  but with rather full lips, regular teeth beautifully made, and beard
+  usually black and curly but scanty. Moustaches are worn, while the
+  head is shaved save for a small tuft (called _shusheh_) upon the
+  crown. As to the women, "from the age of about fourteen to that of
+  eighteen or twenty, they are generally models of beauty in body and
+  limbs; and in countenance most of them are pleasing, and many
+  exceedingly lovely; but soon after they have attained their perfect
+  growth, they rapidly decline." There are few Egyptian women over forty
+  who retain either good looks or good figures. "The forms of womanhood
+  begin to develop themselves about the ninth and tenth year: at the
+  age of fifteen or sixteen they generally attain their highest degree
+  of perfection. With regard to their complexions, the same remarks
+  apply to them as to the men, with only this difference, that their
+  faces, being generally veiled when they go abroad, are not quite so
+  much tanned as those of the men. They are characterized, like the men,
+  by a fine oval countenance, though in some instances it is rather
+  broad. The eyes, with very few exceptions, are black, large and of a
+  long almond-form, with long and beautiful lashes, and an exquisitely
+  soft, bewitching expression--eyes more beautiful can hardly be
+  conceived: their charming effect is much heightened by the concealment
+  of the other features (however pleasing the latter may be), and is
+  rendered still more striking by a practice universal among the females
+  of the higher and middle classes, and very common among those of the
+  lower orders, which is that of blackening the edge of the eyelids both
+  above and below the eye, with a black powder called 'kohl'" (Lane,
+  _Modern Egyptians_). Both sexes, but especially the women, tattoo
+  several parts of the person, and the women stain their hands and feet
+  with the red dye of the henna.
+
+
+    Dress and social life.
+
+  The dress of the men of the upper and middle classes who have not
+  adopted European clothing--a practice increasingly common--consists of
+  cotton drawers, and a cotton or silk shirt with very wide sleeves.
+  Above these are generally worn a waistcoat without sleeves, and a long
+  vest of silk, called kaftan, which has hanging sleeves, and reaches
+  nearly to the ankles. The kaftan is confined by the girdle, which is a
+  silk scarf, or cashmere or other woollen shawl. Over all is worn a
+  long cloth robe, the gibbeh (or jibbeh) somewhat resembling the kaftan
+  in shape, but having shorter sleeves, and being open in front. The
+  dress of the lower orders is the shirt and drawers, and waistcoat,
+  with an outer shirt of blue cotton or brown woollen stuff; some wear a
+  kaftan. The head-dress is the red cloth fez or tarbush round which a
+  turban is usually worn. Men who have otherwise adopted European
+  costume retain the tarbush. Many professions and religions, &c., are
+  distinguished by the shape and colour of the turban, and various
+  classes, and particularly servants, are marked by the form and colour
+  of their shoes; but the poor go usually barefoot. Many ladies of the
+  upper classes now dress in European style, with certain modifications,
+  such as the head-veil. Those who retain native costume wear a very
+  full pair of silk trousers, bright coloured stockings (usually pink),
+  and a close-fitting vest with hanging sleeves and skirts, open down
+  the front and at the sides, and long enough to turn up and fasten into
+  the girdle, which is generally a cashmere shawl; a cloth jacket,
+  richly embroidered with gold, and having short sleeves, is commonly
+  worn over the vest. The hair in front is combed down over the forehead
+  and cut across in a straight line; behind it is divided into very many
+  small plaits, which hang down the back, and are lengthened by silken
+  cords, and often adorned with gold coins and ornaments. A small
+  tarbush is worn on the back of the head, sometimes having a plate of
+  gold fixed on the crown, and a handkerchief is tastefully bound round
+  the temples. The women of the lower orders have trousers of printed or
+  dyed cotton, and a close waistcoat. All wear the long and elegant
+  head-veil. This is a simple "breadth" of muslin, which passes over the
+  head and hangs down behind, one side, being drawn forward over the
+  face in the presence of a man. A lady's veil is of white muslin,
+  embroidered at the ends in gold and colours; that of a person of the
+  lower class is simply dyed blue. In going abroad the ladies wear above
+  their indoor dress a loose robe of coloured silk without sleeves, and
+  nearly open at the sides, and above it a large enveloping piece of
+  black silk, which is brought over the head, and gathered round the
+  person by the arms and hands on each side. A face-veil entirely
+  conceals the features, except the eyes; it is a long and narrow piece
+  of thick white muslin, reaching to a little below the knees. The women
+  of the lower orders have the same out-door dress of different
+  materials and colour. Ladies use slippers of yellow morocco, and
+  abroad, inner boots of the same material, above which they wear, in
+  either case, thick shoes, having only toes. The poor wear red shoes,
+  very like those of the men. The women, especially in Upper Egypt, not
+  infrequently wear nose-rings.
+
+  Children, though often neglected, are not unkindly treated, and
+  reverence for their parents and the aged is early inculcated. They are
+  also well grounded in the leading doctrines of Islam. Boys are
+  circumcised at the age of five or six years, when the boy is paraded,
+  generally with a bridal procession, on a gaily caparisoned horse and
+  dressed in woman's clothes. Most parents send their boys to school
+  where a knowledge of reading and writing Arabic--the common tongue of
+  the Egyptians--is obtainable, and from the closing years of the 19th
+  century a great desire for the education of girls has arisen (see S
+  _Education_).
+
+  It is deemed disreputable for a young man not to marry when he has
+  attained a sufficient age; there are, therefore, few unmarried men.
+  Girls, in like manner, marry very young, some at ten years of age, and
+  few remain single beyond the age of sixteen; they are generally very
+  prolific. The bridegroom never sees his future wife before the wedding
+  night, a custom rendered more tolerable than it otherwise might be by
+  the facility of divorce. A dowry is always given, and a simple
+  marriage ceremony performed by a _fiki_ (a schoolmaster, or one who
+  recites the Koran, properly one learned in _fiqh_, Mahommedan law) in
+  the presence of two witnesses. The bridal of a virgin is attended with
+  great festivity and rejoicing, a grandee's wedding sometimes
+  continuing eleven days and nights. On the last day, which should be
+  that terminating with the eve of Friday, or of Monday, the bride is
+  taken in procession to the bridegroom's house, accompanied by her
+  female friends, and a band of musicians, jugglers, wrestlers, &c. As
+  before stated, a boy about to be circumcised joins in such a
+  procession, or, frequently, a succession of such boys. Though allowed
+  by his religion four wives, most Egyptians are monogamists. A man may,
+  however, possess any number of concubines, who, though objects of
+  jealousy to the legal wife, are tolerated by her in consideration of
+  her superior position and power over them, a power which she often
+  uses with great tyranny; but certain privileges are possessed by
+  concubines, especially if they have borne sons to their master. A
+  divorce is rendered obligatory by the simple words "Thou art
+  divorced." Repudiation may take place twice without being final, but
+  if the husband repeats thrice "Thou art divorced" the separation is
+  absolute. In that case the dowry must be returned to the wife.
+
+  Elaborate ceremonies are observed at funerals. Immediately on death
+  the corpse is turned towards Mecca, and the women of the household,
+  assisted by hired mourners, commence their peculiar wailing, while
+  fikis recite portions of the Koran. The funeral takes place on the day
+  of the death, if that happen in the morning; otherwise on the next
+  day. The corpse, having been washed and shrouded, is placed in an open
+  bier, covered with a cashmere shawl, in the case of a man; or in a
+  closed bier, having a post in front, on which are placed feminine
+  ornaments, in that of a woman or child. The funeral procession is
+  headed by a number of poor, and generally blind, men, chanting the
+  profession of the faith, followed by male friends of the deceased, and
+  a party of schoolboys, also chanting, generally from a poem
+  descriptive of the state of the soul after death. Then follows the
+  bier, borne on the shoulders of friends, who are relieved by the
+  passers-by, such an act being deemed highly meritorious. Behind come
+  the women relatives and the hired wailers. On the way to the cemetery
+  the corpse is generally carried to some revered mosque. Here the
+  funeral service is performed by the imam, and the procession then
+  proceeds to the tomb. In the burials of the rich, water and bread are
+  distributed to the poor at the grave; and sometimes a buffalo or
+  several buffaloes are slaughtered there, and the flesh given away. The
+  tomb is a vault, surmounted by an oblong stone monument, with a stele
+  at the head and feet; and a cupola, supported by four walls, covers
+  the whole in the case of sheikhs' tombs and those of the wealthy.
+  During the night following the interment, called the Night of
+  Desolation, or that of Solitude, the soul being believed to remain
+  with the body that one night, fikis are engaged at the house of the
+  deceased to recite various portions of the Koran, and, commonly, to
+  repeat the first clause of the profession of the faith, "There is no
+  God but God," three thousand times. The women alone put on mourning
+  attire, by dyeing their veils, shirts, &c., dark blue, with indigo;
+  and they stain their hands, and smear the walls, with the same colour.
+  Everything in the house is also turned upside down. The latter customs
+  are not, however, observed on the death of an old man. At certain
+  periods after the burial, a khatmeh, or recitation of the whole of the
+  Koran, is performed, and the tomb is visited by the women relations
+  and friends of the deceased. The women of the peasants of Upper Egypt
+  perform strange dances, &c., at funerals, which are regarded partly as
+  relics of ancient Egyptian customs.
+
+  The harem system of appointing separate apartments to the women, and
+  secluding them from the gaze of men, is observed in Egypt as in other
+  Moslem countries, but less strictly. The women of an Egyptian
+  household in which old customs are maintained never sit in the
+  presence of the master, but attend him at his meals, and are treated
+  in every respect as inferiors. The mother, however, forms a remarkable
+  exception to this rule; in rare instances, also, a wife becomes a
+  companion to her husband. On the other hand, if a pair of women's
+  shoes are placed outside the door of the harem apartments, they are
+  understood to signify that female visitors are within, and a man is
+  sometimes thus excluded from the upper portion of his own house for
+  many days. Ladies of the upper or middle classes lead a life of
+  extreme inactivity, spending their time at the bath, which is the
+  general place of gossip, or in receiving visits, embroidering, and the
+  like, and in absolute _dolce far niente_. Both sexes are given to
+  licentiousness.
+
+  The principal meals are breakfast, about an hour after sunrise;
+  dinner, or the mid-day meal, at noon; and supper, which is the chief
+  meal of the day, a little after sunset. Pastry, sweetmeats and fruit
+  are highly esteemed. Coffee is taken at all hours, and is, with a
+  pipe, presented at least once to each guest. Tobacco is the great
+  luxury of the men of all classes in Egypt, who begin and end the day
+  with it, and generally smoke all day with little intermission. Many
+  women, also, especially among the rich, adopt the habit. The smoking
+  of hashish, though illegal, is indulged in by considerable numbers of
+  people. Men who can afford to keep a horse, mule or ass are very
+  seldom seen to walk. Ladies ride asses and sit astride. The poorer
+  classes cannot fully observe the harem system, but the women are in
+  general carefully veiled. Some of them keep small shops, and all fetch
+  water, make fuel, and cook for their households. Domestic slavery
+  lingers but is moribund. The majority of the slaves are negresses
+  employed in household duties.
+
+  In social intercourse the Egyptians observe many forms of salutation
+  and much etiquette; they are very affable, and readily enter into
+  conversation with strangers. Their courtesy and dignity of manner are
+  very striking, and are combined with ease and a fluency of discourse.
+  They have a remarkable quickness of apprehension, a ready wit, a
+  retentive memory, combined, however, with religious pride and
+  hypocrisy, and a disregard for the truth. Their common discourse is
+  full of asseverations and expressions respecting sacred things. They
+  entertain reverence for their Prophet; and the Koran is treated with
+  the utmost respect--never, for example, being placed in a low
+  situation--and this is the case with everything they esteem holy. They
+  are fatalists, and bear calamities with surprising resignation. Their
+  filial piety and respect for the aged have been mentioned, and
+  benevolence and charity are conspicuous in their character. Humanity
+  to animals is another virtue, and cruelty is openly discountenanced in
+  the streets. Their affability, cheerfulness and hospitality are
+  remarkable, as well as frugality and temperance in food and drink, and
+  honesty in the payment of debt. Their cupidity is mitigated by
+  generosity; their natural indolence by the necessity, especially among
+  the peasantry, to work hard to gain a livelihood. Egyptians, however,
+  are as a rule suspicious of all not of their own creed and country.
+  Murders and other grave crimes are rare, but petty larcenies are very
+  common.
+
+  The amusements of the people are generally not of a violent kind,
+  being in keeping with their sedentary habits and the heat of the
+  climate. The bath is a favourite resort of both sexes and all classes.
+  They are acquainted with chess, draughts, backgammon, and other games,
+  among which is one peculiar to themselves, called Mankalah, and played
+  with cowries. Notwithstanding its condemnation by Mahomet, music is
+  the most favourite recreation of the people; the songs of the boatmen,
+  the religious chants, and the cries in the streets are all musical.
+  There are male and female musical performers; the former are both
+  instrumental and vocal, the latter (called _'Almeh_, pl. _'Awalim_)
+  generally vocal. The 'Awalim are, as their name ("learned") implies,
+  generally accomplished women, and should not be confounded with the
+  Ghawazi, or dancing-girls. There are many kinds of musical
+  instruments. The music, vocal and instrumental, is generally of little
+  compass, and in the minor key; it is therefore plaintive, and strikes
+  a European ear as somewhat monotonous, though often possessing a
+  simple beauty, and the charm of antiquity, for there is little doubt
+  that the favourite airs have been handed down from remote ages. The
+  Ghawazi (sing. Ghazia) form a separate class, very similar to the
+  gipsies. They intermarry among themselves only, and their women are
+  professional dancers. Their performances are often objectionable and
+  are so regarded by many Egyptians. They dance in public, at fairs and
+  religious festivals, and at private festivities, but, it is said, not
+  in respectable houses. Mehemet Ali banished them to Esna, in Upper
+  Egypt; and the few that remained in Cairo called themselves 'Awalim,
+  to avoid punishment. Many of the dancing-girls of Cairo to-day are
+  neither 'Awalim nor Ghawazi, but women of the very lowest class whose
+  performances are both ungraceful and indecent. A most objectionable
+  class of male dancers also exists, who imitate the dances of the
+  Ghawazi, and dress in a kind of nondescript female attire. Not the
+  least curious of the public performances are those of the
+  serpent-charmers, who are generally Rifa'ia (Saadia) dervishes. Their
+  power over serpents has been doubted, yet their performances remain
+  unexplained; they, however, always extract the fangs of venomous
+  serpents. Jugglers, rope-dancers and farce-players must also be
+  mentioned. In the principal coffee-shops of Cairo are to be found
+  reciters of romances, surrounded by interested audiences.
+
+
+    Public festivals.
+
+  The periodical public festivals are exceedingly interesting, but many
+  of the remarkable observances connected with them are passing away.
+  The first ten days of the Mahommedan year are held to be blessed, and
+  especially the tenth; and many curious practices are observed on these
+  days, particularly by the women. The tenth day, being the anniversary
+  of the martyrdom of Hosain, the son of Ali and grandson of the
+  Prophet, the mosque of the Hasanen at Cairo is thronged to excess,
+  mostly by women. In the evening a procession goes to the mosque, the
+  principal figure being a white horse with white trappings, upon which
+  is seated a small boy, the horse and the lad, who represents Hosain,
+  being smeared with blood. From the mosque the procession goes to a
+  private house, where a mullah recites the story of the martyrdom.
+  Following the order of the lunar year, the next festival is that of
+  the Return of the Pilgrims, which is the occasion of great rejoicing,
+  many having friends or relatives in the caravan. The Mahmal, a kind of
+  covered litter, first originated by Queen Sheger-ed-Dur, is brought
+  into the city in procession, though not with as much pomp as when it
+  leaves with the pilgrims. These and other processions have lost much
+  of their effect since the extinction of the Mamelukes, and the gradual
+  disuse of gorgeous dress for the retainers of the officers of state. A
+  regiment of regular infantry makes but a sorry substitute for the
+  splendid cavalcade of former times. The Birth of the Prophet (Molid
+  en-Nebi), which is celebrated in the beginning of the third month, is
+  the greatest festival of the whole year. For nine days and nights
+  Cairo has more the aspect of a fair than of a city keeping a religious
+  festival. The chief ceremonies take place in some large open spot
+  round which are erected the tents of the khedive, of great state
+  officials, and of the dervishes. Next in time, and also in importance,
+  is the Molid El-Hasanen, commemorative of the birth of Hosain, and
+  lasting fifteen days and nights; and at the same time is kept the
+  Molid of al-Salih Ayyub, the last sovereign but two of the Ayyubite
+  dynasty. In the seventh month occur the Molid of the sayyida Zenab,
+  and the commemoration of the Miarag, or the Prophet's miraculous
+  journey to heaven. Early in the eighth month (Sha'ban), the Molid of
+  the imam Shafi'i is observed; and the night of the middle of that
+  month has its peculiar customs, being held by the Moslems to be that
+  on which the fate of all living is decided for the ensuing year. Then
+  follows Ramadan, the month of abstinence, a severe trial to the
+  faithful; and the Lesser Festival (Al-'id as-saghir), which commences
+  Shawwal, is hailed by them with delight. A few days after, the Kiswa,
+  or new covering for the Ka'ba at Mecca, is taken in procession from
+  the citadel, where it is always manufactured, to the mosque of the
+  Hasanen to be completed; and, later, the caravan of pilgrims departs,
+  when the grand procession of the Mahmal takes place. On the tenth day
+  of the last month of the year the Great Festival (Al-'id al-kabir), or
+  that of the Sacrifice (commemorating the willingness of Ibrahim to
+  slay his son Ismail--according to the Arab legend), closes the
+  calendar. The Lesser and Great Festivals are those known in Turkish as
+  the Bairam (q.v.).
+
+  The rise of the Nile is naturally the occasion of annual customs, some
+  of which are doubtless relics of antiquity; these are observed
+  according to the Coptic calendar. The commencement of the rise is
+  commemorated on the night of the 11th of Bauna, the 17th of June,
+  called that of the Drop (Lelet-en-Nukta), because a miraculous drop is
+  then supposed to fall and cause the swelling of the river. The real
+  rise begins at Cairo about the summer solstice, or a few days later,
+  and early in July a crier in each district of the city begins to go
+  his daily rounds, announcing, in a quaint chant, the increase of water
+  in the nilometer of the island of Roda. When the river has risen 20 or
+  21 ft., he proclaims the Wefa en-Nil, "Completion" or "Abundance of
+  the Nile." On the following day the dam which closed the canal of
+  Cairo was cut with much ceremony. The canal having been filled up in
+  1897 the ceremony has been much modified, but a brief description of
+  what used to take place may be given. A pillar of earth before the dam
+  is called the "Bride of the Nile," and Arab historians relate that
+  this was substituted, at the Moslem conquest, for a virgin whom it was
+  the custom annually to sacrifice, to ensure a plentiful inundation. A
+  large boat, gaily decked out, representing that in which the victim
+  used to be conveyed, was anchored near, and a gun on board fired every
+  quarter of an hour during the night. Rockets and other fireworks were
+  also let off, but the best, strangely, after daybreak. The governor of
+  Cairo attended the ceremony, with the cadi and others, and gave the
+  signal for the cutting of the dam. As soon as sufficient water had
+  entered, boats ascended the canal to the city. The crier continues his
+  daily rounds, with his former chant, excepting on the Coptic New
+  Year's Day, when the cry of the Wefa is repeated, until the Salib, or
+  Discovery of the Cross, the 26th or 27th of September, at which
+  period, the river having attained its greatest height, he concludes
+  his annual employment with another chant, and presents to each house
+  some limes and other fruit, and dry lumps of Nile mud.
+
+  The period of the hot winds, called the khamsin, that is, "the
+  fifties," is calculated from the day after the Coptic Easter, and
+  terminates on the day of Pentecost, and the Moslems observe the
+  Wednesday preceding this period, called "Job's Wednesday," as well as
+  its first day, when many go into the country from Cairo, "to smell the
+  air." This day is hence called Shem en-Nesim, or "the smelling of the
+  zephyr." The Ulema observe the same custom on the first three days of
+  the spring quarter.
+
+  Tombs of saints abound, one or more being found in every town and
+  village; and no traveller up the Nile can fail to remark how every
+  prominent hill has the sepulchre of its patron saint. The great saints
+  of Egypt are the imam Ash-Shafi'i, founder of the persuasion called
+  after him, the sayyid Ahmad al-Baidawi, and the sayyid Ibrahim
+  Ed-Desuki, both of whom were founders of orders of dervishes.
+  Al-Baidawi, who lived in the 13th century A.D., is buried at the town
+  of Tanta, in the Delta, and his tomb attracts many thousands of
+  visitors at each of the three festivals held yearly in his honour;
+  Ed-Desuki is also much revered, and his festivals draw together, in
+  like manner, great crowds to his birthplace, the town of Desuk. But,
+  besides the graves of her native saints, Egypt boasts of those of
+  several members of the Prophet's family, the tomb of the sayyida
+  Zeyneb, daughter of 'Ali, that of the sayyida Sekeina, daughter of
+  Hosain, and that of the sayyida Nefisa, great-granddaughter of Hasan,
+  all of which are held in high veneration. The mosque of the Hasanen
+  (or that of the "two Hasans") is the most reverenced shrine in the
+  country, and is believed to contain the head of Hosain. Many orders of
+  Dervishes live in Egypt, the following being the most celebrated:--(1)
+  the Rifa'ia, and their sects the 'Ilwania and Saadia; (2) the Qadiria
+  (Kahiria), or howling dervishes; (3) the Ahmedia, or followers of the
+  sayyid Ahmad al-Baidawi, and their sects the Beyumia (known by their
+  long hair), Shinnawia, Sharawia and many others; and (4) the Baramia,
+  or followers of the sayyid Ibrahim Ed-Desuki. These are all presided
+  over by a direct descendant of the caliph Abu Bekr, called the Sheikh
+  El-Bekri. The Saadia are famous for charming and eating live serpents,
+  &c., and the 'Ilwania for eating fire, glass, &c. The Egyptians firmly
+  believe in the efficacy of charms, a belief associated with that in
+  an omnipresent and over-ruling providence. Thus the doors of houses
+  are inscribed with sentences from the Koran, or the like, to preserve
+  from the evil eye, or avert the dangers of an unlucky threshold;
+  similar inscriptions may be observed over most shops, while almost
+  every one carries some charm about his person. The so-called sciences
+  of magic, astrology and alchemy still flourish.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--The standard authority for the Moslem Egyptians is E. W.
+  Lane's _Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians_, first published
+  in 1836. The best edition is that of 1860, edited, with additions, by
+  E. S. Poole. See also B. Saint-John, _Village Life in Egypt_ (2 vols.,
+  1852); S. Lane Poole, _Social Life in Egypt_ (1884); P. Arminjon,
+  _L'Enseignement, la doctrine, el la vie dans les universites
+  musulmanes d'Egypte_ (Paris, 1907). For the language see J. S.
+  Willmore, _The Spoken Arabic of Egypt_ (2nd ed., London, 1905); Spitta
+  Bey, _Grammatik des arabischen Vulgardialektes von Agypten, Contes
+  arabes modernes_ (Leiden, 1883). For statistical information consult
+  the reports on the censuses of 1897 and 1907, published by the
+  Ministry of the Interior, Cairo, in 1898 and 1909.
+       (E. S. P.; S. L.-P.; F. R. C.)
+
+
+_Finance._
+
+The important part which the financial arrangements have played in the
+political and social history of Egypt since the accession of Ismail
+Pasha in 1863 is shown in the section _History_ of this article. Here it
+is proposed to trace the steps by which Egypt, after having been brought
+to a state of bankruptcy, passed through a period of great stress, and
+finally attained prosperity and a large measure of financial autonomy.
+
+In 1862 the foreign debt of Egypt stood at L3,292,000. With the
+accession of Ismail (q.v.) there followed a period of wild extravagance
+and reckless borrowing accompanied by the extortion of every piastre
+possible from the fellahin. The real state of affairs was disclosed in
+the report of Mr Stephen Cave, a well-known banker, who was sent by the
+British government in December 1875 to inquire into the situation. The
+Cave report showed that Egypt suffered from "the ignorance, dishonesty,
+waste and extravagance of the East" and from "the vast expense caused by
+hasty and inconsiderate endeavours to adopt the civilization of the
+West." The debtor and creditor account of the state from 1864 to 1875
+showed receipts amounting to L148,215,000. Of this sum over L94,000,000
+had been obtained from revenue and nearly L4,000,000 by the sale of the
+khedive's shares in the Suez Canal to Great Britain. The rest was
+credited to: loans L31,713,000, floating debt L18,243,000. The cash
+which reached the Egyptian treasury from the loans and floating debt was
+far less than the nominal amount of such loans, none of which cost the
+Egyptian government less than 12% per annum. When the expenditure during
+the same period was examined the extraordinary fact was disclosed that
+the sum raised by revenue was only three millions less than that spent
+on administration, tribute and public works, including a sum of
+L10,500,000, described as "expenses of questionable utility or policy."
+The whole proceeds of the loans and floating debt had been absorbed in
+payment of interest and sinking funds, with the exception of L16,000,000
+debited to the Suez Canal. In other words, Egypt was burdened with a
+debt of L91,000,000--funded or floating--for which she had no return,
+for even from the Suez Canal she derived no revenue, owing to the sale
+of the khedive's shares.
+
+Soon after Mr Cave's report appeared (March 1876), default took place on
+several of the loans. Nearly the whole of the debt, it should be stated,
+was held in England or France, and at the instance of French financiers
+the stoppage of payment was followed by a scheme to unify the debt. This
+scheme included the distribution of a bonus of 25% to holders of
+treasury bonds. These bonds had then reached a sum exceeding L20,000,000
+and were held chiefly by French firms. The unification scheme was
+elaborated in a khedivial decree of the 7th of May 1876, but was
+rendered abortive by the opposition of the British bondholders. Its
+place was taken by another scheme drawn up by Mr (afterwards Lord)
+Goschen and M. Joubert, who represented the British and French
+bondholders respectively. The details of this settlement, promulgated by
+decree of the 17th of November 1876, need not be given, as it was
+superseded in 1880. One of the securities devised for the benefit of the
+bondholders in the abortive scheme of May 1876 was retained in the
+Goschen-Joubert settlement, and being continued in later settlements
+grew to be one of the most important institutions in Egypt. This
+security was the establishment of a Treasury of the Public Debt, known
+by its French title of _Caisse de la Dette_, and commonly spoken of
+simply as "the Caisse." The duty of this body was to act as receivers of
+the revenues assigned to the service of the debt. To render their powers
+effective they were given the right to sue the Egyptian government in
+the Mixed Tribunals for any breach of engagement to the bondholders.
+
+
+  The Law of Liquidation.
+
+The Goschen-Joubert settlement was accompanied by guarantees against
+maladministration by the appointment of an Englishman and a Frenchman to
+superintend the revenue and expenditure--the "Dual Control"; while a
+commission was appointed in 1878 to investigate the condition of the
+country. The settlement of 1880 was effected on the basis of the
+proposals made by this commission, and was embodied in the Law of
+Liquidation of July 1880--after the deposition of Ismail. For the
+purposes of the new settlement the loans raised by Ismail on his private
+estates, those known as the Daira (i.e. "administrations") and Domains
+loans, were brought into account. By the Law of Liquidation the floating
+debt was paid off, the whole debt being consolidated into four large
+loans, upon which the rate of interest was reduced to a figure which it
+was considered Egypt was able to bear. The Egyptian debt under this
+composition was:
+
+  Privileged debt        L22,609,000
+  Unified debt            58,018,000
+  Daira Sanieh loan        9,513,000
+  Domains loan             8,500,000
+                         -----------
+                         L98,640,000
+
+The rate of interest was, on the Privileged debt and Domains loan, 5%;
+on the Unified debt and Daira loan, 4%. Under this settlement the total
+annual charges on the country amounted to L4,500,000, about half the
+then revenue of Egypt. These charges included the services of the
+Privileged and Unified debts, the tribute to Turkey and the interest on
+the Suez Canal shares held by Great Britain, but excluded the interest
+on the Daira and Domains loans, expected to be defrayed by the revenues
+from the estates on which those loans were secured. The general revenue
+of Egypt was divided between the bondholders and the government, any
+surplus on the bondholders' share being devoted to the redemption of the
+capital.
+
+The 1880 settlement proved little more lasting than that of 1876. After
+a brief period of prosperity, the Arabi rising, the riots at Alexandria,
+and the events generally which led to the British occupation of Egypt in
+1882, followed by the losses incurred in the Sudan in the effort to
+prevent it falling into the hands of the Mahdi, brought Egypt once more
+to the verge of financial disaster. The situation was an anomalous one.
+While the revenue assigned to the service of the debt was more than
+sufficient for the payment of interest and the sinking fund was in full
+operation, the government found that their share of the revenue was
+altogether inadequate for the expenses of administration, and they were
+compelled to borrow on short loans at high rate of interest. Moreover,
+to make good the losses incurred at Alexandria, and to get money to pay
+the charges arising out of the Sudan War and the Arabi rebellion, a new
+loan was essential. On the initiative of Great Britain a conference
+between the representatives of the great powers and Turkey was held in
+London, and resulted in the signing of a convention in March 1885. The
+terms agreed upon in this instrument, known as the London Convention,
+were embodied in a khedivial decree, which, with some modification in
+detail, remained for twenty years the organic law under which the
+finances of Egypt were administered.
+
+
+  Provisions of the London Convention.
+
+The principle of dividing the revenue of the country between the Caisse,
+as representing the bondholders, and the government was maintained by
+the London Convention. The revenue assigned to the service of the debt,
+namely, that derived from the railway, telegraphs, port of Alexandria,
+customs (including tobacco) and from four of the provinces, remained as
+before. It was recognized, however, that the non-assigned revenue was
+insufficient to meet the necessary expenses of government, and a scale
+of administrative expenditure was drawn up. This was originally fixed at
+LE.5,237,000,[6] but subsequently other items were allowed, and in 1904,
+the last year in which the system described existed, it was
+LE.6,300,600. The Caisse was authorized, after payment of the coupons on
+the debt, to make good out of their balance in hand the difference
+between the authorized expenditure and the non-assigned revenue. If a
+surplus remained to the Caisse after making good such deficit the
+surplus was to be divided equally between the Caisse and the government;
+the government to be free to spend its share as it pleased, while the
+Caisse had to devote its share to the reduction of the debt. This
+limitation of administrative expenditure was the cardinal feature and
+the leading defect of the convention. Those responsible for this
+arrangement--the most favourable for Egypt that Great Britain could
+secure--failed to recognize the complete change likely to result from
+the British occupation of Egypt, and probably regarded that occupation
+as temporary. The system devised might have been justifiable as a check
+on a retrograde government, but was wholly inapplicable to a reforming
+government and a serious obstacle to the attainment of national
+prosperity. In practice administrative expenditure always exceeded the
+amount fixed by the convention. Any excess could, however, only be met
+out of the half-share of the eventual surplus reached in the manner
+described. Consequently, in order to meet new expenditure necessitated
+by the growing wants of a country in process of development, just double
+the amount of revenue had to be raised.
+
+To return to the provisions of the London Convention. The convention
+left the permanent rate of interest on the debt, as fixed by the Law of
+Liquidation, unchanged, but to afford temporary relief to the Egyptian
+exchequer a reduction of 5% on the interest of the debt was granted for
+two years, on condition that if at the end of that period payment,
+including the arrears of the two years, was not resumed in full, another
+international commission was to be appointed to examine into the whole
+financial situation. Lastly, the convention empowered Egypt to raise a
+loan of nine millions, guaranteed by all the powers, at a rate of
+interest of 3%. For the service of this loan--known as the Guaranteed
+loan--an annuity of L315,000 was provided in the Egyptian budget for
+interest and sinking fund. The L9,000,000 was sufficient to pay the
+Alexandria indemnities, to wipe out the deficits of the preceding years,
+to give the Egyptian treasury a working balance of LE.500,000 and
+thereby avoid the creation of a fresh floating debt, and to provide a
+million for new irrigation works. To the wise foresight which, at a
+moment when the country was sinking beneath a weight of debt, did not
+hesitate to add this million for expenditure on productive works, the
+present prosperity of Egypt is largely due.
+
+The provisions of the London Convention did not exhaust the restrictions
+placed upon the Egyptian government in respect of financial autonomy.
+These restrictions were of two categories, (1) those independent of the
+London Convention, (2) those dependent upon that instrument. In the
+first category came (a) the prohibition to raise a loan without the
+consent of the Porte. The right to raise loans had been granted to the
+khedive Ismail in 1873, but was taken away in 1879 by the firman
+appointing Tewfik khedive. (b) Next came the inability to levy taxes on
+foreigners without the consent of their respective governments. This
+last obligation was, in virtue of the Capitulations, applicable to Egypt
+as part of the Ottoman empire. The only exception, resulting from the
+Ottoman law under which foreigners are allowed to acquire and hold real
+property, is the land tax. (All taxes formerly paid by natives and not
+by foreigners have been abolished in Egypt, but the immunity described
+constitutes a most serious obstacle to the redistribution of the burden
+of taxation in a more equitable manner.)
+
+From the purely Egyptian point of view the most powerful restriction in
+this first category remains to be named. In 1883 the supervision
+exercised over the finances by French and British controllers was
+replaced by that of a British official called the financial adviser. The
+British government has declared that "no financial decision shall be
+taken without his consent," a declaration never questioned by the
+Egyptian government. This restriction, therefore, is at the same time
+the chief safeguard for the purity of Egypt's finances.
+
+In the second category of restrictions, namely, those dependent on the
+London Convention, were the various commissions or boards known as Mixed
+Administrations and having relations of a quasi-independent character
+with the ministry of finance. Of these boards by far the most important
+was the Caisse. As first constituted it consisted of a French, an
+Austrian, and an Italian member; a British member was added in 1877 and
+a German and a Russian member in 1885. The revenue assigned to the debt
+charges was paid direct to the Caisse without passing through the
+ministry of finance. The assent of the Caisse (as well as that of the
+sultan) was necessary before any new loan could be issued, and in the
+course of a few years from its creation this body acquired very
+extensive powers. Besides the Caisse there was the Railway Board, which
+administered the railways, telegraphs and port of Alexandria for the
+benefit of the bondholders, and the Daira and Domains commissions, which
+administered the estates mortgaged to the holders of those loans. Each
+of the three boards last named consisted of an Englishman, a Frenchman
+and an Egyptian.
+
+
+  The race against bankruptcy.
+
+During the two years that followed the signing of the London Convention,
+the financial policy of the Egyptian government was directed to placing
+the country in a position to resume full payment of the interest on the
+debt in 1887, and thereby to avoid the appointment of an international
+commission. By the exercise of the most rigid economy in all branches
+this end was attained, though budgetary equilibrium was only secured by
+a variety of financial expedients, justified by the vital importance of
+saving Egypt from further international interference. By such means this
+additional complication was averted, but the struggle to put Egypt in a
+genuinely solvent position was by no means over. It was not until his
+report on the financial results of 1888 that Sir Evelyn Baring
+(afterwards Lord Cromer) was able to inform the British government that
+the situation was such that "it would take a series of untoward events
+seriously to endanger the stability of Egyptian finance and the solvency
+of the Egyptian government." From this moment the corner was turned, and
+the era of financial prosperity commenced. The results of the labours of
+the preceding six years began to manifest themselves with a rapidity
+which surprised the most sanguine observers. The principal feature of
+the successive Egyptian budgets of 1890-1894 was the fiscal relief
+afforded to the population. From 1894 onward more attention was paid
+than had hitherto been possible to the legitimate demands of the
+spending departments and to the prosecution of public works. Of these
+the most notable was the construction (1898-1902) of the Assuan dam,
+which by bringing more land under cultivation permanently increased the
+resources of the country and widened the area of taxation.
+
+
+  Reserve funds.
+
+With the accumulating proofs of the financial stability of the country
+various changes were made in connexion with the debt charges. With the
+consent of the powers a General Reserve Fund was created by decree of
+the 12th of July 1888, into which was paid the Caisse's half-share in
+the eventual surplus of revenue. This fund, primarily intended as a
+security for the bondholders, might be drawn upon for extraordinary
+expenditure with the consent of the commissioners of the Caisse. Large
+sums were so advanced for the purposes of drainage and irrigation and
+other public works, and in relief of taxation. The defect of this
+arrangement consisted in the necessity of obtaining the consent of the
+commissioners--a consent sometimes withheld on purely political grounds.
+At the same time it is believed that but for the faculty given by the
+decree of 1888 to spend the General Reserve Fund on public works, the
+financial system elaborated by the London Convention would have broken
+down altogether. Between 1888 and 1904 about L10,000,000 was devoted
+from this fund to public works.
+
+In June 1890 the assent of the powers was obtained to the conversion of
+the Preference (Privileged), Domains and Daira loans on the following
+conditions, imposed at the initiative of the French government:--
+
+  1. The employment of the economies resulting from the conversion was
+  to be the subject of future agreement with the powers.
+
+  2. The Daira loan was to be reimbursed at 85%, instead of 80%, as
+  provided by the Law of Liquidation.
+
+  3. The sales of Domains and Daira lands were to be restricted to
+  LE.300,000 a year each, thus prolonging the period of liquidation of
+  those estates.
+
+The interest on the Preference stock was reduced from 5 to 3-1/2%, and on
+the Domains from 5 to 4-1/4%. As regards the Daira loan, there was no
+apparent reduction in the rate of interest, which remained at 4%, but
+the bondholders received L85 of the new stock for every L100 of the old.
+The capital of the debt was increased by L1,945,000 by these
+conversions, while the annual economy to the Egyptian government
+amounted at the time of the conversion to LE.348,000. Further, an
+engagement was entered into that there should be no reimbursement of the
+loans till 1905 for the Preference and Daira, and 1908 for the Domains.
+By an arrangement concluded in June 1898, between the Egyptian
+government and a syndicate, the unsold balance of the Daira estates was
+taken over by the syndicate in October 1905, for the amount of the debt
+remaining, when the Daira loan ceased to exist. The fund formed by the
+accumulation of the economies resulting from the conversion of the
+Privileged, Daira and Domains loan was known as the Conversion Economies
+Fund. The fund could not be used for any purpose without the consent of
+the powers, and the money paid into it was invested by the Caisse in
+Egyptian stock. The fund therefore acted as a very expensive sinking
+fund, the market price of the stock purchased being above par. Up to
+1904 the consent of the powers to the employment of this fund for any
+purpose of public utility was withheld. On the 31st of December of that
+year the fund amounted to LE.6,031,000. It may be added that besides the
+General Reserve Fund and the Conversion Economies Fund, there existed
+another fund called the Special Reserve Fund. This was constituted in
+1886 and was chiefly made up of the net savings of the Egyptian
+government on its share of the annual surpluses from revenue. Of the
+three funds this last-named was the only one at the absolute disposal of
+the government. The whole of the extraordinary expenditure of the Sudan
+campaigns of 1896-1898, with the exception of L800,000 granted by the
+British government, was paid out of this fund--a sum amounting in round
+figures to L1,500,000.
+
+
+  An era of prosperity.
+
+Notwithstanding all the hampering conditions stated, the prosperity of
+the country became more manifest each succeeding year. During the four
+years 1883-1886, both inclusive, the aggregate deficit amounted to
+LE.2,606,000. In 1887 there was practical equilibrium in the budget, in
+1888 there was a deficit of LE.53,000. In 1889 there was a surplus of
+LE.218,000, and from that date onward every year has shown a surplus. In
+1895 the surplus exceeded, for the first time, LE.1,000,000. The growth
+of revenue was no less marked. "In 1883--the first complete year after
+the British occupation--the revenue was slightly under 9 millions. This
+sum was collected with difficulty. The revenue steadily rose until, in
+1890, the figure of 10 millions was exceeded. In 1897 a figure of over
+11 millions was attained. Continuing to rise with ever-increasing
+rapidity, a revenue of close on 12 millions was collected in 1901 and
+1902, in spite of the fact that during the latter of these two years the
+Nile flood was one of the lowest on record. In 1903 the revenue amounted
+to 12-1/2 millions, and in 1904 the unprecedented figure of LE.13,906,000
+was reached."[7] Yet during this period the amount of direct taxation
+remitted reached LE.1,900,000 a year. Arrears of land tax to the extent
+of LE.1,245,000 were cancelled. In indirect taxation the salt tax had
+been reduced by 40%, the postal, railway and telegraph rates lowered,
+octroi duties and bridge and lock dues abolished. The only increase of
+taxation had been on tobacco, on which the duty was raised from P.T. 14
+to P.T. 20 per kilogramme. At the same time the house duty, with the
+consent of the powers, had been imposed on European residents. The fact
+that during the period under review Egypt suffered very severely from
+the general fall in the price of commodities makes the prosperity of the
+country the more remarkable. Had it not been for the great increase of
+production as the result of improved irrigation and the fiscal relief
+afforded to landowners, the agricultural depression would have impaired
+the financial situation. In this connexion it should be stated that
+during 1899 the reassessment of the land tax, a much-needed reform, was
+seriously taken in hand. The existing assessment, made before the
+British occupation, had long been condemned by all competent
+authorities, but the inherent intricacies and difficulties of the
+problem had hitherto postponed a solution. After careful study and a
+preliminary examination of the land, a scheme was passed which has given
+satisfaction to the landowning community, and which distributes the tax
+equitably in proportion to the fertility of the soil. The reassessment
+was completed in 1907.
+
+
+  The cost of internationalism.
+
+While the country thus prospered it also suffered greatly from the
+restrictions imposed by the system of international control. This system
+produced a great disproportion between the sums available for capital
+and those available for administrative expenditure. Although the money
+for public works could be obtained out of grants from the General
+Reserve Fund, there was no fund from which to provide a sufficient sum
+to keep those works in order. Moreover, to avoid having to pay half the
+amount received into the General Reserve Fund the government was
+compelled to keep certain items of revenue and expenditure out of the
+accounts altogether--a violation of the principles of sound finance.
+Then there was the glaring anomaly of allowing the Conversion Economies
+to accumulate at compound interest in the hands of the commissioners of
+the Caisse, instead of using the money for remunerative purposes. The
+net result of internationalism was to impose an extra charge of about
+L1,750,000 a year on the Egyptian treasury.
+
+
+  Egypt gains financial liberty.
+
+All these cumbersome restrictions were swept away by the khedivial
+decree of the 28th of November 1904, a decree which received the assent
+of the powers and was the result of the Anglo-French agreement of April
+1904 (see S HISTORY). The decree did not affect the inability of Egypt
+to tax foreigners without their consent nor remove the right of Turkey
+to veto the issue of new loans, but in other respects the financial
+changes made by it were of a radical character. The main effect was to
+give to the Egyptian government a free hand in the disposal of its own
+resources so long as the punctual payment of interest on the debt was
+assured. The plan devised by the London Convention of fixing a limit to
+administrative expenditure was abolished. The consent of the Caisse to
+the raising of a new loan was no longer required. The Caisse itself
+remained, but shorn of all political and administrative powers, its
+functions being strictly limited to receiving the assigned revenues and
+to ensuring the due payment of the coupon. The nature of the assigned
+revenue was altered, the land tax being substituted for those previously
+assigned, that tax being chosen as it had a greater character of
+stability than any other source of revenue. By this means Egypt gained
+complete control of its railways, telegraphs, the port of Alexandria and
+the customs, and as a consequence the mixed administration known as the
+Railway Board ceased to exist. Moreover, it was provided that when the
+Caisse had received from the land tax the amount needed for the service
+of the debt, the balance of the tax was to be paid direct to the
+Egyptian treasury. The Conversion Economies Fund was also placed at the
+free disposal of the Egyptian government. The General Reserve Fund
+ceased to exist, but for the better security of the bondholders a
+reserve fund of L1,800,000 was constituted and left in the hands of the
+Caisse to be used in the highly improbable event of the land tax being
+insufficient to meet the debt charges. Moreover, the Caisse started
+under the new arrangement with a cash balance of L1,250,000. The
+interest of the money lying in the hands of the Caisse goes towards
+meeting the debt charges and thus reduces the amount needed from the
+land tax. The bondholders gained a further material advantage by the
+consent of the Egyptian government to delay the conversion of the loans,
+which under previous arrangements they would have been free to do in
+1905. It was agreed that there should be no conversion of the Guaranteed
+or Privileged debts before 1910 and no conversion of the Unified debt
+until 1912. Such were the chief provisions of the khedivial decree, and
+in 1905, for the first time, it was possible to draw up the Egyptian
+budget in accordance with the needs of the country and on perfectly
+sound principles.
+
+  In the system adopted in 1905 and since maintained, recurring and
+  non-recurring expenditure were shown separately, the non-recurring
+  expenditure being termed "special." At the same time a new General
+  Reserve Fund was created, made up chiefly of the surpluses of the old
+  General Reserve, Special Reserve, and Conversion Economies funds. This
+  new fund started with a capital of L13,376,000 and was replenished by
+  the surpluses of subsequent years, by the interest earned by its
+  temporary investment, and by the sums accruing by the liquidation of
+  the Daira and Domains loans. During 1905 and 1906 about L3,000,000 was
+  paid into the fund through the liquidation of the Daira loan. From
+  this fund, which had a balance of over L12,000,000 in 1906, is taken
+  capital expenditure on remunerative public works in Egypt and the
+  Sudan, and while the fund lasts the necessity for any new loan is
+  avoided. The greater freedom of action attained as the result of the
+  Anglo-French declaration of 1904 enabled the Egyptian government to
+  advance simultaneously along the lines of fiscal reform and increased
+  administrative expenditure. Thus in 1906 the salt monopoly was
+  abolished at a cost to the revenue of L175,000, while the reduction of
+  import duties on coal and other fuels, live-stock, &c., involved a
+  further loss of L118,000, and an increase of over L1,000,000 in
+  expenditure was budgeted for. The accounts for 1907 showed a total
+  revenue of LE.16,368,000 and a total expenditure of LE.14,280,000, a
+  surplus of LE.2,088,000. The annual growth of revenue for the previous
+  five years averaged over LE.500,000. About one-third of the annual
+  revenue is derived from the land tax; customs and tobacco duties yield
+  about L3,000,000, and an equal or larger amount is received from
+  railways and other revenue-earning departments. The chief items of
+  ordinary expenditure are tribute and debt charges, the expenses of the
+  civil administration, of the Egyptian army (between L500,000 and
+  L600,000 yearly), of the revenue-earning departments and of pensions.
+
+  It will be convenient here to summarize the position of the Egyptian
+  debt at the close of 1905, that is at the period immediately following
+  the liquidation of the Daira loan. In a previous table it has been
+  shown that under the Law of Liquidation of 1880 the total debt was
+  L98,640,000. In 1883, the first complete year after the British
+  occupation, the capital of the debt--then exclusively held by the
+  public--was L96,457,000. In 1885 the Guaranteed loan, the nominal
+  capital of which was L9,424,000, was issued, and in 1891 the debt
+  reached its maximum figure of L106,802,000. At that period the charge
+  for interest and sinking fund was L4,127,000. On the 31st of December
+  1905 the total capital of the debt was as follows:--
+
+    Guaranteed 3%            L7,849,000
+    Preference 3-1/2%        31,128,000
+    Unified 4%               55,972,000
+    Domains 4-1/4%            1,535,000
+                             ----------
+                     Total  L96,484,000
+
+  The charge on account of interest and sinking fund was L3,709,000.
+  Thus the capital of the debt in 1905 stood at almost the exact figure
+  it did in 1883, although by borrowing and conversion operations nearly
+  L17,000,000 had in the meantime been added to the capital. This
+  reduction was brought about by surplus revenue, and by the operation
+  of the sinking fund in the case of the Guaranteed loan, while
+  L15,729,000 had been wiped out by the sale of Daira and Domains
+  property. These figures do not, however, indicate fully the prosperity
+  of the country, for although the nominal amount of the capital was
+  practically identical in 1883 and 1905, in the latter year the
+  Egyptian government or the Caisse held stock (bought with surplus
+  revenue) to the value of L8,770,000. The amount of debt in the hands
+  of the public was therefore only L87,714,000, that is to say
+  L8,743,000 less than in 1883, while the interest charge to be borne by
+  the taxpayer of Egypt was L3,378,000, being L890,000 less than in
+  1883. The charge amounts to about 40% of the national expenditure. On
+  the other hand, Egypt is not now weighed down with a huge warlike
+  expenditure. There is no navy to support, and the army costs but 7% of
+  the total expenditure.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--A concise view of the financial situation in 1877 will
+  be found in J. C. McCoan's _Egypt as it is_ (London n.d.). Mr Cave's
+  report is printed in an appendix. The subsequent history of Egyptian
+  finance is told in the following blue-books, &c.:--_Correspondence
+  respecting the State Domains of Egypt_ (1883); _Statement of the
+  Revenue and Expenditure of Egypt, together with a List of the Egyptian
+  Bonds and the Charges for their Services_ (1885); _Reports on the
+  Finances of Egypt_, by the British agent, yearly from 1888;
+  _Convention ... relative to the Finance of Egypt, signed at London,
+  March 18, 1885; Khedivial decree of the 28th November 1904; Compte
+  general de l'administration des finances_, issued yearly at Cairo.
+  Consult also the works of Lord Cromer, Lord Milner, and Sir A. Colvin
+  cited under S History, last section.     (E. Go.; F. R. C.)
+
+
+_The Egyptian Army._
+
+  Early history.
+
+The fellah soldier has been aptly likened to a bicycle, which although
+incapable of standing up alone, is very useful while under the control
+of a skilful master. It is generally believed that the successes gained
+in the time of the Pharaohs were due to foreign legions; and from
+Cambyses to Alexander, from the Ptolemies to Antony (Cleopatra), from
+Augustus to the 7th century, throughout the Arab period, and from
+Saladin's dynasty down to the middle of the 13th century, the military
+power of Egypt was dependent on mercenaries. The Mamelukes (slaves),
+imported from the eastern borders of the Black Sea and then trained as
+soldiers, usurped the government of Egypt, and held it till 1517, when
+the Ottomans began to rule. This form of government, speaking generally,
+endured till the French invasion at the end of the 18th century. British
+and Turkish troops drove the French out after an occupation of two
+years, the British troops remaining till 1803. Then Mehemet Ali, a small
+tobacconist of Kavala, Macedonia, coming with Albanian mercenaries, made
+himself governor, and later (1811), by massacring the Mamelukes, became
+the actual master of the country, and after seven years' war brought
+Arabia under Egypt's rule. He subdued Nubia and Sennar in 1820-22; and
+then, requiring a larger army, he obtained instructors from France. To
+them were handed over 1000 Turks and Circassians to be trained as
+officers, who later took command of 30,000 Sudanese. These died so
+rapidly in Egypt from pneumonia[8] that Mehemet Ali conscripted over
+250,000 fellahin, and in so arbitrary a fashion that many peasants
+mutilated themselves to avoid the much-dreaded service. The common
+practice was to place a small piece of nitrate of silver into the eye,
+which was then kept tightly bandaged till the sight was destroyed.
+Battalions were then formed of one-eyed men, and of soldiers who, having
+cut off their right-hand fingers, were made to shoot from the left
+shoulder. Every man who could not purchase exemption, with the exception
+of those living in Cairo, Alexandria and Suez, on becoming 19 years old
+was liable nominally to 12 years' service; but many men were kept for 30
+or 40 years, in spite of constant appeals. Nevertheless the experiment
+succeeded. The docile, yet robust and hardy peasants, under their
+foreign leaders, gained an unbroken series of successes in the first
+Syrian War; and after the bloody battle of Konia (1832), where the raw
+Turkish army was routed and the grand vizier taken prisoner, it was only
+European intervention which prevented the Egyptian general, Ibrahim
+Pasha, from marching unopposed to the Bosphorus. The defeat of the
+Turkish army at Nizib (Nezeeb or Nisib), in the second Syrian War
+(1839), showed that it was possible to obtain favourable military
+results with Egyptians when stiffened by foreigners and well commanded.
+Ibrahim, the hero of Konia, declared, however, that no native Egyptian
+ought to rise higher than the rank of sergeant; and in the Syrian
+campaigns nearly all the officers were Turks or Circassians, as were
+several non-commissioned officers. In the cavalry and artillery many of
+the privates were foreigners, numbers of the janissaries who escaped the
+massacre at Stamboul (1832) having joined Mehemet Ali's army.
+
+In the reign of Abbas, who succeeded Mehemet Ali, the Egyptian troops
+were driven from Nejd, and the Wahhabi state recovered its independence.
+The next viceroy, Said, began as an ardent soldier, but took to
+agriculture, and at his death (1863) 3000 men only were retained under
+arms. Ismail, on succeeding, immediately added 27,000 men, and in seven
+years was able to put 100,000 men, well equipped, in the field. He sent
+10,000 men to help to suppress a rebellion in Crete, and conquered the
+greater part of the (Nile) Sudan; but an expedition of 11,000 men, sent
+to Abyssinia under Prince Hasan and Rateb Pasha, well equipped with guns
+and all essentials, was, in two successive disasters (1875 and 1876),
+practically destroyed. The education of Egyptians in continental cities
+had not produced the class of leaders who led the fellahin to victory at
+Konia.
+
+Ismail's exactions from the Egyptian peasantry reacted on the army,
+causing discontent; and when he was tottering on the throne he
+instigated military demonstrations against his own government, and, by
+thus sapping the foundations of discipline, assisted Arabi's revolution;
+the result was the battle of Tell el-Kebir, the British occupation, and
+the disbandment of the army, which at that time in Egypt proper
+consisted of 18,000 men. Ismail had collected 500 field-guns, 200
+Armstrong cannon, and had created factories of warlike and other stores.
+These latter were conducted extravagantly, and badly administered.
+
+
+  Reorganization.
+
+In January 1883, Major-General Sir Evelyn Wood, V.C., was given
+L200,000, and directed to spend it in raising a fellahin force of 6000
+men for the defence of Egypt. He was assisted at first by 26 officers,
+amongst whom were two who later became successively sirdars--Colonel F.
+Grenfell, commanding a brigade, and Lieutenant H. Kitchener, R.E.,
+second in command of the cavalry regiment. There were four batteries,
+eight battalions, and a camel company. Each battalion of the 1st
+infantry brigade had three British mounted officers, Turks and Egyptians
+holding the corresponding positions in the battalions of the 2nd
+Brigade. The sirdar selected these native officers from those of Arabi's
+followers who had been the least prominent in the recent mutiny;
+non-commissioned officers who had been drill-instructors in the old army
+were recalled temporarily, but all the privates were conscripted from
+their villages. The earlier merciless practice had been in theory
+abolished by a decree based on the German system, published in 1880; but
+owing to defective organization, and internal disturbances induced by
+Khedive Ismail's follies, the law had not been applied, and the 6000
+recruits collected at Cairo in January 1883 represented the biggest and
+strongest peasants who could not purchase exemption by bribing the
+officials concerned. The difficulties experienced in applying the 1880
+decree were great, but the perseverance of British officers gave the
+oppressed peasants, in 1885, an equitable law, which has been since
+improved by the decree of 1900. General considerations later caused the
+sirdar to allow exemption by payment of (Badalia) L20 before ballot.
+This tax, which is popular amongst the peasantry, produced in 1906
+LE.150,000, and over L250,000 in 1908. This is a marked indication of
+the increasing prosperity of the fellahin. A portion of the badalia is
+expended in the betterment of the soldier's position. He is no longer
+drafted into the police on completing his army service, but goes free at
+the end of five years with a gift of LE.20. The sirdar is allowed,
+moreover, to use L20,000 per annum of the badalia for the improvement of
+the education of the rank and file. As an experiment the police is now a
+voluntary service, except in Alexandria and Cairo, for which cities
+peasants are conscripted for the police under army conditions. The
+recruiting superintending committee, travelling through districts,
+supervise every ballot, and work under stringent rules which render
+systematic bribery difficult. The recruits who draw unlucky numbers at
+19 years of age are seldom called up till they are 23, when they are
+summoned by name and escorted by a policeman to Cairo. To prevent
+substitution on the journey each recruit wears a string girdle sealed in
+lead. The periods of service are: with the colours, 5 years; in the
+reserve, 5 years, during which time they may be called up for police
+service, manoeuvres, &c. The pay is LE.3, 14s. per annum for all
+services, and the liberal scale of rations of meat, bread and rice
+remains as before in theory, but in practice the value of pay and food
+received is greatly enhanced. So also with the pension and promotion
+regulations. They were in 1882 sufficiently liberal on paper, but had
+never been carried into effect.
+
+The efforts of 48 American officers, who under Gen. C. P. Stone
+zealously served Ismail, had entirely failed to overcome Egyptian
+venality and intrigue; and in spite of the military schools, with a
+comprehensive syllabus, the only perceptible difference between the
+Egyptian officer and private in 1879 consisted, according to one of the
+Americans, in the fact that the first was the product of the harem, and
+the second of the field. Marshal Marmont, writing in 1839, mentions the
+capacity of the Egyptians for endurance; and it was tested in 1883,
+especially in the 2nd Brigade, since its officers (Turks and Egyptians),
+anxious to excel as drill-masters, worked their men not only from morn
+till eve, but also by lamplight in the corridors of the barracks. On the
+31st March 1883, ten weeks after the arrival of the first draft of
+recruits, about 5600 men went through the ceremonial parade movements as
+practised by the British guards in Hyde Park, with unusual precision.
+The British officers had acquired the words of command in Turkish, as
+used in the old army, an attempt to substitute Egyptian words having
+failed owing to lack of crisp, sharp-sounding words. As the Egyptian
+brigadier, who had spent some years in Berlin, spoke German fluently,
+and it was also understood by the senior British officers, that language
+was used for all commands given by the sirdar on that special parade.
+The British drill-book, minus about one-third of the least serviceable
+movements, was translated by an English officer, and by 1900 every
+necessary British official book had been published in English and
+Arabic, except the new Recruiting Law (1885) and a manufacturing manual,
+for which French and Arabic editions are in use. The discipline of the
+old army had been regulated by a translation of part of the Code
+Napoleon, which was inadequate for an Eastern army, and the sirdar
+replaced it by the British Army Act of 1881, slightly modified, and
+printed in Arabic.
+
+The task undertaken by the small body of British officers was difficult.
+There was not one point in the former administration of the army
+acceptable to English gentlemen. That there had been no adequate
+auxiliary departments, without which an army cannot move or be
+efficient, was comparatively a minor difficulty. To succeed, it was
+essential that the fellah should be taught that discipline might be
+strict without being oppressive, that pay and rations would be fairly
+distributed, that brutal usage by superiors would be checked, that
+complaints would be thoroughly investigated, and impartial justice meted
+out to soldiers of all ranks. An epidemic of cholera in the summer of
+1883 gave the British officers their first chance of acquiring the
+esteem and confidence of their men, and the opportunity was nobly
+utilized. While the patient fellah, resigned to the decrees of the
+Almighty, saw the ruling Egyptian class hurry away from Cairo, he saw
+also those of his comrades who were stricken tenderly nursed, soothed in
+death's struggles, and in many cases actually washed, laid out and
+interred by their new self-sacrificing and determined masters. The
+regeneration of the fellahin army dates from that epidemic.
+
+When the Egyptian Army of the Delta was dispersed at Tell el-Kebir, the
+khedive had 40,000 troops in the Sudan, scattered from Massawa on the
+Red Sea to 1200 m. towards the west, and from Wadi Halfa, 1500 m.
+southward to Wadelai, near Albert Nyanza. These were composed of Turks,
+Albanians, Circassians and some Sudanese. Ten thousand fellahin,
+collected in March 1883, mainly from Arabi's former forces, set out from
+Duem, 100 m. south of Khartum, in September 1883, under Hicks Pasha, a
+dauntless retired Indian Army officer, to vanquish the Mahdi. They
+disappeared in the deserts of Kordofan, where they were destroyed by the
+Mahdists about 50 m. south of El Obeid. In the wave of successful
+rebellion, except at Khartum, few of the Egyptian garrisons were killed
+when the posts fell, long residence and local family ties rendering easy
+their assimilation in the ranks of the Mahdists.
+
+Baker Pasha, with about 4000 constabulary, who were old soldiers,
+attempted to relieve Tokar in February 1884. He was attacked by 1200
+tribesmen and utterly routed, losing 4 Krupp guns, 2 machine guns and
+3000 rifles. Only 1400 Egyptians escaped the slaughter.
+
+The sirdar made an attempt to raise a battalion of Albanians, but the
+few men obtained mutinied when ordered to proceed to the Sudan, and it
+was deemed advisable, after the ringleaders had been executed, to
+abandon the idea, and rely on blacks to stiffen the fellahin. Then the
+9th (Sudanese) Battalion was created for service at Suakin, and four
+others having been successively added, these (with one exception--at
+Gedaref) have since borne the brunt of all the fighting which has been
+done by the khedivial troops. The Egyptian troops in the operations near
+Suakin behaved well; and there were many instances of personal gallantry
+by individual soldiers. In the autumn of 1884, when a British expedition
+went up the Nile to endeavour to relieve the heroic Gordon, besieged in
+Khartum, the Egyptians did remarkably good work on the line of
+communication from Assiut to Korti, a distance of 800 m., and the
+training and experience thus gained were of great value in all
+subsequent operations. The honesty and discipline of the fellah were
+shown to be undoubtedly of a high order. When the crews of the
+whale-boats were conveying stores, the forwarding officers tried to keep
+brandy and such like medical comforts from the European crews, coffee
+and tea from Canadian voyageurs and sugar from Kroo boys. The only
+immaculate carrier was the Egyptian. A large sum of specie having failed
+under British escort to reach Dongola, an equivalent sum was handed to
+an Egyptian lieutenant of six months' service, with 10 men, and duly
+reached its destination.
+
+Twelve years later the standard of honesty was unimpaired, and the
+British officers had imparted energy and activity into Egyptians of all
+ranks. The intelligent professional knowledge of the native officers,
+taught under British gentlemen, and the constant hard work cheerfully
+rendered by the fellah soldiers, were the main factors of the success
+achieved at Omdurman on the 2nd of September 1898. The large depots of
+stores at Assuan, Halfa and Dongola could only be cursorily supervised
+by British officers, and yet when the stores were received at the
+advance depot the losses were infinitesimal.
+
+
+  Character of Egyptian soldier.
+
+By nature the fellah is unwarlike. Born in the valley of a great river,
+he resembles in many respects the Bengali, who exists under similar
+conditions; but the Egyptian has proved capable of greater improvement.
+He is stronger in frame, and can undergo greater exertion. Singularly
+unemotional, he stood steady at Tell el-Kebir after Arabi Pasha and all
+his officers, from general to subaltern, had fled, and gave way only
+when decimated by the British field artillery firing case shot. At El
+Teb, however, in 1884 he allowed himself to be slaughtered by tribesmen
+formerly despised, and only about one-fourth of the force under General
+Valentine Baker escaped. Baker Pasha's force was termed constabulary,
+yet his men were all old soldiers, though new to their gallant leader
+and to the small band of their brave but strange British officers. Since
+that fatal day, however, many of the fellahin have shown they are
+capable of devoted conduct, and much has been done to raise in the
+soldiers a sense of self-respect, and, in spite of centuries of
+oppression, of veracity. The barrack-square drill was smart under the
+old system, but there was no fire discipline, and all individuality was
+crushed. Now both are encouraged, and the men, receiving their full
+rations, are unsurpassable in endurance at work and in marching. All the
+troops present in the surprise fight when the Dervish force was
+destroyed at Firket in June 1896 had covered long distances, and one
+battalion (the 10th Sudanese) accomplished 90 m. within 72 hours,
+including the march back to railhead immediately after the action. The
+troops under Colonel Parsons, Royal Artillery, who beat the Dervishes at
+Gedaref, were so short of British officers that all orders were
+necessarily given in Arabic and carried to commanders of units by Arabs.
+While an Egyptian battalion was attacking in line, it was halted to
+repel a rush from the rear, and front and rear ranks were simultaneously
+engaged, firing in opposite directions--yet the fellahin were absolutely
+steady; they shot well and showed no signs of trepidation. On the other
+hand, neither was there any exultation after their victory. It has been
+aptly said "the fellah would make an admirable soldier if he only
+wished to kill some one!" The fellahin furnish three squadrons, five
+batteries, three garrison artillery companies and nine battalions.
+
+The well-educated Egyptian officer, with his natural aptitude for
+figures, does subordinate regimental routine carefully, and works well
+when supervised by men of stronger character. The ordinary Egyptian is
+not self-reliant or energetic by nature, and, like most Eastern people,
+finds it difficult to be impartial where duty and family or other
+personal relations are in the balance. The black soldier has, on the
+other hand, many of the finest fighting qualities. This was observed by
+British officers, from the time of the preliminary operations about
+Kosha and at the action near Ginnis in December 1885 down to the
+brilliant operations in the pursuit of the Mahdists on the Blue Nile
+after the action of Gedaref (subsequent to the battle of Omdurman), and
+the fighting in Kordofan in 1899, which resulted in the death of the
+khalifa and his amirs.
+
+Black soldiers served in the army of Mehemet Ali, but their fighting
+value was not then duly appreciated. Prior to the death of the khalifa,
+many of his soldiers deserted to join their brethren who had been
+captured by the sirdar's troops, during the gradual advance up the Nile.
+After 1899 many more enlisted: the greater number were Shilluks and
+Dinkas coming from the country between Fashoda and the equatorial
+provinces, but a proportion came from the western borders of the Sudan,
+and some from Wadai and Bornu. Many were absolute savages, difficult to
+control, wayward and thoughtless like children. Sudanese are very
+excitable and apt to get out of hand; unlike the fellahs they are not
+fond of drill, and are slow to acquire it; but their dash, pugnacious
+instincts and desire to close with an enemy, are valuable military
+qualities. The Sudanese, moreover, shoot better than the fellahin, whose
+eyesight is often defective. The Sudanese captain can seldom read or
+write, and is therefore in the hands of the Egyptian-born company
+quartermaster-sergeant as regards pay and clothing accounts. He is slow,
+and as a rule has little knowledge of drill. Nevertheless he is
+self-reliant, much respected by his men, and can be trusted in the field
+to carry out any orders received from his British officer. The most
+efficient companies in the Sudanese battalions are apparently those in
+which the captain is a black and the lieutenants are Egyptians.
+
+  In 1908 the Egyptian army, with a total establishment of 18,000,
+  consisted of three squadrons of cavalry (one composed of Sudanese)
+  each numbering 116 men; four batteries of field artillery and a Maxim
+  battery, horses and mules being used, with a total strength of 1257 of
+  all ranks; the camel corps, 626 of all ranks (fellahin and Sudanese);
+  and nine fellahin and six Sudanese infantry battalions, 10,631 of all
+  ranks. Every battalion receives two additional companies on
+  mobilization and takes the field with six companies.
+
+  The armament of the infantry is Martini-Henry rifle and bayonet; of
+  the cavalry, lance, sword and carbine.
+
+  There are seven gunboats on the Nile.
+
+  The medical department (reorganized in 1883 by Surgeon-Major J. G.
+  Rogers at the time of the cholera epidemic) controls in peace fourteen
+  station hospitals, and in war furnishes a mobile field hospital to
+  each brigade. There are also veterinary station hospitals. The supply
+  department controls mills at Tura, Halfa and Khartum.
+
+  The stringent system of selecting British officers, originated by the
+  first sirdar in 1883, is shown by the fact that of the 24 employed in
+  creating the army, 14 rose to be generals. The competition for
+  employment in the army is still severe. In 1908 there were 140 British
+  warrant and non-commissioned officers. Four of the fellahin battalions
+  were officered by Orientals; in the other five, British officers
+  commanded. Seven officers were employed with the artillery, six with
+  the camel corps. Each of the Sudanese battalions had four British
+  officers, and each squadron of cavalry one. Twelve medical and two
+  veterinary officers are also employed departmentally, as well as
+  officers acting as directors of supply, &c. Since the assumption of
+  command by the third sirdar, Colonel (afterwards Lord) Kitchener, the
+  ordnance, supply and engineer services have been separately
+  administered, and a financial secretary is charged with the duty of
+  preparing the budget, making contracts, &c. The total annual
+  expenditure is L500,000.
+
+  The reorganized military school system under British control, for
+  supplying officers, dates from 1887. The course lasts for about two
+  years, and two hundred students can be accommodated. After the
+  reconquest of the Sudan one-fourth of the cadets in the military
+  school of Cairo were Sudanese. Later, however, the Sudanese cadets
+  were transferred to a branch school at Khartum.
+
+  The army raised by the first sirdar in January 1883 was highly
+  commended for its work on the line of communication in 1884-1885, and
+  its artillery and camelry distinguished themselves in the action at
+  Kirbekan in February 1885. Colonel Sir Francis Grenfell succeeded
+  General Sir Evelyn Wood in March 1885, and while under his command the
+  army continued to improve, and fought successful actions at Gemaiza,
+  Argin, Toski and Tokar. At Toski the Dervish force was nearly
+  annihilated. In March 1892 Colonel Kitchener succeeded General Sir
+  Francis Grenfell, and four years later began his successful reconquest
+  of the Sudan. In June 1896, owing to the indefatigable exertions of
+  Major Wingate, a perfected system of secret intelligence enabled the
+  sirdar to bring an overwhelming force of 6 to 1 against the Dervish
+  outpost at Firket and destroy it. In September 1896 a skirmish at
+  Hafir, with similarly successful tactics, gave the British commander
+  the possession of Dongola. On the 7th of August 1897 Colonel Hunter
+  surprised and annihilated a weak Dervish garrison at Abu Hamed, to
+  which place, by the 31st of October 1897, a railway had been laid
+  across the Nubian desert from Wadi Halfa, a distance of 230 m., the
+  "record" construction of 5300 yds surveyed, embanked and laid in one
+  day having been attained. On the 26th of December 1897 the Italian
+  troops handed over Kassala to Colonel Parsons, R.A. On the 8th of
+  April 1898 a British division, with the Egyptian army, destroyed the
+  Dervish force under the amir Mahmud Ahmed, on the Atbara river. On the
+  2nd of September the khalifa attacked the British-Egyptian troops at
+  Kerreri (near Omdurman), and being routed, his men dispersed; Khartum
+  was occupied, and on the 19th of September the Egyptian flag was
+  rehoisted at Fashoda. On the 22nd of September 1898 Gedaref was taken
+  from the amir Ahmed Fedil by Colonel Parsons, and on the 26th of
+  December the army of Ahmed Fedil was finally defeated and dispersed
+  near Roseires. The khalifa's army, reduced to an insignificant number,
+  after several unsuccessful engagements withdrew to the west of the
+  Nile, where it was attacked, on the 24th of November 1899, after a
+  forced march by Colonel Wingate, and annihilated. The khalifa himself
+  was killed; while the victor, who had joined the Egyptian army in 1883
+  as aide-de-camp to the first sirdar, in December 1899 became the
+  fourth sirdar, as Major-General Sir F. R. Wingate, K.C.B., K.C.M.G.,
+  D.S.O., &c.     (E. Wo.)
+
+
+II. ANCIENT EGYPT
+
+A. _Exploration and Research._--Owing to its early development of a high
+civilization with written records, its wealth, and its preservative
+climate, Egypt is the country which most amply repays archaeological
+research. It is especially those long ages during which Egypt was an
+independent centre of culture and government, before its absorption in
+the Persian empire in the 6th century B.C., that make the most powerful
+appeal to the imagination and can often justify this appeal by the
+splendour of the monuments representing them. Later, however, the
+history of Hellenism, the provincial history of the Roman empire, the
+rise of Christianity and the triumph of Islam successively receive
+brilliant illustration in Egypt.
+
+As early as the 17th century travellers began to bring home specimens of
+ancient Egyptian handiwork: a valuable stele from Sakkara of the
+beginning of the Old Kingdom was presented to the Ashmolean Museum at
+Oxford in 1683. In the following century the Englishman R. Pococke
+(1704-1765), the Dane F. L. Norden (1708-1742), both travelling in 1737,
+and others later, planned, described or figured Egyptian ruins in a
+primitive way and identified many of the sites with cities named in
+classical authors. Napoleon's great military expedition in 1798 was
+accompanied by a scientific commission including artists and
+archaeologists, the results of whose labours fill several of the
+magnificent volumes of the _Description de l'Egypte_. The antiquities
+collected by the expedition, including the famous Rosetta stone, were
+ceded to the British government at the capitulation of Alexandria, in
+1801. Thereafter Mehemet Ali threw Egypt freely open to Europeans, and a
+busy traffic in antiquities began, chiefly through the agency of the
+consuls of different powers. From the year 1820 onwards the growth of
+the European collections was rapid, and Champollion's decipherments (see
+below, S "Language and Writing") of the hieroglyphic inscriptions,
+dating from 1821, added fresh impetus to the fashion of collecting, in
+spite of doubts as to their trustworthiness. In 1827 a combined
+expedition led by Champollion and Rosellini was despatched by the
+governments of France and Tuscany, and accomplished a great deal of
+valuable work in copying scenes and inscriptions. But the greatest of
+such expeditions was that of Lepsius, under the auspices of the
+Prussian government, in 1842-1845. Its labours embraced not only Egypt
+and Nubia (as far as Khartum) but also the Egyptian monuments in Sinai
+and Syria; its immense harvest of material is of the highest value, the
+new device of taking paper impressions or "squeezes" giving Lepsius a
+great advantage over his predecessors, similar to that which was later
+conferred by the photographic camera.
+
+A new period was opened in Egyptian exploration in 1858 when Mariette
+was appointed director of archaeological works in Egypt, his duties
+being to safeguard the monuments and prevent their exploitation by
+dealers. As early as 1835 Mehemet Ali had given orders for a museum to
+be formed; little however, was accomplished before the whole of the
+resulting collection was given away to the Archduke Maximilian of
+Austria in 1855. Mariette, who was appointed by the viceroy Said Pasha
+at the instance of the French government, succeeded in making his office
+effective and permanent, in spite of political intrigues and the whims
+of an Oriental ruler; he also secured a building on the island of Bulak
+(Bulaq) for a viceregal museum in which the results of his explorations
+could be permanently housed. Supported by the French interest, the
+established character of this work as a department of the Egyptian
+government (which also claims the ancient sites) has been fully
+recognized since the British occupation. The "Service of Antiquities"
+now boasts a large annual budget and employs a number of European and
+native officials--a director, curators of the museum, European
+inspectors and native sub-inspectors of provinces (at Luxor for Upper
+Egypt and Nubia, at Assiut for Middle Egypt and the Fayum, at Mansura
+for Lower Egypt, besides a European official in charge of the government
+excavations at Memphis). The museum, no longer the property of an
+individual, was removed in 1889 from the small building at Bulak to a
+disused palace at Giza, and since 1902 has been established at
+Kasr-en-Nil, Cairo, in a special building, of ample size and safe from
+fire and flood. In the year 1881 the directorship of the museum was
+temporarily undertaken by Prof. Maspero, who resumed it in 1899. The
+admirably conducted Archaeological Survey of the portion of Nubia
+threatened by the raising of the Assuan dam is in the charge of another
+department--the Survey department, directed for many years up to 1909 by
+Captain H. G. Lyons. Non-official agencies (supported by voluntary
+contributions) for exploration in Egypt comprise the Egypt Exploration
+Fund, started in London in 1881, with its two branches, viz. the
+Archaeological Survey (1890) for copying and publishing the monuments
+above ground, and the Graeco-Roman Branch (1897), well known through the
+brilliant work in Greek papyri of B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt; and the
+separate Research Account founded by Professor W. M. Flinders Petrie in
+London (University College) in 1896, and since 1905 called the British
+School of Archaeology in Egypt (see especially MEMPHIS). The _Mission
+archeologique francaise au Caire_, established as a school by the French
+government in 1881, was re-organized in 1901 on a lavish scale under the
+title _Institut francais d'archeologie orientale du Caire_, and
+domiciled with printing-press and library in a fine building near the
+museum. As the result of an excellent bargain, it was afterwards removed
+to the Munira palace in the south-east part of the city. An
+archaeologist is attached to the German general consulate to look after
+the interests of German museums, and is director of the German Institute
+of Archaeology. The Orient-Gesellschaft (German Orient-Society) has
+worked in Egypt since 1901 with brilliant results. Excavations and
+explorations are also conducted annually by the agents of universities
+and museums in England, America and Germany, and by private explorers,
+concessions being granted generally on the terms that the Egyptian
+government shall retain half of the antiquities discovered, while the
+other half remains for the finders.
+
+The era of scientific excavation began with Flinders Petrie's work at
+Tanis in 1883. Previous explorers kept scientific aims in view, but the
+idea of scientific archaeology was not realized by them. The procedure
+in scientific excavation is directed to collecting and interpreting all
+the information that can be obtained from the excavation as to the
+history and nature of the site explored, be it town, temple, house,
+cemetery or individual grave, wasting no evidence that results from it
+touching the endless problems which scientific archaeology
+affords--whether in regard to arts and crafts, manners and customs,
+language, history or beliefs. This is a totally different thing from
+mere hunting for inscriptions, statues or other portable objects which
+will present a greater or less value in themselves even when torn from
+their context. Such may, of course, form the greater part of the harvest
+and working material of a scientific excavator; their presence is most
+welcome to him, but their complete absence need be no bar to his
+attainment of important historical results. The absence of scientific
+excavation in Egypt was deplored by the Scottish archaeologist Alexander
+Henry Rhind (1833-1863), as early as 1862. Since Flinders Petrie began,
+the general level of research has gradually risen, and, while much is
+shamefully bad and destructive, there is a certain proportion that fully
+realizes the requirements of scientific archaeology.
+
+_Antiquities, Sites, &c._--The remains for archaeological investigation
+in Egypt may be roughly classified as material and literary: to the
+latter belong the texts on papyri and the inscriptions, to the former
+the sites of ancient towns with the temples, fortifications and houses;
+remains of roads, canals, quarries and other matters falling within the
+domain of ancient topography; the larger monuments, as obelisks,
+statues, stelae, &c.; and finally the small antiquities--utensils,
+clothes, weapons, amulets, &c. Where moisture can reach the antiquities
+their preservation is no better in Egypt than it would have been in
+other countries; for this reason all the papyri in the Delta have
+perished unless they happen to have been charred by fire. A terrible
+pest is a kind of termite which is locally abundant and has probably
+visited most parts of Egypt at one time or another, destroying all dead
+vegetable or animal material in the soil that was not specially
+protected.
+
+In Lower Egypt the cities built of crude brick were very numerous,
+especially after the 7th century B.C., but owing to the value of stone
+very few of their monuments have escaped destruction: even the mounds of
+rubbish which marked their sites furnish a valuable manure for the
+fields and in consequence are rapidly disappearing. Granite and other
+hard stones, having but a limited use (for millstones and the like),
+have the best chance of survival. At Bubastis, Tanis, Behbeit (Iseum)
+and Heliopolis considerable stone remains have been discovered. In the
+north of the Delta wherever salt marshes have prevented cultivation in
+modern times, the mounds, such as those of Pelusium, still stand to
+their full height, and the more important are covered with ruins of
+brick structures of Byzantine and Arab date.
+
+Middle and Upper Egypt were less busy and prosperous in the later ages
+than Lower Egypt. There was consequently somewhat less consumption of
+the old stone-work. Moreover, in many places equally good material could
+be obtained without much difficulty from the cliffs on both sides of the
+Nile. Yet even the buried portions of limestone buildings have seldom
+been permitted to survive on the cultivated land; the Nubian sandstone
+of Upper Egypt was of comparatively little value, and, generally
+speaking, buildings in that material have fallen into decay rather than
+been destroyed by quarrying.
+
+Starting from Cairo and going southward we have first the great
+pyramid-field, with the necropolis of Memphis as its centre; stretching
+from Abu Roash on the north to Lisht on the south, it is followed by the
+pyramid group of Dahshur, the more isolated pyramids of Medum and
+Illahun, and that of Hawara in the Fayum. On the east bank are the
+limestone quarries of Turra and Masara opposite Memphis. South of the
+Fayum on the western border of the desert are the tombs of Deshasha,
+Meir and Assiut, and on the east bank those of Beni Hasan, the rock-cut
+temple of Speos Artemidos, the tombs of El Bersha and Sheikh Said, the
+tombs and stelae of El Amarna with the alabaster quarries of Hanub in
+the desert behind them, and the tombs of Deir el Gebrawi. Beyond Assiut
+are the tombs of Dronka and Rifa, the temples of Abydos and Dendera, and
+the tombs, &c., at Akhmim and Kasr es Saiyad. Farther south are the
+stupendous ruins of Thebes on both sides of the river, the temple of
+Esna, the ruins and tombs of El Kab, the temple of Edfu, the quarries of
+Silsila and the temple of Ombos, followed by the inscribed rocks of the
+First Cataract, the tombs and quarries of Assuan and the temples of
+Philae.
+
+[Illustration: EGYPT Scale, 1:8,400,000]
+
+In Nubia, owing to the poverty of the country and its scanty population,
+the proportion of monuments surviving is infinitely greater than in
+Egypt. Here are the temples of Debod, the temple and quarries of
+Kertassi, the temples of Kalabsha, Bet el Wali, Dendur, Gerf Husen,
+Dakka, Maharaka, Es-Sebu'a, 'Amada and Derr, the grottos of Elles ya,
+the tombs of Aniba, the temple of Ibrim, the great rock-temples of
+Abu-Simbel, the temples at Jebel Adda and Wadi Halfa, the forts and
+temples of Semna, the temples of Amara (Meroitic) and Soleb. Beyond are
+the Ethiopian temples and pyramids of Jebel Barkal and the other
+pyramids of Napata at Tangassi, &c., the still later pyramids of Meroe
+at Begerawia, and the temples of Mesauwarat and Naga reaching to within
+50 m. of Khartum.
+
+Outside the Nile valley on the west are temples in the Great and Little
+Oases and the Oasis of Ammon: on the east quarries and stelae on the
+Hammamat road to the Red Sea, and mines and other remains at Wadi
+Maghara and Serabit el Khadim in the Sinai peninsula. In Syria there are
+tablets of conquest on the rocks at the mouth of the Nahr el Kelb.
+
+Of the collections of Egyptian antiquities in public museums, those of
+the British Museum, Leiden, Berlin, the Louvre, Turin were already very
+important in the first half of the 19th century, also in a less degree
+those of Florence, Bologna and the Vatican. Most of these have since
+been greatly increased and many others have been created. By far the
+largest collection in the world is that at Cairo. In America the museums
+and universities of Boston, Chicago, Philadelphia, San Francisco and New
+York have collections of greater or less interest. Besides these the
+museums of Edinburgh, Liverpool, Manchester and Oxford are noteworthy in
+Great Britain for their Egyptian antiquities, as are those of St
+Petersburg, Vienna, Marseilles, Munich, Copenhagen, Palermo and Athens;
+there are also collections in most of the British colonies. Private
+collections are numerous.
+
+_Literary Records._--In estimating the sources of information regarding
+pre-Christian Egypt, the native sources, first opened to us by
+Champollion, are infinitely the most important. With very few exceptions
+they are contemporary with the events which they record. Of the
+composition of history and the description of their own manners and
+customs by the Egyptians for posterity, few traces have reached our day.
+Consequently the information derived from their monuments, in spite of
+their great abundance, is of a fortuitous character. For one early
+papyrus that survives, many millions must have perished. If the journals
+of accounts, the letters and business documents, had come down to us _en
+masse_, they would no doubt have yielded to research the history and
+life of Egypt day by day; but those that now represent a thousand years
+of the Old Kingdom and Middle Kingdom together would not half fill an
+ordinary muniment chest. A larger proportion of the records on stone
+have survived, but that an event should be inscribed on stone depends on
+a variety of circumstances and not necessarily on its importance. There
+may seem to be a great abundance of Egyptian monuments, but they have to
+cover an enormous space of time, and even in the periods which are best
+represented, gravestones recording the names of private persons with a
+prayer or two are scarcely material for history. A scrap of annals has
+been found extending from the earliest times to the Vth Dynasty, as well
+as a very fragmentary list of kings reaching nearly to the end of the
+Middle Kingdom, to help out the scattered data of the other monuments.
+As to manners and customs, although we possess no systematic
+descriptions of them from a native source, the native artists and
+scribes have presented us with exceptionally rich materials in the
+painted and sculptured scenes of the tombs from the Old and Middle
+Kingdoms and the New Empire. For the Deltaic dynasties these sources
+fail absolutely, the scenes being then either purely religious or
+conventional imitations of the earlier ones.
+
+Fortunately the native records are largely supplemented by others:
+valuable information comes from cuneiform literature, belonging to two
+widely separated periods. The first group is contemporary with the
+XVIIIth and XIXth Dynasties and consists in the first place of the Tell
+el Amarna tablets with others related to them, containing the reports of
+governors of the Syrian possessions of Egypt, and the correspondence of
+the kings of Babylon, Assur, Mitanni and Khatti (the Hittites) with the
+Pharaohs. The sequel to this is furnished by Winckler's discovery of
+documents relating to Rameses II. of the XIXth Dynasty in the Hittite
+capital at Boghaz Keui (see also HITTITES and PTERIA). The other group
+comprises the annals and inscriptions of the Assyrian kings Esarhaddon
+and Assur-bani-pal, recording their invasions of Egypt under the XXVth
+Dynasty. There are also a few references to Egypt of later date down to
+the reign of Darius. In Hebrew literature the Pentateuch, the historical
+books and the prophets alike contain scanty but precious information
+regarding Egypt. Aramaic papyri written principally by Jews of the
+Persian period (5th century B.C.) have been found at Syene and Memphis.
+
+Of all the external sources the literary accounts written in Greek are
+the most valuable. They comprise fragments of the native historian
+Manetho, the descriptions of Egypt in Herodotus and Diodorus, the
+geographical accounts of Strabo and Ptolemy, the treatise of Plutarch on
+Isis and Osiris and other monographs or scattered notices of less
+importance. Our knowledge of the history of Alexander's conquest, of the
+Ptolemies and of the Roman occupation is almost entirely derived from
+Greek sources, and in fact almost the same might be said of the history
+of Egypt as far back as the beginning of the XXVIth Dynasty. The
+non-literary Greek remains in papyri and inscriptions which are being
+found in great abundance throw a flood of light on life in Egypt and the
+administration of the country from the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus to
+the Arab conquest. On the other hand, papyri and inscriptions in Latin
+are of the greatest rarity, and the literary remains in that language
+are of small importance for Egypt.
+
+Arabic literature appears to be entirely barren of authentic information
+regarding the earlier condition of the country. Two centuries of
+unchallenged Christianity had broken almost completely the traditions of
+paganism, even if the Moslems had been willing to consider them, either
+in their fanciful accounts of the origins of cities, &c., or elsewhere.
+
+B. _The Country in Ancient Times._--The native name of Egypt was Kemi
+(KM.T), clearly meaning "the black land," Egypt being so called from the
+blackness of its alluvial soil (cf. Plut. _De Is. et Os._ cap. 33): in
+poetical inscriptions _Kemi_ is often opposed to _Toshri_, "the red
+land," referring to the sandy deserts around, which however, would
+probably be included in the term Kemi in its widest sense. Egypt is
+called in Hebrew Mizraim, [Hebrew: Mizraim], possibly a dual form
+describing the country in reference to its two great natural and
+historical divisions of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt: but Mizraim
+(poetically sometimes Mazor) often means Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt being
+named Pathros, "the south land." In Assyrian the name was Musri, Misri:
+in Arabic it is Misr, [Arabic: Misr], pronounced Masr in the vulgar
+dialect of Egypt. These names are certainly of Semitic origin and
+perhaps derive from the Assyrian with the meaning "frontier-land" (see
+MIZRAIM). Winckler's theory of a separate Musri immediately south of
+Palestine is now generally rejected (see, for instance, Ed. Meyer, _Die
+Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme_, 455). The Greek [Greek: Aigyptos]
+(Aegyptus) occurs as early as Homer; in the _Odyssey_ it is the name of
+the Nile (masc.) as well as of the country (fem.): later it was confined
+to the country. Its origin is very obscure (see Pietschmann in
+Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_, s.v. "Aigyptos"). Brugsch's
+derivation from Hakeptah, a name of the northern capital, Memphis,
+though attractive, is unconfirmed.
+
+Egypt normally included the whole of the Nile valley from the First
+Cataract to the sea; pure Egyptians, however, formed the population of
+Lower Nubia above the Cataract in prehistoric times; at some periods
+also the land was divided into separate kingdoms, while at others Egypt
+stretched southward into Nubia, and it generally claimed the
+neighbouring Libyan deserts and oases on the west and the Arabian
+deserts on the east to the shore of the Red Sea, with Sinai and the
+Mediterranean coast as far as Rhinocorura (El Arish). The physical
+features in ancient times were essentially the same as at the present
+day. The bed of the Nile was lower: it appears to have risen by its own
+deposits at a rate of about 4 in. in a century. In the north of the
+Delta, however, there was a sinking of the land, in consequence of which
+the accumulations on some of the ancient sites there extend below the
+present sea-level. On the other hand at the south end of the Suez canal
+the land may have risen bodily, since the head of the Gulf of Suez has
+been cut off by a bank of rock from the Bitter lakes, which were
+probably joined to it in former days. The banks of the Nile and the
+islands in it are subject to gradual but constant alteration--indeed,
+several ancient sites have been much eroded or destroyed--and the main
+volume of the stream may in course of time be diverted into what has
+previously been a secondary channel. According to the classical writers,
+the mouths or branches of the Nile in the Delta were five in number
+(seven including two that were artificial): now there are only two. In
+Upper Egypt the main stream tended as now to flow along the eastern edge
+of the valley, while to the west was a parallel stream corresponding to
+the Bahr Yusuf. From the latter a canal or branch led to the Lake of
+Moeris, which, until the 3rd century B.C., filled the deep depression of
+the Fayum, but is now represented only by the strongly brackish waters
+of the Birket el Kerun, left in the deepest part. The area of alluvial
+land has probably not changed greatly in historic times. The principal
+changes that have occurred are due to the grip which civilization has
+taken upon the land in the course of thousands of years, often weakening
+but now firmer than ever. In early days no doubt the soil was cultivated
+in patches, but gradually a great system of canals was organized under
+the control of the central government, both for irrigation and for
+transport. The wild flora of the alluvial valley was probably always
+restricted and eventually was reduced almost to the "weeds of
+cultivation," when every acre of soil, at one period of the year under
+water, and at another roasted under the burning heat of a semi-tropical
+sun, was carefully tilled. The acacia abounded on the borders of the
+valley, but the groves were gradually cut down for the use of the
+carpenter and the charcoal-burner. The desert was full of wild life, the
+balance of nature being preserved by the carnivorous animals preying on
+the herbivorous; trees watered by soakage from the Nile protected the
+undergrowth and encouraged occasional rainfall. But this balance was
+upset by the early introduction of the goat and later of the camel,
+which destroyed the sapling trees, while the grown ones fell to the axe
+of the woodcutter. Thus in all probability the Egyptian deserts have
+become far poorer in animals and trees than they were in primitive
+times. Much of Lower Egypt was left in a wilder state than Upper Egypt.
+The marshy lands in the north were the resort of fishermen and fowlers,
+and the papyrus, the cultivation of which was a regular industry,
+protected an abundance of wild life. The abandonment of papyrus culture
+in the 8th century A.D., the neglect of the canals, and the inroads of
+the sea, have converted much of that country into barren salt marsh,
+which only years of draining and washing can restore to fertility.
+
+The rich alluvial deposits of the Nile which respond so readily to the
+efforts of the cultivator ensured the wealth of the country. Moulded
+into brick, without burning, this black clay also supplied the common
+wants of the builder, and even the palaces of the greatest kings were
+constructed of crude brick. For more lasting and ambitious work in
+temples and tombs the materials could be obtained from the rocks and
+deserts of the Nile valley. The chief of these was limestone of varying
+degrees of fineness, composing the cliffs which lined the valley from
+the apex of the Delta to the neighbourhood of El Kab; the best quality
+was obtained on the east side opposite Memphis from the quarries of
+Turra and Masara. From El Kab southward its place was taken by Libyan
+sandstone, soft and easily worked, but unsuitable for fine sculpture.
+These two were the ordinary building stones. In the limestone was found
+the flint or chert used for weapons and instruments in early times. For
+alabaster the principal quarry was that of Hanub in the desert 10 m.
+behind El Amarna, but it was obtained elsewhere in the limestone region,
+including a spot near Alexandria. A hard and fine-grained quartzite
+sandstone was quarried at Jebel Ahmar behind Heliopolis, and basalt was
+found thence along the eastern edge of the Delta to near the Wadi
+Tumilat. Red granite was obtained from the First Cataract, breccia and
+diorite were quarried from very early times in the Wadi Hammamat, on the
+road from Coptos to the Red Sea, and porphyry was brought, chiefly in
+Roman times but also in the prehistoric age, from the same region at
+Jebel Dokhan.
+
+Egypt was poor in metals. Gold was obtained chiefly from Nubia: iron was
+found in small quantities in the country and at one time was worked in
+the neighbourhood of Assuan. Some copper was obtained in Sinai. Of
+stones that were accounted precious Sinai produced turquoise and the
+Egyptian deserts garnet, carnelian and jasper.
+
+The native supply of wood for industrial purposes was exceedingly bad:
+there was no native wood long enough and straight enough to be used in
+joiners' work or sculpture without fitting and patching: palm trees were
+abundant, and if the trees could be spared, their split stems could be
+used for roofing. For boatbuilding papyrus stems and acacia wood were
+employed, and for the best work cedar-wood was imported from Lebanon.
+
+Egypt was isolated by the deserts and the sea. The Nile valley afforded
+a passage by ship or on foot into Nubia, where, however, little wealth
+was to be sought, though gold and rarities from the Sudan, such as ivory
+and ebony, came that way and an armed raid could yield a good spoil in
+slaves and cattle. The poverty-stricken and barbarous Nubians were
+strong and courageous, and gladly served in Egypt as mercenary soldiers
+and police. Through the oases also ran paths to the Sudan by which the
+raw merchandise of the southern countries could be brought to Egypt.
+Eastward, roads led through the Arabian mountains to the Red Sea, whence
+ships made voyages to the incense-bearing land of Puoni (Punt) on the
+Somali coast of Africa, rich also in gold and ivory. The mines of Sinai
+could be reached either by sea or by land along the route of the Exodus.
+The roads to Syria skirted the east border of the Delta and then
+followed the coast from near Pelusium through El Arish and Gaza. A
+secondary road branched off through the Wadi Tumilat, whence the ways
+ran northwards to Syria and southwards to Sinai. On the Libyan side the
+oasis of Siwa could be reached from the Lake of Moeris or from Terrana
+(Terenuthis), or by the coast route which also led to the Cyrenaica. The
+Egyptians had some traffic on the Mediterranean from very remote times,
+especially with Byblus in Phoenicia, the port for cedar-wood.
+
+Of the populations surrounding Egypt the negroes (Nehsi) in the south
+(Cush) were the lowest in the scale of civilization: the people of Puoni
+and of Libya (the Tehen, &c.) were pale in colour and superior to the
+negroes, but still show no sign of a high culture. The Syrians and the
+Keftiu, the latter now identified with the Cretans and other
+representatives of the Aegean civilization, are the only peoples who by
+their elaborate clothing and artistic products reveal themselves upon
+the ancient Egyptian monuments as the equals in culture of the Egyptian
+nation.
+
+The Egyptians seem to have applied no distinctive name to themselves in
+early times: they called themselves proudly _romi_ (RMTW), i.e. simply
+"men," "people," while the despised races around them, collectively
+H'SWT, "desert-peoples," were distinguished by special appellations.
+The races of mankind, including the Egyptians, were often called the
+Nine Archers. Ultimately the Egyptians, when their insularity
+disappeared under the successive dominations of Ethiopia, Assyria and
+Persia, described themselves as _rem-n-Kemi_, "men of Egypt." Whence the
+population of Egypt as we trace it in prehistoric and historic times
+came, is not certain. The early civilization of Egypt shows remarkable
+coincidences with that of Babylonia, the language is of a Semitic type,
+the religion may well be a compound of a lower African and a higher
+Asiatic order of ideas. According to the evidence of the mummies, the
+Egyptians were of slender build, with dark hair and of Caucasian type.
+Dr Elliott Smith, who has examined thousands of skeletons and mummies of
+all periods, finds that the prehistoric population of Upper Egypt, a
+branch of the North African-Mediterranean-Arabian race, changed with the
+advent of the dynasties to a stronger type, better developed than before
+in skull and muscle. This was apparently due to admixture with the Lower
+Egyptians, who themselves had been affected by Syrian immigration.
+Thereafter little further change is observable, although the rich lands
+of Egypt must have attracted foreigners from all parts. The Egyptian
+artists of the New Empire assigned distinctive types of feature as well
+as of dress to the different races with which they came into contact,
+Hittites, Syrians, Libyans, Bedouins, negroes, &c.
+
+The people of Egypt were not naturally fierce or cruel. Intellectually,
+too, they were somewhat sluggish, careless and unbusinesslike. In the
+mass they were a body of patient labourers, tilling a rich soil, and
+hating all foreign lands and ways. The wealth of their country gave
+scope for ability within the population and also attracted it from
+outside: it enabled the kings to organize great monumental enterprises
+as well as to arm irresistible raids upon the inferior tribes around.
+Urged on by necessity and opportunity, the Egyptians possessed
+sufficient enterprise and originating power to keep ahead of their
+neighbours in most departments of civilization, until the more warlike
+empires of Assyria and Persia overwhelmed them and the keener intellects
+of the Greeks outshone them in almost every department. The debt of
+civilization to Egypt as a pioneer must be considerable, above all
+perhaps in religious thought. The moral ideals of its nameless teachers
+were high from an early date: their conception of an after-life was
+exceedingly vivid: the piety of the Egyptians in the later days was a
+matter of wonder and scoffing to their contemporaries; it is generally
+agreed that certain features in the development of Christianity are to
+be traced to Egypt as their birthplace and nidus.
+
+  For researches into the ethnography of Egypt and the neighbouring
+  countries, see W. Max Muller, _Asien und Europa nach den altag.
+  Inschriften_ (Leipzig, 1893), _Egyptological Researches_ (Washington,
+  1906); for measurements of Egyptian skulls, Miss Fawcett in
+  _Biometrika_ (1902); A. Thomson and D. Randall-MacIver, _The Ancient
+  Races of the Thebaid_ (Oxford, 1905) (cf. criticisms in _Man_, 1905;
+  and for comparisons with modern measurements, C. S. Myers, _Journ.
+  Anthropological Institute_, 1905, 80). W. Flinders Petrie has
+  collected and discussed a series of facial types shown in prehistoric
+  and early Egyptian sculpture, _Journal Anthropological Institute_,
+  1901, 248. For Elliott Smith's results see _The Cairo Scientific
+  Journal_, No. 30, vol. iii., March 1909.
+
+_Divisions._--In ancient times Egypt was divided into two regions,
+representing the kingdoms that existed before Menes. Lower Egypt,
+comprising the Delta and its borders, formed the "North Land," _To-meh_,
+and reached up the valley to include Memphis and its province or "nome,"
+while the remainder of the Egyptian Nile valley was "the South," _Shema_
+(SM'W [HRGs: sw-w-a]). The south, if only as the abode of the sun,
+always had the precedence over the north in Egypt, and the west over the
+east. Later the two regions were known respectively as P-to-res
+(Pathros), "the south land," and P-to-meh, "the north land." In
+practical administration this historic distinction was sometimes
+observed, at others ignored, but in religious tradition it had a firm
+hold. In Roman times a different system marked off a third region,
+namely Middle Egypt, from the point of the Delta southward.
+Theoretically, as its name Heptanomis implies, this division contained
+seven nomes, actually from the Hermopolite on the south to the Memphite
+on the north (excluding the Arsinoite according to the papyri). Some
+tendency to this existed earlier. Egypt to the south of the Heptanomis
+was the Thebais, called P-tesh-en-Ne, "the province of Thebes," as early
+as the XXVIth Dynasty. The Thebais was much under the influence of the
+Ethiopian kingdom, and was separated politically in the troubled times
+of the XXIIIrd Dynasty, though the old division into Upper and Lower
+Egypt was resumed in the XXVIth Dynasty.
+
+If Upper and Lower Egypt represented ancient kingdoms, the nomes have
+been thought to carry on the traditions of tribal settlements. They are
+found in inscriptions as early as the end of the IIIrd Dynasty, and the
+very name of Thoth, and that of another very ancient god, are derived
+from those of two contiguous nomes in Lower Egypt. The names are written
+by special emblems placed on standards, such as an ibis, [HRG: G26], a
+jackal [HRG: E15:R12], a hare [HRG: wn:R12], a feathered crown [HRG:
+Swty:R12], a sistrum [HRG: zSSt:R12], a blade [HRG: T30:R12], &c.,
+suggesting tribal badges. Some nomes having a common badge but
+distinguished as "nearer" or "further," i.e. "northern" or "southern,"
+have simply been split, as they are contiguous: in one case, however,
+corresponding "eastern" and "western" Harpoon nomes are widely separated
+on opposite sides of the Delta. In a few cases, such as "the West," "the
+Beginning of the East," it is obvious that the names are derived solely
+from their geographical situation. It is quite possible that the
+divisions are geographical in the main, but it seems likely that there
+were also religious, tribal and other historical reasons for them. How
+their boundaries were determined is not certain: in Upper Egypt in many
+cases a single nome embraced both sides of the river. The number and
+nomenclature of the nomes were never absolutely fixed. In temples of
+Ptolemaic and Roman age the full series is figured presenting their
+tribute to the god, and this series approximately agrees with the
+scattered data of early monuments. The normal number of the nomes in the
+sacred lists appears to be 42, of which 22 belonged to Upper Egypt and
+20 to Lower Egypt. In reality again these nome-divisions were treated
+with considerable freedom, being split or reunited and their boundaries
+readjusted. Each nome had its metropolis, normally the seat of a
+governor or nomarch and the centre of its religious observances. During
+the New Empire, except at the beginning, the nomes seem to have been
+almost entirely ignored: under the Deltaic dynasties (except of course
+in the traditions of the sacred writing) they were named after the
+metropolis, as "the province (_tosh_) of Busiris," "the province of
+Sais," &c.: hence the Greek names [Greek: Bousirites nomos], &c. The
+Arsinoite nome was added by the Ptolemies after the draining of the Lake
+of Moeris (q.v.), and in the later Ptolemaic and the Roman times many
+changes and additions to the list must have been made. In Christian
+texts the "provinces" appear to have been very numerous.
+
+  See H. Brugsch, _Geographische Inschriften altagyptischer Denkmaler_
+  (3 vols., Leipzig, 1857-1860), and for the nomes on monuments of the
+  Old Kingdom, N. de G. Davies, _Mastaba of Ptahhetep and Akhethetep_
+  (London, 1901), p. 24 et sqq.
+
+_King and Government._--The government of Egypt was monarchical. The
+king (for titles see PHARAOH) was the head of the hierarchy: he was
+himself divine and is often styled "the good god," and was the proper
+mediator between gods and men. He was also the dispenser of office,
+confirmer of hereditary titles and estates and the fountain of justice.
+Oaths were generally sworn by the "life" of the king. The king wore
+special headdresses and costumes, including the crowns of Upper [HRG:
+HDt] and Lower Egypt [HRG: N] (often united [HRG: S5]), and the cobra
+upon his forehead. Females were admitted to the succession, but very few
+instances occur before the Cleopatras. The most notable Pharaonic queen
+in her own right was Hatshepsut in the XVIIIth Dynasty, but her reign
+was ignored by the later rulers even of her own family. A certain
+Nitocris of about the VIIIth Dynasty and Scemiophris of the XIIth
+Dynasty are in the lists, but are quite obscure. Yet inheritance through
+the female line was fully recognized, and marriage with the heiress
+princess was sought by usurpers to legitimate the claims of their
+offspring. Often, especially in the XIIth Dynasty, the king associated
+his heir on the throne with him to ensure the succession.
+
+From time to time feudal conditions prevailed: the great landowners and
+local princes had establishments of their own on the model of the royal
+court, and were with difficulty kept in order by the monarch. In rare
+cases during the Middle Kingdom (inscriptions in the tomb of Ameni at
+Beni Hasan, graffiti in the quarries of Hanub) documents were dated in
+the years of reign of these feudatory nobles. Under the Empire all power
+was again centralized in the hands of the Pharaoh. The apportionment of
+duties amongst the swarm of officials varied from age to age, as did
+their titles. Members of the royal family generally held high office.
+Under the Empire Egypt was administered by a vast bureaucracy, at the
+head of which, responsible to the king, was the vizier, or sometimes two
+viziers, one for Upper Egypt, the other for Lower Egypt (in which case
+the former, stationed at Thebes, had the precedence). The duties of the
+vizier and the procedure in his court are detailed in a long inscription
+which is repeated in three tombs of the XVIIIth Dynasty at Thebes
+(Breasted, _Records_, ii. S 663 et seqq.). The strictest impartiality
+was enjoined upon him, and he was advised to hold aloof from the people
+in order to preserve his authority. The office of vizier was by no means
+a sinecure. All the business of the country was overlooked by
+him--treasury, taxation, army, law-courts, expeditions of every kind.
+Egypt was the vast estate of Pharaoh, and the vizier was the steward of
+it.
+
+_Army._--The youth of Egypt was liable to be called upon for service in
+the field under the local chiefs. Their training consisted of gymnastic
+and warlike exercises which developed strength and discipline that would
+be as useful in executing public works and in dragging large monuments
+as in strictly military service. They were armed in separate companies
+with bows and arrows, spears, daggers and shields, and the officers
+carried battle-axes and maces. The army, commanded in chief by Una under
+the VIth Dynasty for raids in Sinai or Palestine, comprised levies from
+every part of Egypt and from Nubia, each under its own leader. Under the
+New Empire, when Egypt was almost a military state, the army was a more
+specialized institution, the art of war in siege and strategy had
+developed, divisions were formed with special standards, there were
+regiments armed with battle-axes and scimitars, and chariots formed an
+essential part of the host. Egyptian cavalry are not represented upon
+the monuments, and we hear little of such at any time. Herodotus divides
+the army into two classes, the Calasiries and the Hermotybies; these
+names, although he was not aware of it, mean respectively horse- and
+foot-soldiers, but it is possible that the former name was only
+traditional and had characterized those who fought from chariots, a mode
+of warfare that was obsolete in Herodotus's own day: as a matter of fact
+both classes are said to have served on the warships of Xerxes' fleet.
+
+_Arms and Armour._--From the contents of graves and other remains, and
+the sculptured and painted scenes, an approximate idea can be obtained
+of the weapons of the Egyptians at all periods from the prehistoric age
+onwards. Only a few points are here noted. Stone mace-heads are found in
+the earliest cemeteries, together with flint implements that may be the
+heads of lances, &c., and thin leaf-shaped daggers of bronze. Stone
+arrow-heads are common on the surface of the desert. Thin bronze
+arrow-heads appear at an early date; under the Empire they are stouter
+and furnished with a tang, and later still, towards the Greek period,
+they are socketed (often three-sided), or, if of iron, still tanged. The
+wooden club, a somewhat primitive weapon, seems to have been considered
+characteristic of foreigners from very early times, and, in scenes
+dating from the Middle Kingdom, belong principally to the levies from
+the surrounding barbarians. The dagger grew longer and stouter, but the
+sword made its appearance late, probably first in the hands of the
+_Sherdana_ (Sardinian?), mercenaries of the time of Rameses II. A
+peculiar scimitar, _khopsh_ [HRG], is characteristic of the Empire.
+Slings are first heard of in Egyptian warfare in the 8th century B.C.
+The chariot was doubtless introduced with the horse in the Hyksos
+period; several examples have been discovered in the tombs of the New
+Kingdom. Shields were covered with ox-hide and furnished with round
+sighting-holes above the middle. Cuirasses of bronze scales were worn by
+the kings and other leaders. The linen corslets of the Egyptian soldiery
+at a later time were famous, and were adopted by the Persian army.
+According to the paintings of the Middle Kingdom in the tombs of Beni
+Hasan, the battlements of brick fortresses were attacked and wrenched
+away with long and massive spears. No siege engines are depicted, even
+in the time of the Empire, and the absence of original representations
+after the XXth Dynasty renders it difficult to judge the advances made
+in the art of war during the first half of the last millennium B.C. The
+inscription of Pankhi, however, proves that in the 8th century
+approaches and towers were raised against the walls of besieged cities.
+
+_Priesthood._--The priesthood was in a great degree hereditary, though
+perhaps not essentially so. In each temple the priests were divided into
+four orders (until Ptolemy Euergetes added a fifth), each of which
+served in turn for a lunar month under the chief priest or prophet. They
+received shares of the annual revenues of the temple in kind, consisting
+of linen, oil, flesh, bread, vegetables, wine, beer, &c. The "divine
+servants" or "prophets" had residences assigned them in the temple area.
+In late times the priests were always shaven, and paid the greatest
+attention to cleanliness and ceremonial purity already implied in their
+ancient name. Fish and beans then were abhorred by them. Among the
+priests were the most learned men of Egypt, but probably many were
+illiterate. For the Hellenistic period see W. Otto, _Priester und Tempel
+im hellenistichen Agypten_ (Leipzig, 1905 foll.).
+
+  For ancient Egyptian life and civilization in all departments, the
+  principal work is Ad. Erman, _Life in Ancient Egypt_, translated by H.
+  M. Tirard (London, 1894), (the original _Agypten und agyptisches Leben
+  im Altertum_, 2 vols., was published in 1885 at Tubingen); G. Maspero,
+  _Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria_, translated by A. P. Morton
+  (London, 1892), (_Lectures historiques_, Paris, 1890); also J. G.
+  Wilkinson, _Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians_, new ed. by
+  S. Birch (3 vols., London, 1878). The annual _Archaeological Reports_
+  of the Egypt Exploration Fund contain summaries of the work done each
+  year in the several departments of research.
+
+  Of the innumerable publications of Egyptian monuments, scenes and
+  inscriptions, C. R. Lepsius, _Denkmaler aus Agypten und Athiopien_
+  (Berlin, 1849-1859), and Memoirs of the _Archaeological Survey_ of the
+  Egypt Exploration Fund, may be specified. For antiquities in museums
+  there is the sumptuous _Catalogue general des antiquites egyptiennes
+  du musee de Caire_; for excavations the Memoirs of the Egypt
+  Exploration Fund, of the Research Account, of the British School of
+  Archaeology, of the Liverpool School of Archaeology, of the Deutsche
+  Orient-Gesellschaft, of the Hearst Egyptian Expedition, of the
+  Theodore M. Davis excavations (Tombs of the Kings).
+
+_Trade and Money._--There is little evidence to show how buying and
+selling were carried on in ancient Egypt. A unique scene in a tomb of
+the IVth Dynasty, however, shows men and women exchanging commodities
+against each other--fish, fish-hooks, fans, necklaces, &c. Probably this
+was a market in the open air such as is held weekly at the present time
+in every considerable village. Rings of metal, gold, silver and bronze
+played some part in exchange, and from the Hyksos period onwards formed
+the usual standards by which articles of all kinds might be valued. In
+the XVIIIth Dynasty the value of meat, &c., was reckoned in gold;
+somewhat later copper seems the commonest standard, and under the
+Deltaic dynasties silver. But barter must have prevailed much longer.
+The precious metals were kept in the temples under the tutelage of the
+deities. During the XXVth and XXVIth Dynasties silver of the treasury of
+Harshafe (at Heracleopolis Magna) was commonly prescribed in contracts,
+and in the reign of Darius we hear of silver of the treasury of Ptah (at
+Memphis). Aryandes, satrap of Egypt, is said by Herodotus to have been
+punished by Darius for coining money of equal fineness with that of the
+king in Persia: thus coinage had then begun in Egypt. But the early
+coins that have been found there are mainly Greek, and especially
+Athenian, and it was not until the introduction of a regular currency in
+the three metals under the Ptolemies that much use was made of coined
+money.
+
+Corn was the staple produce of Egypt and may have been exported
+regularly, and especially when there was famine in other countries. In
+the Tell el-Amarna letters the friendly kings ask Pharaoh for "much
+gold." Papyrus rolls and fine linen were good merchandise in Phoenicia
+in the 10th century B.C. From the earliest times Egypt was dependent on
+foreign countries to supply its wants in some degree. Vessels were
+fashioned in foreign stone as early as the Ist Dynasty. All silver must
+have been imported, and all copper except a little that the Pharaohs
+obtained from the mines of Sinai. Cedar wood was brought from the
+forests of Lebanon, ivory, leopard skins and gold from the south, all
+kinds of spices and ingredients of incense from Somaliland and Arabia,
+fine linen and beautifully worked vessels from Syria and the islands.
+Such supplies might be obtained by forcible raiding or as tribute of
+conquered countries, or perhaps as the free offerings of simple savages
+awed by the arrival of ships and civilized well-armed crews, or again by
+royal missions in which rich gifts on both sides were exchanged, or
+lastly by private trading. For deciding how large a share was due to
+trade, there is almost no evidence. But there are records of expeditions
+sent out by the king to obtain the rarities of different countries, and
+the hero of the Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor was upon this quest.
+Egyptian objects of the age of the XVIIIth Dynasty are found in the
+Greek islands and on the mainland among remains of the Mycenaean epoch,
+and on the other hand the products of the workshops of Crete and other
+centres of that culture are found in Egypt and are figured as "tribute
+of the Keftiu" in the tomb-paintings, though we have no information of
+any war with or conquest of that people. It must be a case of trade
+rather than tribute here and in like instances. According to the papyrus
+of Unamun at the end of the weak XXth Dynasty payment for cedar was
+insisted on by the king of Byblus from the Egyptian commissioner, and
+proofs were shown to him of payment having been made even in the more
+glorious times of Egypt. Trade both internal and external must have been
+largely in the hands of foreigners. It is impossible to say at what
+period Phoenician traffic by sea with Egypt began, but it existed as
+early as the IIIrd Dynasty. In the time of Herodotus much wine was
+imported from Syria and Greece. Amasis II. (c. 570 B.C.) established
+Naucratis as the centre of Greek trade in Egypt. Financial transactions
+by Jews settled at the southern extremity of Egypt, at Assuan, are found
+as early as the reign of Artaxerxes.
+
+_Hunting, Fishing, &c._--In the desert hunting was carried on by hunters
+with bows and arrows, dogs and nets to check the game. Here in ancient
+times were found the oryx, addax, ibex, gazelle, bubale, ostrich, hyena
+and porcupine, more rarely the wild ox and wild sheep (_O.
+tragelaphus_). All of these were considered fit for the table. The lion,
+leopard and jackal were not eaten. Pigeons and other birds were caught
+in traps, and quails were netted in the fields and on the sea-shore. In
+the papyrus marshes the hippopotamus was slain with harpoons, the wild
+boar, too, was probably hunted, and the sportsman brought down wild-fowl
+with the boomerang, or speared or angled for fish. Enormous quantities
+of wild-fowl of many sorts were taken in clap-nets, to be preserved in
+jars with salt. Fish were taken sometimes in hand-nets, but the
+professional fishermen with their draw-nets caught them in shoals. The
+fishing industry was of great importance: the annual catch in the Lake
+of Moeris and its canal formed an important part of the Egyptian
+revenue. The fish of the Nile, which were of many kinds (including
+mullets, &c., which came up from the sea), were split and dried in the
+sun: others were salted and so preserved. A supply of sea fish would be
+obtained off the coast of the Delta and at the mouth of the Lake
+Serbonis.
+
+_Farming, Horticulture, &c._--The wealth of Egypt lay in its
+agriculture. The regular inundations, the ease of irrigating the rich
+alluvial flats, and the great heat of the sun in a cloudless sky, while
+limiting the natural flora, gave immense opportunities to the
+industrious farmer. The normal rise of the Nile was sixteen cubits at
+the island of Roda, and two cubits more or less caused a failure of the
+harvest. In the paintings we see gardens irrigated by handbuckets and
+_shadufs_; the latter (buckets hung on a lever-pole) were probably the
+usual means of raising water for the fields in ancient times, and still
+are common in Egypt and Nubia, although water-wheels have been known
+since the Ptolemaic age, if not earlier. Probably a certain amount of
+cultivation was possible all the year round, and there was perhaps a
+succession of harvests; but there was a pause after the main harvests
+were gathered in by the end of April, and from then till June was the
+period in which taxes were collected and loans were repaid. Under the
+Ptolemaic regime the records show a great variety of crops, wheat and
+barley being probably the largest (see B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt,
+_Tebtunis Papyri_, i. 560; J. P. Mahaffy and J. G. Smyly, _Petrie
+Papyri_, iii. p. 205). Earlier the _boti_, in Greek [Greek: olyra]
+(spelt? or durra?) was the main crop, and earlier again inferior
+varieties of wheat and barley took the lead, with _boti_ apparently in
+the second place. The bread was mainly made of _boti_, the beer of
+barley. There were green crops such as clover, and lentils, peas, beans,
+radishes, onions, lettuces (as a vegetable and for oil), castor oil and
+flax were grown. The principal fruit trees were the date palm, useful
+also for its wood and fibre, the pomegranate, fig and fig-sycamore. The
+vine was much cultivated in early times, and the vintage is a subject
+frequently depicted. Later the wine of the Mareotic region near
+Alexandria was celebrated even amongst Roman epicures. Papyrus, which
+grew wild in the marshes, was also cultivated, at least in the later
+ages: its stems were used for boat-building, and according to the
+classical authors for rope-making, as well as for the famous writing
+material. About the 8th century A.D. paper drove the latter out of use,
+and the papyrus plant quickly became extinct. The Indian lotus described
+by Herodotus is found in deposits of the Roman age. Native lotuses, blue
+and white, were much used for decoration in garlands, &c., also the
+chrysanthemum and the corn-flower.
+
+  See chapters on plant remains by Newberry in W. M. F. Petrie, _Hawara,
+  Biahmu, and Arsinoe_ (London, 1889); _Kahun, Gurob and Hawara_ (1890);
+  V. Loret, _La Flore pharaonique_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1892), and the
+  authorities there cited.
+
+_Domestic Animals and Birds._--The farmer kept up a large stock of
+animals: in the houses there were pets and in the temples sacred
+creatures of many kinds. Goats browsed on the trees and herbage at the
+edge of the desert. Sheep of a peculiar breed with horizontal twisted
+horns and hairy coat are figured on the earliest monuments: a more
+valuable variety, woolly with curved horns, made its appearance in the
+Middle Kingdom and pushed out the older form: sheep were driven into the
+ploughed fields to break the clods and trample in the seed. The oxen
+were long-horned, short-horned and polled. They drew the plough,
+trampled the corn sheaves round the circular threshing floor, and were
+sometimes employed to drag heavy weights. The pig is rarely figured and
+was less and less tolerated as the Egyptians grew in ceremonial purity.
+A variety of wild animals caught in the chase were kept alive and fed
+for slaughter. Geese and ducks of different sorts were bred in countless
+numbers by the farmers, also pigeons and quails, and in the early ages
+cranes. The domestic fowl was unknown in Egypt before the Deltaic
+dynasties, but Diodorus in the first century B.C. describes how its eggs
+were hatched artificially, as they are at the present day. Bee-keeping,
+too, must have been a considerable industry, though dates furnished a
+supply of sweetening material.
+
+The farm lands were generally held at a rent from an overlord, who might
+according to times and circumstances be the king, a feudal prince, or a
+temple-corporation. The stock also might be similarly held, or might
+belong to the farmers. The ordinary beast of burden, even in the desert,
+was the ass. The horse seems to have been introduced with the chariot
+during the Hyksos period. It is thought that the camel is shown in rude
+figures of the earliest age, but it is scarcely traceable again before
+the XXVIth Dynasty. In the Ptolemaic period it was used for desert
+transport and gradually became common. Strange to say, it is only very
+rarely that men are depicted riding on animals, and never before the New
+Kingdom.
+
+The dog was of many varieties as early as the XIIth Dynasty, when the
+greyhound and turnspit and other well-marked forms are seen. The cat was
+sometimes trained by the sportsman to catch birds. Monkeys were commonly
+kept as pets. The sacred beasts in the various temples, tame as far as
+possible, were of almost every conceivable variety, from the vulture to
+the swallow or the goose, from the lion to the shrew-mouse, from the
+hippopotamus to the sheep and the monkey, from the crocodile to the
+tortoise and the cobra, from the carp to the eel; the scorpion and the
+scarab beetle were perhaps the strangest in this strange company of
+deities.
+
+  For agriculture see J. J. Tylor and F. Ll. Griffith, _The Tomb of
+  Paheri_ at El Kab, in the XIth Memoir of the Egypt Exploration Fund.
+  Together with hunting and fishing it is illustrated in many of the
+  Memoirs of the _Archaeological Survey_ of the same society. See also
+  Lortet and M. C. Gaillard, _La Faune momifiee de l'ancienne Egypte_
+  (Lyons, 1905).
+
+_Law._--No code of Egyptian laws has come down to us. Diodorus names a
+series of Egyptian kings who were law-givers, ending with Amasis (Ahmosi
+II.) and Darius. Frequent reference is made in inscriptions to customs
+and laws which were traditional, and perhaps had been codified in the
+sacred books. From time to time regulations on special points were
+issued by royal decree: a fragment of such a decree, directed by
+Horemheb of the XVIIIth Dynasty against oppression of the peasantry by
+officials and prescribing penalties, is preserved on a stela in the
+temple of Karnak, and enactments of Ptolemy Philadelphus and Euergetes
+II. are known from papyri. In the Ptolemaic age matters arising out of
+native contracts were decided according to native law by [Greek:
+laokritai], while travelling courts of [Greek: chrematistai]
+representing the king settled litigation on Greek contracts and most
+other disputes. Affairs were decided in accordance with the code of the
+country, [Greek: tes choras nomoi], the Greek code, [Greek: politikoi
+nomoi], modelled, it would seem, on Athenian law or royal decrees,
+[Greek: prostagmata]. "Native" law was still quoted in Roman times, but
+the significance of the expression remains to be ascertained. In ancient
+Egypt petitions were sent to the king or the great feudal landowners in
+whose territory the petitioner or his adversary dwelt or the injury was
+committed: courts were composed of royal or feudal officials, or in the
+New Kingdom of officials or responsible citizens. The right of appeal to
+the king probably existed at all times. The statement of the case and
+the evidence were frequently ordered to be put in writing. The evidence
+was supported by oath: in criminal cases, such as the harem conspiracy
+against Rameses III., torture of the accused was resorted to to extract
+evidence, the bastinado being applied on the hands and the feet.
+Penalties in the New Kingdom were death (by starvation or
+self-inflicted), fines, beating with a certain number of blows so as to
+open a specified number of wounds on as many different parts of the body
+(e.g. five wounds, i.e. on hands, feet and back?), also cutting off the
+nose with banishment to Nubia or the Syrian frontier. In the times of
+the Old Kingdom decapitation was in use, and a decree exists of the
+Middle Kingdom degrading a nomarch of Coptos and his family for ever
+from his office and from the priesthood on account of services to a
+rival pretender.
+
+As to legal instruments: contracts agreed to in public or before
+witnesses and written on papyrus are found as early as the Middle
+Kingdom and perhaps belong to all historic times, but are very scarce
+until the XXVth Dynasty. Two wills exist on papyrus of the XIIth
+Dynasty, but they are isolated, and such are not again found among
+native documents, though they occur in Greek in the Ptolemaic age. The
+virtual will of a high priest of Ammon under the XXIInd Dynasty is put
+in the form of a decree of the god himself.
+
+From the time of the XXVth Dynasty there is a great increase in written
+documents of a legal character, sales, loans, &c., apparently due to a
+change in law and custom; but after the reign of Darius I. there is
+again almost a complete cessation until the reign of Alexander, probably
+only because of the disturbed condition of the country. Under Ptolemy
+Philadelphus Greek documents begin to be numerous: under Euergetes II.
+(Physcon) demotic contracts are particularly abundant, but they cease
+entirely after the first century of Roman rule.
+
+Marriage contracts are not found earlier than the XXVIth Dynasty. Women
+had full powers of inheritance (though not of dealing with their
+property), and succession through the mother was of importance. In the
+royal line there are almost certain instances of the marriage of a
+brother with an heiress-sister in Pharaonic times: this was perhaps
+helped by the analogy of Osiris and Isis: in the Ptolemaic dynasty it
+was an established custom, and one of the stories of Khamois, written in
+the Ptolemaic age, assumes its frequency at a very remote date. It would
+be no surprise to find examples of the practice in other ranks also at
+an early period, as it certainly was prevalent in the Hellenistic age,
+but as yet it is very difficult to prove its occurrence. The native
+contracts with the wife gave to her child all the husband's property,
+and divorce or separation was provided for, entailing forfeiture of the
+dowry. The "native law" of Roman times allowed a man to take his
+daughter away from her husband if the last quarrelled with him.
+
+Slavery is traceable from an early date. Private ownership of slaves,
+captured in war and given by the king to their captor or otherwise, is
+certainly seen at the beginning of the XVIIIth Dynasty. Sales of slaves
+occur in the XXVth Dynasty, and contracts of servitude are found in the
+XXVIth Dynasty and in the reign of Darius, appearing as if the consent
+of the slave was then required. Presumably at this late period there
+were eunuchs in Egypt, though adequate evidence of their existence there
+is not yet forthcoming. They must have originated among a more cruel
+people. That circumcision (though perhaps not till puberty) was
+regularly practised is proved by the mummies (agreeing with the
+testimony of Herodotus and the indications of the early tomb sculptures)
+until an edict of Hadrian forbade it: after that, only priests were
+circumcised.
+
+  See A. H. Gardiner, _The Inscription of Mes_ (from Sethe's
+  _Untersuchungen zur Geschichte und Altertumskunde Agyptens_, iv.); J.
+  H. Breasted, _Ancient Records_, Egypt, passim, esp. i. S 190, 535 et
+  seqq., 773, ii. 54, 671, iii. 45, 367, iv. 416, 499, 795; F. Ll.
+  Griffith, _Catalogue of the John Rylands Demotic Papyri_; B. P.
+  Grenfell and J. P. Mahaffy, _Revenue Laws of Philadelphus_ (Oxford,
+  1896); B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt, _Tebtunis Papyri_, part i.
+  (London, 1902); Bouche-Leclercq, _Histoire des Lagides_, tome iv.
+  (Paris, 1907).
+
+_Science._--The Egyptians sought little after knowledge for its own
+sake: they might indulge in religious speculation, but their science was
+no more than the knowledge of practical methods. Undoubtedly the
+Egyptians acquired great skill in the application of simple means to the
+fulfilment of the most difficult tasks. But the books that have come
+down to us prove how greatly their written theoretical knowledge fell
+short of their practical accomplishment. The explanation of the fact may
+partly be that the mechanical and other discoveries of the most
+ingenious minds among them, when not in constant requisition by later
+generations, were misunderstood or forgotten, and even in other cases
+were preserved only as rules of thumb by the craftsmen and experts, who
+would jealously hide them as secrets of trade. Men of genius were not
+wanting in the long history of Egypt; two doctors, Imhotp (Imuthes), the
+architect of Zoser, in the IIIrd Dynasty, and Amenophis (Amenhotp), son
+of Hap, the wise scribe under Amenophis III. in the XVIIIth, eventually
+received the honours of deification; and Hardadf under Cheops of the
+IVth Dynasty was little behind these two in the estimation of posterity.
+Such men, who, capable in every field, designed the Great Pyramids and
+bestowed the highest monumental fame on their masters, must surely have
+had an insight into scientific principles that would hardly be credited
+to the Egyptians from the written documents alone.
+
+_Mathematics._--The Egyptian notation for whole numbers was decimal,
+each power of 10 up to 100,000 being represented by a different figure,
+on much the same principle as the Roman numerals. Fractions except 2/3
+were all primary, i.e. with the numerator unity: in order to express
+such an idea as 9/13 the Egyptians were obliged to reduce it to a series
+of primary fractions through double fractions 2/13 + 2/13 + 2/13 + 2/13
++ 1/13 = 4(1/8 + 1/52 + 1/104) + 1/13 = 1/2 + 2/13 + 1/26 = 1/2 + 1/8 +
+1/26 + 1/52 + 1/104; this operation was performed in the head, only the
+result being written down, and to facilitate it tables were drawn up of
+the division of 2 by odd numbers. With integers, besides adding and
+subtracting, it was easy to double and to multiply by 10: multiplying
+and dividing by 5 and finding the 1-1/2 value were also among the
+fundamental instruments of calculation, and all multiplication proceeded
+by repetitions of these processes with addition, e.g. 9 x 7 = (9 x 2 x
+2) + (9 x 2) + 9. Division was accomplished by multiplying the divisor
+until the dividend was reached; the answer being the number of times the
+divisor was so multiplied. Weights and measures proceeded generally on
+either a decimal or a doubling system or a combination of the two. Apart
+from a few calculations and accounts, practically all the materials for
+our knowledge of Egyptian mathematics before the Hellenistic period date
+from the Middle Kingdom.
+
+  The principal text is the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus in the British
+  Museum, written under a Hyksos king c. 1600 B.C.; unfortunately it is
+  full of gross errors. Its contents fall roughly into the following
+  scheme, but the main headings are not shown in the original:--
+
+  I. _Arithmetic._--A. Tables and rule to facilitate the employment of
+  fractions.
+
+    (a) Table of the divisions of 2 by odd numbers from 3 to 99 (e.g. 2
+          : 11 = 1/6 + 1/66), see above.
+    (b) Conversions of compound fractions (e.g. 2/3 x 1/3 = 1/6 + 1/18),
+          with rule for finding 2/3 of a fraction.
+
+  B. The "bread" calculation--a division by 10 of the units 1 to 9.
+
+  C. "Completing" calculations.
+
+    (a) Adding multiples of a fraction to produce a more convenient
+          fraction (perhaps connected with the use of palms and
+          cubits in decoration in a proportion based on the number 8).
+    (b) Finding the difference between a given fraction and a given
+          whole number.
+
+  D. _Ahe_[9] or "mass"-problems (of the form x + x/n = a, to find the
+  _ahe_ x).
+
+  E. _Tooun_-problems (_tooun_, "rising," seems to be the difference
+  between the shares of two sets of persons dividing an amount between
+  them on a lower and a higher scale).
+
+  II. _Geometry._--A. Measurement of volume (amounts of grain in
+  cylindrical and rectangular spaces of different dimensions and vice
+  versa).
+
+  B. Measurement of area (areas of square, circular, triangular, &c.,
+  fields).
+
+  C. Proportions of pyramids and other monuments with sloping sides.
+
+  III. _Miscellaneous problems_ (and tables) such as are met with in
+  bread-making, beer-making, food of live-stock, &c. &c.
+
+  The method of estimating the area of irregular fields and the cubic
+  contents of granaries, &c., is very faulty. It would be interesting to
+  find material of later date, such as Pythagoras is reported to have
+  studied.
+
+  See A. Eisenlohr, _Ein mathematisches Handbuch der alten Agypter_
+  (Leipzig, 1877); F. Ll. Griffith, "The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus" in
+  _Proceedings of the Soc. of Biblical Archaeology_, Nov. 1891, March,
+  May and June 1894.
+
+_Astronomy._--The brilliant skies of day and night in Egypt favoured the
+development of astronomy. A papyrus of the Roman period in the British
+Museum attributes the invention of horoscopes to the Egyptians, but no
+early instance is known. Professor Petrie has indeed suggested, chiefly
+on chronological grounds, that a table of stars on the ceiling of the
+Ramesseum temple and another in the tomb of Rameses VI. (repeated in
+that of Rameses IX. without alteration) were horoscopes of Rameses II.
+and VI.; but Mahler's interpretation of the tables on which this would
+rest appears to be false. Astronomy played a considerable part in
+religious matters for fixing the dates of festivals and determining the
+hours of the night. The titles of several temple books are preserved
+recording the movements and phases of the sun, moon and stars. The
+rising of Sothis (Sirius) at the beginning of the inundation was a
+particularly important point to fix in the yearly calendar (see below, S
+"Chronology"). The primitive clock[10] of the temple time-keeper
+(horoscopus), consisting of a [Greek: horologion kai phoinika] (Clemens
+Alex. _Strom._, vi. 4. 35), has been identified with two inscribed
+objects in the Berlin Museum; these are a palm branch with a sight-slit
+in the broader end, and a short handle from which a plummet line was
+hung. The former was held close to the eye, the latter in the other
+hand, perhaps at arm's length. From the above-mentioned tables of
+culmination in the tombs of Rameses VI. and IX. it seems that for fixing
+the hours of the night a man seated on the ground faced the horoscopus
+in such a position that the line of observation of the Pole-star passed
+over the middle of his head. On the different days of the year each hour
+was determined by a fixed star culminating or nearly culminating in it,
+and the position of these stars at the time is given in the tables as
+"in the centre," "on the left eye," "on the right shoulder," &c.
+According to the texts, in founding or rebuilding temples the north axis
+was determined by the same apparatus, and we may conclude that it was
+the usual one for astronomical observations. It is conceivable that in
+ingenious and careful hands it might give results of a high degree of
+accuracy.
+
+  See L. Borchardt, "Ein altagyptisches astronomisches Instrument" in
+  _Zeitschrift fur agyptische Sprache_, xxxvii. (1899), p. 10; Ed.
+  Meyer, _Agyptische Chronologie_, p. 36. Besides the sun and moon, five
+  planets, thirty-six dekans, and constellations to which animal and
+  other forms are given, appear in the early astronomical texts and
+  paintings. The zodiacal signs were not introduced till the Ptolemaic
+  period. See H. Brugsch, _Die Agyptologie_ (Leipzig, 1891), pp. 315 et
+  seqq., for a full account of all these.
+
+_Medicine._--Except, that splints are sometimes found on the limbs of
+bodies of all periods, at present nothing is known, from texts or
+otherwise, of the existence of Egyptian surgery or dentistry. For
+historical pathology the examination of mummies and skeletons is
+yielding good results. There is little sign of the existence of gout or
+of syphilitic diseases until late times (see MUMMY). A number of papyri
+have been discovered containing medical prescriptions. The earliest are
+of the XIIth Dynasty from Kahun, one being veterinary, the other
+gynaecological. The finest non-religious papyrus known, the Ebers
+Papyrus, is a vast collection of receipts. One section, giving us some
+of "the mysteries of the physician," shows how lamentably crude were his
+notions of the constitution of the body. It teaches little more than
+that the pulse is felt in every part of the body, that there are vessels
+leading from the heart to the eyes, ears, nose and all the other
+members, and that "the breath entering the nose goes to the heart and
+the lungs." The prescriptions are for a great variety of ailments and
+afflictions--diseases of the eye and the stomach, sores and broken
+bones, to make the hair grow, to keep away snakes, fleas, &c. Purgatives
+and diuretics are particularly numerous, and the medicines take the form
+of pillules, draughts, liniments, fumigations, &c. The prescriptions are
+often fanciful and may thus bear some absurd relation to the disease to
+be cured, but generally they would be to some extent effective. Their
+action was assisted by spells, for general use in the preparation or
+application, or for special diseases. In most cases several ingredients
+are prescribed together: when the amounts are indicated it is by measure
+not by weight, and evidently no very potent drugs were employed, for the
+smallest measure specified is equal to about half of a cubic inch.
+Little has yet been accomplished in identifying the diseases and the
+substances named in the medical papyri.
+
+  See G. A. Reisner, _The Hearst Medical Papyrus_ (Leipzig, 1905),
+  (XVIIIth Dynasty), and for a great magical text of the Roman period
+  (3rd century A.D.) with some prescriptions, F. Ll. Griffith and H.
+  Thompson, _The Demotic Magical Papyrus of London and Leiden_ (London,
+  1904).
+
+_Literature_.--The vast mass of writing which has come down to us from
+the ancient Egyptians comprises documents of almost every conceivable
+kind, business documents and correspondence, legal documents, memorial
+inscriptions, historical, scientific, didactic, magical and religious
+literature; also tales and lyrics and other compositions in poetical
+language. Most of these classes are dealt with in this article under
+special headings. In addition there should be mentioned the abundant
+explanatory inscriptions attached to wall-scenes as a secondary element
+in those compositions. As early as the Middle Kingdom, papyri are found
+containing classified lists of words, titles, names of cities, &c., and
+of nomes with their capitals, festivals, deities and sacred things,
+calendars, &c.
+
+To a great extent the standard works in all classes date from an early
+age, not later than the Middle Kingdom, and subsequent works of religion
+and learning like the later additions were largely written in the same
+style. Several books of proverbs or "instructions" were put in
+circulation during the Middle Kingdom. Kagemni and Ptahhotp of the Old
+Kingdom were nominally or really the instructors in manners: King
+Amenemhe I. laid down the principles of conduct in government for his
+son Senwosri I., preaching on the text of beneficence rewarded by
+treachery; Kheti points out in detail to his schoolboy son Pepi the
+advantages enjoyed by scribes and the miseries of all other careers.
+Some of these books are known only in copies of the New Kingdom. The
+instructions of Ani to his son Khenshotp are of later date. In demotic
+the most notable of such works is a papyrus of the first century A.D. at
+Leiden.
+
+A number of Egyptian tales are known, dating from the Middle Kingdom and
+later. Some are so sober and realistic as to make it doubtful whether
+they are not true biographies and narratives of actual events. Such are
+the story of Sinuhi, a fugitive to Syria in the reign of Sesostris
+[Senwosri] I., and perhaps the narrative of Unamun of his expedition in
+quest of cedar wood for the bark of the Theban Ammon in the XXIst
+Dynasty. Others are highly imaginative or with miraculous incidents,
+like the story of the Predestined Prince and the story of the Two
+Brothers, which begins with a pleasing picture of the industrious
+farmer, and, in demotic of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods, two stories
+of the learned Sethon Khamois, son of Rameses II. and high priest of
+Ptah, with his rather tragical experiences at the hands of magicians.
+The stories of the Middle Kingdom were in choice diction, large portions
+of them being rhetorical or poetical compositions attributed to the
+principal characters. The story of Sinuhi is of this description and was
+much read during the New Kingdom. Another, of the Eloquent Peasant whose
+ass had been stolen, was only a framework to the rhetoric of endless
+petitions. The tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor in the Red Sea was a piece
+of simpler writing, not unpicturesque, of the marvellous type of a
+Sindbad story. If all these are deficient in literary merit, they are
+deeply interesting as revelations of primitive mind and manners. Of New
+Kingdom tales, the story of the Two Brothers is frankly in the simplest
+speech of everyday life, while others are more stilted. The demotic
+stories of Khamois are simple, but the "Rape of Inaros' Cuirass" (at
+Vienna) is told in a stiff and high-flown style.
+
+In general it may be said of Egyptian literary compositions that apart
+from their interest as anthropological documents they possess no merit
+which would entitle them to survive. They are more or less touched by
+artificiality, but so far as we are able to appreciate them at present
+they very seldom attain to any degree of literary beauty. Most of the
+compositions in the literary language, whether old or archaistic, are in
+a stilted style and often with parallelisms of phrase like those of
+Hebrew poetry. Simple prose narrative is here quite exceptional. Some
+few hymns contain stanzas of ten lines, each line with a break in the
+middle. There is no sign of rhyming in Egyptian poetry, and the rhythm
+is not yet recognizable owing to our ignorance of the ancient
+vocalization. In old Egyptian tales the narrative portions are
+frequently in prose; New Egyptian and demotic contain as a rule little
+else. Hymns exist in both of these later forms of the language, and a
+few love songs in Late Egyptian.
+
+  See W. M. F. Petrie, _Egyptian Tales_ (2 vols., London, 1895); G.
+  Maspero, _Les Contes populaires de l'Egypte ancienne_ (3rd edition,
+  Paris, 1906); W. Max Muller, _Die Liebespoesie der alten Agypter_
+  (Leipzig, 1899).     (F. LL. G.)
+
+C. _Religion._--1. _Introductory._--Copious as are the sources of
+information from which our knowledge of the Egyptian religion is drawn,
+there is nevertheless no aspect of the ancient civilization of Egypt
+that we really so little understand. While the youth of Egyptological
+research is in part responsible for this, the reason lies still more in
+the nature of the religion itself and the character of the testimony
+bearing upon it. For a true appreciation of the chaotic polytheism that
+reveals itself even in the earliest texts it would be necessary to be
+able to trace its development, stage by stage, out of a number of naive
+primitive cults; but the period of growth lies behind recorded history,
+and we are here reduced to hypotheses and _a posteriori_
+reconstructions. The same criticism applies, no doubt, to other
+religions, like those of Greece and Rome. In Egypt, however, the
+difficulty is much aggravated by the poor quality of the evidence. The
+religious books are textually very corrupt, one-sided in their
+subject-matter, and distributed over a period of more than two thousand
+years. The greatest defect of all is their relative silence with regard
+to the myths. For the story of Isis and Osiris we have indeed the late
+treatise ascribed to Plutarch, and a few fragments of other myths may be
+culled from earlier native sources. But in general the tales that passed
+current about the gods are referred to only in mysterious and recondite
+allusions; as Herodotus for his own times explicitly testifies, a
+reticence in such matters seems to have been encouraged by the priests.
+Thus with regard to Egyptian theology we are very imperfectly informed,
+and the account that is here given of it must be looked upon as merely
+provisional. The actual practices of the cult, both funerary and divine,
+are better known, and we are tolerably familiar with the doctrines as to
+the future state of the dead. There is good material, too, for the study
+of Egyptian magic, though this branch has been somewhat neglected
+hitherto.
+
+2. _Main Sources._--(a) _The Pyramid texts,_ a vast collection of
+incantations inscribed on the inner walls of five royal tombs of the Vth
+and VIth Dynasties at Sakkara, discovered and first published by
+Maspero. Much of these texts is of extreme antiquity; one incantation at
+least has been proved to belong to an age anterior to the unification of
+the Northern and Southern kingdoms. Later copies also exist, but possess
+little independent critical value. The subject-matter is funerary, i.e.
+it deals with the fate of the dead king in the next life. Some chapters
+describe the manner in which he passes from earth to heaven and becomes
+a star in the firmament, others deal with the food and drink necessary
+for his continued existence after death, and others again with the royal
+prerogatives which he hopes still to enjoy; many are directed against
+the bites of snakes and stings of scorpions. It is possible that these
+incantations were recited as part of the funerary ritual, but there is
+no doubt that their mere presence in the tombs was supposed to be
+magically effective for the welfare of the dead. Originally these texts
+had an application to the king alone, but before the beginning of the
+XIIth Dynasty private individuals had begun to employ them on their own
+behalf. They seem to be relatively free from textual corruption, but the
+vocabulary still occasions much difficulty to the translator.
+
+(b) _The Book of the Dead_ is the somewhat inappropriate name applied to
+a large similar collection of texts of various dates, certain chapters
+of which show a tendency to become welded together into a book of fixed
+content and uniform order. A number of chapters contained in the later
+recensions are already found on the sarcophagi of the Middle Kingdom,
+together with a host of funereal texts not usually reckoned as belonging
+to the Book of the Dead; these have been published by Lepsius and Lacau.
+The above-mentioned nucleus, combined with other chapters of more recent
+origin, is found in the papyri of the XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties, and forms
+the so-called Theban recension, which has been edited by Naville in an
+important work. Here already more or less rigid groups of chapters may
+be noted, but individual manuscripts differ greatly in what they include
+and exclude. In the Saite period a sort of standard edition was drawn
+up, consisting of 165 chapters in a fixed order and with a common title
+"the book of going forth in the day"; this recension was published by
+Lepsius in 1842 from a Turin papyrus. Like the Pyramid texts, the Book
+of the Dead served a funerary purpose, but its contents are far more
+heterogeneous; besides chapters enabling the dead man to assume what
+shape he will, or to issue triumphant from the last judgment, there are
+lists of gates to be passed and demons to be encountered in the nether
+world, formulae such as are inscribed on sepulchral figures and amulets,
+and even hymns to the sun-god. These texts are for the most part
+excessively corrupt, and despite the translations of Pierret, Renouf and
+Budge, much labour must yet be expended upon them before they can rank
+as a first-rate source.
+
+(c) The texts of the _Tombs of the Kings at Thebes_ (XVIIIth-XXth Dyn.)
+consist of a series of theological books compiled at an uncertain date;
+they have been edited by Naville and Lefebure. The chief of these,
+extant in a longer and a shorter version, is called _The book of that
+which is in the Nether World_ (familiarly known as the _Am Duat_) and
+deals with the journey of the sun during the twelve hours of the night.
+_The Book of Gates_ treats of the same topic from a more theological
+standpoint. _The Litanies of the Sun_ contain the acclamations with
+which the sun-god Re was greeted, when at eventide his bark reached the
+entrance of the nether world. Another treatise relates the destruction
+of mankind, and the circumstances that led to the creation of the
+heavens in the form of a cow.
+
+(d) Among the _later religious books_ one or two deserve a special
+mention, such as _The Overthrowing of Apophis_, the serpent enemy of the
+sun-god; _The Lamentations of Isis and Nephthys_ over their murdered
+brother Osiris; _The Book of Breathings_, a favourite book among the
+later Theban priests. Several of these books were used in the ritual of
+feast days, but all have received a secondary funerary employment, and
+are therefore found buried with the dead in their tombs.
+
+(e) The _Ritual texts_ have survived only in copies not earlier than the
+New Kingdom. The temple ritual employed in the daily cult is illustrated
+by the scenes depicted on the inner walls of the great temples: the
+formulae recited during the performance of the ceremonies are recorded
+at length in the temple of Seti I. (XIXth Dyn.) at Abydos, as well as in
+some later papyri in Berlin. The whole material has been collected and
+studied by Moret. The funerary ritual is known from texts in the Theban
+tombs (XVIIIth-XXth Dyn.) and papyri and sarcophagi of later date; older
+versions are contained in the Pyramid texts and _The Book of the Dead_.
+Schiaparelli has done much towards gathering together this scattered
+material. The ritual observed during the process of embalmment is
+preserved in late papyri in Paris and Cairo published by Maspero.
+
+(f) The _magical_ documents have been comparatively little studied, in
+spite of their great interest. They deal for the most part with the
+hearing of diseases, the bites of snakes and scorpions, &c., but
+incidentally cast many sidelights on the mythology and superstitious
+beliefs. The best-known of these books is the _Papyrus Harris_ published
+by F. J. Chabas, but other papyri of as great or greater importance are
+to be found in the Leiden, Turin and other collections. A curious book
+published by A. Erman contains spells to be used by mothers for the
+protection of their children. A papyrus in London contains a calendar of
+lucky and unlucky days. A late class of stelae, of which the best
+specimen has been published by Golenischeff, consists of spells of
+various kinds originally intended for the use of the living, but later
+employed for funerary purposes.
+
+(g) Under the heading _Miscellaneous_ we must mention a number of
+sources of great value: the grave-stones, or stelae, especially those
+from Abydos, which throw much light on funerary beliefs; the great
+_Papyrus Harris_, the longest of all papyri, which enumerates the gifts
+of Rameses III. (XXth Dyn.) to the various temples of Egypt; the hymns
+to the gods preserved in Cairo and Leiden papyri; and the inscriptions
+of the Ptolemaic temples (Dendera, Edfu, &c.), which teem with good
+religious material. Nor can any attempt here be made to summarize the
+remaining native Egyptian sources, literary and archaeological, that
+deserve notice.
+
+(h) Among the classical writers, Plutarch in his treatise _Concerning
+Isis and Osiris_ is the most important. Diodorus also is useful.
+Herodotus, owing to his religious awe and dread of divulging sacred
+mysteries, is only a second-rate source.
+
+3. _The Gods._--The end of the pre-dynastic period, in which we dimly
+descry a number of independent tribes in constant warfare with one
+another, was marked by the rise of a united Egyptian state with a single
+Pharaonic ruler at its head. The era of peace thus inaugurated brought
+with it a rapid progress in all branches of civilization; and there soon
+emerged not only a national art and a condition of material prosperity
+shared by the entire land in common, but also a state religion, which
+gathered up the ancient tribal cults and floating cosmical conceptions,
+and combining them as best it could, imposed them on the people as a
+whole. By the time that the Pyramid texts were put into writing,
+doubtless long before the Vth Dynasty, this religion had assumed a
+stereotyped appearance that clung to it for ever afterwards. But the
+multitude of the deities and the variety of the myths that it strove to
+incorporate prevented the development of a uniform theological system,
+and the heterogeneous origin of the religion remained irretrievably
+stamped upon its face. Written records were few at the time when the
+pantheon was built up, so that the process of construction cannot be
+followed historically from stage to stage; but it is possible by arguing
+backwards from the later facts to discern the main tendencies at work,
+and the principal elementary cults that served as the materials.
+
+
+  Classification of pre-dynastic gods.
+
+The gods of the pre-dynastic period may be divided into two chief
+groups, the tribal or local divinities and the cosmic or explanatory
+deities. At the beginning each tribe had its own particular god, who in
+essence was nothing but the articulate expression of the inner cohesion
+and of the outward independence of the tribe itself, but who outwardly
+manifested himself in the form of some animal or took up his abode in
+some fetish of wood or stone. In times of peace this visible emblem of
+the god's presence was housed in a rude shrine, but in war-time it was
+taken thence and carried into the battlefield on a standard. We find
+such divine standards [HRG: R12] often depicted on the earliest
+monuments, and among the symbols placed upon them may be detected the
+images of many deities destined to play an important part in the later
+national pantheon, such as the falcon Horus [HRG: G5:R12], the wolf
+Wepwawet (Ophois) [HRG: zAb:R12], the goddess Neith [HRG: R25:R12],
+symbolized by a shield transfixed with arrows, and the god Min [HRG:
+R23:R12], the nature of whose fetish is obscure. In course of time the
+tribes became localized in particular districts, under the influence of
+a growing central authority, and their gods then passed from tribal into
+local deities. Hence it came about that the provincial districts or
+nomes, as they were called, often derived their names from the gods of
+tribes that settled in them, these names being hieroglyphically written
+with the sign for "district" surmounted by standards of the type above
+described, e.g. [HRG: E15:R12], "the nome of the dog Anubis," the 17th
+or Cynopolite nome of Upper Egypt. In this way a large number of deities
+came to enjoy special reverence in restricted territories, e.g. the ram
+[HRG:] Khnum in Elephantine, the jerboa or okapi (?) [HRG: E20] Seth in
+Ombos, the ibis [HRG: G26] Thoth in Hermopolis Magna, and of the gods
+named above, Horus in Hieraconpolis, Wepwawet in Assiut, Neith in Sais,
+and Min in Coptos. As towns and villages gradually sprang up, they too
+adopted as their patron some one or other of the original tribal gods,
+so that these came to have different seats of worship all over Egypt.
+For this reason it is often hard to tell where the primitive cult-centre
+of a particular deity is to be sought; thus Horus seems equally at home
+both at Buto in the Delta and at Hieraconpolis in Upper Egypt, and the
+earliest worship of Seth appears to have been claimed no less by Tanis
+in the north than by Ombos in the south. The effect of the localization
+of gods in many different places was to give them a double aspect; so,
+for instance, Khnum the god of Elephantine could in one minute be
+regarded as identical with Khnum the god of Esna, while in the next
+minute and without any conscious sense of contradiction the two might be
+looked upon as entirely separate beings. In order that there might be no
+ambiguity as to what divinity was meant, it became usual, in speaking of
+any local deity, to specify the place of which he was "lord." The
+tendency to create new forms of a god by instituting his worship in new
+local centres persisted throughout the whole course of Egyptian history,
+unhindered by the opposite tendency which made national out of local
+gods. Some of the cosmic gods, like the sun-god Re of Heliopolis and of
+Hermonthis, early acquired a local in addition to their cosmic aspect.
+
+In the innermost principle of their existence, as patrons and protectors
+of restricted communities, the primitive tribal gods did not differ from
+one another. But externally they were distinguishable by the various
+shapes that their worshippers ascribed to them; and there can be little
+doubt that even in the beginning each had his own special attributes and
+particular mythical traits. These, however, may have borne little
+resemblance to the later conceptions of the same gods with which we are
+made familiar by the Pyramid texts. Thus we have no means of
+ascertaining what the earliest people of Sais thought about their
+goddess Neith, though her fetish would seem to point to her warlike
+nature. Nor are we much wiser in respect of those primitive tribal gods
+that are represented on the oldest monuments in animal form. For though
+we may be sure that the shape of an animal was that in which these gods
+were literally visible to their worshippers, yet it is impossible to
+tell whether some one living animal was chosen to be the earthly
+tenement of the deity, or whether he revealed himself in every
+individual of a species, or whether merely the cult-image was roughly
+hewn into the shape of an animal. Not too much weight must be attached
+to later evidence on this point; for the New Kingdom and still more the
+Graeco-Roman period witnessed a strange recrudescence of supposed
+primitive cults, to which they gave a form that may or may not have been
+historically exact. In some places whole classes of animals came to be
+deemed sacred. Thus at Bubastis, where the cat-headed Bast (Ubasti) was
+worshipped, vast cemeteries of mummified cats have been found; and
+elsewhere similar funerary cults were accorded to crocodiles, lizards,
+ibises and many other animals. In Elephantine Khnum was supposed to
+become incarnate in a ram, at whose death the divinity left him and took
+up his abode in another. So too the bull of Apis (a black animal with
+white spots) was during its lifetime regarded as a reincarnation of
+Ptah, the local god of Memphis, and similarly the Mnevis and Bacis bulls
+were accounted to be "the living souls" of Etom of Heliopolis and of Re
+of Hermonthis respectively; these latter cults are certainly secondary,
+for Ptah himself was never, either early or late, depicted otherwise
+than in human form, as a mummy or as a dwarf; and Etom and Re are but
+different names of the sun-god. The form of a snake, attributed to many
+local goddesses, especially in later times (e.g. Meresger of the Theban
+necropolis), was borrowed from the very ancient deity Outo (Buto); the
+semblance of a snake became so characteristic of female divinities that
+even the word "goddess" was written with the hieroglyph of a snake.
+Other animal shapes particularly affected by goddesses were those of a
+lioness (Sakhmi, Pakhe) or a cow (Hathor, Isis). The primitive animal
+gods are not to be confused with the animal forms ascribed to many
+cosmic deities; thus when the sun-god Re was pictured as a scarabaeus,
+or dung-beetle, rolling its ball of dung behind it, this was certainly
+mere poetical imagery. Or else a cosmic god might assume an animal shape
+through assimilation with some tribal god, as when Re was identified
+with Horus and therefore depicted as a falcon.
+
+With the advance of civilization and the transformation of the tribal
+gods into national divinities, the beliefs held about them must have
+become less crude. At a very early date the anthropomorphizing tendency
+caused the animal deities to be represented with human bodies, though as
+a rule they retained their animal heads; so in the case of Seth as early
+as the IInd Dynasty. The other gods carry their primitive fetishes in
+their hands (like Neith, who is depicted holding arrows) or on their
+heads (so Nefertem [Iphthimis] with his lotus-flower). At the same time
+the gods began to acquire human personalities. In a few instances this
+may have come about by the emphasizing of a really primitive trait; as
+when the wolf Ophois, in consonance with the predatory nature of that
+animal, developed into a god of war. In other cases the transitional
+steps are shrouded in mystery; we do not know, for example, why the ibis
+Thoth subsequently became the patron of the fine arts, the inventor of
+writing, and the scribe of the gods. But the main factor in this
+evolutionary process was undoubtedly the formation of myths, which
+brought gods of independent origin into relation with one another, and
+thus imbued them with human passions and virtues. Here dim historic
+recollections often determined the features of the story, and in one
+famous legend that knits together a group of gods all seemingly local in
+origin we can still faintly trace how the tale arose, was added to, and
+finally crystallized in a coherent form.
+
+Osiris was a wise and beneficent king, who reclaimed the Egyptians from
+savagery, gave them laws and taught them handicrafts. The prosperous
+reign of Osiris was brought to a premature close by the machinations of
+his wicked brother Seth, who with seventy-two fellow-conspirators
+invited him to a banquet, induced him to enter a cunningly-wrought
+coffin made exactly to his measure, then shut down the lid and cast the
+chest into the Nile. Isis, the faithful wife of Osiris, set forth in
+search of her dead husband's body, and after long and adventure-fraught
+wanderings, succeeded in recovering it and bringing it back to Egypt.
+Then while she was absent visiting her son Horus in the city of Buto,
+Seth once more gained possession of the corpse, cut it into fourteen
+pieces, and scattered them all over Egypt. But Isis collected the
+fragments, and wherever one was found, buried it with due honour; or,
+according to a different account, she joined the limbs together by
+virtue of her magical powers, and the slain Osiris, thus resurrected,
+henceforth reigned as king of the dead in the nether world. When Horus
+grew up he set out to avenge his father's murder, and after terrible
+struggles finally conquered and dispossessed his wicked uncle; or, as
+another version relates, the combatants were separated by Thoth, and
+Egypt divided between them, the northern part falling to Horus and the
+southern to Seth. Such is the story as told by Plutarch, with certain
+additions and modifications from older native sources. There existed,
+however, a very ancient tradition according to which Horus and Seth were
+hostile brothers, not nephew and uncle; and many considerations may be
+urged in support of the thesis which regards their struggles as
+reminiscences of wars between two prominent tribes or confederations of
+tribes, one of which worshipped the falcon Horus while the other had the
+okapi (?) Seth as its patron and champion. The Horus-tribes were the
+victors, and it was from them that the dynastic line sprang; hence the
+Pharaoh always bore the name of Horus, and represented in his own
+hallowed person the ancient tribal deity. Of Osiris we can only state
+that he was originally the local god of Busiris, whatever further
+characteristics he primitively possessed being quite obscure. Isis was
+perhaps the local goddess of Buto, a town not far distant from Busiris;
+this geographical proximity would suffice to explain her connexion with
+Osiris in the tale. A legend now arose, we know not how or why, which
+made Seth the brother and murderer of Osiris; and this led to a fusion
+of the Horus-Seth and the Seth-Isis-Osiris _motifs_. The relationships
+had now to be readjusted, and the most popular view recognized Horus as
+the son and avenger of Osiris. The more ancient account survived,
+however, in the myth that Osiris, Horus, Seth, Isis and Nephthys (a
+goddess who plays but a minor part in the Osiris cycle) were all
+children of the earth-god Keb and the sky-goddess Nut, born on the five
+consecutive days added on at the end of the year (the so-called
+epagomenal days). Later generations reconciled these contradictions by
+assuming the existence of two Horuses, one, the brother of Osiris, Seth
+and Isis, being named Haroeris, i.e. Horus the elder, while the other,
+the child of Isis and Osiris, was called Harpocrates, i.e. Horus the
+child.
+
+
+  Cosmic deities.
+
+The second main class of divinities that entered into the composition of
+the Egyptian pantheon was due to that innate and universal speculative
+bent which seeks, and never fails to find, an explanation of the facts
+of the external world. Behind the great natural phenomena that they
+perceived all around them, the Egyptians, like other primitive folk,
+postulated the existence of divine wills not dissimilar in kind to their
+own, though vastly superior in power. Chief among these cosmic deities
+was the sun-god Re, whose supremacy seemed predestined under the
+cloudless sky of Egypt. The oldest conceptions represented Re as sailing
+across the heavens in a ship called "Manzet," "the bark of the dawn"; at
+sunset he stepped aboard another vessel named "Mesenktet," "the bark of
+the dusk," which bore him back from west to east during the night. Later
+theories symbolized Re in many different ways. For some he was identical
+with Horus, and then he was falcon-headed and was called Hor-akhti, the
+Horus of the horizons. Others pictured him to themselves as a tiny
+infant in the early dawn, as full-grown at noon, and as an infirm old
+man in the evening. When the sky was imagined as a cow, he was a calf
+born anew every morning. The moon was a male deity, who likewise fared
+across the heavens in a boat; hence he was often named Chons, "the
+sailor." The ibis-god Thoth was early identified with the moon. The
+stars and planets were likewise gods. Among them the bright star Sirius
+was held in special esteem; it was a goddess Sothis (Sopde), often
+identified by the Egyptians with Isis. The constellations that seemed
+unceasingly to speed across the sky were named "the never-resting ones,"
+and the circumpolar stars, which never sink beneath the horizon, were
+known as "the imperishables." Concerning earth and sky there were many
+different opinions. Some thought that the sky was a goddess Nut, whom
+the god Show held aloof from her husband Keb the earth, on whose back
+the plants and trees grew. Others believed in a celestial ocean,
+personified under the name of Nun, over which the heavenly bodies sailed
+in boats. At a later date the sky was held to be a cow (Hathor) whose
+four feet stood firm upon the soil; or else a vast face, in which the
+right eye was the sun and the left eye the moon. Alongside these
+fanciful conceptions there existed a more sober view, according to which
+the earth was a long oval plain, and the sky an iron roof supported by
+the tops of mountains or by four pillars [HRG] at the cardinal points.
+Beneath the ground lay a dark and mysterious region, now conceived as an
+inverse heaven (Nenet), now as a vast series of caverns whose gates were
+guarded by demons. This nether world was known as the Duat (Dat, Tei),
+and through it passed the sun on his journey during the hours of night;
+here too, as many thought, dwelt the dead and their king Osiris. That
+great natural feature of Egypt, the Nile, was of course one of the gods;
+his name was Hapi, and as a sign of his fecundity he had long pendulous
+breasts like a woman. In contradistinction to the tribal gods, it rarely
+happened that the cosmic deities enjoyed a cult. But there are a few
+important exceptions: Re in Heliopolis (here identified with a local god
+Etom) and in Hermonthis; Hathor at Dendera and elsewhere. Certain of the
+tribal gods early became identified with cosmic divinities, and the
+latter thus became the objects of a cult; so, for instance, the Horus of
+Edfu was a sun-god, and Thoth in Hermopolis Magna was held to be the
+moon.
+
+
+  Minor deities and demons.
+
+An extension of the principle that created the cosmic gods gave rise to
+a large number of minor deities and demons. Day and night, the year, the
+seasons, eternity, and many similar conceptions were each represented by
+a god or goddess of their own, who nevertheless possessed but a shadowy
+and doubtful existence. Human attributes like Taste, Knowledge, Joy and
+so forth were likewise personified, no less than abstract ideas such as
+Fate, Destiny and others; rather more clearly defined than the rest was
+Maat, the goddess of Truth and Right, who was fabled to be the daughter
+of Re and may even have had a cult. Certain gods were purely functional,
+that is to say, they appeared at special times to perform some
+appointed task, at the completion of which they vanished. Such were
+Nepri, the god of the corn-harvest; Meskhonit, the goddess who attended
+every child-bed; Tait, the goddess of weaving. Numberless semi-divine
+beings had no other purpose than to fill out the myths, as, for
+instance, the chattering apes that greeted the sun-god Re as he rose
+above the eastern horizon, and the demons who opened the gates of the
+nether world at the approach of the setting sun.
+
+
+  Foreign deities.
+
+We take this opportunity of mentioning sundry other divinities who were
+later introduced to swell the already overcrowded ranks of the pantheon.
+Contact with foreign lands brought with it several new deities, Baal,
+Anat and Resheph from Syria, and the misshapen dwarf Bes from the south;
+earlier than these, the Astarte of Byblus, whom the Egyptians identified
+with Hathor. In Thebes Amenophis I. and his spouse Nefertari were
+worshipped as patron gods of the necropolis many centuries after their
+death. Two men of exceptional wisdom received divine honours, and had
+temples of their own in the Ptolemaic period; these were Imouthes, who
+had lived under Zoser of the IIIrd Dynasty, and Amenophis son of Hapu, a
+contemporary of the third king of the same name (XVIIIth Dyn.). The hill
+of Sheikh Abd-el-gurna at Thebes was looked upon as a particularly holy
+place, and was revered as a goddess. Almost anything that was regarded
+with awe, any object used in the divine ritual could at a given moment
+be envisaged as a deity. Thus the boat of Osiris (Neshemet) and those of
+the sun-god were goddesses; and various wands and sceptres belonging to
+certain gods were imagined as harbouring the divine being. Truly it
+might have been said in ancient Egypt: of the making of gods there is no
+end!
+
+
+  Theological combinations.
+
+For such order as can be discerned in the mythological conceptions of
+the Egyptians the priesthood was largely responsible. At a very early
+date the theological school of Heliopolis undertook the task of
+systematizing the gods and the myths, and it is mainly to them that is
+due the Egyptian religion as we find it in the Pyramid texts. Their
+influence is particularly conspicuous in the prominent place accorded to
+the sun-god Re, and in the creation-legend that made him the father of
+gods and men. First of all living things was Re; legend told how he
+arose as a naked babe from a lotus-flower that floated on the primeval
+ocean Nun. Others held the view that he crept from an egg that lay on a
+hill in the midst of a lake called Desdes; and a third, more barbarous,
+tale related his obscene act of self-procreation. Re became the father
+of the pair of gods Show and Tefnut (Tphenis), who emanated from his
+spittle. They again gave birth to Keb and Nut, from whom in their turn
+sprang Osiris and Seth, Isis and Nephthys. These nine gods were together
+known as the great Ennead or cycle of nine. A second series of nine
+deities, with Horus as its first member, was invented at the same time
+or not long afterwards, and was called the Lesser Ennead. In later times
+the theory of the Ennead became very popular and was adopted by most of
+the local priesthoods, who substituted their own favourite god for Re,
+sometimes retaining and sometimes changing the names of the other eight
+deities. Thus locally many different gods came to be viewed as the
+creators of the world. Only in two instances, however, did a local god
+ever obtain wide acceptance in the capacity of demiurge: Ptah of
+Memphis, who was famed as an artist and master-builder, and Khnum of
+Elephantine, who was said to have moulded mankind on the potter's wheel.
+
+Already in the Pyramid texts the importance of Osiris almost rivals that
+of Re. His worship does not seem to have been due to Heliopolitan
+influence, and may possibly have been propagated by active missionary
+effort. It is apparently through the funeral cult that Osiris so early
+took a firm hold on the imagination of the people; for at a very ancient
+date he was identified with every dead king, and it needed but a slight
+extension of this idea to make him into a king of the dead. In later
+times the moral aspect of his tale was doubtless the main cause of its
+continued popularity; Osiris was named Onnophris, "the good Being" _par
+excellence_, and Seth was contrasted with him as the author and the root
+of all evil. Still the Egyptians themselves seem to have been somewhat
+at a loss to account for the great veneration that they paid to Osiris.
+Successive theories interpreted him as the god of the earth, as the god
+of the Nile, as a god of vegetation, as a moon-god and as a sun-god; and
+nearly every one of these theories has been claimed to be the primitive
+truth by some scholar or another.
+
+Nowhere is the conservatism of the Egyptians more clearly displayed than
+in the tenacity with which they clung to the old forms of the theology,
+such as we have essayed to describe. Neither the influx of new deities
+nor the diligence of the priestly authors and commentators availed to
+break down the cast-iron traditions with which the compilers of the
+Pyramid texts were already familiar. It is true that with the
+displacement of the capital town certain local deities attained a degree
+of power that, superficially regarded, seems to alter the entire
+perspective of the religion. Thus Ammon, originally the obscure local
+god of Thebes, was raised by the Theban monarchs of the XIIth and of the
+XVIIIth to XXIst Dynasties to a predominant position never equalled by
+any other divinity; and, by similar means, Suchos of the Fayum, Ubasti
+of Bubastis, and Neith of Sais, each enjoyed for a short space of time a
+consideration that no other cause would have secured to them. But
+precisely the example of Ammon proves the hopelessness of any attempt to
+change the time-honoured religious creed; his priests identified him
+with the sun-god Re, whose cult-centre was thus merely transferred a few
+hundred miles to the South. Nor could even the violent religious
+revolution of Akhenaton (Amenophis IV.), of which we shall later have
+occasion to speak, sweep away for ever beliefs that had persisted for so
+many generations.
+
+But if the facts of the religion, broadly viewed, never underwent a
+change, the interpretation of those facts did so in no small degree. The
+religious books were for the most part written in archaic language,
+which was only imperfectly understood by the priests of later times; and
+hence great scope was given to them to exercise their ingenuity as
+commentators. By the time of the XVIIIth Dynasty some early chapters of
+the Book of the Dead had been provided with a triple commentary.
+Unfortunately the methods pursued were as little reasonable as those
+adopted by the medieval Jewish Rabbis; instead of the context being
+studied as a whole, with a view to the recovery of its literal sense,
+each single verse was considered separately, and explained as an
+allusion to some obscure myth or as embodying some mystical meaning.
+Thus so far from simplifying or really elucidating the religion, these
+priestly labours tended rather to confuse one legend with another and to
+efface the personality of individual gods. The ease with which one god
+could be identified with another is perhaps the most striking
+characteristic of later Egyptian theology. There are but few of the
+greater deities who were not at some time or another identified with the
+solar god Re. His fusion with Horus and Etom has already been noted;
+further we find an Ammon-Re, a Sobk-Re, a Khnum-Re; and Month, Onouris,
+Show and Osiris are all described as possessing the attributes of the
+sun. Ptah was early assimilated to the sepulchral gods Sokaris and
+Osiris. Pairs of deities whose personalities are often blended or
+interchanged are Hathor and Nut, Sakhmi and Pakhe, Seth and Apophis. So
+too in Abydos, his later home, Osiris was identified with Khante-Amentiu
+(Khentamenti, Khentamenthes), "the chief of those who are in the West,"
+a name that was given to a vaguely-conceived but widely-venerated
+divinity ruler of the dead. Many factors helped in the process of
+assimilation. The unity of the state was largely influential in bringing
+about the suppression of local differences of belief. The less important
+priesthoods were glad to enhance the reputation of the deity they served
+by identifying him with some more important god. And the mystical bent
+of the Egyptians found satisfaction in the multiplicity of forms that
+their gods could assume; among the favourite epithets which the hymns
+apply to divinities are such as "mysterious of shapes," "multiple of
+faces."
+
+
+  Monotheistic tendency.
+
+The goal towards which these tendencies verged was monotheism; and
+though this goal was only once, and then quite ephemerally, reached,
+still the monotheistic idea was at most periods, so to speak, in the
+air. Sometimes the qualities common to all the gods were abstracted, and
+the resultant notion spoken of as "the god." At other times, and
+especially in the hymns addressed to some divinity, all other gods were
+momentarily forgotten, and he was eulogized as "the only one," "the
+supreme," and so forth. Or else several of the chief deities were
+consciously combined and regarded as different emanations or aspects of
+a Sole Being; thus a Ramesside hymn begins with the words "Three are all
+the gods, Ammon, Re and Ptah," and then it is shown how these three
+gods, each in his own particular way, gave expression and effect to a
+single divine purpose.
+
+
+  Akhenaton.
+
+For a brief period at the end of the XVIIIth Dynasty a real monotheism,
+as exclusive as that of Judaism or of Islam, was adopted as the state
+religion of Egypt. The young Pharaoh Amenophis IV. seems to have been
+fired by genuine fanatical enthusiasm, though political motives, as well
+as doctrinal considerations, may have prompted him in the planning of
+his religious revolution (see also S History). The Theban god Ammon-Re
+was then supreme, and the ever-growing power of his priesthood may well
+have inflamed the jealousy of their Heliopolitan rivals. Amenophis began
+his reign in Thebes as an adherent of the traditional faith, but after a
+few years he abandoned that town and built a new capital for his god
+Aton 200 m. farther north, at a place now called El Amarna. The new
+deity was a personification of the sun's disk. The name Re was
+suppressed, as too intimately associated with that of Ammon; and Ammon,
+together with all the other gods, was put to the ban. Amenophis even
+changed his own name, of which the name of Ammon formed an element, to
+Akhenaton, "the brilliancy of the Aton," and the capital was called
+Khitaton, "The Horizon of the Aton." The new dogmas were known as "the
+Teaching," and their tenets, as revealed in the poems composed in honour
+of the Aton, breathe the purest and most exalted monotheistic spirit.
+The movement had, no doubt, met with serious opposition from the very
+start, and the reaction soon set in. The immediate successors of
+Akhenaton strove to follow in his footsteps, but the conservative nature
+of Egypt quickly asserted itself. Not sixty years after the accession of
+Akhenaton, his city was abandoned, its rulers branded as heretics, and
+the old religion restored in Thebes as completely as if the Aton had
+never existed.
+
+Having thus failed to become rational, Egyptian theology took refuge in
+learning. The need for a more spiritual and intellectual interpretation
+of the pantheon still remained, and gave rise to a number of theological
+sciences. The names of the gods and the places of their worship were
+catalogued and classified, and manuals were devoted to the topography of
+mythological regions. Much ingenuity was expended on the development of
+a history of the gods, the groundwork of which had been laid in much
+earlier times. Re was not only the creator of the world, but he was also
+the first king of Egypt. He was followed on the throne by the other
+eight members of his Ennead, then by the lesser Ennead and by other
+gods, and finally by the so-called "worshippers of Horus." The latter
+were not wholly mythical personages, though they were regarded as
+demigods (Manetho calls them "the dead," [Greek: nekues]); they have
+been shown to be none other than the dim rulers of the predynastic age.
+The Pharaohs of the historic period were thus divine, not only by virtue
+of their connexion with Horus (see above), but also as descendants of
+Re; and the king of Egypt was called "the good god" during his lifetime,
+and "the great god" after his death. The later religious literature is
+much taken up with the mythical and semi-mythical dynasties of kings,
+and the priests compiled, with many newly-invented details, the
+chronicles of the wars they were supposed to have waged.
+
+
+  Later developments.
+
+In a similar manner, the ethical and allegorical methods of
+interpretation came into much greater prominence towards the end of the
+New Kingdom. The Osirian legend, as we have already seen, was early
+accepted as symbolizing the conflict between good and evil. So too the
+victories of Re over the serpent named Apophis were more or less clearly
+understood as a simile of the antithetical nature of light and darkness.
+In one text at least as ancient as the XVIIIth Dynasty (the copy that we
+have dates only from the Ethiopian period) an ingenious attempt is made
+to represent Ptah as the source of all life: from him, it is said,
+emanated Horus as "heart" or "mind" and Thoth as "tongue," and through
+the conjoint action of these two, the mind conceiving the design and the
+tongue uttering the creative command, all gods and men and beasts
+obtained their being. Of this kind of speculation much more must have
+existed than has reached us. It is doubtless such explanations as these
+that the Greeks had in view when they praised the wisdom of the ancient
+Egyptians; and in the classical period similar semi-philosophical
+interpretations altogether supplanted, among the learned at least, the
+naive literal beliefs of earlier times. Plutarch in his treatise on Isis
+and Osiris well exemplifies this standpoint: for him every god and every
+rite is symbolic of some natural or moral truth.
+
+The final stages of the Egyptian religion are marked by a renewed
+popularity of all its more barbarous elements. Despairing, as it would
+seem, of discovering the higher wisdom that the more philosophic of the
+priests supposed that religion to conceal, the simpler-minded sought to
+work out their own salvation by restoring the worship of the gods to its
+most primitive forms. Hence came the fanatical revival of animal-worship
+which led to feud and bloodshed between neighbouring towns--a feature of
+Egyptian religion that at once amused and scandalized contemporary Greek
+and Latin authors (Plut. De Iside, 72; Juv. xv. 33). Nevertheless
+Egyptian cults, and particularly those of Serapis and Isis, found
+welcome acceptance on European soil; and the shrines of Egyptian deities
+were established in all the great cities of the Roman Empire. Serapis
+was a god imported by the first Ptolemy from Sinope on the Black Sea,
+who soon lost his own identity by assimilation with Osiris-Apis, the
+bull revered in Memphis. Far down into the Roman age the worship of
+Serapis persisted and flourished, and it was only when the Serapeum of
+Alexandria was razed to the ground by order of Theodosius the Great
+(A.D. 391) that the death-blow of the old Egyptian religion was struck.
+
+  Notes are here added on some divinities who have received inadequate
+  or no attention in the preceding pages. For information as to Ammon,
+  Anubis, Apis, Bes, Bubastis, Buto, Isis and Thoth, reference must be
+  made to the special articles on these gods.
+
+  ARSAPHES, in Egyptian _Harshafe_, "he who is upon his lake," the
+  ram-headed god of Heracleopolis Magna, gained an ephemeral importance
+  during the IXth Dynasty, which arose from his town. Outwardly, he
+  resembles Khnum. Little is known about him, and he is seldom
+  mentioned. The burial-place of his priests in later times was in 1904
+  discovered at Abusir el Meleq.
+
+  CHONS, "he who travels by boat," perhaps originally a mere epithet of
+  the moon-god Ioh or Thoth, is chiefly familiar as the third member of
+  the Theban triad. As such he is represented as a youthful god, wearing
+  a skull-cap surmounted by the moon. His cult was revived and became
+  popular in Ptolemaic times. A curious story about the sending of his
+  statue to Mesopotamia to heal a daughter of the king of Bakhtan is
+  related upon a stele that purports to date from the Ramesside period:
+  it has been proved to be a pious fraud invented by the priests not
+  earlier than the Greek period.
+
+  HATHOR, whose name means "house of Horus," was at all times a very
+  important deity. She is depicted as a cow, or with a broad human
+  countenance, the cow's ears just showing from under a massive wig.
+  Probably at first a goddess of the sky, she is early mentioned in
+  connexion with Re. Later she was often identified with Isis, and her
+  name was used to designate foreign goddesses like those of Puoni and
+  Byblus. Unlike most cosmic deities, she was worshipped in many
+  localities, chief among which was Dendera, where her magnificent
+  temple, of Ptolemaic date, still stands. "The seven Hathors" is a name
+  given to certain fairies, who appeared shortly after the birth of an
+  infant, and predicted his future.
+
+  KHNUM or KHNOUM, a ram-headed god, whose principal place of worship
+  was the island of Elephantine (there associated with Satis and
+  Anukis), but also revered elsewhere, e.g. together with Nebtu in Esna.
+  He enjoyed great repute as a creator, and was supposed to use the
+  potter's wheel for the purpose. In this capacity he is sometimes
+  accompanied by the frog-headed goddess Heket.
+
+  MONTH, a hawk-headed god of the Thebaid: in Thebes itself his cult was
+  superseded by that of Ammon, but it persisted in Hermonthis. He was
+  often given the solar attributes, and was credited as a great warrior.
+
+  MIN, the god of Coptos and Panopolis (Akhmim), seems to have been
+  early looked upon as a deity of the harvest and crops. His cult dates
+  from the earliest times. Represented as ithyphallic, with two tall
+  plumes on his head, the right arm upraised and bearing a scourge. In
+  old times he is identified with Horus: later Ammon was confused with
+  him, and depicted in his image.
+
+  NECHBET (Nekhbi, Nekhebi), the vulture-goddess of El Kab, called
+  Eileithyia by the Greeks. She gained an ascendancy as patroness of the
+  south at the time when the two kingdoms were striving for the mastery.
+  It is as such, in opposition to Buto the goddess of the north, that
+  she is most often named on the monuments.
+
+  NEITH, the very ancient and important goddess of Sais, the Greek
+  Athene. On the earliest monuments she is represented by a shield
+  transfixed by arrows. Later she wears the crown of Lower Egypt, and
+  carries in her hands a bow and arrows, a sign of her warlike
+  character. In the XXVIth Dynasty, when a line of Pharaohs sprang from
+  Sais, she regained a prominent position, and was given many cosmogonic
+  attributes, including the title of mother of Re.
+
+  NEPHTHYS, the sister of Osiris and wife of Seth, daughter of Keb and
+  Nut, plays a considerable role in the Osiris story. She sided with
+  Isis and aided her to bring Osiris back to life. Isis and Nephthys are
+  often mentioned together as protectresses of the dead.
+
+  ONOURIS, Egyptian _En-huri_, "sky-bearer," the god of Thinis. Later
+  identified with Shu (Show), who holds heaven and earth apart.
+
+  PTAH, the Hephaestus of the Greeks, a demiurgic and creative god,
+  special patron of hand-workers and artisans. Worshipped in Memphis, he
+  perhaps owed his importance more to the political prominence of that
+  town than to anything else. He was early identified with an ancient
+  but obscure god Tenen, and further with the sepulchral deity Sokaris.
+  He is represented either as a closely enshrouded figure whose
+  protruding hands grasp a composite sceptre, the whole standing on a
+  pedestal within a shrine; or else as a misshapen dwarf.
+
+  SAKHMI, a lion-headed goddess of war and strife, whose name signifies
+  the mighty. She was worshipped at Latopolis (Esna), but also at a late
+  date as a member of the Memphite triad, with Ptah as husband and
+  Nefertem (Iphthimis) as son: often, too, confounded with Ubasti.
+
+  SETH (Egyptian Set, Sth or Sts), by the Greeks called Typhon, was
+  depicted as an animal [HRG] that has been compared with the jerboa by
+  some, and with the okapi by others, but which the Egyptians themselves
+  occasionally conceived to be nothing but a badly drawn ass. In
+  historic times his cult was celebrated at Tanis and Ombos. He regained
+  a certain prestige as god of the Hyksos rulers, and two Pharaohs of
+  the XIXth Dynasty derived their name Sethos (Seti) from him. But,
+  generally speaking, he was abominated as a power of evil, and his
+  figure was often obliterated on the monuments. He is named in similes
+  as a great warrior, and as such and "son of Nut" he is identified with
+  the Syrian Baal.
+
+4. _The Divine Cult._--In the midst of every town rose the temple of the
+local god, a stately building of stone, strongly contrasting with the
+mud and plaster houses in which even the wealthiest Egyptians dwelt. It
+was called the "house of the god" [HRGs], and in it the deity was
+supposed to reside, attended by his "servants" [HRGs] the priests. There
+was indeed a certain justification for this contention, even when a
+contrary theory assigned to the divinity a place in the sky, as in the
+case of the lunar divinity Thoth; for in the inmost sanctuary stood a
+statue of the god, which served as his representative for the purposes
+of the cult. Originally each temple was dedicated to one god only; but
+it early became usual to associate with him a mate of the opposite sex,
+besides a third deity who might be represented either as a second wife
+or as a child. As examples of such triads, as they are called, may be
+mentioned that of Thebes, consisting of Ammon, Mut and Chons, father,
+mother and child; and as typical of the other kind, where a god was
+accompanied by two goddesses, that of Elephantine, consisting of Khnum,
+Satis and Anukis. The needs of the god were much the same as those of
+mortals; no more than they could he dispense with food and drink,
+clothes for his apparel, ointment for his limbs, and music and dancing
+to rejoice his heart. The only difference was that the divine statue was
+half-consciously recognized as a lifeless thing that required carefully
+regulated rites and ceremonies to enable it to enjoy the good things
+offered to it. Early every morning the officiating priest proceeded to
+the holy of holies, after the preliminaries of purification had cleansed
+him from any miasma that might interfere with the efficacy of the rites.
+Then with the prescribed gestures, and reciting appropriate formulae all
+the while, he broke the seal upon the door of the shrine, loosed the
+bolts, and at last stood face to face with the god. There followed a
+series of prostrations and adorations, culminating in the offering of a
+small image of Maat, the goddess of Truth. This seems to have been the
+psychological moment of the entire service: hitherto the statue had been
+at best a god in _posse_; now the symbolical act placed him in
+possession of all his faculties, he was a god in truth, and could
+participate like any mortal in the food and luxuries that his servants
+put before him. The daily ceremony closed with ablutions, anointings and
+a bountiful feast of bread, geese, beer and oxen; having taken his fill
+of these, the god returned to his shrine until the next morning, when
+the ritual was renewed. The words that accompanied the manual gestures
+are, in the rituals that have come down to us, wholly dominated by the
+myth of Osiris: it is often hard to discern much connexion between the
+acts and the formulae recited, but the main thought is clearly that the
+priest represents Horus, the pious son of the dead divinity Osiris. That
+this conception is very old is proved by the fact that even in the
+Pyramid texts "the eye of Horus" is a synonym for all offerings: an
+ancient tale of which only shreds have reached us related how Seth had
+torn the eye of Horus from him, though not before he himself had
+suffered a still more serious mutilation; and by some means, we know not
+how, the restoration of the eye was instrumental in bringing about the
+vindication of Osiris. As to the manual rites of the daily cult, all
+that can here be said is that incense, purifications and anointings with
+various oils played a large part; the sacrifices consisted chiefly of
+slaughtered oxen and geese; burnt offerings were a very late innovation.
+
+At an early date the rites practised in the various temples were
+conformed to a common pattern. This holds good not only for the daily
+ritual, but also for many festivals that were celebrated on the same day
+throughout the whole length of the land. Such were the calendrical
+feasts, called "the beginnings of the seasons," and including, for
+example, the monthly and half-monthly festivals, that of the New Year
+and that of the rising of Sirius (Sothis). But there were also local
+feast days like that of Neith in Sais (Hdt. ii. 62) or that of Ammon in
+southern Opi (Luxor). These doubtless had a more individual character,
+and often celebrated some incident supposed to have occurred in the
+lifetime of the god. Sometimes, as in the case of the feast of Osiris in
+Abydos, a veritable drama would be enacted, in which the whole history
+of the god, his sufferings and final triumph were represented in mimic
+form. At other times the ceremonial was more mysterious and symbolical,
+as in the feast of the raising of the Ded-column [HRG] when a column of
+the kind was drawn by cords into an upright position. But the most
+common feature of these holy days was the procession of the god, when he
+was carried on the shoulders of the priests in his divine boat far
+beyond the precincts of his temple; sometimes, indeed, even to another
+town, where he paid a visit to the god of the place. These occasions
+were public holidays, and passed amid great rejoicings. The climax was
+reached when at a given moment the curtains of the shrine placed on the
+boat were withdrawn, and the god was revealed to the eyes of the
+awe-struck multitude. Music and dancing formed part of the festival
+rites.
+
+
+  Temples.
+
+As with the rites and ceremonies, so also the temples were early
+modelled upon a common type. Lofty enclosure walls, adorned with scenes
+from the victorious campaigns of the Pharaoh, shut off the sacred
+buildings from the surrounding streets. A small gateway between two
+massive towers or pylons gave admittance to a spacious forecourt open to
+the sky, into which the people were allowed to enter at least on feast
+days. Farther on, separated from the forecourt by smaller though still
+massive pylons, lay a hypostyle hall, so called from its covered
+colonnades; this hall was used for all kinds of processions. Behind the
+hypostyle hall, to which a second similar one might or might not be
+added, came the holy of holies, a dark narrow chamber where the god
+dwelt; none but the priests were admitted to it. All around lay the
+storehouses that contained the treasures of the god and the
+appurtenances of the divine ritual. The temples of the earliest times
+were of course far more primitive than this: from the pictures that are
+all that is now left to indicate their nature, they seem to have been
+little more than huts or sheds in which the image of the god was kept.
+One temple of a type different from that above described has survived at
+Abusir, where it has been excavated by German explorers. It was a
+splendid edifice dedicated to the sun-god Re by a king of the Vth
+Dynasty, and was probably a close copy of the famous temple of
+Heliopolis. The most conspicuous feature was a huge obelisk on a broad
+superstructure [HRG]: the obelisk always remained closely connected with
+the solar worship, and probably took the place of the innermost shrine
+and statue of other temples. The greater part of the sanctuary was left
+uncovered, as best befitted a dwelling-place of the sun. Outside its
+walls there was a huge brick model of the solar bark in which the god
+daily traversed the heavens.
+
+
+  Power of the priests.
+
+As the power of the Pharaohs increased, the maintenance of the cult
+became one of the most important affairs of state. The most illustrious
+monarchs prided themselves no less on the buildings they raised in
+honour of the gods than on the successful wars they waged: indeed the
+wars won a religious significance through the gradual elevation of the
+god of the capital to god of the nation, and a large part of the spoils
+was considered the rightful perquisite of the latter. Countless were the
+riches that the kings heaped upon the gods in the hope of being requited
+with long life and prosperity on the throne of the living. It became the
+theory that the temples were the gifts of the Pharaoh to his fathers the
+gods, and therefore in the scenes of the cult that adorn the inner walls
+it is always he who is depicted as performing the ceremonies. As a
+matter of fact the priesthoods were much more independent than was
+allowed to appear. Successive grants of land placed no small portion of
+the entire country in their hands, and the administration of the temple
+estates gave employment to a large number of officials and serfs. In the
+New Kingdom the might of the Theban god Ammon gradually became a serious
+menace to the throne: in the reign of Rameses III. he could boast of
+more than 80,000 dependants, and more than 400,000 cattle. It is not
+surprising that a few generations later the high priests of Ammon
+supplanted the Pharaohs altogether and founded a dynasty of their own.
+
+At no period did the priests form a caste that was quite distinctly
+separated from the laity. In early times the feudal lords were
+themselves the chief priests of the local temples. Under them stood a
+number of subordinate priests, both professional and lay. Among the
+former were the _kher-heb_, a learned man entrusted with the conduct of
+the ceremonies, and the "divine fathers," whose functions are obscure.
+The lay priests were divided into four classes that undertook the
+management of the temple in alternate months; their collective name was
+the "hour-priesthood." Perhaps it was to them that the often recurring
+title _oueb_, "the pure," should properly be restricted, though strict
+rules as to personal purity, dress and diet were demanded of all
+priests. The personnel of the temple was completed by various
+subordinate officials, doorkeepers, attendants and slaves. In the New
+Kingdom the leading priests were more frequently mere clerics than
+theretofore, though for instance the high priest of Ammon was often at
+the same time the vizier of southern Egypt. In some places the highest
+priests bore special names, such as the _Ouer maa_, "the Great Seer," of
+Re in Heliopolis, or the _Khorp himet_, "chief artificer," of the
+Memphite Ptah. Women could also hold priestly rank, though apparently in
+early times only in the service of goddesses; "priestess of Hathor" is a
+frequent title of well-born ladies in the Old Kingdom. At a later date
+many wealthy dames held the office of "musicians" (_shemat_) in the
+various temples. In the service of the Theban Ammon two priestesses
+called "the Adorer of the God" and the "Wife of the God" occupied very
+influential positions, and towards the Saite period it was by no means
+unusual for the king to secure these offices for his daughters and so to
+strengthen his own royal title.
+
+5. _The Dead and their Cult._--While the worship of the gods tended
+more and more to become a monopoly of the state and the priests, and
+provided no adequate outlet for the religious cravings of the people
+themselves, this deficiency was amply supplied by the care which they
+bestowed upon their dead: the Egyptians stand alone among the nations of
+the world in the elaborate precautions which they took to secure their
+own welfare beyond the tomb. The belief in immortality, or perhaps
+rather the incapacity to grasp the notion of complete annihilation, is
+traceable from the very earliest times: the simplest graves of the
+prehistoric period, when the corpses were committed to the earth in
+sheepskins and reed mats, seldom lack at least a few poor vases or
+articles of toilet for use in the hereafter. In proportion as the
+prosperity of the land increased, and the advance of civilization
+afforded the technical means, so did these primitive burials give place
+to a more lavish funereal equipment. Tombs of brick with a single
+chamber were succeeded by tombs of stone with several chambers, until
+they really merited the name of "houses of eternity" that the Egyptians
+gave to them. The conception of the tomb as the residence of the dead is
+the fundamental notion that underlies all the ritual observances in
+connexion with the dead, just as the idea of the temple as the
+dwelling-place of the god is the basis of the divine cult. The
+parallelism between the attitude of the Egyptians towards the dead and
+their attitude towards the gods is so striking that it ought never to be
+lost sight of: nothing can illustrate it better than the manner in which
+the Osirian doctrines came to permeate both kinds of cult.
+
+
+  Tombs.
+
+The general scheme of Egyptian tombs remained the same throughout the
+whole of the dynastic period, though there were many variations of
+detail. By preference they were built in the Western desert, the Amente,
+near the place where the sun was seen to go to rest, and which seemed
+the natural entrance to the nether world. A deep pit led down to the
+sepulchral chamber where the dead man was deposited amid the funereal
+furniture destined for his use; and no device was neglected that might
+enable him to rest here undisturbed. This aim is particularly
+conspicuous in the pyramids, the gigantic tombs which the Pharaohs of
+the Old Kingdom constructed for themselves: the passages that lead to
+the burial chamber were barred at intervals by vast granite blocks, and
+the narrow opening that gave access to them was hidden from view beneath
+the stone casing of the pyramid sides. Quite separate from this part of
+the tomb lay the rooms employed for the cult of the dead: their walls
+were often adorned with pictures from the earthly life of the deceased,
+which it was hoped he might still continue to enjoy after death. The
+innermost chamber was the chapel proper: on its western side was
+sculptured an imitation door for the dead man to pass through, when he
+wished to participate in the offerings brought by pious relatives. It
+was of course only the few who could afford elaborate tombs of the kind:
+the poor had to make shift with an unpretentious grave, in which the
+corpse was placed enveloped only by a few rags or enclosed in a rough
+wooden coffin.
+
+
+  Embalming and burial.
+
+The utmost care was taken to preserve the body itself from decay. Before
+the time of the Middle Kingdom it became usual for the rich to have
+their bodies embalmed. The intestines were removed and placed in four
+vases (the so-called Canopic jars) in which they were supposed to enjoy
+the protection of the four sons of Horus, the man-headed Mesti, the
+ape-headed Hapi, the jackal Duamutef and the falcon Kebhsenuf. The
+corpse was treated with natron and asphalt, and wound in a copious
+swathing of linen bandage, with a mask of linen and stucco on the face.
+The "mummy" thus prepared was then laid on its side like a sleeper, the
+head supported by a head-rest, in a sarcophagus of wood or stone. The
+operations in connexion with the mummy grow more and more elaborate
+towards the end of the Pharaonic period: already in the New Kingdom the
+wealthiest persons had their mummies laid in several coffins, each of
+which was gaudily painted with mythological scenes and inscriptions. The
+costliest process of embalmment lasted no less than seventy days. Many
+superstitious rites had to be observed in the course of the process: a
+late book has preserved to us the magical formulae that were repeated by
+the wise _kher-heb_ priest (who in the necropolis performed the
+functions of taricheutes, "embalmer"), as each bandage was applied.
+
+A large number of utensils, articles of furniture and the like were
+placed in the burial-chamber for the use of the dead--jars, weapons,
+mirrors, and even chairs, musical instruments and wigs. In the early
+times statuettes of servants, representing them as engaged in their
+various functions (brewers, bakers, &c.), were included for the same
+purpose; they were supposed to perform their menial functions for their
+deceased lord in the future life. In the Middle Kingdom these are
+gradually replaced by small models of the mummy itself, and the belief
+arose that when their owner was called upon to perform any distasteful
+work in the nether world, they would answer to his name and do the task
+for him. The later _ushebti_-figures, little statuettes of wood, stone
+or faience, of which several hundreds are often found in a single tomb,
+are confused survivals of both of the earlier classes of statuettes.
+Still more important than all such funereal objects are the books that
+were placed in the grave for the use of the dead: in the pyramids they
+are written on the walls of the sepulchral chamber and the passages
+leading to it; in the Middle Kingdom usually inscribed on the inner
+sides of the sarcophagus; in later times contained in rolls of papyrus.
+The Pyramid texts and the _Book of the Dead_ are the most important of
+these, and teach us much about the dangers and needs that attended the
+dead man beyond the tomb, and about the manner in which it was thought
+they could be counteracted.
+
+The burial ceremony itself must have been an imposing spectacle. In many
+cases the mummy had to be conveyed across the Nile, and boats were gaily
+decked out for this purpose. On the western bank a stately procession
+conducted the deceased to his last resting-place. At the door of the
+tomb the final ceremonies were performed; they demanded a considerable
+number of actors, chief among whom were the _sem_-priest and the
+_kher-heb_ priest. It was a veritable drama that was here enacted, and
+recalled in its incidents the story of Osiris, the divine prototype of
+all successive generations of the Egyptian dead.
+
+
+  The soul.
+
+  However carefully the preliminary rites of embalmment and burial might
+  have been performed, however sumptuous the tomb wherein the dead man
+  reposed, he was nevertheless almost entirely at the mercy of the
+  living for his welfare in the other world: he was as dependent on a
+  continued cult on the part of the surviving members of his family as
+  the gods were dependent on the constant attendance of their priests.
+  That portion of a man's individuality which required, even after
+  death, food and drink, and the satisfaction of sensuous needs, was
+  called by the Egyptians the _ka_, and represented in hieroglyphs by
+  the uplifted hands [HRG]. This _ka_ was supposed to be born together
+  with the person to whom it belonged, and on the very rare occasions
+  when it is depicted, wears his exact semblance. The conception of this
+  psychical entity is too vaguely formulated by the Egyptians and too
+  foreign to modern thought to admit of exact translation: of the many
+  renderings that have been proposed, perhaps "double" is the most
+  suitable. At all events the _ka_ has to be distinguished from the
+  soul, the _bai_ (in hieroglyphs [HRG] or [HRG]), which was of more
+  tangible nature, and might be descried hovering around the tomb in the
+  form of a bird or in some other shape; for it was thought that the
+  soul might assume what shape it would, if the funerary rites had been
+  duly attended to. The gods had their _ka_ and _bai_, and the forms
+  attributed to the latter are surprising; thus we read that the soul of
+  the sky Nun is Re, that of Osiris the Goat of Mendes, the souls of
+  Sobk are crocodiles, and those "of all the gods are snakes"; similarly
+  the soul of Ptah was thought to dwell in the Apis bull, so that each
+  successive Apis was during its lifetime the reincarnation of the god.
+  Other parts of a man's being to which at given moments and in
+  particular contexts the Egyptians assigned a certain degree of
+  separate existence are the "name" [HRG] _ran_, the "shadow" [HRG],
+  _khaibet_, and the "corpse" [HRG], _khat_.
+
+It was, however, the _ka_ alone to which the cult of the dead was
+directly addressed. This cult was a positive duty binding on the
+children of a dead man, and doubtless as a rule discharged by them with
+some regularity and conscientiousness; at least, on feast-days offerings
+would be brought to the tomb, and the ceremonies of purification and
+opening the mouth of the deceased would be enacted. But there could be
+little guarantee that later generations would perpetuate the cult. It
+therefore became usual under the Old Kingdom for the wealthiest persons
+to make testamentary dispositions by which certain other persons agreed
+for a consideration to observe the required rites at stated periods:
+they received the name of "servants of the _ka_," and stood in the same
+relation to the deceased as the priests to the gods. Or again, contracts
+might be made with a neighbouring temple, the priesthood of which bound
+itself to reserve for the contracting party some portion of the
+offerings that had already been used for the divine cult. There is
+probably a superstitious reason for the preference shown by the dead for
+offerings of this kind; no wish is commoner than that one may receive
+"bread and beer that had gone up on to the altar of the local god," or
+"with which the god had been sated"; something of the divine sanctity
+still clung about such offerings and made them particularly desirable.
+In spite of all the precautions they took and the contracts they made,
+the Egyptians could never quite rid themselves of the dread that their
+tombs might decay and their cult be neglected; and they sought therefore
+to obtain by prayers and threats what they feared they might lose
+altogether. The occasional visitor to the tomb is reminded by its
+inscriptions of the many virtues of the dead man while he yet lived, and
+is charged, if he be come with empty hands, at least to pronounce the
+funerary formula; it will indeed cost him nothing but "the breath of his
+mouth"! Against the would-be desecrator the wrath of the gods is
+invoked: "with him shall the great god reckon there where a reckoning is
+made."
+
+The funerary customs that have been described are meaningless except on
+the supposition that the tomb was the regular dwelling-place of the
+dead. But just as the Egyptians found no contradiction between the view
+of the temple as the residence of the god and the conception of him as a
+cosmic deity, so too they often attributed to the dead a continued
+existence quite apart from the tomb. According to a widely-spread
+doctrine of great age the deceased Egyptian was translated to the
+heavens, where he lived on in the form of a star. This theme is
+elaborated with great detail in the Pyramid texts, where it is the dead
+king to whom this destiny is promised. It was perhaps only a restricted
+aristocracy who could aspire to such high honour: the [HRG] _ikh_, or
+"glorified being," who has his place in the sky seems often to hold an
+intermediate position between the gods and the rank and file of the
+dead. But in a few early passages the required qualification appears to
+be rather moral integrity than exalted station. The life of the dead man
+in the sky is variously envisaged in different texts: at one moment he
+is spoken of as accompanying the sun-god in his celestial bark, at
+another as a mighty king more powerful than Re himself; the crudest
+fancy of all pictures him as a hunter who catches the stars and gods,
+and cooks and eats them. According to another conception that persisted
+in the imagination of the Egyptians longer than any of the ideas just
+mentioned, the home of the dead in the heavens was a fertile region not
+very different from Egypt itself, intersected by canals and abounding in
+corn and fruit; this place was called the Sokhet Earu or "field of
+Reeds."
+
+Even in the oldest texts these beliefs are blended inextricably with the
+Osirian doctrines. It is not so much as king of the dead that Osiris
+here appears, but every deceased Egyptian was regarded as himself an
+Osiris, as having undergone all the indignities inflicted upon the god,
+but finally triumphant over the powers of death and evil impersonated by
+Seth. This notion became so popular, that beside it all other views of
+the dead sink into insignificance; it permeates the funerary cult in all
+its stages, and from the Middle Kingdom onwards the dead man is
+regularly called "the Osiris so-and-so," just as though he were
+completely identical with the god. One incident of the tale of Osiris
+acquired a deep ethical meaning in connexion with the dead. It was
+related how Seth had brought an accusation against Osiris in the great
+judgment hall of Heliopolis, and how the latter, helped by the skilful
+speaker Thoth, had emerged from the ordeal acquitted and triumphant. The
+belief gradually grew up that every dead man would have to face a
+similar trial before he could be admitted to a life of bliss in the
+other world. A well-known vignette in the _Book of the Dead_ depicts the
+scene. In a shrine sits Osiris, the ruler and judge of the dead,
+accompanied by forty-two assessors; and before him stands the balance on
+which the heart of the deceased man is to be weighed against Truth;
+Thoth stands behind and registers the result. The words that accompany
+this picture are still more remarkable: they form a long negative
+confession, in which the dead man declares that he has sinned neither
+against man nor against the gods. Not all the sins named are equally
+heinous according to modern conceptions; many of them deal with petty
+offences against religious usages that seem to us but trifling. But it
+is clear that by the time this chapter was penned it was believed that
+no man could attain to happiness in the hereafter if he had not been
+upright, just and charitable in his earthly existence. The date at which
+these conceptions became general is not quite certain, but it can hardly
+be later than the Middle Kingdom, when the dead man has the epithet
+"justified" appended to his name in the inscriptions of his tomb.
+
+It was but a natural wish on the part of the Egyptians that they should
+desire to place their tombs near the traditional burying-place of
+Osiris. By the time of the XIIth Dynasty it was thought that this lay in
+Abydos, the town where the kings of the earliest times had been
+interred. But it was only in a few cases that such a wish could be
+literally fulfilled. It therefore became customary for those who
+possessed the means to dedicate at least a tombstone in the
+neighbourhood of "the staircase of the great god," as the sacred spot
+was called. And those who had found occasion to visit Abydos in their
+lifetime took pleasure in recalling the part that they had there taken
+in the ceremonies of Osiris. Such pilgrims doubtless believed that the
+pious act would stand to their credit when the day of death arrived.
+
+6. _Magic._--Among the rites that were celebrated in the temples or
+before the statues of the dead were many the mystical meaning of which
+was but imperfectly understood, though their efficacy was never doubted.
+Symbolical or imitative acts, accompanied by spoken formulae of set form
+and obscure content, accomplished, by some peculiar virtues of their
+own, results that were beyond the power of human hands and brain. The
+priests and certain wise men were the depositaries of this mysterious
+but highly useful art, that was called _hik_ or "magic"; and one of the
+chief differences between gods and men was the superior degree in which
+the former were endowed with magical powers. It was but natural that the
+Egyptians should wish to employ magic for their own benefit or
+self-gratification, and since religion put no veto on the practice so
+long as it was exercised within legal bounds, it was put to a widespread
+use among them. When magicians made figures of wax representing men whom
+they desired to injure, this was of course an illegal act like any
+other, and the law stepped in to prevent it: one papyrus that has been
+preserved records the judicial proceedings taken in such a case in
+connexion with the harem conspiracy against Rameses III.
+
+One of the chief purposes for which magic was employed was to avert
+diseases. Among the Egyptians, as in other lands, illnesses were
+supposed to be due to evil spirits or the ghosts of dead men who had
+taken up their abode in the body of the sufferer, and they could only be
+driven thence by charms and spells. But out of these primitive notions
+arose a real medical science: when the ailment could be located and its
+nature roughly determined, a more materialistic view was taken of it;
+and many herbs and drugs that were originally used for some
+superstitious reason, when once they had been found to be actually
+effective, easily lost their magical significance and were looked upon
+as natural specifics. It is extremely hard to draw any fixed line in
+Egypt between magic and medicine; but it is curious to note that simple
+diagnoses and prescriptions were employed for the more curable diseases,
+while magical formulae and amulets are reserved for those that are
+harder to cope with, such as the bites of snakes and the stings of
+scorpions.
+
+The formulae recited for such purposes are not purely cabalistic, though
+inasmuch as mystery is of the very essence of magic, foreign words and
+outlandish names occur in them by preference. Often the magician relates
+some mythical case where a god had been afflicted with a disease similar
+to that of the patient, but had finally recovered: a number of such
+tales were told of Horus, who was usually healed by some device of his
+mother Isis, she being accounted as a great enchantress. The mere
+recitation of such similar cases with their happy issue was supposed to
+be magically effective; for almost unlimited power was supposed to be
+inherent in mere words. Often the demon is directly invoked, and
+commanded to come forth. At other times the gods are threatened with
+privations or even destruction if they refuse to aid the magician: the
+Egyptians seem to have found little impiety in such a use of the divine
+name, though to us it would seem the utmost degree of profanity when,
+for instance, a magician declares that if his spell prove ineffective,
+he "will cast fire into Mendes and burn up Osiris."
+
+The verbal spells were always accompanied by some manual performance,
+the tying of magical knots or the preparation of an amulet. In these
+acts particular significance was attached to certain numbers: a
+sevenfold knot, for example, was more efficacious than others. Often the
+formula was written on a strip of rag or a scrap of papyrus and tied
+round the neck of the person for whom it was intended. Beads and all
+kinds of amulets could be infused with magical power so as to be potent
+phylacteries to those who wore them.
+
+In conclusion, it must be emphasized that in Egypt magic stands in no
+contrast or opposition to religion, at least as long as it was
+legitimately used. The religious rites and ceremonies are full of it.
+When a pretence was made of opening, with an iron instrument, the mouth
+of the divine statue, to the accompaniment of recited formulae, this can
+hardly be termed anything but magic. Similarly, the potency attributed
+to _ushebti_-figures and the copies of the _Book of the Dead_ deposited
+in the tombs is magical in quality. What has been considered under this
+heading, however, is the use that the same principles of magic were put
+to by men in their own practical life and for their own advantage.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--An excellent list of books and articles on the various
+  topics connected with Egyptian Religion will be found in H. O. Lange's
+  article on the subject in P. D. Chantepie de la Saussaye, _Lehrbuch
+  der Religionsgeschichte_ (Tubingen, 1905), vol. i. pp. 172-245. Among
+  general works may be especially recommended A. Erman, _Die agyptische
+  Religion_ (Berlin, 1905); and chapters 2 and 3 in G. Maspero,
+  _Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'Orient, les origines_, vol. i.
+  (Paris, 1895).     (A. H. G.)
+
+D. _Egyptian Language and Writing.--Decipherment._--Although attempts
+were made to read Egyptian hieroglyphs so far back as the 17th century,
+no promise of success appeared until the discovery of the Rosetta stone
+in 1799 by the French engineers attached to Napoleon's expedition to
+Egypt. This tablet was inscribed with three versions, in hieroglyphic,
+demotic and Greek, of a long decree of the Egyptian priests in honour of
+Ptolemy V., Epiphanes and his wife Cleopatra. The Greek and demotic
+versions were still almost perfect, but most of the hieroglyphic text
+had been broken away with the top of the tablet; portions of about half
+of the lines remained, but no single line was complete. In 1802 J. D.
+Akerblad, a Swedish orientalist attached to the embassy in Paris,
+identified the proper names of persons which occurred in the demotic
+text, being guided to them by the position of their equivalents in the
+Greek. These names, all of them foreign, were written in an alphabet of
+a limited number of characters, and were therefore analysed with
+comparative ease.
+
+The hieroglyphic text upon the Rosetta stone was too fragmentary to
+furnish of itself the key to the decipherment. But the study of this
+with the other scanty monuments and imperfect copies of inscriptions
+that were available enabled the celebrated physicist Thomas Young
+(1773-1829) to make a beginning. In an article completed in 1819 and
+printed (over the initials I. J.) in the supplement to the 4th, 5th and
+6th editions of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ (vol. iv., 1824), he
+published a brief account of Egyptian research, with five plates
+containing the "rudiments of an Egyptian vocabulary." It appears that
+Young could place the hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek texts of the
+Rosetta stone very correctly parallel; but he could not accurately break
+up the Egyptian sentences into words, much less could he attribute to
+the words their proper sounds. Yet he recognized correctly the names of
+Apis and Re, with many groups for words such as "assembly," "good,"
+"name," and important signs such as those which distinguish feminine
+words. In a bad copy of another monument he rightly guessed the royal
+name of Berenice in its cartouche by the side of that of Ptolemy, which
+was already known from its occurrence on the Rosetta stone. He
+considered that these names must be written in phonetic characters in
+the hieroglyphic as in demotic, but he failed to analyse them correctly.
+It was clear, however, that with more materials and perseverance such
+efforts after decipherment must eventually succeed.
+
+Meanwhile J. F. Champollion "le Jeune" (see CHAMPOLLION; and Hartleben,
+_Champollion, sein Leben und sein Werk_, Berlin, 1906) had devoted his
+energies whole-heartedly since 1802, when he was only eleven years old,
+to preparing himself for the solution of the Egyptian problem, by wide
+linguistic and historical studies, and above all by familiarizing
+himself with every scrap of Egyptian writing which he could find. By
+1818 he made many equations between the demotic and the hieroglyphic
+characters, and was able to transcribe the demotic names of Ptolemy and
+Cleopatra into hieroglyphics. At length, in January 1822, a copy of the
+hieroglyphic inscription on the Bankes obelisk, which had long been
+fruitlessly in the hands of Young, reached the French savant. On the
+base of this obelisk was engraved a Greek inscription in honour of
+Ptolemy Euergetes II. and Cleopatra; of the two cartouches on the
+obelisk one was of Ptolemy, the other was easily recognized as that of
+Cleopatra, spelt nearly as in Champollion's experimental transcript of
+the demotic name, only more fully. This discovery, and the recognition
+of the name Alexander, gave fourteen alphabetic signs, including
+homophones, with ascertained values. Starting from these, by the
+beginning of September Champollion had analysed a long series of
+Ptolemaic and Roman cartouches. His next triumph was on the 14th of
+September, when he read the names of the ancient Pharaohs Rameses and
+Tethmosis in some drawings just arrived from Egypt, proving that his
+alphabetic characters were employed, in conjunction with syllabic signs,
+for spelling native names; this gave him the assurance that his
+discovery touched the essential nature of the Egyptian writing and not
+merely, as had been contended, a special cipher for the foreign words
+which might be quite inapplicable to the rest of the inscriptions. His
+progress continued unchecked, and before the end of the year the
+connexion of ancient Egyptian and Coptic was clearly established.
+Subsequently visits to the museums of Italy and an expedition to Egypt
+in 1828-1829 furnished Champollion with ample materials. The _Precis du
+systeme hieroglyphique_ (1st ed. 1823, 2nd ed. 1828) contained the
+philological results of his decipherments down to a certain point. But
+his MS. collections were vast, and his illness after the strenuous
+labours of the expedition and his early death in 1832 left all in
+confusion. The _Grammaire egyptienne_ and _Dictionnaire egyptien_,
+edited from these MSS. by his brother, precious as they were, must be a
+very imperfect register of the height of his attainments. In his last
+years he was able to translate long texts in hieroglyphic and in
+hieratic of the New Kingdom and of the later periods with some
+accuracy, and his comprehension of demotic was considerable. Champollion
+outdistanced all his competitors from the first, and had practically
+nothing to thank them for except material to work on, and too often that
+had been intentionally withheld from him. In eleven years he broke
+ground in all directions; if the ordinary span of life had been allowed
+him, with twenty or thirty more years of labour he might have brought
+order into the chaos of different ages and styles of language and
+writing; but, as it was, the task of co-ordination remained to be done
+by others. For one year, before his illness incapacitated him,
+Champollion held a professorship in Paris; but of his pupils and
+fellow-workers, F. P. Salvolini, insincere and self-seeking, died young,
+and Ippolito Rosellini (1800-1843) showed little original power. From
+1832 to 1837 there was a pause in the march of Egyptology, and it seemed
+as if the young science might be overwhelmed by the storm of doubts and
+detraction that was poured upon it by the enemies of Champollion. Then,
+however, Lepsius in Germany and Samuel Birch in England took up the
+thread where the master had dropped it, and E. de Rouge, H. Brugsch,
+Francois Joseph Chabas and a number of lesser lights quickly followed.
+Brugsch (q.v.) was the author of a hieroglyphic and demotic dictionary
+which still holds the field, and from time to time carried forward the
+study of demotic by a giant's stride. De Rouge (d. 1872) in France was a
+brilliant translator of hieroglyphic texts and the author of an
+important grammatical work. Chabas (1817-1882) especially addressed
+himself to the reading of the hieratic texts of the New Kingdom. By such
+labours after forty years the results attained by Champollion in
+decipherment were entirely superseded. Yet, while the values of the
+signs were for the most part well ascertained, and the meanings of most
+works fixed with some degree of accuracy, few grammatical rules had as
+yet been established, the varieties of the language at different periods
+had not been defined, and the origins of the hieroglyphs and of their
+values had not been investigated beyond the most obvious points. At this
+time a rare translator of Egyptian texts in all branches was arising in
+G. Maspero (q.v.), while E. Revillout addressed himself with success to
+the task of interpreting the legal documents of demotic which had been
+almost entirely neglected for thirty years. But the honour of
+inaugurating an epoch marked by greater precision belongs to Germany.
+The study of Coptic had begun in Europe early in the 17th century, and
+reached a high level in the work of the Dane Georg Zoega (1755-1809) at
+the end of the 18th century. In 1835, too late for Champollion to use
+it, Amadeo Peyron (1785-1870) of Turin published a Coptic lexicon of
+great merit which is still standard, though far from satisfying the
+needs of scholars of the present day. In 1880 Ludwig Stern (_Koptische
+Grammatik_) admirably classified the grammatical forms of Coptic. The
+much more difficult task of recovering the grammar of Egyptian has
+occupied thirty years of special study by Adolf Erman and his school at
+Berlin, and has now reached an advanced stage. The greater part of
+Egyptian texts after the Middle Kingdom having been written in what was
+even then practically a dead language, as dead as Latin was to the
+medieval monks in Italy who wrote and spoke it, Erman selected for
+special investigation those texts which really represented the growth of
+the language at different periods, and, as he passed from one epoch to
+another, compared and consolidated his results.
+
+  The _Neuagyptische Grammatik_ (1880) dealt with texts written in the
+  vulgar dialect of the New Kingdom (Dyns. XVIII. to XX.). Next
+  followed, in the _Zeitschrift fur agyptische Sprache und
+  Alterthumskunde_, studies on the Old Kingdom inscription of Una, and
+  the Middle Kingdom contracts of Assiut, as well as on an "Old Coptic"
+  text of the 3rd century A.D. At this point a papyrus of stories
+  written in the popular language of the Middle Kingdom provided Erman
+  with a stepping-stone from Old Egyptian to the Late Egyptian of the
+  _Neuagyptische Grammatik_, and gave the connexions that would bind
+  solidly together the whole structure of Egyptian grammar (see _Sprache
+  des Papyrus Westcar_, 1889). The very archaic pyramid texts enabled
+  him to sketch the grammar of the earliest known form of Egyptian
+  (_Zeitschrift d. Deutsch. Morgenl. Gesellschaft_, 1892), and in 1894
+  he was able to write a little manual of Egyptian for beginners
+  (_Agyptische Grammatik_, 2nd ed., 1902), centring on the language of
+  the standard inscriptions of the Middle and New Kingdoms, but
+  accompanying the main sketch with references to earlier and later
+  forms. Of the work of Erman's pupils we may mention G. Steindorff's
+  little _Koptische Grammatik_ (1894, ed. 1904), improving greatly on
+  Stern's standard work in regard to phonology and the relationship of
+  Coptic forms to Egyptian, and K. Sethe's _Das Agyptische Verbum_
+  (1899). The latter is an extensive monograph on the verb in Egyptian
+  and Coptic by a brilliant and laborious philologist. Owing to the very
+  imperfect notation of sound in the writing, the highly important
+  subject of the verbal roots and verbal forms was perhaps the obscurest
+  branch of Egyptian grammar when Sethe first attacked it in 1895. The
+  subject has been reviewed by Erman, _Die Flexion des agyptischen
+  Verbums_ in the _Sitzungsberichte_ of the Berlin Academy, 1900. The
+  Berlin school, having settled the main lines of the grammar, next
+  turned its attention to lexicography. It has devised a scheme, founded
+  on that for the Latin Thesaurus of the Berlin Academy, which almost
+  mechanically sorts the whole number of occurrences of every word in
+  any text examined. Scholars in England, America and Denmark, as well
+  as in Germany, have taken part in this great enterprise, and though
+  the completion of it may be far off, the collections of classified
+  material already made are very valuable for consultation.[11] At
+  present Egyptologists depend on Heinrich Brugsch's admirable but
+  somewhat antiquated _Worterbuch_ and on Levi's useful but entirely
+  uncritical _Vocabolario_. Though demotic has not yet received serious
+  attention at Berlin, the influence of that great school has made
+  itself felt amongst demotists, especially in Switzerland, Germany,
+  America and England. The death of Heinrich Brugsch in 1895 was a very
+  severe blow to demotic studies; but it must be admitted that his
+  brilliant gifts lay in other directions than exact grammatical
+  analysis. Apart from their philological interest, as giving the
+  history of a remarkable language during a period of several thousand
+  years, the grammatical studies of the last quarter of the 19th century
+  and afterwards are beginning to bear fruit in regard to the exact
+  interpretation of historical documents on Egyptian monuments and
+  papyri. Not long ago the supposed meaning of these was extracted
+  chiefly by brilliant guessing, and the published translations of even
+  the best scholars could carry no guarantee of more than approximate
+  exactitude, where the sense depended at all on correct recognition of
+  the syntax. Now the translator proceeds in Egyptian with some of the
+  sureness with which he would deal with Latin or Greek. The meaning of
+  many words may be still unknown, and many constructions are still
+  obscure; but at least he can distinguish fairly between a correct text
+  and a corrupt text. Egyptian writing lent itself only too easily to
+  misunderstanding, and the writings of one period were but half
+  intelligible to the learned scribes of another. The mistaken readings
+  of the old inscriptions by the priests at Abydos (Table of Abydos),
+  when attempting to record the names of the kings of the 1st Dynasty on
+  the walls of the temple of Seti I., are now admitted on all sides; and
+  no palaeographer, whether his field be Greek, Latin, Arabic, Persian
+  or any other class of MSS., will be surprised to hear that the
+  Egyptian papyri and inscriptions abound in corruptions and mistakes.
+  The translator of to-day can, if he wishes, mark where certainty ends
+  and mere conjecture begins, and it is to be hoped that advantage will
+  be taken more widely of this new power. The Egyptologist who has long
+  lived in the realm of conjecture is too prone to consider any series
+  of guesses good enough to serve as a translation, and forgets to
+  insert the notes of interrogation which would warn workers in other
+  fields from implicit trust.
+
+_Language and Writing._--The history of the Egyptian language is
+evidenced by documents extending over a very long range of time. They
+begin with the primitive inscriptions of the Ist Dynasty (not later than
+3300 B.C.) and end with the latest Coptic compositions of about the 14th
+century A.D. The bulk of the hieroglyphic inscriptions are written in a
+more or less artificial literary language; but in business documents,
+letters, popular tales, &c., the scribes often adhered closely to the
+living form of the tongue, and thus reveal its progressive changes.
+
+The stages of the language are now distinguished as follows:--
+
+_Old Egyptian._--This is properly the language of the Old Kingdom. In it
+we have (a) the recently discovered inscriptions of the Ist Dynasty, too
+brief and concise to throw much light on the language of that time; and
+the great collections of spells and ritual texts found inscribed in the
+Pyramids of the Vth and VIth Dynasties, which must even then have been
+of high antiquity, though they contain later additions made in the same
+style. (b) A few historical texts and an abundance of short inscriptions
+representing the language of the IVth, Vth and VIth Dynasties. The
+ordinary _literary language_ of the later monuments is modelled on Old
+Egyptian. It is often much affected by contemporary speech, but
+preserves in the main the characteristics of the language of the Old
+Kingdom.
+
+_Middle and Late Egyptian._--These represent the vulgar speech of the
+Middle and New Kingdoms respectively. The former is found chiefly in
+tales, letters, &c., written in hieratic on papyri of the XIIIth Dynasty
+to the end of the Middle Kingdom; also in some inscriptions of the
+XVIIIth Dynasty. Late Egyptian is seen in hieratic papyri of the XVIIIth
+to the XXIst Dynasties. The spelling of Late Egyptian is very
+extraordinary, full of false etymologies, otiose signs, &c., the old
+orthography being quite unable to adapt itself neatly to the profoundly
+modified language; nevertheless, this clumsy spelling is expressive, and
+the very mistakes are instructive as to the pronunciation.
+
+_Demotic._--Demotic Egyptian seems to represent approximately the vulgar
+speech of the Saite period, and is written in the "demotic" character,
+which may be traced back to the XXVIth Dynasty, if not to a still
+earlier time. With progressive changes, this form of the language is
+found in documents reaching down to the fall of Paganism in the 4th
+century A.D.[12] Under the later Ptolemies and the Roman rule documents
+in Greek are more abundant than in demotic, and the language of the
+ruling classes must have begun to penetrate the masses deeply.
+
+_Coptic._--This, in the main, represents the popular language of early
+Christian Egypt from the 3rd to perhaps the 10th century A.D., when the
+growth of Coptic as a literary language must have ceased. The Greek
+alphabet, reinforced by a few signs borrowed from demotic, rendered the
+spoken tongue so accurately that four distinct, though closely allied,
+dialects are readily distinguishable in Coptic MSS.; ample remains are
+found of renderings of the Scriptures into all these dialects. The
+distinctions between the dialects consist largely in pronunciation, but
+extend also to the vocabulary, word-formation and syntax. Such
+interchanges are found as _l_ for _r_, [Coptic: qima] (_k_, _ch_) for
+[Coptic: dandia] (_dj_), final _i_ for final _e_, _a_ for _e_, _a_ for
+_o_. Early in the 2nd century A.D., pagan Egyptians, or perhaps
+foreigners settled in Egypt, essayed, as yet unskilfully, to write the
+native language in Greek letters. This _Old Coptic_, as it is termed,
+was still almost entirely free from Greek loan-words, and its strong
+archaisms are doubtless accounted for by the literary language, even in
+its most "vulgar" forms, having moved more slowly than the speech of the
+people. Christian Coptic, though probably at first contemporary with
+some documents of Old Coptic, contrasts strongly with the latter. The
+monks whose task it was to perfect the adaptation of the alphabet to the
+dialects of Egypt and translate the Scriptures out of the Greek, flung
+away all pagan traditions. It is clear that the basis which they chose
+for the new literature was the simplest language of daily life in the
+monasteries, charged as it was with expressions taken from Greek,
+pre-eminently the language of patristic Christianity. There is evidence
+that the amount of stress on syllables, and the consequent length of
+vowels, varied greatly in spoken Coptic, and that the variation gave
+much trouble to the scribes; the early Christian writers must have taken
+as a model for each dialect the deliberate speech of grave elders or
+preachers, and so secured a uniform system of accentuation. The remains
+of Old Coptic, though very instructive in their marked peculiarities,
+are as yet too few for definite classification. The main divisions of
+Christian Coptic as recognized and named at present are: Sahidic
+(formerly called Theban), spoken in the upper Thebais; Akhmimic, in the
+neighbourhood of Akhmim, but driven out by Sahidic about the 5th
+century; Fayumic, in the Fayum (formerly named wrongly "Bashmuric," from
+a province of the Delta); Bohairic, the dialect of the "coast district"
+(formerly named "Memphite"), spoken in the north-western Delta. Coptic,
+much alloyed with Arabic, was spoken in Upper Egypt as late as the 15th
+century, but it has long been a dead language.[13] Sahidic and Bohairic
+are the most important dialects, each of these having left abundant
+remains; the former spread over the whole of Upper Egypt, and the latter
+since the 14th century has been the language of the sacred books of
+Christianity throughout the country, owing to the hierarchical
+importance of Alexandria and the influence of the ancient monasteries
+established in the north-western desert.
+
+The above stages of the Egyptian language are not defined with absolute
+clearness. Progress is seen from dynasty to dynasty or from century to
+century. New Egyptian shades off almost imperceptibly into demotic, and
+it may be hoped that gaps which now exist in the development will be
+filled by further discovery.
+
+Coptic is the only stage of the language in which the spelling gives a
+clear idea of the pronunciation. It is therefore the mainstay of the
+scholar in investigating or restoring the word-forms of the ancient
+language. Greek transcriptions of Egyptian names and words are valuable
+as evidence for the vocalization of Egyptian. Such are found from the
+6th century B.C. in the inscription of Abu Simbel, from the 5th in
+Herodotus, &c., and abound in Ptolemaic and later documents from the
+beginning of the 3rd century B.C. onwards. At first sight they may seem
+inaccurate, but on closer examination the Graecizing is seen to follow
+definite rules, especially in the Ptolemaic period. A few cuneiform
+transcriptions, reaching as far back as the XVIIIth Dynasty, give
+valuable hints as to how Egyptian was pronounced in the 15th century
+B.C. Coptic itself is of course quite inadequate to enable us to restore
+Old Egyptian. In it the Old Egyptian verbal forms are mostly replaced by
+periphrases; though the strong roots are often preserved entire, the
+weaker consonants and the [Hebrew: ts] have largely or entirely
+disappeared, so that the language appears as one of biliteral rather
+than triliteral roots. Coptic is strongly impregnated with Greek words
+adopted late; moreover, a certain number of Semitic loan-words flowed
+into Egyptian at all ages, and especially from the 16th century B.C.
+onwards, displacing earlier words. It is only by the most careful
+scrutiny, or the exercise of the most piercing insight, that the
+imperfectly spelled Egyptian has been made to yield up one grammatical
+secret after another in the light brought to bear upon it from Coptic.
+Demotic grammar ought soon to be thoroughly comprehensible in its forms,
+and the study of Late Egyptian should not stand far behind that of
+demotic. On the other hand, Middle Egyptian, and still more Old
+Egyptian, which is separated from Middle Egyptian by a wide gap, will
+perhaps always be to us little more than consonantal skeletons, the
+flesh and blood of their vocalization being for the most part
+irretrievably lost.[14]
+
+In common with the Semitic languages, the Berber languages of North
+Africa, and the Cushite languages of North-East Africa, Egyptian of all
+periods possesses grammatical gender, expressing masculine and feminine.
+Singularly few language groups have this peculiarity; and our own great
+Indo-European group, which possesses it, is distinguished from those
+above mentioned by having the neuter gender in addition. The
+characteristic triliteral roots of all the Semitic languages seemed to
+separate them widely from others; but certain traits have caused the
+Egyptian, Berber and Cushite groups to be classed together as three
+subfamilies of a Hamitic group, remotely related to the Semitic. The
+biliteral character of Coptic, and the biliteralism which was believed
+to exist in Egyptian, led philologists to suspect that Egyptian might be
+a surviving witness to that far-off stage of the Semitic languages when
+triliteral roots had not yet been formed from presumed original
+biliterals; Sethe's investigations, however, prove that the Coptic
+biliterals are themselves derived from Old Egyptian triliterals, and
+that the triliteral roots enormously preponderated in Egyptian of the
+earliest known form; that view is, therefore, no longer tenable. Many
+remarkable resemblances have been observed in the grammatical structure
+of the Berber and Cushite groups with Semitic (cf. H. Zimmern,
+_Vergleichende Grammatik d. semitischen Sprachen_, Berlin, 1898,
+especially pronouns and verbs); but the relationship must be very
+distant, and there are no ancient documents that can take back the
+history of any one of those languages more than a few centuries. Their
+connexion with Semitic and Egyptian, therefore, remains at present an
+obscure though probable hypothesis. On the other hand, Egyptian is
+certainly related to Semitic. Even before the triliterality of Old
+Egyptian was recognized, Erman showed that the so-called
+pseudo-participle had been really in meaning and in form a precise
+analogue of the Semitic perfect, though its original employment was
+almost obsolete in the time of the earliest known texts. Triliteralism
+is considered the most essential and most peculiar feature of Semitic.
+But there are, besides, many other resemblances in structure between the
+Semitic languages and Egyptian, so that, although the two vocabularies
+present few points of clear contact, there is reason to believe that
+Egyptian was originally a characteristic member of the Semitic family of
+languages. See Erman, "Das Verhaltnis d. agyptischen zu d. semitischen
+Sprachen" (_Zeitschrift d. deutschen morgenl. Gesellschaft_, 1892);
+Zimmern, _Vergl. Gram._, 1898; Erman, "Flexion d. agyptischen Verbums"
+(_Sitzungsberichte d. Berl. Akad._, 1900). The Egyptians proper are not,
+and so far as we can tell never were, Semitic in physical feature. As a
+possible explanation of the facts, Erman supposes that a horde of
+conquering Semites, like the Arabs of a later day, imposed their
+language on the country, but disappeared, being weakened by the climate
+or absorbed by the native population. The latter acquired the Semitic
+language imperfectly from their conquerors; they expressed the verbal
+conjugations by periphrases, mispronounced the consonants, and so
+changed greatly the appearance of the vocabulary, which also would
+certainly contain a large proportion of native non-Semitic roots. Strong
+consonants gave place to weak consonants (as [Arabic: Qaaf] has done to
+[Arabic sign], in the modern Arabic of Egypt), and then the weak
+consonants disappearing altogether produced biliterals from the
+triliterals. Much of this must have taken place, according to the
+theory, in the prehistoric period; but the loss of weak consonants, of
+[ayin] and of one of two repeated consonants, and the development of
+periphrastic conjugations continued to the end. The typical Coptic root
+thus became biliteral rather than triliteral, and the verb, by means of
+periphrases, developed tenses of remarkable precision. Such verbal
+resemblances as exist between Coptic and Semitic are largely due to late
+exchanges with Semitic neighbours.
+
+  The following sketch of the Egyptian language, mainly in its earliest
+  form, which dates from some three or four thousand years B.C., is
+  founded upon Erman's works. It will serve to contrast with Coptic
+  grammar on the one hand and Semitic grammar on the other.
+
+  THE EGYPTIAN ALPHABET
+
+    [HRG: M17] = _l_; so conventionally transcribed since it unites two
+           values, being sometimes y but often [Hebrew: alef] (especially
+           at the beginning of words), and from the earliest times used in
+           a manner corresponding to the Arabic _hamza_, to indicate a
+           prosthetic vowel. Often lost.
+
+    [HRG: Z4] and [HRG: M17-M17] are frequently employed for _y_.
+
+    [HRG: G1] = '([Hebrew: alef]); easily lost or changes to _y_.
+
+    [HRG: D36] = '([Hebrew: ayin]); lost in Coptic. This rare sound, well
+           known in Semitic, occurs also in Berber and Cushite languages.
+
+    [HRG: G43] = _w_; often changes to _y_.
+
+    [HRG: D58] = _b_.
+
+    [HRG: Q3] = _p_.
+
+    [HRG: I9] = _f_.
+
+    [HRG: G17] = _m_.
+
+    [HRG: N35] = _n_.
+
+    [HRG] = _r_; often lost, or changes to _y_. _r_ and _l_ are
+           distinguished in later demotic and in Coptic.
+
+    [HRG] = _h_    } distinction lost in Coptic.
+    [HRG] = _[h.]_ }
+
+    [HRG] = _h_; in Coptic [Coptic: sai] (_sh_) or [Coptic: xai] (_kh_)
+           correspond to it.
+
+    [HRG] = _[h=]_; generally written with [HRG] (_[vs]_) in the Old
+           Kingdom, but [HRG] corresponds to _kh_ in Coptic.
+
+    [HRG] = _s_    } distinction lost at the end of the Old Kingdom.
+    [HRG] = _[/s]_ }
+
+    [HRG] = _[vs]_ (_sh_).
+
+    [HRG] = _q_; Coptic [Coptic: kappa].
+
+    [HRG] = _k_ } Coptic [Coptic: kappa]; or [Coptic: qima],
+                }    [Coptic: dandia], according to dialect.
+    [HRG] = _g_ } Coptic [Coptic: kappa]; or [Coptic: qima].
+
+    [HRG] = _[t=]_; often lost at the end of words.
+
+    [HRG] = _t_ ([theta]); often changes to _t_, otherwise Coptic
+           [Coptic: tau]; or [Coptic: dandia], [Coptic: qima].
+
+    [HRG] = _d_; in Coptic reduced to _t_.
+
+    [HRG] = _d_ (_z_); often changes to _d_, Coptic [Coptic: tau];
+           otherwise in Coptic [Coptic: dandia].
+
+
+  _ROOTS_
+
+  Egyptian roots consist of consonants and semi-consonants only, the
+  inflexion being effected by internal vowel-change and the addition of
+  consonants or vowels at the beginning or end. The Egyptian system of
+  writing, as opposed to the Coptic, showed only the consonantal
+  skeletons of words: it could not record internal vowel-changes; and
+  semi-consonants, even when radicals, were often omitted in writing.
+
+
+  _PERSONAL PRONOUNS_
+
+  Sing. 1. c. _iw_ (?) later _wi_.     Pl. 1. c. _n_.                Du.
+        2. m. _kw_.                        2. c. _tn_.               2. c. _tny_.
+           f. _tn_.
+        3. _m_. *_fy_, surviving only      3. m. _sn_, early lost,   3. c. _sny_.
+                       in a special                    except as
+                       verbal form.                    suffix.
+           f. _sy_.                           f. *_st_ surviving
+                                                       as 3. c.
+
+  From these are derived the suffixes, which are shortened forms
+  attached to nouns to express the possessor, and to verbs to express
+  the subject. In the latter case the verb was probably in the
+  participle, so that _sdmii-sn_, "they hear," is literally "hearing
+  are they." The singular suffixes are: (1) c. _-i_; (2) m. _-k_, f.
+  _-t_; (3) m. _-f_, f. _-[/s]_;--the dual and plural have no special
+  forms.
+
+  Another series of absolute pronouns is: (2) m. _twt_, _tw_; f. _tmt_,
+  _tm_; (3) m. _swt_, _sw_; f. _stt_, _st_. Of these _twt_, _tmt_, &c.,
+  are emphatic forms.
+
+  Many of the above absolute pronouns were almost obsolete even in the
+  Old Kingdom. In ordinary texts some survive, especially as objects of
+  verbs, namely, _wi_, _tw_, _tn_, _sw_, _st_. The suffixes of all
+  numbers and persons except the dual were in full use throughout, to
+  Coptic; _sn_, however, giving way to a new suffix, _-w_, which
+  developed first in the New Kingdom.
+
+  Another absolute pronoun of the first person is _ink_, [Coptic: Anoch]
+  like Heb. [Hebrew: Anochi]. It is associated with a series for the
+  second and third persons: _nt-k_, _nt-t_, _nt-f_, _nt-sn_, &c.; but
+  from their history, use and form, it seems probable that the last are
+  of later formation, and are not to be connected with the Semitic
+  pronouns (chiefly of the 2nd person) resembling them.
+
+
+  _DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS_
+
+  There are several series based on m. _p_; f. _t_; pl. _n_; but _n_ as
+  a plural seems later than the other two. From them are developed a
+  weak demonstrative to which possessive suffixes can be attached,
+  producing the definite and possessive articles (_p'_, _t'_, _n'_,
+  "the," _p'y-f_, "his," _p'y-s_ "her," &c.) of Middle Egyptian and the
+  later language.
+
+
+  _NOUNS_
+
+  Two genders, m. (ending _w_, or nothing), f. (ending _t_). Three
+  numbers: singular, dual (m. _wi_, f. _ti_, gradually became obsolete),
+  plural (m. _w_; f. _wt_). No case-endings are recognizable, but
+  construct forms--to judge by Coptic--were in use. Masculine and
+  feminine nouns of instrument or material are formed from verbal roots
+  by prefixing _m_; e.g. _m.sdm.t_, "stibium," from _sdm_, "paint the
+  eye." Substantives and adjectives are formed from substantives and
+  prepositions by the addition of _y_ in the masculine; e.g. _n.t_,
+  "city," _nt.y_, "belonging to a city," "citizen"; _hr_, "upon," _hr.y_
+  (f. _hr.t_; pl. _hr.w)_, "upper." This is not unlike the Semitic
+  _nisbe_ ending _iy_, _ay_ (e.g. Ar. _beled_, "city," _beledi_,
+  "belonging to a city"). Adjectives follow the nouns they qualify.
+
+
+  _NUMERALS_
+
+  1, _w'_; 2, _sn_; 3, _hmt_; 4, _fdw_; 5, _dw'_; 6, _sis_ (or _sw'_ ?);
+  7, _sfh_; 8, _hmn_; 9, _psd_; 10, _mt_. 2, 6, 7, 8 and 9 (?) resemble
+  Semitic numerals. 20 and 30 (_m'b_) had special names; 40-90 were
+  named as if plurals of the units 4-9, as in Semitic. 100, _snt_; 1000,
+  _h'_; 10,000, _zb'_; 100,000, _hfnw_.
+
+
+  _VERBS_
+
+  The forms observable in hieroglyphic writing lead to the following
+  classification:--
+
+  STRONG VERBS.
+         Biliteral      Often showing traces of an original III. inf.;
+                                   in early times very rare.
+
+         Triliteral     Very numerous.
+
+                        { Generally formed by reduplication.
+         Quadriliteral  {   In Late Egyptian they were no longer
+         Quinqueliteral {   inflected, and were conjugated with the help
+                        {   of _iry_, "do."
+
+  WEAK VERBS.
+         II. geminatae  Properly triliterals, but, with the 2nd or 3rd
+                            radical alike, these coalesced in many forms
+                            where no vowel intervened, and gave the word
+                            the appearance of a biliteral.
+
+         III. gem.      Rare.
+
+         III. inf.      Numerous. III. _w_, and III. _i_ were
+                            unified early. Some very common verbs, "do,"
+                            "give," "come," "bring" are irregular.
+
+         IV. inf.       Partly derived from adjectival formations in
+                            _y_, from nouns and infinitives:--e.g. _s.ip_,
+                            inf. _sipt_; adj. _sipty_; verb (4 lit.),
+                            _sipty_.
+
+  Many verbs with weak consonants--I_y_, I_w_, II. inf. (_m[w]t_), and
+  those with [Hebrew: alef]--are particularly difficult to trace
+  accurately, owing to defective writing.
+
+  It seems that all the above classes may be divided into two main
+  groups, according to the form of the infinitive:--with masculine
+  infinitive the strong triliteral type, and with feminine infinitive
+  the type of the III. inf. The former group includes all except III.
+  inf., IV. inf., and the causative of the biliterals, which belong to
+  the second group.
+
+  It is probable that the verb had a special form denoting condition, as
+  in Arabic. There was a causative form prefixing _s_, and traces of
+  forms resembling _Pi'el_ and _Niphal_ are observed. Some roots are
+  reduplicated wholly or in part with a frequentative meaning, and there
+  are traces of gemination of radicals.
+
+  _Pseudo-Participle._--In very early texts this is the past indicative,
+  but more commonly it is used in sentences such as, _gm-n-f wi
+  'h'.kwi_, "he found me I stood," i.e. "he found me standing." The
+  indicative use was soon given up and the pseudo-participle was
+  employed only as predicate, especially indicating a state; e.g. _ntr.t
+  sm.ti_, "the goddess goes"; _iw-k wd'.ti_, "thou art prosperous." The
+  endings were almost entirely lost in New Egyptian. For early times
+  they stand thus:--
+
+    Sing. 3. masc.   _i_, late _w_.  Dual _wii_.   Pl. _w_.
+             fem.    _ti_.           _tiiw_            _ti_.
+          2. masc.   _ti_                              _tiwny_.
+             fem.    _ti_
+          1. c.      _kwi_.                            _wyn_.
+
+  The pseudo-participle seems, by its inflexion, to have been the
+  perfect of the original Semitic conjugation. The simplest form being
+  that of the 3rd person, it is best arranged like the corresponding
+  tense in Semitic grammars, beginning with that person. There is no
+  trace of the Semitic imperfect in Egyptian. The ordinary conjugation
+  is formed quite differently. The verbal stem is here followed by the
+  subject-suffix or substantive--_sdm-f_, "he hears"; _sdmw stn_,
+  "the king hears." It is varied by the addition of particles, &c., _n_,
+  _in_, _hr_, _tw_, thus:--
+
+  _sdm-f_, "he hears"; _sdm-w-f_, "he is heard" (_pl. sdm-ii-sn_, "they
+  are heard"); _sdm-tw-f_, "he is heard"; _sdm-n-f_, "he heard";
+  _sdm-n-tw-f_, "he was heard"; also, _sdm-in-f_, _sdm-hr-f_,
+  _sdm-k'-f_. Each form has special uses, generally difficult to
+  define, _sdm-f_ seems rather to be imperfect, _sdm-n-f_ perfect, and
+  generally to express the past. Later, _sdm-f_ is ordinarily expressed
+  by periphrases; but by the loss of _n_, _sdm-n-f_ became itself
+  _sdm-f_, which is the ordinary past in demotic. Coptic preserves
+  _sdm-f_ forms of many verbs in its causative (e.g. [Coptic: tanchof]
+  "cause him to live," from Egyptian _di.t.nh-f_), and, in its
+  periphrastic conjugation, the same forms of _wn_, "be," and _iry_,
+  "do." With _sdm-f_ (_sedmo-f_) was a more emphatic form (_esdomef_),
+  at any rate in the weak verbs.
+
+  The above, with the relative forms mentioned below, are supposed by
+  Erman to be derived from the participle, which is placed first for
+  emphasis: thus, _sdm.w stn_, "hearing is the king"; _sdm-f_, for
+  _sdm-fy_, "hearing he is." This Egyptian paraphrase of Semitic is
+  just like the Irish paraphrase of English, "It is hearing he is."
+
+  The _imperative_ shows no ending in the singular; in the plural it has
+  _y_, and later _w_; cf. Semitic imperative.
+
+  The _infinitive_ is of special importance on account of its being
+  preserved very fully in Coptic. It is generally of masculine form, but
+  feminine in III. inf. (as in Semitic), and in causatives of
+  biliterals.
+
+  There are relative forms of _sdm-f_ and _sdm-n-f_, respectively
+  _sdm.w-f_ (masc.), _sdm.t-n-f_ (fem.), &c. They are used when the
+  relative is the object of the relative sentence, or has any other
+  position than the subject. Thus _sdm.t-f_ may mean "she whom he
+  hears," "she who[se praises] he hears," "she [to] whom he hears
+  [someone speaking]," &c. There are close analogies between the
+  function of the relative particles in Egyptian and Semitic; and the
+  Berber languages possess a relative form of the verb.
+
+  _Participles_.--These are active and passive, perfect and imperfect,
+  in the old language, but all are replaced by periphrases in Coptic.
+
+  _Verbal Adjectives_.--There is a peculiar formation, _sdm.ty-fy_, "he
+  who shall hear," probably meaning originally "he is a hearer,"
+  _sdm.ty_ being an adjective in _y_ formed from a feminine (_t_) form
+  of the infinitive, which is occasionally found even in triliteral
+  verbs; the endings are: sing., masc. _ty-fy_, fem. _ty-sy_; pl., masc.
+  _ty-sn_, fem. _ty-st_. It is found only in Old Egyptian.
+
+  _Particles_.--There seems to be no special formation for adverbs, and
+  little use is made of adverbial expressions. Prepositions, simple and
+  compound, are numerous. Some of the commonest simple prepositions are
+  _n_ "for," _r_ "to," _m_ "in, from," _hr_ "upon." A few enclitic
+  conjunctions exist, but they are indefinite in meaning--_swt_ a vague
+  "but," _grt_ a vague "moreover," &c.
+
+  Coptic presents a remarkable contrast to Egyptian in the precision of
+  its periphrastic conjugation. There are two present tenses, an
+  imperfect, two perfects, a pluperfect, a present and a past
+  frequentative, and three futures besides future perfect; there are
+  also conjunctive and optative forms. The negatives of some of these
+  are expressed by special prefixes. The gradual growth of these new
+  forms can be traced through all the stages of Egyptian. Throughout the
+  history of the language we note an increasing tendency to periphrasis;
+  but there was no great advance towards _precision_ before demotic. In
+  demotic there are distinguishable a present tense, imperfect, perfect,
+  frequentative, future, future perfect, conjunctive and optative; also
+  present, past and future negatives, &c. The passive was extinct before
+  demotic; demotic and Coptic express it, clumsily it must be confessed,
+  by an impersonal "they," e.g. "they bore him" stands for "he was
+  born."
+
+  It is worth noting how, in other departments besides the verb, the
+  Egyptian language was far better adapted to practical ends during and
+  after the period of the Deltaic dynasties (XXII.-XXX.) than ever it
+  was before. It was both simplified and enriched. The inflexions
+  rapidly disappeared and little was left of the distinctions between
+  masculine and feminine, singular, dual and plural--except in the
+  pronouns. The dual number had been given up entirely at an earlier
+  date. The pronouns, both personal and demonstrative, retained their
+  forms very fully. As prefixes, suffixes and articles, they, together
+  with some auxiliary verbs, provided the principal mechanism of the
+  renovated language. An abundant supply of useful adverbs was gradually
+  accumulated, as well as conjunctions, so far as the functions of the
+  latter were not already performed by the verbal prefixes. These great
+  improvements in the language correspond to great changes in the
+  economic condition of the country; they were the result of active
+  trade and constant intercourse of all classes of Egyptians with
+  foreigners from Europe and Asia. Probably the best stage of Egyptian
+  speech was that which immediately preceded Coptic. Though Coptic is
+  here and there more exactly expressive than the best demotic, it was
+  spoilt by too much Greek, duplicating and too often expelling native
+  expressions that were already adequate for its very simple
+  requirements. Above all, it is clumsily pleonastic.
+
+
+  THE WRITING
+
+  The ancient Egyptian system of writing, so far as we know, originated,
+  developed and finally expired strictly within the limits of the Nile
+  Valley. The germ of its existence may have come from without, but, as
+  we know it, it is essentially Egyptian and intended for the expression
+  of the Egyptian language. About the 1st century B.C., however, the
+  semi-barbarous rulers of the Ethiopian kingdoms of Meroe and Napata
+  contrived the "Meroitic" alphabet, founded on Egyptian writing, and
+  comprising both a hieroglyphic and a cursive form (see ETHIOPIA). As
+  yet both of these kinds of Nubian writing are undeciphered. Egyptian
+  hieroglyphic was carried by conquest into Syria, certainly under the
+  XVIIIth Dynasty, and again under the XXVIth for the engraving of
+  Egyptian inscriptions; but in the earlier period the cuneiform
+  syllabary, and in the later the "Phoenician" alphabet, had obtained a
+  firm hold there, and we may be sure that no attempt was made to
+  substitute the Egyptian system for the latter. Cuneiform tablets in
+  Syria, however, seem almost confined to the period of the XVIIIth
+  Dynasty. Although it cannot be proved it seems quite possible that the
+  traders of Phoenicia and the Aegean adopted the papyrus and Egyptian
+  hieratic writing together, before the end of the New Kingdom, and
+  developed their "Phoenician" alphabet from the latter about 1000 B.C.
+  In very early times a number of systems of writing already reigned in
+  different countries forming a compact and not very large area--perhaps
+  from South Arabia to Asia Minor, and from Persia to Crete and Egypt.
+  Whether they all sprang from one common stock of picture-writing we
+  shall perhaps never know, nor can we as yet trace the influence which
+  one great system may have had on another, owing to the poverty of
+  documents from most of the countries concerned.
+
+  It is certain that in Egypt from the IVth Dynasty onwards the mode of
+  writing was essentially the same as that which was extinguished by the
+  fall of paganism in the 4th century A.D. Its elements in the
+  hieroglyphic form are pictorial, but each hieroglyph had one or more
+  well-defined functions, fixed by convention in such a manner that the
+  Egyptian language was expressed in writing word by word. Although a
+  picture sign may at times have embarrassed the skilled native reader
+  by offering a choice of fixed values or functions, it was never
+  intended to convey merely an idea, so as to leave to him the task of
+  putting the idea into his own words. How far this holds good for the
+  period before the IVth Dynasty it is difficult to say. The known
+  inscriptions of the earlier times are so brief and so limited in range
+  that the system on which they were written cannot yet be fully
+  investigated. As far back as the Ist Dynasty, phonograms (see below)
+  were in full use. But the spelling then was very concise: it is
+  possible that some of the slighter words, such as prepositions, were
+  omitted in the writing, and were intended to be supplied from the
+  context. As a whole, we gain the impression that a really distinct and
+  more primitive stage of hieroglyphic writing by a substantially vaguer
+  notation of words lay not far behind the time of the Ist Dynasty.
+
+  The employment of the signs are of three kinds: any given sign
+  represents either (1) a whole word or root; or (2) a sound as part of
+  a word; or (3) pictorially defines the meaning of a word the sound of
+  which has already been given by a sign or group of signs preceding.
+  The number of phonograms is very restricted, but some signs have all
+  these powers. For instance, [HRG: mn] is the conventional picture of a
+  draughtboard (shown in plan) with the draughtsmen (shown in elevation)
+  on its edge:--this sign (1) signifies the root _mn_, "set," "firm"; or
+  (2) in the group [HRG: mn:x], represents the same sound as part of the
+  root _mnh_, "good"; or (3) added to the group _snt_ (thus: [HRG:
+  z:n:t-mn]), shows that the meaning intended is "draught-board," or
+  "draughts," and not any of the other meanings of _snt_. Thus signs,
+  according to their employment, are said to be (1) "word-signs," (2)
+  "phonograms," or (3) "determinatives."
+
+  _Word-signs._--The word-sign value of a sign is, in the first place,
+  the name of the object it represents, or of some material, or quality,
+  or action, or idea suggested by it. Thus [HRG] is _hr_, "face"; [HRG],
+  a vase of ointment, is _mrh.t_, "ointment"; [HRG] is _wdb_, "turn."
+  Much investigation is still required to establish the origins of the
+  values of the signs; in some cases the connexion between the pictures
+  and the _primary_ values seems to be curiously remote. Probably all
+  the signs in the hieroglyphic signary can be employed in their primary
+  sense. The _secondary_ value expresses the consonantal root of the
+  name or other primary value, and any, or almost any, derivative from
+  that root: as when [HRG], a mat with a cake upon it, is not only
+  _htp_, an "offering-mat," but also _htp_ in the sense of
+  "conciliation," "peace," "rest," "setting" (of the sun), with many
+  derivatives. In the third place, some signs may be _transferred_ to
+  express another root having the same consonants as the first: thus
+  [HRG], the ear, by a play upon words can express not only _sdm_,
+  "hear," but also _sdm_, "paint the eyes."
+
+  _Phonograms._--Only a limited number of signs are found with this use,
+  but they are of the greatest importance. By searching throughout the
+  whole mass of normal inscriptions, earlier than the periods of Greek
+  and Roman rule when great liberties were taken with the writing,
+  probably no more than one hundred different phonograms can be found.
+  The number of those commonly employed in good writing is between
+  seventy and eighty. The most important phonograms are the _uniliteral_
+  or _alphabetic_ signs, twenty-four in number in the Old Kingdom and
+  without any homophones: later these were increased by homophones to
+  thirty. Of _biliteral_ phonograms--each expressing a combination of
+  two consonants--there were about fifty commonly used: some fifteen or
+  twenty were rarely used. As Egyptian roots seldom exceeded three
+  letters, there was no need for _triliteral_ phonograms to spell them.
+  There is, however, one triliteral phonogram, the eagle, [HRG], _tyw_,
+  or _tiu_ (?), used for the plural ending of adjectives in _y_ formed
+  from words ending in _t_ (whether radical or the feminine ending).
+
+  The phonetic values of the signs are derived from their word-sign
+  values and consist usually of the bare root, though there are rare
+  examples of the retention of a flexional ending; they often ignore
+  also the weaker consonants of the root, and on the same principle
+  reduce a repeated consonant to a single one, as when the hoe [HRG],
+  _hnn_, has the phonetic value _hn_. The history of some of the
+  alphabetic signs is still very obscure, but a sufficient number of
+  them have been explained to make it nearly certain that the values of
+  all were obtained on the same principles.[15] Some of the ancient
+  words from which the phonetic values were derived probably fell very
+  early into disuse, and may never be discoverable in the texts that
+  have come down to us. The following are among those most easily
+  explained:--
+
+    [HRG: i], reed flower, value _y_ and [Hebrew: alef]; from [HRGs:
+    i-A-Hn], _y'_, "reed."
+
+  (It seems as if the two values _y_ and [Hebrew: alef] were obtained
+  by choosing first one and then the other of the two semi-consonants
+  composing the name. They are much confused, and a conventional symbol
+  _l_ has to be adopted for rendering [HRG: i].)
+
+    [HRG: a], forearm,    value '([Hebrew: ayin]); from [HRGs: a:Z1],
+        '([Hebrew: ayin]), "hand."
+
+    [HRG: r], mouth,      value _r_; from [HRGs: r:Z1], _r_, "mouth."
+
+    [HRG: X], belly and teats,      value _h_; from [HRGs: X:t*Z1],
+        _h.t_, "belly." (The feminine ending is here, as usual,
+        neglected.)
+
+    [HRG: S], tank,       value _s_; from [HRGs: S:Z1], _s_,
+        "tank."
+
+    [HRG: q], slope of earth   value _q_; ''[HRGs: q-A-A-q], _q_'',
+        "slope," or brickwork, "height." (The doubled weak consonant is
+        here neglected.)
+
+    [HRG: d], hand,       value _d_; from [HRGs: d:t*Z1], _d.t_, "hand."
+
+    [HRG: D], cobra,      value _z_; from [HRGs: D:t*Z1], _z.t_, "cobra."
+
+  For some alphabetic signs more than one likely origin might be found,
+  while for others, again, no clear evidence of origin is yet
+  forthcoming.
+
+  It has already been explained that the writing expresses only
+  consonants. In the Graeco-Roman period various imperfect attempts were
+  made to render the vowels in foreign names and words by the
+  semi-vowels as also by [HRGs: a], the consonant [Hebrew: ayin] which
+  [HRGs: a] originally represented having been reduced in speech by that
+  time to the power of [Hebrew: alef], only. Thus, [Greek: Ptolemaios]
+  is spelt _Ptwrmys_, Antoninus, _'Nt'nynws_ or _Intnyns_, &c. &c. Much
+  earlier, throughout the New Kingdom, a special "syllabic" orthography,
+  in which the alphabetic signs for the consonants are generally
+  replaced by groups or single signs having the value of a consonant
+  followed by a semi-vowel, was used for foreign names and words, e.g.
+
+    [Hebrew: merkevet], "chariot," was written [HRGs:
+      m:a-r:Z1-k:A-b-W-ti-i-t:xt], in Coptic [Coptic: berechojt].
+
+    [Hebrew: migdal], "tower," was written [HRGs: m:a-k-ti-i-r:Z1],
+      [HRGs: m:a-g-A-d:y-r:Z1-niwt], [Coptic: mechtod].
+
+    [Hebrew: kinor], "harp," was written [HRGs: k-n:Z2-i-n-i-w-l:Z1-xt].
+
+    [Hebrew: hamath], "Hamath," was written [HRGs:
+      HA-A-mA-A-ti-i-qmA:xAst ].
+
+  According to W. Max Muller (_Asien und Europa_, 1893, chap, v.), this
+  represents an endeavour to express the vocalization; but, if so, it
+  was carried out with very little system. In practice, the semi-vowels
+  are generally negligible. This method of writing can be traced back
+  into the Middle Kingdom, if not beyond, and it greatly affected the
+  spelling of native words in New Egyptian and demotic.
+
+  _Determinatives._--Most signs can on occasion be used as
+  determinatives, but those that are very commonly employed as
+  phonograms or as secondary word-signs are seldom employed as
+  determinatives; and when they are so used they are often somewhat
+  differentiated. Certain generic determinatives are very common,
+  e.g.:--
+
+    [HRG: D54]; of motion.
+
+    [HRG: A24], [HRG: D40]; of acts involving force.
+
+    [HRG: A40]; of divinity.
+
+    [HRG: A1]; of a person or a man's name.
+
+    [HRG: pr]; of buildings.
+
+    [HRG: niwt]; of inhabited places.
+
+    [HRG: xAst]; of foreign countries.
+
+    [HRG: qmA]; club; of foreigners.
+
+    [HRG: A2]; of all actions of the mouth--eating and speaking,
+        likewise silence and hunger.
+
+    [HRG: N35B]; ripple-lines; of liquid.
+
+    [HRG: F27]; hide; of animals, also leather, &c.
+
+    [HRG: Hn]; of plants and fibres.
+
+    [HRG: N33:Z5]; of flesh.
+
+    [HRG: mDAt]; a sealed papyrus-roll; of books, teaching, law, and of
+        abstract ideas generally.
+
+  In the earliest inscriptions the use of determinatives is restricted
+  to the [HRG: A1], [HRG: B1], &c., after proper names, but it developed
+  immensely later, so that few words beyond the particles were written
+  without them in the normal style after the Old Kingdom.
+
+  Some few signs ideographic of a group of ideas are made to express
+  particular words belonging to that group by the aid of phonograms
+  which point out the special meaning. In such cases the ideogram is not
+  merely a determinative nor yet quite a word-sign. Thus [HRG: qmA-m] =
+  [HRG: a-A-m-qmA] "Semite," [HRG: qmA-nw] = [HRG: T-H-n:nw-qmA]
+  "Libyan," &c., but [HRG: qmA] cannot stand by itself for the name of
+  any particular foreign people. So also in monogram [HRG: Sm] is
+  _sm_ "go," [HRG: zb] is "conduct."
+
+  _Orthography._--The most primitive form of spelling in the
+  hieroglyphic system would be by one sign for each word, and the
+  monuments of the Ist Dynasty show a decided tendency to this mode.
+  Examples of it in later times are preserved in the royal cartouches,
+  for here the monumental style demanded special consciseness. Thus, for
+  instance, the name of Tethmosis III.--MN-HPR-R'--is spelled [HRG:
+  hrw-mn-xpr] (as R' is the name of the sun-god, with customary
+  deference to the deity it is written first though pronounced last). A
+  number of common words--prepositions, &c.--with only one consonant are
+  spelled by single alphabetic signs in ordinary writing. Word-signs
+  used singly for the names of objects are generally marked with | in
+  classical writing, as [HRG: Z91-ib:Z1], _ib_, "heart," [HRG: Hr:Z1],
+  _hr_, "face," &c.
+
+  But the use of bare word-signs is not common. Flexional consonants are
+  almost always marked by phonograms, except in very early times; as
+  when the feminine word [HRG: D] = _z.t_, "cobra," is spelled [HRG:
+  D:t*Z1]. Also, if a sign had more than one value, a phonogram would be
+  added to indicate which of its values was intended: thus [HRG: sw] in
+  [HRG: sw-w] is _sw_, "he," but in [HRG: sw:t] it is _stn_, "king."
+  Further, owing to the vast number of signs employed, to prevent
+  confusion of one with another in rapid writing they were generally
+  provided with "phonetic complements," a group being less easily
+  misread than a single letter. E.g. [HRG: wD], _wz_, "command," is
+  regularly written [HRG: wD-w], _wz_ (_w_); but [HRG: HD], _hz_,
+  "white," is written [HRG: HD-D], _hz_(_z_). This practice had the
+  advantage also of distinguishing determinatives from phonograms. Thus
+  the root or syllable _hn_ is regularly written [HRG: H-Hn:n] to avoid
+  confusion with the determinative [HRG: Hn]. Redundance in writing is
+  the rule; for instance, _b_ is often spelled [HRG: b-G26A-A]
+  (_b_)_b_'('). Biliteral phonograms are very rare as phonetic
+  complements, nor are two biliteral phonograms employed together in
+  writing the radicals of a word.
+
+  Spelling of words purely in phonetic or even alphabetic characters is
+  not uncommon, the determinative being generally added. Thus in the
+  pyramidal texts we find _hpr_, "become," written [HRG: xpr] in one
+  copy of a text, in another [HRG: x*p:r]. Such variant spellings are
+  very important for fixing the readings of word-signs. It is noteworthy
+  that though words were so freely spelled in alphabetic characters,
+  especially in the time of the Old Kingdom, no advance was ever made
+  towards excluding the cumbersome word-signs and biliteral phonograms,
+  which, by a judicious use of determinatives, might well have been
+  rendered quite superfluous.
+
+  _Abbreviations._--We find [HRG: anx-DA-s], strictly _'nh z_' _s_
+  standing for the ceremonial _viva! 'nh wz, snb_. "Life, Prosperity
+  and Health," and in course of time [HRG: mDAt] was used in accounts
+  instead of [HRG: dmD] _dmz_, "total."
+
+  _Monograms_ are frequent and are found from the earliest times. Thus
+  [HRG: Sm], [HRG: zb] mentioned above are monograms, the association of
+  [HRG: S] and [HRG: D54] having no pictorial meaning. Another common
+  monogram is [HRG: O10], i.e. [HRG: Hwt] and [HRG: G5] for _H.t-Hrw_
+  "Hathor." A word-sign may be compounded with its phonetic complement,
+  as [HRG: T5] _hz_ "white," or with its determinative, as [HRG: S14]
+  _hz_ "silver."
+
+  The table on the opposite page shows the uses of a few of the commoner
+  signs.
+
+  The decorative value of hieroglyphic was fully appreciated in Egypt.
+  The aim of the artist-scribe was to arrange his variously shaped
+  characters into square groups, and this could be done in great measure
+  by taking advantage of the different ways in which many words could be
+  spelt. Thus _hs_ could be written [HRG: H*Hz:z], _hsy_ [HRG: Hz-i-i],
+  _hs-f_ [HRG: Hz-z:f], _hs-n-f_ [HRG: Hz-n:f]. But some words in the
+  classical writing were intractable from this point of view. It is
+  obvious that the alphabetic signs played a very important part in the
+  formation of the groups, and many words could only be written in
+  alphabetic signs. A great advance was therefore made when several
+  homophones were introduced into the alphabet in the Middle and New
+  Kingdoms, partly as the result of the wearing away of old phonetic
+  distinctions, giving the choice between [HRG: z] and [HRG: s], [HRG:
+  t-T] and [HRG: ti], [HRG: m] and [HRG: M], [HRG: n] and [HRG: N],
+  [HRG: w] and [HRG: W]. In later times the number of homophones in use
+  increased greatly throughout the different classes, the tendency being
+  much helped by the habit of fanciful writing; but few of these
+  homophones found their way into the cursive script. Occasionally a
+  scribe of the old times indulged his fancy in "sportive" or
+  "mysterious" writing, either inventing new signs or employing old ones
+  in unusual meanings. Short sportive inscriptions are found in tombs of
+  the XIIth Dynasty; some groups are so written cursively in early
+  medical papyri, and certain religious inscriptions in the royal tombs
+  of the XIXth and XXth Dynasties are in secret writing. Fanciful
+  writing abounds on the temples of the Ptolemaic and Roman periods.
+
+
+  PALAEOGRAPHY
+
+  _Hieroglyphic._--The main division is into monumental or epigraphic
+  hieroglyphs and written hieroglyphs. The former may be rendered by the
+  sculptor or the painter in stone, on wood, &c., with great delicacy of
+  detail, or may be simply sunk or painted in outline. When finely
+  rendered they are of great value to the student investigating the
+  origins of their values. No other system of writing bears upon its
+  face so clearly the history of its development as the Egyptian; yet
+  even in this a vast amount of work is still required to detect and
+  disentangle the details. Monumental hieroglyphic did not cease till
+  the 3rd century A.D. (Temple of Esna). The written hieroglyphs, formed
+  by the scribe with the reed pen on papyrus, leather, wooden tablets,
+  &c., have their outlines more or less abbreviated, producing
+  eventually the cursive scripts hieratic and demotic. The written
+  hieroglyphs were employed at all periods, especially for religious
+  texts.
+
+  _Hieratic._--A kind of cursive hieroglyphic or hieratic writing is
+  found even in the Ist Dynasty. In the Middle Kingdom it is well
+  characterized, and in its most cursive form seems hardly to retain
+  any definable trace of the original hieroglyphic pictures. The style
+  varies much at different periods.
+
+    +------------+-------------+-----------------+-----------+----------+-----------------+
+    |    Sign.   | Description.|      Name.      | Word-sign | Phonetic |  Determinative  |
+    |            |             |                 |   Value.  |  Value.  |      Value.     |
+    +------------+-------------+-----------------+-----------+----------+-----------------+
+    | [HRG: Xrd] | child       |   hrd (khrod)   |           |          | youth           |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: Hr]  | face        |     hr (hor)    |    hr     |   [hr]   |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: ir]  | eye         |  ir.t (yori.t)  |    ir     |    ir    | see, &c.        |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: r]   | mouth       |      r (ro)     |    r      |    r     |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: a]   | forearm     |      '('ei)     |    '      |    '     | [action of hand |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |    or arm]      |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: D40] | arm with    | nht "be strong" |    nht    |          | violent action  |
+    |            |   stick     |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: A24] | man with    | nht "be strong" |    nht    |          | violent action  |
+    |            |   stick     |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: zmA] | lungs and   |        sm;      |    sm;    |          |                 |
+    |            |   windpipe  |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: ib]  | heart       |        ib       |           |          | heart           |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: nfr] | heart and   |        ?        |    nfr    |          |                 |
+    |            |   windpipe  |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: wr]  | sparrow     |        ?        |    sr     |          | evil, worthless-|
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |  ness, smallness|
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: zA]  | widgeon     |       s;.t      |    s;     |    s;    |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: in]  | bolti-fish  |       in.t      |    in     |    in    |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: Hw]  | tusk        | (1) ibh "tooth" |    bh     |    bh    | bite, &c.       |
+    |            |             | (2) hw "taste"  |    hw     |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: xt]  | cut branch  |        ht       |    ht     |   [ht]   | wood, tree      |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: zp]  | threshing-  |       sp.t      |    sp     |          |                 |
+    |            |   floor     |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: hrw] | sun         | (1) r' "sun"    |           |          | (1) sun         |
+    |            |             | (2) hrw "day"   |           |          | (2) division of |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |     time        |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: pr]  | chamber,    |        pr       |    pr     |          |                 |
+    |            |   house     |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: N17] | flat land   |         t'      |    t'     |    t'    | boundless hori- |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |  zon, eternity  |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: Hz]  | libation    |       hs.t      |    hs     |    hs    |                 |
+    |            |   vase      |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: wD]  | cord on     |        wz       |    wz     |    wz    |                 |
+    |            |   stick     |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: nb]  | basket      |       nb.t      |    nb     |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: k]   | looped      |        ?        |    k      |    k     |                 |
+    |            |   basket    |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: mA]  | sickle      |        ?        |    m'     |    m'    |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: U7]  | composite   |      [mr?]      |    mr     |    mr    | tillage         |
+    |            |   hoe       |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: U29] | fire-drill  |     z'.t(?)     |    z'     |    z'    |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: Sms] | attendant's | sms "follow"    |    sms    |          |                 |
+    |            |   equipment |                 |           |          |                 |
+    |            |             |                 |           |          |                 |
+    | [HRG: T30] | knife       |        ds       |    ds     |          | cut, prick, cut-|
+    |            |             |                 |           |          | ting instrument |
+    +------------+-------------+-----------------+-----------+----------+-----------------+
+
+  _Demotic._--Widely varying degrees of cursiveness are at all periods
+  observable in hieratic; but, about the XXVIth Dynasty, which
+  inaugurated a great commercial era, there was something like a
+  definite parting between the uncial hieratic and the most cursive form
+  afterwards known as demotic. The employment of hieratic was
+  thenceforth almost confined to the copying of religious and other
+  traditional texts on papyrus, while demotic was used not only for all
+  business but also for writing literary and even religious texts in the
+  popular language. By the time of the XXVth Dynasty the cursive of the
+  conservative Thebais had become very obscure. A better form from Lower
+  Egypt drove this out completely in the time of Amasis II. and is the
+  true demotic. Before the Macedonian conquest the cursive ligatures of
+  the old demotic gave birth to new symbols which were carefully and
+  distinctly formed, and a little later an epigraphic variety was
+  engraved on stone, as in the case of the Rosetta stone itself. One of
+  the most characteristic distinctions of later demotic is the
+  minuteness of the writing.
+
+  Hieroglyphic is normally written from right to left, the signs facing
+  to the commencement of the line; hieratic and demotic follow the same
+  direction. But monumental hieroglyphic may also be written from left
+  to right, and is constantly so arranged for purposes of symmetry, e.g.
+  the inscriptions on the two jambs of a door are frequently turned in
+  opposite directions; the same is frequently done with the short
+  inscriptions scattered over a scene amongst the figures, in order to
+  distinguish one label from another.
+
+  In modern founts of type, the hieroglyphic signs are made to run from
+  left to right, in order to facilitate the setting where European text
+  is mixed with the Egyptian. The table on next page shows them in their
+  more correct position, in order to display more clearly their relation
+  to the hieratic and demotic equivalents.
+
+  Clement of Alexandria states that in the Egyptian schools the pupils
+  were first taught the "epistolographic" style of writing (i.e.
+  demotic), secondly the "hieratic" employed by the sacred scribes, and
+  finally the "hieroglyphic" (_Strom._ v. 657). It is doubtful whether
+  they classified the signs of the huge hieroglyphic syllabary with any
+  strictness. The only native work on the writing that has come to light
+  as yet is a fragmentary papyrus of Roman date which has a table in
+  parallel columns of hieroglyphic signs, with their hieratic
+  equivalents and words written in hieratic describing them or giving
+  their values or meanings. The list appears to have comprised about 460
+  signs, including most of those that occur commonly in hieratic. They
+  are to some extent classified. The bee [HRGs: bit] heads the list as a
+  royal sign, and is followed by figures of nobles and other human
+  figures in various attitudes, more or less grouped among themselves,
+  animals, reptiles and fishes, scorpion, animals again, twenty-four
+  alphabetic characters, parts of the human body carefully arranged from
+  [HRGs: tp] to [HRGs: D54], thirty-two in number, parts of animals,
+  celestial signs, terrestrial signs, vases. The arrangement down to
+  this point is far from strict, and beyond it is almost impossible to
+  describe concisely, though there is still a rough grouping of
+  characters according to resemblance of form, nature or meaning. It is
+  a curious fact that not a single bird is visible on the fragments, and
+  the trees and plants, which might easily have been collected in a
+  compact and well-defined section, are widely scattered. Why the
+  alphabetic characters are introduced where they are is a puzzle; the
+  order of these is:--[HRG Z91] [HRGs: r-H-kA-W] (?) [HRGs: wA] (?)
+  [HRGs: s] (?) [HRGs: z-Db] (?) [HRGs: Z91-b-Z91-S-SA] (?) [HRGs: k]
+  (?) [HRGs: xA-X-U29-p-a-g-x-t] (?) [HRGs: i-q].
+
+  Three others, [HRGs: XA-D] and [HRGs: f], had already occurred amongst
+  the fish and reptiles. There seems to be no logical aim in this
+  arrangement of the alphabetic characters and the series is incomplete.
+  Very probably the Egyptians never constructed a really systematic list
+  of hieroglyphs. In modern lists the signs are classified according to
+  the nature of the objects they depict, as human figures, plants,
+  vessels, instruments, &c. Horapollon's _Hieroglyphica_ may be cited as
+  a native work, but its author, if really an Egyptian, had no knowledge
+  of good writing. His production consists of two elaborate
+  complementary lists: the one describing sign-pictures and giving their
+  meanings, the other cataloguing ideas in order to show how they could
+  be expressed in hieroglyphic. Each seems to us to be made up of
+  curious but perverted reminiscences eked out by invention; but they
+  might some day prove to represent more truly the usages of mystics and
+  magicians in designing amulets, &c., at a time approaching the middle
+  ages.
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE I. EARLIEST EGYPTIAN ART
+
+     1. TATOOED FEMALE, LIMESTONE SLAG.
+     2. 3. HEADS ON IVORY TUSKS.
+     4. 5. ANIMALS ON BONE COMBS.
+     6. IVORY HAWK.
+     7. LIMESTONE LION.
+     8. IVORY DOG AND GAZELLE.
+     9. IVORY HANDLE OF KNIFE.
+    10. 11. WHITE ON RED VASES; MEN AND ANIMALS.
+    12. SHIP ON A VASE.
+    13. SHIP ON A WALL PAINTING.
+    14. IVORY KING.
+    15. 16. ARCHAIC KING'S HEAD, STUDY IN LIMESTONE.
+    17. HEAD OF KHASEKHEM.]
+
+  [Illustration: PLATE II. EARLY EGYPTIAN ART.
+
+    18. LIMESTONE RELIEF.
+    19. ANIMALS ON SLATE PALETTE._Photo, Mansell._
+    20. CONQUEROR AS A BULL.
+    21. GAZELLES AND PALM, SLATE.
+    22. ANIMALS, SLATE.
+    23. KING NARMER, SLATE PALETTE.
+    24. IVORY TUSK, WITH ANIMALS.
+    25. IVORY WAND, WITH ANIMALS.
+    26. WOODEN PANELS OF HESI.
+    27. RAHOTP AND NEFERT.
+    28. WOODEN FIGURE.]
+
+    +---------------------+----------+-----------+---------------+---------------------+
+    |                     | Demotic. | Hieratic. | Hieroglyphic. |                     |                 |
+    +---------------------+----------+-----------+---------------+---------------------+
+    | _ent_, "who"        |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _nty_         |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _Perso_ ("Pharaoh") |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     | _Per<o <nh wz, snb_ |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _yot_, "father"     |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _itf_         |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _'onkh_, "live"     |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _<nh_         |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _ekh_, "know"       |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _rh_          |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _ahe_, "stand"      |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _<h<_         |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _eine_, "carry"     |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _in_          |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _ms_ (phon.)        |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _ms_          |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _s_ (alph.)         |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _s_           |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _s_ (alph.)         |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |      _[/s]_         |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _m_ (alph.)         |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _m_           |
+    |                     |          |           |               |                     |
+    | _n_ (alph.)         |  [SGN]   |   [SGN]   |     [HRG]     |       _n_           |
+    +---------------------+----------+-----------+---------------+---------------------+
+
+  The early scribe's outfit, often carried slung over his shoulder, is
+  seen in the hieroglyph [HRG]. It consisted of frayed reed pens or
+  brushes, a small pot of water, and a palette with two circular
+  cavities in which black and red ink were placed, made of finely
+  powdered colour solidified with gum. In business and literary
+  documents red ink was used for contrast, especially in headings; in
+  demotic, however, it is very rarely seen. The pen became finer in
+  course of time, enabling the scribe to write very small. The split
+  reed of the Greek penman was occasionally adopted by the late demotic
+  scribes.
+
+  Egypt had long been bilingual when, in papyri of the 2nd century A.D.,
+  we begin to find transcripts of the Egyptian language into Greek
+  letters, the latter reinforced by a few signs borrowed from the
+  demotic alphabet: so written we have a magical text and a horoscope,
+  probably made by foreigners or for their use. The infinite superiority
+  of the Greek alphabet with its full notation of vowels was readily
+  seen, but piety and custom as yet barred the way to its full adoption.
+  The triumph of Christianity banished the old system once and for all;
+  even at the beginning of the 4th century the native Egyptian script
+  scarcely survived north of the Nubian frontier at Philae; a little
+  later it finally expired. The following eight signs, however, had been
+  taken over from demotic by the Copts:
+
+    [Coptic: shai] = _s_, from [HRG] _si_, dem. [sign], [SGN].
+
+    [Coptic: horee] = _h_, probably from [HRG] _hw_ (or [HRG] _hi_),
+      dem. [sign].
+
+    [Coptic: khai] (Boh.) = _h_, from [HRG] _hi_, dem. [SGN].
+
+    [Coptic: eksee] (Akhm.) = _h_, from [HRG], [HRG] _hy_, _ht_, dem.
+      [sign].
+
+    [Coptic: fai] = _f_, from [HRG] _f_, dem. [SGN].
+
+    [Coptic: cheema] = _c_ from [HRG] _k_ (or [HRG] _h_), dem.
+      [sign], [sign].
+
+    [Coptic: janja] = _g_, from [HRG] _di_ (or [HRG] _ti_), dem.
+      [sign], [sign].
+
+    [Coptic: tee] = _ti_, from [HRG] _dy.t_, dem. [SGN].
+
+  For origins of hieroglyphs, see Petrie's _Medum_ (1892); F. Ll.
+  Griffith, _A Collection of Hieroglyphs_ (1898); N. de G. Davies, _The
+  Mastaba of Ptahhetep and Akhethetep_, pt. i. (1900); M. A. Murray,
+  _Saqqara Mastabas_ (London, 1905); also Petrie and Griffith, _Two
+  Hieroglyphic Papyri from Tanis_ (London, 1889) (native sign-list); G.
+  Moller, _Hieratische Palaographie_ (Leipzig, 1909); Griffith,
+  _Catalogue of Demotic Papyri in the J. Rylands Collection_
+  (Manchester, 1909).     (F. Ll. G.)
+
+E. _Art and Archaeology._--In the following sections a general history
+of the characteristics of Ancient Egyptian art is first given, showing
+the variation of periods and essentials of style; and this is followed
+by an account of the use made of material products, of the tools and
+instruments employed, and of the monuments. For further details see also
+the separate topographical headings (for excavations, &c.), and the
+general articles on the various arts and art-materials (for references
+to Egypt); also PYRAMIDS; MUMMY, &c.
+
+
+_General Characteristics._
+
+The wide and complex subject of Egyptian art will be treated here in six
+periods: Prehistoric, Early Kings, Pyramid Kings, XIIth Dynasty,
+XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties, XXVIth Dynasty and later. In each age will be
+considered the (A) statuary, (B) reliefs, (C) painting.
+
+_Prehistoric._--The earliest civilized population of Egypt was highly
+skilled in mechanical accuracy and regularity, but had little sense of
+organic forms. They kept the unfinished treatment of the limbs and
+extremities which is so characteristic of most barbaric art; and the
+action was more considered than the form.
+
+(A) In the round there are in the earlier graves female figures of two
+races, the Bushman type and European, both probably representing
+servants or slaves. These have the legs always united, sloping to a
+point without feet (Plate I. fig. 1); the arms are only stumps. The face
+has a beaky nose and some indication of eyes. Upon the surface is
+colouring; red for the Bushman, with black whisker though female; white
+for the European type, with black tattoo patterns. Other female figures
+are modelled in a paste, upon a stick, and the black hair is sometimes
+made separately to fit on as a wig over the red head, showing that wigs
+were then used. Male figures are generally only heads in the earlier
+times. Tusks with carved heads (Plate I. figs. 2, 3) are the earliest,
+beginning at S.D. (sequence date) 33;[16] heads on the top of combs are
+found, from S.D. 42 to the close of such combs in the fifties. All of
+these heads show a high forehead and a pointed beard; and such
+expression as may be discovered is grave but not savage. In later times
+whole figures of ivory, stone and clay are found, with the legs united,
+and the arms usually joined to the body. A favourite way of indicating
+the eyes was by drilling two holes and inserting a white shell bead in
+each. The figures of animals (Plate I. figs. 4, 5) are quite as rude as
+the human figures: they only summarily indicate the mature, and often
+hardly express the genus. They are most usual on combs and pins; but
+sacred animals are also found. The lion is the most usual (Plate I. fig.
+7), but the legs are roughly marked, if at all: the leonine air is
+given, but the attitude is more distinct than the form. The hawk (Plate
+I. fig. 6) is modelled in block without any legs. The slate palettes in
+the form of animals are even more summary, and continually degraded
+until they lost all trace of their origin. There are also curious
+figures of animals chipped in flint, which show some character, but no
+detail.
+
+(B) Reliefs with animal figures belong to the later part of the
+prehistoric age. The relief is low, and the form hatched across with
+lines (Plate I. fig. 8), a style copied from drawing. There is more
+animation than in the round figures. At the close of this age the
+fashion of long processions of animals appears (Plate I. fig. 9); some
+character is shown in these, but no sense of action.
+
+(C) Drawing is found from the earliest civilization, done in white slip
+on red vases. Figures of men are very rare (Plate I. fig. 10); they have
+the body triangular, the waist being very narrow; the legs are two lines
+linked by a zigzag, as if to express that they move to and fro. The
+usual figures are goats and hippopotami; always having the body covered
+with cross lines to express the connexion of the outlines (Plate I. fig.
+11). This technique is in every way closely akin to that of the modern
+Kabyle. An entirely different mode is common at a later time when
+designs were painted in thin red colour on a light brown ware. The
+subjects of the earlier of these examples are imitations of cordage, of
+marbling, and of basket-work; later there are rows of men and animals,
+and ships (Plate I. figs. 12, 13), with various minor signs. The figures
+are never cross-hatched as in earlier drawing, but always filled in
+altogether. The fact that the ships have oars and not sails makes it
+probable that they were rather for the sea than for Nile traffic, and a
+starfish among the motives on such pottery also points to the sea
+connexion. The ulterior meaning of the decoration is probably religious
+and funereal, but the objects which are figured must have been familiar.
+
+  For this whole period see Jean Capart, _Debuts de l'art en Egypte_
+  (1904; trans. _Primitive Art in Ancient Egypt_).
+
+_The Early Kings._--The dynastic race wrought an entire transformation
+in the art of Egypt; in place of the clumsy and undetailed
+representations, there suddenly appears highly artistic work, full of
+character, action and anatomical detail.
+
+(A) The earliest statues of this age are the colossi of the god Min from
+Coptos; that they belong to the artistic race is evident from the
+spirited reliefs upon them (see below, B), but the figures were very
+rude, the legs and arms being joined all in the mass. The main example
+of this early art is a limestone head of a king (Plate I. figs. 15, 16),
+which is a direct study from life, to serve as a model. For the accuracy
+of the facial curves, and the grasp of character and type, it is equal
+to any later work; and in its entire absence of conventions and its pure
+naturalism there is no later sculpture so good: as Prof. A. Michaelis
+says, "it renders the race type with astounding keenness, and shows an
+excellent power of observation in the exact representation of the eyes."
+By the portrait, it is probably of King Narmer or some king related to
+him, that is, about the beginning of the Ist Dynasty. The ivory
+statuette of an aged king (Plate I. fig. 14) is probably slightly later.
+It shows the same subtle sense of character, and is unsurpassed in its
+reality. Many ivory figures of men, women and animals are known from
+Nekhen (Hieraconpolis) and Abydos; and they all show the same school of
+work, simple, dignified, observant, and with an air which places them on
+a higher plane of truthfulness and precision than later art. There is
+none of the mannerism of a long tradition, but a nobility pervades them
+which has no self-consciousness. The lower class of work of this age is
+shown by great numbers of glazed pottery figures both human and animal.
+Later in the IInd Dynasty, the head of Khasekhem (Plate I. fig. 17)
+shows the beginning of convention, but yet has a delicacy about the
+mouth which surpasses later works.
+
+(B) Reliefs abound at this age, and include the most important evidences
+of the development of the art. The earliest examples are those of
+animals (Plate II. fig. 18) and shells on the colossi of Coptos. They
+show a keen sense of form, and the stag's head, which is probably the
+earliest, already bears an artistic feeling wholly different to that of
+any of the prehistoric works (P.K. iii. iv.). The carvings on slate
+palettes appear to begin with work crudely accurate and forceful, the
+heavy limbs being ridged with tendons and muscles (Plate II. fig. 19),
+but there is more proportion, with the same massive strength (Plate II.
+fig. 20). Soon after, with a leap, the artist produced the first pure
+work of art that is known (Plate II. fig. 21), a design for its own sake
+without the tie of symbolism or history. The group of two long-necked
+gazelles facing a palm tree is of extraordinary refinement, and shows
+the artistic consciousness in every part; the symmetric rendering of the
+palm tree, reduced to fit the scale of the animals, the dainty grace of
+the smooth gazelles contrasted with the rugged stem, the delicacy of the
+long flowing curves and the fine indications of the joints, all show a
+sense of design which has rarely been equalled in the ceaseless
+repetitions of the tree and supporters motive during every age since.
+Passing the various palettes with hunting scenes and animals (Plate II.
+fig. 22), we come to the great historical carving of King Narmer (Plate
+II. fig. 23). Here the anatomy has reached its limits for such work; the
+precision of the muscles on the inner and outer sides of the leg, of the
+uniform grip in the left arm, and the tense muscle upholding the right
+arm, prove that the artist knew that part of his work perfectly. The
+large ceremonial mace-heads recording the _Sed_ festivals of the king
+Narmer and another, belong also to this school; but owing to their
+smaller size they have not such artistic detail. With them were found
+many reliefs in ivory, on tusks, wands and cylinders. The main motive in
+these is a long procession of animals (Plate II. figs. 24, 25) often
+grotesquely crowded; but there is much observation shown and the figures
+are expressive. No drawing of this age has survived.
+
+_The Pyramid Kings._--A different ideal appears in the pyramid times; in
+place of the naturalism of the earlier work there is more regularity,
+some convention, and the sense of a school in the style. The prevailing
+feeling is a noble spaciousness both in scale and in form, an equanimity
+based upon knowledge and character, a grandeur of conception expressed
+by severely simple execution. There is nothing superfluous, nothing
+common, nothing trivial. The smallest as well as the largest work seems
+complete, inevitable, immutable, without limitations of time, or labour
+or thought.
+
+(A) The statuette of Khufu or Cheops (Plate III. fig. 29) though only a
+minute figure in ivory, shows the character of immense energy and will;
+the face is an astonishing portrait to be expressed in a quarter of an
+inch. The life-size statue of Khafre or Chephren (Plate III. fig. 30) is
+a majestic work, serene and powerful; carved in hard diorite, yet
+unhesitating in execution. The muscular detail is full, but yet kept in
+harmony with the massive style of the figure. The private persons have
+entirely different treatment according to the character of their
+position. In place of the awful dignity of the kings there is the placid
+high-bred Princess Nofri (Plate II. fig. 27, Plate III. fig. 31), the
+calm conscientious dignitary Hemset (Plate III. fig. 32), the bustling,
+active, middle-class official, Ka-aper (Plate II. fig. 28, Plate III.
+fig. 33), and the kneeling figure of a servitor. The differences of
+character are very skilfully rendered in all the sculpture of this age.
+The whole figures are stiff in the earlier time, as the figure of Nes;
+then square and massive, but true in form, as Rahotp and Nofri (Plate
+II. fig. 27); and afterwards easier and less monumental, as Ka-aper
+(Plate II. fig. 28). The skill in beaten copper work is shown by the
+portrait of the Prince Mer-en-ra (Plate III. fig. 35).
+
+(B) The reliefs are quite equal to the statuary. The wooden panels of
+Hesi (Plate II. fig. 26) show the archaic style of great detail, with a
+bold, stark vigour of attitude. Later work is abundant in the
+tomb-sculptures of this age, with a fulness of variety and detail which
+makes them the most interesting of all branches of the art. The general
+effect cannot be judged without a large scene, but the figures of two
+men and an ox (Plate III. fig. 37) show the freshness and vigour of the
+style, which is even higher than this in some examples. The clear, noble
+spacing of the surface work is well shown by a group of offerings and
+inscribed titles (Plate III. fig. 36).
+
+[Illustration: PLATE III. PYRAMID PERIOD.
+
+  29. IVORY OF CHEOPS.
+  30. DIORITE OF CHEPHREN.
+  31. LIMESTONE OF NEFERT.
+  32. HEMSET: LIMESTONE.
+  33. WOOD (see Fig. 28).
+  34. SCRIBE: LIMESTONE.
+  35. MER-EN-RA: COPPER.
+  36. LIMESTONE SLAB OF KHENT-ER-KA.
+  37. THE OXHERDS: LIMESTONE. Photo, Bonfils
+  38. GRANITE SPHINX.
+  39. AMENEMHE III.
+  40. 41. SENWOSRI I.: LIMESTONE RELIEFS: HOTEPA.]
+
+[Illustration: PLATE IV. 1400 B. C. TO ROMAN.
+
+  42. AMENOPHIS III.: GRANITE. Photo, Manseil.
+  43. QUEEN TAIA: LIMESTONE.
+  44. RAMESES II.: GRANITE. Photo, Anderson.
+  45. NEGRESS: EBONY.
+  46. QUEEN HATSHEPSUT.
+  47. KHA-EM-HAT.
+  48. SETI I.
+  49. PRINCESSES: FRESCO.
+  50. FOUR RACES OF MAN.
+  51. TUMBLER.
+  52. SCENE IN XXVI. DYNASTY.
+  53. PTOLEMAIC RELIEF.
+  54. MODELLED HEAD AND SKULL.]
+
+(C) Flat drawings of this age are rare. Some fine examples, such as the
+geese from Medum, show that such work kept pace with the reliefs; but
+most of the fresco-work has perished, and there are few instances of
+line drawing.
+
+_The XIIth Dynasty._--This age overlaps the previous in its style. The
+end of the last age was in the very degraded tomb work of the early XIth
+Dynasty.
+
+(A) The new style begins with the royal statues, which it seems we must
+attribute to the foreign kings from whom the XIIth Dynasty was
+descended. These statues were later appropriated by the Hyksos, and so
+came to be called by their name, which is a misnomer. The type of face
+(Plate III. fig. 38) is thick-featured, full of force, with powerful
+masses of facial muscle covering the skull. The style is very vigorous
+and impassioned, without any trace of relenting towards conventional
+work. The surfaces are not in the least subdued by a general breadth of
+style, as in the last period; but, on the contrary, revel in the full
+detail of variety. There is perhaps no age where nature is so little
+controlled by convention in either the living character or its
+sculptured expression. One of these kings might well be the founder of
+the IXth Dynasty, "Achthoes (Kheti), who did much injury to all the
+inhabitants," "Khuther Taurus the tyrant"; the expression is that of a
+Chlodwig or an Alboin. From this type evidently descended the milder and
+more civilized kings of the XIIth Dynasty, the resemblance being so
+strong that the fierce figures have even been identified with that
+dynasty by some. A good example is that of the statue of Amenemhat
+(Amenemhe) III. (Plate III. fig. 39). The style of the XIIth Dynasty may
+be summed up as clean, highly-finished work, strong in facial detail;
+but with neither the grandeur of the IVth nor the vivacity of the
+XVIIIth Dynasty. This passed in the XIIIth Dynasty into a graceful but
+weak manner, as in the statues of Sebkhotp (Sebek-hotep) III. and
+Neferhotp.
+
+(B) The relief work shows most clearly the rise of the new style. In the
+middle of the XIth Dynasty an entirely fresh treatment appears; the Old
+Kingdom work had died out in very bad sunk-reliefs, the fresh style
+(Plate III. fig. 41) was a low relief with sharp edges above the field.
+It was full of delicate variety in the surfaces, and of elaborated
+close-packed lines of hair and ornaments. By the time of the early XIIth
+Dynasty, this reached a perfection of refinement in the detail of facial
+curves, with an ostentatiously low relief (P.K. ix. i.), rather on the
+lines of modern French work; but the whole with clean, firm outlines,
+severely restrained in the expression, and without any trace of emotion.
+It is the work of a school, in which high training took the place of the
+reliance on nature. Sunk relief was also well used, as by Senusert
+(Senwosri) I. (Plate III. fig. 40). There was a steady decline during
+the XIIth Dynasty and onward, but the same tone was followed.
+
+(C) In some tombs painting only was used, and it followed the general
+character of the relief treatment, being more rigid, detailed, and
+scholastic than the older style.
+
+_The XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties._--The obvious, not to say superficial,
+character of this age has rendered it one of the most popular in
+Egyptian art. The older breadth, fulness, and vigour have vanished,
+those great qualities which stamp the immortal works of early times. The
+difference is much like that between the Parthenon and the Niobids, or
+between Jacopo Avanzi and Caracci. In this change is the whole
+difference between the art of character and the art of emotion; and
+though the emotional side is the more popular, as needing less thought
+to understand it, yet the unfailing canon is that in every age and land
+the true quality of art is proportionate to the expression of character
+as apart from transient emotion. This may perhaps apply to other arts as
+well as to sculpture and painting. If we accept frankly the emotional
+nature of this age, we may admire its graceful outlines, its vivacious
+manner, its romantic style, with an occasional sauciness which is
+amusing and attractive. It revelled in rich detail, and close masses of
+lines, as in wigs and ribbed dresses. It sported with a seductive Syrian
+type of face, especially under Amenophis (Amenhotep) III.; but we find
+the anatomy giving way to mere smoothness of surface, for the sake of
+contrast with the masses of detail. The romantic element increased,
+solemn funereal statues show husband and wife hand in hand; and it
+culminated under Akhenaton, who is seen kissing his wife in the chariot,
+or dancing her on his knee. An overwhelming naturalism swamped the older
+reserves of Egyptian art, and the expression of the postures, actions
+and familiarities of daily life, or the instantaneous attitudes of
+animals, became the _dernier cri_ of fashion. It was all charming and
+wonderful, but it was the end,--nothing could come after it. The XIXth
+Dynasty, at its best under Seti I., could only excel in high finish of
+smoothness and graceful curves; life, character, meaning, had vanished.
+And soon after, under Rameses II., mere mechanical copying, hard
+lifeless routine of stone-cutting, regardless of truth and of nature,
+dominated the whole.
+
+(A) In sculpture there is a certain baldness of style at first, as in
+the Amenophis I. at Turin or Mutnefert at Cairo. More fulness and
+richness of character succeeded, as in Tahutmes (Tethmosis) III. and
+Amenophis III. (Plate IV. fig. 42, British Museum). And the feeling of
+the age finds greater scope in private statues, many of which have a
+personal fascination about them, as in the seated figures at Cairo and
+Florence, and the freer work in wood, of which the ebony negress (Plate
+IV. fig. 45) is the best example. The burst of naturalism under
+Akhenaton resulted in some marvellous portraiture, of which the fragment
+of a queen's head (Plate IV. fig. 43) is perhaps the most brilliant
+instance; the fidelity in the delicate curves of the nose and around the
+mouth is enhanced by the touch of artistic convention in the facing of
+the lips. The only work of ability in the XIXth Dynasty is the black
+granite figure (Plate IV. fig. 44) of Rameses II. at Turin. The ordinary
+statuary of his reign is painfully stiff and poor, and there is no later
+work in the period worth notice.
+
+(B) The reliefs of the early XVIIIth Dynasty are closely like the scenes
+of the tombs in the pyramid age, but soon carving was superseded by the
+cheaper painting, and but few tombs in relief are known. The temples
+were the principal places for reliefs; and they steadily deteriorate
+from the first great example, Deir el Bahri (see ARCHITECTURE:
+_Egyptian_), down to the late Ramessides. The portraiture is strong and
+clear-cut (Plate IV. fig. 46), but somewhat mechanical and without
+muscular detail: the sameness is rather more than is probable. There is
+a good deal of repetition for mere effect, even in the fine work of
+Kha-em-hat (Plate IV. fig. 47), under Amenophis III. That the artists
+were conscious of their poverty of thought is shown by some precise
+imitations of the style of early monuments. On reaching the age of
+Akhenaton, the peculiar style of that school is obvious in every relief;
+the older conventions were deserted, and, for good or for bad, a new
+start from nature was attempted. After that the smooth finish of the
+Seti reliefs at Abydos (Plate IV. fig. 48) shows no life or observation;
+and only occasionally the artist triumphed over the stone-worker, as in
+the portrait of Bantanta at Memphis, which is precisely like another
+head of her found in Sinai. The innumerable reliefs of the XIXth-XXth
+Dynasty temples are only of historic interest, and are all despicable in
+comparison with earlier works.
+
+(C) Painting was the art most congenial to this age; the lightness of
+touch, abundance of incident, and even comedy, of the scenes are
+familiar in the frescoes in the British Museum. And under Akhenaton this
+was pervaded by an entire naturalism of posture, as seen in the two
+little princesses (Plate IV. fig. 49). Drawing continued to be the
+strong point of the art after the more laborious sculpture had lost all
+vitality. The tomb of Seti shows exquisitely firm line drawing; and the
+heads of four races (Plate IV. fig. 50), Western, Syrian, and two Negro,
+here show the unfailing line-work which has never been matched in later
+times. The artist habitually drew the long lines of whole limbs without
+a single hesitation or revoke; and the drawing of a tumbling girl (Plate
+IV. fig. 51) shows how credibly such contortions could be represented.
+The comic papyri of the XXth Dynasty have also a very strong sense of
+character, even through coarse drawing and some childish combinations.
+
+The subsequent centuries show continuous decline, and in whatever branch
+we compare the work, we see that each dynasty was poorer than that which
+preceded it. The XXVIth Dynasty is often looked on as a renaissance; but
+when we compare similar work we see that it was poorer than the XXIInd,
+as that was poorer than the XIXth. The alabaster statue of Amenardus of
+the XXVth is faulty in pose, and perfunctory in modelling; the
+resemblance between this and the head of her nephew Tirhaka is perhaps
+the best evidence of truthful work. After this there was a strong
+archaistic fashion, much like that under Hadrian; in both cases it may
+have arrested decay, but it did not lift the art up again. The work of
+this age can always be detected by the faulty jointing (Plate IV. fig.
+52) and muscular treatment. The elements are right enough, but there was
+not the vital sense to combine them properly. Hence the monstrous
+protuberances (Plate IV. fig. 53) on relief figures of this age; a fault
+which the Greek fell into in his decline, as shown in the Farnese
+Hercules.
+
+Portraiture, with its limited demand on imagination and lack of ideals,
+was the form of art which flourished latest. The Saitic heads in basalt
+show a school of close observation, with fair power of rendering the
+personal character; and even in Roman times there still were provincial
+artists who could model a face very truthfully, as is shown in one case
+in which the stucco head (Plate IV. fig. 54) from a coffin is here
+superposed on the view of the actual skull to show the accuracy of the
+work. The school of portrait-painting belongs entirely to Greek art, and
+is therefore not touched upon here. (See Edgar, _Catalogue of
+Graeco-Egyptian Coffins_, 48 plates, for this subject.)
+
+Lastly we must recognize the different schools of Egyptian sculpture
+which are as distinct as those of recent painting. The black-granite
+school in every age is the finest; its seat we do not know, but its
+vitality and finish always exceed those of contemporary works. The
+limestone school was probably the next best, to judge from the reliefs,
+but hardly any statues of this school have survived; it probably was
+seated at Memphis. The quartzite work from Jebel Ahmar near Cairo stands
+next, as often very fine design is found in this hard material. The red
+granite school of Assuan comes lower, the work being usually clumsy and
+with unfinished corners and details. And the lowest of all was the
+sandstone school of Silsila, which is always the worst. Broadly
+speaking, the Lower Egyptian was much better than the Upper Egyptian; a
+conclusion also evident in the art of the tombs done on the spot. But
+the secret of the black granite school, and its excellence, is the main
+problem unsolved in the history of the art.     (W. M. F. P.)
+
+
+_Tools and Material Products._
+
+_Tools_ (see Illustrations 1 to 111).--The history of tools is a very
+large subject which needs to be studied for all countries; the various
+details of form are too numerous to specify here, but the general
+outline of tools used in Egypt may be briefly stated under _general_ and
+_special_ types. The _general_ include tools for striking, slicing and
+scraping; the _special_ tools are for fighting, hunting, agriculture,
+building and thread-work.
+
+_Striking Tools._--The wooden mallet of club form (1) was used in the
+VIth and XIIth Dynasties; of the modern mason's form (2) in the XIIth
+and XVIIIth. The stone mace head was a sharp-edged disk (3), in the
+prehistoric from 31-40 sequence date; of the pear shape (4) from S.D.
+42, which was actually in use till the IVth Dynasty, and represented
+down to Roman time. The metal or stone hammer with a long handle was
+unknown till Greek or Roman times; but, for beating out metal,
+hemispherical stones (5) were held in the hand, and swung at arm's
+length overhead. Spherical hard stone hammers (6) were held in the hand
+for dressing down granite. The axe was at the close of the prehistoric
+age a square slab of copper (7) with one sharp edge; small projecting
+tails then appeared at each end of the back (8), and increased until the
+long tail for lashing on to the handle is more than half the length of
+the axe in an iron one of Roman (?) age (13). Flint axes were made in
+imitation of metal in the XIIth Dynasty (9). Battle-axes with rounded
+outline started as merely a sharp edge of metal (10) inserted along a
+stick (10, 11); they become semicircular (12) by the VIth Dynasty,
+lengthen to double their width in the XIIth, and then thin out to a
+waist in the middle by the XVIIIth Dynasty. Flint hoes (14) are common
+down to the XIIth Dynasty. Small copper hoes (15) with a hollow socket
+are probably of about the XXIInd Dynasty. Long iron picks (16), like
+those of modern navvies, were made by Greeks in the XXVIth Dynasty.
+
+_Slicing Tools._--The knife was originally a flint saw (17), having
+minute teeth; it must have been used for cutting up animals, fresh or
+dried, as the teeth break away on soft wood. The double-edged straight
+flint knife dates from S.D. 32-45. The single-edged knife (18) is from
+33-65. The flint knives of the time of Menes are finely curved (19),
+with a handle-notch; by the end of the IInd Dynasty they were much
+coarser (20) and almost straight in the back. In the XIth-XIIth Dynasty
+they were quite straight in the back (21), and without any handle-notch.
+The copper knives are all one-edged with straight back (22) down to the
+XVIIIth Dynasty, when two-edged symmetrical knives (23) become usual.
+Long thin one-edged knives of iron begin about 800 B.C. Various forms of
+one-edged iron knives, straight (24) and curved (25), belong to Roman
+times. A cutting-out knife, for slicing through textiles, began
+double-edged (26) in the Ist Dynasty, and went through many single-edged
+forms (27-29) until it died out in the XXth Dynasty (_Man_, 1901, 123).
+A small knife hinged on a pointed backing of copper (31) seems to have
+been made for hair curling and toilet purposes. Razors (30) are known of
+the XIIth Dynasty, and became common in the XVIIIth. A curious blade of
+copper (32), straight sided, and sharpened at both ends, belongs to the
+close of the prehistoric age. Shears are only known of Roman age and
+appear to have been an Italian invention: there is a type in Egypt with
+one blade detachable, so that each can be sharpened apart. Chisels of
+bronze began of very small size (33) at S.D. 38, and reached a full size
+at the close of the prehistoric age. In historic times the chisels are
+about 1 x 1/2, x 6 to 8 in. long (34). Small chisels set in wooden handles
+are found (35) of the XIIth and XVIIIth Dynasties. Ferrules first appear
+in the Assyrian iron of the 7th century B.C. The rise of stone work led
+to great importance of heavy chisels (36) for trimming limestone and
+Nubian sandstone; such chisels are usually round rods about 3/4 in. thick
+and 6 in. long. The cutting edge was about 1/2 in. wide for flaking tools
+(36), which were not kept sharp, and 1 in. wide for facing tools (37)
+which had a good edge. In Greek times the iron chisels are shorter and
+merge into wedges (39). The socketed or mortising chisel (38) is unknown
+till the Italian bronze of the 8th century B.C., and the Naucratis iron
+of the 6th century. Adzes begin in S.D. 56, as plain slips of copper
+(40) 4 to 6 in. long, about 1 wide and 1/8th thick. The square end was
+rounded in the early dynastic times, and went through a series of
+changes down to the XIXth Dynasty. Adzes of iron are probably of Greek
+times. A fine instance of a handle about 4 ft. long is represented in
+the IIIrd Dynasty (P.M. XI.). The adze (41) was used not only for
+wood-work but also for dressing limestone.
+
+_Scraping Tools._--Flint scrapers are found from S.D. 40 and onward. The
+rectangular scraper (42) began in S.D. 63, and continued into the IInd
+Dynasty: the flake with rounded ends (43) was used from the Ist to the
+IVth Dynasty (P. Ab. i. xiv., xv.). Round scrapers were also made (44).
+Flint scrapers were used in dressing down limestone sculpture in the
+IIIrd Dynasty. Rasps of conical form (45), made of a sheet of bronze
+punched and coiled round, were common in the XVIIIth Dynasty, apparently
+as personal objects, possibly used for rasping dried bread. In the
+Assyrian iron tools of the 7th century B.C. the long straight rasp (46)
+is exactly of the modern type. The saw is first found as a notched
+bronze knife of the IIIrd Dynasty. Larger toothed saws (47) are often
+represented in the IVth-VIth Dynasty, as used by carpenters. There are
+no dated specimens till the Assyrian iron saws (48) of the 7th century
+B.C. Drills were of flint (49) for hard material and bead-making, of
+bronze for woodwork. In the Assyrian tools iron drills are of slightly
+twisted scoop form (50), and of centre-bit type with two scraping edges
+(51). In Roman times the modern V drill (52) is usual. The drill was
+worked by a stock with a loose cap (53), rotated by a drill bow, in the
+XIIth to Roman dynasties. The pump drill with cords twisted round it was
+in Roman use. The bow drill (56) was used as a fire drill to rotate wood
+(55) on wood (57); and the cap (54) for such use was of hard stone with
+a highly polished hollow. The drill brace appears to have been used by
+Assyrians in the 7th century B.C. Piercers of bronze tapering (58), to
+enlarge holes in leather, &c., were common in all ages.
+
+_Fighting Weapons._--The battle-axe has been described above with axes.
+The flint dagger (59) is found from S.D. 40-56. A very finely made
+copper dagger (60) with deep midrib is dated to between 55 and 60 S.D.
+Copper daggers with parallel ribbing (61) down the middle are common in
+the XIth-XIVth Dynasties; and in the XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties they are
+often shown in scenes and on figures. The falchion with a curved blade
+(62) belongs to the XVIIIth-XXth Dynasty. The rapier (63) or lengthened
+dagger is rarely found, and is probably of prehistoric Greek origin. The
+sword is of Greek and Roman age, always double-edged and of iron. The
+spear is not commonly found in Egypt, until the Greek age, but it is
+represented from the XIth Dynasty onward; it belonged to the Semitic
+people (L.D. ii. 133). The bow was always of wood, in one piece in the
+prehistoric and early times, also of two horns in the Ist Dynasty; but
+the compound bow of horn is rarely found, only as an importation, in the
+XVIIIth Dynasty. The arrow-heads of flint (64-66) and of bone (68-69)
+were pointed, and also square-ended (67) for hunting (P.R.T. ii. vi.;
+vii. A., 7; xxxiv.). The copper arrow-heads appear in the XIXth Dynasty,
+of blade form with tang (70); the triangular form (72), and leaf form
+with socket (71), are of the XXVIth Dynasty. Triangular iron arrows with
+tang are of the same age. Tangs show that the shaft was a reed, sockets
+show that it was of wood. Many early arrows (XIIth) have only hard wood
+points of conical form. The sling is rarely shown in the XIXth-XXth
+Dynasties; and the only known example is probably of the XXVIth.
+
+_Hunting Weapons._--The forked lance of flint was at first wide with
+slight hollow (73) from S.D. 32-43; then the hollow became a V notch
+(74) in 38 S.D. and onward. The lance was fixed in a wooden shaft for
+throwing, and held in by a check-cord from flying too far if it missed
+the animal (P.N. LXXIII.). The harpoon for fishing was at first of bone
+(75), and was imitated in copper (76, 77) from S.D. 36 onwards. The
+boomerang or throw-stick (78) was used from the Ist to the XXIInd
+Dynasty, and probably later. Fish-hooks of copper (79-82) are found from
+the Ist Dynasty to Roman times. A trap for animals' legs, formed by
+splints of palm stick radiating round a central hole, is figured in S.D.
+60, and one was found of probably the XXth Dynasty. Fishing nets were
+common in all historic times, and the lead sinkers (83) and stone
+sinkers (84) are often found under the XVIIIth-XXth Dynasties.
+
+_Agricultural Tools._--The hoe of wood (85) is the main tool from the
+late prehistoric time, and many have been found of the XVIIIth Dynasty.
+With the handle lengthened (86) and turned forward, this became the
+plough (87 is the hieroglyph, 88 the drawing, of a plough); this was
+always sloping, and never the upright post of the Italic type. The rake
+of wood (89) is usual in the XIIth and XVIIIth Dynasties. The fork (90),
+used for tossing straw, was common in the Old Kingdom, but none has been
+found. The sickle was of wood (92), with flints (91) inserted,
+apparently a copy of the ox-jaw and teeth. The notched flints for it are
+common from the Ist to the XVIIIth Dynasty. In Roman times the same
+principle was followed, by making an iron sickle with a deep groove, in
+which was inserted the cutting blade of steel (P.E. XXIX.).
+Shovel-boards, to hold in right (93) or left hand for scraping up the
+grain in winnowing, are usual in the XVIIIth Dynasty, and are figured in
+use in the Old Kingdom Pruning knives with curved blades (94) are
+Italic, and were made of iron by the Romans. Corn grinders were flat
+oval stones, with a smaller one lying cross-ways (95), and slid from end
+to end. Such were used from the Old Kingdom down to late times. In the
+Roman period a larger stone was used, with a rectangular slab (96)
+sliding on it, in which a long trough held the grain and let it slip out
+below for grinding. The quern with rotary motion is late Roman, and
+still used by Arabs. The large circular millstones of Roman age worked
+by horse-power are usually made from slices of granite columns.
+
+_Building Tools._--The adze described above was used for dressing blocks
+of limestone. The brick-mould was an open frame, with one side prolonged
+into a handle (97), exactly as the modern mould. The plasterers' floats
+(98) were entirely cut out of wood. The mud rake for mixing mortar is
+rather narrower than the modern form. The square (99) and plummet (100,
+101) have remained unchanged since the XIXth Dynasty. For dressing flat
+surfaces three wooden pegs (102) of equal length were used; a string was
+stretched between the tops of two, and the third peg was set on the
+point to be tested and tried against the string.
+
+_Thread-Work._--Stone spindle whorls (103) are common in the prehistoric
+age; wooden ones were usual, of a cylindrical form (104) in the XIIth,
+and conical (105) in the XVIIIth Dynasty. The thread was secured by a
+spiral notch in the stick. In Roman times an iron hook on the top held
+the thread (106) as in modern spindles. Needles of copper were made in
+the prehistoric, as early as S.D. 48, and very delicate ones by S.D. 71.
+Gold needles are found of the Ist Dynasty. Fine ones of bronze are
+common in the XVIIIth Dynasty, and some with two eyes at right angles,
+one above the other, to carry two different threads. The copper bodkin
+is found in S.D. 70. Netters are common, of rib bones, pointed (107);
+the thread was wound round them. Long netting needles were probably
+brought in by the dynastic people as they figure in the hieroglyphs.
+Finely-made ones are found in the XVIIIth Dynasty and later. Reels were
+also commonly used for net making, of pottery (108) or even pebbles
+(109) with a groove chipped around. The flint vase-grinders were used in
+the early dynasties (110), and also sandstone grinders for hollowing
+larger vases (111).
+
+_Stone-Work._--In the prehistoric ages stone building was unknown, but
+many varieties of stones were used for carving into vases, amulets and
+ornaments. The stone vases were at first of cylindrical forms, with a
+foot, and ears for hanging. These are worked in brown basalt, syenite,
+porphyry, alabaster and limestone. In the second prehistoric
+civilization barrel-shaped vases became usual; and to the former
+materials were added slate, grey limestone and breccia. Serpentine
+appears later, and diorite towards the close of the prehistoric ages.
+Flat dishes were used in earlier times; gradually deeper forms appear,
+and lastly the deep bowl with turned-in edge belongs to the close of the
+prehistoric time and continued common in the earlier dynasties (P.D.P.
+19). This stone-work was usually formed on the outside with rotary
+motion, but sometimes the vase was rotated upon the grinder (Q. H. 17).
+The interior was ground out by cutters (figs. 110, 111) fixed in the end
+of a stick and revolved with a weight on the top, as shown in scenes on
+the tombs of the Vth Dynasty. The cutters were sometimes flints of a
+crescent shape (P. Ab. ii. liii. 24), but more usually grinders blocks
+of quartzite sandstone (26-34), and occasionally of diorite (Q. H.
+xxxii. lxii.). These blocks were fed with sand and water to give the
+bite on the stone (P. Ab. i. 26). The outsides of the vases were
+entirely wrought by handwork, with the polishing lines crossing
+diagonally. Probably the first forming was done by chipping and
+hammer-dressing, as in later times; the final facing of the hard stones
+was doubtless by means of emery in block or powder, as emery grinding
+blocks are found.
+
+In the early dynasties the hard stones were still worked, and the Ist
+dynasty was the most splendid age for vases, bowls, and dishes of the
+finest stones. The royal tombs have preserved an enormous quantity of
+fragments, from which five hundred varied forms have been drawn (P.R.T.
+ii. xlvi.-liii. 6). The materials are quartz crystal, basalt, porphyry,
+syenite, granite, volcanic ash, various metamorphics, serpentine, slate,
+dolomite marble, alabaster, many coloured marbles, saccharine marble,
+grey and white limestones. The most splendid vase is one from Nekhen
+(Hieraconpolis), of syenite, 2 ft. across and 16 in. high, hollowed so
+as to be marvellously light and highly polished (Q.H. xxxvii). Another
+branch of stone-work, surface carving, was early developed by the
+artistic dynastic race. The great palettes of slate covered with
+elaborate reliefs are probably all of the pre-Menite kings; the most
+advanced of them having the figure of Narmer, who preceded Menes. Other
+carving full of detail is on the great mace-heads of Narmer and the
+Scorpion king, where scenes of ceremonials are minutely engraved in
+relief. In the Ist Dynasty the large tombstones of the kings are of bold
+work, but the smaller stones of private graves vary much in the style,
+many being very coarse. All of this work was by hammer-dressing and
+scraping. The scrapers seem to have always been of copper.
+
+The earliest use of stone in buildings is in the tomb of King Den (Ist
+Dynasty), where some large flat blocks of red granite seem to have been
+part of the construction. The oldest stone chamber known is that of
+Khasekhemui (end of the IInd Dynasty). This is of blocks of limestone
+whose faces follow the natural cleavages, and only dressed where
+needful; part is hammer-dressed, but most of the surfaces are
+adze-dressed. The adze was of stone, probably flint, and had a short
+handle (P.R.T. ii. 13). The same king also wrought granite with
+inscriptions in relief. In the close of the IIIrd Dynasty a great
+impetus was given to stone-work, and the grandest period of refined
+masonry is at the beginning of the IVth Dynasty under Cheops. The tombs
+of Medum under Snefru are built with immense blocks of limestone of 20
+and 33 tons weight. The dressing of the face between the hieroglyphs was
+done partly with copper and partly with flint scrapers (P.M. 27). The
+most splendid masonry is that of the Great Pyramid of Cheops. The blocks
+of granite for the roofing are 56 in number, of an average weight of 54
+tons each. These were cut from the water-worn rocks at the Cataract--the
+soundest source for large masses, as any incipient flaws are well
+exposed by wear. The blocks were quarried by cleavage; a groove was run
+along the line intended, and about 2 ft. apart holes about 4 in. wide
+were jumped downward from it in the intended plane; this prevented a
+skew fracture (P.T. 93). In shallower masses a groove was run, and then
+holes, apparently for wedges, were sunk deeper in the course of it;
+whether wetted wood was used for the expansive force is not known, but
+it is probable, as no signs are visible of crushing the granite by hard
+wedges. The facing of the cloven surfaces was done by hammer-dressing,
+using rounded masses of quartzose hornstone, held in the hand without
+any handle. In order to get a hold for moving the blocks without
+bruising the edges, projecting lumps or bosses were left on the faces,
+about 6 or 8 in. across and 1 or 2 in. thick. After the block was in
+place the boss was struck off and the surface dressed and polished (P.T.
+78, 82). In the pyramid of Cheops the blocks were all faced before
+building; but the later granite temple of Chephren and the pyramid of
+Mycerinus (Menkaura, Menkeure) show a system of building with an excess
+of a few inches left rough on the outer surface, which was dressed away
+when in position (P.T. 110, 132).
+
+The flatness of faces of stone or rock (both granite and limestone) was
+tested by placing a true-plane trial plate, smeared with red ochre,
+against the dressed surface, as in modern engineering. The contact being
+thus reddened showed where the face had to be further dressed away; and
+this process was continued until the ochre touched points not more than
+an inch apart all over the joint faces, many square feet in area. On
+stones too large for facing-plates a diagonal draft was run, so as to
+avoid any wind in the plane (P.T. 83).
+
+The cutting of granite was not only by cleavage and hammer dressing, but
+also by cutting with harder materials than quartz such as emery. Long
+saws of copper were fed with emery powder, and used to saw out blocks
+as much as 7-1/2 ft. long (P.T. Plate XIV.). In other cases the very deep
+scores in the sides of the saw-cut suggest that fixed cutting points
+were inserted in the copper saws; and this would be parallel to the
+saw-cuts in the very hard limestone of the Palace of Tiryns, in which a
+piece of a copper saw has been broken, and where may be yet found large
+chips of emery, too long and coarse to serve as a powder, but suited for
+fixed teeth. A similar method was common for circular holes, which were
+cut by a tube, either with powder or fixed teeth. These tubular drills
+were used from the IVth Dynasty down to late times, in all materials
+from alabaster up to carnelian. The resulting cores are more regular
+than those of modern rock-drilling.
+
+Limestone in the Great Pyramid, as elsewhere, was dressed by chopping it
+with an adze, a tool used from prehistoric to Roman times for all soft
+stones and wood. This method was carried on up to the point of getting
+contact with the facing-plate at every inch of the surface; the cuts
+cross in various directions. For removing rock in reducing a surface to
+a level, or in quarrying, cuts were made with a pick, forming straight
+trenches, and the blocks were then broken out between these. In
+quarrying the cuts are generally 4 or 5 in. wide, just enough for the
+workman's arm to reach in; for cutting away rock the grooves are 20 in.
+wide, enough to stand in, and the squares of rock about 9 ft. wide
+between the grooves (P.T. 100). The accuracy of the workmanship in the
+IVth Dynasty is astonishing. The base of the pyramid of Snefru had an
+average variation of 6 in. on 5765 and 10' of squareness. But,
+immediately after, Cheops improved on this with a variation of less than
+6 in. on 9069 in. and 12" of direction. Chephren fell off, having 1.5
+error on 8475, and 33" of variation; and Mycerinus (Menkeure) had 3 in.
+error on 4154 and 1' 50" variation of direction (P.M. 6; P.T. 39, 97,
+111). Of perhaps later date the two south pyramids of Dahshur show
+errors of 3.7 on 7459 and 1.1 on 2065 in., and variation of direction of
+4' and 10' (P.S. 28, 30). The above smallest error of only 1 in 16,000
+in lineal measure, and 1 in 17,000 of angular measure, is that of the
+rock-cutting for the foundation of Khufu, and the masonry itself (now
+destroyed) was doubtless more accurate. The error of flatness of the
+joints from a straight line and a true square is but 1/100th in. on 75
+in. length; and the error of level is only 1/50th in. along a course, or
+about 10" on a long length (P.T. 44). We have entered thus fully on the
+details of this period, as it is the finest age for workmanship in every
+respect. But in the XIIth Dynasty the granite sarcophagus of Senwosri
+II. is perhaps the finest single piece of cutting yet known; the
+surfaces of the granite are all dull-ground, the errors from straight
+lines and parallelism are only about 1/200th inch (P. 1, 3).
+
+In later work we may note that copper scrapers were used for facing the
+limestone work in the VIth, the XIIth and the XVIIIth Dynasties. In the
+latter age granite surfaces were ground, hieroglyphs were chipped out
+and polished by copper tools fed with emery; outlines were graved by a
+thick sheet of copper held in the hand, and sawed to and fro with emery.
+Corners of signs and intersections of lines were first fixed by minute
+tube-drill holes, into which the hand tool butted, so that it should not
+slip over the outer surface.
+
+The marking out of work was done by fine black lines; and supplemental
+lines at a fixed distance from the true one were put in to guard against
+obliteration in course of working (P.T. 92); similarly in building a
+brick pyramid the axis was marked, and there were supplemental marks two
+cubits to one side (P.K. 14). When cutting a passage in the rock a rough
+drift-way was first made, the roof was smoothed, a red axis line was
+drawn along it, and then the sides were cut parallel to the axis. For
+setting out a mastaba with sloping sides, on an irregular foundation at
+different levels, hollow corner walls were built outside the place of
+each corner; the distances of the faces at the above-ground level were
+marked on the inner faces of the walls; the above-ground level was also
+marked; then sloping lines at the intended angle of the face were drawn
+downward from the ground-level measures, and each face was set out so as
+to lie in the plane thus defined by two traces at the ends (P.M.
+VIII.).
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Egyptian Tools.
+
+  _Note._ _The objects are drawn to a scale of 1/6 unless otherwise
+     described._
+
+  MALLETS 1 2
+  MACES 3 4
+  HAMMERS 5 6
+  AXES 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
+  HOES 14 15
+  PICK 16
+  FLINT KNIVES 17 18 19 20 21
+  METAL KNIVES 22 23 24 25
+  CUTTING-OUT KNIVES 26 27 28 29
+  RAZORS 30 31 32
+  CHISELS 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
+  ADZES 40 41
+  SCRAPERS 42 44 45 46
+  SAWS 47 (1/30) 48
+  BORERS 49 50 51 52 53 (1/10) 54 55 (1/10) 56 57 58]
+
+[Illustration: Ancient Egyptian Tools.
+
+  _Note._ _The objects are drawn to a scale of 1/6 unless otherwise
+     described._
+
+  FIGHTING 59 60 61 62 (1/12) 63 (1/12) 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72
+  HUNTING 73 74 75 76 77 78 (1/10) 79 80 81 82 83 84
+  AGRICULTURE all 1/20 85 86 87 88 89 90 (1/20) 91 92 (1/10) 93 94
+              95 (1/12) 96 (1/12)
+  BUILDING 97 98 99 100 101
+  THREAD WORK 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
+  VASE GRINDING 110 111]
+
+_Metal-Work._--Copper was wrought into pins, a couple of inches long,
+with loop heads, as early as the oldest prehistoric graves, before the
+use of weaving, and while pottery was scarcely developed. The use of
+harpoons and small chisels of copper next arose, then broad flaying
+knives, needles and adzes, lastly the axe when the metal was commoner.
+On these prehistoric tools, when in fine condition, the original
+highly-polished surface remains. It shows no trace of grinding lines or
+attrition, nor yet of the blows of a hammer. Probably it was thus highly
+finished by beating between polished stone hammers which were almost
+flat on the face. Most likely the forms of the tools were cast to begin
+with, and then finished and polished by fine hammering. A series of
+moulds for casting in the XIIth Dynasty show that the forms were carved
+out in thick pieces of pottery, and then lined with fine ashy clay. The
+mould was single, so that one side of the tool was the open face of
+metal. As early as the pyramid times solid casting by _cire perdue_ was
+already used for figures: but the copper statues of Pepi and his son
+seem, by their thinness and the piecing together of the parts, to have
+been entirely hammered out. The portraiture in such hammer work is
+amazingly life-like. By the time of the XIIth Dynasty, and perhaps
+earlier, _cire perdue_ casting over an ash core became usual. This was
+carried out most skilfully, the metal being often not 1/50th in. thick,
+and the core truly centred in the mould. Casting bronze over iron rods
+was also done, to gain more stiffness for thin parts.
+
+In gold work the earliest jewelry, that of King Zer of the Ist Dynasty,
+shows a perfect mastery of working hollow balls with minute threading
+holes, and of soldering with no trace of excess nor difference of
+colour. Thin wire was hammered out, but there is no ancient instance of
+drawn wire. Castings were not trimmed by filing or grinding, but by
+small chisels and hammering (P.R.T. ii. 17). In the XIIth Dynasty the
+soldering of the thin cells for the _cloisonnee_ inlaid pectorals, on to
+the base plate, is a marvellous piece of delicacy; every cell has to be
+perfectly true in form, and yet all soldered, apparently simultaneously,
+as the heat could not be applied to successive portions (M.D. i.). Such
+work was kept up in the XVIIIth and XXVIth Dynasties. There is nothing
+distinctive in later jewelry different from Greek and Roman work
+elsewhere.
+
+_Glaze and Glass._--From almost the beginning of the prehistoric age
+there are glazed pottery beads found in the graves: and glazing on
+amulets of quartz or other stones begins in the middle of the
+prehistoric. Apparently then glazing went together with the working of
+the copper ores, and probably accidental slags in the smelting gave the
+first idea of using glaze intentionally. The development of glazing at
+the beginning of the dynasties was sudden and effective. Large tiles, a
+foot in length, were glazed completely all over, and used to line the
+walls of rooms; they were retained in place by deep dovetails and ties
+of copper wire. Figures of glazed ware became abundant; a kind of
+visiting card was made with the figure of a man and his titles to
+present in temples which he visited; and glazed ornaments and toggles
+for fastening dresses were common (P. Ab. ii.). Further, besides thus
+using glaze on a large scale, differently coloured glazes were used, and
+even fused together. A piece of a large tile, and part of a glazed vase,
+have the royal titles and name of Menes, originally in violet inlay in
+green glaze. There was no further advance in the art until the great
+variety of colours came into use about 4000 years later. In the XIIth
+Dynasty a very thin smooth glaze was used, which became rather thicker
+in the XVIIIth. The most brilliant age of glazes was under Amenophis
+III. and his son Akhenaton. Various colours were used; beside the old
+green and blue, there were purple, violet, red, yellow and white. And a
+profusion of forms is shown by the moulds and actual examples, for
+necklaces, decorations, inlay in stone and applied reliefs on vases.
+Under Seti II. cartouches of the king in violet and white glaze are
+common; and under Rameses III. there were vases with relief figures,
+with painted figures, and tiles with coloured reliefs of captives of
+many races. The latter development of glazing was in thin delicate
+apple-green ware with low relief designs, which seem to have originated
+under Greek influence at Naucratis. The Roman glaze is thick and coarse,
+but usually of a brilliant Prussian blue, with dark purple and
+apple-green; and high reliefs of wreaths, and sometimes figures, are
+common.
+
+Though glaze begins so early, the use of the glassy matter by itself
+does not occur till the XVIIIth Dynasty; the earlier reputed examples
+are of stone or frit. The first glass is black and white under Tethmosis
+(Tahutmes) III. It was not fused at a high point, but kept in a pasty
+state when working. The main use of it was for small vases; these were
+formed upon a core of sandy paste, which was modelled on a copper rod,
+the rod being the core for the neck. Round this core threads of glass
+were wound of various colours; the whole could be reset in the furnace
+to soften it for moulding the foot or neck, or attaching handles, or
+dragging the surface into various patterns. The colours under later
+kings were as varied as those of the glazes. Glass was also wheel-cut in
+patterns and shapes under Akhenaton. In later times the main work was in
+mosaics of extreme delicacy. Glass rods were piled together to form a
+pattern in cross-section. The whole was then heated until it perfectly
+adhered, and the mass was drawn out lengthways so as to render the
+design far more minute, and to increase the total length for cutting up.
+The rod was then sliced across, and the pieces used for inlaying.
+Another use of coloured glass was for cutting in the shapes of
+hieroglyphs for inlaying in wooden coffins to form inscriptions. Glass
+amulets were also commonly placed upon Ptolemaic mummies. Blown glass
+vessels are not known until late Greek and Roman times, when they were
+of much the same manufacture as glass elsewhere. The supposed figures of
+glass-blowers in early scenes are really those of smiths, blowing their
+fires by means of reeds tipped with clay. The variegated glass beads
+belonging to Italy were greatly used in Egypt in Roman times, and are
+like those found elsewhere. A distinctively late Egyptian use of glass
+was for weights and vase-stamps, to receive an impress stating the
+amount of the weight or measure. The vase-stamps often state the name of
+the contents (always seeds or fruits), probably not to show what was in
+them, but to show for what kind of seed the vessel was a true measure.
+These measure stamps bear names dating them from A.D. 680 to about 950.
+The large weights of ounces and pounds are disks or cuboid blocks; they
+are dated from 720 to 785 for the lesser, and to A.D. 915 for larger,
+weights. The greater number are, however, small weights for testing gold
+and silver coins of later caliphs from A.D. 952 to 1171. The system was
+not, however, Arab, as there are a few Roman vase-stamps and weights. Of
+other medieval glass may be noted the splendid glass vases for lamps,
+with Arab inscriptions fused in colours on the outsides. No enamelling
+was ever done by Egyptians, and the few rare examples are all of Roman
+age due to foreign work.
+
+The manufacture of glass is shown by examples in the XVIIIth Dynasty.
+The blue or green colour was made by fritting together silica, lime,
+alkaline carbonate and copper carbonate; the latter varied from 3% in
+delicate blues to 20% in deep purple blues. The silica was needed quite
+pure from iron, in order to get the rich blues, and was obtained from
+calcined quartz pebbles; ordinary sand will only make a green frit.
+These materials were heated in pans in the furnace so as to combine in a
+pasty, half-fused condition. The coloured frit thus formed was used as
+paint in a wet state, and also used to dissolve in glass or to fuse over
+a surface in glazing. The brown tints often seen in glazed objects are
+almost always the result of the decomposition of green glazes containing
+iron. The blue glazes, on the other hand, fade into white. The essential
+colouring materials are, for blue, copper; green, copper and iron;
+purple, cobalt; red, haematite; white, tin. An entirely clear colourless
+glass was made in the XVIIIth Dynasty, but coloured glass was mainly
+used. After fusing a panful of coloured glass, it was sampled by taking
+pinches out with tongs; when perfectly combined it was left to cool in
+the pan, as with modern optical glass. When cold the pan was chipped
+away, and the cake of glass broken up into convenient pieces, free of
+sediment and of scum. A broken lump would then be heated to softness in
+the furnace; rolled out under a bar of metal, held diagonally across the
+roll; and when reduced to a rod of a quarter of an inch thick, it was
+heated and pulled out into even rods about an eighth of an inch thick.
+These were used to wind round glass vases, to form lips, handles, &c.;
+and to twist together for spiral patterns. Glass tube was similarly
+drawn out. Beads were made by winding thin threads of glass on copper
+wires, and the greater contraction of the copper freed the bead when
+cold. The coiling of beads can always be detected by (1) the little
+tails left at the ends, (2) the streaks, (3) the bubbles, seen with a
+magnifier. Roman glass beads are always drawn out, and nicked off hot,
+with striation lengthways; except the large opaque variegated beads
+which are coiled. Modern Venetian beads are similarly coiled. In the
+XXIIIrd Dynasty beads of a rich transparent Prussian blue glass were
+made, until the XXVIth. About the same time the eyed beads, with white
+and brown eyes in a blue mass, also came in (P.A. 25-27, Plate XIII.).
+
+_Pottery_ (see fig. 112).--The earliest style of pottery is entirely
+hand made, without any rotary motion; the form being built up with a
+flat stick inside and the hand outside, and finally scraped and
+burnished in a vertical direction. The necks of vases were the first
+part finished with rotation, at the middle and close of the prehistoric
+age. Fully turned forms occur in the Ist Dynasty; but as late as the
+XIIth Dynasty the lower part of small vases is usually trimmed with a
+knife. In the earlier part of the prehistoric age there was a soft brown
+ware with haematite facing, highly burnished. This was burnt mouth-down
+in the oven, and the ashes on the ground reduced the red haematite to
+black magnetic oxide of iron; some traces of carbonyl in the ash helped
+to rearrange the magnetite as a brilliant mirror-like surface of intense
+black. The lower range of jars in the oven had then black tops, while
+the upper ranges were entirely red. A favourite decoration was by lines
+of white clay slip, in crossing patterns, figures of animals, and,
+rarely, men. This is exactly of the modern Kabyle style in Algeria, and
+entirely disappeared from Egypt very early in the prehistoric age. Being
+entirely hand made, various oval, doubled and even square forms were
+readily shaped.
+
+The later prehistoric age is marked by entirely different pottery, of a
+hard pink-brown ware, often with white specks in it, without any applied
+facing beyond an occasional pink wash, and no polishing. It is decorated
+with designs in red line, imitating cordage and marbling, and drawings
+of plants, ostriches and ships. The older red polished ware still
+survived in a coarse and degraded character, and both kinds together
+were carried on into the next age (P.D.P.).
+
+The early dynastic pottery not only shows the decadent end of the
+earlier forms, but also new styles, such as grand jars of 2 or 3 ft.
+high which were slung in cordage, and which have imitation lines of
+cordage marked on them. Large ring-stands also were brought in, to
+support jars, so that the damp surfaces should not touch the dusty
+ground. The pyramid times show the great jars reduced to short rough
+pots, while a variety of forms of bowls are the most usual types
+(P.R.T.; P.D.; P. Desh.)
+
+In the XIIth Dynasty a hard thin drab ware was common, like the modern
+_qulleh_ water flasks. Drop-shaped jars with spherical bases are
+typical, and scrabbled patterns of incised lines. Large jars of light
+brown pottery were made for storing liquids and grain, with narrow necks
+which just admit the hand (P.K.).
+
+The XVIIIth Dynasty used a rather softer ware, decorated at first with a
+red edge or band around the top, and under Tethmosis (Tahutmes) III.
+black and red lines were usual. Under Amenophis III. blue frit paint was
+freely used, in lines and bands around vases; it spread to large
+surfaces under Amenophis IV., and continued in a poor style into the
+Ramesside age. In the latter part of the XVIIIth and the XIXth Dynasties
+a thick hard light pottery, with white specks and a polished drab-white
+facing, was generally used for all fine purposes. The XIXth and XXth
+Dynasties only show a degradation of the types of the XVIIIth; and even
+through to the XXVth Dynasty there is no new movement (P.K.; P.I.; P.A.;
+P.S.T.).
+
+The XXVIth Dynasty was largely influenced by Greek amphorae imported
+with wine and oil. The native pottery is of a very fine paste, smooth
+and thin, but poor in forms. Cylindrical cups, and jars with cylindrical
+necks and no brim, are typical. The small necks and trivial handles
+begin now, and are very common in Ptolemaic times (P.T. ii.).
+
+The great period of Roman pottery is marked by the ribbing on the
+outsides. The amphorae began to be ribbed about A.D. 150, and then
+ribbing extended to all the forms. The ware is generally rather rough,
+thick and brown for the amphorae, thin and red for smaller vessels. At
+the Constantine age a new style begins, of hard pink ware, neatly made,
+and often with "start-patterns" made by a vibrating tool while the
+vessel rotated: this was mainly used for bowls and cups (P.E.). Of the
+later pottery of Arab times we have no precise knowledge.
+
+The abbreviations used above refer to the following sources of
+information:--
+
+  M.D. Morgan,  _Dahshur_;
+  P.A. Petrie,  _Tell el Amarna_;
+  P. Ab.   "    _Abydos_;
+  P.D.     "    _Dendereh_;
+  P. Desh. "    _Deshasheh_;
+  P.D.P.   "    _Diospolis Parva_;
+  P.E.     "    _Ehnasya_;
+  P.I.     "    _Illahun_;
+  P.K.     "    _Kahun_;
+  P.M.     "    _Medum_;
+  P.N.     "    _Naqada_;
+  P.R.T.   "    _Royal Tombs_;
+  P.S.     "    _Season in Egypt_;
+  P.S.T.   "    _Six Temples_;
+  P.T.     "    _Pyramids and Temples of Gizeh_;
+  P.T. ii. "    _Tanis, ii._;
+  Q.H. Quibell, _Hieraconpolis_.    (W. M. F. P.)
+
+_Monuments._--The principal monuments that are yet remaining to
+illustrate the art and history of Egypt may be best taken in historical
+order. Of the prehistoric age there are many rock carvings, associated
+with others of later periods: they principally remain on the sandstone
+rocks about Silsila, and their age is shown by the figures of ostriches
+which were extinct in later times. One painted tomb was found at Nekhen
+(Hieraconpolis), now in the Cairo Museum; the brick walls were
+colour-washed and covered with irregular groups of men, animals and
+ships, painted with red, black and green. The cemeteries otherwise only
+contain graves, cut in gravel or brick lined, and formerly roofed with
+poles and brushwood. The Ist to IIIrd Dynasties have left at Abydos
+large forts of brickwork, remains of two successive temples, and the
+royal tombs (see ABYDOS). Elsewhere are but few other monuments; at Wadi
+Maghara in Sinai is a rock sculpture of Semerkhet of the Ist Dynasty in
+perfect state, at Giza is a group of tombs of a prince and retinue of
+the Ist Dynasty, and at Giza and Bet Khallaf are two large brick
+mastabas with extensive passages closed by trap-doors, of kings of the
+IIIrd Dynasty. The main structure of this age is the step-pyramid of
+Sakkara, which is a mastaba tomb with eleven successive coats of
+masonry, enlarging it to about 350 by 390 ft. and 200 ft. high. In the
+interior is sunk in the rock a chamber 24 x 23 ft. and 77 ft. high, with
+a granite sepulchre built in the floor of it, and various passages and
+chambers branching from it. The doorway of one room (now in Berlin
+Museum) was decorated with polychrome glazed tiles with the name of King
+Neterkhet. The complex original work and various alterations of it need
+thorough study, but it is now closed and research is forbidden.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 112.--Principal Types of Pottery of Ancient Egypt.
+  (Scale 1:20.)
+
+  EARLY PREHISTORIC 7000-6000 B.C.
+  LATER PREHISTORIC 6000-5000 B.C.
+  I^ST DYNASTY 4800-4500 B.C.
+  IV^TH-VI^TH DYNASTY 4000-3300 B.C.
+  XII^TH DYNASTY 2800-2500 B.C.
+  XVIII^TH DYNASTY 1500-1350 B.C.
+  XIX^TH DYNASTY 1300-1100 B.C.
+  XXVI^TH DYNASTY 700-500 B.C.]
+
+The IVth to VIth Dynasties are best known by the series of pyramids (see
+PYRAMID) in the region of Memphis. Beyond these tombs, and the temples
+attached to them, there are very few fixed monuments; of Cheops and Pepi
+I. there are temple foundations at Abydos (q.v.), and a few blocks on
+other sites; of Neuserre (Raenuser) there is a sun temple at Abusir; and
+of several kings there were tablets in Sinai, now in the Cairo Museum. A
+few tablets of the IXth Dynasty have been found at Sakkara, and a tomb
+of a prince at Assiut. Of the XIth Dynasty is the terrace-temple of
+Menthotp III. recently excavated at Thebes: also foundations of this
+king and of Sankhkere at Abydos. In the XIIth Dynasty there is the
+celebrated red granite obelisk of Heliopolis, one of a pair erected by
+Senwosri (Senusert) I. in front of his temple which has now vanished.
+Another large obelisk of red granite, 41 ft. high, remains in the Fayum.
+The most important pictorial tombs of Beni Hasan belong to this age; the
+great princes appear to have largely quarried stone for their palaces,
+and to have cut the quarry in the form of a regular chamber, which
+served for the tomb chapel. These great rock chambers were covered with
+paintings, which show a large range of the daily life and civilization.
+The pyramids and temples of Senwosri II. and III. and Amenemhe III.
+remain at Illahun, Dahshur and Hawara. The latter was the celebrated
+Labyrinth, which has been entirely quarried away, so that only banks of
+chips and a few blocks remain. At the first of these sites is the most
+perfect early town, of which hundreds of houses still remain. Of
+Senwosri III. there are the forts and temples above the second cataract
+at Semna and Kumma. Of the Hyksos age there are the scanty remains of a
+great fortified camp at Tell el-Yehudia.
+
+In the XVIIIth to XXth Dynasties we reach the great period of monuments.
+Of Amasis (Aahmes) and Amenophis I. there are but fragments left in
+later buildings; and of the latter a great quantity of sculpture has
+been recovered at Karnak. The great temple of Karnak had existed since
+the XIth Dynasty or earlier, but the existing structure was begun under
+Tethmosis (Tahutmes) I., and two of the great pylons and one obelisk of
+his remain in place. He also built the simple and dignified temple of
+Medinet Habu at Thebes, which was afterward overshadowed by the
+grandiose work of Rameses III. The next generation--Tethmosis II. and
+Hatshepsut--added to their father's work; they also built another pylon
+and some of the existing chambers at Karnak, set up the great obelisks
+there and carved some colossi. The obelisks are exquisitely cut in red
+granite, each sign being sawn in shape by copper tools fed with emery,
+and the whole finished with a perfection of proportion and delicacy not
+seen on other granite work. One obelisk being overthrown and broken we
+can examine the minute treatment of the upper part, which was nearly a
+hundred feet from the ground. The principal monument of this period is
+the temple of Deir el Bahri, the funeral temple of Hatshepsut, on which
+she recorded the principal event of her reign, the expedition to Punt.
+The erasures of her name by Tethmosis III., and reinsertions of names
+under later kings, the military scenes, and the religious groups showing
+the sacred kine of Hathor, all add to the interest of the remarkable
+temple. It stands on three successive terraces, rising to the base of
+the high limestone cliffs behind it. The rock-cut shrine at Speos
+Artemidos, and the temple of Serabit in Sinai are the only other large
+monuments of this queen yet remaining. Tethmosis III. was one of the
+great builders of Egypt, and much remains of his work, at about forty
+different sites. The great temple of Karnak was largely built by him;
+most of the remaining chambers are his, including the beautiful
+botanical walls showing foreign plants. Of his work at Heliopolis there
+remain the obelisks of London and New York; and from Elephantine is the
+obelisk at Sion House. On the Nubian sites his work may still be seen at
+Amada, Ellesia, Ibrim, Semna and in Sinai at Serabit el Khadem. Of
+Amenophis II. and Tethmosis IV. there are no large monuments, they being
+mainly known by additions at Karnak. The well known stele of the sphinx
+was cut by the latter king, to commemorate his dream there and his
+clearing of the sphinx from sand. Amenophis III. has left several large
+buildings of his magnificent reign. At Karnak the temple had a new front
+added as a great pylon, which was later used as the back of the hall of
+columns by Seti I. But three new temples at Karnak, that of Month
+(Mentu), of Mut and a smaller one, all are due to this reign, as well as
+the long avenue of sphinxes before the temple of Khons; these indicate
+that the present Ramesside temple of Khons has superseded an earlier one
+of this king. The great temple of Luxor was built to record the divine
+origin of the king as son of Ammon; and on the western side of Thebes
+the funerary temple of Amenophis was an immense pile, of which the two
+colossi of the Theban plain still stand before the front of the site,
+where yet lies a vast tablet of sandstone 30 ft. high. The other
+principal buildings are the temples of Sedenga and of Solib in Nubia.
+Akhenaton has been so consistently eclipsed by the later kings who
+destroyed his work, that the painted pavement and the rock tablets of
+Tell el Amarna are the only monuments of his still in position, beside a
+few small inscriptions. Harmahib (Horemheb) resumed the work at Karnak,
+erecting two great pylons and a long avenue of sphinxes. The rock temple
+at Silsila and a shrine at Jebel Adda are also his.
+
+In the XIXth Dynasty the great age of building continued, and the
+remains are less destroyed than the earlier temples, because there were
+subsequently fewer unscrupulous rulers to quarry them away. Seti I.
+greatly extended the national temple of Karnak by his immense hall of
+columns added in front of the pylon of Amenophis III. His funerary
+temple at Kurna is also in a fairly complete condition. The temple of
+Abydos is celebrated owing to its completeness, and the perfect
+condition of its sculptures, which render it one of the most interesting
+buildings as an artistic monument; and the variety of religious subjects
+adds to its importance. The very long reign and vanity of Rameses II.
+have combined to leave his name at over sixty sites, more widely spread
+than that of any other king. Yet very few great monuments were
+originated by him; even the Ramesseum, his funerary temple, was begun by
+his father. Additions, appropriations of earlier works and scattered
+inscriptions are what mark this reign. The principal remaining buildings
+are part of a court at Memphis, the second temple at Abydos, and the six
+Nubian temples of Bet el-Wali, Jerf Husein, Wadi es-Sebua, Derr, and the
+grandest of all--the rock-cut temple of Abu Simbel, with its
+neighbouring temple of Hathor. Mineptah has left few original works; the
+Osireum at Abydos is the only one of which much remains, his funerary
+temple having been destroyed as completely as he destroyed that of
+Amenophis III. The celebrated Israel stele from this temple is his
+principal inscription. The rock shrines at Silsila are of small
+importance. There is no noticeable monument of the dozen troubled years
+of the end of the dynasty.
+
+The XXth Dynasty opened with the great builder Rameses III. Probably he
+did not really exceed other kings in his activity; but as being the last
+of the building kings at the western side of Thebes, his temple has
+never been devastated for stone by the claims of later work. The whole
+building of Medinet Habu is about 500 ft. long and 160 wide, entirely
+the work of one reign. The sculptures of it are mainly occupied with the
+campaigns of the king against the Libyans, the Syrians and the negroes,
+and are of the greatest importance for the history of Egypt and of the
+Mediterranean lands. Another large work was the clearance and rebuilding
+of much of the city of Tell el Yehudia, the palace hall of which
+contained the celebrated coloured tiles with figures of captives. At
+Karnak three temples, to Ammon, Khonsu and Mut, all belong to this
+reign. The blighted reigns of the later Ramessides and the priest-kings
+did not leave a single great monument, and they are only known by
+usurpations of the work of others. The Tanite kings of the XXIst Dynasty
+rebuilt the temple of their capital, but did little else. The XXIInd
+Dynasty returned to monumental work. Sheshonk I. added a large wall at
+Karnak, covered with the record of his Judaean war. Osorkon (Uasarkon)
+I. built largely at Bubastis, and Osorkon II. added the great granite
+pylon there, covered with scenes of his festival; but at Thebes these
+kings only inscribed previous monuments. The Ethiopian (XXVth) dynasty
+built mainly in their capital under Mount Barkal, and Shabako and
+Tirhaka (Tahrak) also left chapels and a pylon at Thebes; and the latter
+added a great colonnade leading up to the temple of Karnak, of which one
+column is still standing.
+
+Of the Saite kings there are very few large monuments. Their work was
+mainly of limestone and built in the Delta, and hence it has been
+entirely swept away. The square fort of brickwork at Daphnae (q.v.) was
+built by Psammetichus I. Of Apries (Haa-ab-ra, Hophra) an obelisk and
+two monolith shrines are the principal remains. Of Amasis (Aahmes) II.
+five great shrines are known; but the other kings of this age have only
+left minor works. The Persians kept up Egyptian monuments. Darius I.
+quarried largely, and left a series of great granite decrees along his
+Suez canal; he also built the great temple in the oasis of Kharga.
+
+The XXXth Dynasty renewed the period of great temples. Nekhtharheb built
+the temple of Behbet, now a ruinous heap of immense blocks of granite.
+Beside other temples, now destroyed, he set up the great west pylon of
+Karnak, and the pylon at Kharga. Nekhtnebf built the Hathor temple and
+great pylon at Philae, and the east pylon of Karnak, beside temples
+elsewhere, now vanished. Religious building was continued under the
+Ptolemies and Romans; and though the royal impulse may not have been
+strong, yet the wealth of the land under good government supplied means
+for many places to rebuild their old shrines magnificently. In the Fayum
+the capital was dedicated to Queen Arsinoe, and doubtless Ptolemy
+rebuilt the temple, now destroyed. At Sharona are remains of a temple of
+Ptolemy I. Dendera is one of the most complete temples, giving a noble
+idea of the appearance of such work anciently. The body of the temple is
+of Ptolemy XIII., and was carved as late as the XVIth (Caesarion), and
+the great portico was in building from Augustus to Nero. At Coptos was a
+screen of the temple of Ptolemy I. (now at Oxford), and a chapel still
+remains of Ptolemy XIII. Karnak was largely decorated; a granite cella
+was built under Philip Arrhidaeus, covered with elaborate carving; a
+great pylon was added to the temple of Khonsu by Ptolemy III.; the inner
+pylon of the Ammon-temple was carved by Ptolemy VI. and IX.; and granite
+doorways were added to the temples of Month and Mut by Ptolemy II. At
+Luxor the entire cella was rebuilt by Alexander. At Medinet Habu the
+temple of Tethmosis III. had a doorway built by Ptolemy X., and a
+forecourt by Antoninus. The smaller temple was built under Ptolemy X.
+and the emperors. South of Medinet Habu a small temple was built by
+Hadrian and Antoninus. At Esna the great temple was rebuilt and
+inscribed during a couple of centuries from Titus to Decius. At El Kab
+the temple dates from Ptolemy IX. and X. The great temple of Edfu, which
+has its enclosure walls and pylon complete, and is the most perfect
+example remaining, was gradually built during a century and a half from
+Ptolemy III. to XI. The monuments of Philae begin with the wall of
+Nekhtnebf. Ptolemy II. began the great temple, and the temple of
+Arhesnofer (Arsenuphis) is due to Ptolemy IV., that of Asclepius to
+Ptolemy V., that of Hathor to Ptolemy VI., and the great colonnades
+belong to Ptolemy XIII. and Augustus. The beautiful little riverside
+temple, called the "kiosk," was built by Augustus and inscribed by
+Trajan; and the latest building was the arch of Diocletian.
+
+Farther south, in Nubia, the temples of Dabod and Dakka were built by
+the Ethiopian Ergamenes, contemporary of Ptolemy IV.; and the temple of
+Dendur is of Augustus. The latest building of the temple style is the
+White Monastery near Suhag. The external form is that of a great temple,
+with windows added along the top; while internally it was a Christian
+church. The modern dwellings in it have now been cleared out, and the
+interior admirably preserved and cleaned by a native Syrian architect.
+
+Beside the great monuments, which we have now noticed, the historical
+material is found on several other classes of remains. These are: (1)
+The royal tombs, which in the Vth, VIth, XVIIIth, XIXth and XXth
+Dynasties are fully inscribed; but as the texts are always religious and
+not historical, they are less important than many other remains. (2) The
+royal coffins and wrappings, which give information by the added
+graffiti recording their removals; (3) Royal tablets, which are of the
+highest value for history, as they often describe or imply historical
+events; (4) Private tombs and tablets, which are in many cases
+biographical. (5) Papyri concerning daily affairs which throw light on
+history; or which give historic detail, as the great papyrus of Rameses
+III., and the trials under Rameses X. (6) The added inscriptions on
+buildings by later restorers, and alterations of names for
+misappropriation. (7) The statues which give the royal portraits, and
+sometimes historical facts. (8) The _ostraca_, or rough notes of work
+accounts, and plans drawn on pieces of limestone or pottery. (9) The
+scarabs bearing kings' names, which under the Hyksos and in some other
+dark periods, are our main source of information. (10) The miscellaneous
+small remains of toilet objects, ornaments, weapons, &c., many of which
+bear royal names.
+
+  Every object and monument with a royal name will be found catalogued
+  under each reign in Petrie's _History of Egypt_, 3 vols., the last
+  editions of each being the fullest.     (W. M. F. P.)
+
+F. _Chronology._--1. _Technical._--The standard year of the Ancient
+Egyptians consisted of twelve months of thirty days[17] each, with five
+epagomenal days, in all 365 days. It was thus an effective compromise
+between the solar year and the lunar month, and contrasts very
+favourably with the intricate and clumsy years of other ancient systems.
+The leap-year of the Julian and Gregorian calendars confers the immense
+benefit of a fixed correspondence to the seasons which the Egyptian year
+did not possess, but the uniform length of the Egyptian months is
+enviable even now. The months were grouped under three seasons of four
+months each, and were known respectively as the first, second, third and
+fourth month [HRGs: N12:Z1], [HRGs: N12:two], [HRGs: N12:three], [HRGs:
+N12:four] of [HRGs: SA-x:t-hrw] (i'h.t) "inundation" or "verdure,"
+[HRGs: pr:r-t:hrw] _pr.t_ (_pro_) "seed-time," "winter," and [HRGs:
+S:N35B-hrw] _smw (shom)_ "harvest," "summer," the [HRGs:
+Z93-Z92-Hr:r-w-rnp-t:Z1] "five (days) over the year" being outside these
+seasons and the year itself, according to the Egyptian expression, and
+counted either at the beginning or at the end of the year. Ultimately
+the Egyptians gave names to the months taken from festivals celebrated
+in them, in order as follows:--Thoth, Paophi, Athyr, Choiak, Tobi,
+Mechir, Phamenoth, Pharmuthi, Pachons, Payni, Epiphi, Mesore, the
+epagomenal days being then called "the short year." In Egypt the
+agricultural seasons depend more immediately on the Nile than on the
+solar movements; the first day of the first month of inundation, i.e.
+nominally the beginning of the rise of the Nile, was the beginning of
+the year, and as the Nile commences to rise very regularly at about the
+date of the annual heliacal rising of the conspicuous dog-star Sothis
+(Sirius) (which itself follows extremely closely the slow retrogression
+of the Julian year), the primitive astronomers found in the heliacal
+rising of Sothis as observed at Memphis (on July 19 Julian) a very
+correct and useful starting-point for the seasonal year. But the year of
+365 days lost one day in four years of the Sothic or Julian year, so
+that in 121 Egyptian years New Year's day fell a whole month too early
+according to the seasons, and in 1461 years a whole year was lost. This
+"Sothic period" or era of 1460 years, during which the Egyptian New
+Year's day travelled all round the Sothic year, is recorded by Greek and
+Roman writers at least as early as the 1st century B.C. The epagomenal
+days appear on a monument of the Vth Dynasty and in the very ancient
+Pyramid texts. They were considered unlucky, and perhaps this accounts
+for the curious fact that, although they are named in journals and in
+festival lists, &c., where precise dating was needed, no known monument
+or legal document is dated in them. It is, however, quite possible that
+by the side of the year of 365 days a shorter year of 360 was employed
+for some purposes. Lunar months were observed in the regulation of
+temples, and lunar years, &c., have been suspected. To find uniformity
+in any department in Egyptian practice would be exceptional. By the
+decree of Canopus, Ptolemy III. Euergetes introduced through the
+assembly of priests an extra day every fourth year, but this reform had
+no acceptation until it was reimposed by Augustus with the Julian
+calendar. Whether any earlier attempt was made to adjust the civil to
+the solar or Sothic year in order to restore the festivals to their
+proper places in the seasons temporarily or otherwise, is a question of
+great importance for chronology, but at present it remains unanswered.
+Probably neither the Sothic nor any other era was employed by the
+ancient Egyptians, who dated solely by regnal years (see below). An
+inscription of Rameses II. at Tanis is dated in the 400th year of the
+reign of the god Seth of Ombos, probably with reference to some
+religious ordinance during the rule of the Seth-worshipping Hyksos;
+Rameses II. may well have celebrated its quater-centenary, but it is
+wrong to argue from this piece of evidence alone that an era of Seth was
+ever observed.
+
+From the Middle Kingdom onward to the Roman period, the dates upon
+Egyptian documents are given in regnal years. On the oldest monuments
+the years in a reign were not numbered consecutively but were named
+after events; thus in the Ist Dynasty we find "the year of smiting the
+Antiu-people," in the beginning of the IIIrd Dynasty "the year of
+fighting and smiting the people of Lower Egypt." But under the IInd
+Dynasty there was a census of property for taxation every two years, and
+the custom, continuing (with some irregularities) for a long time,
+offered a uniform mode of marking years, whether current or past. Thus
+such dates are met with as "the year of the third time of numbering" of
+a particular king, the next being designated as "the year after the
+third time of numbering." Under the Vth Dynasty this method was so much
+the rule that the words "of numbering" were commonly omitted. It would
+seem that in the course of the next dynasty the census became annual
+instead of biennial, so that the "times" agreed with the actual years of
+reign; thenceforward their consecutive designation as "first time,"
+"second time," for "first year," "second year," was as simple as it well
+could be, and lasted unchanged to the fall of paganism. The question
+arises from what point these regnal dates were calculated. Successive
+regnal years might begin (1) on the anniversary of the king's accession,
+or (2) on the calendrical beginning in each year (normally on the first
+day of the nominal First month of inundation, i.e. 1st Thoth in the
+later calendar). In the latter case there would be a further
+consideration: was the portion of a calendar year following the
+accession of the new king counted to the last year of the outgoing king,
+or to the first year of the new king? In Dynasties I., IV.-V., XVIII.
+there are instances of the first mode (1), in Dynasties II., VI. (?),
+XII., XXVI. and onwards they follow the second (2). It may be that the
+practice was not uniform in all documents even of the same age. In
+Ptolemaic times not only were Macedonian dates sometimes given in Greek
+documents, but there were certainly two native modes of dating current;
+down to the reign of Euergetes there was a "fiscal" dating in papyri,
+according to which the year began in Paophi, besides a civil dating
+probably from Thoth; later, all the dates in papyri start from Thoth.
+
+The Macedonian year is found in early Ptolemaic documents. The fixed
+year of the Canopic decree under Euergetes (with 1st Thoth on Oct. 22)
+was never adopted. Augustus established an "Alexandrian" era with the
+fixed Julian year, retaining the Egyptian months, with a sixth
+epagomenal day every fourth year. The capture of Alexandria having taken
+place on the 1st of August 30 B.C., the era began nominally in 30 B.C.,
+but it was not actually introduced till some years later, from which
+time the 1st Thoth corresponded with the 29th of August in the Julian
+year. The vague "Egyptian" year, however, continued in use in native
+documents for some centuries along with the Alexandrian "Ionian" year.
+The era of Diocletian dates from the 29th of August 284, the year of his
+reforms; later, however, the Christians called it the era of the Martyrs
+(though the persecution was not until 302), and it survived the Arab
+conquest. The dating by indictions, i.e. Roman tax-censuses, taking
+place every fifteenth year, probably originated in Egypt, in A.D. 312,
+the year of the defeat of Maxentius. The indictions began in Payni of
+the fixed year, when the harvest had been secured.
+
+  See F. K. Ginzel, _Handbuch der mathematischen und technischen
+  Chronologie_, Bd. i. (Leipzig, 1906), and the bibliography in the
+  following section.
+
+2. _Historical._[18]--As to absolute chronology, the assigning of a
+regnal year to a definite date B.C. is clear enough (except in
+occasional detail) from the conquest by Alexander onwards. Before that
+time, in spite of successive efforts to establish a chronology, the
+problem is very obscure. The materials for reconstructing the absolute
+chronology are of several kinds: (1) Regnal dates as given on
+contemporary monuments may indicate the _lengths of individual reigns_,
+but not with accuracy, as they seldom reach to the end of a reign and do
+not allow for co-regencies. Records of the time that has elapsed between
+two regnal dates in the reigns of different kings are very helpful; thus
+stelae from the Serapeum recording the ages of the Apis bulls with the
+dates of their birth and death have fixed the chronology of the XXVIth
+Dynasty. Traditional evidence for the lengths of reigns exists in the
+Turin Papyrus of kings and in Manetho's history; unfortunately the
+papyrus is very fragmentary and preserves few reign-lengths entire, and
+Manetho's evidence seems very untrustworthy, being known only from late
+excerpts. (2) The duration of a period may be calculated by
+_generations_ or the probable average lengths of reigns, but such
+calculations are of little value, and the succession of generations even
+when the evidence seems to be full is particularly difficult to
+ascertain in Egyptian, owing to adoptions and the repetition of the same
+name even in one family of brothers and sisters. (3) _Synchronisms_ in
+the histories of other countries furnish reliable dates--Greek, Persian,
+Babylonian and Biblical dates for the XXVIth Dynasty, Assyrian for the
+XXVth; less precise are the Biblical date of Rehoboam, contemporary with
+the invasion of Shishak (Sheshonk) in the XXIInd Dynasty, and the date
+of the Babylonian and Assyrian kings contemporary with Amenhotp IV. in
+the XVIIIth Dynasty. The last, about 1400 B.C., is the earliest point to
+which such coincidences reach. (4) _Astronomical data_, especially the
+heliacal risings of Sothis recorded by dates of their celebration in the
+vague year. These are easily calculated on the assumption first that the
+observations were correctly made, secondly that the calendrical dates
+are in the year of 365 days beginning on 1st Thoth, and thirdly that
+this year subsequently underwent no readjustment or other alteration
+before the reign of Euergetes. The assumption may be a reasonable one,
+and if the results agree with probabilities as deduced from the rest of
+the evidence it is wise to adopt it; if on the other hand the other
+evidence seems in any serious degree contrary to those results it may be
+surmised that the assumption is faulty in some particular. The harvest
+date referred to below helps to show that the first part of the
+assumption is justified.
+
+  +---------+---------------+--------+----------+------+--------+------+
+  |Dynasty. |  Meyer 1887   |Petrie  |  Meyer   |Sethe |Breasted|Petrie|
+  |         |(minimum date).|1894 &c.|1904-1908.|1905. |  1906. |1906. |
+  +---------+---------------+--------+----------+------+--------+------+
+  |      I. | }             |  4777  |  3315    | 3360 |  3400  | 5510 |
+  |     II. | }   3180      |  4514  |          | 3110 |        | 5247 |
+  |    III. | }             |  4212  |  2895    | 2810 |  2980  | 4945 |
+  |     IV. |     2830      |  3998  |  2840    | 2720 |  2900  | 4731 |
+  |      V. |               |  3721  |  2680    | 2630 |  2750  | 4454 |
+  |     VI. |     2530      |  3503  |  2540    | 2480 |  2625  | 4206 |
+  |    VII. |               |  3322  |          | 2300 |  2475  | 4003 |
+  |   VIII. |               |  3252  |          |      |        | 3933 |
+  |     IX. |               |  3106  |  2360    |      |  2445  | 3787 |
+  |      X. |               |  3006  |          |      |        | 3687 |
+  |     XI. |               |  2821  |  2160    | 2100 |  2160  | 3502 |
+  |    XII. |     2130      |  2778  |  2000    | 2000 |  2000  | 3459 |
+  |   XIII. |     1930      |  2565  |  1791    |      |  1788  | 3246 |
+  |    XIV. |               |  2112  |          |      |        | 2793 |
+  |     XV. |     1780      |        |  1680[*] |      |        | 2533 |
+  |    XVI. |               |  1928  |          |      |        | 2249 |
+  |   XVII. |               |  1738  |          |      |        | 1731 |
+  |  XVIII. |     1530      |  1587  |  1580    |      |  1580  | 1580 |
+  |    XIX. |     1320      |  1327  |  1321    |      |  1350  | 1323 |
+  +---------+---------------+--------+----------+------+--------+------+
+    [*] Meyer makes XIII. overlap XV. (Hyksos), and XIV. (Xoite),
+    contemporary with XVI. (Hyksos) and XVII. (Theban).
+
+The duration of the reigns in several dynasties is fairly well known
+from the incontrovertible evidence of contemporary monuments. The XXVIth
+Dynasty, which lasted 139 years, is particularly clear, and synchronisms
+fix its regnal dates to the years B.C. within an error of one or two
+years at most. The lengths of several reigns in the XIIth, XVIIIth and
+XIXth Dynasties are known, and the sum total for the XIIth Dynasty is
+preserved better than any other in the Turin Papyrus, which was written
+under the XIXth Dynasty. The succession and number of the kings are also
+ascertained for other dynasties, together with many regnal dates, but
+very serious gaps exist in the records of the Egyptian monuments, the
+worst being between the XIIth and the XVIIIth Dynasties, between the
+XIth and the VIth, and at Dynasties I.-III. For the chronology before
+the time of the XXVIth Dynasty Herodotus's history is quite worthless.
+Manetho alone of all authorities offers a complete chronology from the
+1st Dynasty to the XXXth. In the case of the six kings of the XXVIth
+Dynasty, Africanus, the best of his excerptors, gives correct figures
+for five reigns, but attributes six instead of sixteen years to Necho;
+the other excerptors have wrong numbers throughout. For the XIXth
+Dynasty Manetho's figures are wrong wherever we can check them; the
+names, too, are seriously faulty. In the XVIIIth Dynasty he has too many
+names and few are clearly identifiable, while the numbers are
+incomprehensible. In the XIIth Dynasty the number of the kings is
+correct and many of the names can be justified, but the reign-lengths
+are nearly, if not quite, all wrong. The summations of years for the
+Dynasties XII. and XVIII. are likewise wrong. It seems, therefore, that
+the known texts of Manetho, serviceable as they have been in the
+reconstruction of Egyptian history, cannot be employed as a serious
+guide to the early chronology, since they are faulty wherever we can
+check them, even in the XXVIth Dynasty whose kings were so celebrated
+among the Greeks. There remain the astronomical data. Of these, the
+Sothic date furnished by a calendar in the Ebers Papyrus of the 9th year
+of Amenophis I. (when interpreted on the assumption stated above), and
+another at Elephantine of an uncertain year of Tethmosis III., tally
+well with each other (1550-1546, 1474-1470 B.C.) and with the Babylonian
+synchronism (not yet accurately determined) under Amenhotp IV.
+(Akhenaton). Another Sothic date of the 7th year of Senwosri III. on a
+Berlin papyrus from Kahun, similarly interpreted (1882-1878 B.C.), gives
+for the XIIth Dynasty a range from 2000 to 1788 B.C. This (discovered by
+L. Borchardt in 1899) seems to offer a welcome ray, piercing the
+obscurity of early Egyptian chronology; guided by it the historian Ed.
+Meyer, and K. Sethe have framed systems of chronology in close agreement
+with each other, reaching back to the 1st Dynasty at about 3400 B.C. To
+Meyer is further due a calculation that the Egyptian calendar was
+introduced in 4241-4238 B.C.[19] Their results in general have been
+adopted by the "Berlin school," including Erman, Steindorff (in
+Baedeker's _Egypt_) and Breasted in America. Nevertheless many
+Egyptologists are unwilling to accept the new chronology, the chief
+obstacle being that it allows so short an interval for the six dynasties
+between the XIIth and the XVIIIth. If the XIIth Dynasty ended about 1790
+B.C. and the XVIIIth began about 1570 B.C., taking what seems to be the
+utmost interval that it permits, 220 years have to contain a crowd of
+kings of whom nearly 100 are already known by name from monuments and
+papyri, while fresh names are being added annually to the long list; the
+shattered fragments of the last columns in the Turin Papyrus show space
+for 150 or perhaps 180 kings of this period, apparently without reaching
+the XVIIth Dynasty. An estimate of 160 to 200 kings would therefore not
+be excessive. The dates that have come down to us are very few; the only
+ones known from the Hyksos period are of a 12th and a 33rd year. In the
+Turin Papyrus two reign-lengths of less than a year, seven others of
+less than five years each, one of ten years and one of thirteen seem
+attributable to the XIIIth and XIVth Dynasties. Probably most of the
+reigns were short, as Manetho also decidedly indicates. It is possible
+that the compiler of the Turin Papyrus, who excluded contemporary reigns
+in the period between the VIth and the XIIth Dynasties, here admitted
+such; nor is a correspondingly large number of kings in so short a
+period without analogies in history. Professor Petrie, however, thinks
+it best, while accepting the evidence of the Sirius date, to suppose
+further that a whole Sothic period of 1460 years had passed in the
+interval, making a total of 1650 years for the six dynasties in place of
+220 years. This, however, seems greatly in excess of probability, and
+several Egyptologists familiar with excavation are willing to accept
+Meyer's figures on archaeological grounds. To the present writer it
+seems that Meyer's chronology provides a convenient working theory, but
+involves such an improbability in regard to the interval between the
+XIIth and the XVIIIth Dynasties that the interpretation of the Sothic
+date on which it is founded must be viewed with suspicion until clear
+facts are found to corroborate it. Corroboration has been sought by
+Mahler, Sethe and Petrie in the dates of new moons, of warlike and other
+expeditions, and of high Nile, but their evidence so far is too vague
+and uncertain to affect the question seriously. It is remarkable that no
+records of eclipses are known from Egyptian documents. The interesting
+date of the harvest at El Bersha, quoted by Meyer in Breasted,
+_Records_, i. p. 48, confirms the Sothic date for the XIIth Dynasty in
+some measure, but it belongs to the same age, and therefore its evidence
+would be equally vitiated with the other by any subsequent alteration in
+the Egyptian calendar. Before the discovery of the Kahun Sothic date,
+Professor Petrie put the end of the XIIth Dynasty at 2565 B.C.; in 1884
+even Meyer had suggested 1930 B.C. as its _minimum_ date, thus allowing
+400 years at the least for the period from the XIIIth Dynasty to the
+XVIIth.
+
+  +----------+-----------+-------+------------+----------+---------+
+  | Dynasty. | Wiedemann | Meyer |   Petrie   | Breasted | Maspero |
+  |          |   1884.   | 1884. | 1905-1906. |   1906.  |  1904.  |
+  +----------+-----------+-------+------------+----------+---------+
+  |     XIX. |   1490    |  1320 |(1328), 1322|   1350   |         |
+  |      XX. |   1280    |  1180 |    1202    |   1200   |         |
+  |     XXI. |   1100    |  1060 |    1102    |   1090   |         |
+  |    XXII. |    975    |   930 |     952    |    945   |         |
+  |   XXIII. |    810    |       |     755    |    745   |         |
+  |    XXIV. |    720    |       |     721    |    718   |         |
+  |     XXV. |    715    |   728 |     715    |    712   |         |
+  |    XXVI. |    664    |   663 |     664    |    663   |         |
+  |   XXVII. |    525    |   525 |     525    |    525   |    425  |
+  |  XXVIII. |    415    |       |     405    |          | c. 405  |
+  |    XXIX. |    408    |       |     399    |          |    399  |
+  |     XXX. |    387    |       |     378    |          |    380  |
+  |   Ochus  |    350    |       |     342    |          |    342  |
+  +----------+-----------+-------+------------+----------+---------+
+
+Beyond the XIIth Dynasty estimates must again be vague. The spacing of
+the years on the Palermo stone has given rise to some calculations for
+the early dynasties. Others are grounded on the dates of certain
+operations which are likely to have taken place at particular seasons
+of the year so that they can be roughly calculated on the Sothic basis,
+others on Manetho's figures, average lengths of reigns, evidence of the
+Turin Papyrus, &c.
+
+Table I. page 79 shows the chronology of the first nineteen dynasties,
+according to recent authorities, before and after the discovery of the
+Kahun Sothic date.
+
+The dates of the earlier dynasties in this table are always intended to
+be only approximate; for instance, Meyer in 1904 allowed an error of 100
+years either of excess or deficiency in the dates he assigned to the
+dynasties from the Xth upwards.
+
+The other dynasties are dated as in Table II. by different authorities.
+
+  See Ed. Meyer, _Geschichte des Altertums_, Bd. i. (Stuttgart, 1884),
+  _Geschichte des alten Agyptens_ (1887), _Agyptische Chronologie_
+  (_Abhandl._ of Prussian Academy) (Berlin, 1904, with the supplement
+  _Nachtrage zur agypt. Chronologie_, ib. 1907); K. Sethe, "Beitrage zur
+  altesten Geschichte Agyptens" (in his _Untersuchungen_, Bd. iii.)
+  (Leipzig, 1905); J. H. Breasted, _Ancient Records of Egypt_,
+  "Historical Documents," vol. i. (Chicago, 1906); W. M. F. Petrie, _A
+  History of Egypt_, vol. i. (London, 1884), vol. iii. (1905),
+  _Researches in Sinai_ (London, 1906); G. Maspero, _Histoire ancienne
+  des peuples de l'orient_ (Paris, 1904); A. Wiedemann, _Agyptische
+  Geschichte_ (Gotha, 1884); articles by Mahler and others in the
+  _Zeitschrift fur agyptische Sprache and Orientalistische
+  Literaturzeitung_ (recent years).     (F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+III. HISTORY
+
+1. _From the Earliest Times to the Moslem Conquest._
+
+In the absence of a strict chronology, the epochs of Pharaonic history
+are conveniently reckoned in dynasties according to Manetho's scheme,
+and these dynasties are grouped into longer periods:--the Old Kingdom
+(Dynasties I. to VIII.), including the Earliest Dynasties (I. to III.)
+and the Pyramid Period (Dynasties IV. to VI.); the Middle Kingdom
+(Dynasties IX. to XVII.), including the Heracleopolite Dynasties (IX. to
+X.) and the Hyksos Period (Dynasties XV. to XVII.); the New Empire
+(Dynasties XVIII. to XX.); the Deltaic Dynasties (Dynasties XXI. to
+XXXI.), including the Saite and Persian Periods (Dynasties XXVI. to
+XXXI.). The conquest by Alexander ushers in the Hellenistic age,
+comprising the periods of Ptolemaic and Roman rule.
+
+_The Prehistoric Age._--One of the most striking features of recent
+Egyptology is the way in which the earliest ages of the civilization,
+before the conventional Egyptian style was formed, have been illustrated
+by the results of excavation. Until 1895 there seemed little hope of
+reaching the records of those remote times, although it was plain that
+the civilization had developed in the Nile valley for many centuries
+before the IVth Dynasty, beyond which the earliest known monuments
+scarcely reached. Since that year, however, there has been a steady flow
+of discoveries in prehistoric and early historic cemeteries, and, partly
+in consequence of this, monuments already known, such as the annals of
+the Palermo stone, have been made articulate for the beginnings of
+history in Egypt.
+
+It is probable that certain rudely chipped flints, so-called eoliths, in
+the alluvial gravels (formed generally at the mouth of wadis opening on
+to the Nile) at Thebes and elsewhere, are the work of primitive man; but
+it has been shown that such are produced also by natural forces in the
+rush of torrents. On the surface of the desert, at the borders of the
+valley, palaeolithic implements of well-defined form are not uncommon,
+and bear the marks of a remote antiquity. In some cases they appear to
+lie where they were chipped on the sites of flint factories. Geologists
+and anthropologists are not yet agreed on the question whether the
+climate and condition of the country have undergone large changes since
+these implements were deposited. As yet none have been found in such
+association with animal remains as would help in deciding their age, nor
+have any implements been discovered in rock-shelters or in caves.
+
+Of neolithic remains, arrowheads and other implements are found in some
+numbers in the deserts. In the Fayum region, about the borders of the
+ancient Lake of Moeris and beyond, they are particularly abundant and
+interesting in their forms. But their age is uncertain; some may be
+contemporary with the advanced culture of the XIIth Dynasty in the Nile
+valley. Definite history on the other hand has been gained from the
+wonderful series of "prehistoric" cemeteries excavated by J. de Morgan,
+Petrie, Reisner and others on the desert edgings of the cultivated
+alluvium. The succession of archaeological types revealed in them has
+been tabulated by Petrie in his _Diospolis Parva_; and the detailed
+publication of Reisner's unusually careful researches is bringing much
+new light on the questions involved, amongst other things showing the
+exact point at which the "prehistoric" series merges into the Ist
+Dynasty, for, as might be surmised, in many cases the prehistoric
+cemeteries continued in use under the earliest dynasties. The finest
+pottery, often painted but all hand-made without the wheel, belongs to
+the prehistoric period; so also do the finest flint implements, which,
+in the delicacy and exactitude of their form and flaking, surpass all
+that is known from other countries. Metal seems to be entirely absent
+from the earliest type of graves, but immediately thereafter copper
+begins to appear (bronze is hardly to be found before the XIIth
+Dynasty). The paintings on the vases show boats driven by oars and sails
+rudely figured, and the boats bear emblematic standards or ensigns. The
+cemeteries are found throughout Upper and Middle Egypt, but as yet have
+not been met with in the Delta or on its borders. This might be
+accounted for by the inhabitants of Lower Egypt having practised a
+different mode of disposing of the dead, or by their cemeteries being
+differently placed.
+
+Tradition, mythology and later customs make it possible to recover a
+scrap of the political history of that far-off time. Menes, the founder
+of the Ist Dynasty, united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. In
+the prehistoric period, therefore, these two realms were separate. The
+capital of Upper Egypt was Nekheb, now represented by the ruins of El
+Kab, with the royal residence across the river at Nekhen
+(Hieraconpolis); that of Lower Egypt was at Buto (Puto or Dep) in the
+marshes, with the royal residence in the quarter called Pe. Nekhebi,
+goddess of El Kab, represented the Upper or Southern Kingdom, which was
+also under the tutelage of the god Seth, the goddess Buto and the god
+Horus similarly presiding over the Lower Kingdom. The royal god in the
+palace of each was a hawk or Horus. The spirits of the deceased kings
+were honoured respectively as the jackal-headed spirits of Nekhen and
+the hawk-headed spirits of Pe. As we hear also of the "spirits of On" it
+is probable that Heliopolis was at one time capital of a kingdom. In
+after days the prehistoric kings were known as "Worshippers of Horus"
+and in Manetho's list they are the [Greek: nekues] "Dead," and [Greek:
+heroes] "Heroes," being looked upon as intermediate between the divine
+dynasties and those of human kings. It is impossible to estimate the
+duration of the period represented by the prehistoric cemeteries; that
+the two kingdoms existed throughout unchanged is hardly probable.
+
+According to the somatologist Elliott Smith, the most important change
+in the physical character of the people of Upper Egypt, in the entire
+range of Egyptian archaeology, took place at the beginning of the
+dynastic period; and he accounts for this by the mingling of the Lower
+with the Upper Egyptian population, consequent on the uniting of the two
+countries under one rule. From remains of the age of the IVth Dynasty he
+is able to define to some extent the type of the population of Lower
+Egypt as having a better cranial and muscular development than that of
+Upper Egypt, probably through immigration from Syria. The advent of the
+dynasties, however, produced a quickening rather than a dislocation in
+the development of civilization.
+
+It is doubtful whether we possess any writing of the prehistoric age. A
+few names of the kings of Lower Egypt are preserved in the first line of
+the Palermo stone, but no annals are attached to them. Petrie considers
+that one of the kings buried at Abydos, provisionally called Nar-mer and
+whose real name may be Mer or Beza, preceded Menes; of him there are
+several inscribed records, notably a magnificent carved and inscribed
+slate palette found at Hieraconpolis, with figures of the king and his
+vizier, war-standards and prisoners. To identify him with Bezau
+(Boethos) of the IInd Dynasty runs counter to much archaeological
+evidence. Sethe places him next after Menes and some would identify him
+with that king. Another inscribed palette may be pre-dynastic; it
+perhaps mentions a king named "Scorpion."
+
+
+  The earliest dynasties.
+
+_The Old Kingdom._--The names of a number of kings attributable to the
+Ist Dynasty are known from their tombs at Abydos. Unfortunately, they
+are almost exclusively Horus titles [HRG: tyw-O33], in place of the
+personal names by which they were recorded in the lists of Abydos and
+Manetho; some, however, of the latter are found, and prove that the
+scribes of the New Kingdom were unable to read them correctly. Important
+changes and improvements took place in the writing even during the Ist
+Dynasty. The personal name of Menes [HRG: mn] is given by one only of
+many relics of a king whose Horus-name was Aha, "the Fighter." Doubts
+have been expressed about the identification with Menes, but it is
+strongly corroborated by the very archaic style of the remains. The name
+of Aha (Menes) was found in two tombs, one at Nagada north of Thebes and
+nearly opposite the road to the Red Sea, the other at Abydos. Manetho
+makes the Ist Dynasty Thinite, this being the capital of the nome in
+which Abydos lay. Upper Egypt always had precedence over Lower Egypt,
+and it seems clear that Menes came from the former and conquered the
+latter. According to tradition he founded Memphis which lay on the
+frontier of his conquest; probably he resided there as well as at
+Abydos; at any rate relics of one of the later kings of the Ist Dynasty
+have already been recognized in its vast necropolis. Of the eight kings
+of the Ist Dynasty, three--the fifth, sixth and seventh in the Ramesside
+list of Abydos--are positively identified by tomb-remains from Abydos,
+and others are scarcely less certain. Two of the kings have also left
+tablets at the copper and turquoise mines of Wadi Maghara in Sinai. The
+royal tombs are built of brick, but one of them, that of Usaphais, had
+its floor of granite from Elephantine. They must have been filled with
+magnificent furniture and provisions of every kind, including annual
+record-tablets of the reigns, carved in ivory and ebony. From a fragment
+on the Palermo stone it is clear that material existed as late as the
+Vth Dynasty for a brief note of the height of the Nile and other
+particulars in each year of the reign of these kings.
+
+The IInd Dynasty of Manetho appears to have been separated from the Ist
+even on the Palermo stone; it also was Thinite, and the tombs of several
+of its nine (?) kings were found at Abydos. The IIIrd Dynasty is given
+as Memphite by Manetho. Two of the kings built huge mastaba-tombs at Bet
+Khallaf near Abydos, but the architect and learned scribe Imhotp
+designed for one of these two kings, named Zoser, a second and mightier
+monument at Memphis, the great step-pyramid of Sakkara. In Ptolemaic
+times Imhotp was deified, and the traditional importance of Zoser is
+shown by a forged grant of the Dodecaschoenus to the cataract god Khnum,
+purporting to be from his reign, but in reality dating from the
+Ptolemaic age. With Snefru, at the end of this dynasty, we reach the
+beginning of Egyptian history as it was known before the recent
+discoveries. Monuments and written records are henceforth more numerous
+and important, and the Palermo annals show a fuller scale of record. The
+events in the three years that are preserved include a successful raid
+upon the negroes, and the construction of ships and gates of cedar-wood
+which must have been brought from the forests of the Lebanon. Snefru
+also set up a tablet at Wadi Maghara in Sinai. He built two pyramids,
+one of them at Medum in steps, the other, probably in the perfected
+form, at Dahshur, both lying between Memphis and the Fayum.
+
+
+  The pyramid period.
+
+Pyramids did not cease to be built in Egypt till the New Kingdom; but
+from the end of the IIIrd to the VIth Dynasty is pre-eminently the time
+when the royal pyramid in stone was the chief monument left by each
+successive king. Zoser and Snefru have been already noticed. The
+personal name enclosed in a cartouche [HRG] is henceforth the commonest
+title of the king. We now reach the IVth Dynasty containing the famous
+names of Cheops (q.v.), Chephren (Khafre) and Mycerinus (Menkeure),
+builders respectively of the Great, the Second and the Third Pyramids of
+Giza. In the best art of this time there was a grandeur which was never
+again attained. Perhaps the noblest example of Egyptian sculpture in the
+round is a diorite statue of Chephren, one of several found by Mariette
+in the so-called Temple of the Sphinx. This "temple" proves to be a
+monumental gate at the lower end of the great causeway leading to the
+plateau on which the pyramids were built. A king Dedefre, between Cheops
+and Chephren, built a pyramid at Abu-Roash. Shepseskaf is one of the
+last in the dynasty. Tablets of most of these kings have been found at
+the mines of Wadi Maghara. In the neighbourhood of the pyramids there
+are numerous mastabas of the court officials with fine sculpture in the
+chapels, and a few decorated tombs from the end of this centralized
+dynasty of absolute monarchs are known in Upper Egypt. A tablet which
+describes Cheops as the builder of various shrines about the Great
+Sphinx has been shown to be a priestly forgery, but the Sphinx itself
+may have been carved out of the rock under the splendid rule of the IVth
+Dynasty.
+
+The Vth Dynasty is said to be of Elephantine, but this must be a
+mistake. Its kings worshipped Re, the sun, rather than Horus, as their
+ancestor, and the title [HRG: zA-hrw] "son of the Sun" began to be
+written by them before the cartouche containing the personal name, while
+another "solar" cartouche, containing a name compounded with Re,
+followed the title [HRG: sw:t-bit:t] "king of Upper and Lower Egypt."
+Sahure and the other kings of the dynasty built magnificent temples with
+obelisks dedicated to Re, one of which, that of Neuserre at Abusir, has
+been thoroughly explored. The marvellous tales of the Westcar Papyrus,
+dating from the Middle Kingdom, narrate how three of the kings were born
+of a priestess of Re. The pyramids of several of the kings are known.
+The early ones are at Abusir, and the best preserved of the pyramid
+temples, that of Sahure, excavated by the German Orient-Gesellschaft, in
+its architecture and sculptured scenes has revealed an astonishingly
+complete development of art and architecture as well as of warlike
+enterprise by sea and land at this remote period; the latest pyramid
+belonging to the Vth Dynasty, that of Unas at Sakkara, is inscribed with
+long ritual and magical texts. Exquisitely sculptured tombs of this time
+are very numerous at Memphis and are found throughout Upper Egypt. Of
+work in the traditional temples of the country no trace remains,
+probably because, being in limestone, it has all perished. The annals of
+the Palermo stone were engraved and added to during this dynasty; the
+chief events recorded for the time are gifts and endowments for the
+temples. Evidently priestly influence was strong at the court.
+Expeditions to Sinai and Puoni (Punt) are commemorated on tablets.
+
+The VIth Dynasty if not more vigorous was more articulate; inscribed
+tombs are spread throughout the country. The most active of its kings
+was the third, named Pepi or Phiops, from whose pyramid at Sakkara the
+capital, hitherto known as "White Walls," derived its later name of
+Memphis (MN-NFR, Mempi); a tombstone from Abydos celebrates the activity
+of a certain Una during the reigns of Pepi and his successor in
+organizing expeditions to the Sinai peninsula and south Palestine, and
+in transporting granite from Elephantine and other quarries. Herkhuf,
+prince of Elephantine and an enterprising leader of caravans to the
+south countries both in Nubia and the Libyan oases, flourished under
+Merenre and Pepi II. called Neferkere. On one occasion he brought home a
+dwarf dancer from the Sudan, described as being like one brought from
+Puoni in the time of the fifth-dynasty king Assa; this drew from the
+youthful Pepi II. an enthusiastic letter which was engraved in full upon
+the facade of Herkhuf's tomb. The reign of the last-named king, begun
+early, lasted over ninety years, a fact so long remembered that even
+Manetho attributes to him ninety-four years; its length probably caused
+the ruin of the dynasty. The local princelings and monarchs had been
+growing in culture, wealth and power, and after Pepi II. an ominous gap
+in the monuments, pointing to civil war, marks the end of the Old
+Kingdom. The VIIth and VIIIth Dynasties are said to have been Memphite,
+but of them no record survives beyond some names of kings in the lists.
+
+
+  Heracleopolite period.
+
+_The Middle Kingdom._--The long Memphite rule was broken by the IXth and
+Xth Dynasties, of Heracleopolis Magna (Hes) in Middle Egypt. Kheti or
+Achthoes was apparently a favourite name with the kings, but they are
+very obscure. They may have spread their rule by conquest over Upper
+Egypt and then overthrown the Memphite dynasty. The chief monuments of
+the period are certain inscribed tombs at Assiut; it appears that one of
+the kings, whose praenomen was Mikere, supported by a fleet and army
+from Upper Egypt, and especially by the prince of Assiut, was restored
+to his paternal city of Heracleopolis, from which he had probably been
+driven out; his pyramid, however, was built in the old royal necropolis
+at Memphis. Later the princes of Thebes asserted their independence and
+founded the XIth Dynasty, which pushed its frontiers northwards until
+finally it occupied the whole country. Its kings were named Menthotp,
+from Mont, one of the gods of Thebes; others, perhaps sub-kings, were
+named Enyotf (Antef). They were buried at Thebes, whence the coffins of
+several were obtained by the early collectors of the 19th century.
+Nibhotp Menthotp I. probably established his rule over all Egypt. The
+funerary temple of Nebhepre Menthotp III., the last but one of these
+kings, has been excavated by the Egypt Exploration Fund at Deir el
+Bahri, and must have been a magnificent monument. His successor
+Sankhkere Menthotp IV. is known to have sent an expedition by the Red
+Sea to Puoni.
+
+The XIIth Dynasty is the central point of the Middle Kingdom, to which
+the decline of the Memphite and the rise of the Heracleopolite dynasty
+mark the transition, while the growth of Thebes under the XIth Dynasty
+is its true starting-point. Monuments of the XIIth Dynasty are abundant
+and often of splendid design and workmanship, whereas previously there
+had been little produced since the VIth Dynasty that was not half
+barbarous. Although not much of the history of the XIIth Dynasty is
+ascertained, the Turin Papyrus and many dated inscriptions fix the
+succession and length of reign of the eight kings very accurately. The
+troubled times that the kingdom had passed through taught the long-lived
+monarchs the precaution of associating a competent successor on the
+throne. The nomarchs and the other feudal chiefs were inclined to
+strengthen themselves at the expense of their neighbours; a firm hand
+was required to hold them in check and distribute the honours as they
+were earned by faithful service. The tombs of the most favoured and
+wealthy princes are magnificent, particularly those of certain families
+in Middle Egypt at Beni Hasan, El Bersha, Assiut and Deir Rifa, and it
+is probable that each had a court and organization within his nome like
+that of the royal palace in miniature. Eventually, in the reigns of
+Senwosri III. and Amenemhe III., the succession of strong kings appears
+to have centralized all authority very completely. The names in the
+dynasty are Amenemhe (Ammenemes) and Senwosri (formerly read Usertesen
+or Senusert). The latter seems to be the origin of the Sesostris (q.v.)
+and Sesoosis of the legends. Amenemhe I., the first king, whose
+connexion with the previous dynasty is not known, reigned for thirty
+years, ten of them being in partnership with his son Senwosri I. He had
+to fight for his throne and then reorganize the country, removing his
+capital or residence from Thebes to a central situation near Lisht about
+25 m. south of Memphis. His monuments are widespread in Egypt, the
+quarries and mines in the desert as far as Sinai bear witness to his
+great activity, and we know of an expedition which he made against the
+Nubians. The "Instructions of Amenemhe to his son Senwosri," whether
+really his own or a later composition, refer to these things, to his
+care for his subjects, and to the ingratitude with which he was
+rewarded, an attempt on his life having been made by the trusted
+servants in his own palace. The story of Sinuhi is the true or realistic
+history of a soldier who, having overheard the secret intelligence of
+Amenemhe's death, fled in fear to Palestine or Syria and there became
+rich in the favour of the prince of the land; growing old, however, he
+successfully sued for pardon from Senwosri and permission to return and
+die in Egypt.
+
+Senwosri I. was already the executive partner in the time of the
+co-regency, warring with the Libyans and probably in the Sudan. After
+Amenemhe's death he fully upheld the greatness of the dynasty in his
+long reign of forty-five years. The obelisk of Heliopolis is amongst his
+best-known monuments, and the damming of the Lake of Moeris (q.v.) must
+have been in progress in his reign. He built a temple far up the Nile at
+Wadi Halfa and there set up a stela commemorating his victories over the
+tribes of Nubia. The fine tombs of Ameni at Beni Hasan and of Hepzefa at
+Assiut belong to his reign. The pyramids of both father and son are at
+Lisht.
+
+Amenemhe II. was buried at Dahshur; he was followed by Senwosri II.,
+whose pyramid is at Illahun at the mouth of the Fayum. In his reign were
+executed the fine paintings in the tomb of Khnemhotp at Beni Hasan,
+which include a remarkable scene of Semitic Bedouins bringing eye-paint
+to Egypt from the eastern deserts. In Manetho he is identified with
+Sesostris (see above), but Senwosri I., and still more Senwosri III.,
+have a better claim to this distinction. The latter warred in Palestine
+and in Nubia, and marked the south frontier of his kingdom by a statue
+and stelae at Semna beyond the Second Cataract. Near his pyramid was
+discovered the splendid jewelry of some princesses of his family (see
+JEWELRY ad init.). The tomb of Thethotp at El Bersha, celebrated for the
+scene of the transport of a colossus amongst its paintings, was finished
+in this reign.
+
+Amenemhe III. completed the work of Lake Moeris and began a series of
+observations of the height of the inundation at Semna which was
+continued by his successors. In his long reign of forty-six years he
+built a pyramid at Dahshur, and at Hawara near the Lake of Moeris
+another pyramid together with the Labyrinth which seems to have been an
+enormous funerary temple attached to the pyramid. His name was
+remembered in the Fayum during the Graeco-Roman period and his effigy
+worshipped there as Pera-marres, i.e. Pharaoh Marres (Marres being his
+praenomen graecized). Amenemhe IV.'s reign was short, and the dynasty
+ended with a queen Sebeknefru (Scemiophris), whose name is found in the
+scanty remains of the Labyrinth. The XIIth Dynasty numbered eight rulers
+and lasted for 213 years. Great as it was, it created no empire outside
+the Nile valley, and its most imposing monument, which according to the
+testimony of the ancients rivalled the pyramids, is now represented by a
+vast stratum of chips.
+
+The history of the following period down to the rise of the New Empire
+is very obscure. Manetho gives us the XIIIth (Diospolite) Dynasty, the
+XIVth (Xoite from Xois in Lower Egypt), the XVth and XVIth (Hyksos) and
+the XVIIth (Diospolite), but his names are lost except for the Hyksos
+kings. The Abydos tablet ignores all between the XIIth and XVIIIth
+Dynasties. The Turin Papyrus preserves many names on its shattered
+fragments, and the monuments are for ever adding to the list, but it is
+difficult to assign them accurately to their places. The Hyksos names
+can in some cases be recognized by their foreign aspect, the peculiar
+style of the scarabs on which they are engraved or by resemblances to
+those recorded in Manetho. The kings of the XVIIth Dynasty too are
+generally recognizable by the form of their name and other
+circumstances. Manetho indicates marvellous crowding for the XIIIth and
+XIVth Dynasties, but it seems better to suggest a total duration of 300
+or 400 years for the whole period than to adopt Meyer's estimate of
+about 210 years (see above, Chronology).
+
+Amongst the kings of the XIIIth Dynasty (including perhaps the XIVth),
+not a few are represented by granite statues of colossal size and fine
+workmanship, especially at Thebes and Tanis, some by architectural
+fragments, some by graffiti on the rocks about the First Cataract. Some
+few certainly reigned over all Egypt. Sebkhotp (Sekhotp, [Greek:
+Sochotes]) is a favourite name, no doubt to be connected with the god of
+the Fayum. Several of the Theban kings named Antef (Enyotf) must be
+placed here rather than in the XIth Dynasty. A decree of one of them
+degrading a monarch who had sided with his enemies was found at Coptos
+engraved on a doorway of Senwosri I.
+
+
+  The Hyksos period.
+
+In its divided state Egypt would fall an easy prey to the foreigner.
+Manetho says that the Hyksos (q.v.) gained Egypt without a blow. Their
+domination must have lasted a considerable time, the Rhind mathematical
+papyrus having been copied in the thirty-third year of a king Apophis.
+The monuments and scarabs of the Hyksos kings are found throughout Upper
+and Lower Egypt; those of Khian somehow spread as far as Crete and
+Bagdad. The Hyksos, in whom Josephus recognized the children of Israel,
+worshipped their own Syrian deity, identifying him with the Egyptian god
+Seth, and endeavoured to establish his cult throughout Egypt to the
+detriment of the native gods. It is to be hoped that definite light may
+one day be forthcoming on the whole of this critical episode which had
+such a profound effect on the character and history of the Egyptian
+people. The spirited overthrow of the Hyksos ushered in the glories in
+arms and arts which marked the New Empire. The XVIIth Dynasty probably
+began the struggle, at first as semi-independent kinglets at Thebes.
+Seqenenre is here a leading name; the mummy of the third Seqenenre, the
+earliest in the great find of royal mummies at Deir el Bahri, shows the
+head frightfully hacked and split, perhaps in a battle with the Hyksos.
+
+
+  XVIIIth Dynasty.
+
+  Queen Hatshepsut.
+
+_The New Empire._--The epithet "new" is generally attached to this
+period, and "empire" instead of "kingdom" marks its wider power. The
+glorious XVIIIth Dynasty seems to have been closely related to the
+XVIIth. Its first task was to crush the Hyksos power in the north-east
+of the Delta; this was fully accomplished by its founder Ahmosi
+(dialectically Ahmasi, Amosis or Amasis I.) capturing their great
+stronghold of Avaris. Amasis next attacked them in S.W. Palestine, where
+he captured Sharuhen after a siege of three years. He fought also in
+Syria and in Nubia, besides overcoming factious opposition in his own
+land. The principal source for the history of this time is the
+biographical inscription at El Kab of a namesake of the king, Ahmosi son
+of Abana, a sailor and warrior whose exploits extend to the reign of
+Tethmosis I. Amenophis I. (Amenhotp), succeeding Amasis, fought in Libya
+and Ethiopia. Tethmosis I. (c. 1540 B.C.) was perhaps of another family,
+but obtained his title to the throne through his wife Ahmosi. After some
+thirty years of settled rule uninterrupted by revolt, Egypt was now
+strong and rich enough to indulge to the full its new taste for war and
+lust of conquest. It had become essentially a military state. The whole
+of the administration was in the hands of the king with his vizier and
+other court officials; no trace of the feudalism of the Middle Kingdom
+survived. Tethmosis thoroughly subdued Cush, which had already been
+placed under the government of a viceroy. This province of Cush extended
+from Napata just below the Fourth Cataract on the south to El Kab in the
+north, so that it included the first three nomes of Upper Egypt, which
+agriculturally were not greatly superior to Nubia. Turning next to
+Syria, Tethmosis carried his arms as far as the Euphrates. It is
+possible that his predecessor had also reached this point, but no record
+survives to prove it. These successful campaigns were probably not very
+costly, and prisoners, plunder and tribute poured in from them to enrich
+Egypt. Tethmosis I. made the first of those great additions to the
+temple of the Theban Ammon at Karnak by which the Pharaohs of the Empire
+rendered it by far the greatest of the existing temples in the world.
+The temple of Deir el Bahri also was designed by him. Towards the end of
+his reign, his elder sons being dead, Tethmosis associated Hatshepsut,
+his daughter by Ahmosi, with himself upon the throne. Tethmosis I. was
+the first of the long line of kings to be buried in the Valley of the
+Tombs of the Kings of Thebes. At his death another son Tethmosis II.
+succeeded as the husband of his half-sister, but reigned only two or
+three years, during which he warred in Nubia and placed Tethmosis III.,
+his son by a concubine Esi, upon the throne beside him (c. 1500 B.C.).
+After her husband's death the ambitious Hatshepsut assumed the full
+regal power; upon her monuments she wears the masculine garb and aspect
+of a king though the feminine gender is retained for her in the
+inscriptions. On some monuments of this period her name appears alone,
+on others in conjunction with that of Tethmosis III., while the latter
+again may appear without the queen's; but this extraordinary woman must
+have had a great influence over her stepson and was the acknowledged
+ruler of Egypt. Tethmosis, to judge by the evidence of his mummy and the
+chronology of his reign, was already a grown man, yet no sign of the
+immense powers which he displayed later has come down to us from the
+joint reign. Hatshepsut cultivated the arts of peace. She restored the
+worship in those temples of Upper and Lower Egypt which had not yet
+recovered from the religious oppression and neglect of the Hyksos. She
+completed and decorated the temple of Deir el Bahri, embellishing its
+walls with scenes calculated to establish her claims, representing her
+divine origin and upbringing under the protection of Ammon, and her
+association on the throne by her human father. The famous sculptures of
+the great expedition by water to Puoni, the land of incense on the
+Somali coast, are also here, with many others. At Karnak Hatshepsut
+laboured chiefly to complete the works projected in the reigns of
+Tethmosis I. and II., and set up two obelisks in front of the entrance
+as it then was. One of these, still standing, is the most brilliant
+ornament of that wonderful temple. A date of the twenty-second year of
+her reign has been found at Sinai, no doubt counted from the beginning
+of the co-regency with Tethmosis I. Not much later, in his twenty-second
+year, Tethmosis III. is reigning alone in full vigour. While she lived,
+the personality of the queen secured the devotion of her servants and
+held all ambitions in check. Not long after her death there was a
+violent reaction. Prejudice against the rule of a woman, particularly
+one who had made her name and figure so conspicuous, was probably the
+cause of this outbreak, and perhaps sought justification in the fact
+that, however complete was her right, she had in some degree usurped a
+place to which her stepson (who was also her nephew) had been appointed.
+Her cartouches began to be defaced or her monuments hidden up by other
+buildings, and the same rage pursued some of her most faithful servants
+in their tombs. But the beauty of the work seems to have restrained the
+hand of the destroyer. Then came the religious fanaticism of Akhenaton,
+mutilating all figures of Ammon and all inscriptions containing his
+name; this made havoc of the exquisite monuments of Hatshepsut; and the
+restorers of the XIXth Dynasty, refusing to recognize the legitimacy of
+the queen, had no scruples in replacing her names by those of the
+associate kings Tethmosis I., II. or III. These acts of vandalism took
+place throughout Egypt, but in the distant mines of Sinai the cartouches
+of Hatshepsut are untouched. In the royal lists of Seti I. and Rameses
+II. Hatshepsut has no place, nor is her reign referred to on any later
+monument.[20]
+
+
+  Wars of Tethmosis III.
+
+The immense energy of Tethmosis III. now found its outlet in war. Syria
+had revolted, perhaps on Hatshepsut's death, but by his twenty-second
+year the monarch was ready to lead his army against the rebels. The
+revolt, headed by the city of Kadesh on the Orontes, embraced the whole
+of western Syria. The movements of Tethmosis in this first campaign,
+including a battle with the Syrian chariots and infantry at Megiddo and
+the capture of that city, were chronicled from day to day, and an
+extract from this chronicle is engraved on the walls of the sanctuary of
+Karnak, together with a brief record of the subsequent expeditions. In a
+series of five carefully planned campaigns he consolidated his
+conquests in southern Syria and secured the ports of Phoenicia (q.v.).
+Kadesh fell in the sixth campaign. In the next year Tethmosis revisited
+the Phoenician ports, chastised the rebellious and received the tribute
+of Syria, all the while preparing for further advance, which did not
+take place until another year had gone by. Then, in the thirty-third
+year of his reign, he marched through Kadesh, fought his way to
+Carchemish, defeated the forces that opposed him there and crossed over
+the Euphrates into the territory of the king of Mitanni. He set up a
+tablet by the side of that of Tethmosis I. and turned southward,
+following the river as far as Niy. Here he stayed to hunt a herd of 120
+elephants, and then, marching westwards, received the tribute of
+Naharina and gifts from the Hittites in Asia Minor and from the king of
+Babylon. In all he fought seventeen campaigns in Syria until the spirit
+of revolt was entirely crushed in a second capture of Kadesh. The wars
+in Libya and Ethiopia were of less moment. In the intervals of war
+Tethmosis III. proved to be a wonderfully efficient administrator, with
+his eye on every corner of his dominions. The Syrian expeditions
+occupied six months in most of his best years, but the remaining time
+was spent in activity at home, repressing robbery and injustice,
+rebuilding and adorning temples with the labour of his captives and the
+plunder and tribute of conquered cities, or designing with his own hand
+the gorgeous sacred vessels of the sanctuary of Ammon. In his later
+years some expeditions took place into Nubia. Tethmosis died in the
+fifty-fourth year of his reign. His mummy, found in the _cachette_ at
+Deir el Bahri, is said to be that of a very old man. He was the greatest
+Pharaoh in the New Empire, if not in all Egyptian history.
+
+
+  Amenophis III.
+
+Tethmosis III. was succeeded by his son Amenophis II., whom he had
+associated on the throne at the end of his reign. One of the first acts
+of the new king was to lead an army into Syria, where revolt was again
+rife; he reached and perhaps crossed the Euphrates and returned home to
+Thebes with seven captive kings of Tikhsi and much spoil. The kings he
+sacrificed to Ammon and hanged six bodies on the walls, while the
+seventh was carried south to Napata and there exposed as a terror to the
+Ethiopians. Amenophis reigned twenty-six years and left his throne to
+his son Tethmosis IV., who is best remembered by a granite tablet
+recording his clearance of the Great Sphinx. He also warred in northern
+Syria and in Cush. His son Amenophis III., c. 1400 B.C., was a mighty
+builder, especially at Thebes, where his reign marks a new epoch in the
+history of the great temples, Luxor being his creation, while avenues of
+rams, pylons, &c., were added on a vast scale to Karnak. He married a
+certain Taia, who, though apparently of humble parentage, was held in
+great honour by her husband as afterwards by her son. Amenophis III.
+warred in Ethiopia, but his sway was long unquestioned from Napata to
+the Euphrates. Small objects with his name and that of Taia are found on
+the mainland and in the islands of Greece. Through the fortunate
+discovery of cuneiform tablets deposited by his successor in the
+archives at Tell el-Amarna, we can see how the rulers of the great
+kingdoms beyond the river, Mitanni, Assyria and even Babylonia,
+corresponded with Amenophis, gave their daughters to him in marriage,
+and congratulated themselves on having his friendship. The king of
+Cyprus too courted him; while within the empire the descendants of the
+Syrian dynasts conquered by his father, having been educated in Egypt,
+ruled their paternal possessions as the abject slaves of Pharaoh. A
+constant stream of tribute poured into Egypt, sufficient to defray the
+cost of all the splendid works that were executed. Amenophis caused a
+series of large scarabs unique in their kind to be engraved with the
+name and parentage of his queen Taia, followed by varying texts
+commemorating like medals the boundaries of his kingdom, his secondary
+marriage with Gilukhipa, daughter of the king of Mitanni, the formation
+of a sacred lake at Thebes, a great hunt of wild cattle, and the number
+of lions the king slew in the first ten years of his reign. The colossi
+known to the Greeks by the name of the Homeric hero Memnon, which look
+over the western plain of Thebes, represent this king and were placed
+before the entrance of his funerary temple, the rest of which has
+disappeared. His palace lay farther south on the west bank, built of
+crude brick covered with painted stucco. Towards the end of his reign of
+thirty-six years, Syria was invaded by the Hittites from the north and
+the people called the Khabiri from the eastern desert; some of the
+kinglets conspired with the invaders to overthrow the Egyptian power,
+while those who remained loyal sent alarming reports to their sovereign.
+
+
+  Amenophis IV.
+
+Amenophis IV., son of Amenophis III. and Taia, was perhaps the most
+remarkable character in the long line of the Pharaohs. He was a
+religious fanatic, who had probably been high priest of the sun-god at
+Heliopolis, and had come to view the sun as the visible source of life,
+creation, growth and activity, whose power was demonstrated in foreign
+lands almost as clearly as in Egypt. Thrusting aside all the
+multitudinous deities of Egypt and all the mythology even of Heliopolis,
+he devoted himself to the cult of the visible sun-disk, applying to it
+as its chief name the hitherto rare word Aton, meaning "sun"; the
+traditional divine name Harakht (Horus of the horizon), given to the
+hawk-headed sun-god of Heliopolis, was however allowed to subsist and a
+temple was built at Karnak to this god. The worship of the other gods
+was officially recognized until his fifth year, but then a sweeping
+reform was initiated by which apparently the new cult alone was
+permitted. Of the old deities Ammon represented by far the wealthiest
+and most powerful interests, and against this long favoured deity the
+Pharaoh hurled himself with fury. He changed his own name from Amenhotp,
+"Ammon is satisfied," to Akhenaton, "pious to Aton," erased the name and
+figure of Ammon from the monuments, even where it occurred as part of
+his own father's name, abandoned Thebes, the magnificent city of Ammon,
+and built a new capital at El Amarna in the plain of Hermopolis, on a
+virgin site upon the edge of the desert. This with a large area around
+he dedicated to Aton in the sixth year, while splendid temples, palaces,
+houses and tombs for his god, for himself and for his courtiers were
+rising around him; apparently also this "son of Aton" swore an oath
+never to pass beyond the boundaries of Aton's special domain. There are
+signs also that the polytheistic word "gods" was obliterated on many of
+the monuments, but other divine names, though almost entirely excluded
+from Akhenaton's work, were left untouched where they already existed.
+In all local temples the worship of Aton was instituted. The confiscated
+revenues of Ammon and the tribute from Syria and Cush provided ample
+means for adorning Ekhaton (Akhetaton), "the horizon of Aton," the new
+capital, and for richly rewarding those who adopted the Aton teaching
+fervently. But meanwhile the political needs of the empire were
+neglected; the dangers which threatened it at the end of the reign of
+Amenophis III. were never properly met; the dynasts in Syria were at war
+amongst themselves, intriguing with the great Hittite advance and with
+the Khabiri invaders. Those who relied on Pharaoh and remained loyal as
+their fathers had done sent letter after letter appealing for aid
+against their foes. But though a general was despatched with some
+troops, he seems to have done more harm than good in misjudging the
+quarrels. At length the tone of the letters becomes one of despair, in
+which flight to Egypt appears the only resource left for the adherents
+of the Egyptian cause. Before the end of the reign Egyptian rule in
+Syria had probably ceased altogether. Akhenaton died in or about the
+seventeenth year of his reign, c. 1350 B.C. He had a family of
+daughters, who appeared constantly with him in all ceremonies, but no
+son. Two sons-in-law followed him with brief reigns; but the second,
+Tutenkhaton, soon changed his name to Tutenkhamun, and, without
+abandoning Ekhaton entirely, began to restore to Karnak its ancient
+splendour, with new monuments dedicated to Ammon. Akhenaton's reform had
+not reached deep amongst the masses of the population; they probably
+retained all their old religious customs and superstitions, while the
+priesthoods throughout the country must have been fiercely opposed to
+the heretic's work, even if silenced during his lifetime by force and
+bribes. One more adherent of his named Ay, a priest, ruled for a short
+time, but now Aton was only one of many gods. At length a general named
+Harmahib, who had served under Akhenaton, came to the throne as a
+whole-hearted supporter of the old religion; soon Aton and his royal
+following suffered the fate that they had imposed upon Ammon; their
+monuments were destroyed and their names and figures erased, while those
+of Ammon were restored. From the time of Rameses II. onwards the years
+of the reigns of the heretics were counted to Harmahib, and Akhenaton
+was described as "that criminal of Akhetaton." Harmahib had to bring
+order as a practical man into the long-neglected administration of the
+country and to suppress the extortions of the official classes by severe
+measures. His laws to this end were engraved on a great stela in the
+temple of Karnak, of which sufficient remains to bear witness to his
+high aims, while the prosperity of the succeeding reigns shows how well
+he realized the necessities of the state. He probably began also to
+re-establish the prestige of Egypt by military expeditions in the
+surrounding countries.
+
+
+  XIXth Dynasty.
+
+  Rameses II.
+
+Harmahib appears to have legitimated his rule by marriage to a royal
+princess, but it is probable that Rameses I., who succeeded as founder
+of the XIXth Dynasty, was not closely related to him. Rameses in his
+brief reign of two years planned and began the great colonnaded hall of
+Karnak, proving that he was a man of great ideas, though probably too
+old to carry them out; this task he left to his son Seti I., who reigned
+one year with his father and on the latter's death was ready at once to
+subdue the Bedouin Shasu, who had invaded Palestine and withheld all
+tribute. This task was quickly accomplished and Seti pushed onward to
+the Lebanon. Here cedars were felled for him by the Syrian princes, and
+the Phoenicians paid homage before he returned home in triumph. The
+Libyans had also to be dealt with, and afterwards Seti advanced again
+through Palestine, ravaged the land of the Amorites and came into
+conflict with the Hittites. The latter, however, were now firmly
+established in the Orontes valley, and a treaty with Mutallu, the king
+of Kheta, reigning far away in Cappadocia, probably ended the wars of
+Seti. In his ninth year he turned his attention to the gold mines in the
+eastern desert of Nubia and improved the road thither. Meanwhile the
+great work at Karnak projected by his father was going forward, and
+throughout Egypt the injuries done to the monuments by Akhenaton were
+thoroughly repaired; the erased inscriptions and figures were restored,
+not without many blunders. Seti's temple at Abydos and his galleried
+tomb in the Valley of the Tombs of the Kings stand out as the most
+splendid examples of their kind in design and in decoration. Rameses II.
+succeeded at an early age and reigned sixty-seven years, during which he
+finished much that was begun by Seti and filled all Egypt and Nubia with
+his own monuments, some of them beautiful, but most, necessarily
+entrusted to inferior workmen, of coarse execution. The excavation of
+the rock temple of Abu Simbel and the completion of the great hall of
+Karnak were his greatest achievements in architecture. His wars began in
+his second year, their field comprising the Nubians, the Libyans, the
+Syrians and the Hittites. In his fifth year, near Kadesh on the Orontes,
+his army was caught unprepared and divided by a strong force of chariots
+of the Hittites and their allies, and Rameses himself was placed in the
+most imminent danger; but through his personal courage the enemy was
+kept at bay till reinforcements came up and turned the disaster into a
+victory. The incidents of this episode were a favourite subject in the
+sculptures of his temples, where their representation was accompanied by
+a poetical version of the affair and other explanatory inscriptions.
+Kadesh, however, was not captured, and after further contests, in his
+twenty-first year Rameses and the Hittite king Khattusil (Kheta-sar)
+made peace, with a defensive alliance against foreign aggression and
+internal revolt (see HITTITES). Thanks to Winckler's discoveries, the
+cuneiform text of this treaty from Boghaz Keui can now be compared with
+the hieroglyphic text at Karnak. In the thirty-fourth year, c. 1250
+B.C., Khattusil with his friend or subject the king of Kode came from
+his distant capital to see the wonders of Egypt in person, bringing one
+of his daughters to be wife of the splendid Pharaoh. Rameses II. paid
+much attention to the Delta, which had been neglected until the days of
+Seti I., and resided there constantly; the temple of Tanis must have
+been greatly enlarged and adorned by him; a colossus of the king placed
+here was over 90 ft. in height, exceeding in scale even the greatest of
+the Theban colossi which he had erected in his mortuary temple of the
+Ramesseum. Towards the end of the long reign the vigilance and energy of
+the old king diminished. The military spirit awakened in the struggle
+with the Hyksos had again departed from the Egyptian nation; mercenaries
+from the Sudan, from Libya and from the northern nations supplied the
+armies, while foreigners settled in the rich lands of the Delta and
+harried the coasts. It was a time too when the movements of the nations
+that so frequently occurred in the ancient world were about to be
+particularly active. Mineptah, c. 1225 B.C., succeeding his father
+Rameses II., had to fight many battles for the preservation of his
+kingdom and empire. Apparently most of the fighting was finished by the
+fifth year of his reign; in his mortuary temple at Thebes he set up a
+stela of that date recording a great victory over the Libyan immigrants
+and invaders, which rendered the much harried land of Egypt safe. The
+last lines picture this condition with the crushing of the surrounding
+tribes. Libya was wasted, the Hittites pacified, Canaan, Ashkelon
+(Ascalon), Gezer, Yenoam sacked and plundered: "Israel is desolated, his
+seed is not, Khor (Palestine) has become a widow (without protector) for
+Egypt." The Libyans are accompanied by allies whose names, Sherden,
+Shekelesh, Ekwesh, Lukku, Teresh, suggest identifications with
+Sardinians, Sicels, Achaeans, Lycians and Tyrseni or Etruscans. The
+Sherden had been in the armies of Rameses II., and are distinguished by
+their remarkable helmets and apparently body armour of metal. The Lukku
+are certainly the same as the Lycians. Probably they were all sea-rovers
+from the shores and islands of the Mediterranean, who were willing to
+leave their ships and join the Libyans in raids on the rich lands of
+Egypt. Mineptah was one of the most unconscionable usurpers of the
+monuments of his predecessors, including those of his own father, who,
+it must be admitted, had set him the example. The coarse cutting of his
+cartouches contrasts with the splendid finish of the Middle Kingdom work
+which they disfigure. It may be questioned whether it was due to a wave
+of enthusiasm amongst the priests and people, leading them to rededicate
+the monuments in the name of their deliverer, or a somewhat insane
+desire of the king to perpetuate his own memory in a singularly
+unfortunate manner. Mineptah, the thirteenth son in the huge family of
+Rameses, must have been old when he ascended the throne; after his first
+years of reign his energies gave way, and he was followed by a quick
+succession of inglorious rulers, Seti II., the queen Tuosri, Amenmesse,
+Siptah; the names of the last two were erased from their monuments.
+
+
+  XXth Dynasty.
+
+A great papyrus written after the death of Rameses III. and recording his
+gifts to the temples briefly reviews the conditions of these troublous
+times. "The land of Egypt was in the hands of chiefs and rulers of towns,
+great and small slaying each other; afterwards a certain Syrian made
+himself chief; he made the whole land tributary before him; he united his
+companions and plundered their property (i.e. of the other chiefs). They
+made the gods like men, and no offerings were presented in the temples.
+But when the gods inclined themselves to peace ... they established their
+son Setenkhot (Setnekht) to be ruler of every land." Of the Syrian
+occupation we know nothing further. Setenkhot, c. 1200 B.C., had a very
+short reign and was not counted as legitimate, but he established a
+lasting dynasty (probably by conciliating the priesthood). He was father
+of Rameses III., who revived the glories of the empire. The dangers that
+menaced Egypt now were similar to those which Mineptah had to meet at his
+accession. Again the Libyans and the "peoples of the sea" were acting in
+concert. The latter now comprised Peleset (the Cretans, ancestors of the
+Philistines), Thekel, Shekelesh, Denyen (Danaoi?) and Weshesh; they had
+invaded Syria from Asia Minor, reaching the Euphrates, destroying the
+Hittite cities and progressing southwards, while their ships gathered
+plunder from the coasts of the Delta. This fleet joined the Libyan
+invaders, but was overthrown with heavy loss by the Egyptians, in whose
+ranks there actually served many Sherden and Kehaka, Sardinian and Libyan
+mercenaries. Egypt itself was thus clear of enemies; but the chariots and
+warriors of the Philistines and their associates were advancing through
+Syria, their families and goods following in ox-carts, and their ships
+accompanying them along the shore. Rameses led out his army and fleet
+against them and struck them so decisive a blow that the migrating swarm
+submitted to his rule and paid him tribute. In his eleventh year another
+Libyan invasion had to be met, and his suzerainty in Palestine forcibly
+asserted. His vigour was equal to all these emergencies and the later
+years of his reign were spent in peace. Rameses III., however, was not a
+great ruler. He was possessed by the spirit of decadence, imitative
+rather than originating. It is evident that Rameses II. was the model to
+which he endeavoured to conform, and he did not attempt to preserve
+himself from the weakening influences of priestcraft. To the temples he
+not only restored the property which had been given to them by former
+kings, but he also added greatly to their wealth; the Theban Ammon
+naturally received by far the greatest share, more than those of all the
+other gods together. The land held in the name of different deities is
+estimated at about 15% of the whole of Egypt; various temples of Ammon
+owned two-thirds of this, Re of Heliopolis and Ptah of Memphis being the
+next in wealth. His palace was at Medinet Habu on the west bank of Thebes
+in the south quarter; and here he built a great temple to Ammon, adorned
+with scenes from his victories and richly provided with divine offerings.
+Although Egypt probably was prosperous on the whole, there was
+undoubtedly great distress amongst certain portions of the population. We
+read in a papyrus of a strike of starving labourers in the Theban
+necropolis who would not work until corn was given to them, and
+apparently the government storehouse was empty at the time, perhaps in
+consequence of a bad Nile. Shortly before the death of the old king a
+plot in the harem to assassinate him, and apparently to place one of his
+sons on the throne, was discovered and its investigation ordered, leading
+after his death to the condemnation of many high-placed men and women.
+Nine kings of the name of Rameses now followed each other ingloriously in
+the space of about eighty years to the end of the XXth Dynasty, the power
+of the high priests of Ammon ever growing at their expense. At this time
+the Theban necropolis was being more systematically robbed than ever
+before. Under Rameses IX. an investigation took place which showed that
+one of the royal tombs before the western cliffs had been completely
+ransacked and the mummies burnt. Three years later the Valley of the
+Tombs of the Kings was attacked and the sepulchres of Seti I. and Rameses
+II. were robbed.
+
+
+  The Deltaic Dynasties; Libyan period.
+
+The authority of the last king of the XXth Dynasty, Rameses XII., was
+shadowy. Hrihor, the high priest in his reign, gradually gathered into
+his own hands all real power, and succeeded him at Thebes, c. 1100 B.C.,
+while a prince at Tanis named Smendes (Esbenteti) founded a separate
+dynasty in the Delta (Dynasty XXI.). From this period dates a remarkable
+papyrus containing the report of an envoy named Unamun, sent to Syria by
+Hrihor to obtain cedar timber from Byblus. He took with him an image of
+Ammon to bestow life and health on the prince of Byblus, but apparently
+no other provision for the journey or for the negotiations beyond a
+letter of recommendation to Smendes and a little gold and silver.
+Smendes had trading ships in the Phoenician ports, but even his
+influence was not greater than that of other commercial or pirate
+centres, while Hrihor was of no account except in so far as he might pay
+well for the cedar wood he required. Unamun was robbed on the voyage,
+the prince of Byblus rebuffed him, and when at last the latter agreed to
+provide the timber it was only in exchange for substantial gifts hastily
+sent for from Egypt (including rolls of papyrus) and the promise of more
+to follow. The prince, however, seems to have acknowledged to some
+extent the divinity of Ammon and the debt owed by Phoenicia to Egyptian
+culture, and pitied the many misfortunes of Unamun. The narrative shows
+the feebleness of Egypt abroad. The Tanite line of kings generally had
+the over-lordship of the high priests of Thebes; the descendants of
+Hrihor, however, sometimes by marriage with princesses of the other
+line, could assume cartouches and royal titles, and in some cases
+perhaps ruled the whole of Egypt. Ethiopia may have been ruled with the
+Thebais, but the records of the time are very scanty. Syria was wholly
+lost to Egypt. The mummies from the despoiled tombs of the kings were
+the object of much anxious care to the kings of this dynasty; after
+being removed from one tomb to another, they were finally deposited in a
+shaft near the temple of Deir el Bahri, where they remained for nearly
+three thousand years, until the demand for antiquities at last brought
+the plunderer once more to their hiding-place; eventually they were all
+secured for the Cairo museum, where they may now be seen.
+
+Libyan soldiers had long been employed in the army, and their military
+chiefs settled in the large towns and acquired wealth and power, while
+the native rulers grew weaker and weaker. The Tanite dynasty may have
+risen from a Libyan stock, though there is nothing to prove it; the
+XXIInd Dynasty are clearly from their names of foreign extraction, and
+their genealogy indicates distinctly a Libyan military origin in a
+family of rulers of Heracleopolis Magna, in Middle Egypt. Sheshonk
+(Shishak) I., the founder of the dynasty, c. 950 B.C., seems to have
+fixed his residence at Bubastis in the Delta, and his son married the
+daughter of the last king of the Tanite dynasty. Heracleopolis seems
+henceforth for several centuries to have been capital of Middle Egypt,
+which was considered as a more or less distinct province. Sheshonk
+secured Thebes, making one of his sons high priest of Ammon, and whereas
+Solomon appears to have dealt with a king of Egypt on something like an
+equal footing, Sheshonk re-established Egyptian rule in Palestine and
+Nubia, and his expedition in the fifth year of Rehoboam subdued Israel
+as well as Judah, to judge by the list of city names which he inscribed
+on the wall of the temple of Karnak. Osorkon I. inherited a prosperous
+kingdom from his father, but no further progress was made. It required a
+strong hand to curb the Libyan chieftains, and divisions soon began to
+show themselves in the kingdom. The XXIInd Dynasty lasted through many
+generations; but there were rival kings, and M. Legrain thinks that he
+has proof that the XXIIIrd Dynasty was contemporaneous with the end of
+the XXIInd. The kings of the XXIIIrd Dynasty had little hold upon the
+subject princes, who spent the resources of the country in feuds amongst
+themselves. A native kingdom had meanwhile been established in Ethiopia.
+Our first knowledge of it is at this moment, when the Ethiopian king
+Pankhi already held the Thebais. The energetic prince of Sais, Tefnakht,
+followed by most of the princes of the Delta, subdued most of Middle
+Egypt, and by uniting these forces threatened the Ethiopian border.
+Heracleopolis Magna, however, with its petty king Pefteuaubasti, held
+out against Tefnakht, and Pankhi coming to its aid not only drove
+Tefnakht out of Middle Egypt, but also captured Memphis and received the
+submission of the princes and chiefs; in all these included four "kings"
+and fourteen other chiefs. According to Diodorus the Ethiopian state was
+theocratic, ruled through the king by the priests of Ammon. The account
+is probably exaggerated; but even in Pankhi's record the piety of the
+king, especially towards Ammon, is very marked.
+
+
+  Ethiopian Dynasty.
+
+The XXIVth Dynasty consisted of a single Saite king named Bocchoris
+(Bekerrinf), son of Tefnachthus, apparently the above Tefnakht. Another
+Ethiopian invader, Shabako (Sabacon), is said to have burnt Bocchoris
+alive. The Ethiopian rule of the XXVth Dynasty was now firmly
+established, and the resources of the two countries together might have
+been employed in conquest in Syria and Phoenicia; but at this very time
+the Assyrian empire, risen to the highest pitch of military greatness,
+began to menace Egypt. The Ethiopian could do no more than encourage or
+support the Syrians in their fight for freedom against Sargon and
+Sennacherib. Shabako was followed by Shebitku and Shebitku by Tirhaka
+(Tahrak, Taracos). Tirhaka was energetic in opposing the Assyrian
+advance, but in 670 B.C. Esarhaddon defeated his army on the border of
+Egypt, captured Memphis with the royal harem and took great spoil. The
+Egyptian resistance to the Assyrians was probably only half-hearted; in
+the north especially there must have been a strong party against the
+Ethiopian rule. Tirhaka laboured to propitiate the north country, and
+probably rendered the Ethiopian rule acceptable throughout Egypt.
+Notwithstanding, the Assyrian king entrusted the government and
+collection of tribute to the native chiefs; twenty princes in all are
+enumerated in the records, including one Assyrian to hold the key of
+Egypt at Pelusium. Scarcely had Esarhaddon withdrawn before Tirhaka
+returned from his refuge in the south and the Assyrian garrisons were
+massacred. Esarhaddon promptly prepared a second expedition, but died on
+the way to Egypt in 668 B.C.; his son Assur-bani-pal sent it forward,
+routed Tirhaka and reinstated the governors. At the head of these was
+Necho (Niku), king of Sais and Memphis, father of Psammetichus, the
+founder of the XXVIth Dynasty. We next hear that correspondence with
+Tirhaka was intercepted, and that Necho, together with Pekrur of Psapt
+(at the entrance to the Wadi Tumilat) and the Assyrian governor of
+Pelusium, was taken to Nineveh in chains to answer the charge of
+treason. Whatever may have occurred, it was deemed politic to send Necho
+back loaded with honours and surrounded by a retinue of Assyrian
+officials. Upper Egypt, however, was loyal to Tirhaka, and even at
+Memphis the burial of an Apis bull was dated by the priests as in his
+reign. Immediately afterwards he died. His nephew Tandamane, received by
+the Upper country with acclamations, besieged and captured Memphis,
+Necho being probably slain in the encounter. But in 661 (?)
+Assur-bani-pal drove the Ethiopian out of Lower Egypt, pursued him up
+the Nile and sacked Thebes. This was the last and most tremendous
+visitation of the Assyrian scourge.
+
+
+  XXVIth Dynasty.
+
+Psammetichus (Psammetk), 664-610 B.C., the son of Necho, succeeded his
+father as a vassal of Assyria in his possessions of Memphis and Sais,
+allied himself with Gyges, king of Lydia, and aided by Ionian and Carian
+mercenaries, extended and consolidated his power.[21] By the ninth year
+of his reign he was in full possession of Thebes. Assur-bani-pal's
+energies throughout this crisis were entirely occupied with revolts
+nearer home, in Babylon, Elam and Arabia. The Assyrian arms again
+triumphed everywhere, but at the cost of complete exhaustion. Under the
+firm and wise rule of Psammetichus, Egypt recovered its prosperity after
+the terrible losses inflicted by internal wars and the decade of
+Assyrian invasions. The revenue went up by leaps and bounds.
+Psammetichus guarded the frontiers of Egypt with three strong garrisons,
+placing the Ionian and Carian mercenaries especially at the Pelusiac
+Daphnae in the N.E., from which quarter the most formidable enemy was
+likely to appear. The Assyrians did not move against him, but a great
+Scythian horde, destroying all before it in its southward advance, is
+said by Herodotus to have been turned back by presents and entreaties.
+Diplomacy backed up by vigorous preparations may have deterred the
+Scythians from the dangerous enterprise of crossing the desert to Egypt.
+Before his death Psammetichus had advanced into southern Palestine and
+captured Azotus.
+
+When Psammetichus began to reign the situation of Egypt was very
+different from what it had been under the Empire. The development of
+trade in the Mediterranean and contact with new peoples and new
+civilizations in peace and war had given birth to new ideas among the
+Egyptians and at the same time to a loss of confidence in their own
+powers. The Theban supremacy was gone and the Delta was now the wealthy
+and progressive part of Egypt; piety increased amongst the masses,
+unenterprising and unwarlike, but proud of their illustrious antiquity.
+Thebes and Ammon and the traditions of the Empire savoured too much now
+of the Ethiopian; the priests of the Memphite and Deltaic dynasty
+thereupon turned deliberately for their models to the times of the
+ancient supremacy of Memphis, and the sculptures and texts on tomb and
+temple had to conform as closely as possible to those of the Old
+Kingdom. In other than religious matters, however, the Egyptians were
+inventing and perhaps borrowing. To enumerate a few examples of this
+which are already definitely known: we find that the forms of legal and
+business documents became more precise; the mechanical arts of casting
+in bronze on a core and of moulding figures and pottery were brought to
+the highest pitch of excellence; and portraiture in the round on its
+highest plane was better than ever before and admirably lifelike,
+revealing careful study of the external anatomy of the individual.
+
+Psammetichus died in the fifty-fourth year of his reign and was
+succeeded by his son Necho, 610-594 B.C. Taking advantage of the
+helpless state of the Assyrians, whose capital was assailed by the Medes
+and the Babylonians, the new Pharaoh prepared an expedition to recover
+the ancient possessions of the Empire in Syria. Josiah alone, faithful
+to the king of Assyria, opposed him with his feeble force at Megiddo and
+was easily overcome and slain. Necho went forward to the Euphrates, put
+the land to tribute, and, in the case of Judah at any rate, filled the
+throne with his own nominee (see JEHOIAKIM). The fall of Nineveh and the
+division of the spoil gave to Nabopolasser, king of Babylon, the
+inheritance of the Assyrians in the west, and he at once despatched his
+son Nebuchadrezzar to fight Necho. The Babylonian and Egyptian forces
+met at Carchemish (605), and the rout of the latter was so complete that
+Necho relinquished Syria and might have lost Egypt as well had not the
+death of Nabopolasser recalled the victor to Babylon. Herodotus relates
+that in Necho's reign a Phoenician ship despatched from Egypt actually
+circumnavigated Africa, and the attempt was made to complete a canal
+through the Wadi Tumilat, which connected the Mediterranean and Red Seas
+by way of the Lower Egyptian Nile. (See SUEZ.) The next king,
+Psammetichus II., 594-589 B.C., according to one account made an
+expedition to Syria or Phoenicia, and apparently sent a mercenary force
+into Ethiopia as far as Abu Simbel. Pharaoh Hophra (Apries), 589-570
+B.C., fomented rebellion against the Babylonian suzerainty in Judah, but
+accomplished little there. Herodotus, however, describes his reign as
+exceedingly prosperous. The mercenary troops at Elephantine mutinied and
+attempted to desert to Ethiopia, but were brought back and punished.
+Later, however, a disastrous expedition sent to aid the Libyans against
+the Greek colony of Cyrene roused the suspicion and anger of the native
+soldiery at favours shown to the mercenaries, who of course had taken no
+part in it. Amasis (Ahmosi) II. was chosen king by the former (570-525
+B.C.), and his swarm of adherents overcame the Greek troops in Apries'
+pay (see AMASIS). None the less Amasis employed Greeks in numbers, and
+cultivated the friendship of their tyrants. His rule was confined to
+Egypt (and perhaps Cyprus), but Egypt itself was very prosperous. At the
+beginning of his long reign of forty-four years he was threatened by
+Nebuchadrezzar; later he joined the league against Cyrus and saw with
+alarm the fall of his old enemy. A few months after his death, 525 B.C.,
+the invading host of the Persians led by Cambyses reached Egypt and
+dethroned his son Psammetichus III.
+
+
+  The Persian period, XXVIIth Dynasty.
+
+Cambyses at first conciliated the Egyptians and respected their
+religion; but, perhaps after the failure of his expedition into
+Ethiopia, he entirely changed his policy, and his memory was generally
+execrated. He left Egypt so completely crushed that the subsequent
+usurpation of the Persian throne was marked by no revolt in that
+quarter. Darius, 521-486 B.C., proved himself a beneficent ruler, and in
+a visit to Egypt displayed his consideration for the religion of the
+country. In the Great Oasis he built a temple to Ammon. The annual
+tribute imposed on the satrapy of Egypt and Cyrene was heavy, but it was
+probably raised with ease. The canal from the Nile to the Red Sea was
+completed or repaired, and commerce flourished. Documents dated in the
+thirty-fourth and thirty-fifth years of Darius are not uncommon, but
+apparently at the very end of his reign, some years after the disaster
+of Marathon, Egypt was induced to rebel. Xerxes, 486-467 B.C., who put
+down the revolt with severity, and his successor Artaxerxes, 466-425
+B.C., like Cambyses, were hateful to the Egyptians. The disorders which
+marked the accession of Artaxerxes gave Egypt another opportunity to
+rebel. Their leaders were Inaros the Libyan of Marea and the Egyptian
+Amyrtaeus. Aided by an Athenian force, Inaros slew the satrap Achaemenes
+at the battle of Papremis and destroyed his army; but the garrison of
+Memphis held out, and a fresh host from Persia raised the siege and in
+turn besieged the Greek and Egyptian forces on the island of Papremis.
+At last, after two years, having diverted the river from its channel,
+they captured and burnt the Athenian ships and quickly ended the
+rebellion. The reigns of Xerxes II. and Darius II. are marked by no
+recorded incident in Egypt until a successful revolt about 405 B.C.
+interrupted the Persian domination.
+
+Monuments of the Persian rule in Egypt are exceedingly scanty. The
+inscriptions of Pefteuauneit, priest of Neith at Sais, and from his
+position the native authority who was most likely to be consulted by
+Cambyses and Darius, tells of his relations with these two kings. For
+the following reigns Egyptian documents hardly exist, but some papyri
+written in Aramaic have been found at Elephantine and at Memphis. Those
+from the former locality show that a colony of Jews with a temple
+dedicated to Yahweh (Jehovah) had established themselves at that
+garrison and trading post (see ASSUAN). Herodotus visited Egypt in the
+reign of Artaxerxes, about 440 B.C. His description of Egypt, partly
+founded on Hecataeus, who had been there about fifty years earlier, is
+the chief source of information for the history of the Saite kings and
+for the manners of the times, but his statements prove to be far from
+correct when they can be checked by the scanty native evidence.
+     (F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+  Dynasties XXVIII.-XXXI.
+
+Amyrtaeus (Amnertais) of Sais, perhaps a son of Pausiris and grandson of
+the earlier Amyrtaeus, revolted from Darius II. c. 405 B.C., and Egypt
+regained its independence for about sixty years. The next king Nefeuret
+(Nepherites I.) was a Mendesian and founded the XXIXth Dynasty. After
+Hakor and Nefeuret II. the sovereignty passed to Dynasty XXX., the last
+native Egyptian line. Monuments of all these kings are known, and art
+flourished particularly under the Mendesian kings Nekhtharheb
+(Nectanebes or Nectanebus I.) and Nekhtnebf (Nectanebes II.). The former
+came to the throne when a Persian invasion was imminent, 378 B.C. Hakor
+had already formed a powerful army, largely composed of Greek
+mercenaries. This army Nekhtharheb entrusted to the Athenian Chabrias.
+The Persians, however, succeeded in causing his recall and in gaining
+the services of his fellow-countryman Iphicrates. The invading army
+consisted of 200,000 barbarians under Pharnabazus and 20,000 Greeks
+under Iphicrates. After the Egyptians had experienced a reverse,
+Iphicrates counselled an immediate advance on Memphis. His advice was
+not followed by Pharnabazus; the Egyptian king collected his forces and
+won a pitched battle near Mendes. Pharnabazus retreated and Egypt was
+free.
+
+Nekhtharheb was succeeded by Tachos or Teos, whose short reign was
+occupied by a war with Persia, in which the king of Egypt secured the
+services of a body of Greek mercenaries under the Spartan king Agesilaus
+and a fleet under the Athenian general Chabrias. He entered Phoenicia
+with every prospect of success, but having offended Agesilaus he was
+dethroned in a military revolt which gave the crown to Nekhtnebf or
+Nectanebes II., the last native king of Egypt. At this moment a revolt
+broke out. The prince of Mendes almost succeeded in overthrowing the new
+king. Agesilaus defeated the rival pretender and left Nekhtnebf
+established on the throne. But the opportunity of a decisive blow
+against Persia was lost. The new king, Artaxerxes III. Ochus, determined
+to reduce Egypt. A first expedition was defeated by the Greek
+mercenaries of Nekhtnebf, but a second, commanded by Ochus himself,
+subdued Egypt with no further resistance than that of the Greek garrison
+of Pelusium. Nekhtnebf, instead of endeavouring to relieve them,
+retreated to Memphis and fled thence to Ethiopia, 340 (?) B.C. Thus
+miserably fell the monarchy of the Pharaohs, after an unexampled
+duration of 3000 years, or as some think far longer. More than 2000
+years have since passed, and though Egypt has from time to time been
+independent, not one native prince has sat on the throne of the
+Pharaohs. "There shall be no more a prince of the land of Egypt" (Ezek.
+xxx. 13) was prophesied in the days of Apries as the final state of the
+land.
+
+Ochus treated his conquest barbarously. From this brief re-establishment
+of Persian dominion (counted by Manetho as Dynasty XXXI.) no document
+survives except one papyrus that appears to be dated in the reign of
+Darius III.
+
+  See J. H. Breasted, _A History of Egypt from the Earliest Times to the
+  Persian Conquest_ (New York and London, 1905); _A History of the
+  Ancient Egyptians_ (New York and London, 1908); _Ancient Records of
+  Egypt: Historical Documents from the Earliest Times to the Persian
+  Conquest, collected, edited and translated_ (5 vols., Chicago,
+  1906-1907); W. M. F. Petrie, _A History of Egypt_ (from the earliest
+  times to the XXXth Dynasty) (3 vols., London, 1899-1905); E. A. W.
+  Budge, _A History of Egypt_, vols. i-vii. (London, 1902); G. Maspero,
+  _Histoire ancienne des peuples de l'orient_ (6th ed., 1904), _The Dawn
+  of Civilization, The Struggle of the Nations, The Passing of the
+  Empires_ (London, 1904, &c.); P. E. Newberry and J. Garstang, _A Short
+  History of Ancient Egypt_ (London, 1904); G. Steindorff, _Die
+  Blutezeit des Pharaonenreiches_ (Dyn. XVIII.) (Bielefeld and Leipzig,
+  1900); H. Winckler, _The Tell el Amarna Letters_ (Berlin, London and
+  New York, 1896).
+
+_The Conquest by Alexander._--When, in 332 B.C., after the battle of
+Issus, Alexander entered Egypt, he was welcomed as a deliverer. The
+Persian governor had not forces enough to oppose him, and he nowhere
+experienced even the show of resistance. He visited Memphis, founded
+Alexandria, and went on pilgrimage to the oracle of Ammon (Oasis of
+Siwa). The god declared him to be his son, renewing thus an old Egyptian
+convention or belief; Olympias was supposed to have been in converse
+with Ammon, even as the mothers of Hatshepsut and Amenophis III. are
+represented in the inscriptions of the Theban temples to have received
+the divine essence. At this stage of his career the treasure and tribute
+of Egypt were of great importance to the Macedonian conqueror. He
+conciliated the inhabitants by the respect which he showed for their
+religion; he organized the government of the natives under two officers,
+who must have been already known to them (of these Petisis, an Egyptian,
+soon resigned his share into the charge of his colleague Doloaspis, who
+bears a Persian name.) But Alexander designed his Greek foundation of
+Alexandria to be the capital, and entrusted the taxation of Egypt and
+the control of its army and navy to Greeks. Early in 331 B.C. he was
+ready to depart, and led his forces away to Phoenicia. A granite gateway
+to the temple of Khnum at Elephantine bears his name in hieroglyphic,
+and demotic documents are found dated in his reign.
+
+_The Ptolemaic Period._--On the division of Alexander's dominions in 323
+B.C., Egypt fell to Ptolemy the son of Lagus, the founder of the
+Ptolemaic dynasty (see PTOLEMIES). Under these rulers the rich kingdom
+was heavily taxed to supply the sinews of war and to support every kind
+of lavish expenditure. Officials, and the higher ones were nearly all
+Greeks, were legion, but the whole system was so judiciously worked that
+there was little discontent amongst the patient peasantry. During the
+reign of Philadelphus the land gained from the bed of the lake of Moeris
+was assigned to veteran soldiers; the great armies of the Ptolemies were
+rewarded or supported by grants of farm lands, and men of Macedonian,
+Greek and Hellenistic extraction were planted in colonies and garrisons
+or settled themselves in the villages throughout the country. Upper
+Egypt, farthest from the centre of government, was probably least
+affected by the new influences, though the first Ptolemy established the
+Greek colony of Ptolemais to be its capital. Intermarriages, however,
+gradually had their effect; after the revolt of the natives in the reign
+of Ptolemy V., we find the Greek and Egyptian elements closely
+intermingled. Ptolemy I. had established the cult of the Memphite
+Serapis in a Graeco-Egyptian form, affording a common ground for native
+and Hellenistic worshippers. The greater number of the temples to the
+native deities in Upper Egypt and in Nubia (to 50 m. south of the
+Cataract, within the Dodecaschoenus) were built under the Ptolemies. No
+serious effort was made to extend the Ptolemaic rule into Ethiopia, and
+Ergamenes, the Hellenizing king of Ethiopia, was evidently in alliance
+with Philopator; in the next reign two native kings, probably supported
+by Ethiopia, reigned in succession at Thebes. That famous city lost all
+except its religious importance under the Ptolemies; after the
+"destruction" or dismantling by Lathyrus it formed only a series of
+villages. The population of Egypt in the time of Ptolemy I. is put at
+7,000,000 by Diodorus, who also says that it was greater then than it
+ever was before; at the end of the dynasty, in his own day, it was not
+much less though somewhat diminished. Civil wars and revolts must have
+greatly injured both Upper and Lower Egypt. It is remarkable that, while
+the building and decoration of temples continued in the reigns of
+Ptolemy Auletes and the later Ptolemies and Cleopatra, papyri of those
+times whether Greek or Egyptian are scarcely to be found.
+
+
+  Christianity.
+
+_The Roman Period._--In 30 B.C. Augustus took Egypt as the prize of
+conquest. He treated it as a part of his personal domain, free from any
+interference by the senate. In the main lines the Ptolemaic organization
+was preserved, but Romans were gradually introduced into the highest
+offices. On Egypt Rome depended for its supplies of corn; entrenched
+there, a revolting general would be difficult to attack, and by simply
+holding back the grain ships could threaten Rome with starvation. No
+senator therefore was permitted to take office or even to set foot in
+the country without the emperor's special leave, and by way of
+precaution the highest position, that of prefect, was filled by a Roman
+of equestrian rank only. As the representative of the emperor, this
+officer assumed the place occupied by the king under the old order,
+except that his power was limited by the right of appeal to Caesar. The
+first prefect, Cornelius Gallus, tamed the natives of Upper Egypt to the
+new yoke by force of arms, and meeting ambassadors from Ethiopia at
+Philae, established a nominal protectorate of Rome over the frontier
+district, which had been abandoned by the later Ptolemies. The third
+prefect, Gaius Petronius, cleared the neglected canals for irrigation;
+he also repelled an invasion of the Ethiopians and pursued them far up
+the Nile, finally storming the capital of Napata. But no attempt was
+made to hold Ethiopia. In succeeding reigns much trouble was caused by
+jealousies and quarrels between the Greeks and the Jews, to whom
+Augustus had granted privileges as valuable as those accorded to the
+Greeks. Aiming at the spice trade, Aelius Gallus, the second prefect of
+Egypt under Augustus, had made an unsuccessful expedition to conquer
+Arabia Felix; the valuable Indian trade, however, was secured by
+Claudius for Egypt at the expense of Arabia, and the Red Sea routes were
+improved. Nero's reign especially marks the commencement of an era of
+prosperity which lasted about a century. Under Vespasian the Jewish
+temple at Leontopolis in the Delta, which Onias had founded in the reign
+of Ptolemy Philometor, was closed; worse still, a great Jewish revolt
+and massacre of the Greeks in the reign of Trajan resulted, after a
+stubborn conflict of many months with the Roman army under Marcius
+Livianus Turbo, in the virtual extermination of the Jews in Alexandria
+and the loss of all their privileges. Hadrian, who twice visited Egypt
+(A.D. 130, 134), founded Antinoe in memory of his drowned favourite.
+From this reign onwards buildings in the Graeco-Roman style were erected
+throughout the country. A new Sothic cycle began in A.D. 139. Under
+Marcus Aurelius a revolt of the Bucolic or native troops recruited for
+home service was taken up by the whole of the native population and was
+suppressed only after several years of fighting. The Bucolic war caused
+infinite damage to the agriculture of the country and marks the
+beginning of its rapid decline under a burdensome taxation. The province
+of Africa was now of equal importance with Egypt for the grain supply of
+the capital. Avidius Cassius, who led the Roman forces in the war,
+usurped the purple, and was acknowledged by the armies of Syria and
+Egypt. On the approach of Marcus Aurelius, the adherents of Cassius slew
+him, and the clemency of the emperor restored peace. After the downfall
+of the house of the Antonines, Pescennius Niger, who commanded the
+forces in Egypt, was proclaimed emperor on the death of Pertinax (A.D.
+193). Severus overthrew his rival (A.D. 194) and, the revolt having been
+a military one, did not punish the province; in 202 he gave a
+constitution to Alexandria and the nome capitals. In his reign the
+Christians of Egypt suffered the first of their many persecutions. When
+Christianity was planted in the country we do not know, but it must very
+early have gained adherents among the learned Jews of Alexandria, whose
+school of thought was in some respects ready to welcome it. From them it
+rapidly passed to the Greeks. Ultimately the new religion spread to the
+Egyptians; their own creed was worn out, and they found in Christianity
+a doctrine of the future life for which their old belief had made them
+not unready; while the social teaching of Christianity came with special
+fitness to a subject race. The history of the Coptic Version has yet to
+be written. It presents some features of great antiquity, and, unlike
+all others, has the truly popular character of being written in the
+three dialects of the language. Side by side there grew up an
+Alexandrian church, philosophic, disputative, ambitious, the very centre
+of Christian learning, and an Egyptian church, ascetic, contemplative,
+mystical. The two at length influenced one another; still we can
+generally trace the philosophic teachers to a Greek origin, the mystics
+to an Egyptian.
+
+Caracalla, in revenge for an affront, massacred all the men capable of
+bearing arms in Alexandria. His granting of the Roman citizenship to all
+Egyptians in common with the other provincials was only to extort more
+taxes. Under Decius, A.D. 250, the Christians again suffered from
+persecution. When the empire broke up in the weak reign of Gallienus,
+the prefect Aemilianus, who took the surname Alexander or Alexandrinus,
+was made emperor by the troops at Alexandria, but was conquered by the
+forces of Gallienus. In his brief reign of only a few months he had
+driven back an invasion of the Blemmyes. This predatory tribe, issuing
+from Nubia, was long to be the terror of Upper Egypt. Zenobia, queen of
+Palmyra, after an unsuccessful invasion, on a second attempt conquered
+Egypt, which she added to her empire, but lost it when Aurelian made war
+upon her (A.D. 272). The province was, however, unsettled, and the
+conquest of Palmyra was followed in the same year by the suppression of
+a revolt in Egypt (A.D. 273). Probus, who had governed Egypt for
+Aurelian and Tacitus, was subsequently chosen by the troops to succeed
+Tacitus, and is the first governor of this province who obtained the
+whole of the empire. He expelled the Blemmyes, who were dominating the
+whole of the Thebaid. Diocletian invited the Nobatae to settle in the
+Dodecaschoenus as a barrier against their incursions, and subsidized
+both Blemmyes and Nobatae. The country, however, was still disturbed,
+and in A.D. 296 a formidable revolt broke out, led by Achilleus, who as
+emperor took the name Domitius Domitianus. Diocletian, finding his
+troops unable to determine the struggle, came to Egypt, captured
+Alexandria and put his rival to death (296). He then reorganized the
+whole province, and the well-known "Pompey's Pillar" was set up by the
+grateful and repentant Alexandrians to commemorate his gift to them of
+part of the corn tribute.
+
+The Coptic era of Diocletian or of the Martyrs dates from the accession
+of Diocletian (A.D. 284). The edict of A.D. 303 against the Christians,
+and those which succeeded it, were rigorously carried out in Egypt,
+where Paganism was still strong and face to face with a strong and
+united church. Galerius, who succeeded Diocletian in the government of
+the East, implacably pursued his policy, and this great persecution did
+not end until the persecutor, perishing, it is said, of the dire malady
+of Herod and Philip II. of Spain, sent out an edict of toleration (A.D.
+311).
+
+By the edict of Milan (A.D. 313), Constantine, with the agreement of his
+colleague Licinius, acknowledged Christianity as having at least equal
+rights with other religions, and when he gained sole power he wrote to
+all his subjects advising them, like him, to become Christians (A.D.
+324). The Egyptian Church, hitherto free from schism, was now divided by
+a fierce controversy, in which we see two Greek parties, rather than a
+Greek and an Egyptian, in conflict. The council of Nicaea was called
+together (A.D. 325) to determine between the Orthodox and the party of
+the Alexandrian presbyter Arius. At that council the native Egyptian
+bishops were chiefly remarkable for their manly protest against
+enforcing celibacy on the clergy. The most conspicuous controversialist
+on the Orthodox side was the young Alexandrian deacon Athanasius, who
+returned home to be made archbishop of Alexandria (A.D. 326). After
+being four times expelled by the Arians, and once by the emperor Julian,
+he died, A.D. 373, at the moment when an Arian persecution began. So
+large a proportion of the population had taken religious vows that under
+Valens it became necessary to abolish the privilege of monks which
+exempted them from military service. The reign of Theodosius I.
+witnessed the overthrow of Arianism, and this was followed by the
+suppression of Paganism, against which a final edict was promulgated
+A.D. 390. In Egypt, the year before, the temple of Serapis at Alexandria
+had been captured after much bloodshed by the Christian mob and turned
+into a church. Generally the Coptic Christians were content to build
+their churches within the ancient temples, plastering over or effacing
+the sculptures which were nearest to the ground and in the way of the
+worshippers. They do not seem to have been very zealous in the work of
+destruction; the native religion was already dead and they had no fear
+of it. The prosperity of the church was the sign of its decay, and
+before long we find persecution and injustice disgracing the seat of
+Athanasius. Cyril, the patriarch of Alexandria (A.D. 415), expelled the
+Jews from the capital with the aid of the mob, and by the murder of the
+beautiful philosopher Hypatia marked the lowest depth to which ignorant
+fanaticism could descend. A schism now produced lengthened civil war and
+alienated Egypt from the empire. The distinction between religion and
+politics seemed to be lost, and the government grew weaker and weaker.
+The system of local government by citizens had now entirely disappeared.
+Offices, with new Byzantine names, were now almost hereditary in the
+wealthy land-owning families. The Greek rulers of the Orthodox faith
+were unable to protect the tillers of the soil, and these being of the
+Monophysite persuasion and having their own church and patriarch, hated
+the Orthodox patriarch (who from the time of Justinian onwards was
+identical with the prefect) and all his following. Towards the middle of
+the 5th century, the Blemmyes, quiet since the reign of Diocletian,
+recommenced their incursions, and were even joined in them by the
+Nobatae. These tribes were twice brought to account severely for their
+misdoings, but not effectually checked. It was in these circumstances
+that Egypt fell without a conflict when attacked by Chosroes (A.D. 616).
+After ten years of Persian dominion the success of Heraclius restored
+Egypt to the empire, and for a time it again received a Greek governor.
+The Monophysites, who had taken advantage of the Persian occupation,
+were persecuted and their patriarch expelled. The Arab conquest was
+welcomed by the native Christians, but with it they ceased to be the
+Egyptian nation. Their language is still used in their churches, but it
+is no longer spoken, and its literature, which is wholly ecclesiastical,
+has been long unproductive.
+
+The decline of Egypt was due to the purely military government of the
+Romans, and their subsequent alliance with the Greek party of
+Alexandria, which never represented the country. Under weak emperors,
+the rest of Egypt was exposed to the inroads of savages, and left to
+fall into a condition of barbarism. Ecclesiastical disputes tended to
+alienate both the native population and the Alexandrians. Thus at last
+the country was merely held by armed force, and the authority of the
+governor was little recognized beyond the capital, except where
+garrisons were stationed. There was no military spirit in a population
+unused to arms, nor any disinclination to be relieved from an arbitrary
+and persecuting rule. Thus the Moslem conquest was easy.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Hellenistic Period._--See the special articles
+  ALEXANDRIA, &c., and especially PTOLEMIES; J. P. Mahaffy, _The Empire
+  of the Ptolemies_ (London, 1895), _A History of Egypt under_ _the
+  Ptolemaic Dynasty_ (London, 1899); A. Bouche-Leclercq, _Histoire des
+  Lagides_ (4 vols., Paris, 1903- ); E. A. W. Budge, _A History of
+  Egypt_, vols. vii.-viii. (London, 1902); J. G. Milne, _A History of
+  Egypt under Roman Rule_ (London, 1898); E. Gibbon, _Decline and Fall
+  of the Roman Empire_ (edited by J. B. Bury) (London, 1900). The
+  administration and condition of Egypt under the Ptolemaic and Roman
+  rules are abundantly illustrated in recently discovered papyri, see
+  especially the English publications of B. P. Grenfell and A. S. Hunt
+  (_Memoirs of the Graeco-Roman Branch of the Egypt Exploration Fund_)
+  and F. G. Kenyon (British Museum Catalogues); also Mr Kenyon's annual
+  summaries in the _Archaeological Report of the Egypt Exploration
+  Fund_. An ample selection of the Greek inscriptions from Egypt is to
+  be found in W. Dittenberger, _Orientis Graeci inscriptiones selectae_
+  (2 vols., Leipzig, 1903-1905).     (R. S. P.; F. Ll. G.)
+
+
+2. _Mahommedan Period._
+
+(1) _Moslem Conquest of Egypt._--In accordance with the scheme of
+universal conquest conceived by the founder of Islam, an army of some
+4000 men was towards the end of the year A.D. 639 sent against Egypt
+under the command of 'Amr (see 'AMR-IBN-EL-ASS), by the second caliph,
+Omar I., who had some doubt as to the expediency of the enterprise. The
+commander marched from Syria through El-'Arish, easily took Farama or
+Pelusium, and thence proceeded to Bilbeis, where he was delayed for a
+month; having captured this place, he proceeded to a point on the Nile
+called Umm Dunain, the siege of which also occasioned him some
+difficulty. After taking it, he crossed the Nile to the Fayum. On the
+6th of June of the following year (640) a second army of 12,000 men,
+despatched by Omar, arrived at Heliopolis (On). 'Amr recrossed the river
+and joined it, but presently was confronted by a Roman army, which he
+defeated at the battle of Heliopolis (July 640); this victory was
+followed by the siege of Babylon, which after some futile attempts at
+negotiation was taken partly by storm and partly by capitulation on Good
+Friday, the 6th of April 641. 'Amr next proceeded in the direction of
+Alexandria, which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed on the 8th
+of November 641, under which it was to be occupied by the Moslems on the
+29th of September of the following year. The interval was spent by him
+in founding the city Fostat (Fustat), near the modern Cairo, and called
+after the camp (_Fossatum_) occupied by him while besieging Babylon; and
+in reducing those coast towns that still offered resistance. The Thebaid
+seems to have surrendered with scarcely any opposition.
+
+The ease with which this valuable province was wrenched from the Roman
+empire appears to have been due to the treachery of the governor of
+Egypt, Cyrus, patriarch of Alexandria, and the incompetence of the
+generals of the Roman forces. The former, called by the Arabs Mukaukis
+(Muqauqis) from his Coptic name Pkauchios, had for ten years before the
+arrival of 'Amr maintained a fierce persecution of the Jacobite sect, to
+which the bulk of the Copts belonged. During the siege of Babylon he had
+been recalled and exiled, but after the death of Heraclius had been
+reinstated as patriarch by Heraclonas, and been welcomed back to
+Alexandria with general rejoicing in September 641. Since Alexandria
+could neither have been stormed nor starved out by the Arabs, his
+motives for surrendering it, and with it the whole of Egypt, have been
+variously interpreted, some supposing him to have been secretly a
+convert to Islam. The notion that the Arab invaders were welcomed and
+assisted by the Copts, driven to desperation by the persecution of
+Cyrus, appears to be refuted by the fact that the invaders treated both
+Copts and Romans with the same ruthlessness; but the dissensions which
+prevailed in the Christian communities, leading to riots and even civil
+war in Alexandria and elsewhere, probably weakened resistance to the
+common enemy. An attempt was made in the year 645 with a force under
+Manuel, commander of the Imperial forces, to regain Alexandria for the
+Byzantine empire; the city was surprised, and held till the summer of
+646, when it was again stormed by 'Amr. In 654 a fleet was equipped by
+Constans with a view to an invasion, but it was repulsed, and partly
+destroyed by storm. From that time no serious effort was made by the
+Eastern Empire to regain possession of the country. And it would appear
+that at the time of the attempt by Manuel the Arabs were actually
+assisted by the Copts, who at the first had found the Moslem lighter
+than the Roman yoke.
+
+
+  Terms of capitulation.
+
+A question often debated by Arabic authors is whether Egypt was taken by
+storm or capitulation, but, so far as the transference of the country
+was accomplished by the first taking of Alexandria, there seems no doubt
+that the latter view is correct. The terms were those on which conquered
+communities were ordinarily taken under Moslem protection. In return for
+a tribute of money (_jizyah_) and food for the troops of occupation
+(_daribat-al-ta'am_), the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were to be
+excused military service, and to be left free in the observance of their
+religion and the administration of their affairs.
+
+From 639 to 968 Egypt was a province of the Eastern Caliphate, and was
+ruled by governors sent from the cities which at different times ranked
+as capitals. Like other provinces of the later Abbasid Caliphate its
+rulers were, during this period, able to establish quasi-independent
+dynasties, such being those of the Tulunids who ruled from 868 to 905,
+and the Ikshidis from 935-969. In 969 the country was conquered by
+Jauhar for the Fatimite caliph Mo'izz, who transferred his capital from
+Mahdia (q.v.) in the Maghrib to Cairo. This dynasty lasted till 1171,
+when Egypt was again embodied in the Abbasid empire by Saladin, who,
+however, was himself the founder of a quasi-independent dynasty called
+the Ayyubites or Ayyubids, which lasted till 1252. The Ayyubites were
+followed by the Mameluke dynasties, usually classified as Bahri from
+1252-1382, and Burji from 1382-1517; these sovereigns were nominally
+under the suzerainty of Abbasid caliphs, who were in reality instruments
+of the Mameluke sultans, and resided at Cairo. In 1517 Egypt became part
+of the Ottoman empire and was governed by pashas sent from
+Constantinople, whose influence about 1707 gave way to that of officials
+chosen from the Mamelukes who bore the title Sheik al-balad. After the
+episode of the French occupation, government by pashas was restored;
+Mehemet Ali (appointed pasha in 1805) obtained from the Porte in 1841
+the right to bequeath the sovereignty to his descendants, one of whom,
+Ismail Pasha, received the title Khedive, which is still held by Mehemet
+Ali's descendants.
+
+(2) The following is a list of the governors of Egypt in these
+successive periods:--
+
+    (a) _During the undivided Caliphate._
+
+  'Amr-ibn-el-Ass, A.H. 18-24 (A.D. 639-645).
+  'Abdallah b. Sa'd b. Abi Sarh, 24-36 (645-656).
+  Qais b. Sa'd b. 'Ubadah, 36 (657-658).
+  Mahommed b. Abu Bekr, 37-38 (658).
+  Ashtar Malik b. al-Harith (appointed, but never governed).
+  'Amr-ibn-el-Ass, 38-43 (658-663).
+  'Utbah b. Abu Sofian, 43-44 (664-665).
+  'Utbah b. 'Amir, 44-45 (665).
+  Maslama b. Mukhallad, 45-62 (665-682).
+  Sa'id b. Yazid b. 'Alqamah, 62-64 (682-684).
+  Abdarrahman b. 'Utbah b. Jahdam, 64-65 (684).
+  Abdalaziz ('Abd al-'Aziz) b. Merwan, 65-86 (685-705).
+  'Abdallah b. 'Abd al-Malik, 86-90 (705-708).
+  Qurrah b. Sharik al-'Absi, 90-96 (709-714).
+  'Abd al-Malik b. Rifa'ah al-Fahmi, 96-99 (715-717).
+  Ayyub b. Shurahbil al-Asbahi, 99-101 (717-720).
+  Bishr b. Safwan al-Kalbi, 101-102 (720-721).
+  Hanzalah b. Safwan, 102-105 (721-724).
+  Mahommed b. 'Abd al-Malik, 105 (724).
+  Hurr b. Yusuf, 105-108 (724-727).
+  Hafs b. al-Walid, 108 (727).
+  'Abd al-Malik b. Rifa'ah, 109 (727).
+  Walid b. Rifa'ah, 109-117 (727-735).
+  'Abd al-Rahman b. Khalid, 117-118 (735).
+  Hanzalah b. Safwan, 118-124 (735-742).
+  Hafs b. al-Walid, 124-127 (742-745).
+  Hassan b. 'Atahiyah al-Tu'jibi, 127 (745).
+  Hafs b. al-Walid, 127 (745).
+  Hautharah b. Suhail al-Bahili, 128-131 (745-749).
+  Mughirah b. 'Ubaidallah al-Fazari, 131-132 (749).
+  'Abd al-Malik b. Marwan al-Lakhmi, 132 (750).
+  Salih b. 'Ali, 133 (750-751).
+  Abu 'Aun 'Abdalmalik b. Yazid, 133-136 (751-753).
+  Salih b. 'Ali, 136-137 (753-755)--second time.
+  Abu 'Aun, 137-141 (755-758)--second time.
+  Musa b. Ka'b b. 'Uyainah al-Tamimi, 141 (758-759).
+  Mahommed b. al-Ash'ath b. 'Uqbah al-Khuza i, 141-143 (759-760).
+  Humaid b. Qahtabah b. Shabib al-Ta'i, 143-144 (760-762).
+  Yazid b. Hatim b. Kabisah al-Muhallabi, 144-152 (762-769).
+  'Abdallah b. 'Abdarrahman b. Moawiya b. Hudaij, 152-155 (769-772).
+  Mahommed b. Abdarrahman b. Moawiya b. Hudaij, 155 (772).
+  Musa b. 'Ulayy b. Rabah al-Lakhmi, 155-161 (772-778).
+  'Isa b. Luqman b. Mahommed al-Jumahi, 161-162 (778).
+  Wadih, 162 (779).
+  Mansur b. Yazid b. Mansur al-Ru'aini, 162 (779).
+  Abu Salih Yahya b. Dawud b. Mamdud, 162-164 (779-780).
+  Salim b. Sawadah al-Tamimi, 164 (780-781).
+  Ibrahim b. Salih b. 'Ali, 165-167 (781-784).
+  Musa b. Mus'ab b. al-Rabi al-Khath'ami, 167-168 (784-785).
+  Usamah b. 'Amr b. 'Alqamah al-Ma'afiri, 168 (785).
+  al Fadl b. Salih b. 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 168-169 (785-786).
+  'Ali b. Sulaiman b. 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 169-171 (786-787).
+  Musa b. 'Isa b. Musa al-'Abbasi, 171-172 (787-789).
+  Maslamah b. Yahya b. Qurrah al-Bajili, 172-173 (789-790).
+  Mahommed b. Zuhair al-Azdi, 173 (790).
+  Dawud b. Yazid b. Hatim al-Muhallabi, 174-175 (790).
+  Musa b. 'Isa al-'Abbasi, 175-176 (790-792).
+  Ibrahim b. Salih, 176 (792).
+  Salih b. Ibrahim, 176 (792).
+  Abdallah b. al-Musayyib b. Zuhair al Dabbi, 176-177 (792-793).
+  Ishaq b. Sulaiman b. 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 177-178 (793-794).
+  Harthamah b. A'yan, 178 (794-795).
+  'Obaidallah b. al-Mahdi, 179 (795).
+  Musa b. 'Isa al-'Abbasi, 179-180 (795-796).
+  'Obaidallah b. al-Mahdi, 180-181 (796-797)--second time.
+  Isma'il b. Salih b. 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 181-182 (797-798).
+  Isma'il b. 'Isa b. Musa al-'Abbasi, 182-183 (798).
+  Laith b. al-Fadl al-Abiwardi, 183-187 (798-803).
+  Ahmad b. Isma'il b. 'Ali al-'Abbasi, 187-189 (803-805).
+  'Obaidallah b. Mahommed b. Ibrahim al-'Abbasi, 189-190 (805-806).
+  Husain b. Jamil, 190-192 (806-808).
+  Malik b. Dalham b. 'Isa al-Kalbi, 192-193 (808).
+  Hasan b. al-Tahtah, 193-194 (808-809).
+  Hatim b. Harthamah b. A'yan, 194-195 (809-811).
+  Jabir b. al-Ash'ath b. Yahya al-Ta'i, 195-196 (811-812).
+  'Abbad b. Mahommed b. Hayyan al-Balkhi, 196-198 (812-813).
+  Mottalib b. 'Abdallah b. Malik al-Khuza'i, 198 (813-814).
+  'Abbas b. Musa b. 'Isa al-'Abbasi, 198-199 (814).
+  Mottalib b. 'Abdallah, 199-200 (814-816)--second time.
+  Sari b. al-Hakam b. Yusuf, 200-201 (816).
+  Sulaiman b. Ghalib b. Jibril al-Bajili, 201 (816-817).
+  Sari b. al-Hakam, 201-205 (817-820).
+  Abu Nasr Mahommed b. al-Sari, 205 (820-821).
+  'Obaidallah b. al-Sari, 205-211 (821-826).
+  'Abdallah b. Tahir, 211-213 (826-829).
+  Mahommed b. Harun (al-Mo'tasim), 213-214 (829).
+  'Umair b. Al-Walid al-Tamimi al-Badhaghisi, 214 (829).
+  'Isa b. Yazid, 214 (829).
+  'Abduyah b. Jabalah, 215-216 (830-831).
+  'Isa b. Mansur b. Musa al-Rafi'i, 216-217 (831-832).
+  Nasr b. Abdallah Kaidar al-Safadi, 217-219 (832-834).
+  Muzaffar b. Kaidar, 219 (834).
+  Musa b. Abi'l-'Abbas Thabit al-Hanafi, 219-224 (834-839).
+  Malik b. Kaidar al Safadi, 224-226 (839-841).
+  'Ali b. Yahya abu l-Hasan al-Armani, 226-228 (841-842).
+  'Isa b. Mansur al-Rafi'i, 229-233 (843-847).
+  Harthamah b. al-Nadir al-Jabali, 233-234 (848-849).
+  Hatim b. Harthamah, 234 (849).
+  'Ali b. Yahya, 234-235 (849-850).
+  Ishaq b. Yahya al-Khatlani, 235-236 (850-851).
+  'Abd al-Wahid b. Yahya b. Mansur, 236-238 (851-852).
+  'Anbasa b. Ishaq b. Shamir, 238-242 (852-856).
+  Yazid b. 'Abdallah b. Dinar, 242-253 (856-867).
+  Muzahim b. Khaqan al-Turki, 253-254 (867-868).
+  Ahmad b. Muzahim b. Khaqan, 254 (868).
+  Urjuz b. Ulugh Tarkhan al-Turki, 254 (868).
+
+  _Tulunid house._
+
+  Ahmad b. Tulun, 254-270 (868-884).
+  Khomaruya b. Ahmad, 270-282 (884-896).
+  Jaish b. Khomaruya, 282 (896).
+  Harun b. Khomaruya, 283-292 (896-904).
+  Shaiban b. Ahmad, 292 (905).
+  'Isa b. Mahommed al-Naushari, 292 (905).
+  Mahommed b. 'Ali al-Khalanji, 292-293 (905-906).
+  'Isa al-Naushari, 293-297 (906-910)--second time.
+  Takin b. Abdallah al-Khazari, 297-302 (910-915).
+  Dhuka al-Rumi, 303-307 (915-919).
+  Takin b. 'Abdallah, 307-309 (919-921)--second time.
+  Abu Qabus Mahmud b. Hamal, 309 (921).
+  Hilal b. Badr, 309-311 (921-923).
+  Ahmad b. Kaighlagh, 311 (923).
+  Takin b. Abdallah, 311-321 (923-933)--third time.
+  Mahommed b. Takin, 321 (933).
+
+  _Ikshidi house._
+
+  Mahommed b. Tughj al-Ikshid, 321 (933).
+  [Ahmad b. Kaighlagh, 321-322 (933-934)].
+  Mahommed b. Tughj, 323-334 (934-946)--second time.
+  Unjur b. al-Ikshid, 334-349 (946-961).
+  'Ali b. al-Ikshid, 349-355 (961-966).
+  Kafur b. Abdallah al-Ikshidi, 355-357 (966-968).
+  Abu'l-Fawaris Ahmad b. 'Ali b. al-Ikshid, 357 (968).
+
+    _(b) Fatimite Caliphs_, 357-567 (969-1171).
+
+  Mo'izz Abu Tamim Ma'add (or li-din allah), 357-365 (969-975).
+  'Aziz Abu Mansur Nizar (al-'Aziz billah), 365-386 (975-996).
+  Hakim [Abu 'Ali Mansur], 386-411 (996-1020).
+  Zahir [Abu'l-Hasan 'Ali], 411-427 (1020-1035).
+  Mostansir [Abu Tamim Ma'add], 427-487 (1035-1094).
+  Mosta'li [Abu'l-Qasim Ahmad], 487-495 (1094-1101).
+  Amir [Abu 'Ali Mansur], 495-524 (1101-1130).
+  Hafiz [Abu'l-Maimun 'Abd al-Majid], 524-544 (1130-1149).
+  Zafir [Abu'l-Mansur Isma'il], 544-549 (1149-1154).
+  Fa'iz [Abu'l-Qasim 'Isa], 549-555 (1154-1160).
+  'Adid [Abu Mahommed 'Abdallah], 555-567 (1160-1171).
+
+    _(c) Ayyubite Sultans_, 564-648 (1169-1250).
+
+  Malik al-Nasir Salah al-din Yusuf b. Ayyub (SALADIN), 564-589
+    (1169-1193).
+  Malik al-'Aziz 'Imad al-din Othman, 589-595 (1193-1198).
+  Malik al-Mansur Mahommed, 595-596 (1198-1199).
+  Malik al-'Adil Saif al-din Abu Bakr, 596-615 (1199-1218).
+  Malik AL-KAMIL Mahommed, 615-635 (1218-1238).
+  Malik al-'Adil II. Saif al-din Abu Bakr, 635-637 (1238-1240).
+  Malik al-Salih Najm al-din Ayyub, 637-647 (1240-1249).
+  Malik al-Mo'azzam Turanshah, 647-648 (1249-1250).
+  Malik al-Ashraf Musa, 648-650 (1250-1252).
+
+    _(d) Bahri Mamelukes_, 648-792 (1250-1390).
+
+  Shajar al-durr, 648 (1250).
+  Malik al-Mo'izz 'Izz al-din Aibek, 648-655 (1250-1257).
+  Malik al-Mansur Nureddin 'Ali, 655-657 (1257-1259).
+  Malik al-Mozaffar Saif al-din KOTUZ, 657-658 (1259-1260).
+  Malik al-Zahir [Rukn al-din (Rukneddin) BIBARS Bundukdari],
+  658-676 (1260-1277).
+  Malik al-Sa'id Nasir al-din Barakah Khan, 676-678 (1277-1279).
+  Malik al-'Adil Badr al-din Salamish, 678 (1279).
+  Malik al-Mansur Saif al-din QALA'UN, 678-689 (1279-1290).
+  Malik al-Ashraf [Salah al-din KHALIL], 689-693 (1290-1293).
+  Malik al-Nasir [Nasir al-din Mahommed], 693-694 (1293-1294).
+  Malik al-'Adil [Zain al-din KITBOGA], 694-696 (1294-1296).
+  Mansur [Husam al-din LAJIN], 696-698 (1296-1298).
+  NASIR MAHOMMED (again), 698-708 (1298-1308).
+  Mozaffar [Rukn al-din Bibars Jashengir], 708-709 (1308-1310).
+  Nasir Mahommed (third time), 709-741 (1310-1341).
+  Mansur [Saif al-din ABU BAKR], 741-742 (1341).
+  Ashraf [Ala'u 'l-din KUCHUK], 742 (1341-1342).
+  Nasir [Shihab al-din Ahmad], 742-743 (1342).
+  Salih 'Imad al-din Isma'il], 743-746 (1342-1345).
+  Kamil [Saif al-din SHA'BAN], 746-747 (1345-1346).
+  Mozaffar [Saif al-din HAJJI], 747-748 (1346-1347).
+  Nasir [Nasir al-din Hasan], 748-752 (1347-1351).
+  Salih [Salah al-din Salih], 752-755 (1351-1354).
+  Nasir [Hasan] (again), 755-762 (1354-1361).
+  Mansur [Salah al-din Mahommed], 762-764 (1361-1363).
+  Ashraf [Nasir al-din Sha'ban], 764-778 (1363-1377).
+  Mansur ['Ala'u 'l-din 'Ali], 778-783 (1377-1381).
+  Salih [Salah al-din Hajji, 783-784 (1381-1382).
+  Barkuk or Barquq (see below), 784-791 (1382-1389).
+  Hajji again, with title of Mozaffar, 791-792 (1389-1390).
+
+    _(e) Burji Mamelukes_, 784-922 (1382-1517).
+
+  Zahir [Saif al-din Barquq], 784-801 (1382-1398) [interrupted by Hajji,
+     791-792].
+  Nasir [Nasir al-din FARAJ], 801-808 (1398-1405).
+  Mansur ['Izz al-din Abdalaziz ('Abd al-'Aziz)], 808-809 (1405-1406).
+  Nasir Faraj (again), 809-815 (1406-1412).
+  'Adil Mosta'in (Abbasid caliph), 815 (1412).
+  Mu'ayyad [Sheikh], 815-824 (1412-1421).
+  Mozaffar [Ahmad], 824 (1421).
+  Zahir [Saif al-din Tatar], 824 (1421).
+  Salih [Nasir al-din Mahommed], 824-825 (1421-1422).
+  Ashraf [Saif al-din Barsbai], 825-842 (1422-1438).
+  'Aziz [Jamal al-din Yusuf], 842 (1438).
+  Zahir [Saif al-din Jakmak], 842-857 (1438-1453).
+  Mansur [Fakhr al-din Othman], 857 (1453).
+  Ashraf [Saif al-din Inal], 857-865 (1453-1461).
+  Mu'ayyad [Shihab al-din Ahmad], 865 (1461).
+  Zahir [Saif al-din Khoshkadam], 865-872 (1461-1467).
+  Zahir [Saif al-din Yelbai or Bilbai], 872 (1467).
+  Zahir [Timurbogha], 872-873 (1467-1468).
+  Ashraf [Saif al-din (KAIT BEY)], 873-901 (1468-1495).
+  Nasir [Mahommed], 901-904 (1495-1498).
+  Zahir [Kansuh], 904-905 (1498-1499).
+  Ashraf [Janbalat or Jan Belat], 905-906 (1499-1501).
+  'Adil Tumanbey, 906 (1501).
+  Ashraf [Kansuh Ghuri], 906-922 (1501-1516).
+  Ashraf [Tumanbey], 922 (1516-1517).
+
+    _(f) Turkish Governors after the Ottoman Conquest._
+
+  Khair Bey, 923 (1517).
+  Mustafa Pasha, 926 (1520).
+  Ahmad, 929 (1523).
+  Qasim, 930 (1524).
+  Ibrahim, 931 (1525).
+  Suleiman, 933 (1527).
+  Dawud, 945 (1538).
+  'Ali, 956 (1549).
+  Mahommed, 961 (1554).
+  Iskandar, 963 (1556).
+  'Ali al-Khadim, 968 (1561).
+  Mustafa, 969 (1561).
+  'Ali al-Sufi, 971 (1563).
+  Mahmud, 973 (1566).
+  Sinan, 975 (1567).
+  Hosain, 980 (1573).
+  Masih, 982 (1575).
+  Hasan al-Khadim, 988 (1580).
+  Ibrahim, 991 (1583).
+  Sinan, 992 (1584).
+  Uwais, 994 (1585).
+  Hafiz Ahmad, 999 (1591).
+  Kurt, 1003 (1595).
+  Sayyid Mahommed, 1004 (1596).
+  Khidr, 1006 (1598).
+  'Ali al-Silahdar, 1009 (1601).
+  Ibrahim, 1012 (1604).
+  Mahommed al-Kurji, 1013 (1605).
+  Hasan, 1014 (1605).
+  Mahommed al-Sufi, 1016 (1607).
+  Ahmad al-Daftardar, 1022 (1613).
+  Mustafa Lafakli, 1026 (1617).
+  Ja'far, 1027 (1618).
+  Mustafa, 1028 (1619).
+  Hosain, 1028 (1619).
+  Mahommed, 1031 (1622).
+  Ibrahim, 1031 (1622).
+  Mustafa, 1032 (1623).
+  'Ali, 1032 (1623).
+  Mustafa, 1032 (1624).
+  Bairam, 1036 (1626).
+  Mahommed, 1037 (1627).
+  Musa, 1040 (1631).
+  Khalil al-Bustanji, 1041 (1631).
+  Ahmad al-Kurji, 1042 (1633).
+  Hosain, 1045 (1636).
+  Mahommed b. Ahmad, 1047 (1638).
+  Mustafa al-Bustanji, 1049 (1639).
+  Maqsud, 1050 (1641).
+  Suyan Bey, 1054 (1644).
+  Ayyub, 1055 (1645).
+  Mahommed b. Haidar, 1057 (1647).
+  Ahmad, 1058 (1648).
+  'Abd al-Rahman, 1061 (1651).
+  Mahommed al-Silahdar, 1062 (1652).
+  Ghazi, 1066 (1655).
+  Omar, 1067 (1652).
+  Ahmad, 1077 (1666).
+  Ibrahim, 1078 (1667).
+  Hosain, 1085 (1674).
+  Hasan al-Janbalat, 1087 (1676).
+  Othman, 1091 (1680).
+  Hasan al-Silahdar, 1099 (1688).
+  Ahmad, 1101 (1690).
+  'Ali Qilij, 1102 (1691).
+  Isma'il, 1107 (1696).
+  Hosain, 1109 (1697).
+  Qara Mahommed or Ahmad, 1111 (1699).
+  Mahommed Rami, 1116 (1704).
+  'Ali Muslim, 1118 (1706).
+  Hosain Ketkhuda, 1119 (1707).
+  Ibrahim Qabudan, 1121 (1709).
+  Khalil, 1122 (1710).
+  Wali, 1123 (1711).
+  'Abidin, 1127 (1715).
+  'Ali Izmirli, 1129 (1717).
+  Rajab, 1130 (1718).
+  Mahommed al-Bashimi, 1132 (1720).
+  'Ali, 1138 (1728).
+  Bakir, 1141 (1729).
+  'Abdallah Kuburlu, 1142 (1729).
+  Mahommed Silahdar, 1144 (1732).
+  Othman Halabi, 1146 (1733).
+  Bakir, 1148 (1735).
+  Mustafa, 1149 (1736).
+  Sulaiman b. al-'Azim, 1152 (1739).
+  'Ali Hakim Oghlu, 1153 (1740).
+  Yahya, 1154 (1741).
+  Mahommed Yedkeshi,  1156 (1743).
+  Mahommed Raghib, 1158 (1745).
+  Ahmad Kuruzir, 1161 (1748).
+  Sharif 'Abdallah, 1163 (1750).
+  Mahommed Amin, 1166 (1753).
+  Mustafa, 1166 (1753).
+  'Ali Hakim Oghlu, 1169 (1756).
+  Mahommed Sa'id, 1171 (1758).
+  Mustafa, 1173 (1759).
+  Ahmad Kamil, 1174 (1761).
+  Bakir, 1175 (1761).
+  Hasan, 1176 (1761).
+  Hamzah, 1179 (1765).
+  Mahommed Raqim, 1181 (1767).
+  Mahommed Urflu, 1182 (1768).
+  Ahmad, 1183 (1770).
+  Qara Khalil, 1184 (1770).
+  Mustafa Nabulsi, 1188 (1774).
+  Ibrahim 'Arabgirli, 1189 (1775).
+  Mahommed 'Izzet, 1190 (1776).
+  Isma'il, 1193 (1779).
+  Mahommed Malik, 1195 (1781).
+  Sharif 'Ali Qassab, 1196 (1782).
+  Mahommed Silahdar, 1198 (1783).
+  Mahommed Yeyen, 1200 (1785).
+  'Abidin Sharif, 1201 (1787).
+  Isma'il Tunisi, 1203 (1788).
+  Salih Qaisarli, 1209 (1794).
+  Abu Bakr Tarabulsi,  1211 (1796).
+
+    _French Occupation._
+
+  Khosrev, 1216 (1802).
+  Tahir, 1218 (1803).
+  Ali Jaza'irli' or Tarabulsi, 1218 (1803).
+  Khorshid, 1219 (1804).
+
+    _(g) Hereditary Pashas (later Khedives), from 1220 (from 1805)._
+
+  Mehemet 'Ali, 1220-1264 (1805-1848).
+  Ibrahim, 1264 (1848).
+  'Abbas I., 1264-1270 (1848-1854).
+  Sa'id, 1270-1280 (1854-1863).
+  Isma'il 1280-1300 (1863-1882).
+  Tewfik, 1300-1309 (1882-1892).
+  Abbas II., 1309 (1892).
+
+(3) _Period under Governors sent from the Metropolis of the eastern
+Caliphate._--The first governor of the newly acquired province was the
+conqueror 'Amr, whose jurisdiction was presently restricted to Lower
+Egypt; Upper Egypt, which was divided into three provinces, being
+assigned to Abdallah b. Sa'd, on whom the third caliph conferred the
+government of Lower Egypt also, 'Amr being recalled, owing to his
+unwillingness to extort from his subjects as much money as would satisfy
+the caliph. In the troubles which overtook the Islamic empire with the
+accession of Othman, Egypt was greatly involved, and it had to be
+reconquered from the adherents of Ali for Moawiya (Mo'awiyah) by 'Amr,
+who in A.H. 38 was rewarded for his services by being reinstated as
+governor, with the right to appropriate the surplus revenue instead of
+sending it as tribute to the metropolis. In the confusion which followed
+on the death of the Omayyad caliph Yazid the Egyptian Moslems declared
+themselves for Abdallah b. Zobair, but their leader was defeated in a
+battle near Ain Shams (December 684) by Merwan b. Hakam (Merwan I.), who
+had assumed the Caliphate, and the conqueror's son Abd al-'Aziz was
+appointed governor. They also declared themselves against the usurper
+Merwan II. in 745, whose lieutenant al-Hautharah had to enter Fostat at
+the head of an army. In 750 Merwan II. himself came to Egypt as a
+fugitive from the Abbasids, but found that the bulk of the Moslem
+population had already joined with his enemies, and was defeated and
+slain in the neighbourhood of Giza in July of the same year. The Abbasid
+general, Salih b. Ali, who had won the victory, was then appointed
+governor.
+
+
+  Coptic revolt.
+
+During the period that elapsed between the Moslem conquest and the end
+of the Omayyad dynasty the nature of the Arab occupation had changed
+from what had originally been intended, the establishment of garrisons,
+to systematic colonization. Conversions of Copts to Islam were at first
+rare, and the old system of taxation was maintained for the greater part
+of the first Islamic century. This was at the rate of a dinar per
+_feddan_, of which the proceeds were used in the first place for the pay
+of the troops and their families, with about half the amount in kind for
+the rations of the army. The process by which the first of these
+contributions was turned into coin is still obscure; it is clear that
+the corn when threshed was taken over by certain public officials who
+deducted the amount due to the state. In general the system is well
+illustrated by the papyri forming the Schott-Reinhardt collection at
+Heidelberg (edited by C.H. Becker, 1906), which contain a number of
+letters on the subject from Qurrah b. Sharik, governor from A.H. 90 to
+96. The old division of the country into districts (_nomoi_) is
+maintained, and to the inhabitants of these districts demands are
+directly addressed by the governor of Egypt, while the head of the
+community, ordinarily a Copt, but in some cases a Moslem, is responsible
+for compliance with the demand. An official called "receiver" (_qabbal_)
+is chosen by the inhabitants of each district to take charge of the
+produce till it is delivered into the public magazines, and receives 5%
+for his trouble. Some further details are to be found in documents
+preserved by the archaeologist Maqrizi, from which it appears that the
+sum for which each district was responsible was distributed over the
+unit in such a way that artisans and tradesmen paid at a rate similar to
+that which was enforced on those employed in agriculture. It is not
+known at what time the practice of having the amount due settled by the
+community was altered into that according to which it was settled by the
+governor, or at what time the practice of deducting from the total
+certain expenses necessary for the maintenance of the community was
+abandoned. The researches of Wellhausen and Becker have made it clear
+that the difference which is marked in later Islam between a poll-tax
+(_jizyah_) and a land-tax (_kharaj_) did not at first exist: the papyri
+of the 1st century know only of the jizyah, which, however, is not a
+poll-tax but a land-tax (in the main). The development of the poll-tax
+imposed on members of tolerated cults seems to be due to various causes,
+chief of them the acquisition of land by Moslems, who were not at first
+allowed to possess any, the conversion of Coptic landowners to Islam,
+and the enforcement (towards the end of the 1st century of Islam) of the
+poll-tax on monks. The treasury could not afford to lose the land-tax,
+which it would naturally forfeit by the first two of the above
+occurrences, and we read of various expedients being tried to prevent
+this loss. Such were making the Christian community to which the
+proselyte had belonged pay as much as it had paid when his lands
+belonged to it, making proselytes pay as before their conversion, or
+compelling them to abandon their lands on conversion. Eventually the
+theory spread that all land paid land-tax, whereas members of tolerated
+sects paid a personal tax also; but during the evolution of this
+doctrine the relations between conquerors and conquered became more and
+more strained, and from the time when the control of the finance was
+separated from the administration of the country (A.D. 715) complaints
+of extortion became serious; under the predecessor of Qurrah, 'Abdallah
+b. 'Abd al-Malik, the country suffered from famine, and under this ruler
+it was unable to recover. Under the finance minister Obaidallah b.
+Habhab (720-734) the first government survey by Moslems was made,
+followed by a census; but before this time the higher administrative
+posts had been largely taken out of the hands of Copts and filled with
+Arabs. The resentment of the Copts finally expressed itself in a revolt,
+which broke out in the year 725, and was suppressed with difficulty. Two
+years after, in order that the Arab element in Egypt might be
+strengthened, a colony of North Arabians (Qaisites) was sent for and
+planted near Bilbeis, reaching the number of 3000 persons; this
+immigration also restored the balance between the two branches of the
+Arab race, as the first immigrants had belonged almost exclusively to
+the South Arabian stock. Meanwhile the employment of the Arabic language
+had been steadily gaining ground, and in 706 it was made the official
+language of the bureaux, though the occasional use of Greek for this
+purpose is attested by documents as late as the year 780. Other revolts
+of the Copts are recorded for the year 739 and 750, the last year of
+Omayyad domination. The outbreaks in all cases are attributed to
+increased taxation.
+
+The Abbasid period was marked at its commencement by the erection of a
+new capital to the north of Fostat, bearing the name _'Askar_ or "camp."
+Apparently at this time the practice of farming the taxes began, which
+naturally led to even greater extortion than before; and a fresh rising
+of the Copts is recorded for the fourth year of Abbasid rule. Governors,
+as will be seen from the list, were frequently changed. The three
+officials of importance whose nomination is mentioned by the historians
+in addition to that of the governor were the commander of the bodyguard,
+the minister of finance and the judge. Towards the beginning of the 3rd
+Islamic century the practice of giving Egypt in fief to a governor was
+resumed by the caliph Mamun, who bestowed this privilege on 'Abdallah b.
+Tahir, who in 827 was sent to recover Alexandria, which for some ten
+years had been held by exiles from Spain. 'Abdallah b. Tahir decided to
+reside at Bagdad, sending a deputy to Egypt to govern for him; and this
+example was afterwards followed. In 828, when Mamun's brother Motasim
+was feudal lord, a violent insurrection broke out in the Hauf,
+occasioned, as usual, by excessive taxation; it was partly quelled in
+the next year by Motasim, who marched against the rebels with an army of
+4000 Turks. The rebellion broke out repeatedly in the following years,
+and in 831 the Copts joined with the Arabs against the government; the
+state of affairs became so serious that the caliph Mamun himself visited
+Egypt, arriving at Fostat in February 832; his general Afshin fought a
+decisive battle with the rebels at Basharud in the Hauf region, at which
+the Copts were compelled to surrender; the males were massacred and the
+women and children sold as slaves.
+
+
+  Turkish governors appointed.
+
+This event finally crushed the Coptic nation, which never again made
+head against the Moslems. In the following year the caliph Motasim, who
+surrounded himself with a foreign bodyguard, withdrew the stipends of
+the Arab soldiers in Egypt; this measure caused some of the Arab tribes
+who had been long settled in Egypt to revolt, but their resistance was
+crushed, and the domination of the Arab element in the country from this
+time gave way to that of foreign mercenaries, who, belonging to one
+nation or another, held it for most of its subsequent history. Egypt was
+given in fief to a Turkish general Ashnas (Ashinas), who never visited
+the country, and the rule of individuals of Turkish origin prevailed
+till the rise of the Fatimites, who for a time interrupted it. The
+presence of Turks in Egypt is attested by documents as early as 808.
+While the governor was appointed by the feudal lord, the finance
+minister continued to be appointed by the caliph. On the death of Ashnas
+in 844 Egypt was given in fief to another Turkish general Itakh, but in
+850 this person fell out of favour, and the fief was transferred to
+Montasir, son of the caliph Motawakkil. In 856 it was transferred from
+him to the vizier Fath b. Khaqan, who for the first time appointed a
+Turkish governor. The chief places in the state were also filled with
+Turks. The period between the rise of the Abbasids and the
+quasi-independent dynasties of Egypt was marked by much religious
+persecution, occasioned by the fanaticism of some of the caliphs, the
+victims being generally Moslem sectarians. (For Egypt under Motawakkil
+see CALIPHATE, S c. par. 10.)
+
+The policy of these caliphs also led to severe measures being taken
+against any members of the Alid family or adherents of their cause who
+were to be found in Egypt.
+
+
+  Tulunid Dynasty.
+
+In the year 868 Egypt was given in fief to a Turkish general Bayikbeg,
+who sent thither as his representative his stepson Ahmad b. Tulun, the
+first founder of a quasi-independent dynasty. This personage was himself
+the son of a Turk who, originally sent as a slave to Bagdad, had risen
+to high rank in the service of the caliphs. Ahmad b. Tulun spent some of
+his early life in Tarsus, and on his return distinguished himself by
+rescuing his caravan, which conveyed treasure belonging to the caliph,
+from brigands who attacked it; he afterwards accompanied the caliph
+Mosta'in into exile, and displayed some honourable qualities in his
+treatment of the fallen sovereign. He found a rival in Egypt in the
+person of Ibn al-Modabbir, the finance minister, who occupied an
+independent position, and who started the practice of surrounding
+himself with an army of his own slaves or freedmen; of these Ibn Tulun
+succeeded in depriving the finance minister, and they formed the nucleus
+of an army by which he eventually secured his own independence.
+Insurrections by adherents of the Alids gave him the opportunity to
+display his military skill; and when in 870 his stepfather died, by a
+stroke of luck the fief was given to his father-in-law, who retained
+Ahmad in the lieutenancy, and indeed extended his authority to
+Alexandria, which had till that time been outside it. The enterprise of
+a usurper in Syria in the year 872 caused the caliph to require the
+presence of Ahmad in that country at the head of an army to quell it;
+and although this army was not actually employed for the purpose, it was
+not disbanded by Ahmad, who on his return founded a fresh city called
+Kata'i', "the fiefs," S.E. of modern Cairo, to house it. On the death of
+Ahmad's father-in-law in the same year, when Egypt was given in fief to
+the caliph's brother Mowaffaq (famous for his defeat of the Zanj), Ahmad
+secured himself in his post by extensive bribery at headquarters; and in
+the following year the administration of the Syrian frontier was
+conferred on him as well. By 875 he found himself strong enough to
+refuse to send tribute to Bagdad, preferring to spend the revenues of
+Egypt on the maintenance of his army and the erection of great
+buildings, such as his famous mosque; and though Mowaffaq advanced
+against him with an army, the project of reducing Ahmad to submission
+had to be abandoned for want of means. In 877 and 878 Ahmad advanced
+into Syria and obtained the submission of the chief cities, and at
+Tarsus entered into friendly relations with the representatives of the
+Byzantine emperor. During his absence his son 'Abbas revolted in Egypt;
+on the news of his father's return he fled to Barca, whence he
+endeavoured to conquer the Aghlabite dominions in the Maghrib; he was,
+however, defeated by the Aghlabite ruler, and returned to Barca, where
+he was again defeated by his father's forces and taken prisoner.
+
+In 882 relations between Ahmad and Mowaffaq again became strained, and
+the former conceived the bold plan of getting the caliph Mo'tamid into
+his power, which, however, was frustrated by Mowaffaq's vigilance; but
+an open rupture was the result, as Mowaffaq formally deprived Ahmad of
+his lieutenancy, while Ahmad equally formally declared that Mowaffaq had
+forfeited the succession. A revolt that broke out at Tarsus caused Ahmad
+to traverse Syria once more in 883, but illness compelled him to return,
+and on the 10th of May 884 he died at his residence in Kata'i'. He was
+the first to establish the claim of Egypt to govern Syria, and from his
+time Egypt grew more and more independent of the Eastern caliphate. He
+appears to have invented the fiction which afterwards was repeatedly
+employed, by which the money spent on mosque-building was supposed to
+have been furnished by discoveries of buried treasure.
+
+He was succeeded by his son Khomaruya, then twenty years of age, who
+immediately after his accession had to deal with an attempt on the part
+of the caliph to recover Syria; this attempt failed chiefly through
+dissensions between the caliph's officers, but partly through the
+ability of Khomaruya's general, who succeeded in winning a battle after
+his master had run away from the field. By 886 Mowaffaq found it
+expedient to grant Khomaruya the possession of Egypt, Syria, and the
+frontier towns for a period of thirty years, and ere long, owing to the
+disputes of the provincial governors, Khomaruya found it possible to
+extend his domain to the Euphrates and even the Tigris. On the death of
+Mowaffaq in 891 the Egyptian governor was able to renew peaceful
+relations with the caliphs, and receive fresh confirmation in his
+possessions for thirty years. The security which he thereby gained gave
+him the opportunity to indulge his taste for costly buildings, parks and
+other luxuries, of which the chroniclers give accounts bordering on the
+fabulous. After the marriage of his daughter to the caliph, which was
+celebrated at enormous expense, an arrangement was made giving the
+Tulunid sovereign the viceroyalty of a region extending from Barca on
+the west to Hit on the east; but tribute, ordinarily to the amount of
+300,000 dinars, was to be sent to the metropolis. His realm enjoyed
+peace till his death in 896, when he fell a victim to some palace
+intrigue at Damascus.
+
+His son and successor Abu'l-'Asakir Jaish was fourteen years old at his
+accession, and being without adequate guidance soon revealed his
+incompetence, which led to his being murdered after a reign of six
+months by his troops, who gave his place to his brother Harun, who was
+of about the same age. In the eight years of his government the Tulunid
+empire contracted, owing to the revolts of the deputies which Harun was
+unable to quell, though in 898 he endeavoured to secure a new lease of
+the sovereignty in Egypt and Syria by a fresh arrangement with the
+caliph, involving an increase of tribute. The following years witnessed
+serious troubles in Syria caused by the Carmathians, which called for
+the intervention of the caliph, who at last succeeded in defeating these
+fanatics; the officer Mahommed b. Solaiman, to whom the victory was due,
+was then commissioned by the caliph to reconquer Egypt from the
+Tulunids, and after securing the allegiance of the Syrian prefects he
+invaded Egypt by sea and land at once. Before the arrival of these
+troops Harun had met his death at the hands of an assassin, or else in
+an affray, and his uncle Shaiban, who was placed on the throne, found
+himself without the means to collect an army fit to grapple with the
+invaders. Fostat was taken by Mahommed b. Solaiman after very slight
+resistance, at the beginning of 905, and after the infliction of severe
+punishment on the inhabitants Egypt was once more put under a deputy,
+'Isa al-Naushari, appointed directly by the caliph.
+
+The old regime was not restored without an attempt made by an adherent
+of the Tulunids to reconquer Egypt ostensibly for their benefit, and for
+a time the caliph's viceroy had to quit the capital. The vigorous
+measures of the authorities at Bagdad speedily quelled this rebellion,
+and the Tulunid palace at Kata'i' was then destroyed in order that there
+might be nothing to remind the Egyptians of the dynasty. In the middle
+of the year 914 Egypt was invaded for the first time by a Fatimite force
+sent by the caliph al-Mahdi 'Obaidallah, now established at Kairawan.
+The Mahdi's son succeeded in taking Alexandria, and advancing as far as
+the Fayum; but once more the Abbasid caliph sent a powerful army to
+assist his viceroy, and the invaders were driven out of the country and
+pursued as far as Barca; the Fatimite caliph, however, continued to
+maintain active propaganda in Egypt. In 919 Alexandria was again seized
+by the Mahdi's son, afterwards the caliph al-Qa'im, and while his forces
+advanced northward as far as Ushmunain (Eshmunain) he was reinforced by
+a fleet which arrived at Alexandria. This fleet was destroyed by a far
+smaller one sent by the Bagdad caliph to Rosetta; but Egypt was not
+freed from the invaders till the year 921, when reinforcements had been
+repeatedly sent from Bagdad to deal with them. The extortions
+necessitated by these wars for the maintenance of armies and the
+incompetence of the viceroys brought Egypt at this time into a miserable
+condition; and the numerous political crises at Bagdad prevented for a
+time any serious measures being taken to improve it. After a struggle
+between various pretenders to the viceroyalty, in which some pitched
+battles were fought, Mahommed b. Tughj, son of a Tulunid prefect of
+Damascus, was sent by the caliph to restore order; he had to force his
+entrance into the country by an engagement with one of the pretenders,
+Ibn Kaighlagh, in which he was victorious, and entered Fostat in August
+935.
+
+
+  Ikshidite Dynasty.
+
+Mahommed b. Tughj was the founder of the Ikshidi dynasty, so called from
+the title Ikshid, conferred on him at his request by the caliph shortly
+after his appointment to the governorship of Egypt; it is said to have
+had the sense of "king" in Ferghana, whence this person's ancestors had
+come to enter the service of the caliph Motasim. He had himself served
+under the governor of Egypt, Takin, whose son he displaced, in various
+capacities, and had afterwards held various governorships in Syria. One
+of the historians represents his appointment to Egypt as effected by
+bribery and even forgery. He united in his person the offices of
+governor and minister of finance, which had been separate since the time
+of the Tulunids. He endeavoured to replenish the treasury not only by
+extreme economy, but by inflicting fines on a vast scale on persons who
+had held offices under his predecessor and others who had rendered
+themselves suspect. The disaffected in Egypt kept up communications with
+the Fatimites, against whom the Ikshid collected a vast army, which,
+however, had first to be employed in resisting an invasion of Egypt
+threatened by Ibn Raiq, an adventurer who had seized Syria; after an
+indecisive engagement at Lajun the Ikshid decided to make peace with Ibn
+Raiq, undertaking to pay him tribute. The favour afterwards shown to Ibn
+Raiq at Bagdad nearly threw the Ikshid into the arms of the Fatimite
+caliph, with whom he carried on a friendly correspondence, one letter of
+which is preserved. He is even said to have given orders to substitute
+the name of the Fatimite caliph for that of the Abbasid in public
+prayer, but to have been warned of the unwisdom of this course. In 941,
+after the death of Ibn Raiq, the Ikshid took the opportunity of invading
+Syria, which the caliph permitted him to hold with the addition of the
+sacred cities of Mecca and Medina, which the Tulunids had aspired to
+possess. He is said at this time to have started (in imitation of Ahmad
+Ibn Tulun) a variety of vexatious enactments similar to those afterwards
+associated with the name of Hakim, e.g. compelling his soldiers to dye
+their hair, and adding to their pay for the purpose.
+
+In the year 944 he was summoned to Mesopotamia to assist the caliph, who
+had been driven from Bagdad by Tuzun and was in the power of the
+Hamdanids; and he proposed, though unsuccessfully, to take the caliph
+with him to Egypt. At this time he obtained hereditary rights for his
+family in the government of that country and Syria. The Hamdanid Saif
+addaula shortly after this assumed the governorship of Aleppo, and
+became involved in a struggle with the Ikshid, whose general, Kafur, he
+defeated in an engagement between Homs and Hamah (Hamath). In a later
+battle he was himself defeated by the Ikshid, when an arrangement was
+made permitting Saif addaula to retain most of Syria, while a prefect
+appointed by the Ikshid was to remain in Damascus. The Buyid ruler, who
+was now supreme at Bagdad, permitted the Ikshid to remain in possession
+of his viceroyalty, but shortly after receiving this confirmation he
+died at Damascus in 946.
+
+The second of this dynasty was the Ikshid's son Unjur, who had been
+proclaimed in his father's time, and began his government under the
+tutelage of the negro Kafur. Syria was immediately overrun by Saif
+addaula, but he was defeated by Kafur in two engagements, and was
+compelled to recognize the overlordship of the Egyptian viceroy. At the
+death of Unjur in 961 his brother Abu'l-Hasan 'Ali was made viceroy with
+the caliph's consent by Kafur, who continued to govern for his chief as
+before. The land was during this period threatened at once by the
+Fatimites from the west; the Nubians from the south, and the Carmathians
+from the east; when the second Ikshidi died in 965, Kafur at first made
+a pretence of appointing his young son Ahmad as his successor, but
+deemed it safer to assume the viceroyalty himself, setting an example
+which in Mameluke times was often followed. He occupied the post little
+more than three years, and on his death in 968 the aforementioned Ahmad,
+called Abu'l-Fawaris, was appointed successor, under the tutelage of a
+vizier named Ibn Furat, who had long served under the Ikshidis. The
+accession of this prince was followed by an incursion of the Carmathians
+into Syria, before whom the Ikshidi governor fled into Egypt, where he
+had for a time to undertake the management of affairs, and arrested Ibn
+Furat, who had proved himself incompetent.
+
+The administration of Ibn Furat was fatal to the Ikshidis and momentous
+for Egypt, since a Jewish convert, Jacob, son of Killis, who had been in
+the Ikshid's service, and was ill-treated by Ibn Furat, fled to the
+Fatimite sovereign, and persuaded him that the time for invading Egypt
+with a prospect of success had arrived, since there was no one in Fostat
+capable of organizing a plan of defence, and the dissensions between the
+Buyids at Bagdad rendered it improbable that any succour would arrive
+from that quarter. The Fatimite caliph Mo'izz li-din allah was also in
+correspondence with other residents in Egypt, where the Alid party from
+the beginning of Abbasid times had always had many supporters; and the
+danger from the Carmathians rendered the presence of a strong government
+necessary. The Fatimite general Jauhar (variously represented as of
+Greek, Slav and Sicilian origin), who enjoyed the complete confidence of
+the Fatimite sovereign, was placed at the head of an army of 100,000
+men--if Oriental numbers are to be trusted--and started from Rakkada at
+the beginning of March 969 with the view of seizing Egypt.
+
+Before his arrival the administration of affairs had again been
+committed to Ibn Furat, who, on hearing of the threatened invasion, at
+first proposed to treat with Jauhar for the peaceful surrender of the
+country; but though at first there was a prospect of this being carried
+out, the majority of the troops at Fostat preferred to make some
+resistance, and an advance was made to meet Jauhar in the neighbourhood
+of Giza. He had little difficulty in defeating the Egyptian army, and on
+the 6th of July 969 entered Fostat at the head of his forces. The name
+of Mo'izz was immediately introduced into public prayer, and coins were
+struck in his name. The Ikshidi governor of Damascus, a cousin of
+Abu'l-Fawaris Ahmad, endeavoured to save Syria, but was defeated at
+Ramleh by a general sent by Jauhar and taken prisoner. Thus the Ikshidi
+Dynasty came to an end, and Egypt was transferred from the Eastern to
+the Western caliphate, of which it furnished the metropolis.
+
+(4) _The Fatimite period_ begins with the taking of Fostat by Jauhar,
+who immediately began the building of a new city, al-Kahira or Cairo, to
+furnish quarters for the army which he had brought. A palace for the
+caliph and a mosque for the army were immediately constructed, the
+latter still famous as al-Azhar, and for many centuries the centre of
+Moslem learning. Almost immediately after the conquest of Egypt, Jauhar
+found himself engaged in a struggle with the Carmathians (q.v.), whom
+the Ikshidi prefect of Damascus had pacified by a promise of tribute;
+this promise was of course not held binding by the Fatimite general
+(Ja'far b. Falah) by whom Damascus was taken, and the Carmathian leader
+al-Hasan b. Ahmad al-A'sam received aid from Bagdad for the purpose of
+recovering Syria to the Abbasids. The general Ja'far, hoping to deal
+with this enemy independently of Jauhar, met the Carmathians without
+waiting for reinforcements from Egypt, and fell in battle, his army
+being defeated. Damascus was taken by the Carmathians, and the name of
+the Abbasid caliph substituted for that of Mo'izz in public worship.
+Hasan al-A'sam advanced from Damascus through Palestine to Egypt,
+encountering little resistance on the way; and in the autumn of 971
+Jauhar found himself besieged in his new city. By a timely sortie,
+preceded by the administration of bribes to various officers in the
+Carmathian host, Jauhar succeeded in inflicting a severe defeat on the
+besiegers, who were compelled to evacuate Egypt and part of Syria.
+
+Meanwhile Mo'izz had been summoned to enter the palace that had been
+prepared for him, and after leaving a viceroy to take charge of his
+western possessions he arrived in Alexandria on the 31st of May 973, and
+proceeded to instruct his new subjects in the particular form of
+religion (Shi'ism) which his family represented. As this was in origin
+identical with that professed by the Carmathians, he hoped to gain the
+submission of their leader by argument; but this plan was unsuccessful,
+and there was a fresh invasion from that quarter in the year after his
+arrival, and the caliph found himself besieged in his capital. The
+Carmathians were gradually forced to retreat from Egypt and then from
+Syria by some successful engagements, and by the judicious use of
+bribes, whereby dissension was sown among their leaders. Mo'izz also
+found time to take some active measures against the Byzantines, with
+whom his generals fought in Syria with varying fortune. Before his death
+he was acknowledged as caliph in Mecca and Medina, as well as Syria,
+Egypt and North Africa as far as Tangier.
+
+In the reign of the second Egyptian Fatimite 'Aziz billah, Jauhar, who
+appears to have been cashiered by Mo'izz, was again employed at the
+instance of Jacob b. Killis, who had been raised to the rank of vizier,
+to deal with the situation in Syria, where a Turkish general Aftakin had
+gained possession of Damascus, and was raiding the whole country; on the
+arrival of Jauhar in Syria the Turks called the Carmathians to their
+aid, and after a campaign of many vicissitudes Jauhar had to return to
+Egypt to implore the caliph himself to take the field. In August 977
+'Aziz met the united forces of Aftakin and his Carmathian ally outside
+Ramleh in Palestine and inflicted a crushing defeat on them, which was
+followed by the capture of Aftakin; this able officer was taken to
+Egypt, and honourably treated by the caliph, thereby incurring the
+jealousy of Jacob b. Killis, who caused him, it is said, to be poisoned.
+This vizier had the astuteness to see the necessity of codifying the
+doctrines of the Fatimites, and himself undertook this task; in the
+newly-established mosque of el-Azhar he got his master to make provision
+for a perpetual series of teachers and students of his manual. It would
+appear, however, that a large amount of toleration was conceded by the
+first two Egyptian Fatimites to the other sects of Islam, and to other
+communities. Indeed at one time in 'Aziz's reign the vizierate of Egypt
+was held by a Christian, Jesus, son of Nestorius, who appointed as his
+deputy in Syria a Jew, Manasseh b. Abraham. These persons were charged
+by the Moslems with unduly favouring their co-religionists, and the
+belief that the Christians of Egypt were in league with the Byzantine
+emperor, and even burned a fleet which was being built for the Byzantine
+war, led to some persecution. Aziz attempted without success to enter
+into friendly relations with the Buyid ruler of Bagdad, 'Adod addaula,
+who was disposed to favour the 'Alids, but caused the claim of the
+Fatimites to descend from 'Ali to be publicly refuted. He then tried to
+gain possession of Aleppo, as the key to 'Irak, but this was prevented
+by the intervention of the Byzantines. His North African possessions
+were maintained and extended by 'Ali, son of Bulukkin, whom Mo'izz had
+left as his deputy; but the recognition of the Fatimite caliph in this
+region was little more than nominal.
+
+His successor _Abu 'Ali al-Mansur_, who reigned under the title
+_al-Hakim bi'amr allah_, came to the throne at the age of eleven, being
+the son of 'Aziz by a Christian mother. He was at first under the
+tutelage of the Slav Burjuwan, whose policy it was to favour the Turkish
+element in the army as against the Maghribine, on which the strength of
+the Fatimites had till then rested; his conduct of affairs was vigorous
+and successful, and he concluded a peace with the Greek emperor. After a
+few years' regency he was assassinated at the instance of the young
+sovereign, who at an early age developed a dislike for control and
+jealousy of his rights as caliph. He is branded by historians as the
+Caligula of the East, who took a delight in imposing on his subjects a
+variety of senseless and capricious regulations, and persecuting
+different sections of them by cruel and arbitrary measures. It is
+observable that some of those with which Hakim is credited are also
+ascribed to Ibn Tulun and the Ikshid (Mahommed b. Tughj). He is perhaps
+best remembered by his destruction of the church of the Holy Sepulchre
+at Jerusalem (1010), a measure which helped to provoke the Crusades, but
+was only part of a general scheme for converting all Christians and Jews
+in his dominions to his own opinions by force. A more reputable
+expedient with the same end in view was the construction of a great
+library in Cairo, with ample provision for students; this was modelled
+on a similar institution at Bagdad. It formed part of the great palace
+of the Fatimites, and was intended to be the centre of their propaganda.
+At times, however, he ordered the destruction of all Christian churches
+in Egypt, and the banishment of all who did not adopt Islam. It is
+strange that in the midst of these persecutions he continued to employ
+Christians in high official positions. His system of persecution was not
+abandoned till in the last year of his reign (1020) he thought fit to
+claim divinity, a doctrine which is perpetuated by the Druses (q.v.),
+called after one Darazi, who preached the divinity of Hakim at the time;
+the violent opposition which this aroused among the Moslems probably led
+him to adopt milder measures towards his other subjects, and those who
+had been forcibly converted were permitted to return to their former
+religion and rebuild their places of worship. Whether his disappearance
+at the beginning of the year 1021 was due to the resentment of his
+outraged subjects, or, as the historians say, to his sister's fear that
+he would bequeath the caliphate to a distant relative to the exclusion
+of his own son, will never be known. In spite of his caprices he appears
+to have shown competence in the management of external affairs;
+enterprises of pretenders both in Egypt and Syria were crushed with
+promptitude; and his name was at times mentioned in public worship in
+Aleppo and Mosul.
+
+His son _Abu'l-Hasan 'Ali_, who succeeded him with the title _al-Zahir
+li'i'zaz din allah_, was sixteen years of age at the time, and for four
+years his aunt Sitt al-Mulk acted as regent; she appears to have been an
+astute but utterly unscrupulous woman. After her death the caliph was in
+the power of various ministers, under whose management of affairs Syria
+was for a time lost to the Egyptian caliphate, and Egypt itself raided
+by the Syrian usurpers, of whom one, Salih b. Mirdas, succeeded in
+establishing a dynasty at Aleppo, which maintained itself after Syria
+and Palestine had been recovered for the Fatimites by Anushtakin
+al-Dizbari at the battle of Ukhuwanah in 1029. His career is said to
+have been marked by some horrible caprices similar to those of his
+father. After a reign of nearly sixteen years he died of the plague.
+
+His successor, _Abu Tamim Ma'add_, who reigned with the title
+_al-Mostansir_, was also an infant at the time of his accession, being
+little more than seven years of age. The power was largely in the hands
+of his mother, a negress, who promoted the interests of her kinsmen at
+court, where indeed even in Hakim's time they had been used as a
+counterpoise to the Maghribine and Turkish elements in the army. In the
+first years of this reign affairs were administered by the vizier
+al-Jarjara'i, by whose mismanagement Aleppo was lost to the Fatimites.
+At his death in 1044 the chief influence passed into the hands of Abu
+Sa'd, a Jew, and the former master of the queen-mother, and at the end
+of four years he was assassinated at the instance of another Jew
+(Sadakah, perhaps Zedekiah, b. Joseph al-Falahi), whom he had appointed
+vizier. In this reign Mo'izz b. Badis, the 4th ruler of the dependent
+Zeirid dynasty which had ruled in the Maghrib since the migration of the
+Fatimite Mo'izz to Egypt, definitely abjured his allegiance (1049) and
+returned to Sunnite principles and subjection to the Bagdad caliphate.
+The Zeirids maintained Mahdia (see ALGIERS), while other cities of the
+Maghrib were colonized by Arab tribes sent thither by the Cairene
+vizier. This loss was more than compensated by the enrolment of Yemen
+among the countries which recognized the Fatimite caliphate through the
+enterprise of one 'Ali b. Mahommed al-Sulaihi, while owing to the
+disputes between the Turkish generals who claimed supremacy at Bagdad,
+Mostansir's name was mentioned in public prayer at that metropolis on
+the 12th of January 1058, when a Turkish adventurer Basasiri was for a
+time in power. The Egyptian court, chiefly owing to the jealousy of the
+vizier, sent no efficient aid to Basasiri, and after a year Bagdad was
+retaken by the Seljuk Toghrul Beg, and the Abbasid caliph restored to
+his rights. In the following years the troubles in Egypt caused by the
+struggles between the Turkish and negro elements in Mostansir's army
+nearly brought the country into the dominion of the Abbasids. After
+several battles of various issue the Turkish commander Nasir addaula b.
+Hamdan got possession of Cairo, and at the end of 1068 plundered the
+caliph's palace; the valuable library which had been begun by Hakim was
+pillaged, and an accidental fire caused great destruction. The caliph
+and his family were reduced to destitution, and Nasir addaula began
+negotiations for restoring the name of the Abbasid caliph in public
+prayer; he was, however, assassinated before he could carry this out,
+and his assassin, also a Turk, appointed vizier. Mostansir then summoned
+to his aid Badr al-Jamali, an Armenian who had displayed competence in
+various posts which he had held in Syria, and this person early in 1074
+arrived in Cairo accompanied by a bodyguard of Armenians; he contrived
+to massacre the chiefs of the party at the time in possession of power,
+and with the title Amir al-Juyush ("prince of the armies") was given by
+Mostansir complete control of affairs. The period of internal
+disturbances, which had been accompanied by famine and pestilence, had
+caused usurpers to spring up in all parts of Egypt, and Badr was
+compelled practically to reconquer the country. During this time,
+however, Syria was overrun by an invader in league with the Seljuk Malik
+Shah, and Damascus was permanently lost to the Fatimites; other cities
+were recovered by Badr himself or his officers. He rebuilt the walls of
+Cairo, of more durable material than that which had been employed by
+Jauhar--a measure rendered necessary partly by the growth of the
+metropolis, but also by the repeated sieges which it had undergone since
+the commencement of Fatimite rule. The time of Mostansir is otherwise
+memorable for the rise of the Assassins (q.v.), who at the first
+supported the claims of his eldest son Nizar to the succession against
+the youngest Ahmed, who was favoured by the family of Badr. When Badr
+died in 1094 his influence was inherited by his son al-Afdal Shahinshah,
+and this, at the death of Mostansir in the same year, was thrown in
+favour of _Ahmed_, who succeeded to the caliphate with the title
+_al-Mosta'li billah_.
+
+
+  The Crusades.
+
+Mosta'li's succession was not carried through without an attempt on the
+part of Nizar to obtain his rights, the title which he chose being
+_al-Mostafa lidin allah_; for a time he maintained himself in
+Alexandria, but the energetic measures of his brother soon brought the
+civil war to an end. The beginning of this reign coincided with the
+beginning of the Crusades, and al-Afdal made the fatal mistake of
+helping the Franks by rescuing Jerusalem from the Ortokids, thereby
+facilitating its conquest by the Franks in 1099. He endeavoured to
+retrieve his error by himself advancing into Palestine, but he was
+defeated in the neighbourhood of Ascalon, and compelled to retire to
+Egypt. Many of the Palestinian possessions of the Fatimites then
+successively fell into the hands of the Franks. After a reign of seven
+years Mosta'li died and the caliphate was given by al-Afdal to an infant
+son, aged five years at the time, who was placed on the throne with the
+title _al-Amir biahkam allah_, and for twenty years was under the
+tutelage of al-Afdal. He made repeated attempts to recover the Syrian
+and Palestinian cities from the Franks, but with poor success. In 1118
+Egypt was invaded by Baldwin I., who burned the gates and the mosques of
+Farama, and advanced to Tinnis, whence illness compelled him to retreat.
+In August 1121 al-Afdal was assassinated in a street of Cairo, it is
+said, with the connivance of the caliph, who immediately began the
+plunder of his house, where fabulous treasures were said to be amassed.
+The vizier's offices were given to one of the caliph's creatures,
+Mahommed b. Fatik al-Bata'ihi, who took the title _al-Ma'mun_. His
+external policy was not more fortunate than that of his predecessor, as
+he lost Tyre to the Franks, and a fleet equipped by him was defeated by
+the Venetians. On the 4th of October 1125 he with his followers was
+seized and imprisoned by order of the Caliph Amir, who was now resolved
+to govern by himself, with the assistance of only subordinate officials,
+of whom two were drawn from the Samaritan and Christian communities. The
+vizier was afterwards crucified with his five brothers. The caliph's
+personal government appears to have been incompetent, and to have been
+marked by extortions and other arbitrary measures. He was assassinated
+in October 1129 by some members of the sect who believed in the claims
+of Nizar, son of Mostansir.
+
+The succeeding caliph, _Abu'l-Maimun 'Abd al-Majid_, who took the title
+_al-Hafiz lidin allah_, was not the son but the cousin of the deceased
+caliph, and of ripe age, being about fifty-eight years old at the time;
+for more than a year he was kept in prison by the new vizier, a son of
+al-Afdal, whom the army had placed in the post; but towards the end of
+1131 this vizier fell by the hand of assassins, and the caliph was set
+free. The reign of Hafiz was disturbed by the factions of the soldiery,
+between which several battles took place, ending in the subjection of
+the caliph for a time to various usurpers, one of these being his own
+son Hasan, who had been provoked to rebel by the caliph nominating a
+younger brother as his successor. For some months the caliph was under
+this son's control; but the latter, who aimed at conciliating the
+people, speedily lost his popularity with the troops, and his father was
+able to get possession of his person and cause him to be poisoned
+(beginning of 1135).
+
+His son _Abu'l-Mansur Isma'il_, who was seventeen years old at the time
+of Hafiz's death, succeeded him with the title _al-Zafir lia'da allah_.
+From this reign to the end of the Fatimite period we have the journals
+of two eminent men, Usamah b. Muniqdh and Umarah of Yemen, which throw
+light on the leading characters. The civil dissensions of Egypt were
+notorious at the time. The new reign began by an armed struggle between
+two commanders for the post of vizier, which in January 1150 was decided
+in favour of the Amir Ibn Sallar. This vizier was presently assassinated
+by the direction of his stepson 'Abbas, who was raised to the vizierate
+in his place. This event was shortly followed by the loss to the
+Fatimites of Ascalon, the last place in Syria which they held; its loss
+was attributed to dissensions between the parties of which the garrison
+consisted. Four years later (April 1154) the caliph was murdered by his
+vizier 'Abbas, according to Usamah, because the caliph had suggested to
+his favourite, the vizier's son, to murder his father; and this was
+followed by a massacre of the brothers of Zafir, followed by the raising
+of his infant son _Abu'l-Qasim 'Isa_ to the throne.
+
+The new caliph, who was not five years old, received the title _al-Fa'iz
+binasr allah_, and was at first in the power of 'Abbas. The women of the
+palace, however, summoned to their aid Tala'i' b. Ruzzik, prefect of
+Ushmunain, at whose arrival in Cairo the troops deserted 'Abbas, who was
+compelled to flee into Syria, taking his son and Usamah with him. 'Abbas
+was killed by the Franks near Ascalon, his son sent in a cage to Cairo
+where he was executed, while Usamah escaped to Damascus.
+
+
+  Frankish invasion.
+
+  Saladin.
+
+The infant Fa'iz, who had been permanently incapacitated by the scenes
+of violence which accompanied his accession, died in 1160. Tala'i' chose
+to succeed him a grandson of Zafir, who was nine years of age, and
+received the title _al-'Adid lidin allah_. Tala'i', who had complete
+control of affairs, introduced the practice of farming the taxes for
+periods of six months instead of a year, which led to great misery, as
+the taxes were demanded twice. His death was brought on by the rigour
+with which he treated the princesses, one of whom, with or without the
+connivance of the caliph, organized a plot for his assassination, and he
+died in September 1160. His son Ruzzik inherited his post and maintained
+himself in it for more than a year, when another prefect of Upper Egypt,
+Shawar b. Mujir, brought a force to Cairo, before which Ruzzik fled, to
+be shortly afterwards captured and beheaded. Shawar's entry into Cairo
+was at the beginning of 1163; after nine months he was compelled to flee
+before another adventurer, an officer in the army named Dirgham.
+Shawar's flight was directed to Damascus, where he was favourably
+received by the prince Nureddin, who sent with him to Cairo a force of
+Kurds under Asad al-din Shirguh. At the same time Egypt was invaded by
+the Franks, who raided and did much damage on the coast. Dirgham was
+defeated and killed, but a dispute then arose between Shawar and his
+Syrian allies for the possession of Egypt. Shawar, being unable to cope
+with the Syrians, demanded help of the Frankish king of Jerusalem
+Amalric (Amauri) I., who hastened to his aid with a large force, which
+united with Shawar's and besieged Shirguh in Bilbeis for three months;
+at the end of this time, owing to the successes of Nureddin in Syria,
+the Franks granted Shirguh a free passage with his troops back to Syria,
+on condition of Egypt being evacuated (October 1164). Rather more than
+two years later Shirguh persuaded Nureddin to put him at the head of
+another expedition to Egypt, which left Syria in January 1167, and,
+entering Egypt by the land route, crossed the Nile at Itfih (Atfih), and
+encamped at Giza; a Frankish army hastened to Shawar's aid. At the
+battle of Babain (April 11th, 1167) the allies were defeated by the
+forces commanded by Shirguh and his nephew Saladin, who was presently
+made prefect of Alexandria, which surrendered to Shirguh without a
+struggle. Saladin was soon besieged by the allies in Alexandria; but
+after seventy-five days the siege was raised, Shirguh having made a
+threatening movement on Cairo, where a Frankish garrison had been
+admitted by Shawar. Terms were then made by which both Syrians and
+Franks were to quit Egypt, though the garrison of Cairo remained; the
+hostile attitude of the Moslem population to this garrison led to
+another invasion at the beginning of 1168 by King Amalric, who after
+taking Bilbeis advanced to Cairo. The caliph, who up to this time
+appears to have left the administration to the viziers, now sent for
+Shirguh, whose speedy arrival in Egypt caused the Franks to withdraw.
+Reaching Cairo on the 6th of January 1169, he was soon able to get
+possession of Shawar's person, and after the prefect's execution, which
+happened some ten days later, he was appointed vizier by the caliph.
+After two months Shirguh died of indigestion (23rd of March 1169), and
+the caliph appointed Saladin as successor to Shirguh; the new vizier
+professed to hold office as a deputy of Nureddin, whose name was
+mentioned in public worship after that of the caliph. By appropriating
+the fiefs of the Egyptian officers and giving them to his Kurdish
+followers he stirred up much ill-feeling, which resulted in a
+conspiracy, of which the object was to recall the Franks with the view
+of overthrowing the new regime; but this conspiracy was revealed by a
+traitor and crushed. Nureddin loyally aided his deputy in dealing with
+Frankish invasions of Egypt, but the anomaly by which he, being a
+Sunnite, was made in Egypt to recognize a Fatimite caliph could not long
+continue, and he ordered Saladin to weaken the Fatimite by every
+available means, and then substitute the name of the Abbasid for his in
+public worship. Saladin and his ministers were at first afraid lest this
+step might give rise to disturbances among the people; but a stranger
+undertook to risk it on the 17th of September 1171, and the following
+Friday it was repeated by official order; the caliph himself died during
+the interval, and it is uncertain whether he ever heard of his
+deposition. The last of the Fatimite caliphs was not quite twenty-one
+years old at the time of his death.
+
+(5) _Ayyubite Period._--Saladin by the advice of his chief Nureddin
+cashiered the Fatimite judges and took steps to encourage the study of
+orthodox theology and jurisprudence in Egypt by the foundation of
+colleges and chairs. On the death of the ex-caliph he was confirmed in
+the prefecture of Egypt as deputy of Nureddin; and on the decease of the
+latter in 1174 (12th of April) he took the title sultan, so that with
+this year the Ayyubite period of Egyptian history properly begins.
+During the whole of it Damascus rather more than Cairo counted as the
+metropolis of the empire. The Egyptian army, which was motley in
+character, was disbanded by the new sultan, whose troops were Kurds.
+Though he did not build a new metropolis he fortified Cairo with the
+addition of a citadel, and had plans made for a new wall to enclose both
+it and the double city; this latter plan was never completed, but the
+former was executed after his death, and from this time till the French
+occupation of Egypt the citadel of Cairo was the political centre of the
+country. It was in 1183 that Saladin's rule over Egypt and North Syria
+was consolidated. Much of Saladin's time was spent in Syria, and his
+famous wars with the Franks belong to the history of the Crusades and to
+his personal biography. Egypt was largely governed by his favourite
+Karakush, who lives in popular legend as the "unjust judge," though he
+does not appear to have deserved that title.
+
+Saladin at his death divided his dominions between his sons, of whom
+'Othman succeeded to Egypt with the title _Malik al-Aziz 'Imal al-ain_.
+The division was not satisfactory to the heirs, and after three years
+(beginning of 1196) the Egyptian sultan conspired with his uncle Malik
+al-'Adil to deprive Saladin's son al-Afdal of Damascus, which had fallen
+to his lot. The war between the brothers was continued with intervals of
+peace, during which al-'Adil repeatedly changed sides: eventually he
+with al-'Aziz besieged and took Damascus, and sent al-Afdal to Sarkhad,
+while al-'Adil remained in possession of Damascus. On the death of
+al-'Aziz on the 29th of November 1198 in consequence of a hunting
+accident, his infant son Mahommed was raised to the throne with the
+title _Malik al-Mansur Nasir al-din_, and his uncle al-Afdal sent for
+from Sarkhad to take the post of regent or Atabeg. So soon as al-Afdal
+had got possession of his nephew's person, he started on an expedition
+for the recovery of Damascus: al-'Adil not only frustrated this, but
+drove him back to Egypt, where on the 25th of January 1200 a battle was
+fought between the armies of the two at Bilbeis, resulting in the defeat
+of al-Afdal, who was sent back to Sarkhad, while al-'Adil assumed the
+regency, for which after a few months he substituted the sovereignty,
+causing his nephew to be deposed. He reigned under the title _Malik
+al-'Adil Saif al-din_. His name was Abu Bakr.
+
+Though the early years of his reign were marked by numerous disasters,
+famine, pestilence and earthquake, of which the second seems to have
+been exceedingly serious, he reunited under his sway the whole of the
+empire which had belonged to his brother, and his generals conquered for
+him parts of Mesopotamia and Armenia, and in 1215 he got possession of
+Yemen. He followed the plan of dividing his empire between his sons, the
+eldest Mahommed, called _Malik al-Kamil_, being his viceroy in Egypt,
+while al-Mu'azzam 'Isa governed Syria, al-Ashraf Musa his eastern and
+al-Malik al-Auhad Ayyub his northern possessions. His attitude towards
+the Franks was at the first peaceful, but later in his reign he was
+compelled to adopt more strenuous measures. His death occurred at Alikin
+(1218), a village near Damascus, while the Franks were besieging
+Damietta--the first operation of the Fifth Crusade--which was defended
+by al-Kamil, to whom his father kept sending reinforcements. The efforts
+of al-Kamil after his accession to the independent sovereignty were
+seriously hindered by the endeavour of an amir named Ahmed b. Mashtub to
+depose him and appoint in his place a brother called al-Fa'iz Sabiq
+al-din Ibrahim: this attempt was frustrated by the timely interposition
+of al-Mu'azzam 'Isa, who came to Egypt to aid his brother in February
+1219, and compelled al-Fa'iz to depart for Mosul. After a siege of
+sixteen and a half months Damietta was taken by the Franks on Tuesday
+the 6th of November 1219; al-Kamil thereupon proclaimed the Jihad, and
+was joined at his fortified camp, afterwards the site of Mansura, by
+troops from various parts of Egypt, Syria and Mesopotamia, including the
+forces of his brothers 'Isa and Musa. With these allies, and availing
+himself of the advantages offered by the inundation of the Nile,
+al-Kamil was able to cut off both the advance and the retreat of the
+invaders, and on the 31st of August 1221 a peace was concluded, by which
+the Franks evacuated Egypt.
+
+For some years the dominions of al-'Adil remained divided between his
+sons: when the affairs of Egypt were settled, al-Kamil determined to
+reunite them as before, and to that end brought on the Sixth Crusade.
+Various cities in Palestine and Syria were yielded to Frederick II. as
+the price of his help against the son of Mu'azzam 'Isa, who reigned at
+Damascus with the title of Malik al-Nasir. About 1231-32 Kamil led a
+confederacy of Ayyubite princes against the Seljuk Kaikobad into Asia
+Minor, but his allies mistrusted him and victory rested with Kaikobad
+(see SELJUKS). Before Kamil's death he was mentioned in public prayer at
+Mecca as lord of Mecca (Hejaz), Yemen, Zabid, Upper and Lower Egypt,
+Syria and Mesopotamia.
+
+At his death (May 8th, 1238) at Damascus, his son Abu Bakr was appointed
+to succeed with the title _Malik al-'Adil Saif al-din_; but his elder
+brother Malik al-Salih Najm al-din Ayyub, having got possession of
+Damascus, immediately started for Egypt, with the view of adding that
+country to his dominions: meanwhile his uncle Isma'il, prince of Hamath,
+with the prince of Homs, seized Damascus, upon hearing which the troops
+of Najm al-din deserted him at Nablus, when he fell into the hands of
+Malik al-Nasir, prince of Kerak, who carried him off to that city and
+kept him a prisoner there for a time; after which he was released and
+allowed to return to Nablus. On the 31st of May 1240 the new sultan was
+arrested at Bilbeis by his own amirs, who sent for Najm al-din to
+succeed him; and on the 19th of June of the same year Najm al-din
+entered Cairo as sultan, and imprisoned his brother in the citadel,
+where he died in 1248. Meanwhile in 1244 Jerusalem had been finally
+wrested from the Franks. The administration of Najm al-din is highly
+praised by Ibn Khallikan, who lived under it. He made large purchases of
+slaves (Mamelukes) for his army, and when the inhabitants of Cairo
+complained of their lawlessness, he built barracks for them on the
+island of Roda (Rauda), whence they were called Bahri or Nile Mamelukes,
+which became the name of the first dynasty that originated from them.
+Much of his time was spent in campaigns in Syria, where the other
+Ayyubites allied themselves against him with the Crusaders, whereas he
+accepted the services of the Khwarizmians: eventually he succeeded in
+recovering most of the Syrian cities. His name is commemorated by the
+town of Salihia, which he built in the year 1246 as a resting-place for
+his armies on their marches through the desert from Egypt to Palestine.
+In 1249 he was recalled from the siege of Homs by the news of the
+invasion of Egypt by Louis IX. (the Seventh Crusade), and in spite of
+illness he hastened to Ushmum Tanna, in the neighbourhood of Damietta,
+which he provisioned for a siege. Damietta was taken on the 6th of June
+1249, owing to the desertion of his post by the commander Fakhr ud-din,
+and the Banu Kinanah, to whom the defence of the place had been
+entrusted: fifty-four of their chieftains were afterwards executed by
+the sultan for this proceeding. On the 22nd of November the sultan died
+of disease at Mansura, but his death was carefully concealed by the
+amirs Lajin and Aktai, acting in concert with the Queen Shajar al-durr,
+till the arrival from Syria of the heir to the throne, _Turanshah_, who
+was proclaimed some four months later. At the battle of Fariskur, 6th of
+April 1250, the invaders were utterly routed and the French king fell
+into the hands of the Egyptian sultan. The Egyptian authorities now
+resolved to raze Damietta, which, however, was rebuilt shortly after.
+The sultan, who himself had had no share in the victory, advanced after
+it from Mansura to Fariskur, where his conduct became menacing to the
+amirs who had raised him to the throne, and to Shajar al-durr; she in
+revenge organized an attack upon him which was successful, fire, water,
+and steel contributing to his end.
+
+(6) _Period of Bahri Mamelukes._--The dynasties that succeeded the
+Ayyubites till the conquest of Egypt by the Ottomans bore the title
+Dynasties of the Turks, but are more often called Mameluke dynasties,
+because the sultans were drawn from the enfranchised slaves who
+constituted the court, and officered the army. The family of the fourth
+of these sovereigns, Ka'a'un (Qala'un), reigned for 110 years, but
+otherwise no sultan was able to found a durable dynasty: after the death
+of a sultan he was usually succeeded by an infant son, who after a short
+time was dethroned by a new usurper.
+
+After the death of the Sultan Turanshah, his step-mother at first was
+raised to the vacant throne, when she committed the administration of
+affairs to the captain of the retainers, Aibek; but the rule of a queen
+caused scandal to the Moslem world, and Shajar al-durr gave way to this
+sentiment by marrying Aibek and allowing the title sultan to be
+conferred on him instead of herself. For policy's sake, however, Aibek
+nominally associated with himself on the throne a scion of the Ayyubite
+house, Malik al-Ashraf Musa, who died in prison (1252 or 1254). Aibek
+meanwhile immediately became involved in war with the Ayyubite Malik
+al-Nasir, who was in possession of Syria, with whom the caliph induced
+him after some indecisive actions to make peace: he then successfully
+quelled a mutiny of Mamelukes, whom he compelled to take refuge with the
+last Abbasid caliph Mostasim in Bagdad and elsewhere. On the 10th of
+April 1257 Aibek was murdered by his wife Shajar al-durr, who was
+indignant at his asking for the hand of another queen: but Aibek's
+followers immediately avenged his death, placing on the throne his
+infant son _Malik al-Mansur_, who, however, was almost immediately
+displaced by his guardian _Kotuz_, on the plea that the Mongol danger
+necessitated the presence of a grown man at the head of affairs. In 1260
+the Syrian kingdom of al-Nasir was destroyed by Hulaku (Hulagu), the
+great Mongol chief, founder of the Ilkhan Dynasty (see MONGOLS), who,
+having finally overthrown the caliph of Bagdad (see CALIPHATE, sect. c.
+S 37), also despatched a threatening letter to Kotuz; but later in the
+same year Syria was invaded by Kotuz, who defeated Hulagu's lieutenant
+at the battle of 'Ain Jalut (3rd of September 1260), in consequence of
+which event the Syrian cities all rose against the Mongols, and the
+Egyptian sultan became master of the country with the exception of such
+places as were still held by the Crusaders.
+
+
+  Rule of Bibars.
+
+  Abbasid caliphate revived.
+
+Before Kotuz had reigned a year he was murdered at Salihia by his
+lieutenant Bibars (October 23rd, 1260), who was piqued, it is said, at
+the governorship of Aleppo being withheld from him. The sovereignty was
+seized by this person with the title of _Malik al-Qahir_, presently
+altered to _al-Zahir_. He had originally been a slave of Malik al-Salih,
+had distinguished himself at the battle after which Louis IX. was
+captured, and had helped to murder Turanshah. Sultan Bibars, who proved
+to be one of the most competent of the Bahri Mamelukes, made Egypt the
+centre of the Moslem world by re-establishing in theory the Abbasid
+caliphate, which had lapsed through the taking of Bagdad by Hulagu,
+followed by the execution of the caliph. Bibars recognized the claim of
+a certain Abu'l-Qasim Ahmed to be the son of Zahir, the 35th Abbasid
+caliph, and installed him as Commander of the Faithful at Cairo with the
+title _al-Mostansir billah_. Mostansir then proceeded to confer on
+Bibars the title sultan, and to address to him a homily, explaining his
+duties. This document is preserved in the MS. life of Bibars, and
+translated by G. Weil. The sultan appears to have contemplated restoring
+the new caliph to the throne of Bagdad: the force, however, which he
+sent with him for the purpose of reconquering Irak was quite
+insufficient for the purpose, and Mostansir was defeated and slain. This
+did not prevent Bibars from maintaining his policy of appointing an
+Abbasid for the purpose of conferring legitimacy on himself; but he
+encouraged no further attempts at re-establishing the Abbasids at
+Bagdad, and his principle, adopted by successive sultans, was that the
+caliph should not leave Cairo except when accompanying the sultan on an
+expedition.
+
+The reign of Bibars was spent largely in successful wars against the
+Crusaders, from whom he took many cities, notably Safad, Caesarea and
+Antioch; the Armenians, whose territory he repeatedly invaded, burning
+their capital Sis; and the Seljukids of Asia Minor. He further reduced
+the Isma'ilians or Assassins, whose existence as a community lasted on
+in Syria after it had nearly come to an end in Persia. He made Nubia
+tributary, therein extending Moslem arms farther south than they had
+been extended by any previous sultan. His authority was before his death
+recognized all over Syria (with the exception of the few cities still in
+the power of the Franks), over Arabia, with the exception of Yemen, on
+the Euphrates from Birah to Kerkesia (Circesium) on the Chaboras
+(Khabur), whilst the amirs of north-western Africa were tributary to
+him. His successes were won not only by military and political ability,
+but also by the most absolute unscrupulousness, neither flagrant perjury
+nor the basest treachery being disdained. He was the first sultan who
+acknowledged the equal authority of the four schools of law, and
+appointed judges belonging to each in Egypt and Syria; he was thus able
+to get his measures approved by one school when condemned by another.
+
+
+  Kala'un.
+
+On the 1st of July 1277 Bibars died, and the events that followed set an
+example repeatedly followed during the period of the Mamelukes. The
+sultan's son _Malik al-Sa'id_ ascended the throne; but within little
+more than two years he was compelled to abdicate in favour of his
+father-in-law _Kala'un_, a Mameluke who had risen high in the former
+sovereign's service. The accession of Kala'un was also marked by an
+attempt on the part of the governor of Damascus to form Syria into an
+independent kingdom, an attempt frequently imitated on similar
+occasions. The Syrian forces were defeated at the battle of Jazurah
+(April 26th, 1280) and Kala'un resumed possession of the country; but
+the disaffected Syrians entered into relations with the Mongols, who
+proceeded to invade Syria, but were finally defeated by Kala'un on the
+30th of October 1281 under the walls of Homs (Emesa).
+
+The conversion to Islam of Nikudar Ahmad, the third of the Ilkhan rulers
+of Persia, and the consequent troubles in the western Mongol empire, let
+to a suspension of hostilities between Egypt and the Ilkhans (see
+PERSIA: _History_, S B), though the latter did not cease to agitate in
+Europe for a renewal of the Crusades, with little result. Kala'un,
+without pursuing any career of active conquest, did much to consolidate
+his dominions, and especially to extend Egyptian commerce, for which
+purpose he started passports enabling merchants to travel with safety
+through Egypt and Syria as far as India. After the danger from the
+Mongols had ceased, however, Kala'un directed his energies towards
+capturing the last places that remained in the hands of the Franks, and
+proceeded to take Markab, Latakia, and Tripoli (April 26th, 1289). In
+1290 he planned an attack on Acre, but died (November 10th) in the
+middle of all his preparations. Under Kala'un we first hear of the
+Burjite Mamelukes, who owe their name to the citadel (Burj) of Cairo,
+where 3700 of the whole number of 12,000 Mamelukes maintained by this
+sovereign were quartered. He also set an example, frequently followed,
+of the practice of dismissing all non-Moslems from government posts:
+this was often done by his successors with the view of conciliating the
+Moslems, but it was speedily found that the services of the Jewish and
+Christian clerks were again required. He further founded a hospital for
+clinical research on a scale formerly unknown.
+
+
+  Malik al-Nasir.
+
+  Mongol Wars.
+
+  Decline of the Bahri power.
+
+Kala'un was followed by his son _Khalil_ (_Malik al-Ashraf Salah
+al-din_), who carried out his father's policy of driving the Franks out
+of Syria and Palestine, and proceeded with the siege of Acre, which he
+took (May 18th, 1291) after a siege of forty-three days. The capture and
+destruction of this important place were followed by the capture of
+Tyre, Sidon, Haifa, Athlit and Beirut, and thus Syria was cleared of the
+Crusaders. He also planned an expedition against the prince of Lesser
+Armenia, which was averted by the surrender of Behesna, Marash and Tell
+Hamdun. The disputes between his favourite, the vizier Ibn al-Sa'lus,
+and his viceroy Baidara, led to his being murdered by the latter
+(December 12th, 1293), who was proclaimed sultan, but almost immediately
+fell a victim to the vengeance of the deceased sultan's party, who
+placed a younger son of Kala'un, _Mahommed Malik al-Nasir_, on the
+throne. This prince had the singular fortune of reigning three times,
+being twice dethroned: he was first installed on the 14th of December
+1293, when he was nine years old, and the affairs of the kingdom were
+undertaken by a cabinet, consisting of a vizier ('Alam al-din Sinjar), a
+viceroy (Kitboga), a war minister (Husam al-din Lajin al-Rumi), a
+prefect of the palace (Rokneddin Bibars Jashengir) and a secretary of
+state (Rokneddin Bibars Mansuri). This cabinet naturally split into
+rival camps, in consequence of which Kitboga, himself a Mongol, with the
+aid of other Mongols who had come into Egypt after the battle of Homs,
+succeeded in ousting his rivals, and presently, with the aid of the
+surviving assassins of the former sultan, compelling Malik al-Nasir to
+abdicate in his favour (December 1st, 1294). The usurper was, however,
+able to maintain himself for two years only, famine and pestilence which
+prevailed in Egypt and Syria during his reign rendering him unpopular,
+while his arbitrary treatment of the amirs also gave offence. He was
+dethroned in 1296, and one of the murderers of Khalil, Husam al-din
+_Lajin_, son-in-law of the sultan Bibars and formerly governor of
+Damascus, installed in his palace (November 26th, 1296). It had become
+the practice of the Egyptian sultans to bestow all offices of importance
+on their own freedmen (Mamelukes) to the exclusion of the older amirs,
+whom they could not trust so well, but who in turn became still more
+disaffected. Husam al-din fell a victim to the jealousy of the older
+amirs whom he had incensed by bestowing arbitrary power on his own
+Mameluke Mengutimur, and was murdered on the 16th of January 1299. His
+short reign was marked by some fairly successful incursions into
+Armenia, and the recovery of the fortresses Marash and Tell Hamdun,
+which had been retaken by the Armenians. He also instituted a fresh
+survey and division of land in Egypt and Syria, which occasioned much
+discontent. After his murder the deposed sultan Malik al-Nasir, who had
+been living in retirement at Kerak, was recalled by the army and
+reinstated as sultan in Cairo (February 7th, 1299), though still only
+fourteen years of age, so that public affairs were administered not by
+him, but by Salar the viceroy, and Bibars Jashengir, prefect of the
+palace. The 7th Ilkhan, Ghazan Mahmud, took advantage of the disorder in
+the Mameluke empire to invade Syria in the latter half of 1299, when his
+forces inflicted a severe defeat on those of the new sultan, and seized
+several cities, including the capital Damascus, of which, however, they
+were unable to storm the citadel; in 1300, when a fresh army was
+collected in Egypt, the Mongols evacuated Damascus and made no attempt
+to secure their other conquests. The fear of further Mongolian invasion
+led to the imposition of fresh taxes in both Egypt and Syria, including
+one of 33% on rents, which occasioned many complaints. The invasion did
+not take place till 1303, when at the battle of Marj al-Saffar (April
+20th) the Mongols were defeated. This was the last time that the Ilkhans
+gave the Egyptian sultans serious trouble; and in the letter written in
+the sultan's name to the Ilkhan announcing the victory, the former
+suggested that the caliphate of Bagdad should be restored to the titular
+Abbasid caliph who had accompanied the Egyptian expedition, a suggestion
+which does not appear to have led to any actual steps being taken. The
+fact that the Mongols were in ostensible alliance with Christian princes
+led to a renewal by the sultan of the ordinances against Jews and
+Christians which had often been abrogated, as often renewed and again
+fallen into abeyance; and their renewal led to missions from various
+Christian princes requesting milder terms for their co-religionists. The
+amirs Salar and Bibars having usurped the whole of the sultan's
+authority, he, after some futile attempts to free himself of them, under
+the pretext of pilgrimage to Mecca, retired in March 1309 to Kerak,
+whence he sent his abdication to Cairo; in consequence of which, on the
+5th of April 1309, _Bibars Jashengir_ was proclaimed sultan, with the
+title _Malik al-Mozaffar_. This prince was originally a freedman of
+Kala'un, and was the first Circassian who ascended the throne of Egypt.
+Before the year was out the new sultan had been rendered unpopular by
+the occurrence of a famine, and Malik al-Nasir was easily able to induce
+the Syrian amirs to return to his allegiance, in consequence of which
+Bibars in his turn abdicated, and Malik al-Nasir re-entered Cairo as
+sovereign on the 5th of March 1310. He soon found the means to execute
+both Bibars and Salar, while other amirs who had been eminent under the
+former regime fled to the Mongols. The relations between their Ilkhan
+and the Egyptian sultan continued strained, and the 8th Ilkhan Oeljeitu
+(1304-1316) addressed letters to Philip the Fair and the English king
+Edward I. (answered by Edward II. in 1307), desiring aid against Malik
+al-Nasir; and for many years the courts of the sultan and the Ilkhan
+continued to be the refuge of malcontents from the other kingdom.
+Finally in 1322 terms of peace and alliance were agreed on between the
+sultan and Abu Sa'id the 9th Ilkhan. The sultan also entered into
+relations with the Mongols of the Golden Horde and in 1319 married a
+daughter of the reigning prince Uzbeg Khan (see MONGOLS: _Golden
+Horde_). Much of Malik al-Nasir's third administration was spent in
+raids into Nubia, where he endeavoured to set up a creature of his own
+as sovereign, in attempts at bringing the Bedouins of south-eastern
+Egypt into subordination, and in persecuting the Nosairis, whose heresy
+became formidable about this time. Like other Egyptian sultans he made
+considerable use of the Assassins, 124 of whom were sent by him into
+Persia to execute Kara Sonkor, at one time governor of Damascus, and one
+of the murderers of Malik al-Ashraf; but they were all outwitted by the
+exile, who was finally poisoned by the Ilkhan in recompense for a
+similar service rendered by the Egyptian sultan. For a time Malik
+al-Nasir was recognized as suzerain in north Africa, the Arabian Irak,
+and Asia Minor, but he was unable to make any permanent conquests in any
+of these countries. He brought Medina, which had previously been
+governed by independent sherifs, to acknowledge his authority. His
+diplomatic relations were more extensive than those of any previous
+sultan, and included Bulgarian, Indian, and Abyssinian potentates, as
+well as the pope, the king of Aragon and the king of France. He appears
+to have done his utmost to protect his Christian subjects, incurring
+thereby the reproaches of the more fanatical Moslems, especially in the
+year 1320 when owing to incendiarism in Cairo there was danger of a
+general massacre of the Christian population. His internal
+administration was marked by gross extravagance, which led to his
+viziers being forced to practise violent extortion for which they
+afterwards suffered. He paid considerable attention to sheep-breeding
+and agriculture, and by a canal which he had dug from Fuah to Alexandria
+not only assisted commerce but brought 100,000 feddans under
+cultivation. His taste for building and street improvement led to the
+beautifying of Cairo, and his example was followed by the governors of
+other great cities in the empire, notably Aleppo and Damascus. He paid
+exceptionally high prices for Mamelukes, many of whom were sold by their
+Mongol parents to his agents, and accustomed them to greater luxury than
+was usual under his predecessors. In 1315 he instituted a survey of
+Egypt, and of the twenty-four parts into which it was divided ten were
+assigned to the sultan and fourteen to the amirs and the army. He took
+occasion to abolish a variety of vexatious imposts, and the new budget
+fell less heavily on the Christians than the old. Among the literary
+ornaments of his reign was the historian and geographer Isma'il Abulfeda
+(q.v.), to whom Malik al-Nasir restored the government of Hamath, which
+had belonged to his ancestors, and even gave the title sultan. He died
+on the 7th of June 1341. The son, _Abu Bakr_, to whom he had left the
+throne, was able to maintain himself only a few months on it, being
+compelled to abdicate on the 4th of August 1341 in favour of his infant
+brother _Kuchuk_; the revolution was brought about by Kausun, a powerful
+Mameluke of the preceding monarch. This person's authority was, however,
+soon overthrown by a party formed by the Syrian prefects, and on the
+11th of January _Malik al-Nasir Ahmad_, an elder son of the former
+sultan of the same title, was installed in his place, though he did not
+actually arrive in Cairo till the 6th of November, being unwilling to
+leave Kerak, where he had been living in retirement. After a brief
+sojourn in Cairo he speedily returned thither, thereby forfeiting his
+throne, which was conferred by the amirs on his brother _Isma'il
+al-Malik al-Salih_ (June 27th, 1342). This sultan was mainly occupied
+during his short reign with besieging and taking Kerak, whither Ahmad
+had taken refuge, and himself died on the 3rd of August 1345, when
+another son of Malik al-Nasir, named _Sha'ban_, was placed on the
+throne. The constant changes of sultan led to great disorder in the
+provinces, and many of the subject principalities endeavoured to shake
+off the Egyptian yoke. Sha'ban proved no more competent than his
+predecessors, being given to open debauchery and profligacy, an example
+followed by his amirs; and fresh discontent led to his being deposed by
+the Syrian amirs, when his brother _Hajji_ was proclaimed sultan in his
+place (September 18th, 1346). Hajji was deposed and killed on the 10th
+of December 1347, and another infant son of Malik al-Nasir, _Hasan_, who
+took his father's title, was proclaimed, the real power being shared by
+three amirs, Sheikhun, Menjek and Yelbogha Arus. During this reign
+(1348-1349) Egypt was visited by the "Black Death," which is said to
+have carried off 900,000 of the inhabitants of Cairo and to have raged
+as far south as Assuan. Towards the beginning of 1351 the sultan got rid
+of his guardians and attempted to rule by himself; but though successful
+in war, his arbitrary measures led to his being dethroned on the 21st of
+August 1351 by the amirs, who proclaimed his brother Salih with the
+title of _Malik al-Salih_. He too was only fourteen years of age. The
+power was contested for by various groups of amirs, whose struggles
+ended with the deposition of the sultan Salih on the 20th of October
+1354, and the reinstatement of his brother _Hasan_, who was again
+dethroned on the 16th of March 1361 by an amir Yelbogha, whom he had
+offended, and who, having got possession of the sultan's person,
+murdered him. The next day a son of the dethroned sultan Hajji was
+proclaimed sultan with the title _Malik al-Mansur_. On the 29th of May
+1363 this sultan was also dethroned on the ground of incompetence, and
+his place was given to another grandson of Malik al-Nasir, _Sha'ban_,
+son of Hosain, then ten years old. The amir Yelbogha at first held all
+real power and is said to have acquired a degree of authority which no
+other subject ever held. During this reign, on the 8th of October 1365,
+a landing was effected at Alexandria by a Frankish fleet under Peter I.
+of Cyprus, which presently took possession of the city; the Franks were
+speedily compelled to embark again after plundering the city, for which
+compensation was afterwards demanded by Yelbogha from the Christian
+population of Egypt and Syria. Alexandria was further made the seat of a
+viceroy, having previously only had a prefect. On the 11th of December
+1366 Yelbogha was himself attacked by the sultan, captured and slain.
+His successor in the office of first minister was a mere tool in the
+hands of his Mamelukes, who compelled him to institute and depose
+governors, &c., at their pleasure. In 1374 the Egyptians raided Cilicia
+and captured Leo VI., prince of Lesser Armenia, which now became an
+Egyptian province with a Moslem governor. On the 15th of March 1377 the
+sultan was murdered by the Mamelukes, owing to his refusing a largess of
+money which they demanded. The infant son of the late sultan _'Ali_, a
+lad of eight years, was proclaimed with the title _Malik al-Mansur_; the
+power was in the hands of the ministers Kartai and Ibek, the latter of
+whom overthrew the former with the aid of his own Mamelukes, Berekeh and
+Barkuk. An insurrection in Syria which spread to Egypt presently caused
+the fall of Ibek, and led to the occupation of the highest posts by the
+Circassian freedmen Berekeh and Barkuk, of whom the latter ere long
+succeeded in ousting the former and usurping the sultan's place; on the
+19th of May 1381, when the sultan 'Ali died, his place was given to an
+infant brother Hajji, but on the 26th of November 1382, _Barkuk_ set
+this child aside and had himself proclaimed sultan (with the title
+_Malik al-Zahir_), thereby ending the Bahri dynasty and commencing that
+of the Circassians. For a short period, however, Hajji was restored,
+when on the 1st of June 1389 Cairo was taken by Yelbogha, governor of
+Damascus, and Barkuk expelled; Hajji reigned at first under the
+guardianship of Yelbogha, who was then overthrown by Mintash; Barkuk,
+who had been relegated to Kerak, succeeded in again forming a party, and
+in a battle fought at Shakhab, January 1390, succeeded in gaining
+possession of the person of the sultan Hajji, and on the 21st of January
+he was again proclaimed sultan in Cairo.
+
+
+  Timur in Syria.
+
+  Wars with European Powers.
+
+(7) _Period of Burji Mamelukes._--Barkuk presently entered into
+relations with the Ottoman sultan Bayezid I., and by slaying an envoy of
+Timur incurred the displeasure of the world-conqueror; and in 1394 led
+an army into Syria with the view of restoring the Jelairid Ilkhan Ahmad
+to Bagdad (as Barkuk's vassal), and meeting the Mongol invasion. Barkuk,
+however, died (June 20th, 1399) before Timur had time to invade Syria.
+According to the custom that had so often proved disastrous, a young son
+of Barkuk, _Faraj_, then aged thirteen, was appointed sultan under the
+guardianship of two amirs. Incursions were immediately made by the
+Ottoman sultan into the territory of Egyptian vassals at Derendeh and
+Albistan (Ablestin), and Malatia was besieged by his forces. Timur, who
+was at this time beginning his campaign against Bayezid, turned his
+attention first to Syria, and on the 30th of October 1400 defeated the
+Syrian amirs near Aleppo, and soon got possession of the city and the
+citadel. He proceeded to take Hamah, Homs (Emesa) and other towns, and
+on the 20th of December started for Damascus. An endeavour was made by
+the Egyptian sultan to relieve Damascus, but the news of an insurrection
+in Cairo caused him to retire and leave the place to its fate. In the
+first three months of 1401 the whole of Northern Syria suffered from
+Timur's marauders. In the following year (September 29th, 1402) Timur
+who had in the interval inflicted a crushing defeat on the Ottoman
+sultan, sent to demand homage from Faraj, and his demand was readily
+granted, together with the delivery of the princes who had sought refuge
+from Timur in Egyptian territory. The death of Timur in February 1405
+restored Egyptian authority in Syria, which, however, became a
+rendezvous for all who were discontented with the rule of Faraj and his
+amirs, and two months after Timur's death was in open rebellion against
+Faraj. Although Faraj succeeded in defeating the rebels, he was
+compelled by insubordination on the part of his Circassian Mamelukes to
+abdicate (September 20th, 1405), when his brother _Abd al-al-'aziz_ was
+proclaimed with the title _Malik al-Mansur_; after two months this
+prince was deposed, and Faraj, who had been in hiding, recalled. Most of
+his reign was, however, occupied with revolts on the part of the Syrian
+amirs, to quell whom he repeatedly visited Syria; the leaders of the
+rebels were the amirs Newruz and Sheik Mahmudi, afterwards sultan. Owing
+to disturbances and misgovernment the population of Egypt and Syria is
+said to have shrunk to a third in his time, and he offended public
+sentiment not only by debauchery, but by having his image stamped on his
+coins. On the 23rd of May 1412, after being defeated and shut up in
+Damascus, he was compelled by Sheik Mahmudi to abdicate, and an Abbasid
+caliph, Mosta'in, was proclaimed sultan, only to be forced to abdicate
+on the 6th of November of the same year in _Sheik's_ favour, who took
+the title _Malik al-Mu'ayyad_, his colleague Newruz having been
+previously sent to Syria, where he was to be autocrat by the terms of
+their agreement. In the struggle which naturally followed between the
+two, Newruz was shut up in Damascus, defeated and slain. Sheik himself
+invaded Asia Minor and forced the Turkoman states to acknowledge his
+suzerainty. After the sultan's return they soon rebelled, but were again
+brought into subjection by Sheik's son Ibrahim; his victories excited
+the envy of his father, who is said to have poisoned him. Sheik himself
+died a few months after the decease of his son (January 13th, 1421), and
+another infant son, _Ahmad_, was proclaimed with the title _Malik
+al-Mozaffar_, the proclamation being followed by the usual dissensions
+between the amirs, ending with the assumption of supreme power by the
+amir _Tatar_, who, after defeating his rivals, on the 29th of August
+1421 had himself proclaimed sultan with the title _Malik al-Zahir_.
+This usurper, however, died on the 30th of November of the same year,
+leaving the throne to an infant son _Mohammed_, who was given the title
+_Malik al-Salih_; the regular intrigues between the amirs followed,
+leading to his being dethroned on the following 1st of April 1422, when
+the amir appointed to be his tutor, _Barsbai_, was proclaimed sultan
+with the title _Malik al-Ashraf_. This sultan avenged the attacks on
+Alexandria repeatedly made by Cyprian ships, for he sent a fleet which
+burned Limasol, and another which took Famagusta (August 4th, 1425), but
+failed in the endeavour to annex the island permanently. An expedition
+sent in the following year (1426) succeeded in taking captive the king
+of Cyprus, who was brought to Cairo and presently released for a ransom
+of 200,000 dinars, on condition of acknowledging the suzerainty of the
+Egyptian sultan and paying him an annual tribute. Barsbai appears to
+have excelled his predecessors in the invention of devices for exacting
+money from merchants and pilgrims, and in juggling with the exchange.
+This led to a naval demonstration on the part of the Venetians, who
+secured better terms for their trade, and to the seizure of Egyptian
+vessels by the king of Aragon and the prince of Catalonia. In a census
+made during Barsbai's reign, it was found that the total number of towns
+and villages in Egypt had sunk to 2170, whereas in the 4th century A.H.
+it had stood at 10,000. Much of Barsbai's attention was occupied with
+raids into Asia Minor, where the Dhu 'l-Kadiri Turkomans frequently
+rebelled, and with wars against Kara Yelek, prince of Amid, and Shah
+Rokh, son of Timur. Barsbai died on the 7th of June 1438. In accordance
+with the custom of his predecessors he left the throne to a son still in
+his minority, _Abu'l-Mahasin Yusuf_, who took the title _Malik
+al-'Aziz_, but as usual after a few months he was displaced by the
+regent _Jakmak_, who on the 9th of September 1438 was proclaimed sultan
+with the title _Malik al-Zahir_. In the years 1442-1444 this sultan sent
+three fleets against Rhodes, where the third effected a landing, but was
+unable to make any permanent conquest. In consequence of a lengthy
+illness Jakmak abdicated on the 1st of February 1453, when his son
+_'Othman_ was proclaimed sultan with the title _Malik al-Mansur_. Though
+not a minor, he had no greater success than the sons of the usurpers who
+preceded him, being dethroned after six weeks (March 15th, 1453) in
+favour of the amir _Inal al-'Ala'i_, who took the title _Malik
+al-Ashraf_. His reign was marked by friendly relations with the Ottoman
+sultan Mahommed II., whose capture of Constantinople (1453) was the
+cause of great rejoicings in Egypt, but also by violent excesses on the
+part of the Mamelukes, who dictated the sultan's policy. On his death on
+the 26th of February 1461 his son _Ahmad_ was proclaimed sultan with the
+title _Malik al-Mu'ayyad_; he had the usual fate of sultans' sons,
+earned in his case by an attempt to bring the Mamelukes under
+discipline; he was compelled to abdicate on the 28th of June 1461, when
+the amir _Khoshkadam_, who had served as a general, was proclaimed
+sultan. Unlike the other Mameluke sovereigns, who were Turks or
+Circassians, this man had originally been a Greek slave.
+
+
+  Early relations with Turkey.
+
+In his reign (1463) there began the struggle between the Egyptian and
+the Ottoman sultanates which finally led to the incorporation of Egypt
+in the Ottoman empire. The dispute began with a struggle over the
+succession in the principality of Karaman, where the two sultans
+favoured rival candidates, and the Ottoman sultan Mahommed II. supported
+the claim of his candidate with force of arms, obtaining as the price of
+his assistance several towns in which the suzerainty of the Egyptian
+sultan had been acknowledged. Open war did not, however, break out
+between the two states in Khoshkadam's time. This sultan is said to have
+taken money to permit innocent persons to be ill-treated or executed. He
+died on the 9th of October 1467, when the Atabeg _Yelbai_ was selected
+by the Mamelukes to succeed him, and was proclaimed sultan with the
+title of _Malik al-Zahir_. This person, proving incompetent, was deposed
+by a revolution of the Mamelukes on the 4th of December 1467, when the
+Atabeg _Timurbogha_ was proclaimed with the title _Malik al-Zahir_. In
+a month's time, however, there was another palace revolution, and the
+new Atabeg _Kait Bey_ or _Kaietbai_ (January 31st, 1468) was proclaimed
+sultan, the dethroned Timurbogha being, however, permitted to go free
+whither he pleased. Much of Kait Bey's reign was spent in struggles with
+Uzun Hasan, prince of Diarbekr, and Shah Siwar, chief of the
+Dhu'l-Kadiri Turkomans. He also offended the Ottoman sultan Bayezid
+II. by entertaining his brother Jem, who was afterwards poisoned in
+Europe. Owing to this, and also to the fact that an Indian embassy to
+the Ottoman sultan was intercepted by the agents of Kait Bey, Bayezid
+II. declared war against Egypt, and seized Adana, Tarsus and other
+places within Egyptian territory; extraordinary efforts were made by
+Kait Bey, whose generals inflicted a severe defeat on the Ottoman
+invaders. In 1491, however, after the Egyptians had repeatedly defeated
+the Ottoman troops, Kait Bey made proposals of peace which were
+accepted, the keys of the towns which the Ottomans had seized being
+restored to the Egyptian sultan. Kait Bey endeavoured to assist his
+co-religionists in Spain who were threatened by King Ferdinand, by
+threatening the pope with reprisals on Syrian Christians, but without
+effect. As the consequence of a palace intrigue, which Kait Bey was too
+old to quell, on the 7th of August 1496, a day before his death, his son
+_Mahommed_ was proclaimed sultan with the title _Malik al-Nasir_; this
+was in order to put the supreme power into the hands of the Atabeg
+Kansuh, since the new sultan was only fourteen years old. An attempt of
+the Atabeg to oust the new sultan, however, failed. After a reign of
+little more than two years, filled mainly with struggles between rival
+amirs, _Malik al-Nasir_ was murdered (October 31st, 1498), and his uncle
+and vizier _Kansuh_ proclaimed sultan with the title _Malik al-Zahir_.
+His reign only lasted about twenty months; on the 30th of June 1500 he
+was dethroned by Tumanbey, who caused _Jan Belat_, the Atabeg, to be
+proclaimed sultan. A few months later _Tumanbey_, at the suggestion of
+Kasrawah, governor of Damascus, whom he had been sent to reduce to
+subjection, ousted Jan Belat, and was himself proclaimed sultan with the
+title _Malik al-'Adil_ (January 25th, 1501). His reign lasted only one
+hundred days, when he was displaced by _Kansuh al-Ghuri_ (April 20th,
+1501). His reign was remarkable for a naval conflict between the
+Egyptians and the Portuguese, whose fleet interfered with the pilgrim
+route from India to Mecca, and also with the trade between India and
+Egypt; Kansuh caused a fleet to be built which fought naval battles with
+the Portuguese with varying results.
+
+
+  The Turkish conquest.
+
+In 1515 there began the war with the Ottoman sultan Selim I. which led
+to the close of the Mameluke period, and the incorporation of Egypt and
+its dependencies in the Ottoman empire (see TURKEY: _History_). Kansuh
+was charged by Selim with giving the envoys of the Safawid Isma'il
+passage through Syria on their way to Venice to form a confederacy
+against the Turks, and with harbouring various refugees. The actual
+declaration of war was not made by Selim till May 1515, when the Ottoman
+sultan had made all his preparations; and at the battle of Merj Dabik,
+on the 24th of August 1515, Kansuh was defeated by the Ottoman forces
+and fell fighting. Syria passed quickly into the possession of the
+Turks, whose advent was in many places welcome as meaning deliverance
+from the Mamelukes. In Cairo, when the news of the defeat and death of
+the Egyptian sultan arrived, the governor who had been left by Kansuh,
+_Tumanbey_, was proclaimed sultan (October 17th, 1516). On the 20th of
+January 1517 Cairo was taken by the Ottomans, and Selim shortly after
+declared sultan of Egypt. Tumanbey continued the struggle for some
+months, but was finally defeated, and after being captured and kept in
+prison seventeen days was executed on the 15th of April 1517.
+
+(8) _The Turkish Period._--The sultan Selim left with his viceroy Khair
+Bey a guard of 5000 janissaries, but otherwise made few changes in the
+administration of the country. The register by which a great portion of
+the land was a fief of the Mamelukes was left unchanged, and it is said
+that a proposal made by the sultan's vizier to appropriate these estates
+was punished with death. The Mameluke amirs were to be retained in
+office as heads of twelve sanjaks into which Egypt was divided; and
+under the next sultan, Suleiman I., two chambers were created, called
+respectively the Greater and the Lesser Divan, in which both the army
+and the ecclesiastical authorities were represented, to aid the pasha by
+their deliberations. Six regiments altogether were constituted by the
+conqueror Selim for the protection of Egypt; to these Suleiman added a
+seventh, of Circassians. As will be seen from the tables, it was the
+practice of the Porte to change the governor of Egypt at very short
+intervals--after a year or even some months. The third governor, Ahmad
+Pasha, hearing that orders for this execution had come from
+Constantinople, endeavoured to make himself an independent ruler and had
+coins struck in his own name. His schemes were frustrated by two of the
+amirs whom he had imprisoned and who, escaping from their confinement,
+attacked him in his bath and killed him. In 1527 the first survey of
+Egypt under the Ottomans was made, in consequence of the official copy
+of the former registers having perished by fire; yet this new survey did
+not come into use until 1605. Egyptian lands were divided in it into
+four classes--the sultan's domain, fiefs, land for the maintenance of
+the army, and lands settled on religious foundations.
+
+
+  Troubles with the army.
+
+It would seem that the constant changes in the government caused the
+army to get out of control at an early period of the Ottoman occupation,
+and at the beginning of the 11th Islamic century mutinies became common;
+in 1013 (1604) the governor Ibrahim Pasha was murdered by the soldiers,
+and his head set on the Bab Zuwela. The reason for these mutinies was
+the attempt made by successive pashas to put a stop to the extortion
+called _Tulbah_, a forced payment exacted by the troops from the
+inhabitants of the country by the fiction of debts requiring to be
+discharged, which led to grievous ill-usage. In 1609 something like
+civil war broke out between the army and the pasha, who had on his side
+some loyal regiments and the Bedouins. The soldiers went so far as to
+choose a sultan, and to divide provisionally the regions of Cairo
+between them. They were defeated by the governor Mahommed Pasha, who on
+the 5th of February 1610 entered Cairo in triumph, executed the
+ringleaders, and banished many others to Yemen. The contemporary
+historian speaks of this event as a second conquest of Egypt for the
+Ottomans. A great financial reform was now effected by Mahommed Pasha,
+who readjusted the burdens imposed on the different communities of Egypt
+in accordance with their means. With the troubles that beset the
+metropolis of the Ottoman empire, the governors appointed thence came to
+be treated by the Egyptians with continually decreasing respect. In July
+1623 there came an order from the Porte dismissing Mustafa Pasha and
+appointing 'Ali Pasha governor in his place. The officers met and
+demanded from the newly-appointed governor's deputy the customary
+gratuity; when this was refused they sent letters to the Porte declaring
+that they wished to have Mustafa Pasha and not 'Ali Pasha as governor.
+Meanwhile 'Ali Pasha had arrived at Alexandria, and was met by a
+deputation from Cairo telling him that he was not wanted. He returned a
+mild answer; and, when a rejoinder came in the same style as the first
+message, he had the leader of the deputation arrested and imprisoned.
+Hereupon the garrison of Alexandria attacked the castle and rescued the
+prisoner; whereupon 'Ali Pasha was compelled to embark. Shortly after a
+rescript arrived from Constantinople confirming Mustafa Pasha in the
+governorship. Similarly in 1631 the army took upon themselves to depose
+the governor Musa Pasha, in indignation at his execution of Kitas Bey,
+an officer who was to have commanded an Egyptian force required for
+service in Persia. The pasha was ordered either to hand over the
+executioners to vengeance or to resign his place; as he refused to do
+the former he was compelled to do the latter, and presently a rescript
+came from Constantinople, approving the conduct of the army and
+appointing one Khalil Pasha as Musa's successor. Not only was the
+governor unsupported by the sultan against the troops, but each new
+governor regularly inflicted a fine upon his outgoing predecessor, under
+the name of money due to the treasury; and the outgoing governor would
+not be allowed to leave Egypt till he had paid it. Besides the
+extortions to which this practice gave occasion the country suffered
+greatly in these centuries from famine and pestilence. The latter in the
+spring of 1619 is said to have carried off 635,000 persons, and in 1643
+completely desolated 230 villages.
+
+
+  Rise of the Beys.
+
+By the 18th century the importance of the pasha was quite superseded by
+that of the beys, and two offices, those of Sheik al-Balad and Amir
+al-Hajj, which were held by these persons, represented the real headship
+of the community. The process by which this state of affairs came about
+is somewhat obscure, owing to the want of good chronicles for the
+Turkish period of Egyptian history. In 1707 the Sheik al-Balad, Qasim
+Iywaz, is found at the head of one of two Mameluke factions, the
+Qasimites and the Fiqarites, between whom the seeds of enmity were sown
+by the pasha of the time, with the result that a fight took place
+between the factions outside Cairo, lasting eighty days. At the end of
+that time Qasim Iywaz was killed and the office which he had held was
+given to his son Isma'il. Isma'il held this office for sixteen years,
+while the pashas were constantly being changed, and succeeded in
+reconciling the two factions of Mamelukes. In 1724 this person was
+assassinated through the machinations of the pasha, and Shirkas Bey, of
+the opposing faction, elevated to the office of Sheik al-Balad in his
+place. He was soon driven from his post by one of his own faction called
+Dhu'l-Fiqar, and fled to Upper Egypt. After a short time he returned at
+the head of an army, and some engagements ensued, in the last of which
+Shirkas Bey met his end by drowning; Dhu'l-Fiqar was himself
+assassinated in 1730 shortly after this event. His place was filled by
+Othman Bey, who had served as his general in this war. In 1743 Othman
+Bey, who had governed with wisdom and moderation, was forced to fly from
+Egypt by the intrigues of two adventurers, Ibrahim and Ridwan Bey, who,
+when their scheme had succeeded, began a massacre of beys and others
+thought to be opposed to them; they then proceeded to govern Egypt
+jointly, holding the two offices mentioned above in alternate years. An
+attempt made by one of the pashas to rid himself of these two persons by
+a _coup d'etat_ signally failed owing to the loyalty of their armed
+supporters, who released Ibrahim and Ridwan from prison and compelled
+the pasha to fly to Constantinople. An attempt made by a subsequent
+pasha in accordance with secret orders from Constantinople was so far
+successful that some of the beys were killed. Ibrahim and Ridwan
+escaped, and compelled the pasha to resign his governorship and return
+to Constantinople. Ibrahim shortly afterwards fell by the hand of an
+assassin who had aspired to occupy one of the vacant beyships himself,
+which was conferred instead on 'Ali, who as 'Ali Bey was destined to
+play an important part in the history of Egypt. The murder of Ibrahim
+Bey took place in 1755, and his colleague Ridwan perished in the
+disputes that followed upon it.
+
+
+  'Ali Bey.
+
+'Ali Bey, who had first distinguished himself by defending a caravan in
+Arabia against bandits, set himself the task of avenging the death of
+his former master Ibrahim, and spent eight years in purchasing Mamelukes
+and winning other adherents. He thereby excited the suspicions of the
+Sheik al-Balad Khalil Bey, who organized an attack upon him in the
+streets of Cairo, in consequence of which he fled to Upper Egypt. Here
+he met one Salh Bey, who had injuries to avenge on Khalil Bey, and the
+two organized a force with which they returned to Cairo and defeated
+Khalil, who was forced to fly to Tanta, where for a time he concealed
+himself; eventually, however, he was discovered, sent to Alexandria and
+finally strangled. The date of 'Ali Bey's victory was 1164 A.H. (A.D.
+1750), and after it he was made Sheik al-Balad. In that capacity he
+executed the murderer of his former master Ibrahim; but the resentment
+which this act aroused among the beys caused him to leave his post and
+fly to Syria, where he won the friendship of the governor of Acre, Zahir
+b. Omar, who obtained for him the goodwill of the Porte and
+reinstatement in his post as Sheik al-Balad. In 1766, after the death of
+his supporter the grand vizier Raghib Pasha, he was again compelled to
+fly from Egypt to Yemen, but in the following year he was told that his
+party at Cairo was strong enough to permit of his return. Resuming his
+office he raised eighteen of his friends to the rank of bey, among them
+Ibrahim and Murad, who were afterwards at the head of affairs, as well
+as Mahommed Abu'l-Dhahab, who was closely connected with the rest of
+'Ali Bey's career. He appears to have done his utmost to bring Egyptian
+affairs into order, and by very severe measures repressed the brigandage
+of the Bedouins of Lower Egypt. He appears to have aspired to found an
+independent monarchy, and to that end endeavoured to disband all forces
+except those which were exclusively under his own control. In 1769 a
+demand came to 'Ali Bey for a force of 12,000 men to be employed by the
+Porte in the Russian war. It was suggested, however, at Constantinople
+that 'Ali would employ this force when he collected it for securing his
+own independence, and a messenger was sent by the Porte to the pasha
+with orders for his execution. 'Ali, being apprised by his agents at the
+metropolis of the despatch of this messenger, ordered him to be waylaid
+and killed; the despatches were seized and read by 'Ali before an
+assembly of the beys, who were assured that the order for execution
+applied to all alike, and he urged them to fight for their lives. His
+proposals were received with enthusiasm by the beys whom he had created.
+Egypt was declared independent and the pasha given forty-eight hours to
+quit the country. Zahir Pasha of Acre, to whom was sent official
+information of the step taken by 'Ali Bey, promised his aid and kept his
+word by compelling an army sent by the pasha of Damascus against Egypt
+to retreat.
+
+The Porte was not able at the time to take active measures for the
+suppression of 'Ali Bey, and the latter endeavoured to consolidate his
+dominions by sending expeditions against marauding tribes, both in north
+and south Egypt, reforming the finance, and improving the administration
+of justice. His son-in-law, Abu'l-Dhahab, was sent to subject the
+Hawwarah, who had occupied the land between Assuan and Assiut, and a
+force of 20,000 was sent to conquer Yemen. An officer named Isma'il Bey
+was sent with 8000 to acquire the eastern shore of the Red Sea, and one
+named Hasan Bey to occupy Jidda. In six months the greater part of the
+Arabian peninsula was subject to 'Ali Bey, and he appointed as sherif of
+Mecca a cousin of his own, who bestowed on 'Ali by an official
+proclamation the titles Sultan of Egypt and Khakan of the Two Seas. He
+then, in virtue of this authorization, struck coins in his own name
+(1185 A.H.) and ordered his name to be mentioned in public worship.
+
+His next move turned out fatally. Abu'l-Dhahab was sent with a force of
+30,000 men in the same year (A.D. 1771) to conquer Syria; and agents
+were sent to negotiate alliances with Venice and Russia. Abu'l-Dhahab's
+progress through Palestine and Syria was triumphant. Reinforced by 'Ali
+Bey's ally Zahir, he easily took the chief cities, ending with Damascus;
+but at this point he appears to have entered into secret negotiations
+with the Porte, by which he undertook to restore Egypt to Ottoman
+suzerainty. He then proceeded to evacuate Syria, and marched with all
+the forces he could collect to Upper Egypt, occupying Assiut in April
+1772. Having collected some additional troops from the Bedouins, he
+marched on Cairo. Isma'il Bey was sent by 'Ali Bey with a force of 3000
+to check his advance; but at Basatin Isma'il with his troops joined
+Abu'l-Dhahab. 'Ali Bey intended at first to defend himself so long as
+possible in the citadel at Cairo; but receiving information to the
+effect that his friend Zahir of Acre was still willing to give him
+refuge, he left Cairo for Syria (8th of April 1772), one day before the
+entrance of Abu'l-Dhahab.
+
+At Acre 'Ali's fortune seemed to be restored. A Russian vessel anchored
+outside the port, and, in accordance with the agreement which he had
+made with the Russian empire, he was supplied with stores and
+ammunition, and a force of 3000 Albanians. He sent one of his officers,
+'Ali Bey al-Tantawi, to recover the Syrian towns evacuated by
+Abu'l-Dhahab, and now in the possession of the Porte. He himself took
+Jaffa and Gaza, the former of which he gave to his friend Zahir of
+Acre. On the 1st of February 1773 he received information from Cairo
+that Abu'l-Dhahab had made himself Sheik al-Balad, and in that capacity
+was practising unheard-of extortions, which were making Egypt with one
+voice call for the return of 'Ali Bey. He accordingly started for Egypt
+at the head of an army of 8000 men, and on the 19th of April met the
+army of Abu'l-Dhahab at Salihia. 'Ali's forces were successful at the
+first engagement; but when the battle was renewed two days later he was
+deserted by some of his officers, and prevented by illness and wounds
+from himself taking the conduct of affairs. The result was a complete
+defeat for his army, after which he declined to leave his tent; he was
+captured after a brave resistance, and taken to Cairo, where he died
+seven days later.
+
+After 'Ali Bey's death Egypt became once more a dependency of the Porte,
+governed by Abu'l-Dhahab as Sheik al-Balad with the title pasha. He
+shortly afterwards received permission from the Porte to invade Syria,
+with the view of punishing 'Ali Bey's supporter Zahir, and left as his
+deputies in Cairo Isma'il Bey and Ibrahim Bey, who, by deserting 'Ali at
+the battle of Salihia, had brought about his downfall. After taking many
+cities in Palestine Abu'l-Dhahab died, the cause being unknown; and
+Murad Bey (another of the deserters at Salihia) brought his forces back
+to Egypt (26th of May 1775).
+
+Isma'il Bey now became Sheik al-Balad, but was soon involved in a
+dispute with Ibrahim and Murad, who after a time succeeded in driving
+Isma'il out of Egypt and establishing a joint rule (as Sheik al-Balad
+and Amir al-Hajj respectively) similar to that which had been tried
+previously. The two were soon involved in quarrels, which at one time
+threatened to break out into open war; but this catastrophe was averted,
+and the joint rule was maintained till 1786, when an expedition was sent
+by the Porte to restore Ottoman supremacy in Egypt. Murad Bey attempted
+to resist, but was easily defeated; and he with Ibrahim decided to fly
+to Upper Egypt and await the trend of events. On the 1st of August 1782
+the Turkish commander entered Cairo, and, after some violent measures
+had been taken for the restoration of order, Isma'il Bey was again made
+Sheik al-Balad and a new pasha installed as governor. In January 1791 a
+terrible plague began to rage in Cairo and elsewhere in Egypt, to which
+Isma'il Bey and most of his family fell victims. Owing to the need for
+competent rulers Ibrahim and Murad Bey were sent for from Upper Egypt
+and resumed their dual government. These two persons were still in
+office when Bonaparte entered Egypt.
+
+  _Moslem Authorities._--Arabic literature being cosmopolitan, and
+  Arabic authors accustomed to travel from place to place to collect
+  traditions and obtain oral instruction from contemporary authorities,
+  or else to enjoy the patronage of Maecenates, the literary history of
+  Egypt cannot be dissociated from that of the other Moslem countries in
+  which Arabic was the chief literary vehicle. Hence the list of authors
+  connected with Egypt, which occupies pages 161-275 of Suyuti's work,
+  _Husn al-muhadarah fi akhbari Misr wal-Qahirah_ (Cairo, 1321 A.H.),
+  contains the names of persons like Mutanabbi, who stayed there for a
+  short time in the service of some patron; Abu Tammam, who lived there
+  before he acquired fame as a poet; 'Umara of Yemen, who came there at
+  a mature age to spend some years in the service of Fatimite viziers;
+  each of whom figures in lists of authors belonging to some other
+  country also. So long as the centre of the Islamic world was not in
+  Egypt, the best talent was attracted elsewhere; but after the fall of
+  Bagdad, Cairo became the chief seat of Islamic learning, and this
+  rank, chiefly owing to the university of Azhar, it has ever since
+  continued to maintain. The following composed special histories of
+  Egypt: Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam, d. 257 A.H.; 'Abd al-Rahim b. Yunus, d. 347;
+  Mahommed b. Yusuf al-Kindi, d. somewhat later; Ibn Zulaq, d. 387; 'Izz
+  al-Mulk Mahommed al-Musabbihi, d. 420; Mahommed b. Salamah al-Qoda'i,
+  d. 454; Jamal al-din 'Ali al-Qifti, d. 568; Jamal al-din al-Halabi, d.
+  623; 'Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi, d. 629; Mahommed b. 'Abd al-Aziz
+  al-Idrisi (history of Upper Egypt), d. 649; his son Ja'far (history of
+  Cairo), d. 676; Ibn Sa'id, d. 685; Ibrahim b. Wasif Shah; Ibn
+  al-Mutawwaj, d. 703; Mahommed b. Dani'al, d. 710; Ja'far b. Tha'lab
+  Kamal al-din al-Adfu'i (history of Upper Egypt), d. 730; 'Abd al-Qarun
+  al-Halabi, d. 735; Ibn Habib, d. 779; Ibn Duqmaq, d. 790; Ibn Tughan,
+  Shihab al-din al-Auhadi, d. 790; Ibn al-Mulaqqin, d. 806; Maqrizi,
+  Taqiyy al-din Ahmad, d. 840; Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani, d. 852;
+  al-Sakhawi, d. 902; Abu'l-Mahasin b. Taghribirdi, d. 874; Jalal al-din
+  al-Suyuti, d. 911; Ibn Zunbul al-Rammal; Ibn Iyas, d. after 928;
+  Mahommed b. Abi Surur, d. after 1017; Zain al-din al Karami, d. 1033;
+  'Abd al-Rahman Jabarti, d. after 1236. Of many of the Mameluke
+  sultans there are special chronicles preserved in various European and
+  Oriental libraries. The works of many of the authors enumerated are
+  topographical and biographical as well as purely historical. To these
+  there should be added the Survey of Egypt, called _al-tuhfah
+  al-saniyyah_ of Ibn Ji'an, belonging to the time of Kait Bey; the
+  treatise on the Egyptian constitution called _Zubdat Kashf
+  al-Mamalik_, by Khalil al-Zahiri, of the same period; and the
+  encyclopaedic work on the same subject called _Subh al-Insha_, by
+  al-Qalqashandi, d. 821.
+
+  Arabic poetry is in the main encomiastic and personal, and from the
+  beginning of the Omayyad period sovereigns and governors paid poets to
+  celebrate their achievements; of those of importance who are connected
+  with Egypt we may mention Nusaib, encomiast of 'Abd al-Aziz b. Merwan,
+  d. 180; the greater Nashi (Abu l-Abbas 'Abdallah), d. 293; Ibn
+  Tabataba, d. 345; Abu'l-Raqa'maq, encomiast of al-Mo'izz, d. 399;
+  Sari' al-Dila ('Ali b. 'Abd al-Wahid), encomiast of the Fatimite
+  al-Zahir, d. 412; Sanajat al-dauh (Mahommed b. al-Qasim), encomiast of
+  Hakim; 'Ali b. 'Abbad al-Iskandari, encomiast of the vizier al-Afdal,
+  executed by Hafiz; Ibn Qalaqis al-Iskandari, encomiast of the
+  Ayyubites, d. 607; Muhaddhab b. Mameti, encomiast of the Ayyubites, d.
+  616; Ibn Sana' al-Mulk, encomiast of the Ayyubites, d. 658; Ibn
+  al-Munajjim, d. 626; Ibn Matruh, encomiast of the Ayyubites, d. 654;
+  Baha' al-din Zuhair, encomiast of al-Salih, d. 656; Ibn 'Ammar, d.
+  675; al-Mi'mar, d. 749; Ibn Nubatah, d. 768; Ibn Abi Hajalah, d. 776;
+  Burhan al-din al-Qirati, d. 801; Ibn Mukanis, d. 864; Ibn Hijjah
+  al-Hamawi, d. 837. Poets distinguished for special lines are al-Hakim
+  b. Dani' al, d. 608, author of the Shadow-play; and al-Busiri
+  (Mahommed b. Sa'id), d. 694, author of the ode in praise of the
+  prophet called Burdah. The poets of Egypt are reckoned with those of
+  Syria in the _Yatimah_ of Tha' alibi; a special work upon them was
+  written by Ibn Fadl allah (d. 740); and a list of poets of the 11th
+  century is given by Khafaji in his _Raihanat al-alibba_.
+
+  The needs of the Egyptian court produced a number of elegant
+  letter-writers, of whom the most famous were 'Abd al-Rahim b. 'Ali
+  al-Baisani, ordinarily known as al-Qadi' al-Fadil, d. 596, secretary
+  of state to Saladin and other Ayyubite sultans; 'Imad al-din
+  al-Ispahani, d. 597, also secretary of state and official chronicler;
+  and Ibn 'Abd al-Zahir, d. 692, secretary of state to Bibars I. and
+  succeeding sultans; he was followed by his son Fath al-din, to whom
+  the title "Secret writer" was first given.
+
+  In the subject of law Egypt boasts that the Imam Shafi'i, founder of
+  one of the schools, resided at Fostat from 195 till his death in 204;
+  his system, though displaced for a time by that invented by the
+  Fatimites, and since the Turkish conquest by the Hanifite system, has
+  always been popular in Egypt: in Ayyubite times it was dominant,
+  whereas in Mameluke times all four systems were officially recognized.
+  The eminent jurists who flourished in Moslem Egypt form a very lengthy
+  list. Among the Egyptian traditionalists the most eminent is
+  Daraqutni, d. 385.
+
+  Among Egyptian mystics the most famous as authors are the poet Ibn
+  al-Farid, d. 632, and Abd al-Wahhab Sha rani, d. 973. Abu'l-Hasan
+  al-Shadhili (d. 656) is celebrated as the founder of the Shadhili
+  order; but there were many others of note. The dictionary of
+  physicians, compiled in the 7th century, enumerates nearly sixty men
+  of science who resided in Egypt; the best-known among them are Sa'id
+  b. Bitriq, Moses Maimonides and Ibn Baitar. Of Egyptian miscellaneous
+  writers two of the most celebrated are Ibn Daqiq al'-id, d. 702, and
+  Jalal al-din Suyuti.
+
+  _European Authorities._--For the Moslem conquest, A. J. Butler, _The
+  Arab Conquest of Egypt_ (Oxford, 1902); for the period before the
+  Fatimites, Wustenfeld, "Die Statthalter von Agypten," in _Abhandlungen
+  der koniglichen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu Gottingen_, vols.
+  xx. and xxi.; for the Fatimite period, Wustenfeld, "Geschichte der
+  Fatimiden-Chalifen," ibid. vols. xxvi. and xxvii.; for the Ayyubite
+  period, Ibn Khallikan's _Biographical Dictionary_, translated by M'G.
+  de Slane (London, 1842-1871); for the Mameluke period, Weil,
+  _Geschichte der Chalifen_, vols. iv. and v. (also called _Geschichte
+  des Abbasidenchalifats in Agypten_), (Stuttgart, 1860-1862); Sir W.
+  Muir, _The Mameluke or Slave Dynasty of Egypt_ (London, 1896); for the
+  Turkish period, G. Zaidan, _History of Modern Egypt_ (Arabic), vol.
+  ii. (Cairo, 1889). See also Maqrizi, _Description topographique et
+  historique de l'Egypte_, translated by Bouriant (Paris, 1895, &c.); C.
+  H. Becker, _Beitrage zur Geschichte Agyptens_ (Strassburg, 1902).
+       (D. S. M.*)
+
+
+  Battle of the Nile.
+
+(9) _From the French Occupation to the Rise of Mehemet Ali._--The
+ostensible object of the French expedition to Egypt was to reinstate the
+authority of the Sublime Porte, and suppress the Mamelukes; and in the
+proclamation printed with the Arabic types brought from the Propaganda
+press, and issued shortly after the taking of Alexandria, Bonaparte
+declared that he reverenced the prophet Mahomet and the Koran far more
+than the Mamelukes reverenced either, and argued that all men were equal
+except so far as they were distinguished by their intellectual and moral
+excellences, of neither of which the Mamelukes had any great share. In
+future all posts in Egypt were to be open to all classes of the
+inhabitants; the conduct of affairs was to be committed to the men of
+talent, virtue, and learning; and in proof of the statement that the
+French were sincere Moslems the overthrow of the papal authority in Rome
+was alleged. That there might be no doubt of the friendly feeling of the
+French to the Porte, villages and towns which capitulated to the
+invaders were required to hoist the flags of both the Porte and the
+French republic, and in the thanksgiving prescribed to the Egyptians for
+their deliverance from the Mamelukes, prayer was to be offered for both
+the sultan and the French army. It does not appear that the proclamation
+convinced many of the Egyptians of the truth of these professions. After
+the battle of Ambabah, at which the forces of both Murad Bey and Ibrahim
+Bey were dispersed, the populace readily plundered the houses of the
+beys, and a deputation was sent from al-Azhar to Bonaparte to ascertain
+his intentions; these proved to be a repetition of the terms of his
+proclamation, and, though the combination of loyalty to the French with
+loyalty to the sultan was unintelligible, a good understanding was at
+first established between the invaders and the Egyptians. A municipal
+council was established in Cairo, consisting of persons taken from the
+ranks of the sheiks, the Mamelukes and the French; and presently
+delegates from Alexandria and other important towns were added. This
+council did little more than register the decrees of the French
+commander, who continued to exercise dictatorial power. The destruction
+of the French fleet at the battle of the Nile, and the failure of the
+French forces sent to Upper Egypt (where they reached the first
+cataract) to obtain possession of the person of Murad Bey, shook the
+faith of the Egyptians in their invincibility; and in consequence of a
+series of unwelcome innovations the relations between conquerors and
+conquered grew daily more strained, till at last, on the occasion of the
+introduction of a house tax, an insurrection broke out in Cairo on the
+22nd of October 1798, of which the headquarters were in the Moslem
+university of Azhar. On this occasion the French general Dupuy,
+lieutenant-governor of Cairo, was killed. The prompt measures of
+Bonaparte, aided by the arrival from Alexandria of General J. B. Kleber,
+quickly suppressed this rising; but the stabling of the French cavalry
+in the mosque of Azhar gave great and permanent offence. In consequence
+of this affair, the deliberative council was suppressed, but on the 25th
+of December a fresh proclamation was issued, reconstituting the two
+divans which had been created by the Turks; the special divan was to
+consist of 14 persons chosen by lot out of 60 government nominees, and
+was to meet daily. The general divan was to consist of functionaries,
+and to meet on emergencies.
+
+In consequence of despatches which reached Bonaparte on the 3rd of
+January 1799, announcing the intention of the Porte to invade the
+country with the object of recovering it by force, Bonaparte resolved on
+his Syrian expedition, and appointed governors for Cairo, Alexandria,
+and Upper Egypt, to govern during his absence. From that ill-fated
+expedition he returned at the beginning of June. Advantage had been
+taken of this opportunity by Murad Bey and Ibrahim Bey to collect their
+forces and attempt a joint attack on Cairo, but this Bonaparte arrived
+in time to defeat, and in the last week of July he inflicted a crushing
+defeat on the Turkish army that had landed at Aboukir, aided by the
+British fleet commanded by Sir Sidney Smith. Shortly after his victory
+Bonaparte left Egypt, having appointed Kleber to govern in his absence,
+which he informed the sheiks of Cairo was not to last more than three
+months. Kleber himself regarded the condition of the French invaders as
+extremely perilous, and wrote to inform the French republic of the
+facts. A double expedition shortly after Bonaparte's departure was sent
+by the Porte for the recovery of Egypt, one force being despatched by
+sea to Damietta, while another under Yusuf Pasha took the land route
+from Damascus by al-Arish. Over the first some success was won, in
+consequence of which the Turks agreed to a convention (signed January
+24, 1800), by virtue of which the French were to quit Egypt. The Turkish
+troops advanced to Bilbeis, where they were received by the sheiks from
+Cairo, and the Mamelukes also returned to that city from their
+hiding-places. Before the preparations for the departure of the French
+were completed, orders came to Sir Sidney Smith from the British
+government, forbidding the carrying out of the convention unless the
+French army were treated as prisoners of war; and when these were
+communicated to Kleber he cancelled the orders previously given to the
+troops, and proceeded to put the country in a state of defence. His
+departure with most of the army to attack the Turks at Mataria led to
+riots in Cairo, in the course of which many Christians were slaughtered;
+but the national party were unable to get possession of the citadel, and
+Kleber, having defeated the Turks, was soon able to return to the
+capital. On the 14th of April he bombarded Bulak, and proceeded to
+bombard Cairo itself, which was taken the following night. Order was
+soon restored, and a fine of twelve million francs imposed on the
+rioters. Murad Bey sought an interview with Kleber and succeeded in
+obtaining from him the government of Upper Egypt. He died shortly
+afterwards and was succeeded by Osman Bey al-Bardisi.
+
+On the 14th of June Kleber was assassinated by a fanatic named Suleiman
+of Aleppo, said to have been incited to the deed by a Janissary refugee
+at Jerusalem, who had brought letters to the sheiks of the Azhar, who,
+however, refused to give him any encouragement. Three of these,
+nevertheless, were executed by the French as accessories before the
+fact, and the assassin himself was impaled, after torture, in spite of a
+promise of pardon having been made to him on condition of his naming his
+associates. The command of the army then devolved on General J. F.
+(Baron de) Menou (1750-1810), a man who had professed Islam, and who
+endeavoured to conciliate the Moslem population by various measures,
+such as excluding all Christians (with the exception of one Frenchman)
+from the divan, replacing the Copts who were in government service by
+Moslems, and subjecting French residents to taxes. Whatever popularity
+might have been gained by these measures was counteracted by his
+declaration of a French protectorate over Egypt, which was to count as a
+French colony.
+
+
+  French evacuation.
+
+In the first weeks of March 1801 the English, under Sir R. Abercromby,
+effected a landing at Aboukir, and proceeded to invest Alexandria, where
+on the 21st they were attacked by Menou; the French were repulsed, but
+the English commander was mortally wounded in the action. On the 25th
+fresh reinforcements arrived under Husain, the Kapudan Pasha, or high
+admiral; and a combined English and Turkish force was sent to take
+Rosetta. On the 30th of May, General A. D. Belliard, who had been left
+in charge at Cairo, was assailed on two sides by the British forces
+under General John Hely Hutchinson (afterwards 2nd earl of Donoughmore),
+and the Turkish under Yusuf Pasha; after negotiations Belliard agreed to
+evacuate Cairo and to sail with his 13,734 troops to France. On the 30th
+of August, Menou at Alexandria was compelled to accept similar
+conditions, and his force of 10,000 left for Europe in September. This
+was the termination of the French occupation of Egypt, of which the
+chief permanent monument was the _Description de l'Egypte_, compiled by
+the French savants who accompanied the expedition. Further than this,
+"it brought to the attention of a few men in Egypt a keen sense of the
+great advantage of an orderly government, and a warm appreciation of the
+advance that science and learning had made in Europe" (Hajji Browne,
+_Bonaparte in Egypt and the Egyptians of to-day_, 1907, p. 268).
+
+
+  British, Turks and Mamelukes.
+
+Soon after the evacuation of Egypt by the French, the country became the
+scene of more severe troubles, in consequence of the attempts of the
+Turks to destroy the power of the Mamelukes. In defiance of promises to
+the British government, orders were transmitted from Constantinople to
+Husain Pasha, the Turkish high admiral, to ensnare and put to death the
+principal beys. Invited to an entertainment, they were, according to the
+Egyptian contemporary historian al-Jabarti, attacked on board the
+flag-ship; Sir Robert Wilson and M. F. Mengin, however, state that they
+were fired on, in open boats, in the Bay of Aboukir. They offered an
+heroic resistance, but were overpowered, and some killed, some made
+prisoners; among the last was Osman Bey al-Bardisi, who was severely
+wounded. General Hutchinson, informed of this treachery, immediately
+assumed threatening measures against the Turks, and in consequence the
+killed, wounded and prisoners were given up to him. At the same time
+Yusuf Pasha arrested all the beys in Cairo, but was shortly compelled by
+the British to release them. Such was the beginning of the disastrous
+struggle between the Mamelukes and the Turks.
+
+Mahommed Khosrev was the first Turkish governor of Egypt after the
+expulsion of the French. The form of government, however, was not the
+same as that before the French invasion, for the Mamelukes were not
+reinstated. The pasha, and through him the sultan, endeavoured on
+several occasions either to ensnare them or to beguile them into
+submission; but these efforts failing, Mahommed Khosrev took the field,
+and a Turkish detachment 7000 strong was despatched against them to
+Damanhur, whither they had descended from Upper Egypt, and was defeated
+by a small force under al-Alfi; or, as Mengin says, by 800 men commanded
+by al-Bardisi, when al-Alfi had left the field. Their ammunition and
+guns fell into the hands of the Mamelukes.
+
+In March 1803 the British evacuated Alexandria, and Mahommed Bey al-Alfi
+accompanied them to England to consult respecting the means to be
+adopted for restoring the former power of the Mamelukes, who meanwhile
+took Minia and interrupted communication between Upper and Lower Egypt.
+About six weeks after, the Arnaut (or Albanian) soldiers in the service
+of Khosrev tumultuously demanded their pay, and surrounded the house of
+the defterdar (or finance minister), who in vain appealed to the pasha
+to satisfy their claims. The latter opened fire from the artillery of
+his palace on the insurgent soldiery in the house of the defterdar,
+across the Ezbekia. The citizens of Cairo, accustomed to such
+occurrences, immediately closed their shops, and every man who possessed
+any weapon armed himself. The tumult continued all the day, and the next
+morning a body of troops sent out by the pasha failed to quell it.
+Tahir, the commander of the Albanians, then repaired to the citadel,
+gained admittance through an embrasure, and, having obtained possession
+of it, began to cannonade the pasha over the roofs of the intervening
+houses, and then descended with guns to the Ezbekia and laid close siege
+to the palace. On the following day Mahommed Khosrev made good his
+escape, with his women and servants and his regular troops, and fled to
+Damietta by the river. This revolt marks the beginning in Egypt of the
+breach between the Albanians and Turks, which ultimately led to the
+expulsion of the latter, and of the rise to power of the Albanian
+Mehemet Ali (q.v.), who was destined to rule the country for nearly
+forty years and be the cause of serious European complications.
+
+
+  First appearance of Mehemet Ali.
+
+Tahir Pasha assumed the government, but in twenty-three days he met with
+his death from exactly the same cause as that of the overthrow of his
+predecessor. He refused the pay of certain of the Turkish troops, and
+was immediately assassinated. A desperate conflict ensued between the
+Albanians and Turks; and the palace was set on fire and plundered. The
+masters of Egypt were now split into these two factions, animated with
+the fiercest animosity against each other. Mehemet Ali, then in command
+of an Albanian regiment, became the head of the former, but his party
+was the weaker, and he therefore entered into an alliance with the
+Mameluke leaders Ibrahim Bey and 'Osman Bey al-Bardisi. A certain Ahmed
+Pasha, who was about to proceed to a province in Arabia, of which he had
+been appointed governor, was raised to the important post of pasha of
+Egypt, through the influence of the Turks and the favour of the sheiks;
+but Mehemet Ali, who with his Albanians held the citadel, refused to
+assent to their choice; the Mamelukes moved over from El-Giza, whither
+they had been invited by Tahir Pasha, and Ahmed Pasha betook himself to
+the mosque of al-Zahir, which the French had converted into a fortress.
+He was compelled to surrender by the Albanians; the two chiefs of the
+Turks who killed Tahir Pasha were taken with him and put to death, and
+he himself was detained a prisoner. In consequence of the alliance
+between Mehemet Ali and al-Bardisi, the Albanians gave the citadel over
+to the Mamelukes; and soon after, these allies marched against Khosrev
+Pasha, who having been joined by a considerable body of Turks, and being
+in possession of Damietta, was enabled to offer an obstinate resistance.
+After much loss on both sides, he was taken prisoner and brought to
+Cairo; but he was treated with respect. The victorious soldiery sacked
+the town of Damietta, and were guilty of the barbarities usual with them
+on such occasions.
+
+
+  The Mamelukes and Ali Pasha.
+
+A few days later, Ali Pasha Jazairli landed at Alexandria with an
+imperial firman constituting him pasha of Egypt, and threatened the
+beys, who now were virtual masters of Upper Egypt, as well as of the
+capital and nearly the whole of Lower Egypt. Mehemet Ali and al-Bardisi
+therefore descended to Rosetta, which had fallen into the hands of a
+brother of Ali Pasha, and having captured the town and its commander,
+al-Bardisi purposed to proceed against Alexandria; but the troops
+demanded arrears of pay which it was not in his power to give, and the
+pasha had cut the dyke between the lakes of Aboukir and Mareotis, thus
+rendering the approach to Alexandria more difficult. Al-Bardisi and
+Mehemet Ali therefore returned to Cairo. The troubles of Egypt were now
+increased by an insufficient inundation, and great scarcity prevailed,
+aggravated by the taxation to which the beys were compelled to resort in
+order to pay the troops; while murder and rapine prevailed in the
+capital, the riotous soldiery being under little or no control.
+Meanwhile, Ali Pasha, who had been behaving with violence towards the
+Franks in Alexandria, received a _hatt-i-sherif_ from the sultan, which
+he sent by his secretary to Cairo. It announced that the beys should
+live peaceably in Egypt, with an annual pension each of fifteen purses
+(a "purse" = 500 piastres) and other privileges, but that the government
+should be in the hands of the pasha. To this the beys assented, but with
+considerable misgivings; for they had intercepted letters from Ali to
+the Albanians, endeavouring to alienate them from their side to his own.
+Deceptive answers were returned to these, and Ali was induced by them to
+advance towards Cairo at the head of 3000 men. The forces of the beys,
+with the Albanians, encamped near him at Shalakan, and he fell back on a
+place called Zufeyta. They next seized his boats conveying soldiers,
+servants, and his ammunition and baggage; and, following him, they
+demanded wherefore he brought with him so numerous a body of men, in
+opposition to usage and to their previous warning. Finding they would
+not allow his troops to advance, forbidden himself to retreat with them
+to Alexandria, and being surrounded by the enemy, he would have hazarded
+a battle, but his men refused to fight. He therefore went to the camp of
+the beys, and his army was compelled to retire to Syria. In the hands of
+the beys Ali Pasha again attempted treachery. A horseman was seen to
+leave his tent one night at full gallop; he was the bearer of a letter
+to Osman Bey Hasan, the governor of Kine. This offered a fair pretext to
+the Mamelukes to rid themselves of a man proved to be a perfidious
+tyrant. He was sent under a guard of forty-five men towards the Syrian
+frontier; and about a week after, news was received that in a skirmish
+with some of his own soldiers he had fallen mortally wounded.
+
+The death of Ali Pasha produced only temporary tranquillity; in a few
+days (February 12, 1804) the return of Mahommed Bey al-Alfi (called the
+Great) from England was the signal for fresh disturbances, which, by
+splitting the Mamelukes into two parties, accelerated their final
+overthrow. An ancient jealousy existed between al-Alfi and the other
+most powerful bey, al-Bardisi. The latter was now supreme among the
+Mamelukes, and this fact considerably heightened their old enmity. While
+the guns of the citadel, those at Old Cairo, and even those of the
+palace of al-Bardisi, were thrice fired in honour of al-Alfi,
+preparations were immediately begun to oppose him. His partisans were
+collected opposite Cairo, and al-Alfi the Less held Giza; but treachery
+was among them; Husain Bey (a relative of al-Alfi) was assassinated by
+emissaries of al-Bardisi, and Mehemet Ali, with his Albanians, gained
+possession of Giza, which was, as usual, given over to the troops to
+pillage. In the meanwhile al-Alfi the Great embarked at Rosetta, and not
+apprehending opposition, was on his way to Cairo, when a little south of
+the town of Manuf he encountered a party of Albanians, and with
+difficulty made his escape. He gained the eastern branch of the Nile,
+but the river had become dangerous, and he fled to the desert. There he
+had several hairbreadth escapes, and at last secreted himself among a
+tribe of Arabs at Ras al-Wadi. A change in the fortune of al-Bardisi,
+however, favoured his plans for the future. That chief, in order to
+satisfy the demands of the Albanians for their pay, gave orders to levy
+heavy contributions from the citizens of Cairo; and this new oppression
+roused them to rebellion. The Albanians, alarmed for their safety,
+assured the populace that they would not allow the order to be executed;
+and Mehemet Ali himself caused a proclamation to be made to that effect.
+Thus the Albanians became the favourites of the people, and took
+advantage of their opportunity. Three days later (March 12th, 1804) they
+beset the house of the aged Ibrahim Bey, and that of al-Bardisi, both of
+whom effected their escape with difficulty. The Mamelukes in the citadel
+directed a fire of shot and shell on the houses of the Albanians which
+were situated in the Ezbekia; but, on hearing of the flight of their
+chiefs, they evacuated the place; and Mehemet Ali, on gaining possession
+of it, once more proclaimed Mahommed Khosrev pasha of Egypt. For one day
+and a half he enjoyed the title; the friends of the late Tahir Pasha
+then accomplished his second degradation,[22] and Cairo was again the
+scene of terrible enormities, the Albanians revelling in the houses of
+the Mameluke chiefs, whose hareems met with no mercy at their hands.
+These events were the signal for the reappearance of al-Alfi.
+
+The Albanians now invited Ahmed Pasha Khorshid to assume the reins of
+government, and he without delay proceeded from Alexandria to Cairo. The
+forces of the partisans of al-Bardisi were ravaging the country a few
+miles south of the capital and intercepting the supplies of corn by the
+river; a little later they passed to the north of Cairo and successively
+took Bilbeis and Kalyub, plundering the villages, destroying the crops,
+and slaughtering the herds of the inhabitants. Cairo was itself in a
+state of tumult, suffering severely from a scarcity of grain, and the
+heavy exactions of the pasha to meet the demands of his turbulent
+troops, at that time augmented by a Turkish detachment. The shops were
+closed, and the unfortunate people assembled in great crowds, crying "Ya
+Latif! Ya Latif!" ("O Gracious [God]!") Al-Alfi and Osman Bey Hasan had
+professed allegiance to the pasha; but they soon after declared against
+him, and they were now approaching from the south; and having repulsed
+Mehemet Ali, they took the two fortresses of Tura. These Mehemet Ali
+speedily retook by night with 4000 infantry and cavalry; but the
+enterprise was only partially successful. On the following day the other
+Mamelukes north of the metropolis actually penetrated into the suburbs;
+but a few days later were defeated in a battle fought at Shubra, with
+heavy loss on both sides. This reverse in a measure united the two great
+Mameluke parties, though their chiefs remained at enmity. Al-Bardisi
+passed to the south of Cairo, and the Mamelukes gradually retreated
+towards Upper Egypt. Thither the pasha despatched three successive
+expeditions (one of which was commanded by Mehemet Ali), and many
+battles were fought, but without decisive result.
+
+At this period another calamity befell Egypt; about 3000 Delis (Kurdish
+troops) arrived in Cairo from Syria. These troops had been sent for by
+Khorshid in order to strengthen himself against the Albanians; and the
+events of this portion of the history afford sad proof of their ferocity
+and brutal enormities, in which they far exceeded the ordinary Turkish
+soldiers and even the Albanians. Their arrival immediately recalled
+Mehemet Ali and his party from the war, and instead of aiding Khorshid
+was the proximate cause of his overthrow.
+
+Cairo was ripe for revolt; the pasha was hated for his tyranny and
+extortion, and execrated for the deeds of his troops, especially those
+of the Delis: the sheiks enjoined the people to close their shops, and
+the soldiers clamoured for pay. At this juncture a firman arrived from
+Constantinople conferring on Mehemet Ali the pashalic of Jedda; but the
+occurrences of a few days raised him to that of Egypt.
+
+
+  Struggle between Khorshid and Mehemet Ali.
+
+On the 12th of Safar 1220 (May 12th, 1805) the sheiks, with an immense
+concourse of the inhabitants, assembled in the house of the kadi; and
+the ulema, amid the prayers and cries of the people, wrote a full
+statement of the heavy wrongs which they had endured under the
+administration of the pasha. The ulema, in answer, were desired to go to
+the citadel; but they were apprised of treachery; and on the following
+day, having held another council at the house of the kadi, they
+proceeded to Mehemet Ali and informed him that the people would no
+longer submit to Khorshid. "Then whom will ye have?" said he. "We will
+have _thee_," they replied, "to govern us according to the laws; for we
+see in thy countenance that thou art possessed of justice and goodness."
+Mehemet Ali seemed to hesitate, and then complied, and was at once
+invested. On this, a bloody struggle began between the two pashas.
+Khorshid, being informed of the insurrection, immediately prepared to
+stand a siege in the citadel. Two chiefs of the Albanians joined his
+party, but many of his soldiers deserted. Mehemet Ali's great strength
+lay in the devotion of the citizens of Cairo, who looked on him as a
+deliverer from their afflictions; and great numbers armed themselves,
+advising constantly with Mehemet Ali, having the sayyid Omar and the
+sheiks at their head, and guarding the town at night. On the 19th of the
+same month Mehemet Ali began to besiege Khorshid. After the siege had
+continued many days, Khorshid gave orders to cannonade and bombard the
+town; and for six days his commands were executed with little
+interruption, the citadel itself also lying between two fires. Mehemet
+Ali's position at this time was very critical: his troops became
+mutinous for their pay; the silahdar, who had commanded one of the
+expeditions against the Mamelukes, advanced to the relief of Khorshid;
+and the latter ordered the Delis to march to his assistance. The firing
+ceased on the Friday, but began again on the eve of Saturday and lasted
+until the next Friday. On the day following (May 28th) news came of the
+arrival at Alexandria of a messenger from Constantinople. The ensuing
+night in Cairo presented a curious spectacle; many of the inhabitants,
+believing that this envoy would put an end to their miseries, fired off
+their weapons as they paraded the streets with bands of music. The
+silahdar, imagining the noise to be a fray, marched in haste towards the
+citadel, while its garrison sallied forth and began throwing up
+entrenchments in the quarter of Arab al-Yesar, but were repulsed by the
+armed inhabitants and the soldiers stationed there; and during all this
+time the cannonade and bombardment from the citadel, and on it from the
+batteries on the hill, continued unabated.
+
+
+  Mehemet Ali granted the pashalic.
+
+The envoy brought a firman confirming Mehemet Ali and ordering Khorshid
+to go to Alexandria, there to await further orders; but this he refused
+to do, on the ground that he had been appointed by a _hatt-i-sherif_.
+The firing ceased on the following day, but the troubles of the people
+were rather increased than assuaged; murders and robberies were daily
+committed by the soldiery, the shops were all shut and some of the
+streets barricaded. While these scenes were being enacted, al-Alfi was
+besieging Damanhur, and the other beys were returning towards Cairo,
+Khorshid having called them to his assistance; but Mehemet Ali forced
+them to retreat.
+
+Soon after this, a squadron under the command of the Turkish high
+admiral arrived at Aboukir Bay, with despatches confirming the firman
+brought by the former envoy, and authorizing Mehemet Ali to continue to
+discharge the functions of governor. Khorshid at first refused to yield;
+but at length, on condition that his troops should be paid, he evacuated
+the citadel and embarked for Rosetta.
+
+
+  First massacre of the Mamelukes.
+
+Mehemet Ali now possessed the title of Governor of Egypt, but beyond the
+walls of Cairo his authority was everywhere disputed by the beys, who
+were joined by the army of the silahdar of Khorshid; and many Albanians
+deserted from his ranks. To replenish his empty coffers he was also
+compelled to levy exactions, principally from the Copts. An attempt was
+made to ensnare certain of the beys, who were encamped north of Cairo.
+On the 17th of August 1805 the dam of the canal of Cairo was to be cut,
+and some chiefs of Mehemet Ali's party wrote, informing them that he
+would go forth early on that morning with most of his troops to witness
+the ceremony, inviting them to enter and seize the city, and, to deceive
+them, stipulating for a certain sum of money as a reward. The dam,
+however, was cut early in the preceding night, without any ceremony. On
+the following morning, these beys, with their Mamelukes, a very numerous
+body, broke open the gate of the suburb al-Husainia, and gained
+admittance into the city from the north, through the gate called Bab
+el-Futuh. They marched along the principal street for some distance,
+with kettle-drums behind each company, and were received with apparent
+joy by the citizens. At the mosque called the Ashrafia they separated,
+one party proceeding to the Azhar and the houses of certain sheiks, and
+the other continuing along the main street, and through the gate called
+Bab Zuwela, where they turned up towards the citadel. Here they were
+fired on by some soldiers from the houses; and with this signal a
+terrible massacre began. Falling back towards their companions, they
+found the bye-streets closed; and in that part of the main thoroughfare
+called Bain al-Kasrain they were suddenly placed between two fires. Thus
+shut up in a narrow street, some sought refuge in the collegiate mosque
+Barkukia, while the remainder fought their way through their enemies and
+escaped over the city-wall with the loss of their horses. Two Mamelukes
+had in the meantime succeeded, by great exertions, in giving the alarm
+to their comrades in the quarter of the Azhar, who escaped by the
+eastern gate called Bab al-Ghoraib. A horrible fate awaited those who
+had shut themselves up in the Barkukia. Having begged for quarter and
+surrendered, they were immediately stripped nearly naked, and about
+fifty were slaughtered on the spot; and about the same number were
+dragged away, with every brutal aggravation of their pitiful condition,
+to Mehemet Ali. Among them were four beys, one of whom, driven to
+madness by Mehemet Ali's mockery, asked for a drink of water; his hands
+were untied that he might take the bottle, but he snatched a dagger from
+one of the soldiers, rushed at the pasha, and fell covered with wounds.
+The wretched captives were then chained and left in the court of the
+pasha's house; and on the following morning the heads of their comrades
+who had perished the day before were skinned and stuffed with straw
+before their eyes. One bey and two others paid their ransom and were
+released; the rest, without exception, were tortured and put to death in
+the course of the ensuing night. Eighty-three heads (many of them those
+of Frenchmen and Albanians) were stuffed and sent to Constantinople,
+with a boast that the Mameluke chiefs were utterly destroyed. Thus ended
+Mehemet Ali's first massacre of his too confiding enemies.
+
+The beys, after this, appear to have despaired of regaining their
+ascendancy; most of them retreated to Upper Egypt, and an attempt at
+compromise failed. Al-Alfi offered his submission on the condition of
+the cession of the Fayum and other provinces; but this was refused, and
+that chief gained two successive victories over the pasha's troops, many
+of whom deserted to him.
+
+At length, in consequence of the remonstrances of the English, and a
+promise made by al-Alfi of 1500 purses, the Porte consented to reinstate
+the twenty-four beys and to place al-Alfi at their head; but this
+measure met with the opposition of Mehemet Ali and the determined
+resistance of the majority of the Mamelukes, who, rather than have
+al-Alfi at their head, preferred their present condition; for the enmity
+of al-Bardisi had not subsided, and he commanded the voice of most of
+the other beys. In pursuance of the above plan, a squadron under Salih
+Pasha, shortly before appointed high admiral, arrived at Alexandria on
+the 1st of July 1806 with 3000 regular troops and a successor to Mehemet
+Ali, who was to receive the pashalik of Salonica. This wily chief
+professed his willingness to obey the commands of the Porte, but stated
+that his troops, to whom he owed a vast sum of money, opposed his
+departure. He induced the ulema to sign a letter, praying the sultan to
+revoke the command for reinstating the beys, persuaded the chiefs of the
+Albanian troops to swear allegiance to him, and sent 2000 purses
+contributed by them to Constantinople. Al-Alfi was at that time
+besieging Damanhur, and he gained a signal victory over the pasha's
+troops; but the dissensions of the beys destroyed their last chance of a
+return to power. Al-Alfi and his partisans were unable to pay the sum
+promised to the Porte; Salih Pasha received plenipotentiary powers from
+Constantinople, in consequence of the letter from the ulema; and, on the
+condition of Mehemet Ali's paying 4000 purses to the Porte, it was
+decided that he should continue in his post, and the reinstatement of
+the beys was abandoned. Fortune continued to favour the pasha. In the
+following month al-Bardisi died, aged forty-eight years; and soon after,
+a scarcity of provisions excited the troops of al-Alfi to revolt. That
+bey very reluctantly raised the siege of Damanhur, being in daily
+expectation of the arrival of an English army; and at the village of
+Shubra-ment he was attacked by a sudden illness, and died on the 30th of
+January 1807, at the age of fifty-five. Thus was the pasha relieved of
+his two most formidable enemies; and shortly after he defeated Shahin
+Bey, with the loss to the latter of his artillery and baggage and 300
+men killed or taken prisoners.
+
+
+  The British expedition of 1807.
+
+On the 17th of March 1807 a British fleet appeared off Alexandria,
+having on board nearly 5000 troops, under the command of General A.
+Mackenzie Fraser; and the place, being disaffected towards Mehemet Ali,
+opened its gates to them. Here they first heard of the death of al-Alfi,
+upon whose co-operation they had founded their chief hopes of success;
+and they immediately despatched messengers to his successor and to the
+other beys, inviting them to Alexandria. The British resident, Major
+Missett, having represented the importance of taking Rosetta and
+Rahmanieh, to secure supplies for Alexandria, General Fraser, with the
+concurrence of the admiral, Sir John Duckworth, detached the 31st
+regiment and the Chasseurs Britanniques, accompanied by some field
+artillery under Major-General Wauchope and Brigadier-General Meade, on
+this service; and these troops entered Rosetta without encountering any
+opposition; but as soon as they had dispersed among the narrow streets,
+the garrison opened a deadly fire on them from the latticed windows and
+the roofs of the houses. They effected a retreat on Aboukir and
+Alexandria, after a very heavy loss of 185 killed and 281 wounded,
+General Wauchope and three officers being among the former, and General
+Meade and nineteen officers among the latter. The heads of the slain
+were fixed on stakes on each side of the road crossing the Ezbekia in
+Cairo.
+
+Mehemet Ali, meanwhile, was conducting an expedition against the beys in
+Upper Egypt, and he had defeated them near Assiut, when he heard of the
+arrival of the British. In great alarm lest the beys should join them,
+especially as they were far north of his position, he immediately sent
+messengers to his rivals, promising to comply with all their demands if
+they should join in expelling the invaders; and this proposal being
+agreed to, both armies marched towards Cairo on opposite sides of the
+river.
+
+To return to the unfortunate British expedition. The possession of
+Rosetta being deemed indispensable, Brigadier-Generals Sir William
+Stewart and Oswald were despatched thither with 2500 men. For thirteen
+days a cannonade of the town was continued without effect; and on the
+20th of April, news having come in from the advanced guard at Hamad of
+large reinforcements to the besieged, General Stewart was compelled to
+retreat; and a dragoon was despatched to Lieutenant-colonel Macleod,
+commanding at Hamad, with orders to fall back. The messenger, however,
+was unable to penetrate to the spot; and the advanced guard, consisting
+of a detachment of the 31st, two companies of the 78th, one of the 35th,
+and De Roll's regiment, with a picquet of dragoons, the whole mustering
+733 men, was surrounded, and, after a gallant resistance, the survivors,
+who had expended all their ammunition, became prisoners of war. General
+Stewart regained Alexandria with the remainder of his force, having
+lost, in killed, wounded and missing, nearly 900 men. Some hundreds of
+British heads were now exposed on stakes in Cairo, and the prisoners
+were marched between these mutilated remains of their countrymen.
+
+
+  Final massacre of the Mamelukes.
+
+The beys became divided in their wishes, one party being desirous of
+co-operating with the British, the other with the pasha. These delays
+proved ruinous to their cause; and General Fraser, despairing of their
+assistance, evacuated Alexandria on the 14th of September. From that
+date to the spring of 1811 the beys from time to time relinquished
+certain of their demands; the pasha on his part granted them what before
+had been withheld; the province of the Fayum, and part of those of Giza
+and Beni-Suef, were ceded to Shahin; and a great portion of the Sa'id,
+on the condition of paying the land-tax, to the others. Many of them
+took up their abode in Cairo, but tranquillity was not secured; several
+times they met the pasha's forces in battle and once gained a signal
+victory. Early in the year 1811, the preparations for an expedition
+against the Wahhabis in Arabia being complete, all the Mameluke beys
+then in Cairo were invited to the ceremony of investing Mehemet Ali's
+favourite son, Tusun, with a pelisse and the command of the army. As on
+the former occasion, the unfortunate Mamelukes fell into the snare. On
+the 1st of March, Shahin Bey and the other chiefs (one only excepted)
+repaired with their retinues to the citadel, and were courteously
+received by the pasha. Having taken coffee, they formed in procession,
+and, preceded and followed by the pasha's troops, slowly descended the
+steep and narrow road leading to the great gate of the citadel; but as
+soon as the Mamelukes arrived at the gate it was suddenly closed before
+them. The last of those to leave before the gate was shut were Albanians
+under Salih Kush. To these troops their chief now made known the pasha's
+orders to massacre all the Mamelukes within the citadel; therefore,
+having returned by another way, they gained the summits of the walls and
+houses that hem in the road in which the Mamelukes were confined, and
+some stationed themselves upon the eminences of the rock through which
+that road is partly cut. Thus securely placed, they began a heavy fire
+on their victims; and immediately the troops who closed the procession,
+and who had the advantage of higher ground, followed their example. Of
+the betrayed chiefs, many were laid low in a few moments; some,
+dismounting, and throwing off their outer robes, vainly sought, sword in
+hand, to return, and escape by some other gate. The few who regained the
+summit of the citadel experienced the same fate as the rest, for no
+quarter was given. Four hundred and seventy Mamelukes entered the
+citadel; and of these very few, if any, escaped. One of these is said to
+have been a bey. According to some, he leapt his horse from the
+ramparts, and alighted uninjured, though the horse was killed by the
+fall; others say that he was prevented from joining his comrades, and
+discovered the treachery while waiting without the gate. He fled and
+made his way to Syria. This massacre was the signal for an
+indiscriminate slaughter of the Mamelukes throughout Egypt, orders to
+this effect being transmitted to every governor; and in Cairo itself the
+houses of the beys were given over to the soldiery. During the two
+following days the pasha and his son Tusun rode about the streets and
+tried to stop the atrocities; but order was not restored until 500
+houses had been completely pillaged. The heads of the beys were sent to
+Constantinople.
+
+A remnant of the Mamelukes fled to Nubia, and a tranquillity was
+restored to Egypt to which it had long been unaccustomed. In the year
+following the massacre the unfortunate exiles were attacked by Ibrahim
+Pasha, the eldest son of Mehemet Ali, in the fortified town of Ibrim, in
+Nubia. Here the want of provisions forced them to evacuate the place; a
+few who surrendered were beheaded, and the rest went farther south and
+built the town of New Dongola (correctly Dunkulah), where the venerable
+Ibrahim Bey died in 1816, at the age of eighty. As their numbers
+thinned, they endeavoured to maintain their little power by training
+some hundreds of blacks; but again, on the approach of Ismail, another
+son of the pasha of Egypt, sent with an army in 1820 to subdue Nubia and
+Sennar, some returned to Egypt and settled in Cairo, while the rest,
+amounting to about 100 persons, fled in dispersed parties to the
+countries adjacent to Sennar.
+
+  See A. A Paton, _History of the Egyptian Revolution_ (2 vols., 2nd
+  ed., enlarged 1870); and FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS.
+       (E. S. P.; S. L.-P.; D. S. M.*)
+
+
+3. _Modern History._
+
+  Wars in Arabia.
+
+(1) _Rule of Mehemet Ali._--Mehemet Ali was now undisputed master of
+Egypt, and his efforts henceforth were directed primarily to the
+maintenance of his practical independence. The suzerainty of the sultan
+he acknowledged, and at the reiterated commands of the Porte he
+despatched in 1811 an army of 8000 men, including 2000 horse, under the
+command of his son Tusun, a youth of sixteen, against the Wahhabis
+(q.v.). After a successful advance, this force met with a serious
+repulse at the pass of Jedeida, near Safra, and retreated to Yembo'
+(Yambu). In the following year Tusun, having received reinforcements,
+again assumed the offensive, and captured Medina after a prolonged
+siege. He next took Jidda and Mecca, defeating the Wahhabis beyond the
+latter place and capturing their general. But some mishaps followed, and
+Mehemet Ali, who had determined to conduct the war in person, left Egypt
+for that purpose in the summer of 1813. In Arabia he encountered serious
+obstacles from the nature of the country and the harassing mode of
+warfare adopted by his adversaries. His arms met with various fortunes;
+but on the whole his forces proved superior to those of the enemy. He
+deposed and exiled the sharif of Mecca, and after the death of the
+Wahhabi leader Saud II. he concluded in 1815 a treaty with Saud's son
+and successor, Abdullah. Hearing of the escape of Napoleon from
+Elba--and fearing danger to Egypt from the plans of France or Great
+Britain--Mehemet Ali returned to Cairo by way of Kosseir and Kena. He
+reached the capital on the day of the battle of Waterloo. His return was
+hastened by reports that the Turks, whose cause he was upholding in
+Arabia, were treacherously planning an invasion of Egypt.
+
+During Mehemet Ali's absence in Arabia his representative at Cairo had
+completed the confiscation, begun in 1808, of almost all the lands
+belonging to private individuals, who were forced to accept instead
+inadequate pensions. By this revolutionary method of land
+"nationalization" Mehemet Ali became proprietor of nearly all the soil
+of Egypt, an iniquitous measure against which the Egyptians had no
+remedy. The attempt which in this year (1815) the pasha made to
+reorganize his troops on European lines led, however, to a formidable
+mutiny in Cairo. Mehemet Ali's life was endangered, and he sought refuge
+by night in the citadel, while the soldiery committed many acts of
+plunder. The revolt was reduced by presents to the chiefs of the
+insurgents, and Mehemet Ali ordered that the sufferers by the
+disturbances should receive compensation from the treasury. The project
+of the _Nizam Gedid_ (New System), as the European system was called,
+was, in consequence of this mutiny, abandoned for a time.
+
+Tusun returned to Egypt on hearing of the military revolt at Cairo, but
+died in 1816 at the early age of twenty. Mehemet Ali, dissatisfied with
+the treaty concluded with the Wahhabis, and with the non-fulfilment of
+certain of its clauses, determined to send another army to Arabia, and
+to include in it the soldiers who had recently proved unruly. This
+expedition, under his eldest son Ibrahim Pasha, left in the autumn of
+1816. The war was long and arduous, but in 1818 Ibrahim captured the
+Wahhabi capital of Deraiya. Abdullah, their chief, was made prisoner,
+and with his treasurer and secretary was sent to Constantinople, where,
+in spite of Ibrahim's promise of safety, and of Mehemet Ali's
+intercession in their favour, they were put to death. At the close of
+the year 1819, Ibrahim returned to Cairo, having subdued all present
+opposition in Arabia.
+
+Meanwhile the pasha had turned his attention to the improvement of the
+manufactures of Egypt, and engaged very largely in commerce. He created
+for himself a monopoly in the chief products of the country, to the
+further impoverishment of the people, and set up and kept going for
+years factories which never paid. But some of his projects were sound.
+The work of digging (1819-1820) the new canal of Alexandria, called the
+Mahmudiya (after the reigning sultan of Turkey), was specially
+important. The old canal had long fallen into decay, and the necessity
+of a safe channel between Alexandria and the Nile was much felt. Such
+was the object of the canal then excavated, and it answered its purpose;
+but the sacrifice of life was enormous (fully 20,000 workmen perished),
+and the labour of the unhappy fellahin was forced. Another notable fact
+in the economic progress of the country was the development of the
+cultivation of cotton in the Delta in 1822 and onwards. The cotton grown
+had been brought from the Sudan by Maho Bey, and the organization of the
+new industry--from which in a few years Mehemet Ali was enabled to
+extract considerable revenues--was entrusted to a Frenchman named Jumel.
+
+
+  Conquest of the Sudan begun.
+
+In 1820 Mehemet Ali ordered the conquest of the eastern Sudan to be
+undertaken. He first sent an expedition westward (Feb. 1820) which
+conquered and annexed the oasis of Siwa. Among the pasha's reasons for
+wishing to extend his rule southward were the desire to capture the
+valuable caravan trade then going towards the Red Sea, and to secure the
+rich gold mines which he believed to exist in Sennar. He also saw in the
+campaign a means of getting rid of the disaffected troops, and of
+obtaining a sufficient number of captives to form the nucleus of the new
+army. The forces destined for this service were led by Ismail, then the
+youngest son of Mehemet Ali; they consisted of between 4000 and 5000
+men, Turks and Arabs, and left Cairo in July 1820. Nubia at once
+submitted, the Shagia Arabs immediately beyond the province of Dongola
+were worsted, the remnant of the Mamelukes dispersed, and Sennar reduced
+without a battle. Mahommed Bey, the defterdar, with another force of
+about the same strength, was then sent by Mehemet Ali against Kordofan
+with a like result, but not without a hard-fought engagement. In October
+1822 Ismail was, with his retinue, burnt to death by Nimr, the _mek_
+(king) of Shendi; and the defterdar, a man infamous for his cruelty,
+assumed the command of those provinces, and exacted terrible retribution
+from the innocent inhabitants. Khartum was founded at this time, and in
+the following years the rule of the Egyptians was largely extended and
+control obtained of the Red Sea ports of Suakin and Massawa (see SUDAN:
+_History_).
+
+In 1824 a native rebellion of a religious character broke out in Upper
+Egypt headed by one Ahmad, an inhabitant of Es-Salimiya, a village
+situated a few miles above Thebes. He proclaimed himself a prophet, and
+was soon followed by between 20,000 and 30,000 insurgents, mostly
+peasants, but some of them deserters from the "Nizam Gedid," for that
+force was yet in a half-organized state, and in part declared for the
+impostor. The insurrection was crushed by Mehemet Ali, and about
+one-fourth of Ahmad's followers perished, but he himself escaped and was
+never after heard of. Few of these unfortunates possessed any other
+weapon than the long staff (_nebbut_) of the Egyptian peasant; still
+they offered an obstinate resistance, and the combat in which they were
+defeated resembled a massacre. This movement was the last internal
+attempt to destroy the pasha's authority.
+
+
+  Sufferings of the fellahin.
+
+The fellahin, a patient, long-suffering race save when stirred by
+religious fanaticism, submitted to the kurbash, freely used by the
+Turkish and Bashi Bazuk tax-gatherers employed by Mehemet Ali to enforce
+his system of taxation, monopolies, corvee and conscription. Under this
+regime the resources of the country were impoverished, while the
+finances fell into complete and incomprehensible chaos.
+
+A vivid picture of the condition to which Egypt was reduced is painted
+in the report drawn up in 1838 by the British consul-general, Colonel
+Campbell:--
+
+  "The government (he wrote), possessing itself of the necessaries of
+  life at prices fixed by itself, disposes of them at arbitrary prices.
+  The fellah is thus deprived of his harvest and falls into arrears with
+  his taxes, and is harassed and bastinadoed to force him to pay his
+  debts. This leads to deterioration of agriculture and lessens the
+  production. The pasha having imposed high taxes has caused the high
+  prices of the necessaries of life. It would be difficult for a
+  foreigner now coming to Egypt to form a just idea of the actual state
+  of the country as compared with its former state. In regard to the
+  general rise in prices, all the ground cultivated under the Mamelukes
+  was employed for producing food--wheat, barley, beans, &c.--in immense
+  quantities. The people reared fowls, sheep, goats, &c., and the prices
+  were one-sixth, or even one-tenth, of those at present. This continued
+  until Mehemet Ali became viceroy in 1805. From that period until the
+  establishment of monopolies prices have gradually increased; but the
+  great increase has chiefly taken place since 1824, when the pasha
+  established his regular army, navy and factories."
+
+The conclusion in 1838 of a commercial treaty with Turkey, negotiated by
+Sir Henry Bulwer (Lord Dalling), struck a death-blow to the system of
+monopolies, though the application of the treaty to Egypt was delayed
+for some years. The picture of Egypt under Mehemet Ali is nevertheless
+not complete without regard being had to the beneficent side of his
+rule. Public order was rendered perfect; the Nile and the highways were
+secure to all travellers, Christian or Moslem; the Bedouin tribes were
+won over to peaceful pursuits, and genuine efforts were made to promote
+education and the study of medicine. To European merchants, on whom he
+was dependent for the sale of his exports, Mehemet Ali showed much
+favour, and under his influence the port of Alexandria again rose into
+importance. It was also under Mehemet Ali's encouragement that the
+overland transit of goods from Europe to India via Egypt was resumed.
+
+
+  Ibrahim in the Morea.
+
+Mehemet Ali was fully conscious that the empire which he had so
+laboriously built up might at any time have to be defended by force of
+arms against his master Sultan Mahmud II., whose whole policy had been
+directed to curbing the power of his too ambitious valis, and who was
+under the influence of the personal enemies of the pasha of Egypt,
+notably of Khosrev, the grand vizier, who had never forgiven his
+humiliation in Egypt in 1803. Mahmud also was already planning reforms
+borrowed from the West, and Mehemet Ali, who had had plenty of
+opportunity of observing the superiority of European methods of warfare,
+was determined to anticipate the sultan in the creation of a fleet and
+an army on modern lines, partly as a measure of precaution, partly as an
+instrument for the realization of yet wider schemes of ambition. Before
+the outbreak of the War of Greek Independence in 1821 he had already
+expended much time and energy in organizing a fleet and in training,
+under the supervision of French instructors, native officers and
+artificers; though it was not till 1829 that the opening of a dockyard
+and arsenal at Alexandria enabled him to build and equip his own
+vessels. By 1823, moreover, he had succeeded in carrying out the
+reorganization of his army on European lines, the turbulent Turkish and
+Albanian elements being replaced by negroes and fellahin.[23] His
+foresight was rewarded by the invitation of the sultan to help him in
+the task of subduing the Greek insurgents, offering as reward the
+pashaliks of the Morea and of Syria. Mehemet Ali had already, in 1821,
+been appointed governor of Crete, which he had occupied with a small
+Egyptian force. In the autumn of 1824 a fleet of sixty Egyptian
+war-ships carrying a large force of disciplined troops concentrated in
+Suda Bay, and, in the following March, Ibrahim as commander-in-chief
+landed in the Morea. But for the action of European powers the
+intervention of Mehemet Ali would have been decisive. His naval
+superiority wrested from the Greeks the command of the sea, on which the
+fate of the insurrection ultimately depended, while on land the Greek
+irregular bands were everywhere routed by Ibrahim's disciplined troops.
+The history of the events that led up to the battle of Navarino and the
+liberation of Greece is told elsewhere (see NAVARINO and GREEK
+INDEPENDENCE, WAR OF); the withdrawal of the Egyptians from the Morea
+was ultimately due to the action of Admiral Sir Edward Codrington, who
+early in August 1828 appeared before Alexandria and induced the pasha,
+by no means sorry to have a reasonable excuse, by a threat of
+bombardment, to sign a convention undertaking to recall Ibrahim and his
+army.
+
+
+  The Syrian campaigns.
+
+Before the final establishment of the new kingdom of Greece, the Eastern
+question had late in 1831 entered into a new and more perilous phase,
+owing to the revolt of Mehemet Ali against the sultan on pretext of
+chastising the ex-slave Abdullah, pasha of Acre, for refusing to send
+back Egyptian fugitives from the effects of Mehemet Ali's "reforms." The
+true reason was the refusal of Sultan Mahmud to hand over Syria
+according to agreement, and Mehemet Ali's determination to obtain at all
+hazards what had been from time immemorial an object of ambition to the
+rulers of Egypt. For ten years from this date the relations of sultan
+and pasha remained in the forefront of the questions which agitated the
+diplomatic world. It was not only the very existence of the Ottoman
+empire that seemed to be at stake, but Egypt itself had become more than
+ever an object of attention, to British statesmen especially, and in the
+issue of the struggle were involved the interests of Great Britain in
+the two routes to India by the Isthmus of Suez and the valley of the
+Euphrates. The diplomatic and military history of this period will be
+found sketched in the article on Mehemet Ali. Here it will suffice to
+say that the victorious career of Ibrahim, who once more commanded in
+his father's name, beginning with the storming of Acre on the 27th of
+May 1832, and culminating in the rout and capture of Reshid Pasha at
+Konia on the 21st of December, was arrested by the intervention of
+Russia. As the result of endless discussions between the representatives
+of the powers, the Porte and the pasha, the convention of Kutaya was
+signed on the 14th of May 1833, by which the sultan agreed to bestow on
+Mehemet Ali the pashaliks of Syria, Damascus, Aleppo and Itcheli,
+together with the district of Adana. The announcement of the pasha's
+appointment had already been made in the usual way in the annual firman
+issued on the 3rd of May. Adana, reserved for the moment, was bestowed
+on Ibrahim under the style of _muhassil_, or collector of the crown
+revenues, a few days later.
+
+Mehemet Ali now ruled over a virtually independent empire, subject only
+to a moderate tribute, stretching from the Sudan to the Taurus
+Mountains. But though he was hailed, especially in France, as the
+pioneer of European civilization in the East, the unsound foundations of
+his authority were not long in revealing themselves. Scarcely a year
+from the signing of the convention of Kutaya the application by Ibrahim
+of Egyptian methods of government, notably of the monopolies and
+conscription, had driven Syrians, Druses and Arabs, who had welcomed him
+as a deliverer, into revolt. The unrest was suppressed by Mehemet Ali in
+person, and the Syrians were terrorized and disarmed. But their
+discontent encouraged Sultan Mahmud to hope for revenge, and a renewal
+of the conflict was only staved off by the anxious efforts of the
+powers. At last, in the spring of 1839, the sultan ordered his army,
+concentrated under Reshid in the border district of Bir on the
+Euphrates, to advance over the Syrian frontier. Ibrahim, seeing his
+flank menaced, attacked it at Nezib on the 24th of June. Once more the
+Ottomans were utterly routed. Six days later, before the news reached
+Constantinople, Mahmud died. Once more the Ottoman empire lay at the
+feet of Mehemet Ali; but the powers were now more prepared to meet a
+contingency which had been long foreseen. Their intervention was prompt;
+and the dubious attitude of France, which led to her exclusion from the
+concert and encouraged Mehemet Ali to resist, only led to his obtaining
+less favourable terms. (See MEHEMET ALI.)
+
+
+  Mehemet Ali's authority confined to Egypt.
+
+The end was reached early in 1841. New firmans were issued which
+confined the pasha's authority to Egypt, the Sinai peninsula and certain
+places on the Arabian side of the Red Sea, and to the Sudan. The most
+important of these documents are dated the 13th of February 1841. The
+government of the pashalik of Egypt was made hereditary in the family of
+Mehemet Ali.[24] A map showing the boundaries of Egypt accompanied the
+firman granting Mehemet Ali the pashalik, a duplicate copy being
+retained by the Porte. The Egyptian copy is supposed to have been lost
+in a fire which destroyed a great part of the Egyptian archives. The
+Turkish copy has never been produced and its existence now appears
+doubtful. The point is of importance, as in 1892 and again in 1906
+boundary disputes arose between Turkey and Egypt (see below). Various
+restrictions were laid upon Mehemet Ali, emphasizing his position of
+vassalage. He was forbidden to maintain a fleet, and his army was not to
+exceed 18,000 men. The pasha was no longer a figure in European
+politics, but he continued to occupy himself with his improvements, real
+or imaginary, in Egypt. The condition of the country was deplorable; in
+1842 a murrain of cattle was followed by a destructive Nile flood; in
+1843 there was a plague of locusts, whole villages were depopulated.
+Meantime the uttermost farthing was wrung from the wretched fellahin,
+while they were forced to the building of magnificent public works by
+unpaid labour. In 1844-1845 there was some improvement in the condition
+of the country as a result of financial reforms the pasha was compelled
+to execute. Mehemet Ali, who had been granted the honorary rank of grand
+vizier in 1842, paid a visit to Stamboul in 1846, where he became
+reconciled to his old enemy Khosrev Pasha, whom he had not seen since he
+spared his life at Cairo in 1803. In 1847 Mehemet Ali laid the
+foundation stone of the great barrage across the Nile at the beginning
+of the Delta. He was barely persuaded from ordering the barrage to be
+built with stone from the pyramids! Towards the end of 1847 the aged
+pasha's mind began to give way, and by the following June he was no
+longer capable of administering the government. In September 1848
+Ibrahim was acknowledged by the Porte as ruler of the pashalik, but he
+died in the November following. Mehemet Ali survived another eight
+months, dying on the 2nd of August 1849, aged eighty. He had done a
+great work in Egypt; the most permanent being the weakening of the tie
+binding the country to Turkey, the starting of the great cotton
+industry, the recognition of the advantages of European science, and the
+conquest of the Sudan.     (F. R. C.)
+
+
+  Abbas I. and Said Pasha.
+
+(2) _From the Death of Mehemet Ali to the British Occupation._--On
+Ibrahim's death in November 1848 the government of Egypt fell to his
+nephew Abbas I (q.v.), the son of Tusun. Abbas put an end to the system
+of commercial monopolies, and during his reign the railway from
+Alexandria to Cairo was begun at the instigation of the British
+government. Opposed to European ways, Abbas lived in great seclusion,
+and after a reign of less than six years he was murdered (July 1854) by
+two of his slaves. He was succeeded by his uncle Said Pasha, the
+favourite son of Mehemet Ali, who lacked the strength of mind or
+physical health needed to execute the beneficent projects which he
+conceived. His endeavour, for instance, to put a stop to the slave
+raiding which devastated the Sudan provinces was wholly ineffectual. He
+had a genuine regard for the welfare of the fellahin, and a land law of
+1858 secured to them an acknowledgment of freehold as against the crown.
+The pasha was much under French influence, and in 1856 was induced to
+grant to Ferdinand de Lesseps a concession for the construction of the
+Suez Canal. Lord Palmerston was opposed to this project, and the British
+opposition delayed the ratification of the concession by the Porte for
+two years. To the British Said also made concessions--one to the Eastern
+Telegraph Company, and another (1854) allowing the establishment of the
+Bank of Egypt. He also began the national debt by borrowing L3,293,000
+from Messrs Fruhling & Goschen, the actual amount received by the pasha
+being L2,640,000. In January 1863 Said Pasha died and was succeeded by
+his nephew Ismail, a son of Ibrahim Pasha.
+
+
+  Ismail's megalomania
+
+The reign of Ismail (q.v.), from 1863 to 1879, was for a while hailed as
+introducing a new era into modern Egypt. In spite of his vast schemes of
+reform and the _eclat_ of his Europeanizing innovations, his oriental
+extravagance led to bankruptcy, and his reign is historically important
+simply for its compelling European intervention in the internal affairs
+of Egypt. Yet in its earlier years much was done which seemed likely to
+give Ismail a more important place in history. In 1866 he was granted by
+the sultan a firman--obtained on condition of the increase of the
+tribute from L376,000 to L720,000--by which the succession to the throne
+of Egypt was made to descend "to the eldest of thy male children and in
+the same manner to the eldest sons of thy successors," instead of, after
+Turkish law, to the eldest male of the family. In the following year
+another firman bestowed upon him the title of _khedive_ in lieu of that
+of _vali_, borne by Mehemet Ali and his immediate successors. In 1873 a
+further firman placed the khedive in many respects in the position of an
+independent sovereign. Ismail re-established and improved the
+administrative system organized by Mehemet Ali, and which had fallen
+into decay under Abbas's indolent rule; he caused a thorough remodelling
+of the customs system, which was in an anarchic state, to be made by
+English officials; in 1865 he established the Egyptian post office; he
+reorganized the military schools of his grandfather, and gave some
+support to the cause of education. Railways, telegraphs, lighthouses,
+the harbour works at Suez, the breakwater at Alexandria, were carried
+out by some of the best contractors of Europe. Most important of all,
+the Suez Canal was opened in 1869. But the funds required for these
+public works, as well as the actual labour, were remorselessly extorted
+from a poverty-stricken population.
+
+  A striking picture of the condition of the people at this period is
+  given by Lady Duff Gordon in _Last Letters from Egypt_. Writing in
+  1867 she said: "I cannot describe the misery here now--every day some
+  new tax. Every beast, camel, cow, sheep, donkey and horse is made to
+  pay. The fellaheen can no longer eat bread; they are living on
+  barley-meal mixed with water, and raw green stuff, vetches, | &c. The
+  taxation makes life almost impossible: a tax on every crop, on every
+  animal first, and again when it is sold in the market; on every man,
+  on charcoal, on butter, on salt.... The people in Upper Egypt are
+  running away by wholesale, utterly unable to pay the new taxes and do
+  the work exacted. Even here (Cairo) the beating for the year's taxes
+  is awful."
+
+
+  Steps leading to the deposition of Ismail.
+
+In the years that followed the condition of things grew worse. Thousands
+of lives were lost and large sums expended in extending Ismail's
+dominions in the Sudan (q.v.) and in futile conflicts with Abyssinia. In
+1875 the impoverishment of the fellah had reached such a point that the
+ordinary resources of the country no longer sufficed for the most urgent
+necessities of administration; and the khedive Ismail, having repeatedly
+broken faith with his creditors, could not raise any more loans on the
+European market. The taxes were habitually collected many months in
+advance, and the colossal floating debt was increasing rapidly. In these
+circumstances Ismail had to realize his remaining assets, and among them
+sold 176,602 Suez Canal shares to the British government for
+L3,976,582[25] (see BEACONSFIELD). This comparatively small financial
+operation brought about the long-delayed crisis and paved the way for
+the future prosperity of Egypt, for it induced the British government to
+inquire more carefully into the financial condition of the country. In
+December 1875 Mr Stephen Cave, M.P., and Colonel (afterwards Sir John)
+Stokes, R.E., were sent to Egypt to inquire into the financial
+situation; and Mr Cave's report, made public in April 1876, showed that
+under the existing administration national bankruptcy was inevitable.
+Other commissions of inquiry followed, and each one brought Ismail more
+under European control. The establishment of the Mixed Tribunals in
+1876, in place of the system of consular jurisdiction in civil actions,
+made some of the courts of justice international. The Caisse de la
+Dette, instituted in May 1876 as a result of the Cave mission, led to
+international control over a large portion of the revenue. Next came (in
+November 1876) the mission of Mr (afterwards Lord) Goschen and M.
+Joubert on behalf of the British and French bondholders, one result
+being the establishment of Dual Control, i.e. an English official to
+superintend the revenue and a French official the expenditure of the
+country. Another result was the internationalization of the railways and
+the port of Alexandria. Then came (May 1878) a commission of inquiry of
+which the principal members were Sir Rivers Wilson, Major Evelyn Baring
+(afterwards Lord Cromer) and MM. Kremer-Baravelli and de Blignieres. One
+result of that inquiry was the extension of international control to the
+enormous landed property of the khedive. Driven to desperation, Ismail
+made a virtue of necessity and accepted, in September 1878, in lieu of
+the Dual Control, a constitutional ministry, under the presidency of
+Nubar Pasha (q.v.), with Rivers Wilson as minister of finance and de
+Blignieres as minister of public works. Professing to be quite satisfied
+with this arrangement, he pompously announced that Egypt was no longer
+in Africa, but a part of Europe; but before seven months had passed he
+found his constitutional position intolerable, got rid of his irksome
+cabinet by means of a secretly-organized military riot in Cairo, and
+reverted to his old autocratic methods of government. England and France
+could hardly sit still under this affront, and decided to administer
+chastisement by the hand of the suzerain power, which was delighted to
+have an opportunity of asserting its authority. On the 26th of June 1879
+Ismail suddenly received from the sultan a curt telegram, addressed to
+him as ex-khedive of Egypt, informing him that his son Tewfik was
+appointed his successor. Taken unawares, he made no attempt at
+resistance, and Tewfik was at once proclaimed khedive.
+
+
+  Re-establishment of Dual Control.
+
+  Arabi and the revolt of 1882.
+
+After a short period of inaction, when it seemed as if the change might
+be for the worse, England and France summoned up courage to look the
+situation boldly in the face, and, in November 1879, re-established the
+Dual Control in the persons of Major Baring and M. de Blignieres. For
+two years the Dual Control governed Egypt, and initiated the work of
+progress that England was to continue alone. Its essential defect was
+what might be called insecurity of tenure. Without any efficient means
+of self-protection and coercion at its disposal, it had to interfere
+with the power, privileges and perquisites of a class which had long
+misgoverned the country. This class, so far as its civilian members were
+concerned, was not very formidable, because these were not likely to go
+beyond the bounds of intrigue and passive resistance; but it contained a
+military element who had more courage, and who had learned their power
+when Ismail employed them for overturning his constitutional ministry.
+Among the mutinous soldiers on that occasion was a fellah officer
+calling himself Ahmed Arabi the Egyptian. He was not a man of
+exceptional intelligence or remarkable powers of organization, but he
+was a fluent speaker, and could exercise some influence over the masses
+by a rude kind of native eloquence. Behind him were a group of men, much
+abler than himself, who put him forward as the figurehead of a party
+professing to aim at protecting the Egyptians from the grasping tyranny
+of their Turkish and European oppressors. The movement began among the
+Arab officers, who complained of the preference shown to the officers of
+Turkish origin; it then expanded into an attack on the privileged
+position and predominant influence of foreigners, many of whom, it must
+be confessed, were of a by no means respectable type; finally, it was
+directed against all Christians, foreign and native.[26] The government,
+being too weak to suppress the agitation and disorder, had to make
+concessions, and each concession produced fresh demands. Arabi was first
+promoted, then made under-secretary for war, and ultimately a member of
+the cabinet. The danger of a serious rising brought the British and
+French fleets in May 1882 to Alexandria, and after a massacre (11th of
+June) had been perpetrated by the Arab mob in that city, the British
+admiral bombarded the forts (11th of July 1882). The leaders of the
+national movement prepared to resist further aggression by force. A
+conference of ambassadors was held in Constantinople, and the sultan was
+invited to quell the revolt; but he hesitated to employ his troops
+against Mussulmans who were professing merely to oppose Christian
+aggression.
+
+(3) _Egypt occupied by the British._--At last the British government
+determined to employ armed force, and invited France to co-operate. The
+French government declined, and a similar invitation to Italy met with a
+similar refusal. England therefore, having to act alone, landed troops
+at Ismailia under Sir Garnet Wolseley, and suppressed the revolt by the
+battle of Tell-el-Kebir on the 13th of September 1882. The khedive, who
+had taken refuge in Alexandria, returned to Cairo, and a ministry was
+formed under Sherif Pasha, with Riaz Pasha as one of its leading
+members. On assuming office, the first thing it had to do was to bring
+to trial the chiefs of the rebellion. Had the khedive and Riaz been
+allowed a free hand, Arabi and his colleagues would have found little
+mercy. Thanks to the intervention of the British government, their lives
+were spared. Arabi pleaded guilty, was sentenced to death, the sentence
+being commuted by the khedive to banishment; and Riaz resigned in
+disgust. This solution of the difficulty was brought about by Lord
+Dufferin, then British ambassador at Constantinople, who had been sent
+to Egypt as high commissioner to adjust affairs and report on the
+situation. One of his first acts, after preventing the application of
+capital punishment to the ringleaders of the revolt, was to veto the
+project of protecting the khedive and his government by means of a
+Praetorian guard recruited from Asia Minor, Epirus, Austria and
+Switzerland, and to insist on the principle that Egypt must be governed
+in a truly liberal spirit. Passing in review all the departments of the
+administration, he laid down the general lines on which the country was
+to be restored to order and prosperity, and endowed, if possible, with
+the elements of self-government for future use.
+
+
+  Sir Evelyn Baring appointed consul-general, 1884.
+
+The laborious task of putting these general indications into a practical
+shape fell to Sir Evelyn Baring (Lord Cromer), who arrived as
+consul-general and diplomatic agent, in succession to Sir Edward Malet,
+in January 1884. At that moment the situation was singularly like that
+which had existed on two previous occasions: firstly, when Ismail was
+deposed; and secondly, when the Dual Control had undermined the existing
+authority without having any power to enforce its own. For the third
+time in little more than three years the existing authority had been
+destroyed and a new one had to be created. But there was one essential
+difference: the power that had now to reorganize the country possessed
+in the British army of occupation a support sufficient to command
+respect. Without that support Sir Evelyn Baring could have done little
+or nothing; with it he did perhaps more than any other single man could
+have done. His method may be illustrated by an old story long current in
+Cairo. Mehemet Ali was said to have appointed as _mudir_ or governor in
+a turbulent district a young and inexperienced Turk, who asked, "But how
+am I to govern these people?" "Listen," replied the pasha; "buy the
+biggest and heaviest _kurbash_ you can find; hang it up in the centre of
+the _mudirieh_, well within your reach, and you will very seldom require
+to use it." The British army of occupation was Sir Evelyn's _kurbash_;
+it was well within his reach, as all the world knew, and its simple
+presence sufficed to prevent disorder and enforce obedience. He had one
+other advantage over previous English reformers in Egypt: his position
+towards France was more independent. The Dual Control had been abolished
+by a khedivial decree of 18th January 1883, and replaced by an English
+financial adviser. France naturally objected; but having refused to
+co-operate with England in suppressing the revolt, she could not
+reasonably complain that her offer of co-operation in the work of
+reorganization was declined. But though Dual Control was at an end, the
+Caisse de la Dette remained, and this body was to prove a constant clog
+on the financial measures of the Egyptian government.
+
+
+  The Policy of evacuation.
+
+At first the intention of the British government was simply to restore
+the power of the khedive, to keep his highness for some time in the
+right path by friendly advice, and to withdraw the British troops as
+soon as possible. As Lord Granville explained in a circular to the
+powers, the position of England in Egypt imposed on her "the duty of
+giving advice with the object of securing that the order of things to be
+established shall be of a satisfactory character and possess the
+elements of stability and progress." But there was to be no embarking on
+a general scheme of reforms, which would increase unnecessarily the
+responsibilities of the protecting power and necessitate the indefinite
+prolongation of the military occupation. So far, therefore, as the
+British government had a definite policy in Egypt, it was a _politique
+de replatrage_. Even this policy was not strictly adhered to. Mr
+Gladstone's cabinet was as unstable as the public opinion it sought to
+conciliate. It had its hot fits and its cold fits, and it gave orders
+now to advance and now to retreat. In the long run circumstances proved
+too strong for it, and it had to undertake a great deal more than it
+originally intended. Each little change in the administration engendered
+a multitude of others, so that the modest attempts at reform were found
+to be like the letting out of water. A tiny rill gradually became a
+boisterous stream, and the boisterous stream grew into a great river,
+which spread to all sections of the administration and ended by
+inundating the whole country.
+
+
+  The Sudan question.
+
+Of the numerous questions awaiting solution, the first to claim
+immediate attention was that of the Sudan. The British government had
+begun by excluding it from the problem, and by declaring that for events
+in these outlying territories it must not be held responsible. In that
+sphere of activity, therefore, the Egyptian government might do as it
+thought fit. The principle of limited liability which this attitude
+assumed was soon found to be utterly untenable. The Sudan was an
+integral part of the khedive's dominions, and caused, even in ordinary
+times, a deficit of L200,000 to the Egyptian treasury. At that moment
+it was in a state of open rebellion, stirred up by a religious fanatic
+who proclaimed himself a mahdi of Islam. An army of 10,000 men under an
+English officer, Colonel William Hicks, formerly of the Bombay army,
+otherwise Hicks Pasha, had been sent to suppress the revolt, and had
+been annihilated in a great battle fought on the 5th of November 1883,
+near Obeid. The Egyptian government wished to make a new attempt to
+recover the lost province, and the idea was certainly very popular among
+the governing class, but Sir Evelyn Baring vetoed the project on the
+ground that Egypt had neither soldiers nor money to carry it out. In
+vain the khedive and his prime minister, Sherif Pasha, threatened to
+resign, and the latter actually carried out his threat. The British
+representative remained firm, and it was decided that the Sudan should
+be, for the moment at least, abandoned to its fate. Nubar, though as
+strongly opposed to the abandonment policy as Sherif, consented to take
+his place and accepted somewhat reluctantly the new regime, which he
+defined as "the administration of Egypt under the government of Baring."
+By this time the Mahdi was master of the greater part of the Sudan, but
+Khartum and some other fortified points still held out. The efforts made
+to extricate the garrisons, including the mission of General Gordon, the
+fall of Khartum, and the Nile Expedition under Lord Wolseley, are
+described below separately in the section of this article dealing with
+the military operations. The practical result was that the khedive's
+authority was limited to the Nile valley north of Wadi Halfa.
+
+
+  Internal reorganization
+
+With the internal difficulties Sir Evelyn Baring had been struggling
+bravely ever since his appointment, trying to evolve out of the
+ever-changing policy and contradictory orders of the British government
+some sort of coherent line of action, and to raise the administration to
+a higher standard. For two or three years it seemed doubtful whether he
+would succeed. All over Egypt there was a feeling of unrest, and the
+well-meant but not very successful efforts of the British to improve the
+state of things were making them very unpopular. The introduction of
+English officials and English influence into all the administrative
+departments was resented by the native officials, and the action of the
+irrigation officers in preventing the customary abuses of the
+distribution of water was resented by the great landowners, who had
+been, from time immemorial, in the habit of taking as much as they
+wanted, to the detriment of the fellahin. Even these latter, who gained
+most by the reforms, considered that they had good reason to complain,
+for the defeat of Arabi and the re-establishment of order had enabled
+the Christian money-lenders to return and insist on the payment of
+claims, which were supposed to have been extinguished by the rebellion.
+Worst of all, the government was drifting rapidly towards insolvency,
+being quite unable to fulfil its obligations to the bondholders and meet
+the expenses of administration. All departments were being starved, and
+even the salaries of poorly paid officials were in arrear. To free
+itself from its financial difficulties the government adopted a heroic
+remedy which only created fresh troubles. On the advice of Lord
+Northbrook, who was sent out to Cairo in September 1884 to examine the
+financial situation, certain revenues which should have been paid into
+the Caisse for the benefit of the bondholders were paid into the
+treasury for the ordinary needs of the administration. Immediately the
+powers protested against this infraction of the law of liquidation, and
+the Caisse applied for a writ to the Mixed Tribunals. In this way the
+heroic remedy failed, and to the internal difficulties were added
+international complications.
+
+Fortunately for Egypt, the British government contrived to solve the
+international difficulty by timely concessions to the powers, and
+succeeded in negotiating the London Convention of March 1885, by which
+the Egyptian government was relieved from some of the most onerous
+stipulations of the law of liquidation, and was enabled to raise a loan
+of L9,000,000 for an annual payment of L135,000. After paying out of the
+capital the sums required for the indemnities due for the burning of
+Alexandria and the deficits of the years 1882 and 1883, it still had a
+million sterling, and boldly invested it in the improvement of
+irrigation. The investment proved most remunerative, and helped very
+materially to save the country from bankruptcy and internationalism. The
+danger of being again subjected to the evils of an international
+administration was very great, for the London Convention contained a
+stipulation to the effect that if Egypt could not pay her way at the end
+of two years, another international commission would be appointed.
+
+To obviate this catastrophe the British reformers set to work most
+energetically. Already something in the way of retrenchment and reform
+had been accomplished. The public accounts had been put in order, and
+the abuses in the collection of the land tax removed. The constant drain
+of money and men for the Sudan had been stopped. A beginning had been
+made for creating a new army to replace the one that had been disbanded
+and to allow of a portion of the British garrison being withdrawn. In
+this work Sir Evelyn Wood had shown much sound judgment as well as great
+capacity for military organization, and had formed an efficient force
+out of very unpromising material (see the section above on the _Egyptian
+Army_). His colleague in the department of public works, Sir Colin
+Scott-Moncrieff, had been not less active. By mitigating the hardships
+of the _corvee_, and improving the irrigation system, on which the
+prosperity of the country mainly depends, he had conferred enormous
+benefits on the fellahin, and had laid the foundation of permanent
+budgetary equilibrium for the future. Not less active was Sir Edgar
+Vincent, the financial adviser, who kept a firm hold on the
+purse-strings and ruthlessly cut down expenditure in all departments
+except that of irrigation (see S Finance).
+
+The activity of the British officials naturally produced a certain
+amount of discontent and resistance on the part of their Egyptian
+colleagues, and Lord Granville was obliged to declare very plainly that
+such resistance could not be tolerated. Writing (January 1884) to Sir
+Evelyn Baring, he said:
+
+  "It should be made clear to the Egyptian Ministers and Governors of
+  Provinces that the responsibility which for the time rests on England
+  obliges H.M. Government to insist on the adoption of the policy which
+  they recommend; and that it will be necessary that those Ministers and
+  Governors who do not follow this course should cease to hold their
+  offices."
+
+
+  Relations between British and native officials.
+
+Nubar Pasha, who continued to be prime minister, resisted occasionally.
+What he chiefly objected to was direct interference in the provincial
+administration and the native tribunals, and he succeeded for a time in
+preventing such interference. Sir Benson Maxwell and Mr Clifford Lloyd,
+who had been sent out to reform the departments of justice and the
+interior, after coming into conflict with each other were both recalled,
+and the reforming activity was for a time restricted to the departments
+of war, public works and finance. Gradually the tension between natives
+and foreigners relaxed, and mutual confidence was established.
+Experience had evolved the working principle which was officially
+formulated at a much later period: "Our task is not to rule the
+Egyptians, but as far as possible to teach the Egyptians to rule
+themselves.... European initiative suggests measures to be executed by
+Egyptian agency, while European supervision controls the manner in which
+they are executed." If that principle had been firmly laid down and
+clearly understood at the beginning, a good deal of needless friction
+would have been avoided.
+
+
+  International problems.
+
+The international difficulty remained. The British position in Egypt was
+anomalous, and might easily give rise to international complications.
+The sultan might well protest against the military occupation of a
+portion of his empire by foreign troops. It was no secret that France
+was ready to give him diplomatic support, and other powers might adopt a
+similar attitude. Besides this, the British government was anxious to
+terminate the occupation as soon as possible. With a view to
+regularizing the situation and accelerating the evacuation, Sir Henry
+Drummond Wolff was sent to Constantinople in August 1885 on a special
+mission. On the 24th of October of that year he concluded a preliminary
+convention by which an Ottoman and a British high commissioner, acting
+in concert with the khedive, should reorganize the Egyptian army,
+tranquillize the Sudan by pacific means, and consider what changes might
+be necessary in the civil administration. When the two commissioners
+were assured of the security of the frontier and the good working and
+stability of the Egyptian government, they should present reports to
+their respective governments, and these should consult as to the
+conclusion of a convention regulating the withdrawal of the English
+troops. Mukhtar Pasha and Sir Henry Drummond Wolfe were appointed
+commissioners, and their joint inquiry lasted till the end of 1886, when
+the former presented his report and the latter went home to report
+orally. The remaining stipulations of the preliminary convention were
+duly carried out. Sir Henry Drummond Wolff proceeded to Constantinople
+and signed on the 22nd of May 1887 the definitive convention, according
+to which the occupation should come to an end in three years, but
+England should have a right to prolong or renew it in the event of
+internal peace or external security being seriously threatened. The
+sultan authorised the signature of this convention, but under pressure
+of France and Russia he refused to ratify it. Technically, therefore,
+the preliminary convention still remains in force, and in reality the
+Ottoman commissioner continued to reside in Cairo till the close of
+1908.
+
+
+  Progress of reform.
+
+The steadily increasing prosperity of the country during the years 1886
+and 1887 removed the danger of national bankruptcy and international
+interference, and induced Sir Evelyn Baring to widen the area of
+administrative reforms. In the provinces the local administration and
+the methods of dispensing justice were still scandalously
+unsatisfactory, and this was the field to which the British
+representative next directed his efforts. Here he met with unexpected
+opposition on the part of the prime minister, Nubar Pasha, and a
+conflict ensued which ended in Nubar's retirement in June 1888. Riaz
+Pasha took his place, and remained in office till May 1891. During these
+three years the work of reform and the prosperity of the country made
+great progress. The new Egyptian army was so far improved that it gained
+successes over the forces of the Mahdi; the burden of the national debt
+was lightened by a successful conversion; the _corvee_ was
+abolished;[27] the land tax was reduced 30% in the poorest provinces,
+and in spite of this and other measures for lightening the public
+burdens, the budgetary surplus constantly increased; the quasi-judicial
+special commissions for brigandage, which were at once barbarous and
+inefficient, were abolished; the native tribunals were improved, and Mr
+(afterwards Sir John) Scott, an Indian judge of great experience and
+sound judgment, was appointed judicial adviser to the khedive. This
+appointment was opposed by Riaz Pasha, and led to his resignation on the
+plea of ill-health. His successor, Mustafa Pasha Fehmi, continued the
+work and co-operated cordially with the English officials. The very
+necessary reform of the native tribunals was then taken seriously in
+hand. The existing procedure was simplified and accelerated; the working
+of the courts was greatly improved by a carefully organized system of
+inspection and control; the incompetent judges were eliminated and
+replaced by men of better education and higher moral character; and for
+the future supply of well-qualified judges, barristers, and law
+officials, an excellent school of law was established. Later on the
+reforming activity was extended to prisons, public health, and
+education, and has attained very satisfactory results.
+
+
+  Accession of Abbas.
+
+In January 1892 the khedive Tewfik, who had always maintained cordial
+relations with Sir Evelyn Baring, died suddenly, and was succeeded by
+his son, Abbas Hilmi, a young man without political experience, who
+failed at first to understand the peculiar situation in which a khedive
+ruling under British protection is necessarily placed. Aspiring to
+liberate himself at once from foreign control, he summarily dismissed
+Mustafa Pasha Fehmi (15th January 1893), whom he considered too amenable
+to English influence, and appointed in his place Fakhri Pasha, who was
+not a _persona grata_ at the British Agency. Such an incident, which
+might have constituted a precedent for more important acts of a similar
+kind, could hardly be overlooked by the British representative. He had
+always maintained that what Egypt most required, and would require for
+many years to come, was an order of things which would render
+practically impossible any return to that personal system of government
+which had well-nigh ruined the country. In this view the British agent
+was warmly supported by Lord Rosebery, then secretary of state for
+foreign affairs. The young khedive was made therefore to understand that
+he must not make such changes in the administration without a previous
+agreement with the representative of the protecting power; and a
+compromise was effected by which Fakhri Pasha retired, and the post of
+premier was confided once more to Riaz. With this compromise the
+friction between the khedive and Sir Evelyn Baring, who had now become
+Lord Cromer, did not end. For some time Abbas Hilmi clung to his idea of
+liberating himself from all control, and secretly encouraged a
+nationalist and anti-British agitation in the native press; but he
+gradually came to perceive the folly, as well as the danger to himself,
+of such a course, and accordingly refrained from giving any overt
+occasion for complaint or protest. In like manner the relations between
+the British officials and their Egyptian colleagues gradually became
+more cordial, so that it was found possible at last to reform the local
+administration in the provinces according to the recommendations of Mr
+(afterwards Sir) Eldon Gorst, who had been appointed adviser to the
+ministry of the interior. Nubar Pasha, it is true, who succeeded Riaz as
+prime minister in April 1894, objected to some of Mr Gorst's
+recommendations, and in November 1895 resigned. He was succeeded by
+Mustafa Fehmi, who had always shown a conciliatory spirit, and who had
+been on that account, as above stated, summarily dismissed by the
+khedive in January 1893. After his reinstatement the Anglo-Egyptian
+condominium worked without serious friction.
+
+
+  Fashoda.
+
+The success of the Anglo-Egyptian condominium, and the consequent
+economic and financial prosperity of Egypt proper, rendered it possible,
+during 1896-1898, to recover from the Mahdists the Sudanese provinces
+(see _Military Operations_), and to delimit in that part of Africa, in
+accordance with Anglo-Egyptian interests, the respective spheres of
+influence of Great Britain and France. The arrangement was not effected
+without serious danger of a European conflict. Taking advantage of the
+temporary weakness of Egypt, the French government formed the project of
+seizing the Upper Nile valley and uniting her possessions in West Africa
+with those at the entrance to the Red Sea. With this object a small
+force under Major Marchand was sent from the French Congo into the
+Bahr-el-Ghazal, with orders to occupy Fashoda on the Nile; whilst a
+Franco-Abyssinian Expedition was despatched from the eastward, to join
+hands with Major Marchand. The small force from the French Congo reached
+its destination, and a body of Abyssinian troops, accompanied by French
+officers, appeared for a short time a little higher up the river; but
+the grand political scheme was frustrated by the victorious advance of
+an Anglo-Egyptian force under General Kitchener and the resolute
+attitude of the British government. Major Marchand had to retire from
+Fashoda, and as a concession to French susceptibilities he was allowed
+to retreat by the Abyssinian route. By an agreement signed by Lord
+Salisbury and the French ambassador on the 21st of March 1899, and
+appended to Art. IV. of the Anglo-French convention of June 14th, 1898,
+which dealt with the British and French spheres of influence in the
+region of the Niger, France was excluded from the basin of the Nile, and
+a line marking the respective spheres of influence of the two countries
+was drawn on the map from the northern frontier of the Congo Free State
+to the southern frontier of the Turkish province of Tripoli.
+
+
+  The Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
+
+The administration of the Sudan (q.v.) was organized on the basis of an
+agreement between the British and Egyptian governments signed on the
+19th of January 1899. According to that agreement the British and
+Egyptian flags are used together, and the supreme military and civil
+command is vested in a governor-general, who is appointed by the khedive
+on the recommendation of the British government, and who cannot be
+removed without the British government's consent. Neither consular
+jurisdiction, nor that of the mixed tribunals, was permitted, the Sudan
+being made absolutely free of the international fetters which bound
+Egypt. Sir Reginald Wingate, the sirdar of the Egyptian army (in which
+post he succeeded Lord Kitchener at the close of 1899) was named
+governor-general, and in the work of regeneration of the country, the
+officials, British, Egyptian and Sudanese, had the cordial co-operation
+of the majority of the inhabitants.
+
+
+  Egypt's growing prosperity.
+
+The growing prosperity of Egypt in the opening years of the 20th century
+was very marked, and is reflected in the annual reports on the country
+supplied to the British foreign office by Lord Cromer. Thus, in 1901 he
+was able to declare that "the foundations on which the well-being and
+material prosperity of a civilized community should rest have been
+laid.... The institution of slavery is virtually defunct. The _corvee_
+has been practically abolished. Law and order everywhere reign supreme.
+The _curbash_ is no longer employed as an instrument of government." So
+little danger to internal peace was apprehended that during this year
+Arabi Pasha, who had been in exile in Ceylon since 1882, was permitted
+to return to Egypt. This happy condition had been brought about largely
+as the result of giving fiscal reform, accompanied by substantial relief
+to the taxpayers, the first place in the government's programme, and
+with the abolition of octroi duties in 1902 disappeared the last of the
+main defects in the fiscal system as existing at the time of the British
+occupation. In these conditions the machinery of government, despite its
+many imperfections and anomalies, worked smoothly. Land increased in
+value as irrigation schemes were completed, and European capital was
+increasingly eager to find employment in the country. The bulk of the
+fellahin enjoyed a material prosperity to which they had been strangers
+for centuries. In the midst of this return of plenty Lord Cromer (in his
+report for 1903) sounded a note of warning:--
+
+  "As regards moral progress (he wrote), all that can be said is that it
+  must necessarily be slower than advance in a material direction. I
+  hope and believe, however, that some progress is being made. In any
+  case the machinery which will admit of progress has been created. The
+  schoolmaster is abroad.... Every possible facility and every
+  encouragement are afforded for the Egyptians to advance along the path
+  of moral improvement. More than this no government can do. It remains
+  for the Egyptians to take advantage of the opportunities offered to
+  them."
+
+
+  The Anglo-French understanding of 1904.
+
+The facilities enjoyed by the British and Egyptian governments for
+securing the material if not the moral development of Egypt were greatly
+enlarged in 1904, as the result of the understanding then come to
+between France and Great Britain. The natural irritation in France
+arising from the British occupation of the Nile valley, and the
+non-fulfilment of the pledge to withdraw the British garrison from
+Egypt, which had grown less acute with the passing of years, flamed out
+afresh at the time of the Fashoda crisis, while the Anglo-Boer war of
+1899-1902 led to another access of irritation against England. During
+1903 a great change came over public opinion on both sides of the
+Channel, with the result that the statesmen of both countries were
+enabled to complete negotiations settling many points in dispute between
+the two nations. On the 8th of April 1904 a declaration was signed by
+the representatives of France and Great Britain which virtually
+recognized the dominant position of France in Morocco and of Britain in
+Egypt. The chief provisions concerning Egypt were:--
+
+  "His Britannic Majesty's government declare that they have no
+  intention of altering the political status of Egypt.
+
+  "The government of the French Republic, for their part, declare that
+  they will not obstruct the action of Great Britain in that country by
+  asking that a limit of time be fixed for the British occupation, or in
+  any other manner.
+
+  "His Britannic Majesty's government, for their part, will respect the
+  rights which France, in virtue of treaties, conventions and usage,
+  enjoys in Egypt."
+
+Similar declarations and engagements were made by Germany, Austria and
+Italy. Annexed to the Anglo-French agreement was the text of a proposed
+khedivial decree altering the relations between Egypt and the foreign
+bondholders. With the consent of the powers this decree (promulgated on
+the 28th of November 1904) came into operation on the 1st of January
+1905. The combined effect of the declaration and the khedivial decree
+was great. The first-named put an end to an anomalous situation and gave
+a practically valid sanction to the presence of Britain in Egypt,
+removing all ground for the reproach that Great Britain was not
+respecting its international obligations. In effect it was a European
+recognition that Britain was the protecting power in Egypt. It put a
+period to a question which had long embittered the relations between
+England and France, and locally it caused the cessation of the
+systematic opposition of the French agents in Cairo to everything
+tending to strengthen the British position--however beneficial to Egypt
+the particular scheme opposed might be. Scarcely less important were the
+results of the khedivial decree. By it Egypt achieved in effect
+financial independence. The power of the Caisse de la Dette, which had
+virtually controlled the execution of the international agreements
+concerning the finances, was swept away, together with almost all the
+other financial fetters binding Egypt. The Railway and Port of
+Alexandria Board ceased to exist. For the first time since 1875 Egypt
+was free to control her own revenue. In return she pledged the greater
+part of the land tax to the service of the debt. The functions of the
+Caisse were restricted to the receipt of the funds necessary for this
+service. It was entirely deprived of its former power to interfere in
+the machinery of government. Moreover, some L10,000,000, being
+accumulated surpluses in the hands of the Caisse after meeting the
+charges of the debt, were handed over to the Egyptian treasury. The
+Egyptian government was henceforth free to take full advantage of the
+financial prosperity of the country.
+
+
+  Evils of the Capitulations.
+
+In one respect the Anglo-French agreement made no alteration--it left
+untouched the extra-territoriality enjoyed by Europeans in Egypt in
+virtue of the treaties with Turkey, i.e. the system of Capitulations.
+One of the anomalies under that system had, it is true, been got rid of,
+for, as has been stated, consular jurisdiction in civil matters had been
+replaced in 1876 by that of the Mixed Tribunals. In criminal cases,
+however, foreign consuls still exercised jurisdiction, but the main evil
+of the Capitulations regime was the absence of any proper machinery for
+enacting laws applicable to the whole of the inhabitants of Egypt. No
+change could be made in any law applicable to Europeans without the
+unanimous consent of fifteen foreign powers--a state of affairs wholly
+incompatible with the condition of Egypt in the 20th century, "an
+oriental country which has assimilated a very considerable portion of
+European civilization and which is mainly governed by European methods."
+It was, however, far easier to acknowledge that the Capitulations regime
+was defective and had outlived its time than to devise a remedy and get
+all the nations interested to accept it. The solution favoured by Lord
+Cromer (vide Blue-books, _Egypt No. 1_ (1906), pp. 1-8, and _Egypt No.
+1_ (1907), pp. 10-26) was the creation of a council--distinct from the
+existing native legislative council and assembly--composed of Europeans,
+which should have the power to pass legislation which when promulgated
+by the Egyptian government, with the assent of the British government,
+would bind all foreigners resident in Egypt. Every reservation for the
+benefit of British subjects should enure for the benefit of subjects of
+other powers. The jurisdiction exercised by consuls in civil and
+criminal affairs Lord Cromer proposed should cease _pari passu_ with the
+provision by the Egyptian government, under the powers conferred by the
+treaty required to set up the new council, of courts having competence
+to deal with such matters, various safeguards being introduced to
+prevent injustice in criminal cases. As to civil cases the proposal was
+to make permanent the Mixed Tribunals, hitherto appointed for
+quinquennial periods (so that if not reappointed consular jurisdiction
+in civil cases would revive).
+
+
+  The pan-Islamic movement.
+
+While the removal of ancient jealousies among the European powers
+interested in Egypt helped to smooth the path pursued by the Egyptian
+administration under the guiding hand of Great Britain, the intrigues of
+the Turks and the danger of a revival of Moslem fanaticism threatened
+during 1905-1906 to disturb the peace of the country. A party had also
+arisen, whose best-known leader was Mustafa Kamel Pasha (1874-1908),
+which held that Egypt was ready for self-government and which saw in the
+presence of the British a hindrance to the attainment of their ideal.
+This "national" party lent what weight it had to the pan-Islamic
+agitation which arose in the summer and autumn of 1905, regardless of
+the fact that a pan-Islamic triumph meant the re-assertion of direct
+Turkish rule in Egypt and the end of the liberty the Egyptians enjoyed.
+The pan-Islamic press, allowed full licence by the Cairo authorities,
+spread abroad rumours that the Egyptian government intended to construct
+fortifications in the Sinai peninsula with the design of menacing the
+railway, under construction by Turkey, from Damascus to Mecca. This
+baseless report led to what is known as the Taba incident (see below).
+This incident inflamed the minds of many Egyptians, and almost all the
+opposition elements in the country were united by the appeal to
+religious fanaticism, of which the incident was partly the effect and
+partly the cause. The inflammatory writing of the newspapers indicated,
+encouraged by many persons holding high positions both inside and
+outside Egypt, created, by every process of misrepresentation, an
+anti-Christian and anti-European feeling among the mass of the people.
+After more than a quarter of a century of just rule, i.e. since the
+accession of Tewfik, the tyranny of the Turkish system was apt to be
+forgotten, while the appeal to rally in support of their khalif found a
+response in the hearts of many Egyptians. The feeling entertained by
+large numbers even of the educated class of Egyptians was strikingly
+illustrated by the terms of an anonymous letter received by Lord Cromer
+in May 1906. The writer, probably a member of the Ulema class,
+addressing the British agent as the reformer of Egypt, said:--
+
+  " ... He must be blind who sees not what the English have wrought in
+  Egypt; the gates of justice stand open to the poor; the streams flow
+  through the land and are not stopped by order of the strong; the poor
+  man is lifted up and the rich man pulled down, the hand of the
+  oppressor and the briber is struck when outstretched to do evil. Our
+  eyes see these things and they know from whom they come.... While
+  peace is in the land the spirit of Islam sleeps.... But it is said,
+  'There is war between England and Abdul Hamid Khan.' If that be so a
+  change must come. The words of the Imam are echoed in every heart, and
+  every Moslem hears only the cry of the Faith.... Though the Khalif
+  were hapless as Bayezid, cruel as Murad, or mad as Ibrahim, he is the
+  shadow of God, and every Moslem must leap up at his call.... You will
+  say, 'The Egyptian is more ungrateful than a dog, which remembers the
+  hand that fed him. He is foolish as the madman who pulls down the
+  roof-tree of his house upon himself.' It may be so to worldly eyes,
+  but in the time of danger to Islam the Moslem turns away from the
+  things of this world and thirsts only for the service of his Faith,
+  even though he looks in the face of death...."
+
+
+  Denshawai.
+
+To establish confidence in the minds of the Egyptian public that the
+authorities could maintain order and tranquillity, it was determined to
+increase permanently the strength of the British garrison. An incident
+occurred in June 1906 which illustrated the danger which might arise if
+anything happened to beget the idea that the protecting power had
+weakened its hold. While mounted infantry of the British army were
+marching from Cairo to Alexandria, five officers went (on the 13th of
+June) to the village of Denshawai to shoot pigeons.[28] An attack was
+made on the party by the villagers. The officers were told by their
+guide that they might shoot, but the villagers had not given permission
+and were incensed at the shooting of their pigeons by other officers in
+the previous year. A premeditated attack was made on the officers; a gun
+seized from one of them went off and slightly injured four natives--one
+a woman. The attack had been preceded by a trifling fire at a threshing
+floor, either accidentally caused (but not by the officers' shots) or
+lit as a signal for the assault. Captain S. C. Bull of the 6th Dragoons
+received serious injuries and died a few hours later, and two other
+officers were seriously injured. A number of persons were arrested and
+tried by a special tribunal created in 1895 to deal with offences
+against the army of occupation. On the 27th of the same month four of
+the ringleaders were sentenced to death, others received various terms
+of imprisonment,[29] and seven were sentenced to fifty lashes. The
+executions and floggings were carried out the next day at the scene of
+the outrage and in the presence of some five hundred natives. The
+quieting effect that this drastic action might have had was marred by
+the fact that certain members of the British parliament called in
+question the justice of the sentences--passed unanimously by a court of
+which the best English and the best native judge were members. For a
+time there was considerable ferment in Egypt. The Anglo-Egyptian
+authorities received, however, the firm support of Sir Edward Grey, the
+foreign secretary in the liberal administration formed in December 1905.
+As far as responsible statesmen were concerned the change of government
+in Great Britain made no difference in the conduct of Egyptian affairs.
+
+
+  The Taba incident.
+
+The Taba incident, to which reference has been made, arose in the
+beginning of 1906 over the claim of the sultan of Turkey to jurisdiction
+in the Sinai peninsula. The origin of the dispute dated back, however,
+to 1892, when Abbas Hilmi became khedive. Mehemet Ali and his successors
+up to and including Tewfik had not only administered the Sinai peninsula
+but certain posts on the Hejaz or Arabian side of the gulf of Akaba. The
+firman of investiture issued by the sultan on the occasion of the
+succession of Abbas differed, however, from the text of former firmans,
+the intention being, apparently, to exclude Egypt from the
+administration of the Sinai peninsula. The British government intervened
+and after considerable pressure upon Turkey obtained a telegram (dated
+the 8th of April 1892) from the grand vizier in which it was declared
+that the _status quo_ was maintained in the Sinai peninsula, but that
+the sultan resumed possession of the posts in the Hejaz heretofore
+garrisoned by Egypt. To this last course Great Britain raised no
+objection. As officially stated by the British government at the time,
+the eastern frontier of the Sinai peninsula was taken to be a line
+running in a south-easterly direction from Rafa, a place on the
+Mediterranean, east of El Arish, to the head of the gulf of Akaba. The
+fort of Akaba and other posts farther east Egypt abandoned. So matters
+rested until in 1905 in consequence of lawlessness among the Bedouins of
+the peninsula a British official was appointed commandant and inspector
+of the peninsula and certain administrative measures taken. The report
+was spread by pan-Islamic agents that the intention of the Egyptian
+government was to construct fortifications on the frontier near Akaba,
+to which place the Turks were building a branch railway from the
+Damascus-Mecca line. In January 1906 the sultan complained to the
+British ambassador at Constantinople of Egyptian encroachments on
+Turkish territory, whereupon the khedive asked that the frontier should
+be delimited, a request which Turkey rejected. A small Egyptian force
+was then directed to occupy Taba, a port near Akaba but on the western
+side of the gulf. Before this force could reach Taba that place had been
+seized by the Turkish commandant at Akaba. A period of considerable
+tension ensued, the Turks removing the boundary posts at Rafa and
+sending strong reinforcements to the frontier. The British government
+intervened on behalf of the khedive and consistently maintained that the
+Rafa-Akaba line must be the frontier. In April a conference was held
+between the khedive and Mukhtar Pasha, the Ottoman commissioner. It then
+appeared that Turkey was unwilling to recognize the British
+interpretation of the telegram of the 8th of April 1892. Turkey claimed
+that the peninsula of Sinai consisted only of the territory south of a
+straight line from Akaba to Suez, and that Egyptian territory north of
+that line was traced from Rafa to Suez. As a compromise Mukhtar Pasha
+suggested as the frontier a line drawn direct from Rafa to Ras Mahommed
+(the most southern point of the Sinai peninsula), which would have left
+the whole of the gulf of Akaba in Turkish territory. In other words the
+claim of the Porte was, to quote Lord Cromer:--
+
+  "to carry the Turkish frontier and strategical railways to Suez on the
+  banks of the canal; or that if the Ras Mahommed line were adopted, the
+  Turkish frontier would be advanced to the neighbourhood of Nekhl, i.e.
+  within easy striking distance of Egypt, and that ... the gulf of Akaba
+  ... would practically become a _mare clausum_ in the possession of
+  Turkey and a standing menace to the security of the trade route to the
+  East."
+
+Such proposals could not be entertained by Great Britain; and as the
+sultan remained obstinate the British ambassador on the 3rd of May
+presented a note to the Porte requiring compliance with the British
+proposals within ten days. The Turkish ambassador in London was informed
+by Sir Edward Grey, foreign secretary, that if it were found that
+Turkish suzerainty in Egypt were incompatible with the rights of the
+British government to interfere in Egyptian affairs, and with the
+British occupation, the British position in Egypt would be upheld by the
+whole force of the empire. Thereupon the sultan gave way and agreed (on
+the 14th of May) that the line of demarcation should start at Rafa and
+run towards the south-east "in an approximately straight line as far as
+a point on the gulf of Akaba at least 3 m. distant from Akaba."[30] The
+Turkish troops were withdrawn from Taba, and the delimitation of the
+frontier was undertaken by a joint Turco-Egyptian commission. An
+agreement was signed on the 1st of October finally settling the frontier
+line.
+
+With the ending of this dispute and the strengthening of the British
+garrison in Egypt a demonstration was given of the ability of the
+protecting power to maintain its position. At the same time
+encouragement was given to that section of Egyptian society which sought
+the reform of various Moslem institutions without injury to the
+principles underlying the faith of Islam: a more truly national movement
+than that of the agitators who clamoured for parliamentary government.
+
+
+  Resignation of Lord Cromer.
+
+In April 1907, a few days after the appearance of his report for 1906,
+in which the "Nationalist" and pan-Islamic movements were shown to be
+detrimental to the welfare of Egypt, Lord Cromer resigned his post of
+British agent and consul-general. His resignation, dictated by reasons
+of health, was described by Sir Edward Grey as "the greatest personal
+loss which the public service of this country (Britain) could suffer."
+Lord Cromer's work was in a sense complete. He left the country in a
+state of unexampled material prosperity, free from the majority of the
+international fetters with which it was bound when he took up his task
+in 1883, and with the legitimate expectation that the work he had done
+would endure. The magnitude of the task he had accomplished is shown by
+the preceding pages, and it need only be added that the transformation
+effected in Egypt and the Sudan, during his twenty-four years' occupancy
+of the British Agency, was carried out in every department under his
+guidance and inspiration. Lord Cromer was succeeded by Sir Eldon Gorst,
+who had served in Egypt eighteen years under him, and was at the time of
+his appointment to Cairo an assistant under secretary of state for
+foreign affairs.
+
+Notwithstanding, or, rather, as a consequence of, the unexampled
+material prosperity of the country, 1907 was a year of severe financial
+crisis, due to over-trading, excessive credit and the building mania
+induced by the rapid economic progress of Egypt, and aggravated by the
+unfavourable monetary conditions existing in America and Europe during
+the latter part of the year. Though the crisis had results disastrous to
+the speculators, the position of the fellahin was hardly affected; the
+cotton crop was marketed with regularity and at an average price higher
+than that of 1906, while public revenue showed a satisfactory increase.
+The noisy "Nationalist" agitation which was maintained during this
+period of financial stringency reacted unfavourably on public order.
+Although the degree of insecurity prevailing in the provinces was
+greatly exaggerated--serious crime in 1907 being less than in the
+preceding year--an increasing number of crimes were left untraced to
+their authors. The release of the Denshawai prisoners in January 1908
+and the death of Mustafa Kamel in the following month had a quieting
+effect on the public mind; while the fact that in the elections
+(December 1907) for the legislative council and the general assembly
+only 5% of the electors went to the polls, afforded a striking
+commentary alike on the appreciation of the average Egyptian of the
+value of parliamentary institutions and of the claims of the
+"Nationalist" members of the assembly to represent the Egyptian people.
+The "Nationalists" were, too, divided into many warring
+sections--Mahommed Bey Ferid, chosen as successor to Mustafa Kamel, had
+to contend with the pretensions of several other "leaders." The khedive,
+moreover, markedly abstained from any association with the agitation of
+the Nationalists, who viewed with disfavour his highness's personal
+friendship with Sir Eldon Gorst. The agitators gained their chief
+strength from the support accorded them by certain Radical politicians
+in England. A number of members of the council and assembly visited
+England in July 1908 and were received by Sir Edward Grey, who gave them
+assurances that Great Britain would always strive to remedy the
+legitimate grievances of Egyptians.
+
+The establishment of constitutional rule in Turkey in the summer of 1908
+excited the hopes of the Egyptian Nationalists, and a deputation was
+sent to Constantinople to confer with the Young Turk committee. From the
+Young Turks, however, the deputation received no encouragement for their
+agitation and returned with the advice to work in co-operation with the
+British. In view of the rumours current, Sir Eldon Gorst, in the form of
+an interview in _El Mokattam_, a widely read native paper, restated
+(October 1908) the British view as to the occupation of the country and
+the demand for a parliament. Great Britain, he declared, had no
+intention of proclaiming a protectorate over Egypt; on the other hand,
+recent events in Turkey in no way affected the question of
+self-government in Egypt. It would be folly to think of introducing
+unrestricted parliamentary government at present, the conditions for its
+successful working not existing. The "wild and foolish" agitation on
+this question only served to confirm the impression that the Egyptians
+were not yet fit to govern themselves. At the same time steps were being
+taken to give them a much greater part in the management of local
+affairs. If the Egyptians showed that the existing institutions and the
+new provincial councils could do useful work, it would prove the best
+argument for extending their powers. Sir Eldon Gorst's statements were
+approved by the British government.
+
+In November 1908 Mustafa Fehmi, who had been premier since 1895,
+resigned, and was succeeded by Boutros Pasha, a Copt of marked ability,
+who had been for several years foreign minister. Boutros incurred the
+enmity of the "Nationalists" and was murdered in February 1910.
+     (D. M. W.; F. R. C.)
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--D. A. Cameron, _Egypt in the Nineteenth Century_
+  (London, 1898), a clear and useful summary of events up to 1882; E.
+  Dicey, _The Story of the Khedivate_ (London, 1902); J. C. McCoan,
+  _Egypt under Ismail_ (London, 1899); P. Mouriez, _Histoire de
+  Mehemet-Ali_ (4 vols., Paris, 1855-1858); L. Brehier, _L'Egypte de
+  1789 a 1900_ (Paris, 1901); C. de Freycinet, _La Question d'Egypte_
+  (Paris, 1905). See also MEHEMET ALI.
+
+  For the period immediately preceding and during the British occupation
+  the standard authority is Lord Cromer's _Modern Egypt_ (2 vols.,
+  London, 1908). In this invaluable work the history of Egypt from 1875
+  to 1892 and that of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan from 1882 to 1907 is
+  treated fully. Lord Cromer's annual reports (1888-1906) to the British
+  government on the affairs of Egypt should also be consulted. Next in
+  interest are Alfred (Lord) Milner's _England in Egypt_ (11th ed.,
+  London, 1904), and Sir A. Colvin's _The Making of Modern Egypt_
+  (London, 1906). Consult also _Khedives and Pashas_ (London, 1884), by
+  C. F. Moberly Bell (published anonymously); D. M. Wallace, _Egypt and
+  the Egyptian Question_ (London, 1883); W. S. Blunt, _Secret History of
+  the English Occupation of Egypt_ (2nd ed., London, 1907), a partisan
+  record; C. v. Malortie, _Egypt_, _Native Rulers and Foreign
+  Interference_, 2 vols. (London, 1883); O. Borelli, _Choses politiques
+  d'Egypte_, 1883-1895 (Paris, 1895); H. Resener, _Agypten unter
+  englischer Okkupation_ (Berlin, 1896). Morley's _Life of Gladstone_
+  and Fitzmaurice's _Life of Granville_ throw considerable light on the
+  inner history of the period 1880-1893. See further the historical
+  works cited in SUDAN: _Anglo-Egyptian_, and those given at the end of
+  the first section of this article.
+
+  For military operations 1882-1899 see C. Royle, _The Egyptian
+  Campaigns 1882 to 1899_, revised ed. (London, 1900); H. Brackenbury,
+  _Narrative of the Advance of the River Column of the Nile
+  Expeditionary Force_ (Edinburgh, 1885); Sir W. F. Butler, _Campaign of
+  the Cataracts_ (London, 1887); Count A. E. W. Gleichen, _With the
+  Camel Corps up the Nile_ (London, 1888); _Gordon's Last Journal_
+  (London, 1885); Sir C. W. Wilson, _From Korti to Khartum_ (Edinburgh,
+  1886); J. Grant, _Cassell's History of the War in the Soudan_, 6 vols.
+  (London, 1885 et seq.); "An Officer," _Sudan Campaigns_ 1896-1899
+  (London, 1899); G. W. Steevens, _With Kitchener to Khartum_
+  (Edinburgh, 1898); W. S. Churchill, _The River War_, new edition
+  (London, 1902).
+
+  Bibliographical notes for each section of this article are given in
+  their several places. The following bibliographies may be consulted:
+  Ibrahim Hilmi, _Literature of Egypt and the Soudan_, 2 vols. (London,
+  1886-1888); H. Jolowicz, _Bibliotheca aegyptiaca_ (Leipzig, 1858;
+  supplement, 1861); M. Hartmann, _The Arabic Press of Egypt_ (London,
+  1899).     (F. R. C.)
+
+
+MILITARY OPERATIONS OF 1882-1885
+
+  Bombardment of Alexandria.
+
+In February 1879 a slight outbreak of discharged officers and soldiers
+occurred at Cairo, which led to the despatch of British and French ships
+to Alexandria. On the 26th of June of that year Ismail Pasha was removed
+from Egypt, and Tewfik assumed the khediviate, becoming practically the
+_protege_ of the two western powers. On the 1st of February 1881 a more
+serious disturbance arose at Cairo from the attempt to try three
+colonels, Ahmed Arabi, Ali Fehmy, and Abd-el-Al, who had been arrested
+as the ringleaders of the military party. The prisoners were released by
+force, and proceeded to dictate terms to the khedive. Again British and
+French warships were despatched to Alexandria, and were quickly
+withdrawn, their presence having produced no apparent impression. It
+soon became clear that the khedive was powerless, and that the military
+party, headed by Arabi, threatened to dominate the country. The "dual
+note," communicated to the khedive on the 6th of January 1881, contained
+an intimation that Great Britain and France were prepared to afford
+material support if necessary; but the fall of Gambetta's ministry
+produced a reaction, and both governments proceeded to minimize the
+meaning of their language. The khedive was practically compelled to form
+a government in which Arabi was minister of war and Mahmud Sami premier,
+and Arabi took steps to extend his influence throughout his army. The
+situation now became critically serious: for the third time ships were
+sent to Alexandria, and on the 25th of May 1882 the consuls-general of
+the two powers made a strong representation to Mahmud Sami which
+produced the resignation of the Egyptian ministry, and a demand, to
+which the khedive yielded, by the military party for the reinstatement
+of Arabi. The attitude of the troops in Alexandria now became
+threatening; and on the 29th the British residents pointed out that they
+were "absolutely defenceless." This warning was amply justified by the
+massacres of the 11th of June, during which more than one hundred
+persons, including an officer and two seamen, were killed in the streets
+of Alexandria, almost under the guns of the ships in harbour. It was
+becoming clear that definite action would have to be taken, and on the
+15th the channel squadron was ordered to Malta. By the end of June
+twenty-six warships, representing the navies of Great Britain, France,
+Germany, Italy, Austria, Russia, the United States, Spain, Greece and
+Turkey, lay off the port of Alexandria, and large numbers of refugees
+were embarked. The order received by Admiral Sir Beauchamp Seymour
+(afterwards Lord Alcester) on the 3rd of July was as follows:--
+
+  "Prevent any attempt to bar channel into port. If work is resumed on
+  earthworks, or fresh guns mounted, inform military commander that you
+  have orders to prevent it; and if not immediately discontinued,
+  destroy earthworks and silence batteries if they open fire, having
+  given sufficient notice to population, shipping and foreign
+  men-of-war."
+
+On the 9th the admiral received a report that working parties had been
+seen in Fort Silsileh "parbuckling two smoothbore guns--apparently
+32-pounders--towards their respective carriages and slides, which were
+facing in the direction of the harbour." Fort Silsileh was an old work
+at the extreme east of the defences of Alexandria, and its guns do not
+bear on the harbour. On the 10th an ultimatum was sent to Toulba Pasha,
+the military commandant, intimating that the bombardment would commence
+at sunrise on the following morning unless "the batteries on the isthmus
+of Ras-el-Tin and the southern shore of the harbour of Alexandria" were
+previously surrendered "for the purpose of disarming." The fleet
+prepared for action, and the bearer of the reply, signed by the
+president of the council, and offering to dismount three guns in the
+batteries named, only succeeded in finding the flagship late at night.
+This proposal was rejected, and at 7 A.M. on the 11th of July the
+"Alexandra" opened fire and the action became general. The attacking
+force was disposed in three groups: (1) the "Alexandra," "Sultan" and
+"Superb," outside the reef, to engage the Ras-el-Tin and the earthworks
+under weigh; (2) the "Monarch," "Invincible" and "Penelope," inside the
+harbour, to engage the Meks batteries; and (3) the "Inflexible" and
+"Temeraire," to take up assigned stations outside the reef and to
+co-operate with the inshore squadron. The gunboats "Beacon," "Bittern,"
+"Condor," "Cygnet" and "Decoy" were to keep out of fire at first and
+seek opportunities of engaging the Meks batteries. Meks fort was
+silenced by about 12.45 P.M., and a party from the "Invincible" landed
+and disabled the guns. As the fire delivered under weigh was not
+effective, the offshore squadron anchored at about 10.30 A.M., and
+succeeded in silencing Fort Ras-el-Tin at about 12.30 P.M., and Fort
+Adda, by the explosion of the main magazine, at 1.35 P.M. The
+"Inflexible" weighed soon after 8 A.M. and engaged Ras-el-Tin,
+afterwards attacking Forts Pharos and Adda. The "Condor," followed by
+the "Beacon," "Bittern" and "Decoy," engaged Fort Marabout soon after 8
+A.M. till 11 A.M., when the gunboats were recalled. After the works were
+silenced, the ships moved in closer, with a view to dismount the
+Egyptian guns. The bombardment ceased at 5 P.M.; but a few rounds were
+fired by the "Inflexible" and "Temeraire" on the morning of the 12th at
+the right battery in Ras-el-Tin lines.
+
+  The bombardment of the forts of Alexandria is interesting as a gauge
+  of the effect to be expected from the fire of ships under specially
+  favourable conditions. The Egyptians at different times during the day
+  brought into action about 33 R.M.L. guns (7-in. to 10-in.), 3 R.B.L.
+  guns (40 prs.), and 120 S.B. guns (6.5-in. and 10-in.), with a few
+  mortars. These guns were disposed over a coast-line of about 10 sea
+  miles, and were in many cases indifferently mounted. The Egyptian
+  gunners had been little trained, and many of them had never once
+  practised with rifled ordnance. Of seventy-five hits on the hulls of
+  the ships only five can with certainty be ascribed to projectiles from
+  rifled guns, and thirty were unquestionably due to the old
+  smoothbores, which were not provided with sights. The total loss
+  inflicted was 6 killed and 27 wounded. The British ships engaged fired
+  1741 heavy projectiles (7-in. to 16-in.) and 1457 light (7-prs. to
+  64-prs.), together with 33,493 machine-gun and rifle bullets. The
+  result was comparatively small. About 8 rifled guns and 19 smoothbores
+  were dismounted or disabled and 4 and 1 temporarily put out of action
+  respectively. A considerable portion of this injury was inflicted,
+  after the works had been silenced, by the deliberate fire of the
+  ships. As many as twenty-eight rifled guns and 140 smoothbores would
+  have opened fire on the following day. The Egyptians made quite as
+  good a stand as could be expected, but were driven from their guns,
+  which they were unable to use with adequate effect; and the
+  bombardment of Alexandria confirms previous experience that the fire
+  of ships cannot really compete with that of well-mounted and
+  well-handled guns on shore.
+
+In the afternoon of the 12th, fires, which were the work of
+incendiaries, began to break out in the best quarters of Alexandria; and
+the town was left to murder and pillage till the following day, when a
+party of bluejackets and marines was landed at about 3 P.M.
+
+
+  British expedition under Sir Garnet Wolseley.
+
+  Tell-el-Kebir.
+
+Military intervention being now imperatively demanded, a vote of credit
+for L2,300,000 was passed in the British House of Commons on the 27th of
+July. Five days later the French government failed to secure a similar
+vote, and Great Britain was left to deal with the Egyptian question
+alone. An expeditionary force detailed from home stations and from
+Malta was organized in two divisions, with a cavalry division, corps
+troops, and a siege train, numbering in all about 25,000 men. An Indian
+contingent numbering about 7000 combatants, complete in all arms and
+with its own transport, was prepared for despatch to Suez. General Sir
+Garnet Wolseley was appointed commander-in-chief, with
+Lieutenant-General Sir J. Adye as chief of the staff. The plan of
+operations contemplated the seizure of Ismailia as the base for an
+advance on Cairo, Alexandria and its suburbs to be held defensively, and
+the Egyptian forces in the neighbourhood to be occupied by
+demonstrations. The expeditionary force having rendezvoused at
+Alexandria, means were taken by Rear-Admiral Hoskins and Sir W. Hewett
+for the seizure of the Suez canal. Under orders from the former, Captain
+Fairfax, R.N., occupied Port Said on the night of 19th August, and
+Commander Edwards, R.N., proceeded down the canal, taking possession of
+the _gares_ and dredgers, while Captain Fitzroy, R.N., occupied Ismailia
+after slight opposition. Before nightfall on the 20th of August the
+canal was wholly in British hands. Meanwhile, leaving Sir E. Hamley in
+command at Alexandria, Sir G. Wolseley with the bulk of the
+expeditionary force arrived at Port Said on the 20th of August, a naval
+demonstration having been made at Abukir with a view to deceive the
+enemy as to the object of the great movement in progress. The advance
+from Ismailia now began. On the 21st Major-General Graham moved from
+Ismailia with about 800 men and a small naval force, occupying Nefiche,
+the junction with the Suez line, at 1.30 A.M. without opposition. On the
+22nd he made a reconnaissance towards Suez, and on the 23rd another to
+El-Magfar, 4 m. from Nefiche. It now appeared that the enemy had dammed
+the sweet-water canal and blocked the railway at Tell-el-Mahuta, where
+entrenchments had been thrown up and resistance seemed to be
+contemplated. At 4 A.M. on the 24th Sir Garnet Wolseley advanced with 3
+squadrons of cavalry, 2 guns, and about 1000 infantry, placed under the
+orders of Lieutenant-General Willis. The enemy showed in force,
+estimated at 7000 with 12 guns, and a somewhat desultory action ensued.
+Reinforcements from Ismailia were ordered up, and the British cavalry,
+operating on the right, helped to check the enemy's attack, which showed
+little vigour. At night the troops, now reinforced by the Guards
+Brigade, an infantry battalion, 2 cavalry regiments and 10 guns,
+bivouacked on the ground. Early on the morning of the 25th the advance
+was continued to Tell-el-Mahuta, which the enemy evacuated, while the
+mounted troops and horse artillery pressed on to Mahsama, capturing the
+Egyptian camp, with 7 guns and large quantities of ammunition and
+supplies. On the same evening Major-General Graham, with about 1200
+marines (artillery and light infantry), reached Mahsama, and on the
+following day he occupied Kassassin without opposition. The advance
+guard had now outrun its communications and was actually short of food,
+while a considerable force was distributed at intervals along the line
+Ismailia-Kassassin. The situation on the 27th tempted attack by an
+enterprising enemy, and Major-General Graham's force, consisting of a
+squadron of the 19th Hussars, the York and Lancaster Regiment, the duke
+of Cornwall's Light Infantry, the Marine Artillery Battalion and two
+R.H.A. guns, short of ammunition, was in danger of being overwhelmed by
+vastly superior numbers from Tell-el-Kebir. On the 28th Major-General
+Graham's troops were attacked, and after repulsing the enemy, made a
+general advance about 6.45 P.M. The cavalry, summoned by heliograph from
+Mahsama, co-operated, and in a moonlight charge inflicted considerable
+loss. The British casualties amounted to 14 killed and 83 wounded.
+During the lull which followed the first action of Kassassin, strenuous
+efforts were made to bring up supplies and troops and to open up railway
+communication to the front. On the 9th of September the Egyptians again
+attacked Kassassin, but were completely repulsed by 9 A.M., with a loss
+of 4 guns, and were pursued to within extreme range of the guns of
+Tell-el-Kebir. The British casualties were 3 killed and 78 wounded. The
+three following days were occupied in concentrating troops at Kassassin
+for the attack on Tell-el-Kebir, held by about 38,000 men with 60 guns.
+The Egyptian defences consisted of a long line of trench (2-1/2 m.)
+approximately at right angles to the railway and the sweet-water canal.
+At 11 P.M. on the 12th of September the advance of about 15,000 men
+commenced; the 1st division, under Lieutenant-General Willis, was on the
+right, and the 2nd division, under Lieutenant-General Hamley, was on the
+left. Seven batteries of artillery, under Brigadier-General Goodenough,
+were placed in the centre. The cavalry, under Major-General Drury Lowe,
+was on the right flank, and the Indian contingent, under Major-General
+Macpherson, starting one hour later, was ordered to move south of the
+sweet-water canal. The night was moonless, and the distance to be
+covered about 6-1/4 m. The ground was perfectly open, slightly
+undulating, and generally firm gravel. The conditions for a night march
+were thus ideal; but during the movement the wings closed towards each
+other, causing great risk of an outbreak of firing. The line was,
+however, rectified, and after a halt the final advance began. By a
+fortunate accident the isolated outwork was just missed in the darkness
+by the left flank of the 2nd Division; otherwise a premature alarm would
+have been given, which must have changed all the conditions of the
+operation. At dawn the Highland Brigade of the 2nd Division struck the
+enemy's trenches, and carried them after a brief struggle. The 1st
+Division attacked a few minutes later, and the cavalry swept round the
+left of the line of entrenchments, cutting down any fugitives who
+attempted resistance and reaching the enemy's camp in rear. The Indian
+contingent, on the south of the canal, co-operated, intercepting the
+Egyptians at the canal bridge. The opposition encountered at some points
+was severe, but by 6 A.M. all resistance was at an end. The British loss
+amounted to 58 killed, 379 wounded and 22 missing; nearly 2000 Egyptians
+were killed, and more than 500 wounded were treated in hospital. An
+immediate pursuit was ordered, and the Indian contingent, under
+Major-General Macpherson, reached Zagazig, while the cavalry, under
+Major-General Drury Lowe, occupied Belbeis and pushed on to Cairo, 65 m.
+from Tell-el-Kebir, next day. On the evening of the 14th the 10,000
+troops occupying Abbasia barracks, and 5000 in the citadel of Cairo,
+surrendered. On the 15th General Sir Garnet Wolseley, with the brigade
+of Guards under H.R.H. the duke of Connaught, entered the city.
+
+The prompt following up of the victory at Tell-el-Kebir saved Cairo from
+the fate of Alexandria and brought the rebellion to an end. The Egyptian
+troops at Kafr Dauar, Abukir and Rosetta surrendered without opposition,
+and those at Damietta followed on the 23rd of September, after being
+threatened with attack. On the 25th the khedive entered Cairo, where a
+review of the British troops was held on the 30th. The expeditionary
+force was now broken up, leaving about 10,000 men, under Major-General
+Sir A. Alison, to maintain the authority of the khedive. In twenty-five
+days, from the landing at Ismailia to the occupation of Cairo, the
+rebellion was completely suppressed, and the operations were thus
+signally successful.
+
+
+  The Sudan question.
+
+The authority of the khedive and the maintenance of law and order now
+depended absolutely on the British forces left in occupation. Lord
+Dufferin, who had been sent to Cairo to draw up a project of
+constitutional reforms, advocated the re-establishment of a native army,
+not to exceed 5000 to 6000 men, with a proportion of British officers,
+for purely defence purposes within the Delta; and on the 13th of
+December 1882 Sir Evelyn Wood left England to undertake the organization
+of this force, with the title of sirdar. Lord Dufferin further advised
+the formation of a gendarmerie, which "should be in a great measure a
+mounted force and empowered with a semi-military character" (despatch of
+January 1st, 1883). The strength of this military police force was fixed
+at 4400 men with 2562 horses, and Baker Pasha (General Valentine Baker)
+was entrusted with its formation, with the title of inspector-general.
+
+In a despatch of the 6th of February 1883 Lord Dufferin dealt with the
+Sudan, and stated that Egypt "could hardly be expected to acquiesce" in
+a policy of withdrawal from her Southern territories. At the same time
+he pointed out that,
+
+  "Unhappily, Egyptian administration in the Sudan had been almost
+  uniformly unfortunate. The success of the present mahdi in raising the
+  tribes and extending his influence over great tracts of country was a
+  sufficient proof of the government's inability either to reconcile the
+  inhabitants to its rule or to maintain order. The consequences had
+  been most disastrous. Within the last year and a half the Egyptians
+  had lost something like 9000 men, while it was estimated that 40,000
+  of their opponents had perished."
+
+Moreover, to restore tranquillity in the Sudan,
+
+  "the first step necessary was the construction of a railway from
+  Suakin to Berber, or what, perhaps, would be more advisable, to
+  Shendi, on the Nile. The completion of this enterprise would at once
+  change all the elements of the problem."
+
+
+  Disaster to Hicks Pasha.
+
+The immense responsibilities involved were most imperfectly understood
+by the British government. Egyptian sovereignty in the Sudan dates from
+1820, when Mehemet Ali sent a large force into the country, and
+ultimately established his authority over Sennar and Kordofan. In 1865
+Suakin and Massawa were assigned to Egyptian rule by the sultan, and in
+1870 Sir Samuel Baker proceeded up the Nile to the conquest of the
+Equatorial provinces, of which General Gordon was appointed
+governor-general in 1874. In the same year Darfur and Harrar were
+annexed, and in 1877 Gordon became governor-general of the Sudan, where,
+with the valuable assistance of Gessi Pasha, he laboured to destroy the
+slave trade and to establish just government. In August 1879 he returned
+to Cairo, and was succeeded by Raouf Pasha. Misrule and oppression in
+every form now again prevailed throughout the Sudan, while the slave
+traders, exasperated by Gordon's stern measures, were ready to revolt.
+The authority of Egypt was represented by scattered garrisons of armed
+men, badly officered, undisciplined and largely demoralized. In such
+conditions a leader only was required to ensure widespread and dangerous
+rebellion. A leader appeared in the person of Mahommed Ahmed, born in
+1848, who had taken up his abode on Abba Island, and, acquiring great
+reputation for sanctity, had actively fomented insurrection. In August
+1881 a small force sent by Raouf Pasha to arrest Mahommed Ahmed was
+destroyed, and the latter, proclaiming himself the mahdi, stood forth as
+the champion of revolt. Thus, at the time when the Egyptian army was
+broken up at Tell-el-Kebir, the Sudan was already in flames. On the 7th
+of June 1882, 6000 men under Yusef Pasha, advancing from Fashoda, were
+nearly annihilated by the mahdists. Payara and Birket in Kordofan
+quickly fell, and a few days before the battle of Tell-el-Kebir was
+fought, the mahdi, with a large force, was besieging El Obeid. That town
+was captured, after an obstinate defence, on the 17th of January 1883,
+by which time almost the whole of the Sudan south of Khartum was in open
+rebellion, except the Bahr-el-Ghazal and the Equatorial provinces, where
+for a time Lupton Bey and Emin Pasha were able to hold their own.
+Abd-el-Kader, who had succeeded Raouf, telegraphed to Cairo for 10,000
+additional troops, and pointed out that if they were not sent at once
+four times this number would be required to re-establish the authority
+of the government in the Sudan. After gaining some small successes,
+Abd-el-Kader was superseded by Suliman Niagi on the 20th of February
+1883, and on the 26th of March Ala-ed-din Pasha was appointed
+governor-general. Meanwhile 5000 men, who had served in the Egyptian
+army, were collected and forcibly despatched to Khartum via Suakin. In
+March 1883 Colonel William Hicks, late of the Bombay army, who in
+January had been appointed by the khedive chief of the staff of the army
+of the Sudan, found himself at Khartum with nine European officers and
+about 10,000 troops of little military value. The reconquest of the
+Sudan having been determined upon, although Sir E. Malet reported that
+the Egyptian government could not supply the necessary funds, and that
+there was great risk of failure, Colonel Hicks, who had resigned his
+post on the 23rd of July, and had been appointed commander-in-chief,
+started from Khartum on 9th September, with a total force of about
+10,000 men, including non-combatants, for Kordofan. On the 22nd of May
+Sir E. Malet had informed Sherif Pasha that,
+
+  "although Colonel Hicks finds it convenient to communicate with Lord
+  Dufferin or with me, it must not be supposed that we endorse in any
+  way the contents of his telegrams.... Her Majesty's government are in
+  no way responsible for his operations in the Sudan, which have been
+  undertaken under the authority of His Highness's government."
+
+Colonel Hicks was fully aware of the unfitness of his rabble forces for
+the contemplated task, and on the 5th of August he telegraphed: "I am
+convinced it would be best to keep the two rivers and province of
+Sennar, and wait for Kordofan to settle itself." Early in November the
+force from Khartum was caught by the mahdists short of water at Kashgil,
+near El Obeid, and was almost totally destroyed, Colonel Hicks, with all
+his European officers, perishing. Sinister rumours having reached Cairo,
+Sir E. Baring (Lord Cromer), who had succeeded Sir E. Malet, telegraphed
+that "if Colonel Hicks's army is destroyed, the Egyptian government will
+lose the whole of the Sudan, unless some assistance from the outside is
+given," and advised the withdrawal to some post on the Nile. On the
+following day Lord Granville replied: "We cannot lend English or Indian
+troops; if consulted, recommend abandonment of the Sudan within certain
+limits"; and on the 25th he added that "Her Majesty's government can do
+nothing in the matter which would throw upon them the responsibilities
+for operations in the Sudan." In a despatch of the 3rd of December Sir
+E. Baring forcibly argued against British intervention in the affairs of
+the Sudan, and on the 13th of December Lord Granville telegraphed that
+"Her Majesty's government recommend the ministers of khedive to come to
+an early decision to abandon all territory south of Assuan, or, at
+least, of Wadi Halfa." On the 4th of January 1884 Sir E. Baring was
+directed to insist upon the policy of evacuation, and on the 18th
+General Gordon left London to assist in its execution.
+
+
+  Defeat of General Baker.
+
+The year 1883 brought a great accession of power to the mahdi, who had
+captured about 20,000 rifles, 19 guns and large stores of ammunition. On
+the Red Sea littoral Osman Digna, a slave dealer of Suakin, appointed
+amir of the Eastern Sudan, raised the local tribes and invested Sinkat
+and Tokar. On the 16th of October and the 4th of November Egyptian
+reinforcements intended for the former place were destroyed, and on the
+2nd of December a force of 700 men was annihilated near Tamanieb. On the
+23rd of December General Valentine Baker, followed by about 2500 men,
+gendarmerie, blacks, Sudanese and Turks, with 10 British officers,
+arrived at Suakin to prepare for the relief of Sinkat and Tokar. The
+khedive appears to have been aware of the risks to be incurred, and in a
+private letter he informed the general that "I rely upon your prudence
+and ability not to engage the enemy except under the most favourable
+circumstances." The tragedy of Kashgil was repeated on the 4th of
+February 1884, when General Baker's heterogeneous force, on the march
+from Trinkitat to Tokar, was routed at El Teb by an inferior body of
+tribesmen. Of 3715 men, 2375, with 11 European officers, were killed.
+Suakin was now in danger, and on the 6th of February British bluejackets
+and marines were landed for the defence of the town.
+
+
+  British expedition under Sir G. Graham: battles of El Teb and Tamanieb.
+
+Two expeditions in the Sudan led by British officers having thus ended
+in disaster, and General Gordon with Lieutenant-Colonel J. D. Stewart
+having reached Khartum on the 18th of February, the policy of British
+non-intervention in regard to Sudan affairs could no longer be
+maintained. Public opinion in England was strongly impressed by the fact
+that the Egyptian garrisons of Tokar and Sinkat were perishing within
+striking distance of the Red Sea littoral. A British force about 4400
+strong, with 22 guns, made up of troops from Egypt and from units
+detained on passage from India, was rapidly concentrated at Suakin and
+placed under the orders of Major-General Sir G. Graham, with
+Major-Generals Sir R. Buller and J. Davis as brigadiers. News of the
+fall of Sinkat, where the starving garrison, under Tewfik Bey, made a
+gallant sortie and was cut to pieces, reached Suakin on the 12th of
+February. On the 24th General Graham's force disembarked at Trinkitat
+and received information of the surrender of Tokar. At 8 A.M. on the
+29th the force advanced towards Tokar in square, and came under fire at
+11.20 A.M. from the enemy entrenched at El Teb. The tribesmen made
+desperate efforts to rush the square, but were repulsed, and the
+position was taken by 2 P.M. The cavalry, 10th and 19th Hussars, under
+Brigadier-General Sir H. Stewart, became involved in a charge against an
+unbroken enemy, and suffered somewhat severely. The total British loss
+was 34 killed and 155 wounded; that of the tribesmen was estimated at
+1500 killed. On the following day Tokar was reached, and on the 2nd of
+March the force began its return to Suakin, bringing away about 700
+people belonging to the late garrison and the civil population, and
+destroying 1250 rifles and a quantity of ammunition found in a
+neighbouring village. On the 9th of March the whole force was back at
+Suakin, and on the evening of the 11th an advance to Tamai began, and
+the force bivouacked and formed a zeriba in the evening. Information was
+brought by a native that the enemy had assembled in the Khor Ghob, a
+deep ravine not far from the zeriba. At about 8.30 A.M. on the 13th the
+advance began in echelon of brigade squares from the left. The left and
+leading square (2nd Brigade) moved towards the khor, approaching at a
+point where a little ravine joined it. The enemy showing in front, the
+leading face of the square was ordered to charge up to the edge of the
+khor. This opened the square, and a mass of tribesmen rushed in from the
+small ravine. The brigade was forced back in disorder, and the naval
+guns, which had been left behind, were temporarily captured. After a
+severe hand-to-hand struggle, in which the troops behaved with great
+gallantry, order was restored and the enemy repulsed, with the aid of
+the fire from the 1st Brigade square and from dismounted cavalry. The
+1st Brigade square, having a sufficient field of fire, easily repelled
+all attempts to attack, and advancing as soon as the situation had been
+restored, occupied the village of Tamai. The British loss was 109 killed
+and 104 wounded; of the enemy nearly 2000 were killed. On the following
+day the force returned to Suakin.
+
+Two heavy blows had now been inflicted on the followers of Osman Digna,
+and the road to Berber could have been opened, as General Graham and
+Brigadier-General Sir H. Stewart suggested. General Gordon, questioned
+on the point, telegraphed from Khartum, on the 7th of March, that he
+might be cut off by a rising at Shendi, adding, "I think it, therefore,
+most important to follow up the success near Suakin by sending a small
+force to Berber." He had previously, on the 29th of February, urged that
+the Suakin-Berber road should be opened up by Indian troops. This, and
+General Gordon's proposal to send 200 British troops to Wadi Halfa, was
+opposed by Sir E. Baring, who, realizing soon afterwards the gravity of
+the situation, telegraphed on the 16th of March:--
+
+  "It has now become of the utmost importance not only to open the road
+  between Suakin and Berber, but to come to terms with the tribes
+  between Berber and Khartum."
+
+The government refused to take this action, and Major-General Graham's
+force was employed in reconnaissances and small skirmishes, ending in
+the destruction of the villages in the Tamanieb valley on 27th March. On
+the 28th the whole force was reassembled at Suakin, and was then broken
+up, leaving one battalion to garrison the town.
+
+
+  Entanglement of General Gordon at Khartum.
+
+The abrupt disappearance of the British troops encouraged the tribesmen
+led by Osman Digna, and effectually prevented the formation of a native
+movement, which might have been of great value. The first attempt at
+intervention in the affairs of the Sudan was made too late to save
+Sinkat and Tokar. It resulted only in heavy slaughter of the tribesmen,
+which afforded no direct or indirect aid to General Gordon or to the
+policy of evacuation. The public announcement of the latter was a grave
+mistake, which increased General Gordon's difficulties, and the
+situation at Khartum grew steadily worse. On the 24th of March Sir E.
+Baring telegraphed:--
+
+  "The question now is, how to get General Gordon and Colonel Stewart
+  away from Khartum.... Under present circumstances, I think an effort
+  should be made to help General Gordon from Suakin, if it is at all a
+  possible military operation.... We all consider that, however
+  difficult the operations from Suakin may be, they are more practicable
+  than any operations from Korosko and along the Nile."
+
+A telegram from General Gordon, received at Cairo on the 19th of April,
+stated that
+
+  "We have provisions for five months and are hemmed in.... Our position
+  will be much strengthened when the Nile rises.... Sennar, Kassala and
+  Dongola are quite safe for the present."
+
+At the same time he suggested "an appeal to the millionaires of America
+and England" to subscribe money for the cost of "2000 or 3000 nizams"
+(Turkish regulars) to be sent to Berber. A cloud now settled down upon
+Khartum, and subsequent communications were few and irregular. The
+foreign office and General Gordon appeared to be somewhat at cross
+purposes. The former hoped that the garrisons of the Sudan could be
+extricated without fighting. The latter, judging from the tenor of some
+of his telegrams, believed that to accomplish this work entailed the
+suppression of the mahdi's revolt, the strength of which he at first
+greatly underestimated. He had pressed strongly for the employment of
+Zobeir as "an absolute necessity for success" (3rd of March); but this
+was refused, since Sir H. Gordon advised at this time that it would be
+dangerous. On the 9th of March General Gordon proposed, "if the
+immediate evacuation of Khartum is determined upon irrespective of
+outlying towns," to send down the "Cairo _employes_" and the garrison to
+Berber with Lieutenant-Colonel J. D. Stewart, to resign his commission,
+and to proceed with the stores and the steamers to the equatorial
+provinces, which he would consider as placed under the king of the
+Belgians. On the 13th of March Lord Granville gave full power to General
+Gordon to "evacuate Khartum and save that garrison by conducting it
+himself to Berber without delay," and expressed a hope that he would not
+resign his commission.
+
+
+  Relief expedition: question of route.
+
+By the end of March 1884 Sir E. Baring and the British officers in Egypt
+were convinced that force would have to be employed, and the growing
+danger of General Gordon, with the grave national responsibility
+involved, began to be realized in Great Britain. Sir Henry Gordon,
+however, who was in personal communication with Mr Gladstone, considered
+that his brother was in no peril, and for some time disbelieved in the
+need for a relief expedition. Meanwhile it was at least necessary to
+evolve some plan of action, and on the 8th of April the adjutant-general
+addressed a memorandum to the secretary of state for war detailing the
+measures required for placing 6500 British troops "in the neighbourhood
+of Shendi." The battle of the routes began much earlier, and was
+continued for some months. Practically the choice lay between the Nile
+and the Suakin-Berber road. The first involved a distance of 1650 m.
+from Cairo along a river strewn with cataracts, which obstructed
+navigation to all but small boats, except during the period of high
+water. So great was this obstruction that the Nile had never been a
+regular trade route to the Sudan. The second entailed a desert march of
+about 250 m., of which one section, Obak-Bir Mahoba (52 m.), was
+waterless, and the rest had an indifferent water supply (except at
+Ariab, about half-way to Berber), capable, however, of considerable
+development. From Berber the Nile is followed (210 m.) to Khartum. This
+was an ancient trade route with the Sudan, and had been used without
+difficulty by the reinforcements sent to Hicks Pasha in 1883, which were
+accompanied by guns on wheels. The authorities in Egypt, headed by
+General Stephenson, subsequently supported by the Admiral Lord John Hay,
+who sent a naval officer to examine the river as far as Dongola, were
+unanimous in favour of the Suakin-Berber route. From the first
+Major-General Sir A. Clarke, then inspector-general of fortifications,
+strongly urged this plan, and proposed to begin at once a metre gauge
+railway from Suakin, to be constructed by Indian labour under officers
+skilled in laying desert lines. Some preliminary arrangements were made,
+and on the 14th of June the government sanctioned certain measures of
+preparation at Suakin. On the other side were the adjutant-general (Lord
+Wolseley) and a small number of officers who had taken part in the Red
+River expedition of 1870. The memorandum of the adjutant-general above
+referred to was based on the hypothesis that Khartum could not hold out
+beyond the 15th of November, and that the expedition should reach Berber
+by the 20th of October. Steamers were to be employed in such reaches as
+proved practicable, but the force was to be conveyed in special
+whale-boats, by which "the difficulty of transport is reduced to very
+narrow limits." The mounted force was to consist of 400 men on native
+horses and 450 men on horses or camels. The question of routes continued
+to be the subject of animated discussion, and on the 29th of July a
+committee of three officers who had served in the Red River expedition
+reported:--
+
+  "We believe that a brigade can easily be conveyed in small boats from
+  Cairo to Dongola in the time stated by Lord Wolseley; and, further,
+  that should it be necessary to send a still larger force by water to
+  Khartum, that operation will present no insuperable difficulties."
+
+
+  Lord Wolseley sent out; Nile route adopted.
+
+This most inconclusive report, and the baseless idea that the adoption
+of the Nile route would involve no chance of bloodshed, which the
+government was anxious to avoid, seem to have decided the question. On
+the 8th of August the secretary of state for war informed General
+Stephenson that "the time had arrived when some further measures for
+obtaining accurate information as to his (General Gordon's) position,
+and, if necessary, for tendering him assistance, should be adopted."
+General Stephenson still urged the Suakin-Berber route, and was informed
+on the 26th of August that Lord Wolseley would be appointed to take over
+the command in Egypt for the purposes of the expedition, for which a
+vote of credit had been taken in the House of Commons on the 5th of
+August. On the 9th of September Lord Wolseley arrived at Cairo, and the
+plan of operations was somewhat modified. A camel corps of 1100 men
+selected from twenty-eight regiments at home was added, and the
+"fighting force to be placed in line somewhere in the neighbourhood of
+Shendi" was fixed at 5400. The construction of whale-boats began on the
+12th of August, and the first batch arrived at Wadi Halfa on the 14th of
+October, and on the 25th the first boat was hauled through the second
+cataract. The mounted forces proceeded up the banks, and the first
+half-battalion embarked at Gemai, 870 m. from Khartum, on the 5th of
+November, ten days before the date to which it had been assumed General
+Gordon could hold out. In a straggling procession the boats worked their
+way up to Korti, piloted by Canadian _voyageurs_. The labour was very
+great, and the troops, most of whom were having their first lesson in
+rowing, bore the privations of their unaccustomed conditions with
+admirable cheerfulness. By the 25th of December 2220 men had reached
+Korti, of whom about 800 only had been conveyed by the whale-boats, the
+last of which did not arrive till the 27th of January. Beyond Korti lay
+the very difficult section of the river to Abu Hamed, which was quite
+unknown. Meanwhile news of the loss of the "Abbas" and of the murder of
+Colonel J. D. Stewart and his party on the 18th of September had been
+received. A letter from Gordon, dated the 4th of November and received
+on the 17th of November, stated that his steamers would await the
+expedition at Metemma, and added, "We can hold out forty days with ease;
+after that it will be difficult." In his diary, on the 13th of December,
+when his difficulties had become extreme, he noted that "if the
+expeditionary force does not come in ten days, the town may fall."
+
+
+  Stewart's Desert Column; battle of Abu Klea wells.
+
+  Failure of relief expedition.
+
+It was clear at Korti that something must be done at once; and on the
+13th of December 1100 men, with 2200 camels, under General Sir H.
+Stewart, were despatched to occupy Jakdul wells, 96 m. on the desert
+route to Metemma. Stewart returned on the 5th of January, and started
+again on the 8th, with orders to establish a fort at Abu Klea and to
+occupy Metemma. The Desert Column, 1800 men, with 2880 camels in poor
+condition and 153 horses, found the enemy in possession of Abu Klea
+wells on the 16th, and was desperately attacked on the 17th. The want
+of homogeneity of the force, and the unaccustomed tactics imposed upon
+the cavalry, somewhat hampered the defence, and the square was broken at
+the left rear corner. Driven back upon the camels in the centre, the
+troops fought hand to hand with the greatest gallantry. Order was
+quickly restored, and the attack was repulsed, with a loss of 74 killed
+and 94 wounded. At least 1100 of the enemy were killed. The wells being
+occupied and a zeriba formed, the column started on the evening of the
+18th. The wrong road was taken, and great confusion occurred, during the
+night, but at dawn this was rectified; and after forming a rough fort
+under fire, by which General Sir H. Stewart was fatally wounded, an
+advance was made at 3 P.M. The square was again heavily attacked, but
+the Arabs could not get to close quarters and in the evening a bivouac
+was formed on the Nile. The British losses on this day were 23 killed
+and 98 wounded. The Desert Column was now greatly exhausted. On the 20th
+the village of Gubat was occupied; and on the following day Sir C.
+Wilson, on whom the command had devolved, advanced against Metemma,
+which was found too strong to assault. On this day General Gordon's four
+steamers arrived; and on the morning of the 24th Sir C. Wilson, with 20
+British soldiers in red coats and about 280 Sudanese, started in the
+"Bordein" and "Telahawiyeh" for Khartum. The "Bordein" grounded on the
+following day, and again on the 26th, by which twenty-four hours were
+lost. At 11 A.M. on the 28th Khartum was sighted, and it soon became
+clear that the town was in the hands of the enemy. After reconnoitring
+farther, the steamers turned and proceeded down stream under a heavy
+fire, the Sudanese crews showing signs of disaffection. The
+"Telahawiyeh" was wrecked on the 29th of January and the "Bordein" on
+the 31st, Sir C. Wilson's party being rescued on the 4th of February by
+Lord C. Beresford in the "Safieh," which had come up from Gubat on
+receipt of news carried there by Lieutenant Stuart Wortley in a
+row-boat. Khartum had been taken and General Gordon killed on the
+morning of the 26th of January 1885, having thus held out thirty-four
+days beyond the date when he had expected the end. The garrison had been
+reduced to starvation; and the arrival of twenty British soldiers, with
+orders to return at once, could not have affected the situation. The
+situation of the Desert Column and of its transport was most imperfectly
+understood at Korti, where impossible plans were formed. Fortunately
+Major-General Sir R. Buller, who arrived at Gubat on the 11th of
+February, decided upon withdrawal, thus averting impending disaster, and
+by the 16th of March the Desert Column had returned to Korti.
+
+The advance from Korti of the River Column, under Major-General Earle,
+began on the 28th of December, and great difficulties of navigation were
+encountered. On the 10th of February an action was fought at Kirbekan
+with about 800 of the enemy, entailing a loss of 10 killed, including
+Major-General Earle, and 47 wounded. The column, now commanded by
+Brigadier-General Brackenbury, continued its slow advance, and on the
+morning of the 24th of February it was about 26 m. below Abu Hamed, a
+point where the Korosko desert route strikes the Nile, 350 m. from
+Khartum. Here it received orders to retire, and it reached Korti on the
+8th of March.
+
+
+  Suakin operations.
+
+The verbal message received from General Gordon on the 30th of December
+1884 rendered the extreme danger of the position at Khartum painfully
+apparent, and the secretary of state for war, acting on Sir E. Baring's
+advice, offered to make an active demonstration from Suakin. To this
+proposal Lord Wolseley demurred, but asked that ships of war should be
+sent to Suakin, and that "marines in red coats should be frequently
+landed and exercised." Lord Hartington replied that the government did
+not consider that a demonstration of this kind could be effective, and
+again suggested stronger measures. On the 8th of January 1885 Lord
+Wolseley repeated that "the measures you propose will not assist my
+operations against Khartum," adding:--
+
+  "I have from first endeavoured to impress on government that I am
+  strong enough to relieve Khartum, and believe in being able to send a
+  force, when returning by way of Berber, to Suakin, to open road and
+  crush Osman Digna."
+
+On this very day the small Desert Column started from Korti on its
+hazardous mission to the relief of a town fully 270 m. distant, held by
+a starving garrison, and invested by 30,000 fighting men, mostly armed
+with good rifles. Before reaching the Nile the Desert Column had lost
+300 men and was unable to take Metemma, while its transport had
+completely broken down. On the 8th of February Lord Wolseley
+telegraphed, "The sooner you can now deal with Osman Digna the better,"
+and recommended the despatch of Indian troops to Suakin, to "co-operate
+with me in keeping road to Berber open." On the 11th of February, the
+day on which Sir R. Buller most wisely decided to withdraw the Desert
+Column from a position of extreme danger, it was determined at Korti
+that the River Column should proceed to attack Berber, and Lord Wolseley
+accepted the proposal of the government to make a railway from Suakin,
+telegraphing to Lord Harrington:--
+
+  "By all means make railway by contract to Berber, or as far as you
+  can, during summer. It will be invaluable as a means of supply, and I
+  recommend it being begun immediately. Contract to be, if possible, for
+  so much per ton military stores and supplies and men carried, per
+  mile."
+
+
+  Battle of Hashin.
+
+Every effort was now concentrated upon sending an expeditionary force to
+Suakin, and before the end of March about 13,000 men, including a
+brigade from India and a field battery from New South Wales, with nearly
+7000 camels and 1000 mules, were there assembled. Lieutenant-General Sir
+G. Graham was placed in command of this force, with orders to break down
+the power of Osman Digna and to press the construction of the railway
+towards Berber. The troops at Suakin, on arrival, were much harassed by
+small night attacks, which ceased as soon as the scattered camps were
+drawn together. On the 19th of March Sir G. Graham, with the cavalry
+brigade and the infantry of the Indian contingent, reconnoitred as far
+as Hashin, finding the country difficult on account of the dense mimosa
+scrub. The enemy occupied the hills and fired upon the cavalry. On the
+20th Sir G. Graham, with about 9000 men, again advanced to Hashin, and
+Dehilbat hill was taken by the Berkshire regiment and the Royal Marines.
+A squadron of the 9th Royal Lancers, which was dismounted in the thick
+bush, was driven back with the loss of 9 men; but elsewhere the Arabs
+never succeeded in closing, and the troops returned to Suakin in the
+afternoon, leaving the East Surrey regiment in a zeriba covering some
+low hills near Hashin village. The total British loss was 9 killed and
+39 wounded.
+
+
+  McNeill's zeriba.
+
+On the 22nd of March a force, consisting of two British and three Indian
+battalions, with a naval brigade, a squadron of lancers, two companies
+of engineers, and a large convoy of camels carrying water and supplies,
+under Major-General Sir J. McNeill, started from Suakin for Tamai, with
+orders to form a half-way zeriba. The advance was much impeded by the
+dense bush, and the force halted at Tofrik, about 6 m. out, at 10.30
+A.M. A native had brought information that the enemy intended to attack
+while the zeriba was being formed, and this actually occurred. The force
+was caught partly unprepared soon after 2.30 P.M., and severe fighting
+took place. The enemy were repulsed in about twenty minutes, the naval
+brigade, the Berkshire regiment, the Royal Marines, and the 15th Sikhs
+showing the greatest gallantry. The casualties, including those among
+non-combatants, were 150 killed, 148 missing, and 174 wounded. More than
+500 camels were killed. The tribesmen lost more than 1000 killed. As
+soon as firing was heard at Suakin, Sir G. Graham, with two battalions
+of Guards and a battery of horse artillery, started for Tofrik, but
+returned on being assured that reinforcements were not required. On the
+24th and 26th convoys proceeding in square to Tofrik were attacked, the
+enemy being repulsed without difficulty. On the 2nd of April a force
+exceeding 7000 men, with 14 guns and 1600 transport animals, started
+from Suakin at 4.30 A.M., and bivouacked twelve hours later at Tesela
+Hill. Next morning an advance was made towards Tamai, and a number of
+huts in the Khor Ghob were burned. The force then returned to Suakin.
+The railway was now pushed on without interruption, reaching Otao on the
+30th. On the night of the 6th of May a combined movement was made from
+Suakin and Otao, which resulted in the surprise and break-up of a force
+of the enemy under Mahommed Sardun, and the capture of a large number of
+sheep and goats. The moral effect of this operation was marked, and
+large numbers of tribesmen placed themselves unconditionally at the
+disposal of Sir G. Graham. A great native movement could now have been
+organized, which would have kept the route to Berber and enabled the
+railway to be rapidly pushed forward.
+
+
+  Political and military situation at end of operations.
+
+Meanwhile many communications had passed between the war office and Lord
+Wolseley, who at first believed that Berber could be taken before the
+summer. In a long despatch of the 6th of March he discussed the general
+situation, and pointed out that although the force at his disposal "was
+amply sufficient" for raising the siege of Khartum and defeating the
+mahdi, the conditions were changed by the fall of the town. It was now
+"impossible ... to undertake any offensive operations until about the
+end of the summer," when twelve additional British battalions, four
+strong squadrons of British cavalry, and two R.H.A. batteries, together
+with a large extension of the Wadi Halfa railway, eleven steamers, and
+three hundred more whale-boats, would be required. He considered it
+necessary to hold Dongola, and he reported that he was "distributing
+this army along the left bank of the Nile, on the open reach of water"
+between the Hannek cataract and Abu Dom, opposite Merawi. On the 30th of
+March Lord Wolseley quitted the army and proceeded to Cairo. A cloud
+having arisen on the frontiers of Afghanistan, the withdrawal of the
+troops from the Sudan was ordered on the 11th of May. On the formation
+of Lord Salisbury's cabinet, the new secretary of state for war, Mr W.
+H. Smith, inquired whether the retirement could be arrested, but
+Major-General Sir R. Buller reported that the difficulties of
+reoccupation would be great, and that if Dongola was to be held, a fresh
+expedition would be required. On the 22nd of June, before the British
+rearguard had left Dongola, the mahdi died. The withdrawal of the Suakin
+force began on the 17th of May, and the friendly tribes, deprived of
+support, were compelled to make terms with Osman Digna, who was soon
+able to turn his attention to Kassala, which capitulated in August,
+nearly at the same time as Sennar.
+
+The failure of the operations in the Sudan had been absolute and
+complete, and the reason is to be sought in a total misconception of the
+situation, which caused vacillation and delay, and in the choice of a
+route by which, having regard to the date of the decision, the relief of
+General Gordon and Khartum was impossible. (G. S. C.)
+
+
+MILITARY OPERATIONS IN EGYPT AND THE SUDAN, 1885 TO 1896
+
+The operations against Mahdism during the eleven years from the end of
+the Nile expedition and the withdrawal from the Sudan to the
+commencement of the Dongola campaign will be more easily understood if,
+instead of narrating them in one chronological sequence, the operations
+in each province are considered separately. The mahdi, Mahommed Ahmed,
+died at Omdurman on the 22nd of June 1885. He was succeeded by the
+principal khalifa, Abdullah el Taaisha, a Baggara Arab, who for the next
+thirteen years ruled the Sudan with despotic power. Cruel, vicious,
+unscrupulous and strong, the country groaned beneath his oppression. He
+removed all possible rivals, concentrated at Omdurman a strong military
+force composed of men of his own tribe, and maintained the ascendancy of
+that tribe over all others. As the British troops retired to Upper
+Egypt, his followers seized the evacuated country, and the khalifa
+cherished the idea, already formulated by the mahdi, of the conquest of
+Egypt, but for some years he was too much occupied in quelling risings,
+massacring the Egyptians in the Sudan, and fighting Abyssinia, to move
+seriously in the matter.
+
+_Upper Egypt._--Mahommed el Kheir, dervish amir of Dongola, however,
+advanced towards the frontier in the autumn of 1885, and at the end of
+November came in touch with the frontier field force, a body of some
+3000 men composed in nearly equal parts of British and Egyptian troops.
+A month of harassing skirmishes ensued, during which the Egyptian troops
+showed their mettle at Mograka, where 200 of them held the fort against
+a superior number of dervishes, and in combats at Ambigol, Kosha and
+Firket. Sir Frederick Stephenson, commanding the British army of
+occupation in Egypt, then concentrated the frontier field force at
+Firket, and attacked the main body of the enemy at Ginnis on the 30th of
+December 1885, completely defeating it and capturing two guns and twenty
+banners. It was here the new Egyptian army received its baptism of fire
+and acquitted itself very creditably. Although checked, the dervishes
+were not discouraged, and continued to press upon the frontier in
+frequent raids, and thus in many bloody skirmishes the fighting
+qualities of the Egyptian troops were developed. In April 1886 the
+frontier was drawn back to Wadi Halfa, a fortified camp at the northern
+end of the desolate defile, Batn-el-Hagar, through which the Nile
+tumbles amid black, rocky hills in a succession of rapids, and debouches
+on a wide plain. The protection of the frontier was now left in the
+hands of the Egyptian army, a British force remaining at Assuan, 200 m.
+to the north, as a reserve in case of emergency, and two years later
+even this precaution was deemed unnecessary.
+
+In October 1886 Wad en Nejumi, the amir who had defeated Hicks Pasha in
+Kordofan three years before, and led the assault at Khartum when General
+Gordon was slain in January 1885, replaced Mahommed el Kheir as
+"commander of the force for the conquest of Egypt," and brought large
+reinforcements to Dongola. An advanced column under Nur-el-Kanzi
+occupied Sarras in April 1887, was attacked by the Egyptian force under
+Colonel H. Chermside on the 28th of that month, and after a stubborn
+resistance was defeated with great loss. Nur-el-Kanzi was killed and ten
+standards taken.
+
+
+  Battle of Toski.
+
+The troubles in Darfur and with Abyssinia (q.v.) induced the khalifa to
+reduce the garrisons of the north; nevertheless, the dervishes
+reoccupied Sarras, continued active in raids and skirmishes, and
+destroyed the railway south of Sarras, which during the Nile expedition
+of 1884 and 1885 had been carried as far as Akasha. It was not until May
+1889 that an invasion of the frontier on a large scale was attempted. At
+this time the power and prestige of the khalifa were at their height:
+the rebellions in Darfur and Kordofan had been stamped out, the
+anti-mahdi was dead, and even the dervish defeat by the Abyssinians had
+been converted by the death of King John and the capture of his body
+into a success. It was therefore an opportune time to try to sweep the
+Turks and the British into the sea. On the 22nd of June Nejumi was at
+Sarras with over 6000 fighting men and 8000 followers. On the 2nd of
+July Colonel J. Wodehouse headed off a part of this force from the river
+at Argin, and, after a sharp action, completely defeated it, killing
+900, among whom were many important amirs, and taking 500 prisoners and
+12 banners, with very small loss to his own troops. A British brigade
+was on its way up stream, but the sirdar, who had already arrived to
+take the command in person, decided not to wait for it. The Egyptian
+troops, with a squadron of the 20th Hussars, concentrated at Toski, and
+thence, on the 3rd of August, General Grenfell, with slight loss, gained
+a decisive victory. Wad en Nejumi, most of his amirs, and more than 1200
+Arabs were killed; 4000 prisoners and 147 standards were taken, and the
+dervish army practically destroyed. No further serious attempts were
+made to disturb the frontier, of which the most southerly outpost was at
+once advanced to Sarras.
+
+The escape from Omdurman of Father Ohrwalder and of two of the captive
+nuns in December 1891, of Father Rossignoli in October 1894, and of
+Slatin Bey in February 1895, revealed the condition of the Sudan to the
+outside world, threw a vivid light on the rule of the khalifa, and
+corroborated information already received of the discontent which
+existed among the tribes with the oppression and despotism under which
+they lived.
+
+_The Eastern Sudan._--In 1884 Colonel Chermside, governor of the Red Sea
+littoral, entered into arrangements with King John of Abyssinia for the
+relief of the beleaguered Egyptian garrisons. Gera, Amadib, Senhit and
+Gallabat were, in consequence, duly succoured, and their garrisons and
+Egyptian populations brought away to the coast by the Abyssinians in
+1885. Unfortunately famine compelled the garrison of Kassala to
+capitulate on the 30th of July of that year, and Osman Digna hurried
+there from Tamai to raise a force with which to meet the Abyssinian
+general, Ras Alula, who was preparing for its relief. By the end of
+August Osman Digna had occupied Kufit, in the Barea country, with 10,000
+men and entrenched himself. On the 23rd of September Ras Alula attacked
+him there with an equal number of men and routed him with great
+slaughter. Over 3000 dervishes with their principal amirs, except Osman
+Digna, lay dead on the field, and many more were killed in the pursuit.
+The Abyssinians lost 40 officers and 1500 men killed, besides many more
+wounded. Instead of marching on to Kassala, Ras Alula, who at this time
+was much offended by the transfer of Massawa by the Egyptians to Italy,
+made a triumphant entry into Asmara, and absolutely refused to make any
+further efforts to extricate Egyptian garrisons from the grip of the
+khalifa. Meanwhile Osman Digna, who had fled from Kufit to Kassala,
+wreaked his vengeance upon the unhappy captives at Kassala.
+
+
+  Handub.
+
+  Battle of Afafit.
+
+In the neighbourhood of Suakin there were many tribes disaffected to the
+khalifa's cause, and in the autumn of 1886 Colonel H. Kitchener, who was
+at the time governor of the Red Sea littoral, judiciously arranged a
+combination of them to overthrow Osman Digna, with the result that his
+stronghold at Tamai was captured on the 7th of October, 200 of his men
+killed, and 50 prisoners, 17 guns and a vast store of rifles and
+ammunition captured. For about a year there was comparative quiet. Then
+at the end of 1887 Osman Digna again advanced towards Suakin, but his
+force at Taroi was routed by the "Friendlies," and he fell back on
+Handub. Kitchener unsuccessfully endeavoured to capture Osman Digna on
+the 17th of January 1888, but in the attack was himself severely
+wounded, and was shortly after invalided. Later in the year Osman Digna
+collected a large force and besieged Suakin. In December the sirdar
+arrived with reinforcements from Cairo, and on the 20th sallied out and
+attacked the dervishes in their trenches at Gemaiza, clearing the whole
+line and inflicting considerable loss on the enemy, who retired towards
+Handub, and the country was again fairly quiet for a time. During 1889
+and 1890 Tokar became the centre of dervish authority, while Handub
+continued to be occupied for the khalifa. In January 1891 Osman Digna
+showed signs of increased activity, and Colonel (afterwards Sir Charles)
+Holled Smith, then governor of the Red Sea littoral, attacked Handub
+successfully on the 27th and occupied it, then seized Trinkitat and Teb,
+and on the 19th of February fought the decisive action of Afafit,
+occupied Tokar, and drove Osman Digna back to Temrin with a loss of 700
+men, including all his chief amirs. This action proved the final blow to
+the dervish power in the neighbourhood of Suakin, for although raiding
+continued on a small scale, the tribes were growing tired of the
+khalifa's rule and refused to support Osman Digna.
+
+In the spring of 1891 an agreement was made between England and Italy by
+which the Italian forces in Eritrea were at liberty, if they were able,
+to capture and occupy Kassala, which lay close to the western boundary
+of their new colony, on condition that they restored it to Egypt at a
+future day when required to do so. Three years passed before they
+availed themselves of this agreement. In 1893 the dervishes, 12,000
+strong, under Ahmed Ali, invaded Eritrea, and were met on the 29th of
+December at Agordat by Colonel Arimondi with 2000 men of a native force.
+Ahmed Ali's force was completely routed and himself killed, and in the
+following July Colonel Baratieri, with 2500 men, made a fine forced
+march from Agordat, surprised and captured Kassala on the 17th of that
+month, and continued to hold it for three years and a half.
+
+  _The Abyssinian Frontier._--On the Abyssinian frontier Ras Adal was in
+  command of a considerable force of Abyssinians early in 1886, and in
+  June of that year he invaded Gallabat and defeated the dervishes on
+  the plain of Madana; the dervish amir Mahommed Wad Ardal was killed
+  and his camp captured. In the following year the amir Yunis ed Dekeim
+  made two successful raids into Abyssinian territory, upon which Ras
+  Adal collected an enormous army, said to number 200,000 men, for the
+  invasion of the Sudan. The khalifa sent the amir Hamdan Abu Angar, a
+  very skilful leader, with an army of over 80,000 men against him. Abu
+  Angar entered Abyssinia and, in August 1887, attacked Ras Adal in the
+  plain of Debra Sin and, after a prolonged battle, defeated the
+  Abyssinians, captured their camp, and marched on Gondar, the ancient
+  capital of Abyssinia, which he sacked, and then returned into
+  Gallabat. King John, the negus of Abyssinia, burning to avenge this
+  defeat, marched, in February 1889, with an enormous army to Gallabat,
+  where the amir Zeki Tumal commanded the khalifa's forces, some 60,000
+  strong, and had strongly fortified the town and the camp. On the 9th
+  of March 1889 the Abyssinians made a terrific onslaught, stormed and
+  burnt the town, and took thousands of prisoners. A small party of
+  dervishes still held a zeriba when King John was struck by a stray
+  bullet. The Abyssinians decided to retire, fighting ceased, and they
+  moved off with their prisoners and the wounded negus. That night the
+  king died, and the greater part of the army having gone ahead with the
+  prisoners, a party of Arabs pursued the rearguard, which consisted of
+  the king's bodyguard, routed them, and captured the king's body, which
+  was sent to Omdurman to confirm the report of a brilliant victory sent
+  by Zeki Tumal to the khalifa. Internal strife prevented the new negus
+  of Abyssinia from prosecuting the war, which thus, in spite of the
+  Abyssinian success, resulted in the increased prestige of the khalifa.
+  From this time, however, the dervishes ceased to trouble the
+  Abyssinians.
+
+  _Darfur and Kordofan._--On the outbreak of the mahdi's rebellion
+  Slatin Bey was governor of the province, and when Madibbo, the
+  insurgent sheikh of Rizighat, attacked and occupied Shakka and was
+  following up his success, Slatin twice severely defeated him, and,
+  having concentrated his forces at El Fasher, repulsed the enemy again
+  at Om Shanga. Mahdism, however, spread over Darfur in spite of
+  Slatin's efforts to stay it. He fought no fewer than twenty-seven
+  actions in various parts of his province, but his own troops, in
+  course of time, became infected with the new faith and deserted him.
+  He was obliged to surrender at Dara in December 1883, and was a
+  prisoner, first at Obeid and then at Omdurman, until he escaped in
+  1895. In January 1884 Zogal, the new dervish amir of the province,
+  attacked El Fasher, where Said Bey Guma and an Egyptian garrison 1000
+  strong with 10 guns was still holding out, and captured it. He also
+  reduced the Jebel Marra district, where the loyal hill-people gave him
+  some trouble.
+
+  After the death of the mahdi in 1885, Madibbo revolted against the
+  khalifa, but was defeated by Karamalla, the dervish amir of the
+  Bahr-el-Ghazal, and was caught and executed. A war then sprang up
+  between Karamalla and Sultan Yusef, who had succeeded Zogal as amir of
+  Darfur. Yusef was joined in 1887 by Sultan Zayid, the black ruler of
+  Jebel Marra, and Karamalla's trusted general, Ketenbur, was defeated
+  with great slaughter at El Towaish on the 29th of June 1887. Osman wad
+  Adam (Ganu), amir of Kordofan, was sent by the khalifa to Karamalla's
+  assistance. He forced back the Darfurians near Dara on the 26th of
+  December, routed Zayid in a second battle, entered El Fasher, and, in
+  1888, became complete master of the situation, the two sultans being
+  killed. The Darfurian chiefs then allied themselves with Abu Gemaiza,
+  sheikh of the Masalit Arabs, who had proclaimed himself "Khalifa
+  Osman," and was known as the anti-mahdi. The revolt assumed large
+  proportions, and became the more dangerous to Abdullah, the khalifa,
+  by reason of its religious character, wild rumours spreading over the
+  country and reaching to Egypt and Suakin of the advent to power of an
+  opposition mahdi. Abu Gemaiza attacked a portion of Osman Adam's
+  force, under Abd-el-Kader, at Kebkebia, 30 m. from El Fasher, and
+  almost annihilated it on the 16th of October 1888; and a week later
+  another large force of Osman Adam met with the same fate at the same
+  place. Instead of following up his victories, Abu Gemaiza retired to
+  Dar Tama to augment his army, to which thousands flocked as the news
+  of his achievements spread far and wide. He again advanced to El
+  Fasher in February 1889, but was seized with smallpox. His army,
+  however, under Fiki Adam, fought a fierce battle close to El Fasher on
+  the 22nd, which resulted in its defeat and dispersion, and Abu Gemaiza
+  himself dying the following day, the movement collapsed.
+
+  In 1891 Darfur and Kordofan were again disturbed, and Sultan Abbas
+  succeeded in turning the dervishes out of the Jebel Marra district.
+  Two years later a saint of Sokoto, Abu Naal Muzil el Muhan, collected
+  many followers and for a time threatened the khalifa's power, but the
+  revolt gradually died out.
+
+  _The Bahr-el-Ghazal._--The first outbreak in favour of Mahdism in the
+  Bahr-el-Ghazal took place at Liffi in August 1882, when the Dinka
+  tribe, under Jango, revolted and was defeated by Lupton Bey with
+  considerable slaughter at Tel Gauna, and again in 1883 near Liffi. In
+  September of that year Lupton's captain, Rufai Aga, was massacred with
+  all his men at Dembo, and Lupton, short of ammunition, was forced to
+  retire to Dem Suliman, where he was completely cut off from Khartum.
+  After gallantly fighting for eighteen months he was compelled by the
+  defection of his troops to surrender on the 21st of April 1884 to
+  Karamalla, the dervish amir of the province. He died at Omdurman in
+  1888.
+
+  In 1890 the Shilluks in the neighbourhood of Fashoda rose against the
+  khalifa, and the dervish amir of Gallabat, Zeki Tumal, was engaged for
+  two years in suppressing the rebellion. He got the upper hand in 1892,
+  and was recalled to oppose an Italian force said to be advancing from
+  Massawa; but on reporting that it was impossible to invade Eritrea, as
+  the khalifa wished him to do, he was summoned to Omdurman and put to
+  death. The country then relapsed into its original barbarous
+  condition, and dervish influence was nominal only. In 1892 the Congo
+  State expedition established posts up to the seventh parallel of north
+  latitude. In 1893 the dervish amir, Abu Mariam, fought with the Dinka
+  tribe and was killed and his force destroyed, the fugitives taking
+  refuge in Shakka. In the following year the Congo expedition
+  established further posts, and in consequence the khalifa sent 3000
+  men, under the amir Khatem Musa, from Shakka to reoccupy the
+  Bahr-el-Ghazal. The Belgians at Liffi retired before him, and he
+  entered Faroga. Famine and disease broke out in Khatem Musa's camp in
+  1895, and a retreat was made towards Kordofan.
+
+  _Equatoria._--In the Equatorial Province, which extended from the
+  Albert Nyanza to Lado, Emin Bey, who had a force of 1300 Egyptian
+  troops and 3000 irregulars, distributed among many stations, held out,
+  hoping for reinforcements. In March 1885, however, Amadi fell to the
+  dervishes, and on the 18th of April Karamalla arrived near Lado, the
+  capital, and sent to inform Emin of the fall of Khartum. Emin and
+  Captain Casati, an Italian, moved south to Wadelai, giving up the
+  northern posts, and opened friendly relations with Kabarega, king of
+  Unyoro. On the 26th of February 1886 Emin received despatches from
+  Cairo via Zanzibar, from which he learned all that had occurred during
+  the previous three years, and that "he might take any step he liked,
+  should he decide to leave the country." He determined to remain where
+  he was and "hold together, as long as possible, the remnant of the
+  last ten years." His troops were in a mutinous state, wishing to go
+  north rather than south, as Emin had ordered them to do, and
+  unsuccessfully endeavoured to carry him with them by force.
+
+  His communications to Europe through Zanzibar led to the relief
+  expedition under H. M. Stanley, which went to his rescue by way of the
+  Congo in 1887, and after encountering incredible dangers and
+  experiencing innumerable sufferings, met with Emin and Casati at
+  Nsabe, on the Albert Nyanza, on the 29th of April 1888. Stanley went
+  back in May to pick up his belated rearguard, leaving Mounteney
+  Jephson and a small escort to accompany Emin round his province. The
+  southern garrisons decided to go with Emin, but the troops at Labore
+  mutinied, and a general revolt broke out, headed by Fadl-el-Maula,
+  governor of Fabbo. On arriving at Dufile in August 1888, Emin and
+  Jephson were made prisoners by the Egyptian mutineers. In the meantime
+  the arrival of Stanley at Lake Albert had caused rumours, which
+  quickly spread to Omdurman, of a great invading white pasha, with the
+  result that in July the khalifa sent up the river three steamers and
+  six barges, containing 4000 troops, to oppose this new-comer. In
+  October Omar-Saleh, the Mahdist commander, took Rejaf and sent
+  messengers to Dufile to summon Emin to surrender; but on the 15th of
+  November the mutineers released both Emin and Jephson, who returned to
+  Lake Albert with some 600 refugees, and joined Stanley in February
+  1889. The expedition arrived at Zanzibar at the end of the year.
+
+  Emin's mutinous troops kept the dervishes at bay between Wadelai and
+  Rejaf, and eventually severely defeated them, driving them back to
+  Rejaf. They did not, however, follow up their victory, and under the
+  leadership of Fadl-el-Maula Bey remained about Wadelai, while the
+  dervishes strengthened their post at Rejaf. In 1893 Fadl-el-Maula Bey
+  and many of his men took service with Baert of the Congo State
+  expedition. The bey was killed fighting the dervishes at Wandi in
+  January 1894, and the remnant of his men eventually were found by
+  Captain Thruston from Uganda on the 23rd of March 1894 at Mahagi, on
+  the Albert Nyanza, whither they had drifted from Wadelai in search of
+  supplies. They were enlisted by Thruston and brought back under the
+  British flag to Uganda.
+
+  In consequence of the Franco-Congolese Treaty of 1894, Major
+  Cunningham and Lieutenant Vandeleur were sent from Uganda to Dufile,
+  where they planted the British flag on the 15th of January 1895.
+
+
+SUDAN OPERATIONS, 1896-1900
+
+  Dongola campaign, 1896.
+
+The wonderful progress--political, economical and social--which Egypt
+had made during British occupation, so ably set forth in Sir Alfred
+Milner's _England in Egypt_ (published in 1892), together with the
+revelation in so strong a light of the character of the khalifa's
+despotism in the Sudan and the miserable condition of his misgoverned
+people, as detailed in the accounts of their captivity at Omdurman by
+Father Ohrwalder and Slatin Bey (published in 1892 and 1896), stirred
+public opinion in Great Britain, and brought the question of the
+recovery of the Sudan into prominence. A change of ministry took place
+in 1895, and Lord Salisbury's cabinet, which had consistently assailed
+the Egyptian policy of the old, was not unwilling to consider whether
+the flourishing condition of Egyptian finance, the prosperity of the
+country and the settled state of its affairs, with a capable and proved
+little army ready to hand, did not warrant an attempt being made to
+recover gradually the Sudan provinces abandoned by Egypt in 1885 on the
+advice of Mr Gladstone's government.
+
+Such being the condition of public and official sentiment, the crushing
+defeat of the Italians by the Abyssinians at the battle of Adowa on the
+1st of March 1896, and the critical state of Kassala--held by Italy at
+British suggestion, and now closely invested by the dervishes--made it
+not only desirable but necessary to take immediate action.
+
+On the 14th of March 1896 Major-General Sir H. Kitchener, who succeeded
+Sir Francis Grenfell as sirdar of the Egyptian army in 1892, received
+orders to reoccupy Akasha, 50 m. south of Sarras, and to carry the
+railway on from Sarras. Subsequent operations were to depend upon the
+amount of resistance he encountered. On the 20th of March Akasha was
+occupied without opposition by an advanced column of Egyptian troops
+under Major J. Collinson, who formed an entrenched camp there. The
+reserves of the Egyptian army were called out, and responded with
+alacrity. The troops were concentrated at Wadi Halfa; the railway
+reconstruction, under Lieutenant E. P. Girouard, R.E., pushed southward;
+and a telegraph line followed the advance. At the commencement of the
+campaign the Egyptian army, including reserves, consisted of 16
+battalions of infantry, of which 6 were Sudanese, 10 squadrons of
+cavalry, 5 batteries of artillery, 3 companies of garrison artillery,
+and 8 companies of camel corps, and it possessed 13 gunboats for river
+work. Colonel H. M. L. Rundle was chief of the staff; Major F. R.
+Wingate was head of the intelligence department, with Slatin Bey as his
+assistant; and Colonel A. Hunter was in command of Sarras, and south.
+The 1st battalion of the North Staffordshire regiment moved up from
+Cairo to join the Egyptian army.
+
+In the meantime the advance to Akasha had already relieved the pressure
+at Kassala, Osman Digna having withdrawn a considerable force from the
+investing army and proceeded with it to Suakin. To meet Osman Digna's
+movement Lieutenant-Colonel G. E. Lloyd, the Suakin commandant, advanced
+to the Taroi Wells, 19 m. south of Suakin, on the 15th of April to
+co-operate with the "Friendlies," and with Major H. M. Sidney, advancing
+with a small force from Tokar. His cavalry, under Major M. A. C. B.
+Fenwick, went out to look for Sidney's force, and were surprised by a
+large number of dervishes. Fenwick, with some 40 officers and men,
+seized an isolated hill and held it through the night, repulsing the
+dervishes, who were the same night driven back with such heavy loss in
+attacking Lloyd's zeriba that they retired to the hills, and comparative
+quiet again reigned at Suakin. At the end of May an Indian brigade
+arrived for garrison duty, and the Egyptian troops were released for
+service on the Nile.
+
+The dervishes first came in contact with the Egyptian cavalry on the
+Nile near Akasha, on the 1st of May, and were repulsed. The army
+concentrated at Akasha early in June, and on the 6th Kitchener moved to
+the attack of Firket 16 m. away, where the amir Hamuda, with 3000 men,
+was encamped. The attack was made in two columns: one, under Colonel
+Hunter, marching along the river-bank, approached Firket from the north;
+while the other, under Major Burn-Murdoch, making a detour through the
+desert, approached it from the south. The co-operation of the two
+columns was admirably timed, and on the morning of the 7th the dervish
+camp was surrounded, and, after a sharp fight, Hamuda and many amirs and
+about 1000 men were killed, and 500 prisoners taken. The dash and
+discipline of the Egyptian troops in this victory were a good augury for
+the future.
+
+By the end of June the railway was advanced beyond Akasha, and
+headquarters were at Kosha, 10 m. farther south. Cholera and fever were
+busy both with the North Staffordshire regiment at Gemai, whither they
+had been moved on its approach, and with the Egyptian troops at the
+front, and carried off many officers and men. The railway reached Kosha
+early in August; the cholera disappeared, and stores were collected and
+arrangements steadily made for a farther advance. The North
+Staffordshire moved up to the front, and in September the army moved on
+Kerma, which was found to be evacuated, the dervishes having crossed the
+river to Hafir. There they were attacked by the gunboats and Kitchener's
+artillery from the opposite bank, and forced to retire, with their
+commander, Wad Bishara, seriously wounded. Dongola was bombarded by the
+gunboats and captured by the army on the 23rd of September. Bishara and
+his men retreated, but were pursued by the Egyptians until the retreat
+became a hopeless rout. Guns, small arms and ammunition, with large
+stores of grain and dates, were captured, many prisoners taken, while
+hundreds surrendered voluntarily, among them a brother of the amir Wad
+en Nejumi. The dervish Dongola army had practically ceased to exist.
+Debba was seized on the 3rd October, Korti and Merawi occupied soon
+after, and the principal sheiks came in and submitted to the sirdar. The
+Dongola campaign was over, and the province recovered to Egypt. The
+Indian brigade at Suakin returned to India, and was replaced by
+Egyptians. The North Staffordshire returned to Cairo. The work of
+consolidation began, and preparations were made for a farther advance
+when everything should be ready.
+
+
+  The Sudan campaign, 1897.
+
+The railway up the right bank of the Nile was continued to Kerma, in
+order to evade the difficulties of the 3rd cataract; but the sirdar had
+conceived the bold project of cutting off the great angle of the Nile
+from Wadi Halfa to Abu Hamed, involving nearly 600 m. of navigation and
+including the 4th cataract, by constructing a railway across the Nubian
+desert, and so bringing his base at Wadi Halfa within a few hours of his
+force, when it should have advanced to Abu Hamed, instead of ten days.
+Early in 1897 this new line of railway was commenced from Wadi Halfa
+across the great Nubian desert 230 m. to Abu Hamed. The first-mentioned
+line reached Kerma in May, and by July the second had advanced 130 m.
+into the desert towards Abu Hamed, when it became necessary, before it
+was carried farther, to secure that terminus by an advance from Merawi.
+
+In the meantime the khalifa was not idle. He occupied Abu Klea wells and
+Metemma; recalled the amir Ibrahim Khalil, with 4000 men, from the
+Ghezira; brought to Omdurman the army of the west under Mahmud--some
+10,000 men; entrusted the line of the Atbara--Ed Darner, Adarama, Asubri
+and El Fasher--to Osman Digna; constructed defences in the Shabluka
+gorge; and personally superintended the organization and drill of the
+forces gathered at Omdurman, and the collection of vast stores of food
+and supplies of camels for offensive expeditions.
+
+Towards the end of June the chief of the Jaalin tribe, Abdalla wad Said,
+who occupied Metemma, angered by the khalifa, made his submission to
+Kitchener and asked for support, at the same time foolishly sending a
+defiant letter to the khalifa. The sirdar sent him rifles and ammunition
+across the desert from Korti; but before they arrived, Mahmud's army,
+sent by the khalifa, swept down on Metemma on the 1st of July and
+massacred Abdalla wad Said and his garrison.
+
+On the 29th of July, after several reconnaissances, Major-General
+Hunter, with a flying column, marched up the Nile from near Merawi to
+Abu Hamed, 133 m. distant, along the edge of the Monassir desert. He
+arrived on the 7th of August and captured it by storm, the dervishes
+losing 250 killed and 50 prisoners. By the end of the month the gunboats
+had surmounted the 4th cataract and reached Abu Hamed. Berber was found
+to be deserted, and occupied by Hunter on the 5th of September, and in
+the following month a large force was entrenched there. The khalifa,
+fearing an attack on Omdurman, moved Osman Digna from Adarama to Shendi.
+In the 23rd of October Hunter, with a flying column lightly equipped,
+left Berber for Adarama, which he burned on the 2nd of November, and
+after reconnoitring for 40 m. up the Atbara, returned to Berber. The
+Nile was falling, and Kitchener decided to keep the gunboats above the
+impassable rapid at Um Tuir, 4 m. north of the confluence of the Atbara
+with the Nile, where he constructed a fort. The gunboats made repeated
+reconnaissances up the river, bombarding Metemma with effect. The
+railway reached Abu Hamed on the 4th of November, and was pushed rapidly
+forward along the right bank of the Nile towards Berber.
+
+The forces of the khalifa remaining quiet, the sirdar visited Kassala
+and negotiated with the Italian General Caneva for its restoration to
+Egypt. The Italians were anxious to leave it; and on Christmas day 1897
+Colonel (afterwards General Sir Charles) Parsons, with an Egyptian force
+from Suakin, took it formally over, together with a body of Arab
+irregulars employed by the Italians. These troops were at once
+despatched to capture the dervish posts at Asabri and El Fasher, which
+they did with small loss.
+
+
+  Sudan campaign, 1898.
+
+On his return from Kassala to Berber the sirdar received information of
+an intended advance of the khalifa northward. He at once ordered a
+concentration of Egyptian troops towards Berber, and telegraphed to
+Cairo for a British brigade. By the end of January the concentration was
+complete, and the British brigade, under Major-General Gatacre, was at
+Dakhesh, south of Abu Hamed. Disagreement among the khalifa's generals
+postponed the dervish advance and gave Kitchener much-needed time. But
+at the end of February, Mahmud crossed the Nile to Shendi with some
+12,000 fighting men, and with Osman Digna advanced along the right bank
+of the Nile to Aliab, where he struck across the desert to Nakheila, on
+the Atbara, intending to turn Kitchener's left flank at Berber. The
+sirdar took up a position at Ras el Hudi, on the Atbara. His force
+consisted of Gatacre's British brigade (1st Warwicks, Lincolns,
+Seaforths and Camerons) and Hunter's Egyptian division (3 brigades under
+Colonels Maxwell, MacDonald and Lewis respectively), Broadwood's
+cavalry, Tudway's camel corps and Long's artillery. The dervish army
+reached Nakheila on the 20th of March, and entrenched themselves there
+in a formidable zeriba. After several reconnaissances in which fighting
+took place with Mahmud's outposts, it was ascertained from prisoners
+that their army was short of provisions and that great leakage was going
+on. Kitchener, therefore, did not hurry. He sent his flotilla up the
+Nile and captured Shendi, the dervish depot, on the 27th of March. On
+the 4th of April he advanced to Abadar. A final reconnaissance was made
+on the 5th. On the following day he bivouacked at Umdabia, where he
+constructed a strong zeriba, which was garrisoned by an Egyptian
+battalion, and on the night of the 7th he marched to the attack of
+Mahmud's zeriba, which, after an hour's bombardment on the morning of
+the 8th of April, was stormed with complete success. Mahmud and several
+hundred dervishes were captured, 40 amirs and 3000 Arabs killed, and
+many more wounded; the rest escaped to Gedaref. The sirdar's casualties
+were 80 killed and 472 wounded.
+
+Preparations were now made for the attack on the khalifa's force at
+Omdurman; and in the meantime the troops were camped in the
+neighbourhood of Berber, and the railway carried on to the Atbara. At
+the end of July reinforcements were forwarded from Cairo; and on the
+24th of August the following troops were concentrated for the advance at
+Wad Hamad, above Metemma, on the western bank of the 6th
+cataract:--British division, under Major-General Gatacre, consisting of
+1st Brigade, commanded by Colonel A. G. Wauchope (1st Warwicks,
+Lincolns, Seaforths and Camerons), and 2nd Brigade, commanded by Colonel
+the Hon. N. G. Lyttelton (1st Northumberlands and Grenadier Guards, 2nd
+Lancashire and Rifle Brigade); Egyptian division, under Major-General
+Hunter, consisting of four brigades, commanded by Colonels MacDonald,
+Maxwell, Lewis and Collinson; mounted troops--21st Lancers, camel corps,
+and Egyptian cavalry; artillery, under Colonel Long, 2 British
+batteries, 5 Egyptian batteries, and 20 machine guns; detachment of
+Royal Engineers. The flotilla, under Commander Keppel, R.N., consisted
+of 10 gunboats and 5 transport steamers. The total strength was nearly
+26,000 men.
+
+
+  Battle of Omdurman.
+
+While the army moved along the west bank of the river, a force of Arab
+irregulars or "Friendlies" marched along the east bank, under command of
+Major Stuart-Wortley and Lieutenant Wood, to clear it of the enemy as
+far as the Blue Nile; and on the 1st of September the gunboats bombarded
+the forts on both sides of the river and breached the great wall of
+Omdurman. Kitchener met with no opposition; and on the 1st of September
+the army bivouacked in zeriba at Egeiga, on the west bank of the Nile,
+within 4 m. of Omdurman. Here, on the morning of the 2nd of September,
+the khalifa's army, 40,000 strong, attacked the zeriba, but was repulsed
+with slaughter. Kitchener then moved out and marched towards Omdurman,
+when he was again twice fiercely attacked on the right flank and rear,
+MacDonald's brigade bearing the brunt. MacDonald distinguished himself
+by his tactics, and completely repulsed the enemy. The 21st Lancers
+gallantly charged a body of 2000 dervishes which was unexpectedly met in
+a khor on the left flank, and drove them westward, the Lancers losing a
+fifth of their number in killed and wounded. The khalifa was now in full
+retreat, and the sirdar, sending his cavalry in pursuit, marched into
+Omdurman. The dervish loss was over 10,000 killed, as many wounded, and
+5000 prisoners. The khalifa's black flag was captured and sent home to
+Queen Victoria. The British and Egyptian casualties together were under
+500. The European prisoners of the khalifa found in Omdurman--Charles
+Neufeld, Joseph Ragnotti, Sister Teresa Grigolini, and some 30
+Greeks--were released; and on Sunday the 4th of September the sirdar,
+with representatives from every regiment, crossed the river to Khartum,
+where the British and Egyptian flags were hoisted, and a short service
+held in memory of General Gordon, near the place where he met his death.
+
+The results of the battle of Omdurman were the practical destruction of
+the khalifa's army, the extinction of Mahdism in the Sudan, and the
+recovery of nearly all the country formerly under Egyptian authority.
+
+The khalifa fled with a small force to Obeid in Kordofan. The British
+troops were quickly sent down stream to Cairo, and the sirdar, shortly
+afterwards created Lord Kitchener of Khartum, was free to turn his
+attention to the reduction of the country to some sort of order.
+
+
+  Captain Marchand at Fashoda.
+
+He had first, however, to deal with a somewhat serious matter--the
+arrival of a French expedition at Fashoda, on the White Nile, some 600
+m. above Khartum. He started for the south on the 10th of September,
+with 5 gunboats and a small force, dispersed a body of 700 dervishes at
+Reng on the 15th, and four days later arrived at Fashoda, to find the
+French Captain Marchand, with 120 Senegalese soldiers, entrenched there
+and the French flag flying. He arranged with Marchand to leave the
+political question to be settled by diplomacy, and contented himself
+with hoisting the British and Egyptian flags to the south of the French
+flag, and leaving a gunboat and a Sudanese battalion to guard them. He
+then steamed up the river and established a post at Sobat; and after
+sending a gunboat up the Bahr-el-Ghazal to establish another post at
+Meshra-er-Rek, he returned to Omdurman. The French expedition had
+experienced great difficulties in the swampy region of the
+Bahr-el-Ghazal, and had reached Fashoda on the 10th of July. It had been
+attacked by a dervish force on the 25th of August, and was expecting
+another attack when Kitchener arrived and probably saved it from
+destruction. The Fashoda incident was the subject of important
+diplomatic negotiations, which at one time approached an acute phase;
+but ultimately the French position was found to be untenable, and on the
+11th of December Marchand and his men returned to France by the Sobat,
+Abyssinia and Jibuti. In the following March the spheres of interest of
+Great Britain and France in the Nile basin were defined by a declaration
+making an addition to Article IV. of the Niger convention of the
+previous year.
+
+During the sirdar's absence from Omdurman Colonel Hunter commanded an
+expedition up the Blue Nile, and by the end of September had occupied
+and garrisoned Wad Medani, Sennar, Karkoj and Roseires. In the meantime
+Colonel Parsons marched with 1400 men from Kassala on the 7th of
+September, to capture Gedaref. He encountered 4000 dervishes under the
+amir Saadalla outside the town, and after a desperate fight, in which he
+lost 50 killed and 80 wounded, defeated them and occupied the town on
+the 22nd. The dervishes left 500 dead on the field, among whom were four
+amirs. Having strongly entrenched himself, Parsons beat off, with heavy
+loss to the dervishes, two impetuous attacks made on the 28th by Ahmed
+Fedil. But the garrison of Gedaref suffered from severe sickness, and
+Colonel Collinson was sent to their aid with reinforcements from
+Omdurman. He steamed up the Blue Nile and the Rahad river to
+Ain-el-Owega, whence he struck across the desert, reaching Gedaref on
+the 21st of October, to find that Ahmed Fedil had gone south with his
+force of 5000 men towards Roseires. Colonel Lewis, who was at Karkoj
+with a small force, moved to Roseires, where he received reinforcements
+from Omdurman, and on the 26th of December caught Ahmed Fedil's force as
+it was crossing the Blue Nile at Dakheila, and after a very severe fight
+cut it up. The dervish loss was 500 killed, while the Egyptians had 24
+killed and 118 wounded. Two thousand five hundred fighting men
+surrendered later, and the rest escaped with Ahmed Fedil to join the
+khalifa in Kordofan.
+
+
+  Operations in the Sudan, 1899.
+
+On the 25th of January 1899 Colonel Walter Kitchener was despatched by
+his brother, in command of a flying column of 2000 Egyptian troops and
+1700 Friendlies, which had been concentrated at Faki Kohi, on the White
+Nile, some 200 m. above Khartum, to reconnoitre the khalifa's camp at
+Sherkela, 130 m. west of the river, in the heart of the Baggara country
+in Kordofan, and if possible to capture it. The position was found to be
+a strong one, occupied by over 6000 men; and as it was not considered
+prudent to attack it with an inferior force at such a distance from the
+river base, the flying column returned. No further attempt was made to
+interfere with the khalifa in his far-off retreat until towards the end
+of the year, when, good order having been generally established
+throughout the rest of the Sudan, it was decided to extend it to
+Kordofan.
+
+
+  Death of the khalifa.
+
+In the autumn of 1899 the khalifa was at Jebel Gedir, a hill in southern
+Kordofan, about 80 m. from the White Nile, and was contemplating an
+advance. Lord Kitchener concentrated 8000 men at Kaka, on the river, 380
+m. south of Khartum, and moved inland on the 20th of October. On
+arriving at Fongor it was ascertained that the khalifa had gone north,
+and the cavalry and camel corps having reconnoitred Jebel Gedir, the
+expedition returned. On the 13th November the amir Ahmed Fedil debouched
+on the river at El Alub, but retired on finding Colonel Lewis with a
+force in gunboats. Troops and transport were then concentrated at Faki
+Kohi, and Colonel Wingate sent with reinforcements from Khartum to take
+command of the expedition and march to Gedid, where it was anticipated
+the khalifa would be obliged to halt. A flying column, comprising a
+squadron of cavalry, a field battery, 6 machine guns, 6 companies of the
+camel corps, and a brigade of infantry and details, in all 3700 men,
+under Wingate, left Faki Kohi on the 21st of November. The very next day
+he encountered Ahmed Fedil at Abu Aadel, drove him from his position
+with great loss, and captured his camp and a large supply of grain he
+was convoying to the khalifa. Gedid was reached on the 23rd, and the
+khalifa was ascertained to be at Om Debreikat. Wingate marched at
+midnight of the 24th, and was resting his troops on high ground in front
+of the khalifa's position, when at daybreak of the 25th his picquets
+were driven in and the dervishes attacked. They were repulsed with great
+slaughter, and Wingate advancing, carried the camp. The khalifa Abdullah
+el Taaisha, unable to rally his men, gathered many of his principal
+amirs around him, among whom were his sons and brothers, Ali Wad Helu,
+Ahmed Fedil, and other well-known leaders, and they met their death
+unflinchingly from the bullets of the advancing Sudanese infantry. Three
+thousand men and 29 amirs of importance, including Sheik-ed-din, the
+khalifa's eldest son and intended successor, surrendered. The dervish
+loss in the two actions was estimated at 1000 killed and wounded, while
+the Egyptian casualties were only 4 killed and 29 wounded. Thus ended
+the power of the khalifa and of Mahdism.
+
+On the 19th of January 1900 Osman Digna, who had been so great a
+supporter of Mahdism in the Eastern Sudan, and had always shown great
+discretion in securing the safety of his own person, was surrounded and
+captured at Jebel Warriba, as he was wandering a fugitive among the
+hills beyond Tokar.
+
+  The reconquest of Dongola and the Sudan provinces during the three
+  years from March 1896 to December 1898, considering the enormous
+  extent and difficulties of the country, was achieved at an
+  unprecedentedly small cost, while the main item of expenditure--the
+  railway--remains a permanent benefit to the country. The figures
+  are:--
+
+    Railways     LE.1,181,372
+    Telegraphs         21,825
+    Gunboats          154,934
+    Military          996,223
+                 ------------
+    Total        LE.2,354,354
+
+  Towards this expense the British government gave a grant-in-aid of
+  L800,000, and the balance was borne by the Egyptian treasury. The
+  railway, delayed by the construction of the big bridge over the
+  Atbara, was opened to the Blue Nile opposite Khartum, 187 m. from the
+  Atbara, at the end of 1899.     (R. H. V.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] By the Greek and Roman geographers Egypt was usually assigned to
+    Libya (Africa), but by some early writers the Nile was thought to
+    mark the division between Libya and Asia. The name occurs in Homer as
+    [Greek: Aigyptos], but is of doubtful origin.
+
+  [2] A vivid description of Cairo during the prevalence of plague in
+    1835 will be found in A. W. Kinglake's _Eothen_.
+
+  [3] A _kantar_ equals 99 lb.
+
+  [4] To the ministry of public instruction was added in 1906 a
+    department of agriculture and technical instruction.
+
+  [5] The place of publication is London unless otherwise stated.
+
+  [6] The figures of the debt are always given in L sterling. The
+    budget figures are in LE. (pounds Egyptian), equal to L1, 0s. 6d.
+
+  [7] _Egypt_, No. 1 (1905), p. 20.
+
+  [8] Similar mortality, though on a smaller scale, recurred in 1889,
+    when Sudanese battalions coming from Suakin were detained temporarily
+    in Cairo.
+
+  [9] Formerly transcribed _hau_ or "heap"-problems.
+
+  [10] Clepsydras inscribed in hieroglyphic are found soon after the
+    Macedonian conquest.
+
+  [11] Annual reports of the progress of the work are printed in the
+    _Sitzungsberichte_ of the Berlin Academy of Sciences; see also Erman,
+    _Zur agyptischen Sprachforschung_, ib. for 1907, p. 400, showing the
+    general trend of the results.
+
+  [12] In the temple of Philae, where the worship of Isis was permitted
+    to continue till the reign of Justinian, Brugsch found demotic
+    inscriptions with dates to the end of the 5th century.
+
+  [13] The Arabic dialects, which gradually displaced Coptic as
+    Mahommedanism supplanted Christianity, adopted but few words of the
+    old native stock.
+
+  [14] In the articles referring to matters of Egyptology in this
+    edition, Graecized forms of Old Egyptian names, where they exist, are
+    commonly employed; in other cases names are rendered by their actual
+    equivalents in Coptic or by analogous forms. Failing all such means,
+    recourse is had to the usual conventional renderings of hieroglyphic
+    spelling, a more precise transcription of the consonants in the
+    latter being sometimes added.
+
+  [15] It seems that "acrophony" (giving to a sign the value of the
+    first letter of its name) was indulged in only by priests of the
+    latest age, inventing fantastic modes of writing their "vain
+    repetitions" on the temple walls.
+
+  [16] In the prehistoric age when absolute dating is out of reach a
+    "sequence dating" by means of the sequence of types in pottery,
+    tools, &c., has been proposed in Petrie's _Diospolis Parva_, pp. 4 et
+    sqq. The earliest prehistoric graves yet known are placed at S.D. 30,
+    and shortly before S.D. 80 the period of the first historic dynasty
+    is entered.
+
+  [17] Ten-day periods as subdivisions of the month can be traced as
+    far back as the Middle Kingdom. The day consisted of twenty-four
+    hours, twelve of day (counted from sunrise to sunset) and twelve of
+    night; it began at sunrise.
+
+  [18] For the "sequence" dating (S.D.) used by archaeologists for the
+    prehistoric period see above (S Art and Archaeology, ad init. note).
+
+  [19] Reisner (_Early Dynastic Cemeteries_, p. 126), from his work in
+    the prehistoric cemeteries, believes that Egypt was too uncivilized
+    at that early date to have performed this scientific feat.
+
+  [20] The history of Hatshepsut has been very obscure, and the
+    mutilations of her cartouches have been variously accounted for.
+    Recent discoveries by M. Legrain at Karnak and Prof. Petrie at Sinai
+    have limited the field of conjecture. The writer has followed M.
+    Naville's guidance in his biography of the queen (in T. M. Davis,
+    _The Tomb of Hatshopsitu_, London, 1906, pp. 1 et seq.), made with
+    very full knowledge of the complicated data.
+
+  [21] This, it may be remarked, is the time vaguely represented by the
+    Dodecarchy of Herodotus.
+
+  [22] Khosrev Pasha afterwards filled several of the highest offices
+    at Constantinople. He died on the 1st of February 1855. He was a
+    bigot of the old school, strongly opposed to the influences of
+    Western civilization, and consequently to the assistance of France
+    and Great Britain in the Crimean War.
+
+  [23] The work was carried out under the supervision of the Frenchman,
+    Colonel Seve, who had turned Mahommedan and was known in Islam as
+    Suleiman Pasha. The effectiveness of the new force was first tried in
+    the suppression of a revolt of the Albanians in Cairo (1823) by six
+    disciplined Sudanese regiments; after which Mehemet Ali was no more
+    troubled with military _emeutes_.
+
+  [24] THE DYNASTY OF MEHEMET ALI.
+
+                               (i.) Mehemet Ali,
+                               b. 1769, d. 1849.
+                                      |
+         +-------------+----------+---+-------+--------------+-------------+
+         |             |          |           |              |             |
+   (ii.) Ibrahim,   Tusun,      Ismail,   (iv.) Said,   Abdul Halim,   Mehemet Ali,
+      b. 1789,     b. 1796,     b. 1798,    b. 1823,      b. 1831,     the Younger,
+      d. 1848.     d. 1816.     d. 1822.    d. 1863.      d. 1894.      and other
+         |             |                      |                         children.
+         |      (iii.) Abbas I.,            Tusun
+         |      b. 1813, d. 1854.          d. 1876.
+         |             |
+         |         El Hami.
+         |             |
+         |          Amina (married the Khedive Tewfik).
+         |
+     +---+-----------+--------------------+
+     |               |                    |
+    Ahmed,   (v.) Ismail (Khedive),  Mustapha Fazil,
+   d. 1858.    b. 1830, d. 1895.       d. 1875.
+                     |
+                  +--+-------------+-------------+------------+
+                  |                |             |            |
+             (vi.) Tewfik,   Hussein Kamil.   Hassan.   8 other children.
+           b. 1853, d. 1892.
+                  |
+                  +------------------+------------+
+                  |                  |            |
+           (vii.) Abbas II.,   Mehemet Ali.   2 daughters.
+               b. 1874.
+                  |
+                  +----------------+--------------+
+                  |                |              |
+            Mahommed Abdul,   Abdul Kader,   4 daughters.
+               b. 1890.         b. 1902.
+
+  [25] Part of this money was devoted to an expedition sent against
+    Abyssinia in 1876 to avenge losses sustained in the previous year.
+    The new campaign was, however, equally unsuccessful.
+
+  [26] Lord Cromer, writing in 1905, declared that the movement "was,
+    in its essence, a genuine revolt against misgovernment," and "was not
+    essentially anti-European" (vide _Egypt No. 1_, 1905, p. 2).
+
+  [27] Except in so far as it was necessary to call out men to guard
+    the banks of the Nile in the season of high flood.
+
+  [28] The Egyptians keep large numbers of pigeons, which are allowed
+    to be shot only by permission of the village omdeh (head-man). After
+    the occurrence here related, officers were prohibited from shooting
+    pigeons in any circumstances.
+
+  [29] On the 8th of January 1908, the anniversary of the khedive's
+    accession, the whole of the Denshawai prisoners were pardoned and
+    released. For the Denshawai incident see the British parliamentary
+    papers, _Egypt No. 3_ and _Egypt No. 4_ of 1906.
+
+  [30] See _Egypt No. 2_ (1906), Correspondence respecting the
+    Turco-Egyptian Frontier in the Sinai Peninsula (with a map).
+
+
+
+
+EHRENBERG, CHRISTIAN GOTTFRIED (1795-1876), German naturalist, was born
+at Delitzsch in Saxony on the 19th of April 1795. After studying at
+Leipzig and Berlin, where he took the degree of doctor of medicine in
+1818, he was appointed professor of medicine in the university of Berlin
+(1827). Meanwhile in 1820 he was engaged in a scientific exploration
+conducted by General von Minutoli in Egypt. They investigated parts of
+the Libyan desert, the Nile valley and the northern coasts of the Red
+Sea, where Ehrenberg made a special study of the corals. Subsequently
+parts of Syria, Arabia and Abyssinia were examined. Some results of
+these travels and of the important collections that had been made were
+reported on by Humboldt in 1826; and afterwards Ehrenberg was enabled to
+bring out two volumes _Symbolae physicae_ (1828-1834), in which many
+particulars of the mammals, birds, insects, &c., were made public. Other
+observations were communicated to scientific societies. In 1829 he
+accompanied Humboldt through eastern Russia to the Chinese frontier. On
+his return he gave his attention to microscopical researches. These had
+an important bearing on some of the infusorial earths used for polishing
+and other economic purposes; they added, moreover, largely to our
+knowledge of the microscopic organisms of certain geological formations,
+especially of the chalk, and of the modern marine and freshwater
+accumulations. Until Ehrenberg took up the study it was not known that
+considerable masses of rock were composed of minute forms of animals or
+plants. He demonstrated also that the phosphorescence of the sea was due
+to organisms. He continued until late in life to investigate the
+microscopic organisms of the deep sea and of various geological
+formations. He died in Berlin on the 27th of June 1876.
+
+  PUBLICATIONS.--_Die Infusionsthierchen als vollkommene Organismen_ (2
+  vols. fol., Leipzig, 1838); _Mikrogeologie_ (2 vols. fol., Leipzig,
+  1854); and "Fortsetzung der mikrogeologischen Studien," in _Abhandl.
+  der k. Akad. der Wissenschaft_ (Berlin, 1875).
+
+
+
+
+EHRENBREITSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on
+the right bank of the Rhine, facing Coblenz, with which it is connected
+by a railway bridge and a bridge of boats, on the main line of railway
+Frankfort-on-Main-Cologne. Pop. (including the garrison) 5300. It has an
+Evangelical and two Roman Catholic churches, a Capuchin monastery,
+tanneries, soap-works and a considerable trade in wine. Above the town,
+facing the mouth of the Mosel, on a rock 400 ft. high, lies the
+magnificent fortress of Ehrenbreitstein, considered practically
+impregnable. The sides towards the Rhine and the south and south-east
+are precipitous, and on the south side, on which is the winding
+approach, strongly defended. The central fort or citadel is flanked by a
+double line of works with three tiers of casemate batteries. The works
+towards the north and north-east end in a separate outlying fort. The
+whole forms a part of the system of fortifications which surround
+Coblenz.
+
+The site of the castle is said to have been occupied by a Roman fort
+built in the time of the emperor Julian. In the rith century the castle
+was held by a noble named Erembert, from whom it is said to have derived
+its name. In the 12th century it came into the possession of Archbishop
+Hillin (de Fallemagne) of Trier, who strengthened the defences in 1153.
+These were again extended by Archbishop Henry II. (de Fenetrange) in
+1286, and by Archbishop John II. of Baden in 1481. In 1631 it was
+surrendered by the archbishop elector Philip Christopher von Soetern to
+the French, but was recovered by the Imperialists in 1637 and given to
+the archbishop elector of Cologne. It was restored to the elector of
+Trier in 1650, but was not strongly fortified until 1672. In 1688 the
+French bombarded it in vain, but in 1759 they took it and held it till
+1762. It was again blockaded in 1795, 1796 and 1797, in vain; but in
+1799 they starved it into surrender, and at the peace of Luneville in
+1801 blew it up before evacuating it. At the second peace of Paris the
+French paid 15,000,000 francs to the Prussian government for its
+restoration, and from 1816 to 1826 the fortress was reconstructed by
+General E. L. Aster (1778-1855).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 9, Slice 1, by Various
+
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