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diff --git a/32883-h/32883-h.html b/32883-h/32883-h.html new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fd10644 --- /dev/null +++ b/32883-h/32883-h.html @@ -0,0 +1,7407 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?> +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en" xml:lang="en"><head><meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /><meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /><link rel="schema.DC" href="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" /><meta name="DC.Creator" content="Archibald Henry Sayce" /><meta name="DC.Title" content="Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments" /><meta name="DC.Date" content="June 18, 2010" /><meta name="DC.Language" content="English" /><meta name="DC.Publisher" content="Project Gutenberg" /><meta name="DC.Identifier" content="http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/32883" /><meta name="DC.Rights" content="This text is in the public domain." /><title>The Project Gutenberg EBook of Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments by Archibald Henry Sayce</title><style type="text/css">/* +The Gnutenberg Press - default CSS2 stylesheet + +Any generated element will have a class "tei" and a class "tei-elem" +where elem is the element name in TEI. +The order of statements is important !!! 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You may copy it, + give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project + Gutenberg License <a href="#pglicense" class="tei tei-ref">included with this + eBook</a> or online at <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/license" class="tei tei-xref">http://www.gutenberg.org/license</a></p></div><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">Title: Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments + +Author: Archibald Henry Sayce + +Release Date: June 18, 2010 [Ebook #32883] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: UTF-8 + + +***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FRESH LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS*** +</pre></div> + </div> + <div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + + </div> + + <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.73em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Fresh Light from the Ancient Monuments</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">A Sketch of the Most Striking Confirmations of the Bible, From Recent Discoveries in:</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Egypt. Palestine. Assyria. Babylonia. Asia Minor.</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">by</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Archibald Henry Sayce, M.A.</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Deputy Professor of Comparative Philology, Oxford.</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.20em"><span style="font-size: 120%">Hon. LL.D., Dublin.</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.44em"><span style="font-size: 144%">Second Edition.</span></p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">London:</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">The Religious Tract Society.</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">36, Paternoster Row; 65, St. Paul's Churchyard.</p> + <p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em">1884</p> + </div> + <hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Contents</span></h1> + <ul class="tei tei-index tei-index-toc"><li><a href="#toc1">Preface.</a></li><li><a href="#toc3">Chapter I. Introduction.</a></li><li><a href="#toc5">Chapter II. The Book of Genesis.</a></li><li><a href="#toc7">Chapter III. The Exodus out of Egypt.</a></li><li><a href="#toc9">Chapter IV. The Moabite Stone and the Inscription of +Siloam.</a></li><li><a href="#toc11">Chapter V. The Empire of the Hittites.</a></li><li><a href="#toc13">Chapter VI. The Assyrian Invasions.</a></li><li><a href="#toc15">Chapter VII. Nebuchadrezzar and Cyrus.</a></li><li><a href="#toc17">Appendix I.</a></li><li><a href="#toc19">Appendix II.</a></li><li><a href="#toc21">Index.</a></li><li><a href="#toc23">Footnotes</a></li></ul> + </div> + + </div> +<div class="tei tei-body" style="margin-bottom: 6.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page001">[pg 001]</span><a name="Pg001" id="Pg001" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc1" id="toc1"></a> +<a name="pdf2" id="pdf2"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Preface.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/frontispiece.png" alt="Illustration." title="Monument of a Hittite king, accompanied by an inscription in Hittite hieroglyphics, discovered on the site of Carchemish and now in the British Museum." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">Monument of a Hittite king, accompanied by an inscription in Hittite +hieroglyphics, discovered on the site of Carchemish and now in the British +Museum.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The object of this little book is explained by its title. +Discovery after discovery has been pouring in upon us +from Oriental lands, and the accounts given only ten +years ago of the results of Oriental research are already +beginning to be antiquated. It is useful, therefore, to +take stock of our present knowledge, and to see how far +it bears out that <span class="tei tei-q">“old story”</span> which has been familiar to us +from our childhood. The same spirit of scepticism which +had rejected the early legends of Greece and Rome had +laid its hands also on the Old Testament, and had +determined that the sacred histories themselves were +but a collection of myths and fables. But suddenly, as +with the wand of a magician, the ancient eastern world +has been reawakened to life by the spade of the explorer +and the patient skill of the decipherer, and we now find +ourselves in the presence of monuments which bear the +names or recount the deeds of the heroes of Scripture. +One by one these <span class="tei tei-q">“stones crying out”</span> have been examined +or more perfectly explained, while others of +equal importance are being continually added to them. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page002">[pg 002]</span><a name="Pg002" id="Pg002" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +What striking confirmations of the Bible narrative +have been afforded by the latest discoveries will be seen +from the following pages. In many cases confirmation +has been accompanied by illustration. Unexpected +light has been thrown upon facts and statements +hitherto obscure, or a wholly new explanation has been +given of some event recorded by the inspired writer. +What can be more startling than the discovery of the great +Hittite Empire, the very existence of which had been +forgotten, and which yet once contended on equal terms +with Egypt on the one side and Assyria on the other? +The allusions to the Hittites in the Old Testament, +which had been doubted by a sceptical criticism, have +been shown to be fully in accordance with the facts, and +their true place in history has been pointed out. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But the account of the Hittite Empire is not the only +discovery of the last four or five years about which this +book has to speak. Inscriptions of Sargon have cleared +up the difficulties attending the tenth and eleventh +chapters of Isaiah's prophecies, and have proved that no +<span class="tei tei-q">“ideal”</span> campaign of an <span class="tei tei-q">“ideal”</span> Assyrian king is +described in them. The campaign, on the contrary, was +a very real one, and when Isaiah delivered his prophecy +the Assyrian monarch was marching down upon Jerusalem +from the north, and was about to be <span class="tei tei-q">“the rod”</span> of +God's anger upon its sins. Ten years before the overthrow +of Sennacherib's army his father, Sargon, had +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page003">[pg 003]</span><a name="Pg003" id="Pg003" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +captured Jerusalem, but a <span class="tei tei-q">“remnant”</span> escaped the +horrors of the siege, and returned in penitence <span class="tei tei-q">“unto +the mighty God.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Perhaps the most remarkable of recent discoveries is +that which relates to Cyrus and his conquest of Babylonia. +The history of the conquest as told by Cyrus +himself is now in our hands, and it has obliged us to +modify many of the views, really derived from Greek +authors, which we had read into the words of Scripture. +Cyrus, we know now upon his own authority, was a +polytheist, and not a Zoroastrian; he was king of Elam, +not of Persia. It was Elam, and not Persia, as Isaiah's +prophecies declared, which invaded Babylon. Babylon +itself was taken without a siege, and Mr. Bosanquet may +therefore have been right in holding that the Darius of +Daniel was Darius the son of Hystaspes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hardly less interesting has been the discovery of the +inscription of Siloam, which reveals to us the very +characters used by the Jews in the time of Isaiah, +perhaps even in the time of Solomon himself. The +discovery has cast a flood of light on the early topography +of Jerusalem, and has made it clear as the +daylight that the Jews of the royal period were not the +rude and barbarous people it has been the fashion of an +unbelieving criticism to assume, but a cultured and +literary population. Books must have been as plentiful +among them as they were in Phœnicia or Assyria; nor +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page004">[pg 004]</span><a name="Pg004" id="Pg004" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +must we forget the results of the excavations undertaken +last year in the land of Goshen. Pithom, the +treasure-city built by the Israelites, has been disinterred, +and the date of the Exodus has been fixed. M. Naville +has even found there bricks made without straw. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But the old records of Egypt and Assyria have a +further interest than a merely historical one. They tell +us what were the religious doctrines and aspirations of +those who composed them, and what was their conception +of their duty towards God and man. We have only +to compare the hymns and psalms and prayers of these +ancient peoples—seeking <span class="tei tei-q">“the Lord, if haply they might +feel after Him and find Him”</span>—with the fuller lights +revealed in the pages of the Old Testament, to discover +how wide was the chasm that lay between the two. +The one was seeking what the other had already found. +The Hebrew prophet was the forerunner and herald of +the Gospel, and the light shed by the Gospel had been +reflected back upon him. He saw already <span class="tei tei-q">“the Sun of +Righteousness”</span> rising in the east; the psalmist of +Shinar or the devout worshipper of Asshur were like +unto those <span class="tei tei-q">“upon whom no day has dawned.”</span> +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page009">[pg 009]</span><a name="Pg009" id="Pg009" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc3" id="toc3"></a> +<a name="pdf4" id="pdf4"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter I. Introduction.</span></h1> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">How the Cuneiform Inscriptions were deciphered.—Grotefend's +guess.—Lassen and Rawlinson's studies.—Discoveries of Botta, Layard, George +Smith, and Rassam.—Certainty of our present knowledge.</span></span> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The decipherment of the cuneiform or wedge-shaped +inscriptions of Assyria has been one of the most marvellous +achievements of the present century. It has often +been asked how Assyrian scholars have been enabled to +read an Assyrian text with almost as much certainty as a +page of the Old Testament, although both the language +and the characters in which it is written were utterly +unknown but a few years ago. A brief history of the +origin and progress of the decipherment will best answer +the question. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Travellers had discovered inscriptions engraved in +cuneiform, or, as they were also termed, arrow-headed, +characters on the ruined monuments of Persepolis and +other ancient sites in Persia. Some of these monuments +were known to have been erected by the Achæmenian +princes—Darius, the son of Hystaspes, and his successors—and +it was therefore inferred that the inscriptions +also had been carved by order of the same kings. The +inscriptions were in three different systems of cuneiform +writing; and, since the three kinds of inscription were +always placed side by side, it was evident that they +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page010">[pg 010]</span><a name="Pg010" id="Pg010" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +represented different versions of the same text. The +subjects of the Persian kings belonged to more than one +race, and just as in the present day a Turkish pasha in +the East has to publish an edict in Turkish, Arabic, +and Persian, if it is to be understood by all the populations +under his charge, so the Persian kings were obliged +to use the language and system of writing peculiar to +each of the nations they governed, whenever they wished +their proclamations to be read and understood by them. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was clear that the three versions of the Achæmenian +inscriptions were addressed to the three chief populations +of the Persian Empire, and that the one which +invariably came first was composed in ancient Persian, +the language of the sovereign himself. Now this +Persian version happened to offer the decipherer less +difficulties than the two others which accompanied +it. The number of distinct characters employed in +writing it did not exceed forty, while the words were +divided from one another by a slanting wedge. Some +of the words contained so many characters that it was +plain that these latter must denote letters, and not +syllables, and that consequently the Persian cuneiform +system must have consisted of an alphabet, and not of a +syllabary. It was further plain that the inscriptions had +to be read from left to right, since the ends of all the +lines were exactly underneath one another on the left +side, whereas they terminated irregularly on the right; +indeed, the last line sometimes ended at a considerable +distance from the right-hand extremity of the inscription. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The clue to the decipherment of the inscriptions was +first discovered by the successful guess of a German +scholar, Grotefend. Grotefend noticed that the inscriptions +generally began with three or four words, one of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page011">[pg 011]</span><a name="Pg011" id="Pg011" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +which varied, while the others remained unchanged. +The variable word had three forms, though the same +form always appeared on the same monument. Grotefend, +therefore, conjectured that this word represented +the name of a king, the words which followed it being +the royal titles. One of the supposed names appeared +much oftener than the others, and as it was too short for +Artaxerxes and too long for Cyrus, it was evident that +it must stand either for Darius or for Xerxes. A study +of the classical authors showed Grotefend that certain +of the monuments on which it was found had been constructed +by Darius, and he accordingly gave to the +characters composing it the values required for spelling +"Darius" in its old Persian form. In this way he succeeded +in obtaining conjectural values for six cuneiform +letters. He now turned to the second royal name, which +also appeared on several monuments, and was of much +the same length as that of Darius. This could only be +Xerxes; but if so, the fifth letter composing it (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">r</span></span>) would +necessarily be the same as the third letter in the name of +Darius. This proved to be the case, and thus afforded +the best possible evidence that the German scholar was +on the right track. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The third name, which was much longer than the +other two, differed from the second chiefly at the beginning, +the latter part of it resembling the name of Xerxes. +Clearly, therefore, it could be nothing else than Artaxerxes, +and that it actually was so, was rendered certain +by the fact that the second character composing it was +that which had the value of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">r</span></span>. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Grotefend now possessed a small alphabet, and with +this he proceeded to read the word which always followed +the royal name, and therefore probably meant <span class="tei tei-q">“king.”</span> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page012">[pg 012]</span><a name="Pg012" id="Pg012" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +He found that it closely resembled the word which signified +<span class="tei tei-q">“king”</span> in Zend, the old language of the Eastern +Persians, which was spoken in one part of Persia at +the same time that Old Persian, the language of the +Achæmenian princes, was spoken in another. There +could, consequently, be no further room for doubt that he +had really solved the great problem, and discovered +the key to the decipherment of the cuneiform texts. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But he did little further himself towards the completion +of the work, and it was many years before any real +progress was made with it. Meanwhile, the study of +Zend had made great advances, more especially in the +hands of Burnouf, who eventually turned his attention to +the cuneiform inscriptions. But it is to Burnouf's pupil, +Lassen, as well as to Sir Henry Rawlinson, that the +decipherment of these inscriptions owes its final completion. +The discovery of the list of Persian satrapies in +the inscription of Darius at Naksh-i-Rustem, and above +all the copy of the long inscription of Darius on the rock +of Behistun, made by Sir H. Rawlinson, enabled these +scholars independently of one another to construct an +alphabet which differed only in the value assigned to a +single character, and, with the help of the cognate Zend +and Sanskrit, to translate the language so curiously +brought to light. The decipherment of the Persian +cuneiform texts thus became an accomplished fact; +what was next needed was to decipher the two +versions which were inscribed at their side. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But this was no easy task. The words in them were +not divided from one another, and the characters of +which they were composed were exceedingly numerous. +With the assistance, however, of frequently recurring +proper names even these two versions gradually yielded +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page013">[pg 013]</span><a name="Pg013" id="Pg013" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to the patient skill of the decipherer; and it was then +discovered that while one of them represented an agglutinative +language, such as that of the Turks or Fins, +the other was in a dialect which closely resembled the +Hebrew of the Old Testament. The monuments found +almost immediately afterwards in Assyria and Babylonia +by Botta and Layard soon made it clear to what people +this dialect must have belonged. The inscriptions of +Nineveh turned out to be written in the same language +and form of cuneiform script; and it must therefore have +been for the Semitic population of Assyria and Babylonia +that the kings of Persia had caused one of the versions +of their inscriptions to be drawn up. This version served +as a starting-point for the decipherment of the texts +which the excavations in Assyria had brought to light. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It might have been thought that the further course of +the decipherment would have presented little difficulty, +now that the values of many of the Assyrian characters +were known, and the close resemblance of the language +they concealed to Hebrew had been discovered. But +the complicated nature of the Assyrian system of +cuneiform—the great number of characters used in it, +the different phonetic values the same character might +have, and the frequent employment of ideographs, which +denoted ideas and not sounds—caused the progress of +decipherment to be for some time but slow. Indeed, had +the Assyrian inscriptions been confined to those engraved +on the alabaster bulls and other monuments of Nineveh, +our knowledge of the language would always have +remained comparatively limited. But, fortunately, the +Assyrians, like the Babylonians before them, employed +clay as a writing material, and established libraries, +which were filled with a literature on baked bricks. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page014">[pg 014]</span><a name="Pg014" id="Pg014" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +One of the most important results of Sir A. H. Layard's +explorations at Nineveh was the discovery of the ruined +library of the ancient city, now buried under the mounds +of Kouyunjik. The broken clay tablets belonging to +this library not only furnished the student with an +immense mass of literary matter, but also with direct +aids towards a knowledge of the Assyrian syllabary and +language. Among the literature represented in the +library of Kouyunjik were lists of characters, with their +various phonetic and ideographic meanings, tables of +synonymes, and catalogues of the names of plants and +animals. This, however, was not all. The inventors of +the cuneiform system of writing had been a people who +preceded the Semites in the occupation of Babylonia, +and who spoke an agglutinative language utterly +different from that of their Semitic successors. These +Accadians, as they are usually termed, left behind them +a considerable amount of literature, which was highly +prized by the Semitic Babylonians and Assyrians. A +large portion of the Ninevite tablets, accordingly, +consists of interlinear or parallel translations from +Accadian into Assyrian, as well as of reading books, +dictionaries, and grammars, in which the Accadian +original is placed by the side of its Assyrian equivalent. +It frequently happens that the signification of a +previously unknown Assyrian word can be ascertained +by our finding it given as the rendering of an Accadian +word, with the meaning of which we are already +acquainted. The bilingual texts have not only enabled +scholars to recover the long-forgotten Accadian +language; they have also been of the greatest possible +assistance to them in their reconstruction of the Assyrian +dictionary itself. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page015">[pg 015]</span><a name="Pg015" id="Pg015" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The three expeditions conducted by Mr. George +Smith, as well as the later ones of Mr. Hormuzd +Rassam, have added largely to the stock of tablets from +Kouyunjik originally acquired for the British Museum +by Sir A. H. Layard, and have also brought to light +a few other tablets from the libraries of Babylonia. +Although, therefore, only one of the many libraries +which now lie buried beneath the ground in Babylonia +and Assyria has, as yet, been at all adequately explored, +the amount of Assyrian literature at the disposal of the +student is already greater than that contained in the +whole of the Old Testament. Apart from the help +afforded by the old dictionaries and lists of words and +characters, he has more facilities for determining the +meaning of a word by a comparison of parallel +passages than the student of Biblical Hebrew; and in +many instances, accordingly, Assyrian has made it +possible to fix the signification of a Hebrew word, the +sense of which has hitherto been doubtful. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Assyrian student, moreover, possesses an advantage +which is not shared by the Hebraist. Owing to its +hieroglyphic origin, the cuneiform system of writing +makes large use of what are called determinatives, that +is to say, of characters which have no phonetic value, +but which determine the class to which the word they +accompany belongs. It is, therefore, always possible to +tell at a glance whether the word with which we are +dealing is the name of a man, of a woman, of a deity, of +a river, of a country, or of a city; or, again, whether it +denotes an animal, a bird, a vegetable, a stone, a star, a +medicine, or the like. With all these aids, accordingly, +it is not wonderful that the study of Assyrian has made +immense progress during the last few years, and that an +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page016">[pg 016]</span><a name="Pg016" id="Pg016" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +ordinary historical text can be read with as much certainty +as a page from one of the historical books of the +Old Testament. Indeed, we may say that it can be read +with even greater certainty, since it presents us with the +actual words of the original writer; whereas the text of +the Old Testament has come to us through the hands of +successive generations of copyists, who have corrupted +many passages so as to make them grammatically unintelligible. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At the same time, the hieroglyphic origin of the +cuneiform mode of writing has been productive of disadvantages +as well as of advantages. The characters +which compose it may express ideas as well as sounds; +and though we may know what ideas are represented, +we may not always know the exact pronunciation to be +assigned to them. Thus, in English, the ideograph + +may be pronounced <span class="tei tei-q">“plus,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“added to,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“more,”</span> +according to the pleasure of the reader. The Assyrian +scribes usually attached one or more phonetic characters +to the ideographs they employed, in order to indicate +their pronunciation in a given passage; but these <span class="tei tei-q">“phonetic +complements,”</span> as they are termed, were frequently +omitted in the case of well-known proper names, such as +those of the native kings and deities. Hence the exact +pronunciation of these names can only be settled when +we find them written phonetically; and there are one +or two proper names, such as that of the hero of the +great Chaldean epic, which have never yet been met +with phonetically spelt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another disadvantage due to the hieroglyphic origin +of the Assyrian syllabary is the number of different phonetic +values the same character may bear. This caused +a good deal of trouble in the early days of Assyrian +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page017">[pg 017]</span><a name="Pg017" id="Pg017" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +decipherment; but it was a difficulty that was felt quite +as much by the Assyrians themselves as it is by us. +Consequently they adopted various devices for overcoming +it; and as these devices have become known the +difficulty has ceased to be felt. In short, the study of +Assyrian now reposes on as sure and certain a basis as +the study of any ancient language, a knowledge of which +has been traditionally handed down to us; and the +antiquity of its monuments, the copiousness of its vocabulary, +the perfection of its grammar, and the syllabic +character of the writing—which expresses vowels as well +as consonants—all combine to make it of the highest +importance for the study of the Semitic languages. +Its recovery has not only shed a flood of light on the +history and antiquities of the Old Testament, it has +served to illustrate and explain the language of the Old +Testament as well. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page018">[pg 018]</span><a name="Pg018" id="Pg018" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc5" id="toc5"></a> +<a name="pdf6" id="pdf6"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter II. The Book of Genesis.</span></h1> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +Recent discoveries, especially in Babylonia and Assyria, have thrown much +light on Genesis.—The Accadians.—An Assyrian account of the +Creation.—The Babylonian Sabbath.—Traces of an account of the Fall.—Site +of Paradise.—</span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">Adam</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%"> a Babylonian word.—The Chaldean +story of the Deluge.—This compared with the record in Genesis.—The +Babylonian account of the building of Babel.—The light thrown by the +Assyrian inscriptions on the names in Gen. x.—Gomer; Madai; Javan; +Cush and Mizraim; Phut; Canaan; Elam; Asshur; Arphaxad; +Aram; Lud; Nimrod.—The site of Ur.—Approximate date of the +rescue of Lot by Abraham.—Egypt in the time of Abraham.—Records of +famines.—The date of Joseph's appointment as second ruler in Egypt.—The +Tale of the Two Brothers.—Goshen. +</span></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is no book in the world about which more has +been written than the Bible, and perhaps there is no +portion of the Bible which has given rise to a larger +literature than the Book of Genesis. Every word in it +has been carefully scrutinised, now by scholars who +sought to discover its deepest meaning or to defend it +against the attacks of adversaries, now again by hostile +critics anxious to expose every supposed flaw, and to +convict it of error and inconsistency. Assailants and +defenders had long to content themselves with such +evidence as could be derived from a study of the book +itself, or from the doubtful traditions of ancient nations, +as reported by the writers of Greece and Rome. Such +reports were alike imperfect and untrustworthy; historical +criticism was still in its infancy in the age of the +classical authors, and they cared but little to describe +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page019">[pg 019]</span><a name="Pg019" id="Pg019" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +accurately the traditions of races whom they despised. +It was even a question whether any credit could be +given to the fragments of Egyptian, Babylonian, and +Phœnician mythology or history extracted by Christian +apologists from the lost works of native authors who +wrote in Greek. The Egyptian dynasties of Manetho, +the Babylonian stories of the Creation and Flood narrated +by Berossus, the self-contradicting Phœnician +legends collected by Philo Byblius, were all more or +less suspected of being an invention of a later age. +The earlier chapters of Genesis stood almost alone; +friends and foes alike felt the danger of resting any +argument on the apparent similarity of the accounts +recorded in them to the myths and legends contained +in the fragments of Manetho, of Berossus, and of Philo +Byblius. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +All is changed now. The marvellous discoveries of +the last half-century have thrown a flood of light on the +ancient oriental world, and some of this light has necessarily +been reflected on the Book of Genesis. The +monuments of Egypt, of Babylonia, and of Assyria have +been rescued from their hiding-places, and the writing +upon them has been made to speak once more in living +words. A dead world has been called again to life by +the spade of the excavator and the patient labour of the +decipherer. We find ourselves, as it were, face to face +with Sennacherib, with Nebuchadnezzar, and with +Cyrus, with those whose names have been familiar to us +from childhood, but who have hitherto been to us mere +names, mere shadowy occupants of an unreal world. +Thanks to the research of the last half-century, we can +now penetrate into the details of their daily life, can +examine their religious ideas, can listen to them as they +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page020">[pg 020]</span><a name="Pg020" id="Pg020" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +themselves recount the events of their own time or the +traditions of the past which had been handed down to +them. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is more especially in Babylonia and Assyria that +we find illustrations of the earlier chapters of Genesis, +as, indeed, is only natural. The Semitic language +spoken in these two countries was closely allied to that +of the Old Testament, as closely, in fact, as two modern +English dialects are allied to each other; and it was +from Babylonia, from Ur of the Chaldees, now represented +by the mounds of Mugheir, that Abraham made +his way to the future home of his descendants in the +west. It is to Babylonia that the Biblical accounts of +the Fall, of the Deluge, and of the Confusion of +Tongues particularly look: two of the rivers of Paradise +were the Tigris and Euphrates, the ark rested on the +mountains of Ararat, and the city built around the +Tower which men designed should reach to heaven was +Babel or Babylon. Babylonia was an older kingdom +than Assyria, which took its name from the city of +Assur, now Kalah Sherghat, on the Tigris, the original +capital of the country. It was divided into two halves, +Accad (Gen. x. 10) being Northern Babylonia, and +Sumir, the Shinar of the Old Testament, Southern +Babylonia. The primitive populations of both Sumir +and Accad were related, not to the Semitic race, but to +the tribes which continued to maintain themselves in the +mountains of Elam down to a late day. They spoke +two cognate dialects, which were agglutinative in character, +like the languages of the modern Turks and Fins; +that is to say, the relations of grammar were expressed +by coupling words together, each of which retained an +independent meaning of its own. Thus +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">in-nin-sun</span></span> is +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page021">[pg 021]</span><a name="Pg021" id="Pg021" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<span class="tei tei-q">“he gave it,”</span> literally <span class="tei tei-q">“he-it-gave,”</span> +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">e-mes-na</span></span> is <span class="tei tei-q">“of +houses,”</span> literally <span class="tei tei-q">“house-many-of.”</span> At an early date, +which cannot yet, however, be exactly determined, the +Sumirians and Accadians were overrun and conquered +by the Semitic Babylonians of later history, Accad +being apparently the first half of the country to fall +under the sway of the new-comers. It is possible that +Casdim, the Hebrew word translated <span class="tei tei-q">“Chaldees”</span> or +<span class="tei tei-q">“Chaldæans”</span> in the Authorised Version, is the Babylonian +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">casidi</span></span>, or <span class="tei tei-q">“conquerors,”</span> a title which continued +to cling to them in consequence of their conquest. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Accadians had been the inventors of the pictorial +hieroglyphics which afterwards developed into the +cuneiform or wedge-shaped system of writing; they +had founded the great cities of Chaldea, and had +attained to a high degree of culture and civilisation. +Their cities possessed libraries, stocked with books, +written partly on papyrus, partly on clay, which was, +while still soft, impressed with characters by means of +a metal stylus. The books were numerous, and related +to a variety of subjects. Among them there were more +particularly two to which a special degree of sanctity +was attached. One of these contained magical formulæ +for warding off the assaults of evil spirits; the other +was a collection of hymns to the gods, which was used +by the priests as a kind of prayer-book. When the +Semitic Babylonians, the kinsmen of the Hebrews, the +Aramæans, the Phœnicians and the Arabs, conquered +the old population, they received from it, along with +other elements of culture, the cuneiform system of +writing and the literature written in it. The sacred +hymns still continued to serve as a prayer-book, but +they were now provided with interlinear translations +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page022">[pg 022]</span><a name="Pg022" id="Pg022" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +into the Babylonian (or, as it is usually termed, the +Assyrian) language. Part of the literature consisted of +legal codes and decisions; and since the inheritance and +holding of property frequently depended on a knowledge +of these, it became necessary for the conquerors to +acquaint themselves with the language of the people +they had conquered. In course of time, however, the +two dialects of Sumir and Accad ceased to be spoken; +but the necessity for learning them still remained, and +we find accordingly that down to the latest days of both +Assyria and Babylonia the educated classes were taught +the old extinct Accadian, just as in modern Europe they +are taught Latin. From time to time, indeed, the +scribes of Sennacherib or Nebuchadnezzar attempted to +write in the ancient language, and in doing so sometimes +made similar mistakes to those that are made +now-a-days by a schoolboy in writing Latin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Accadians were, like the Chinese, pre-eminently +a literary people. Their conception of chaos was that +of a period when as yet no books were written. Accordingly, +a legend of the Creation, preserved in the +library of Cuthah, contains this curious statement: +<span class="tei tei-q">“On a memorial-tablet none wrote, none explained, for +bodies and produce were not brought forth in the +earth.”</span> To the author of the legend the art of writing +seemed to mount back to the very beginning of mankind. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This legend of the Creation, however, is not the +only one that has been recovered from the shipwreck +of Assyrian and Babylonian literature. Besides the +account given in the fragments of Berossus, there is +another, which bears a striking resemblance to the +account of the Creation in the first chapter of Genesis. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page023">[pg 023]</span><a name="Pg023" id="Pg023" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +It does not appear, however, that this last was of +Accadian origin; at all events, there is no indication +that it was translated into Assyrian from an older +Accadian document, and there are even reasons for +thinking that it may not be earlier—in its present form +at least—than the seventh century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> We possess, +unfortunately, only portions of it, since many of the +series of clay tablets on which it was inscribed have +been lost or injured. The account begins as follows:— +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +1. At that time the heavens above named not a name, +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +2. Nor did the earth below record one: +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +3. Yea, the deep was their first creator, +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +4. The flood of the sea was she who bore them all. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +5. Their waters were embosomed in one place, and +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +6. The flowering reed was ungathered, the marsh-plant +was ungrown. +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +7. At that time the gods had not issued forth, any one of +them, +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +8. By no name were they recorded, no destiny (had they +fixed). +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +9. Then the (great) gods were made, +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +10. Lakhmu and Lakhamu issued forth (the first), +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +11. They grew up.... +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +12. Next were made the host of heaven and earth, +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +13. The time was long (and then) +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +14. The gods Anu (Bel and Ea were born of) +</span></p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em"><span style="font-size: 90%"> +15. The host of heaven and earth. +</span></p> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is not until we come to the fifth tablet of the series, +which describes the appointment of the heavenly bodies—the +work of the fourth day of creation, according to +Genesis—that the narrative is again preserved. Here +we read that the Creator <span class="tei tei-q">“made beautiful the stations +of the great gods,”</span> or stars, an expression which reminds +us of the oft-recurring phrase of Genesis: <span class="tei tei-q">“And God +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page024">[pg 024]</span><a name="Pg024" id="Pg024" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +saw that it was good.”</span> The stars, moon, and sun +were ordered to rule over the night and day, and to +determine the year, with its months and days. The latter +part of the tablet, however, like the latter part of the +first tablet, is destroyed, and of the next tablet—that +which described the creation of animals—only the first +few lines remain. <span class="tei tei-q">“At that time,”</span> it begins, <span class="tei tei-q">“the gods +in their assembly created (the living creatures). They +made beautiful the mighty (animals). They made the +living beings come forth, the cattle of the field, the +beast of the field, and the creeping thing.”</span> What +follows is too mutilated to yield a connected sense. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is no need of pointing out how closely this +Assyrian account of the Creation resembles that of +Genesis. Even the very wording and phrases of Genesis +occur in it, and though no fragment is preserved which +expressly tells us that the work of the Creation was +accomplished in seven days, we may infer that such was +the case, from the order of events as recorded on the +tablets. But, with all this similarity, there is even greater +dissimilarity. The philosophical conceptions with which +the Assyrian account opens, the polytheistic colouring +which we find in it further on, have no parallel in the +Book of Genesis. The spirit of the two narratives is +essentially different. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The last tablet probably contained an account of the +institution of the Sabbath. At all events, we learn that +the seventh day was observed as a day of rest among +the Babylonians, as it was among the Jews. It was even +called by the same name of Sabbath, a word which is +defined in an Assyrian text as <span class="tei tei-q">“a day of rest for the +heart,”</span> while the Accadian equivalent is explained to +mean <span class="tei tei-q">“a day of completion of labour.”</span> A calendar of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page025">[pg 025]</span><a name="Pg025" id="Pg025" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +saints' days for the month of the intercalary Elul makes +the seventh, fourteenth, twenty-first, and twenty-eighth +days of the lunar month Sabbaths, on which certain +works were forbidden to be done. On those days, it is +stated, <span class="tei tei-q">“flesh cooked on the fire may not be eaten, the +clothing of the body may not be changed, white garments +may not be put on, a sacrifice may not be offered, +the king may not ride in his chariot, nor speak in public, +the augur may not mutter in a secret place, medicine of +the body may not be applied, nor may any curse be +uttered.”</span> Nothing, in fact, that implied work was +allowed to be done. Where the Babylonian Sabbath +differed from the Jewish one was in its essentially lunar +character. The first Sabbath was the first day of a +month, whatever might be the length of the month that +preceded it. While Sabbaths and new moons are distinguished +from one another in the Old Testament, they +are found united in the Babylonian ritual. It is no +wonder, therefore, that the Babylonians were acquainted +with a week of seven days, each day of which was +dedicated to one of the seven planets; it was the space +of time naturally marked out by the four quarters of +the moon. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +No account of the Fall of Man, similar to that in +Genesis, has as yet been found among the fragments of +the Assyrian libraries. Mr. George Smith, indeed, +supposed that he had discovered one, but the text +which he referred to the Fall, is really an ancient +hymn to the Creator. It is, nevertheless, pretty certain +that such an account once existed. An archaic Babylonian +gem represents a tree, on either side of which +are seated a man and woman, with a serpent behind +them, and their hands are stretched out towards the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page026">[pg 026]</span><a name="Pg026" id="Pg026" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +fruit that hangs from the tree. A few stray references in +the bilingual (Accadian and Assyrian) dictionaries throw +some light upon this representation, and inform us that +the Accadians knew of <span class="tei tei-q">“a wicked serpent,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the +serpent of night”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“darkness,”</span> which had brought +about the fall of man. The tree of life, of which so +many illustrations occur on Assyrian monuments, is +declared to be <span class="tei tei-q">“the pine-tree”</span> of Eridu, <span class="tei tei-q">“the shrine of +the god Irnin;”</span> and Irnin is a name of the Euphrates, +when regarded as the <span class="tei tei-q">“snake-river,”</span> which encircled +the world like a rope, and was the stream of Hea, <span class="tei tei-q">“the +snake-god of the tree of life.”</span> The Euphrates, we must +remember, was one of the rivers of Paradise. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The site of Paradise is to be sought for in Babylonia. +The garden which God planted was in Eden, +and Eden, as we learn from the cuneiform records, was +the ancient name of the <span class="tei tei-q">“field”</span> or plain of Babylonia, +where the first living creatures had been created. The +city of Eridu, which the people of Sumir called <span class="tei tei-q">“the +good”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“holy,”</span> was, as we have seen, the shrine of +Irnin, and in the midst of a forest or garden that +once lay near it grew <span class="tei tei-q">“the holy pine-tree,”</span> <span class="tei tei-q">“the tree +of life.”</span> The rivers of Eden can be found in the rivers +and canals of Babylonia. Two of them were the +Euphrates and Tigris, called by the Accadians <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">id Idikla</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the river of Idikla,”</span> the Biblical Hiddekhel, while +Pishon is a Babylonian word signifying <span class="tei tei-q">“canal,”</span> and +Gihon may be the Accadian Gukhan, the stream on +which Babylon stood. Even the word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cherub</span></em> is itself +of Babylonian derivation. It is the name given to one +of those winged monsters, with the body of a bull and +the head of a man, which are sometimes placed in the +Assyrian sculptures on either side of the tree of life. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page027">[pg 027]</span><a name="Pg027" id="Pg027" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +They stood at the entrance of a Babylonian palace, and +were supposed to prevent the evil spirits from entering +within. The word comes from a root which means <span class="tei tei-q">“to +approach”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“be near,”</span> and perhaps originally signified +one who was near to God. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Like <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">cherub</span></em>, <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">Adam</span></em> also was a Babylonian word. It +has the general sense of <span class="tei tei-q">“man,”</span> and is used in this +sense both in Hebrew and in Assyrian. But as in +Hebrew it has come to be the proper name of the first +man, so, too, in the old Babylonian legends, the +<span class="tei tei-q">“Adamites”</span> were <span class="tei tei-q">“the white race”</span> of Semitic descent, +who stood in marked contrast to <span class="tei tei-q">“the black heads”</span> +or Accadians of primitive Babylonia. Originally, however, +it was this dark race itself that claimed to have +been <span class="tei tei-q">“the men”</span> whom the god Merodach created; and +it was not until after the Semitic conquest of Chaldea +that the children of Adamu or Adam were supposed to +denote the white Semitic population. Hence it is that +the dark race continued to the last to be called the +Adamatu or <span class="tei tei-q">“red-skins,”</span> which a popular etymology +connected with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Adamu</span></span> <span class="tei tei-q">“man.”</span> Sir H. Rawlinson has +suggested a parallel between the dark and white races of +Babylonia and the <span class="tei tei-q">“sons of God”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“daughters of +men”</span> of Genesis. Adam, we are told, was <span class="tei tei-q">“the son of +God”</span> (Luke iii. 38). But nothing similar to what we +read in the sixth chapter of Genesis has as yet been +met with among the cuneiform records, and though +these speak of giant heroes, like Ner and Etanna, who +lived before the Flood, we know nothing as yet as to +their parentage. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Babylonians, however, were well aware that the +Deluge had been caused by the wickedness of the +human race. It has often been remarked that though +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page028">[pg 028]</span><a name="Pg028" id="Pg028" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +traditions of a universal or a partial deluge are found +all over the world, it is only in the Old Testament that +the cause assigned for it is a moral one. The Chaldean +account of the Deluge, discovered by Mr. George +Smith, offers an exception to this rule. Here, as in +Genesis, Sisuthros, the Accadian Noah, is saved from +destruction on account of his piety, the rest of mankind +being drowned as a punishment for their sins. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The story of the Deluge formed the subject of more +than one poem among the Accadians. Two of these +were amalgamated together by the author of a great +epic in twelve books, which described the adventures of +a solar hero whose name cannot be read with certainty, +but may provisionally be pronounced Gisdhubar. The +amalgamated account was introduced as an episode +into the eleventh book, the whole epic being arranged +upon an astronomical principle, so that each book +should correspond to one of the signs of the Zodiac, the +eleventh book consequently answering to Aquarius. +Sisuthros, who had been translated without dying, like +the Biblical Enoch, is made to tell the story himself to +Gisdhubar. Gisdhubar had travelled in search of +health to the shores of the river of death at the mouth +of the Euphrates, and here afar off in the other world he +sees and talks with Sisuthros. Fragments of several +editions of the poem have been found, not only among +the ruins of Nineveh, but also in Babylonia; and by +fitting these together it has been possible to recover +almost the whole of the original text. The translations +of it made by different scholars have necessarily +improved with the progress of Assyrian research, and +though the first translation given to the world by Mr. +George Smith was substantially correct, there were +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page029">[pg 029]</span><a name="Pg029" id="Pg029" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +many minor inaccuracies in it which have since had to +be corrected. The latest and best version is that which +has been published by Professor Haupt. The following +translation of the account is based upon it:— +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(Col. I) <span class="tei tei-q">“Sisuthros speaks to him, even to Gisdhubar: +Let me reveal unto thee, Gisdhubar, the story of my preservation, +and the oracle of the gods let me tell to thee. +The city of Surippak, the city which, as thou knowest, is +built on the Euphrates, this city was already ancient +when the gods within it set their hearts to bring on a +deluge, even the great gods as many as there are—their +father Anu, their king the warrior Bel, their throne-bearer +Adar, their prince En-nugi. Ea, the lord of +wisdom, sat along with them, and repeated their decree: +<span class="tei tei-q">‘For their boat! as a boat, as a boat, a hull, a hull! +hearken to their boat, and understand the hull, O man +of Surippak, son of Ubara-Tutu; dig up the house, +build the ship, save what thou canst of the germ of life. +(The gods) will destroy the seed of life, but do thou live, +and bid the seed of life of every kind mount into the +midst of the ship. The ship which thou shalt build, +... cubits shall be its length in measure, ... +cubits the content of its breadth and its height. (Above) +the deep cover it in.’</span> I understood and spake to Ea, +my lord: <span class="tei tei-q">‘The building of the ship which thou hast +commanded thus, if it be done by me, the children of +the people and the old men (alike will laugh at me).’</span> +Ea opened his mouth and said, he speaks to me his +servant: <span class="tei tei-q">‘(If they laugh at thee) thou shalt say unto +them, (Every one) who has turned against me and (dis-believes +the oracle that) has been given me, ... I +will judge above and below. (But as for thee) shut (not) +the door (until) the time comes of which I will send thee +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page030">[pg 030]</span><a name="Pg030" id="Pg030" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +word. (Then) enter the door of the ship, and bring into +the midst of it thy corn, thy property, and thy goods, +thy (family), thy household, thy concubines, and the +sons of the people. The cattle of the field, the wild +beasts of the field, as many as I would preserve, I will +send unto thee, and they shall keep thy door.’</span> Sisuthros +opened his mouth and speaks; he says to Ea, his lord: +<span class="tei tei-q">‘(O my lord) no one yet has built a ship (in this fashion) +on land to contain the beasts (of the field). (The plan?) +let me see and the ship (I will build). On the land the +ship (I will build) as thou hast commanded me.’</span>...</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(Col. II) <span class="tei tei-q">“... On the fifth day (after it was begun) +in its circuit(?) fourteen measures its hull (measured); +fourteen measures measured (the roof) above it. I made +it a dwelling-house(?).... I enclosed it. I compacted +it six times, I divided (its passages) seven times, I +divided its interior (seven) times. Leaks for the waters +in the midst of it I cut off. I saw the rents, and what +was wanting I added. Three <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">sari</span></span> of bitumen I poured +over the outside. Three <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">sari</span></span> of bitumen I poured over +the inside. Three <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">sari</span></span> of men, carrying baskets, who +carried on their heads food, I provided, even a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">saros</span></span> of +food for the people to eat, while two <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">sari</span></span> of food the +boatmen shared. To (the gods) I caused oxen to be +sacrificed; I (established offerings) each day. In (the +ship) beer, food, and wine (I collected) like the waters of +a river, and (I heaped them up) like the dust(?) of the +earth, and (in the ship) the food with my hand I placed. +(With the help) of Samas [the Sun-God] the compacting +of the ship was finished; (all parts of the ship) were +made strong, and I caused the tackling to be carried +above and below. (Then of my household) went two-thirds: +all that I had I heaped together; all that I had +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page031">[pg 031]</span><a name="Pg031" id="Pg031" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of silver I heaped together; all that I had of gold I +heaped together; all that I had of the seed of life I +heaped together. I brought the whole up into the ship; +all my slaves and concubines, the cattle of the field, the +beasts of the field, the sons of the people, all of them, +did I bring up. The season Samas fixed, and he spake, +saying: <span class="tei tei-q">‘In the night will I cause the heaven to rain +destruction. Enter into the midst of the ship and close +thy door.’</span> The season came round; he spake, saying: +<span class="tei tei-q">‘In the night will I cause the heaven to rain destruction.’</span> +Of that day I reached the evening, the day which I +watched for with fear. I entered into the midst of the +ship and shut the door, that I might close the ship. To +Buzur-sadi-rabi, the boatman, I gave the palace, with all +its goods. Then arose Mu-seri-ina-namari (The Water +of Dawn at Daylight) from the horizon of heaven (like) +a black cloud. Rimmon in the midst of it thundered, and +Nebo and the Wind-God go in front: the throne-bearers +go over mountain and plain: Nergal the mighty removes +the wicked; Adar goes overthrowing all before him. +The spirits of earth carried the flood; in their terribleness +they sweep through the land; the deluge of Rimmon +reaches unto heaven; all that was light to (darkness) +was turned.</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(Col. III) <span class="tei tei-q">“(The surface) of the land like (fire?) +they wasted; (they destroyed all) life from the face +of the land; to battle against men they brought (the +waters). Brother saw not his brother; men knew not +one another. In heaven the gods feared the flood, +and sought a refuge; they ascended to the heaven of +Anu. The gods, like a dog in his kennel, crouched down +in a heap. Istar cries like a mother, the great goddess +utters her speech: <span class="tei tei-q">‘All to clay is turned, and the evil I +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page032">[pg 032]</span><a name="Pg032" id="Pg032" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +prophesied in the presence of the gods, according as I +prophesied evil in the presence of the gods, for the +destruction of my people I prophesied (it) against them; +and though I their mother have begotten my people, like +the spawn of the fishes they fill the sea.’</span> Then the gods +were weeping with her because of the spirits of earth; +the gods on a throne were seated in weeping; covered +were their lips because of the coming evil. Six days +and nights the wind, the flood, and the storm go on +overwhelming. The seventh day when it approached +the storm subsided, the flood which had fought against +(men) like an armed host was quieted. The sea began +to dry, and the wind and the flood ended. I watched +the sea making a noise, and the whole of mankind was +turned to clay; like reeds the corpses floated. I opened +the window, and the light smote upon my face; I +stooped and sat down; I weep, over my face flow my +tears. I watch the regions at the edge of the sea; a +district rose twelve measures high. To the land of +Nizir steered the ship; the mountain of Nizir stopped +the ship, and it was not able to pass over it. The first +day, the second day, the mountain of Nizir stopped the +ship. The third day, the fourth day, the mountain of +Nizir stopped the ship. The fifth day, the sixth day, +the mountain of Nizir stopped the ship. The seventh +day when it approached I sent forth a dove, and it left. +The dove went and returned, and found no resting-place, +and it came back. Then I sent forth a swallow, and it +left. The swallow went and returned, and found no +resting-place, and it came back. I sent forth a raven, +and it left. The raven went and saw the carrion on the +water, and it ate, it swam, it wandered away; it did not +return. I sent (the animals) forth to the four winds, I +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page033">[pg 033]</span><a name="Pg033" id="Pg033" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +sacrificed a sacrifice. I built an altar on the peak of the +mountain. I set vessels [each containing the third of an +ephah] by sevens; underneath them I spread reeds, +pine-wood, and spices. The gods smelt the savour; the +gods smelt the good savour; the gods gathered like flies +over the sacrifices. Thereupon the great goddess at her +approach lighted up the rainbow which Anu had created +according to his glory. The crystal brilliance of those +gods before me may I not forget;</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(Col. IV) <span class="tei tei-q">“those days I have thought of, and never +may I forget them. May the gods come to my altar; +but may Bel not come to my altar, since he did not +consider but caused the flood, and my people he +assigned to the abyss. When thereupon Bel at his +approach saw the ship, Bel stopped; he was filled with +anger against the gods and the spirits of heaven: +'Let none come forth alive! let no man live in the +abyss!' Adar opened his mouth and spake, he says to +the warrior Bel: <span class="tei tei-q">‘Who except Ea can form a design? +Yea, Ea knows, and all things he communicates.’</span> Ea +opened his mouth and spake, he says to the warrior Bel: +<span class="tei tei-q">‘Thou, O warrior prince of the gods, why, why didst +thou not consider but causedst a flood? Let the doer of +sin bear his sin, let the doer of wickedness bear his +wickedness. May the just prince not be cut off, may the +faithful not be (destroyed). Instead of causing a flood, +let lions increase, that men may be minished; instead of +causing a flood, let hyænas increase, that men may be +minished; instead of causing a flood, let a famine +happen, that men may be (wasted); instead of causing a +flood, let plague increase, that men may be (reduced). I +did not reveal the determination of the great gods +To Sisuthros alone a dream I sent, and he heard the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page034">[pg 034]</span><a name="Pg034" id="Pg034" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +determination of the gods.’</span> When Bel had again taken +counsel with himself, he went up into the midst of the +ship. He took my hand and bid me ascend, even me +he bid ascend; he united my wife to my side; he turned +himself to us and joined himself to us in covenant; he +blesses us (thus): <span class="tei tei-q">‘Hitherto Sisuthros has been a mortal +man, but now Sisuthros and his wife are united together +in being raised to be like the gods; yea, Sisuthros shall +dwell afar off at the mouth of the rivers.’</span> They took +me, and afar off at the mouth of the rivers they made +me dwell.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is hardly necessary to indicate the points of agreement +and disagreement between this Babylonian account +of the Deluge and that of Genesis. The most striking +difference between the two, that which first meets the eye, +is the polytheism of the Babylonian version, in contrast +with the monotheism of the Biblical narrative. Here, +in place of the gods of Chaldea, we are confronted by +the one supreme Deity; we have no longer to do with a +Bel who requires the intercession of Ea before he will +consent not to destroy the guiltless with the guilty; it +is the Lord Himself who <span class="tei tei-q">“said in His heart, I will not +again curse the ground any more for man's sake.”</span> In +the Babylonian legend, moreover, Noah and Enoch +have been confounded together; Sisuthros is not only +saved from the waters of the flood, but translated to the +abode of the gods. The vessel itself in which the seed +of life was preserved is not the same in the two accounts. +According to the Hebrew narrative, it was an ark; +according to the Babylonian poem, a ship. It is true +that in one place it is called <span class="tei tei-q">“a palace,”</span> the word used +being the same as that which in many passages of the +Old Testament is applied to God's <span class="tei tei-q">“palace”</span> of heaven; +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page035">[pg 035]</span><a name="Pg035" id="Pg035" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +but it is provided with a pilot, Buzur-sadi-rabi, <span class="tei tei-q">“the Sun-god +of the mighty mountain,”</span> and Sisuthros is made to +expostulate on the strangeness of building a ship which +should sail over the land. It must, however, be noticed +that the shrines in which the images of the gods were +carried in Babylonia were called <span class="tei tei-q">“ships,”</span> and that these +<span class="tei tei-q">“ships”</span> corresponded with the ark of the Hebrew +tabernacle. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The land of Nizir, in which the vessel of Sisuthros +rested, was among the mountains of Pir Mam, to the +north-east of Babylonia. Rowandiz, the highest peak +in this part of Asia, rises a little to the north of the Pir +Mam, and it seems probable, therefore, that it represents +<span class="tei tei-q">“the mountain of Nizir.”</span> The whole country had been +included by the Accadians in the vast territory of Guti, +or Gutium, which roughly corresponds with the modern +Kurdistan. It is accordingly worth notice that a wide-spread +eastern tradition makes Gebel Gudi, or Mount +Gudi, the mountain on which the ark rested, and that in +early Jewish legend this mountain is called Lubar or +Baris, the boundary between Armenia and Kurdistan, +in the land of the Minni. Ararat, or Urardhu, as it is +written in the cuneiform inscriptions, denoted Armenia, +and more particularly the district about Lake Van; so +that <span class="tei tei-q">“the mountains of Ararat,”</span> of which Genesis +speaks, might easily have been the Kurdish ranges of +Southern Armenia. It was not until a very late period +that the name of Ararat was first applied and then +confined to the lofty mountains in the north. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Rowandiz seems also to have been regarded in Accadian +mythology as the Olympos on which the gods +dwelt. In this case it was usually called <span class="tei tei-q">“the mountain +of the east;”</span> but the east was here the north-east, since +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page036">[pg 036]</span><a name="Pg036" id="Pg036" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +other legends identified it with Aralu, or Hades, the +mountain of gold which was fabled to be in the far +north. It is to this Accadian Olympos that reference is +made in Isa. xiv. 13, where the King of Babylon is +described as boasting that he would <span class="tei tei-q">“ascend into heaven, +and exalt his throne above the stars of the gods,”</span> that +he would <span class="tei tei-q">“sit on the mountain of the assembly of the +gods in the extremities of the north.”</span> The mountain +was sometimes known as the <span class="tei tei-q">“mountain of the world,”</span> +since the firmament was supposed to revolve on its peak +as on a pivot. We must not imagine, however, that the +Accadians, any more than the Greeks, actually believed +the gods to live above the clouds on the terrestrial +Rowandiz, except at a very early period in their history. +Just as we do not think of the sky when we use the +word heaven in a spiritual sense, so by <span class="tei tei-q">“the mountain +of the assembly of the gods”</span> they meant a spiritual +mountain, of which Rowandiz was the earthly type. It +is in this way that we must explain the position +assigned to Sisuthros after his translation. He does not +live along with the gods in the north, but has his station +fixed <span class="tei tei-q">“at the mouth of the rivers”</span> Euphrates and +Tigris, which in ancient times flowed into the Persian +Gulf through separate channels. At an epoch when +the geographical knowledge of the Accadians did not +extend very far, the unknown district beyond the +mouth of the Euphrates became a representative of the +other world; and the Euphrates itself was identified +with Datilla, the river of <span class="tei tei-q">“the God of life and death,”</span> +as well as with the stream or <span class="tei tei-q">“great deep”</span> which was +supposed to encircle the earth like a monstrous +serpent. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The name of the Chaldean Noah, Sisuthros, or, as it +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page037">[pg 037]</span><a name="Pg037" id="Pg037" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +is written in the cuneiform, Khasis-adra, or Adra-khasis, +is really a title, given to him on account of his righteousness, +and signifying <span class="tei tei-q">“wise (and) pious.”</span> His proper +name is one which means <span class="tei tei-q">“the Sun of Life,”</span> though +the exact pronunciation of it is somewhat uncertain. +Neither of these names agrees with that of the Biblical +Noah, but the latter has received a full explanation +from the Assyrian language, where it signifies <span class="tei tei-q">“rest.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +After the Flood, we are told in Genesis that men +journeyed from the east until they came to the plain of +Shinar, where they built the tower of Babel, in the vain +hope of ascending into heaven. God, however, confounded +their language and scattered them over the face +of the earth. The references in this narrative to Shinar +and Babel, or Babylon, indicate that here again we may +expect to find a Babylonian account of the Confusion +of Tongues, just as we have found a Babylonian account +of the Deluge. As we have seen, the Accadians regarded +themselves as having come from the <span class="tei tei-q">“mountain +of the east”</span> where the ark had rested, while Shinar is +the Hebrew form of the native name Sumir—or Sungir, +as it was pronounced in the allied dialect of Accad—the +southern half of pre-Semitic Babylonia. Now Mr. +George Smith discovered some broken fragments of a +cuneiform text which evidently related to the building +of the Tower of Babel. It tells us how certain men +had <span class="tei tei-q">“turned against the father of all the gods,”</span> and +how the thoughts of their leader's heart <span class="tei tei-q">“were evil.”</span> At +Babylon they essayed to build <span class="tei tei-q">“a mound”</span> or hill-like +tower, but the winds blew down their work, and Anu +<span class="tei tei-q">“confounded great and small on the mound,”</span> as well as +their <span class="tei tei-q">“speech,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-q">“made strange their counsel.”</span> The +very word that is used in the sense of <span class="tei tei-q">“confounding”</span> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page038">[pg 038]</span><a name="Pg038" id="Pg038" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in the narrative of Genesis is used also in the Assyrian +text. The Biblical writer, by a play upon words, not +uncommon in the Old Testament, compares it with the +name of Babel, though etymologically the latter word +has nothing to do with it. Babel is the Assyrian Babili, +<span class="tei tei-q">“Gate of God,”</span> and is merely a Semitic translation +of the old Accadian (or rather Sumirian) name of the +town, Ca-dimíra, where Ca is <span class="tei tei-q">“gate”</span> and dimíra <span class="tei tei-q">“God.”</span> +Chaldean tradition assigned the construction of the +tower and the consequent confusion of languages to the +time of the autumnal equinox; and it is possible that the +hero-king Etanna (Titan in Greek writers), who is stated +to have built a city in defiance of the will of heaven, was +the wicked chief under whom the tower was raised. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The confusion of tongues was followed by the dispersion +of mankind. The earth was again peopled by +the descendants of the three sons of Noah—Shem, Ham, +and Japhet. Shem is the Assyrian Samu, <span class="tei tei-q">“olive-coloured,”</span> +Ham is Khammu, <span class="tei tei-q">“burned black,”</span> and Japhet +Ippat, <span class="tei tei-q">“the white race.”</span> The tribes and races which +drew their origin from them are enumerated in the tenth +chapter of Genesis. The arrangement of this chapter, +however, is geographical, not ethnological; the peoples +named in it being grouped together according to their +geographical position, not according to their relationship +in blood or language. Here it is that the non-Semitic +Elamites are classed along with the Semitic Assyrians, +and that the Phœnicians of Canaan, who spoke the same +language as the Hebrews, and originally came from the +same ancestors, are associated with the Egyptians. +When this fact is recognised, there is no difficulty in +showing that the statements of the chapter are fully +consistent with the conclusions of modern research. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page039">[pg 039]</span><a name="Pg039" id="Pg039" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Assyrian inscriptions have thrown a good deal of +light upon the names contained in it. Gomer, the son +of Japhet, represents the Gimirrai of the inscriptions, the +Kimmerians of classical writers. Pressed by the Scyths +of the Russian steppes, they threatened to overrun the +Assyrian empire under a leader named Teispes, but +were defeated by Esar-haddon, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 670, in a great +battle on the north-eastern frontier of his kingdom, and +driven westwards into Asia Minor. There they sacked +the Greek town of Sinôpè, and spread like locusts over +the fertile plains of Lydia. Among the gifts sent to +Nineveh by the Lydian king, Gugu or Gyges—a name +in which we may see the Gog of Ezekiel—were two +Kimmerian chieftains whom he had captured with his +own hand. Gyges was afterwards slain in battle with +the barbarians, and it required some years before they +could be finally extirpated. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Madai are the Medes, a title given by the Assyrians +to the multifarious tribes to the east of Kurdistan. They +are first mentioned in the inscriptions about 820 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, +and were partially subdued by Tiglath-Pileser II and +his successors. At this time they lived in independent +communities, each governed by its <span class="tei tei-q">“city-chief.”</span> The +Median empire, which rose upon the ruins of Nineveh, +was really the creation of the kings of Ekbatana, the +modern Hamadan. The population of this district was +known among the Babylonians as <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">manda</span></span>, or +<span class="tei tei-q">“barbarians;”</span> and through a confusion of the latter word +with the proper name Madâ, or <span class="tei tei-q">“Medes,”</span> historians have +been led to suppose that the empire of Ekbatana was a +Median one. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Javan is the Greek word <span class="tei tei-q">“Ionian,”</span> but in the Old +Testament it is generally applied to the island of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page040">[pg 040]</span><a name="Pg040" id="Pg040" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Cyprus, which is called the Island of Yavnan, or the +Ionians, on the Assyrian monuments. A more specific +name for it in Hebrew is Kittim, derived from the name +of the Phœnician colony of Kition, now represented by +Larnaka. Cyprus was first visited by the Babylonians +at a very remote period, since Sargon I of Accad, who, +according to Nabonidos (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 550), lived 3,200 years +before his time, carried his arms as far as its shores. +As for Tubal and Meshech, they are as frequently +associated together in the Assyrian inscriptions as they +are in the Bible. The Tubal or Tibarêni spread in Old +Testament times over the south-eastern part of Kappadokia, +while the Meshech or Moschi adjoined them +on the north and west. Ashkenaz is the Assyrian +Asguza, the name of a district which lay between the +kingdoms of Ekbatana and the Minni. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Cush and Mizraim denote Ethiopia and Egypt, +Ethiopia roughly corresponding to the Nubia of today. +As Ethiopia was largely peopled by tribes who +had come across the Red Sea from Southern Arabia, +the name of Cush was given in the Old Testament +(as in verse 7 of this chapter) to Southern Arabia +also. Properly speaking, however, it denoted the +country which commenced on the southern side of the +First Cataract. Mizraim means <span class="tei tei-q">“the two Matsors,”</span> +that is Upper and Lower Egypt. Lower Egypt was +the original Matsor, a word which signifies <span class="tei tei-q">“wall,”</span> and +referred to the line of fortification which defended the +kingdom on the eastern side from the attacks of +Asiatic tribes. The word occurs more than once in the +Biblical writers, though its sense has been obscured in +the Authorised Version. Thus in Isaiah xxxvii. 25, +Sennacherib boasts that he has <span class="tei tei-q">“dried up all the rivers +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page041">[pg 041]</span><a name="Pg041" id="Pg041" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of Matsor,”</span> that is to say, the mouths of the Nile; and in +Isaiah xix. 6, we ought to translate <span class="tei tei-q">“the Nile-arms of +Matsor,”</span> instead of <span class="tei tei-q">“brooks of defence.”</span> While Matsor +was the name of Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt was termed +Pathros (Isa. xi. 11), which is the Egyptian Pe-to-res +or <span class="tei tei-q">“southern land.”</span> The Pathrusim or inhabitants of +Pathros are mentioned among the sons of Mizraim in +the chapter of Genesis upon which we are engaged. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Phut seems to be the Egyptian Punt, on the Somali +coast. Spices and other precious objects of merchandise +were brought from it, and the Egyptians sometimes +called it <span class="tei tei-q">“the divine land.”</span> The Lehabim of verse 13 +are the Libyans, while the Naphtuhim may be the +people of Napata in Ethiopia. The Caphtorim or +inhabitants of Caphtor are the Phœnician population +settled on the coast of the Delta. From an early period +the whole of this district had been colonised by the +Phœnicians, and, as Phœnicia itself was called Keft by +the Egyptians, the part of Egypt in which they had +settled went by the name of Keft-ur or <span class="tei tei-q">“greater +Phœnicia.”</span> From various passages of the Old Testament<a id="noteref_1" name="noteref_1" href="#note_1"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">1</span></span></a> +we learn that the Philistines, whom the kings of +Egypt had once employed to garrison the five cities in +the extreme south of Palestine, had originally been +Phœnicians of Caphtor, so that the words of the verse +before us must have been moved from their proper +place, <span class="tei tei-q">“Caphtorim, out of whom came Philistim,”</span> being +the correct reading. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Canaan signifies <span class="tei tei-q">“the lowlands,”</span> and was primarily +the name of the coast on which the great cities of +Phœnicia were built. As, however, the inland parts of +the country were inhabited by a kindred population, the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page042">[pg 042]</span><a name="Pg042" id="Pg042" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +name came to be extended to designate the whole of +Palestine, just as Palestine itself meant originally only +the small territory of the Philistines. In Isaiah's prophecy +upon Tyre (xxiii. 11) the word is used in its +primitive sense, though here again the Authorised +Version has misled the English reader by mistranslating +<span class="tei tei-q">“the merchant-city”</span> instead of <span class="tei tei-q">“Canaan.”</span> Sidon, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the fishers' town,”</span> was the oldest of the Canaanite or +Phœnician cities; like Tyre, it was divided into two +quarters, known respectively as Greater and Lesser +Sidon. Heth or the Hithites adjoined the Phœnicians +on the north; we shall have a good deal to say about +them in a future chapter, and therefore pass them by +now. The Amorite was the inhabitant of the mountains +of Palestine, in contrast to the Canaanite or lowlander, +and the name is met with on the Egyptian monuments. +The towns of Arka and Simirra (or Zemar) are both +mentioned by Tiglath-Pileser II, while the city of Arvad +or Arados (now Ruâd) is repeatedly named in the +Assyrian inscriptions. So also is Hamath (now Hamah), +which was conquered by Sargon, and made by him the +seat of an Assyrian governor. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The name of Elam has first received its explanation +from the decipherment of the Assyrian texts. It was +the name of the mountainous region to the east of +Babylonia, of which Shushan or Susa was at one time +the capital, and is nothing more than the Assyrian word +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">elam</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“high.”</span> +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Elam</span></span> was itself a translation of the +Accadian <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Numma</span></span>, under which the Accadians included +the whole of the highlands which bounded the plain +of Babylonia on its eastern side. It was the seat of +an ancient monarchy which rivalled in antiquity that +of Chaldea itself, and was long a dangerous neighbour +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page043">[pg 043]</span><a name="Pg043" id="Pg043" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to the latter. It was finally overthrown, however, by +Assur-bani-pal, the Assyrian king, about <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 645. The +native title of the country was Anzan or Ansan, and the +name of its capital, Susan or Shushan, seems to have +signified <span class="tei tei-q">“the old town”</span> in the language of its +inhabitants. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Asshur or Assur was originally the name of a city on +the banks of the Tigris, the ruins of which are now +known as Kalah Sherghat. The name was of Accadian +derivation, and signified <span class="tei tei-q">“water-bank.”</span> The city long +continued to be the capital of the district which was +called after it Assyria, but was eventually supplanted +by Ninua or Nineveh. Nineveh lay opposite the +present town of Mosul, and it is from the remains of its +chief palace, now buried under the mounds of Kouyunjik, +that most of the Assyrian inscriptions in the British +Museum have been brought. A few miles to the south +of Nineveh, on the site now known as Nimrûd, was +Calah, a town built by Shalmaneser I, who lived +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 1300. Calah subsequently fell into ruins, but was +rebuilt in the ninth century before our era. <span class="tei tei-q">“Between +Nineveh and Calah”</span> stood Resen, according to Genesis. +Resen is the Assyrian <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Ris-eni</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“head of the stream,”</span> +which is once mentioned in an inscription of Sennacherib. +Rehoboth ´Ir, or <span class="tei tei-q">“the open spaces of the +city,”</span> must have denoted the suburbs of Nineveh, and +cannot be identified with Dur-Sarrukin, founded by +Sargon at Khorsabad, several miles to the north. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is plain from the context that Arphaxad must +signify Chaldea; and this conclusion is verified by the +fact that the name might also be pronounced Arpa-Chesed, +or <span class="tei tei-q">“border of Chaldæa.”</span> Chesed is the singular +of Casdim, the word used in the Old Testament to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page044">[pg 044]</span><a name="Pg044" id="Pg044" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +denote the inhabitants of Babylonia. The origin of it +is doubtful, but, as has been suggested above, it most +probably represents the Assyrian <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">casidi</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-q">“conquerors,”</span> a term which might very well be applied to the +Semitic conquerors of Sumir and Accad. The Greek +word Chaldeans is derived from the Kaldâ, a tribe +which lived on the shores of the Persian Gulf, and is +first heard of in the ninth century before our era. Under +Merodach-Baladan, the Kaldâ made themselves masters +of Babylonia, and became so integral a part of the +population as to give their name to the whole of it in +classical times. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Aram, the brother of Arphaxad, represents, of course, +the Aramæans of Aram, or <span class="tei tei-q">“the highlands,”</span> which +included the greater part of Mesopotamia and Syria. +In the later days of the Assyrian Empire, Aramaic, the +language of Aram, became the common language of +trade and diplomacy, which every merchant and politician +was supposed to learn, and in still later times +succeeded in supplanting Assyrian in Assyria and +Babylonia, as well as Hebrew in Palestine, until in its +turn it was supplanted by Arabic. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Lud seems to be a misreading; at all events, Lydia +and the Lydians, on the extreme western coast of Asia +Minor, had nothing to do with the peoples of Elam, +of Assyria, and of Aram. What the original reading +was, however, it is now impossible to say. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the midst of all these geographical names we find +a notice inserted relating to <span class="tei tei-q">“the mighty hunter”</span> +Nimrod, the beginning of whose kingdom, we are told, +was Babylon, and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh in the +land of Shinar. His name has not yet been discovered +in the cuneiform records. Some Assyrian scholars have +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page045">[pg 045]</span><a name="Pg045" id="Pg045" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +wished to identify him with Gisdhubar, the hero of the +great Chaldean epic, which contains the account of the +Deluge; but Gisdhubar was a solar hero who had +originally been the Accadian god of fire. It is true that +Gisdhubar was the special deity of the town of Marad, +and that Na-Marad would signify in the Accadian +language <span class="tei tei-q">“the prince of Marad”</span>; such a title, however, +has not been found in the inscriptions. Erech, called +Uruk on the monuments, is now represented by the +mounds of Warka, far away to the south of Babylon, +and was one of the oldest and most important of the +Babylonian cities. Like Calneh, the Kul-unu of the +monuments, it was situated in the division of the +country known as Sumir or Shinar. Accad, from +which the northern division of the country took its +name, was a suburb of Sippara (now Abu-Habba), and, +along with the latter, made up the Sepharvaim or +<span class="tei tei-q">“Two Sipparas”</span> of Scripture. The Accadian form +of the name was Agadê, and here was the seat of a +great library formed in remote days by Sargon I, and +containing, among other treasures, a work on astronomy +and astrology in seventy-two books. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The translation of the verse which follows the list of +Nimrod's Babylonian cities is doubtful. It is a question +whether we should render with the Authorised Version: +<span class="tei tei-q">“Out of that land went forth Asshur,”</span> or prefer the +alternative translation: <span class="tei tei-q">“Out of that land he went +forth to Assyria.”</span> The latter is favoured by Micah v. 6, +where <span class="tei tei-q">“the land of Nimrod”</span> appears to mean Assyria. +But the question cannot be finally decided until we +discover some positive information about Nimrod on the +monuments. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If, however, little light has been thrown by modern +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page046">[pg 046]</span><a name="Pg046" id="Pg046" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +research on the person of Nimrod, this is by no means +the case as regards Abraham. Abu-ramu or Abram, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the exalted father,”</span> Abraham's original name, is a +name which also occurs on early Babylonian contract-tablets. +Sarah, again, is the Assyrian <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">sarrat</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“queen,”</span> +while Milcah, the daughter of Haran, is the Assyrian +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">milcat</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“princess.”</span> The site of Ur of the Chaldees, +the birthplace of Abram, has been discovered, and excavations +have been made among the ruins of its temples. +The site is now called Mugheir, and lies on the western +side of the Euphrates, on the border of the desert, +immediately to the west of Erech. The chief temple of +Ur was dedicated to the moon-god, and the Accadian +inscriptions on its bricks, which record its foundation, are +among the earliest that we possess. It was, in fact, the +capital of one of the oldest of the pre-Semitic dynasties, +and its very name, Uru or Ur, is only the Semitic form +of the Accadian <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">eri</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“city.”</span> It is probable that +it had passed into the hands of the Semitic <span class="tei tei-q">“Casdim”</span> before +the age of Abraham; at all events, it had long been the +resort of Semitic traders, who had ceased to lead the +roving life of their ancestors in the Arabian desert. +From Ur, Abraham's father had migrated to Haran, in +the northern part of Mesopotamia, on the high road +which led from Babylonia and Assyria into Syria and +Palestine. Why he should have migrated to so distant +a city has been a great puzzle, and has tempted scholars +to place both Ur and Haran in wrong localities; but +here, again, the cuneiform inscriptions have at last +furnished us with the key. As far back as the Accadian +epoch, the district in which Haran was built belonged +to the rulers of Babylonia; Haran was, in fact, the +frontier town of the empire, commanding at once the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page047">[pg 047]</span><a name="Pg047" id="Pg047" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +highway into the west and the fords of the Euphrates; +the name itself was an Accadian one signifying <span class="tei tei-q">“the +road”</span>; and the deity to whom it was dedicated was the +moon-god of Ur. The symbol of this deity was a +conical stone, with a star above it, and gems with this +symbol engraved upon them may be seen in the British +Museum. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The road which passed through Haran was well +known to the Chaldean kings and their subjects. +Sargon I of Accad, and his son Naram-Sin, had already +made expeditions into the far west. Sargon had carved +his image on the rocks of the Mediterranean coast, and +had even crossed over into the island of Cyprus. The +campaign, therefore, of Chedor-laomer and his allies, +recorded in the fourteenth chapter of Genesis, was no +new thing. The soil of Canaan had already felt the +tramp of Babylonian feet. We can even fix the approximate +date at which the campaign took place, and when +Abraham and his confederates surprised the invaders and +recovered from them the spoils of Southern Palestine. +For twelve years, we are told, the tribes in the neighbourhood +of the Dead Sea had served Chedor-laomer, +king of Elam, and then they rebelled; but the rebellion +was quickly followed by invasion. Chedor-laomer and +<span class="tei tei-q">“the kings that were with him,”</span>—Amraphel, king of +Shinar, Arioch, king of Ellasar, and Tidal, <span class="tei tei-q">“king of +nations,”</span>—marched against the revolters, overthrew them +in battle, and carried them away captive. The name of +Arioch is actually found on the cuneiform monuments. +Bricks have been discovered engraved with the legend +of Eri-aku, king of Larsa, the son of Kudur-Mabug the +Elamite. Eri-aku means in Accadian <span class="tei tei-q">“the servant of the +moon-god,”</span> and Larsa, his capital, is now represented +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page048">[pg 048]</span><a name="Pg048" id="Pg048" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +by the mounds of Senkereh, a little to the east of +Erech. Kudur-Mabug is entitled <span class="tei tei-q">“the father of Palestine,”</span> +and it would, therefore, seem that he claimed +supremacy over Canaan. His name is an Elamite one, +signifying <span class="tei tei-q">“the servant of the god Mabug,”</span> and is +closely parallel to the Biblical Chedor-laomer, that is, +Kudur-Lagamar, <span class="tei tei-q">“the servant of the god Lagamar.”</span> +Lagamar and Mabug, however, were different deities, +and we cannot, therefore, identify Chedor-laomer and +Kudur-Mabug together. But it is highly probable that +they were brothers, Chedor-laomer being the elder, who +held sway in Elam, while his nephew Eri-aku owned +allegiance to him in Southern Babylonia. At any rate, +it is plain from the history of Genesis that Babylon was +at this time subject to Elam, and under the government +of more than one ruler. Amraphel would have been +king of that portion of Sumir, or Southern Chaldea, +which was not comprised in the dominions of the king +of Larsa; and the fact that the narrative begins by +stating that the campaign in Palestine was made in his +days, seems to imply that the whole account has been +extracted from the Babylonian archives. As for <span class="tei tei-q">“Tidal, +king of nations,”</span> it is very possible that we ought to +read Turgal (Thorgal), with the Septuagint, while Goyyim +or <span class="tei tei-q">“nations”</span> has been shown by Sir Henry Rawlinson +to be a misreading for Gutium, the name given to the +tract of country northward of Babylonia, which stretched +from Mesopotamia to the mountains of Kurdistan, and +within which the kingdom of Assyria afterwards arose. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now, the Assyrian king Assur-bani-pal tells us that +an image of the goddess Nana had been carried away +from Babylonia by the Elamite king Kudur-Nankhundi +when he overran Chaldea 1635 years before his own +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page049">[pg 049]</span><a name="Pg049" id="Pg049" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +time, that is to say, in 2280 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> It is possible that this +invasion of the country by Kudur-Nankhundi was the +beginning of Elamite supremacy in Babylonia, and that +Kudur-Mabug and Chedor-laomer were descendants of +his. If so, we shall have an approximate date for the +rescue of Lot by Abraham, and consequently for the +age of Abraham himself. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The fourteenth chapter of Genesis is the last in the +Book that relates to Babylonia. The history now turns +to Egypt; and it is, therefore, from the monuments of +Egypt, and not from those of Babylonia and Assyria, +that we henceforth have to look for light and information. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +No traditions of a deluge had been preserved among +the Egyptians. They believed, however, that there was +a time when the greater part of mankind had been +destroyed by the angry gods. A myth told how men +had once uttered hostile words against their creator Ra, +the Sun-God, who accordingly sent the goddess Hathor +to slay them, so that the earth was covered with their +blood as far as the town of Herakleopolis. Then Ra +drank 7,000 cups of wine, made from the fruits of Egypt +and mingled with the blood of the slain; his heart +rejoiced, and he made an oath that he would not destroy +mankind again. Rain filled the wells, and Ra went +forth to fight against his human foes. Their bows were +broken and themselves slaughtered, and the god returned +victorious to heaven, where he created Paradise +and the people of the stars. This myth agrees with +another, according to which mankind had emanated +from the eyes of Ra, though there was a different legend +of the creation, which asserted that all men, with the +exception of the negroes, had sprung from the tears of +the two deities Horus and Sekhet. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page050">[pg 050]</span><a name="Pg050" id="Pg050" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When Abraham went down into Egypt the empire +was already very old. Its history begins with Menes, +who united the independent states of the Nile valley +into a single kingdom, and established his capital at +Memphis. The first six dynasties of kings, who reigned +1,478 years, represent what is called the Old Empire. It +was under the monarchs of the fourth dynasty that the +pyramids of Gizeh were built; and at no time during its +later history did the art and culture of Egypt reach +again so high a level as it did under the Old Empire. +With the close of the sixth dynasty came a period of +disaster and decline. When Egypt again emerged into +the light of history it was under the warrior princes of +the twelfth dynasty. The capital had been shifted to +the new city of Thebes, in the south, a new god, Amun, +presided over the Egyptian deities, and the ruling class +itself differed in blood and features from the men of the +Old Empire. Henceforth Egyptian art was characterised +by a stiff conventionality wholly unlike the freedom and +vigour of the art of the early dynasties; the government +became more autocratic; and the obelisk took the +place of the pyramid in architecture. But the Middle +Empire, as it has been termed, did not last long. +Semitic invaders from Canaan and Arabia overran the +country, and established their seat at Zoan or Tanis. +For 511 years they held the Egyptians in bondage, +though the native princes, who had taken refuge in the +south, gradually acquired more and more power, until at +last, under the leadership of Aahmes or Amosis, the +founder of the eighteenth dynasty, they succeeded in +driving the hated foreigners out. These foreigners are +known to history as the Hyksos or Shepherds, Hyksos being the +Egyptian <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">hik shasu</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“prince of the Shasu,”</span> or +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page051">[pg 051]</span><a name="Pg051" id="Pg051" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Beduins.”</span> The name which they bear upon the monuments +is Menti. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It must have been while the Hyksos monarchs were +holding their court at Zoan that Abraham entered the +land. He found there men of Semitic blood, like himself, +and speaking a Semitic language. A welcome was +assured him, and he had no need of an interpreter. But +the Hyksos kings had already begun to assume Egyptian +state and to adopt Egyptian customs. In place of +the Semitic <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">shalat</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“ruler,”</span> the title by which +their first leaders had been known, they had borrowed the +Egyptian title of Pharaoh. Pharaoh appears on the +monuments as <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">pir-aa</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“great house,”</span> the palace in +which the king lived being used to denote the king himself, +just as in our own time the <span class="tei tei-q">“porte”</span> or gate of the +palace has become synonymous with the Turkish Sultan. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +By the time that Joseph was sold into Egypt there +was little outward difference between the court at Zoan +and the court of the native princes at Thebes. The +very names and titles borne by the Hyksos officials had +become Egyptian; and though they still regarded the +god Set as the chief object of their worship, they had +begun to rebuild the Egyptian temples, and pay honour +to the Egyptian deities. Potiphar, to whom Joseph was +sold, bore a purely Egyptian name, meaning <span class="tei tei-q">“the gift of +the risen one,”</span> while the name of Potipherah, the high +priest of On, whose daughter, Asenath, was married by +Joseph, is equally Egyptian, and signifies <span class="tei tei-q">“the gift of the +Sun-God.”</span> The Sun-God was the special deity of On; +to him the great temple of the city was dedicated, and +the name by which the place was known to the Greeks +was Heliopolis, <span class="tei tei-q">“the city of the sun.”</span> It was the city +whose name is played upon in Isaiah xix. 18, where +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page052">[pg 052]</span><a name="Pg052" id="Pg052" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the prophet declares that in the day when Egypt shall +be converted to the Lord, <span class="tei tei-q">“the City of the Sun”</span> +(<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">'ir ha-kheres</span></span>) +shall become <span class="tei tei-q">“the city of the destruction”</span> +of idols (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">'ir ha-heres</span></span>). Jeremiah, too, plays similarly +upon the name, when he says that Nebuchadnezzar, +<span class="tei tei-q">“shall break also the images of Beth-Shemesh (the +house of the Sun-God) that is in the land of Egypt”</span> +(Jer. xliii. 13); while Ezekiel changes the Egyptian word +On into the Hebrew <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">aven</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-q">“nothingness,”</span> and prophesies +that <span class="tei tei-q">“the young men of Aven shall fall by the sword”</span> +(Ezek. xxx. 17). The ruins of On are within an afternoon's +drive of Cairo: but nothing remains of the city +except mounds of earth, and a solitary obelisk that once +stood in front of the great temple of the sun, and had +been reared by Usertasen I, of the twelfth dynasty, a +thousand years before the daughter of its priest became +the wife of Joseph. The name of this daughter, Asenath, +is the Egyptian 'Snat. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We are told that when the Pharaoh had made +Joseph <span class="tei tei-q">“ruler over all the land of Egypt”</span> he gave him +a new name, Zaphnath-paaneah (Gen. xli. 45). According +to Dr. Brugsch, this name is the Egyptian <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Za pa-u +nt pa-aa-ankh</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“governor of the district of the place of +life,”</span> that is, of the district in which the Israelites afterwards +built the towns of Raamses and Pithom, and in +which the land of Goshen seems to have been situated. +In after times Egyptian legend confounded Joseph with +Moses, and changing the divine name which formed the +first element in his into that of the Egyptian god Osiris, +called him Osar-siph. The Jewish historian, Josephus, +has preserved for us the story which made Osar-siph the +leader of the Israelites in their flight from Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The seven years' famine, which Joseph predicted, is a +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page053">[pg 053]</span><a name="Pg053" id="Pg053" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +rare occurrence in Egypt. In a country where rain is +almost unknown, the fertility of the fields depends upon +the annual inundation of the Nile when swollen by the +melting snows of Abyssinia. It is only where the +waters can penetrate, or can be led by canals and +irrigating machines, that the soil is capable of supporting +vegetation; but wherever this takes place the mud they +bring with them is so fertilising that the peasantry +frequently grow three luxuriant crops on the same piece +of ground during the same year. For the inundation to +fail in any single year is not common; for it to fail +seven years running is a most unusual event. The last +recorded time when there was a seven years' failure of +the river, and a consequent famine, was in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">A.D.</span></span> 1064-1071, +under the reign of the Khalif El-Mustansir Billah. +A similar failure must have taken place in the age of +the twelfth dynasty, since Ameni, an officer of King +Usurtasen I, who has engraved the history of his life at +the entrance of his tomb among the cliffs of Beni-Hassan, +states that <span class="tei tei-q">“no one was hungry in my days, +not even in the years of famine. For I had tilled all +the fields of the district of Mah, up to the southern and +northern frontiers. Thus I prolonged the life of its +inhabitants, and preserved the food which it produced. +No hungry man was in it. I distributed equally to the +widow as to the married woman. I did not prefer the +great to the humble in all that I gave away.”</span><a id="noteref_2" name="noteref_2" href="#note_2"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">2</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another long famine of the same kind happened at a +later date, and may possibly be that against which +Joseph provided in Northern Egypt. The sepulchral +tablet of a nobleman, called Baba, far away at El-Kab +in Southern Egypt, informs us of the fact. In this the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page054">[pg 054]</span><a name="Pg054" id="Pg054" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +dead man is made to say: <span class="tei tei-q">“When a famine arose, +lasting many years, I distributed corn to the city each +year of famine.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Baba is supposed to have lived shortly before the +establishment of the eighteenth dynasty; and this +would agree very well with the date which we must +assign to Joseph. As we shall see in the next chapter, +we now know the exact period of Egyptian history at +which the Exodus must have taken place; and if we +count 430 years, <span class="tei tei-q">“the sojourning of the children of Israel +who dwelt in Egypt”</span> (Exod. xii. 40), back from this, +we shall be brought to the reign of the Hyksos king +Apophis or Apepi, the very king, in fact, under whom, +according to ancient authors, Joseph was raised to be +the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">adon</span></span>, or second ruler of the state. It was not until +the Hyksos were driven out of the country, and Aahmes, +the founder of the eighteenth dynasty, was pursuing with +bitter hatred both them and their friends that <span class="tei tei-q">“there +arose up a new king over Egypt, which knew not Joseph.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The earlier history of Joseph in the house of Potiphar +finds a curious parallel in an old Egyptian romance, +known as the Tale of the Two Brothers, which was composed +by a scribe named Enna in the thirteenth century +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> Anepu, it is there said, sent his younger brother, +Bata, from the field where they were working, to fetch +corn from the village. <span class="tei tei-q">“And the young brother found +the wife of his elder brother occupied in braiding her +hair. And he said to her, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Rise up, give me seed-corn, +that I may return to the field, for thus has my elder +brother enjoined me, to return without delay.’</span> The +woman said to him, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Go in, open the chest, that thou +mayest take what thine heart desires, otherwise my +locks will fall by the way.’</span> And the youth entered +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page055">[pg 055]</span><a name="Pg055" id="Pg055" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +into the stable, and took thereout a large vessel, for it +was his wish to carry away much seed-corn. And he +loaded himself with wheat and grains of durra, and went +out with it. Then she said unto him, <span class="tei tei-q">‘How great is the +burden on thine arm?’</span> He said to her, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Two measures +of durra and three measures of wheat, making together +five measures, which rest on my arms.’</span> Thus he spake +to her. But she spake to the youth and said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘How +great is thy strength! Well have I remarked thy +vigour every time.’</span> And her heart knew him!... +And she stood up and laid hold of him, and she said +to him, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Come, let us enjoy an hour's rest. The most +beautiful things shall be thy portion, for I will prepare +for thee festal garments.’</span> Then the youth became like +the panther of the south for rage, on account of the +evil word which she had spoken to him; but she was +afraid beyond all measure. And he spoke to her and +said, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Thou, O woman, hast been to me like a mother, +and thy husband like a father, for he is older than I, so +that he might have been my parent. Why this so great +sin, that thou hast spoken to me? Say it not to me +another time, then will I not tell it this time, and no +word of it shall come out of my mouth about it to any +man whatsoever.’</span> And he loaded himself with his +burden, and went out into the field. And he went to +his elder brother, and they completed their day's work. +When it was now evening, the elder brother returned +home to his dwelling. And his young brother followed +behind his oxen, which he had laden with all the good +things of the field, driving them before him, to prepare +for their resting-place in the stable in the village. And, +behold, the wife of his elder brother was afraid because +of the word which she had spoken, and she took a jar of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page056">[pg 056]</span><a name="Pg056" id="Pg056" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +fat, and she made herself like one to whom an evil-doer +had offered violence. She wished thereby to say +to her husband, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Thy young brother has offered +me violence.’</span> And her husband returned home at +evening, according to his daily custom, and entered +into his house, and found his wife stretched out and +suffering from injury. She gave him no water for his +hands, according to her custom. And the lamp was +not lighted, so that the house was in darkness. But she +lay there and vomited. And her husband spoke to her +thus, <span class="tei tei-q">‘Who has had to do with thee? Lift thyself up!’</span> +She said to him, <span class="tei tei-q">‘No one has had to do with me except +thy young brother; for when he came to take seed-corn +for thee, he found me sitting alone, and he said to +me, <span class="tei tei-q">“Come, let us make merry an hour and rest! Let +down thy hair!”</span> Thus he spake to me; but I did not +listen to him (but said), <span class="tei tei-q">“See, am I not thy mother, and +is not thy elder brother like a father to thee?”</span> Thus I +spoke to him; but he did not hearken to my speech, and +used force with me, that I might not make a report to +thee. Now, if thou allowest him to live, I will kill +myself.’</span> ”</span><a id="noteref_3" name="noteref_3" href="#note_3"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">3</span></span></a> +Anepu then took a knife, and went out to +kill his brother. The cows, however, warned Bata of +his danger, and the Sun-God came to his aid, and set a +river full of crocodiles between himself and Anepu. +When Anepu eventually learned the real truth, he +hurried back to his house, and put his wife to +death. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +No name like that of Goshen, where the Israelites +were settled by order of the Pharaoh, has as yet been +discovered upon the monuments. Goshen, however, +could not have been far from the north-eastern frontier +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page057">[pg 057]</span><a name="Pg057" id="Pg057" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of Egypt, and from Genesis xlvii. 11, we learn that it +was in the land of Rameses. Now, Dr. Brugsch has +shown that Ramses, or Rameses, was the title given to +Zoan by Ramses II, when he raised it anew from the +ruins in which it had lain since the expulsion of the +Hyksos, and filled it again with stately edifices. +Goshen consequently must have been in the neighbourhood +of Zoan, as, indeed, we might expect, since +Joseph's family would naturally be settled not far from +the capital and the residence of the powerful minister. +It was from hence that Jacob's body, after being +embalmed, as was customary in Egypt, was carried to +the old family tomb at Hebron; and we can therefore +understand why Zoan and Hebron were brought into +such close relation in the well-known passage of +Numbers (xiii. 22) where it is said that <span class="tei tei-q">“Hebron was +built seven years before Zoan in Egypt.”</span> Hebron and +Zoan were the two points around which centred the +patriarchal history which is set before us in the Book of +Genesis. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page058">[pg 058]</span><a name="Pg058" id="Pg058" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc7" id="toc7"></a> +<a name="pdf8" id="pdf8"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter III. The Exodus out of Egypt.</span></h1> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Egypt during the sojourn of the Israelites.—The travels of an +Egyptian officer through Palestine before the time of Joshua.—Recent excavations at +Tel el-Maskhûta.—Discovery of the treasure-chambers built by the +Israelites.—Date +of the Exodus fixed.—Origin of the word Jĕhovâh.—The rite of +circumcision.—Origin of the name Moses.—Illustrations of Hebrew law +and ritual from Phœnician and Assyrian monuments.—Tablet describing +the duties of a priest of Bel.—The sacrificial tariff of Marseilles.—Phœnician +texts found in Cyprus.</span></span> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The expulsion of the Hyksos conquerors of Egypt, +while it brought oppression and slavery to their Semitic +kindred who were left behind, inaugurated an era of +conquest and glory for the Egyptians themselves. The +war against the Asiatics which had begun in Egypt was +carried into Asia, and under Thothmes III and other +great monarchs of the eighteenth dynasty the Egyptian +armies traversed Palestine and Syria, and penetrated as +far as the Euphrates. The tribes of Canaan paid tribute; +the Amorites or <span class="tei tei-q">“hill-men”</span> were led into captivity; and +the combined armies of Hittites and Phœnicians were +defeated in the plain of Megiddo. On the temple-walls +of Karnak at Thebes, Thothmes III (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 1600) gives a +list of the Canaanitish towns which had submitted to his +arms. Among them we read the names of Zarthan and +Beroth, of Beth-Anoth and Gibeah, of Migdol and Ophrah, +of Taanach and Jibleam, of Shunem and Chinneroth, of +Hazor and Laish, of Merom and Kishon, of Abel and +Sharon, of Joppa and Achzib, of Beyrut and Accho, of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page059">[pg 059]</span><a name="Pg059" id="Pg059" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Heshbon and Megiddo, of Hamath and Damascus. One +of the conquered places bears the curious name of +Jacob-el, <span class="tei tei-q">“Jacob the God,”</span> while mention is made of +the Negeb, or <span class="tei tei-q">“southern district,”</span> which afterwards +formed part of the territory of Judah. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Two centuries later, when the troublous times which +saw the close of the eighteenth dynasty had ushered in +the nineteenth, the same districts had again to be +overrun by the Egyptian kings. Once more victories +were gained over the powerful Hittites, in their fortress of +Kadesh, on the Orontes, and over the tribes of Palestine. +Seti I, the father of Ramses II, records among his conquests +Beth-Anoth and Kirjath-Anab<a id="noteref_4" name="noteref_4" href="#note_4"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">4</span></span></a> in the south, as +well as Zor or Tyre. Ramses II himself, the Sesostris of +the Greeks, battled for long years against the Hittites on +the plains of Canaan, and established a line of Egyptian +fortresses as far north as Damascus. The tablets which +he engraved at the mouth of the Dog River, near +Beyrût, still remain to testify to his victories and campaigns. +Representations were sculptured on the walls +of Thebes of the forts of <span class="tei tei-q">“Tabor, in the land of the +Amorites,”</span> of Merom and of Salem; and the capture of +the revolted city of Ashkelon was celebrated both in +sculpture and in song. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But the most interesting record which has come down +to us from his reign is the account given by a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">mohar</span></span>, or +military officer, of his travels through Palestine, at a time +when the country was nominally tributary to Egypt. The +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">mohar</span></span> made his tour during the latter part of the reign +of Ramses II, the oppressor of the Israelites, so that the +account he has given of Canaan shows us what it was +like shortly before its conquest by Joshua. He journeyed +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page060">[pg 060]</span><a name="Pg060" id="Pg060" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +as far north as Aleppo in a chariot, which is more than a +traveller in Palestine could do now, and describes how +his clothes were stolen one night, and how his own +groom, or <span class="tei tei-q">“muleteer,”</span> joined the robbers. Among the +places he visited were the Phœnician cities of Gebal, +famous for its shrine of Ashtoreth, Beyrût, Sarepta, Sidon, +and Tyre, which he says was built on an island in the +sea, drinking-water being conveyed to it in boats. Old +Tyre, on the continent opposite, seems to have been +recently burnt. Hamath, Timnah, Hazor, Tabor, +Horonaim, and perhaps Adullam, were also visited, and +mention is made not only of the ford of the Jordan, near +Beth-Shean, but also of <span class="tei tei-q">“a passage”</span> in front of the city +of Megiddo, which had to be crossed before the town +could be entered. Joppa, the modern Jaffa, was surrounded +with gardens of date-palms, which have now +been supplanted by oranges. The road, however, was +not always good. In one place the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">mohar</span></span> had to +<span class="tei tei-q">“drive along the edge of the precipice, on the slippery +height, over a depth of 2,000 cubits, full of rocks and +boulders;”</span> while at another time his groom broke the +chariot in pieces by driving over a slippery path, and +necessitated the repair of the injured carriage by <span class="tei tei-q">“the +iron-workers”</span> at the nearest smithy. Already, therefore, +it is clear, Palestine possessed plenty of smithies at +which iron was forged. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +That Ramses II was the Pharaoh of the oppression, +has long been suspected by Egyptian scholars. The +accounts of the wars of himself and his predecessors in +Canaan show that up to the date of his death that +country was not yet inhabited by the Israelites. Not +only is no mention made of them, but the history of the +Book of Judges precludes our supposing that Palestine +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page061">[pg 061]</span><a name="Pg061" id="Pg061" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +could have been an Egyptian province after the +Israelitish conquest. It must have ceased to be +tributary to the Pharaohs before it was entered by +Joshua. Moreover, the name of the city of Ramses +(Raamses) built by the Israelites in Egypt points unmistakeably +to the reign of the great Ramses II himself. +As has already been observed, the name was given to +Zoan after its reconstruction by this monarch, whose +grandfather, Ramses I, was the first Egyptian king who +bore the name. As Ramses I reigned but a very few +years, while his successor, Seti I, associated his son, +Ramses II, with him on the throne when the latter was +but twelve years old or thereabouts, it could only have +been during his long reign of sixty-seven years that +Ramses II brought the name by which he had been +christened into vogue. It is possible that those Egyptian +scholars are right who see the Hebrews in a certain class +of foreigners called Aperiu, and employed by Ramses II +to work at his monuments; if so, we should have +another proof that the Exodus could not have taken +place until after his death. The identification, however, +is rendered very doubtful by the fact, that long after +the time of Ramses II, a document of the reign of +Ramses III speaks of 2,083 Aperiu as settlers in +Heliopolis, and describes them as <span class="tei tei-q">“knights, sons of the +kings, and noble lords of the Aperiu, settled people, +who dwell in this place.”</span> If, therefore, the Aperiu were +really the Hebrews, we should have to suppose that +some of them who had obtained offices of honour and +influence in Egypt remained behind in Heliopolis, the +city of Joseph's wife, when their poorer and oppressed +kinsmen followed Moses and Aaron into the desert in +search of the Promised Land. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page062">[pg 062]</span><a name="Pg062" id="Pg062" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +However this may be, the question as to the date of +the Exodus, and consequently as to the Pharaoh of the +oppression, has now been finally set at rest by the excavations +recently undertaken at Tel el-Maskhûta. Tel +el-Maskhûta is the name of some large mounds near +Tel el-Kebîr and other places which were the scene of +the late war; and M. Naville, who has excavated them +for the Egyptian Exploration Fund, has found inscriptions +in them which show not only that they represent +an ancient city whose religious name was Pithom, while +its civil name was Succoth, but also that the founder of +the city was Ramses II. In Greek times the city was +called Heroöpolis, or Ero, from the Egyptian word <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ara</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-q">“a store-house,”</span> reminding us that Pithom and Raamses, +which the Israelites built for the Pharaoh, were +<span class="tei tei-q">“treasure-cities”</span> (Exod. i. 11). M. Naville has even +discovered the treasure-chambers themselves. They +are very strongly constructed, and divided by brick +partitions from eight to ten feet thick, the bricks being +sun-baked, and made some with and some without +straw. In these strawless bricks we may see the work +of the oppressed people when the order came: <span class="tei tei-q">“Thus +saith the Pharaoh, I will not give you straw.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The treasure-chambers occupy almost the whole area +of the old city, the walls of which are about 650 feet +square and 22 feet thick. Its name Pithom—in +Egyptian Pa-Tum—signifies the city of the Setting +Sun; and since it had another name, Succoth, we can +now understand how it was that the Israelites started +on their march not from Goshen, but from Succoth +(Ex. xiii. 20), that is, from the very place where they +had been working. Etham, their next stage, seems to +be the Egyptian fortress of Khetam, while Pi-hahiroth +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page063">[pg 063]</span><a name="Pg063" id="Pg063" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +(Ex. xiv. 2), is probably Pi-keheret, which is mentioned +in an inscription found at Tel el-Maskhûta as somewhere +in the neighbourhood of the canal that led from +the Nile to the Red Sea. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Pharaoh under whom the Exodus actually took +place could not have been Ramses II himself, but his +son and successor, Meneptah II, who ascended the +throne about <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 1325. His reign lasted but a short +time, and it was disturbed not only by the flight of the +Children of Israel, but also by a great invasion of +Northern Egypt by the Libyans, which was with difficulty +repulsed. This took place in his fifth year. Three +years later a report was sent to him by one of his +officials stating that <span class="tei tei-q">“the passage of tribes of the Shasu +(or Beduins) from the land of Edom had been effected +through the fortress of Khetam, which is situated in +Succoth (Thuku), to the lakes of the city of Pithom, +which are in the land of Succoth, in order that they +might feed themselves and their herds on the possessions +of the Pharaoh.”</span> The lakes of Pithom must be those of +Bâlah and Timsah, on which Ismailia now stands, not +far from Tel el-Maskhûta, and Khetam is the Etham of +Scripture. It is possible that Timsah, <span class="tei tei-q">“the lake of +crocodiles,”</span> is the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">yâm sûph</span></span>, or <span class="tei tei-q">“sea of papyrus +reeds,”</span> of Scripture, which the translators of the Septuagint +erroneously identified with the Red Sea. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Among the incidents connected with the deliverance +of the Israelites are two which especially deserve +notice. When God appointed Moses to his mission of +leading his enslaved brethren out of Egypt, He at the +same time revealed Himself by the name of <span class="tei tei-q">“Jehovah,”</span> +the special name by which He was henceforth to be +known to the Children of Israel. It is unfortunate that +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page064">[pg 064]</span><a name="Pg064" id="Pg064" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +this sacred name has descended to the readers of the +Authorised Version of the Old Testament in a corrupt +and barbarous form. The Hebrew alphabet was designed +to express consonants only, not vowels; these +were supplied by the reader from his knowledge of the +language and its pronunciation. As long as Hebrew +was still spoken, there was little difficulty in doing this; +but the case was changed when it ceased to be a living +language. A traditional pronunciation of the sacred +records was preserved in the synagogues; but it necessarily +differed in many respects from the pronunciation +which had actually been once in use, and was itself +in danger of being forgotten or altered. To avoid +such a danger, therefore, the so-called Masoretes, or +Jewish scribes, in the sixth century after the Christian +era, invented a system of symbols which should represent +the pronunciation of the Hebrew of the Old Testament +as read, or rather chanted, at the time in the great +synagogue of Tiberias in Palestine.<a id="noteref_5" name="noteref_5" href="#note_5"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">5</span></span></a> It is in accordance +with this Masoretic mode of pronunciation that Hebrew +is now taught. But there was one word which the Masoretes +of Tiberias either could not or would not pronounce. +This was the national name of the God of +Israel. Though used so freely in the Old Testament, it +had come to be regarded with superstitious reverence +before the time when the Greek translation of the +Septuagint was made, and in this translation, accordingly, +the word <span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style="font-style: italic">Kyrios</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“Lord,”</span> is substituted +for it wherever it occurs. The New Testament writers naturally +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page065">[pg 065]</span><a name="Pg065" id="Pg065" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +followed the custom of the Septuagint and of their +age, and so also did the Masoretes of Tiberias. Wherever +the holy name was met with, they read in place of it +<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Adônai</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-q">“Lord,”</span> and hence, when supplying vowel-symbols +to the text of the Old Testament they wrote the +vowels of <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Adônai</span></span> +under the four consonants, Y H V H, which composed it. +This simply meant that <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Adônai</span></span> +was to be read wherever the sacred name was found. In +ignorance of this fact, however, the scholars who first +revived the study of Hebrew in modern Europe imagined +that the vowels of <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Adônai</span></span> +(<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ă</span></span> or <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">ĕ</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">o</span></span>, and <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">â</span></span>) were intended +to be read along with the consonants below which they +stood. The result was the hybrid monster <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">Yĕhovâh</span></span>. In +passing into England the word became even more +deformed. In German the sound of <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">y</span></span> is denoted by the +symbol <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">j</span></span>, and the German symbol, but with the utterly +different English pronunciation attached to it, found its +way into the English translations of the Old Testament +Scriptures. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There are two opinions as to what was the actual +pronunciation of the sacred name while Hebrew was +still a spoken language. On the one hand, we may +gather from the contemporary Assyrian monuments that +it was pronounced <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Yahu</span></span>. +Wherever an Israelitish name +is met with in the cuneiform inscriptions which, like +Jehu or Hezekiah, is compounded with the divine title, +the latter appears as <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Yahu</span></span>, +Jehu being <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Yahua</span></span>, and +Hezekiah <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Khazaki-yahu</span></span>. +Even according to the Masoretes it must be read +<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Yeho</span></span> +(that is, <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Yăhu</span></span>) when it forms +part of a proper name. The early Gnostics, moreover, +when they transcribed it in Greek characters, wrote +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Iaô</span></span>, +that is, <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Yahô</span></span>. On the other hand, the four consonants, +Y H V H, can hardly have been pronounced otherwise +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page066">[pg 066]</span><a name="Pg066" id="Pg066" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +than as <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Yahveh</span></span>, and this pronunciation is supported by +the two Greek writers Theodoret and Epiphanios, who +say that the word was sounded <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Yavé</span></span>. +The form <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Yahveh</span></span>, however, is +incompatible with the form <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Yahu</span></span> +(<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Yeho</span></span>), +which appears in proper names; and it has been maintained +that it is due to one of those plays on words, of +which there are so many examples in the Old Testament. +The spelling with a final <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">h</span></span> was adopted, it has been +supposed, in order to remind the reader of the Hebrew +verb which signifies <span class="tei tei-q">“to be,”</span> and to which there seems to +be a distinct allusion in Exod. iii. 14.<a id="noteref_6" name="noteref_6" href="#note_6"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">6</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We must now turn to a second incident which is +specially connected with the deliverance out of Egypt. +This is the rite of circumcision, which was observed in +so solemn a manner at the moment when the Israelites +had at last crossed the Jordan and were preparing to +attack the Canaanites. It was a rite which had been +practised by the Egyptians from the most remote times, +and had been communicated by them, according to +Herodotus, to the Ethiopians. Josephus tells us that +the rite was also practised by the Arabs, to whom +Herodotus adds the Syrians of Phœnicia, as well as the +Kolkhians and the Hittites of Kappadokia. A similar +rite is found at the present day among many barbarous +tribes in different parts of the world, and distinguishes +not only the Jew but the Mohammedan as well. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The name of Moses seems to be of Egyptian derivation. +It would correspond to the Egyptian <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">mes</span></span> +or <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">mesu</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-q">“son,”</span> which is borne by more than one Egyptian prince +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page067">[pg 067]</span><a name="Pg067" id="Pg067" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +at the period of the Exodus, and forms part of the name +of Ramses, or Ra-mesu, <span class="tei tei-q">“the son of the sun.”</span> The +Hebrew spelling of the word with a final <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">h</span></span> is designed to +recall the Hebrew <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">mashâh</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“to draw out”</span> +or <span class="tei tei-q">“deliver,”</span> just as the spelling of the Septuagint, Môysês, was +influenced by the etymology given by Josephus, which +made it a compound of the Egyptian <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">mô</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“water,”</span> and +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ysês</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“to rescue from a flood.”</span> Such plays upon +words are common in ancient literature, and are still in favour +in the East, and we must be on our guard against +ascribing to them a scientific value which they do not +possess. The name <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">mesu</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“son,”</span> would be an +appropriate one for a child who had been adopted by an +Egyptian lady, and who was brought up at the court of +the Pharaoh in <span class="tei tei-q">“all the wisdom of the Egyptians.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This chapter would be incomplete unless something +were said of the illustrations of the law and ritual of the +Israelites afforded by the monuments of the nations +around them. These illustrations are to be found among +the Phœnicians and the Assyrians. Among both we +find traces of sacrifices and institutions which offer many +parallels to the ordinances of the Mosaic Law. Besides +the Sabbaths already spoken of, the Babylonians and +Assyrians had various festivals and fasts, on which certain +rites had to be performed and certain sacrifices offered; +they knew of <span class="tei tei-q">“peace-offerings”</span> and of <span class="tei tei-q">“heave-offerings,”</span> +of the dedication of the first-born, and of sacrifices for +sin. The gods were carried in procession in <span class="tei tei-q">“ships,”</span> +which, as we learn from the sculptures, resembled in +form the Hebrew ark, and were borne on men's +shoulders by means of staves. In front of the image of +the god stood a table, on which showbread was laid; and +a distinction was drawn between the meal-offering and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page068">[pg 068]</span><a name="Pg068" id="Pg068" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the animal sacrifice. Certain unclean kinds of food were +forbidden, including the flesh of swine and <span class="tei tei-q">“creeping +things;”</span> and in the outer courts of the temples were large +lavers called <span class="tei tei-q">“seas,”</span> like the <span class="tei tei-q">“sea”</span> of Solomon's temple, +in which the worshippers were required to cleanse themselves. +Many of these regulations and rites came down +from the Accadian period. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As a specimen of the rites which had to be performed, +we may quote a portion of a tablet which +prescribes the duties of the priest in the great temple +of Bel at Babylon. The tablet begins: <span class="tei tei-q">“In the +month Nisan, on the 2nd day, two hours after +nightfall, the priest must come and take of the waters of +the river, must enter into the presence of Bel, and change +his dress, must put on a ... robe in the presence +of Bel, and say this prayer: <span class="tei tei-q">‘O my lord, who in his +strength has no equal, O my lord, blessed sovereign, lord +of the world, speeding the peace of the great gods, the +lord who in his might destroys the strong, lord of kings, +light of mankind, establisher of trust, O Bel, thy +sceptre is Babylon, thy crown is Borsippa, the wide +heaven is the dwelling-place of thy liver.... O +lord of the world, light of the spirits of heaven, utterer of +blessings, who is there whose mouth murmurs not of thy +righteousness, or speaks not of thy glory, and celebrates +not thy dominion? O lord of the world, who dwellest in +the temple of the sun, reject not the hands that are +raised to thee, be merciful to thy city Babylon, to Beth-Saggil +thy temple, incline thy face, grant the prayers of +thy people the sons of Babylon.’</span> ”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Our knowledge of the Phœnician ritual is largely +derived from a sacrificial tariff discovered at Marseilles +in 1845. The stone on which it is engraved is unfortunately +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page069">[pg 069]</span><a name="Pg069" id="Pg069" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +not perfect, but what is left of it runs thus: <span class="tei tei-q">“In +the temple of Baal (the following tariff of offerings shall +be observed), which was prescribed (in the time of) the +judge ... Baal, the son of Bod-Tanit, the son of +Bod-(Ashmun, and in the time of Halzi-Baal), the judge, +the son of Bod-Ashmun, the son of Halzi-Baal and (their +comrades). For an ox as a full-offering, whether it be a +prayer-offering or a full thank-offering, the priests +(shall receive) ten shekels of silver for each beast, and if +it be a full-offering the priests shall receive besides this +(300 shekels' weight of flesh). And for a prayer-offering +they shall receive (besides) the small joints(?) and the +roast(?), but the skin and the haunches and the feet and +the rest of the flesh shall belong to the offerer. For a +bullock which has horns, but is not yet broken in and +made to serve, or for a stag, as a full-offering, whether it +be a prayer-offering or a full thank-offering, the priests +(shall receive) five shekels of silver (for each beast, and if +it be a full-offering) they shall receive besides this 150 +shekels' weight of flesh; and for a prayer-offering the +small joints(?) and the roast(?); but the skin and the +haunches and the feet (and the rest of the flesh shall +belong to the offerer). For a sheep or a goat as a full-offering, +whether it be a prayer-offering or a full thank-offering, +the priests (shall receive) one shekel of silver +and two <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">sar</span></span> for each beast; and in the case of a +prayer-offering they shall have (besides this the small joints (?)) +and the roast(?); but the skin and the haunches and the +feet and the rest of the flesh shall belong to the offerer. +For a lamb or a kid or a fawn as a full-offering, whether +it be a prayer-offering or a full thank-offering, the priests +(shall receive) three-fourths of a shekel of silver and +(two) <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">zar</span></span> (for each beast; and in the case of a +prayer-offering +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page070">[pg 070]</span><a name="Pg070" id="Pg070" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +they shall have) besides this the small joints(?) +and the roast(?); but the skin and the haunches and +the feet and the rest of the flesh shall belong to (the +offerer). For a bird, whether wild or tame, as a full-offering, +whether it be <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">shetseph</span></span> or +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">khazuth</span></span>, the priests +(shall receive) three-fourths of a shekel of silver and two +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">zar</span></span> for each bird; and (so much flesh besides). For a +bird, or for the offering of the first-born of an animal, or +for a meal-offering or for an offering with oil, the priests +(shall receive) ten pieces of gold for each.... In +the case of every prayer-offering which is offered to the +gods, the priests shall receive the small joints(?), and +the roast(?) and the prayer-offering ... for a +cake and for milk and for fat, and for every offering +which is offered without blood.... For every +offering which is brought by a poor man in cattle +or birds, the priests shall receive nothing ... +anything leprous or scabby or lean is forbidden, and +no one as regards that which he offers (shall taste +of) the blood of the dead. The tariff for each offering +shall be according to that which is prescribed in +this publication.... As for every offering which +is not prescribed in this table, and is not made +according to the regulations which (have been published +in the time of ... Baal, the son of +Bod-Tanit), and of Bod-Ashmun, the son of Halzi-Baal, +and of their comrades, every priest who accepts +the offering which is not included in that which is +prescribed in this table, shall be punished.... +As for the property of the offerer who does not discharge +(his debt) for his offering (he also shall be punished).”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The words that are wanting in the document have been +partially supplied from the fragments of another copy of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page071">[pg 071]</span><a name="Pg071" id="Pg071" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the tariff found among the ruins of Carthage. It will be +observed that there is no mention in it of the sacrifice of +children, which, as we know, once played a large part in +the ritual of the Phœnicians. This is explained by the +fact that the tariff belongs to that later age, when Greek +and Roman influence had prevailed upon the Phœnician +colonists in the west to give up the horrible practice. +The place of the child is taken by the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">'ayyâl</span></span> or stag. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The tariff of Marseilles and Carthage has lately been +supplemented by some Phœnician texts found in the +island of Cyprus, and written in black and red ink upon +small pieces of marble. One of these has both faces +inscribed, and a translation of its contents is worth giving. +On the first face we read: <span class="tei tei-q">“Expenses of the month +Ethanim: On the new-moon of the month Ethanim, for +the gods of the new-moon two.... For the +architects who have built the temples of Ashtoreth, for +each house.... For the guardians of the sanctuary +and the overseers of the temple of Resheph 20.... +For the men (who tend) the cattle in the +presence of the Holy Queen on this day.... +For two boys two ... For two sacrifices ... +For two bakers who have baked the cakes for the (Holy) +Queen.... For the barbers, for their work, +two.... For the ten masons who have built +the foundations and the temples of the Sun-god ... +To Ebed-Ashmun, the principal scribe, who has been +sent on this day, three.... For the dogs and +their young....”</span> On the other face we have: <span class="tei tei-q">“On +the new-moon of the month Peûlat: For the gods of the +new-moon two.... For the masters of the days, +incense and peace-offering.... For the images of +the temple of the Sun-god and the other gods.... +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page072">[pg 072]</span><a name="Pg072" id="Pg072" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +For Ebed-Bast of Carthage.... For the man +who has bought the withered plants(?).... For +the shepherds of the country two.... For the +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">'almâth</span></span> and the 22 +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">'alâmôth</span></span>, with a sacrifice.... +For the dogs and their young three....”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Here we evidently have an account of the payments +disbursed by the priests of a temple on particular days. +Resheph was a title of the Sun-god, and M. Clermont-Ganneau +has pointed out that his name still survives in +that of Arsûf, a ruined town to the north of Jaffa. The +cakes baked for Ashtoreth, <span class="tei tei-q">“the Holy Queen,”</span> are the +same as those which the Jewish men and women who +had fled to Egypt after the destruction of Jerusalem and +the murder of Gedaliah declared to Jeremiah that they +would still continue to offer to <span class="tei tei-q">“the queen of heaven”</span> +(Jer. xliv. 19). What is meant by the <span class="tei tei-q">“dogs”</span> is best +explained by Deuteronomy xxiii. 18, while the barbers +mentioned in the text were required to shave the priests. +Mention is also made of them in the Assyrian inscriptions +(see Lev. xix. 27, xxi. 5). The <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">'almâth</span></span>, or +<span class="tei tei-q">“maiden”</span>—a word which has acquired a special significance +in the Christian Church in consequence of its +having been used in Isaiah's prophecy of <span class="tei tei-q">“the Virgin”</span> +(Isa. vii. 14)—here seems to mean the chief singer +attached to the temple of Ashtoreth. The +<span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">'alâmôth</span></span> are +described in the sixty-eighth Psalm (ver. 25) as similarly +employed in the worship of Israel. As for the <span class="tei tei-q">“Masters +of the Days,”</span> they are the gods who, as among the +Assyrians, were believed to preside over the months of +the year. The month Ethanim, to which the first +account refers, is mentioned, it will be remembered, in +1 Kings viii. 2, as being the month in which the feast of +the dedication of Solomon's temple was held. That +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page073">[pg 073]</span><a name="Pg073" id="Pg073" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +temple had been built with the help of Phœnician +workmen, and it was therefore natural that the names of +the Phœnician months should have become known to the +Israelites in connection with it. The Israelites themselves +were still contented to speak of the months of the +year according to the order in which they came. It +was not until after the return from the Babylonish exile +that special names for the months were definitely +adopted, and that the Jews henceforth called them by +the Assyrian names they had heard in Babylonia. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page074">[pg 074]</span><a name="Pg074" id="Pg074" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc9" id="toc9"></a> +<a name="pdf10" id="pdf10"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter IV. The Moabite Stone and the Inscription of +Siloam.</span></h1> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">The alphabet of Egyptian origin.—Discovery of the Moabite +Stone.—Translation +of the inscription.—Points of interest raised by the inscription.—Discovery +of the Siloam inscription.—The translation.—The date.—Its +bearing upon the topography of Jerusalem.</span></span> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Modern discovery has as yet thrown little contemporary +light on the period of Israelitish history which +extends from the conquest of Canaan to the time when +the kingdom of David was rent into the two monarchies +of Israel and Judah. The buried ruins of Phœnicia +have not yet been explored, and we have still to depend +on the statements of classical writers for what we know, +outside the Bible records, of Hiram the Tyrian king, the +friend of David and Solomon. It is certain, however, +that state archives already existed in the chief cities of +Phœnicia, and a library was probably attached to the +ancient temple of Baal, the Sun-god, at Tyre, which was +restored by Hiram. It was from the Phœnicians that +the Israelites, and the nations round about them, received +their alphabet. This alphabet was of Egyptian origin. +As far back as the monuments of Egypt carry us, we +find the Egyptians using their hieroglyphics to express +not only ideas and syllables, but also the letters of an +alphabet. Even in the remote epoch of the second +dynasty they already possessed an alphabet in which the +twenty-one simple sounds of the language were represented +by special hieroglyphic pictures. Such hieroglyphic +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page075">[pg 075]</span><a name="Pg075" id="Pg075" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +pictures, however, were employed only on the +public monuments; for books and letters and business +transactions the Egyptians made use of a running hand, +in which the original pictures had undergone great transformations. +This running hand is termed <span class="tei tei-q">“hieratic,”</span> +and it was from the hieratic forms of the Egyptian +letters that the Phœnician letters were derived. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We have already seen that the coast of the Delta was +so thickly peopled with Phœnician settlers as to have +acquired the name of Keft-ur, or Caphtor, <span class="tei tei-q">“greater +Phœnicia;”</span> and these settlers it must have been who +first borrowed the alphabet of their Egyptian neighbours. +For purposes of trade they must have needed some +kind of writing, by means of which they could communicate +with the natives of the country, and their business-like +instincts led them to adopt only the alphabet used +by the latter, and to discard all the cumbrous machinery +of ideographs and syllabic characters by which it was +accompanied. It was doubtless in the time of the +Hyksos that the Egyptian alphabet became Phœnician. +From the Delta it was handed on to the mother country +of Phœnicia, and there the letters received new names, +derived from objects to which they bore a resemblance and +which began with the sounds they represented. These +names, as well as the characters to which they belonged, +have descended to ourselves, for the Phœnician alphabet +passed first from the Phœnicians to the Greeks, then +from the Greeks to the Romans, and finally from the +Romans to the nations of modern Europe. The very +word <em class="tei tei-emph"><span style="font-style: italic">alphabet</span></em> is a living memorial of the fact, since it is +composed of <span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style="font-style: italic">alpha</span></span> and +<span lang="el" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="el"><span style="font-style: italic">beta</span></span>, the Greek names of the two +first letters, and these names are simply the Phœnician +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">aleph</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“an ox,”</span> and +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">beth</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“a house.”</span> Just as in our own +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page076">[pg 076]</span><a name="Pg076" id="Pg076" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +nursery days it was imagined that we should remember +our lessons better if we were taught that <span class="tei tei-q">“A was an +Archer who shot at a frog,”</span> so the forms of the letters +were impressed on the memory of the Phœnician boys +by being likened to the head of an ox or the outline of +a house. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But before the alphabet was communicated to Greece +by the Phœnician traders, it had already been adopted +by their Semitic kinsmen in Western Asia. Excavations +in Palestine and the country east of the Jordan would +doubtless bring to light inscriptions compiled in it +much older than the oldest which we at present know. +Only a few years ago the gap between the time when +the Phœnicians first borrowed their new alphabet and +the time to which the earliest texts written in it belonged +was very great indeed. But during the last fifteen years +two discoveries have been made which help to fill it up, +and prove to us at the same time what may be found if +we will only seek. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/moabite.png" alt="Illustration." title="The Moabite Stone, erected by King Mesha, at Dibon." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">The Moabite Stone, erected by King Mesha, at Dibon.</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +One of these discoveries is that of the famous Moabite +Stone. In the summer of 1869, Dr. Klein, a German +missionary, while travelling in what was once the land +of Moab, discovered a most curious relic of antiquity +among the ruins of Dhibân, the ancient Dibon. This +relic was a stone of black basalt, rounded at the top, +two feet broad and nearly four feet high. Across it ran +an inscription of thirty-four lines in the letters of the +Phœnician alphabet. Dr. Klein unfortunately did not +realise the importance of the discovery he had made; he +contented himself with copying a few words, and endeavouring +to secure the monument for the Berlin Museum. +Things always move slowly in the East, and it was not +until a year later that the negociations for the purchase +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page077">[pg 077]</span><a name="Pg077" id="Pg077" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the stone were completed between the Prussian +Government on the one side and the Arabs and Turkish +pashas on the other. At length, however, all was +arranged, and it was agreed that the stone should be +handed over to the Germans for the sum of £80. At +this moment M. Clermont-Ganneau, a member of the +French Consulate at Jerusalem, with lamentable indiscretion, +sent men to take squeezes of the inscription, +and offered no less than £375 for the stone itself. At +once the cupidity of both Arabs and pashas was +aroused; the Governor of Nablûs demanded the treasure +for himself, while the Arabs, fearing it might be taken +from them, put a fire under it, poured cold water over it, +broke it in pieces, and distributed the fragments as +charms among the different families of the tribe. Thanks +to M. Clermont-Ganneau, most of these fragments +have now been recovered, and the stone, once more put +together, may be seen in the Museum of the Louvre at +Paris. The fragments have been fitted into their proper +places by the help of the imperfect squeezes taken +before the monument was broken. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When the inscription came to be read, it turned out +to be a record of Mesha, king of Moab, of whom we are +told in 2 Kings iii. that after Ahab's death he <span class="tei tei-q">“rebelled +against the king of Israel,”</span> and was vainly besieged +in his capital Kirharaseth by the combined armies +of Israel, Judah and Edom. Mesha describes the successful +issue of his revolt, and the revenge he took upon +the Israelites for their former oppression of his country. +The translation of the inscription is as follows:— +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“I, Mesha, am the son of Chemosh-Gad, king of +Moab, the Dibonite. My father reigned over Moab +thirty years, and I reigned after my father. And I +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page078">[pg 078]</span><a name="Pg078" id="Pg078" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +erected this stone to Chemosh at Kirkha, a (stone of) +salvation, for he saved me from all despoilers, and made +me see my desire upon all my enemies, even upon Omri, +king of Israel. Now they afflicted Moab many days, +for Chemosh was angry with his land. His son succeeded +him; and he also said, I will afflict Moab. In +my days (Chemosh) said, (Let us go) and I will see my +desire on him and his house, and I will destroy Israel +with an everlasting destruction. Now Omri took the +land of Medeba, and (the enemy) occupied it in (his days +and in) the days of his son, forty years. And Chemosh +(had mercy) on it in my days; and I fortified Baal-Meon, +and made therein the tank, and I fortified Kiriathaim. +For the men of Gad dwelt in the land of +(Atar)oth from of old, and the king (of) Israel fortified +for himself Ataroth, and I assaulted the wall and captured +it, and killed all the warriors of the wall for the +well-pleasing of Chemosh and Moab; and I removed +from it all the spoil, and (offered) it before Chemosh in +Kirjath; and I placed therein the men of Siran and the +men of Mochrath. And Chemosh said to me, Go take +Nebo against Israel. (And I) went in the night, and I +fought against it from the break of dawn till noon, and +I took it and slew in all seven thousand (men, but I did +not kill) the women (and) maidens, for (I) devoted them +to Ashtar-Chemosh; and I took from it the vessels of +Yahveh, and offered them before Chemosh. And the +king of Israel fortified Jahaz and occupied it, when he +made war against me; and Chemosh drove him out +before (me, and) I took from Moab two hundred men, +all its poor, and placed them in Jahaz, and took it to +annex it to Dibon. I built Kirkha, the wall of the +forest, and the wall of the city, and I built the gates +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page079">[pg 079]</span><a name="Pg079" id="Pg079" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +thereof, and I built the towers thereof, and I built the +palace, and I made the prisons for the criminals within +the walls. And there was no cistern in the wall at +Kirkha, and I said to all the people, Make for yourselves, +every man, a cistern in his house. And I dug +the ditch for Kirkha by means of the (captive) men of +Israel. I built Aroer, and I made the road across the +Arnon. I built Beth-Bamoth, for it was destroyed; I +built Bezer, for it was cut (down) by the armed men of +Dibon, for all Dibon was now loyal; and I reigned from +Bikran, which I added to my land, and I built (Beth-Gamul) +and Beth-Diblathaim and Beth-Baal-Meon, and +I placed there the poor (people) of the land. And as to +Horonaim, (the men of Edom) dwelt therein (from of +old). And Chemosh said to me, Go down, make war +against Horonaim and take (it. And I assaulted it, and +I took it, and) Chemosh (restored it) in my days. +Wherefore I made ... year ... and I....”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The last line or two, describing the war against the +Edomites, is unfortunately lost beyond recovery. The +rest of the text, however, it will be seen, is pretty perfect, +and is full of interest to Biblical students. The whole +inscription reads like a chapter from one of the historical +books of the Old Testament. Not only are the phrases +the same, but the words and grammatical forms are, with +one or two exceptions, all found in Scriptural Hebrew. +We learn that the language of Moab differed less from +that of the Israelites than does one English dialect from +another. Perhaps the most interesting fact disclosed by +the inscription is that Chemosh, the national god of the +Moabites, had come to be regarded not only as the +supreme deity, but even as almost the only object of +their worship. Except in the passage which alludes to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page080">[pg 080]</span><a name="Pg080" id="Pg080" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the dedication of women and maidens to Ashtar-Chemosh, +Mesha speaks as a monotheist, and even here the +female Ashtar or Ashtoreth is identified with the supreme +male deity Chemosh. Like the Assyrian kings, moreover, +who ascribed their victories and campaigns to the +inspiration of the god Assur, Mesha ascribes his successes +to the orders of Chemosh. He uses, in fact, +the language of Scripture; as the Lord said to David, +<span class="tei tei-q">“Go and smite the Philistines”</span> (1 Sam. xxiii. 2), so +Chemosh is made to say to Mesha, <span class="tei tei-q">“Go, take Nebo;”</span> +and as God promised to <span class="tei tei-q">“drive out”</span> the Canaanites +before Israel, so Mesha declares that Chemosh drove +out Israel before him from Jahaz. Mesha even sets +up a stone of salvation to Chemosh, like Eben-ezer, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the stone of help,”</span> set up by Samuel (1 Sam. vii. 12); +and the statement that Chemosh had been <span class="tei tei-q">“angry with +his land,”</span> but had made Mesha <span class="tei tei-q">“see his desire upon all +his enemies,”</span> reminds us of the well-known passages in +which the Psalmist declares that <span class="tei tei-q">“God shall let me see +my desire upon mine oppressors,”</span> and the author of the +Book of Judges recounts how that <span class="tei tei-q">“the anger of the +Lord was hot against Israel.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The covenant name of the God of Israel itself occurs +in the inscription, spelt in exactly the same way as in +the Old Testament. Its occurrence is a proof, if any were +needed, that the superstition which afterwards prevented +the Jews from pronouncing it did not as yet exist. The +name under which God was worshipped in Israel was +familiar to the nations round about. Nay, more; we +gather that even after the attempt of Jezebel to introduce +the Baalim of Sidon into the northern kingdom, +Yahveh was still regarded as the national god, and that +the worship carried on at the high places, idolatrous and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page081">[pg 081]</span><a name="Pg081" id="Pg081" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +contrary as it was to the law, was nevertheless performed +in His name. The high-place of Nebo, like so many of +the other localities mentioned in the inscription, is also +mentioned in the prophecy against Moab contained in +Isa. xv. xvi. It is even possible that the words of the +verse in the Book of Isaiah in which it is named have +undergone transposition, and that the true reading is, +<span class="tei tei-q">“He is gone up to Dibon and to Beth-Bamoth to weep; +Moab shall howl over Nebo and over Medeba.”</span> The +inscription informs us that Beth-Bamoth, <span class="tei tei-q">“the house of +the high-places,”</span> was the name of a place near Dibon, +the name of which appears in the last verse of Isaiah xv. +under the form of Dimon, the letter <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">b</span></span> being changed by +the prophet into <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">m</span></span>, in order to connect it with the word +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">dâm</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“blood.”</span> Kirkha, <span class="tei tei-q">“the wall of the +forest,”</span> the modern Kerak, is called Kir of Moab and Kir-haresh or +Kir-hareseth by Isaiah, and Kir-heres by Jeremiah, +which by a slight change of vocalisation would signify +<span class="tei tei-q">“the wall of the forest.”</span> The form Kir-haraseth is also +used in the Book of Kings. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The story told by the Stone, and the account of the +war against Moab given in the Bible, supplement one +another. Dr. Ginsburg has suggested that the deliverance +of Moab from Israel was brought about during the reign +of Ahaziah, the successor of Ahab, and that Joram, the +successor of Ahaziah, was subsequently driven out of +Jahaz, which lay on the southern side of the Arnon; but +that after this the tide of fortune turned, Joram summoned +his allies from Judah and Edom, ravaged Moab, and blockaded +Mesha in his capital of Kirkha. Then came the +sacrifice by Mesha of his eldest son on the wall of Kirkha—so +that <span class="tei tei-q">“there was great indignation against Israel,”</span> and +the allied forces retreated back <span class="tei tei-q">“to their own land.”</span> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page082">[pg 082]</span><a name="Pg082" id="Pg082" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Moabite Stone shows us what were the forms of +the Phœnician letters used on the eastern side of the +Jordan in the time of Ahab. The forms employed in +Israel and Judah on the western side could not have +differed much; and we may therefore see in these venerable +characters the precise mode of writing employed +by the earlier prophets of the Old Testament. This +knowledge is of great importance for the correction and +restoration of corrupt passages, and more especially of +proper names, the spelling of which has been deformed +by copyists. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Just, however, as the writing of two persons at the +present day must differ, so also the writing of two +nations like the Moabites and Jews must have differed +to some extent. Moreover, there must have been some +distinction between the more cursive writing of a papyrus-roll +and the carefully cut letters of a public monument +like that of Mesha. Indeed, that such a distinction did +exist we have proof in a passage (Isa. viii. 1) which has +been mistranslated in the Authorised Version, but which +ought to be rendered: <span class="tei tei-q">“Take thee a great slab, and +write upon it with the graving-tool of the people: +Hasten spoil, hurry booty.”</span> Here words which were +afterwards to be made more emphatic by becoming the +name of one of Isaiah's children, were written in a way +that all could read, not in the running hand of a scroll, +but in the large clear characters of a public document. +What these characters exactly were, a recent discovery +has enabled us to learn. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hebrew inscriptions of an early date have long been +sought for in vain. We knew of one or two inscribed +fragments from the neighbourhood of the Pool of +Siloam at Jerusalem, and of a few seals which might be +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page083">[pg 083]</span><a name="Pg083" id="Pg083" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +referred to the period before the Babylonish Captivity; +but, unfortunately, none of these could be assigned to a +definite date, and even the conclusion that some of +them were pre-exilic was after all little more than a +guess. The seals are usually distinguished by the +absence of any symbols or other devices, as well as by +a horizontal line drawn across the middle, which divides +the inscription into two halves. The proper names also +which occur on them are, in the majority of cases, +compounded with the sacred name Yahveh. Several of +these seals have been found in Babylonia and Mesopotamia, +and may therefore be regarded as memorials of +the Jewish exile. But the legends they bear are always +short, and consist of little else than proper names; and as +their date was uncertain, it was impossible to draw any +solid inferences from them as to the character of the +writing employed in Judah or Israel before the age of +Nebuchadnezzar. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is quite otherwise now. An inscription of some +length has been discovered in Jerusalem itself, which is +certainly as old as the time of Isaiah, and may be +older still. In the summer of 1880, one of the native +pupils of Mr. Schick, a German architect long settled in +Jerusalem, was playing with some other lads in the +so-called Pool of Siloam, and while wading up a +channel cut in the rock which leads into the Pool, +slipped and fell into the water. On rising to the +surface, he noticed what looked like letters on the rock +which formed the southern wall of the channel. He +told Mr. Schick of what he had seen; and the latter, on +visiting the spot, found that an ancient inscription, +concealed for the most part by the water, actually +existed there. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page084">[pg 084]</span><a name="Pg084" id="Pg084" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Pool is of comparatively modern construction, but +it encloses the remains of a much older reservoir, which, +like the modern one, was supplied with water through a +tunnel excavated in the rock. This tunnel communicates +with the so-called Spring of the Virgin, the only +natural spring of water in or near Jerusalem. It rises +below the walls of the city, on the western bank of the +valley of the Kidron; and the tunnel through which its +waters are conveyed is consequently cut through the +ridge, that forms the southern part of the Temple Hill. +The Pool of Siloam lies on the opposite side of this +ridge, at the mouth of the valley called that of the +Cheesemakers (Tyropœôn) in the time of Josephus, but +which is now filled up with rubbish, and in large part built +over. According to Lieutenant Conder's measurements, +the length of the tunnel is 1,708 yards; it does not, +however, run in a straight line, and towards the centre +there are two <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">culs de sac</span></span>, of which the inscription now +offers an explanation. At the entrance on the western +or Siloam side its height is about sixteen feet; but the +roof grows gradually lower, until in one place it is not +quite two feet above the floor of the passage. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em"> + </p><div class="tei tei-figure" style="width: 50%; text-align: center"><img src="images/siloam.png" alt="Illustration." title="The Siloam Inscription (tracing from a squeeze, taken 15th July, 1881, by Lieuts. Conder and Mantell, R. E.)." /><div class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: center; margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em">The Siloam Inscription (tracing from a squeeze, taken 15th July, +1881, by Lieuts. Conder and Mantell, R. E.).</div></div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The inscription occupies the under part of an artificial +tablet in the wall of rock, about nineteen feet from where +the conduit opens out upon the Pool of Siloam, and on the +right-hand side of one who enters it. After lowering +the level of the water, Mr. Schick endeavoured to take a +copy of it; but as not only the letters of the text, but +every flaw in the rock were filled with a deposit of lime +left by the water, all he could send to Europe was a +collection of unmeaning scrawls. Besides the difficulty +of distinguishing the letters, it was also necessary to sit +in the mud and water, and to work by the dim light of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page087">[pg 087]</span><a name="Pg087" id="Pg087" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a candle, as the place where the inscription is engraved +is perfectly dark. All this rendered it impossible for +anyone not acquainted with Phœnician palæography to +make an accurate transcript. The first intelligible copy +accordingly was made by Professor Sayce after several +hours of careful study; but this too contained several +doubtful characters, the real forms of which could only +be determined by the removal of the calcareous matter +with which they were coated. In March, 1881, six +weeks after Sayce's visit, Dr. Guthe arrived in Jerusalem, +and after making a more complete facsimile of the +inscription than had previously been possible, removed +the deposit of lime by means of an acid, and so revealed +the original appearance of the tablet. Letters which +had previously been concealed now became visible, and +the exact shapes of them all could be observed. First a +cast, and then squeezes of the text were taken; and the +scholars of Europe had at last in their hands an exact +copy of the old text. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The inscription consists of six lines, but several of the +letters composing it have unfortunately been destroyed +by the wearing away of the rock. The translation of it +is as follows:— +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +1. <span class="tei tei-q">“(Behold) the excavation! Now this is the history +of the excavation. While the excavators were still +lifting up the pick, each towards his neighbour, and +while there were yet three cubits to (excavate, there was +heard) the voice of one man calling to his neighbour, +for there was an excess in the rock on the right hand +(and on the left). And after that on the day of +excavating the excavators had struck pick against pick, +one against the other, the waters flowed from the spring +to the Pool for a distance of 1,200 cubits. And (part) +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page088">[pg 088]</span><a name="Pg088" id="Pg088" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of a cubit was the height of the rock over the head of the +excavators.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The language of the inscription is the purest Biblical +Hebrew. There is only one word in it—that rendered +<span class="tei tei-q">“excess”</span>—which is new, and consequently of doubtful +signification. We learn from it that the engineering skill +of the day was by no means despicable. The conduit +was excavated in the same fashion as the Mont Cénis +tunnel of our own time, by beginning the work simultaneously +at the two ends; and, in spite of its windings, +the workmen almost succeeded in meeting in the +middle. They approached, indeed, so nearly to one +another, that the noise made by the one party in hewing +the rock was heard by the other, and the small piece of +rock which intervened between them was accordingly +pierced. This accounts for the two +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">culs de sac</span></span> now +found in the centre of the channel; they represent the +extreme points reached by the two bands of excavators +before they had discovered that, instead of meeting, +they were passing by one another. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is most unfortunate that the inscription contains no +indication of date; but the forms of the letters used +in it show that it cannot be very much later in age than +the Moabite Stone. Indeed, some of the letters exhibit +older forms than those of the Moabite Stone; but this +may be explained by the supposition that the scribes of +Jerusalem were more conservative, more disposed to +retain old forms, than the scribes of king Mesha. The +prevalent opinion of scholars is that the tunnel and +consequently the inscription in it were executed in the +reign of Hezekiah. According to the Chronicler (2 Chr. +xxxii. 30), Hezekiah <span class="tei tei-q">“stopped the upper watercourse of +Gihon, and brought it straight down to the west side of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page089">[pg 089]</span><a name="Pg089" id="Pg089" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the city of David,”</span> and we read in 2 Kings xx. 20, that <span class="tei tei-q">“he +made a pool and a conduit, and brought water into the +city.”</span> The object of the laborious undertaking is very +plain. The Virgin's Spring, the only natural source near +Jerusalem, lay outside the walls, and in time of war +might easily pass into the hands of the enemy. The +Jewish kings, therefore, did their best to seal up this +spring, which must be the Chronicler's <span class="tei tei-q">“upper water-course +of Gihon,”</span> and to bring its waters by subterranean +passages inside the city walls. Besides the tunnel which +contains the inscription another tunnel has been discovered, +which also communicates with the Virgin's +Spring. But it is tempting to suppose that the most +important of these—the tunnel which contains the inscription—must +be the one which Hezekiah made. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The supposition, however, is rendered uncertain by a +statement of Isaiah (viii. 6). While Ahaz, the father of +Hezekiah, was still reigning, Isaiah uttered a prophecy in +which he made allusion to <span class="tei tei-q">“the waters of Shiloah that +go softly.”</span> Now this can hardly refer to anything else +than the gently flowing stream which still runs through +the tunnel of Siloam. In this case the conduit would +have been in existence before the time of Hezekiah; and, +since we know of no earlier period when a great +engineering work of the kind could have been executed +until we go back to the reign of Solomon, it is possible +that the inscription may actually be of this ancient date. +The inference is supported by the name Shiloah, which +probably means <span class="tei tei-q">“the tunnel,”</span> and would have been given +to the locality in consequence of the conduit which here +pierced the rock. It was not likely that when David +and Solomon were fortifying Jerusalem, and employing +Phœnician architects upon great public buildings there, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page090">[pg 090]</span><a name="Pg090" id="Pg090" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +they would have allowed the city to depend wholly upon +rain cisterns for its water supply. Since the inscription +calls the Pool of Siloam simply <span class="tei tei-q">“the Pool,”</span> we may +perhaps infer that no other reservoir of the kind was +in existence at the time; and yet in the age of Isaiah, +as we learn from Isa. xxii. 9, 11, there was not only <span class="tei tei-q">“a +lower pool,”</span> in contradistinction to <span class="tei tei-q">“an upper one,”</span> but +also <span class="tei tei-q">“an old pool,”</span> in contradistinction to a new one. +As Dr. Guthe's excavations have laid bare the remains +of four such pools in the neighbourhood of that of +Siloam, there is no difficulty in finding places for all +these reservoirs. But they could hardly have existed +when the Pool of Siloam was still known as simply <span class="tei tei-q">“the +Pool,”</span> nor could the name of Shiloah have well been +given to the locality if another tunnel, observed by Sir +Charles Warren on the eastern side of the Temple Hill, +had been already excavated. This second tunnel starts, +like the Siloam one, from the Virgin's Spring, and was +designed to bring the water of the spring within the +walls of the city. A shaft is cut for seventy feet into the +hill, where it meets another perpendicular shaft, which +rises for a height of fifty feet, and then meets a flight of +steps, which lead into a broad passage, ending in another +flight of steps and a vaulted chamber. Niches for lamps +were found here at intervals, intended to light the persons +who went to draw the water by means of a bucket. As +lamps of the Roman period were discovered in the +chamber, the tunnel must have been known and used up +to the time of the capture of Jerusalem by Titus, and it +is probably not older than the reign of Herod. In any +case, the comparative excellence of its workmanship +goes to show that it was made at a later date than +the tunnel of Siloam. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page091">[pg 091]</span><a name="Pg091" id="Pg091" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Whatever doubts, however, may still hang over the +date of the inscription, there can be no question that +it has thrown most important light on the topography +of Jerusalem in the period of the kings. It is now clear +that the modern city occupies very little of the same +ground as the ancient one; the latter stood entirely on +the rising ground to the east of the Tyropœôn valley, +the northern portion of which is at present occupied by +the mosque of Omar, while the southern portion is uninhabited. +The Tyropœôn valley itself must be the +Valley of the Son of Hinnom, where the idolaters of +Jerusalem burnt their children in the fire to Moloch. It +must be in the southern cliff of this valley that the tombs +of the kings are situated; the reason why they have +never yet been found being that they are buried under +the rubbish with which the valley is filled. Among the +rubbish must be the remains of the city which was +destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar, and whose ruins were +flung into the gorge below. Between the higher part +of the hill, now occupied by the mosque of Omar, and +its lower uninhabited portion, Dr. Guthe has discovered +traces of a valley which once ran into the valley of the +Kidron at right angles to it, not far from the Virgin's +Spring, and divided in old days the City of David from +the rest of the town. Here, as well as in the now +obliterated Valley of the Cheesemakers, there probably +still lie the relics of the dynasty of David; but we shall +only know the story they have to tell us when the +spade of the excavator has come to continue the discoveries +which the inscription of Siloam has begun. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page092">[pg 092]</span><a name="Pg092" id="Pg092" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc11" id="toc11"></a> +<a name="pdf12" id="pdf12"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter V. The Empire of the Hittites.</span></h1> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Discovery of traces of an ancient Hittite Empire.—Scripture +references to the +Hittites.—Professor Sayce's discovery.—The inscriptions at Hamath.—The +Hittite race.—Hittite art.</span></span> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Five years ago there was no one who suspected that a +great empire had once existed in Western Asia and +contended on equal terms with both Egypt and Assyria, +the founders of which were the little-noticed Hittites of +the Old Testament. Still less did any one dream that +these same Hittites had once carried their arms, their +art, and their religion to the shores of the Æegean, and +that the early civilisation of Greece and Europe was as +much indebted to them as it was to the Phœnicians. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The discovery was made in 1879. Recent exploration +and excavation had shown that the primitive art and +culture of Greece, as revealed, for example, by Dr. +Schliemann's excavations at Mykenæ, were influenced +by a peculiar art and culture emanating from Asia +Minor. Here, too, certain strange monuments had been +discovered, which form a continuous chain from Lydia in +the west to Kappadokia and Lykaonia in the east. The +best known of these are certain rock sculptures found at +Boghaz Keui and Eyuk, on the eastern side of the +Halys, and two figures in relief in the Pass of Karabel, +near Sardes, which the old Greek historian, Herodotus, +had long ago supposed to be memorials of the Egyptian +conqueror Sesostris, or Ramses II. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page093">[pg 093]</span><a name="Pg093" id="Pg093" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Meanwhile other discoveries were being made in lands +more immediately connected with the Bible. Scholars +had learned from the Egyptian inscriptions that before +the days of the Exodus the Egyptian monarchs had +been engaged in fierce struggles with the powerful nation +of the Hittites, whose two chief seats were at Kadesh +on the Orontes and Carchemish on the Euphrates, +and who were able to summon to their aid subject-allies +not only from Palestine, but also far away from +Lydia and the Troad, on the western coast of Asia +Minor. Ramses II himself, the Pharaoh of the oppression, +had been glad to make peace with his antagonists; +and the treaty, which provided, among other things, for +the amnesty of political offenders who had found a +shelter during the war among one or other of the two +combatants, was cemented by the marriage of the +Egyptian king with the daughter of his rival. A century +or two afterwards Tiglath-Pileser I of Assyria +found his passage across the Euphrates barred by the +Hittites of Carchemish and their Kolkhian mercenaries. +From this time forward the Hittites proved dangerous +enemies to the Assyrian kings in their attempts to +extend the empire towards the west, until at last in +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 717 Sargon succeeded in capturing their rich capital, +Carchemish, and in making it the seat of an Assyrian +satrap. Henceforth the Hittites disappear from history. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But they had already left their mark on the pages of +the Old Testament. The Canaanite who had betrayed +his fellow-citizens at Beth-el to the Israelites dared not +entrust himself to his countrymen, but went away <span class="tei tei-q">“into +the land of the Hittites”</span> (Judges i. 26). Solomon +imported horses from Egypt, which he sold to the +Syrians and the Hittites (1 Kings x. 28, 29), and when +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page094">[pg 094]</span><a name="Pg094" id="Pg094" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +God had sent a panic upon the camp of the Syrians +before Jerusalem, they had imagined that <span class="tei tei-q">“the king of +Israel had hired against them the kings of the Hittites +and the kings of the Egyptians”</span> (2 Kings vii. 6). +Kadesh itself, the southern Hittite capital, is mentioned +in a passage where the Hebrew text is unfortunately +corrupt (2 Sam. xxiv. 6). Here the Septuagint shows +us that the officers sent by David to number the people, +in skirting the northern frontier of his kingdom, came as +far as <span class="tei tei-q">“Gilead and the land of the Hittites of Kadesh.”</span> +In the extreme south of Palestine an offshoot of the +race had been settled from an early period. These are +the Hittites of whom we hear in Genesis in connection +with the patriarchs. Hebron was one of their cities, +and Hebron, we are told (Numb. xiii. 22), <span class="tei tei-q">“was built +seven years before Zoan,”</span> or Tanis, the capital of the +Hyksos conquerors of Egypt. This suggests that the +Hittites formed part of the Hyksos forces, and that +some of them, instead of entering Egypt, remained +behind in Southern Canaan. The suggestion is confirmed +by a statement of the Egyptian historian +Manetho, who asserts that Jerusalem was founded by +the Hyksos after their expulsion from Egypt; and +Jerusalem, it will be remembered, had, according to +Ezekiel (xvi. 3), a Hittite mother. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another Hittite city in the south of Judah was +Kirjath-sepher, or <span class="tei tei-q">“Booktown,”</span> also known as Debir, +<span class="tei tei-q">“the sanctuary,”</span> a title which reminds us of that of +Kadesh, <span class="tei tei-q">“the holy city.”</span> We may infer from its name +that Kirjath-sepher contained a library stocked with +Hittite books. That the Hittites were a literary people, +and possessed a system of writing of their own, we learn +from the Egyptian monuments. What this writing was +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page095">[pg 095]</span><a name="Pg095" id="Pg095" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +has been revealed by recent discoveries. Inscriptions in +a peculiar kind of hieroglyphics or picture-writing have +been found at Hamath, Aleppo, and Carchemish, in +Kappadokia, Lykaonia, and Lydia. They are always +found associated with sculptures in a curious style of art, +some of which from Carchemish, the modern Jerablûs, +are now in the British Museum. The style of art is the +same as that of the monuments of Asia Minor mentioned +above. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It was the discovery of this fact by Professor Sayce, +in 1879, which first revealed the existence of the Hittite +empire and its importance in the history of civilisation. +Certain hieroglyphic inscriptions, originally noticed by +the traveller Burckhardt at Hamah, the ancient Hamath, +had been made accessible to the scientific world by the +Palestine Exploration Fund, and the conjecture had +been put forward that they represented the long-lost +writing of the Hittites. The conjecture was shortly +afterwards confirmed by the discovery of similar inscriptions +at Jerablûs, which Mr. Skene and Mr. George +Smith had already identified with the site of Carchemish. +If, therefore, the early monuments of Asia Minor +were really of Hittite origin, as Professor Sayce supposed, +it was clear that they ought to be accompanied by +Hittite hieroglyphics. And such turned out to be the +case. On visiting the sculptured figure in the Pass of +Karabel, in which Herodotus had seen an image of the +great opponent of the Hittites, he found that the +characters engraved by the side of it were all of them +Hittite forms. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hittite inscriptions have since been discovered attached +to another archaic monument of Lydia, the sitting +figure of the great goddess of Carchemish, carved out of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page096">[pg 096]</span><a name="Pg096" id="Pg096" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the rocks of Mount Sipylos, which the Greeks fancied +was the Niobê of their mythology as far back as the +age of Homer; and similar inscriptions also exist at +Boghaz Keui and Eyuk, in Kappadokia, as well as near +Ivris, in Lykaonia. Others have been discovered in +various parts of Kappadokia and in the Taurus range of +mountains, while a silver boss, which bears a precious +inscription both in Hittite hieroglyphics and in cuneiform +characters, seems to belong to Cilicia. In fact, +there is now abundant evidence that the Hittites once +held dominion throughout the greater portion of Asia +Minor, so that we need no longer feel surprised at their +being able to call Trojans and Lydians to their aid in +their wars against Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The existence of Hittite inscriptions at Hamath goes +to show that Hamath also was once under Hittite rule. +This throws light on several facts recorded in sacred +history. David, after his conquest of the Syrians, +became the ally of the Hamathite king, and the alliance +seems to have lasted down to the time when Hamath +was finally destroyed by the Assyrians, since it is +implied in the words of 2 Kings xiv. 28, as well as in +the alliance between Uzziah and Hamath, of which we +are informed by the Assyrian monuments. Hamath and +Judah, in fact, each had a common enemy in Syria, and +were thus drawn together by a common interest. It +was only when Assyria threatened all the populations +of the west alike, that Hamath and Damascus were +found fighting side by side at the battle of Karkar. +Otherwise they were natural foes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The reason of this lay in the fact that the Hittites +were intruders in the Semitic territory of Syria. Their +origin must be sought in the highlands of Kappadokia, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page097">[pg 097]</span><a name="Pg097" id="Pg097" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and from hence they descended into the regions of the +south, at that time occupied by Semitic Arameans. +Hamath and Kadesh had once been Aramean cities, and +when they were again wrested from the possession of the +Hittites they did but return to their former owners. The +fall of Carchemish meant the final triumph of the Semites +in their long struggle with the Hittite stranger. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Even in their southern home the Hittites preserved +the dress of the cold mountainous country from which +they had come. They are characterised by boots with +turned-up toes, such as are still worn by the mountaineers +of Asia Minor and Greece. They were thick-set and +somewhat short of limb, and the Egyptian artists +painted them without beards, of a yellowish-white colour, +with dark black hair. In short, as M. Lenormant has +pointed out, they had all the physical characteristics of +a Caucasian tribe. Their descendants are still to be +met with in the defiles of the Taurus and on the plateau +of Kappadokia, though they have utterly forgotten the +language or languages their forefathers spoke. What +this language was is still uncertain, though the Hittite +proper names which occur on the monuments of Egypt +and Assyria show that it was neither Semitic nor Indo-European. +With the help of the bilingual inscription +in cuneiform and Hittite, already mentioned, Professor +Sayce believes that he has determined the values of a +few characters and partially read three or four names, +but until more inscriptions are brought to light it is +impossible to proceed further. Only it is becoming every +day more probable that the hieroglyphics in which the +inscriptions are written were the origin of a curious +syllabary once used throughout Asia Minor, which +survived in Cyprus into historical times. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page098">[pg 098]</span><a name="Pg098" id="Pg098" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hittite art was originally borrowed from Babylonia, +but modified by the borrowers in a peculiar way. The +borrowing took place before the rise of Assyria. The +astronomical and astrological tablets belonging to the +great work on the heavenly bodies which was compiled +for the library of Sargon I of Accad speak from time to +time of the Khattâ or Hittites, a clear proof that already +at that remote epoch they had moved down from their +northern home into their new quarters in Syria. +Besides the art of Babylonia they also borrowed several +of the Babylonian deities and religious legends. The +supreme goddess of Carchemish was the Babylonian +Istar or Ashtoreth, and the representation of her found on +early Babylonian cylinders was carried by the Hittites +to the western coasts of Asia Minor, and from thence +made its way across the Ægean Sea to Greece. Even +the Amazons of Greek mythology were really nothing +more than the priestesses of this Hittite divinity, who +wore arms in honour of the goddess. The cities which +according to the Greeks were founded by the Amazons +were all of Hittite origin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We may expect to discover hereafter that the +influence exercised by the Hittites upon their Syrian +neighbours was almost as profound as that exercised by +them upon their neighbours in Asia Minor, and through +these upon the fathers of the Greeks. For the present, +however, we must be content with the startling results +that have already been obtained in this new field of +research. A people that once played an important +part in the history of the civilised world has been again +revealed to us after centuries of oblivion, and a forgotten +empire has been again brought to light. The +first chapter has been opened of a new history, which +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page099">[pg 099]</span><a name="Pg099" id="Pg099" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +can only be completed when more Hittite inscriptions +have been discovered, and the story they contain +has been deciphered. All that is now needed +are explorers and excavators, who shall do for the +buried cities of the Hittites what Botta and Layard have +done for Nineveh or Schliemann for Mykenæ and +Troy. +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page100">[pg 100]</span><a name="Pg100" id="Pg100" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc13" id="toc13"></a> +<a name="pdf14" id="pdf14"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter VI. The Assyrian Invasions.</span></h1> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Capture of Jerusalem.—Shishak.—Shalmaneser +II.—Inscription describing +the campaign of his sixth year.—Correction of the Biblical chronology.—The +worship of Rimmon.—War against Hazael.—The black +obelisk.—Rimmon-nirari.—Tiglath-Pileser +II.—The fall of Arpad.—Menahem +pays tribute.—Alliance of Ahaz with Assyria.—Capture of Samaria and +of Damascus.—Destruction of Samaria.—Sargon, Cuthah, +and Sepharvaim.—Merodach-baladan.—Invasion +of Judah by Sargon.—True interpretation +of Isaiah x. and xi.—Sennacherib's invasion.—His account of +it.—The Biblical account.—The date.—The Lachish bas-relief.—Jewish +policy in Hezekiah's reign.—Hezekiah's public +works.—The will of Sennacherib.—Esar-haddon's +reign.—Explanation of 2 Chron. xxxiii. 2.—Isaiah +xix.—Reign of Assur-bani-pal.—Date of the fall of +Assyria.—Chronological +table of events described in the chapter.</span></span> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When David founded his empire his two powerful +neighbours, Egypt and Assyria, were both in a state of +decline. Assyria had fallen into the hands of unwarlike +kings, who were unable to retain the conquests of their +predecessors, even upon their immediate frontiers; while +Egypt was divided among rival dynasties and rent with +civil wars. Egypt, however, was the first to recover her +strength. The monarchs of the twenty-second dynasty +once more united the country under one rule, and +Shishak or Sheshank I turned his arms against the +cities of Palestine. The brief account given in 1 Kings +xiv. 25, 26, and the fuller history in 2 Chron. xii. of his +invasion of Judah and his capture of Jerusalem, are +supplemented by his own record of it on the walls of +the ruined temple of Karnak. Here the Egyptian king +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page101">[pg 101]</span><a name="Pg101" id="Pg101" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +is represented as striking down the conquered Hebrews +with a colossal club, while beside him run long rows of +embattled shields, within each of which is the name of +a vanquished city. Among them we find the names not +only of Jewish towns but of Israelitish fortresses also—such +as Megiddo, Taanach, and Abel—a proof that the +Egyptian campaign was directed against the northern +kingdom as well as against Judah, and could not, therefore, +have been undertaken at the instigation of Jeroboam, +as has sometimes been supposed. One of the +cities is called Judah-melek, or <span class="tei tei-q">“Judah-king,”</span> a title by +which it is possible that Jerusalem may have been +intended. At any rate, there is otherwise no mention +of the royal city of Rehoboam among the shields that +have been preserved. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The vigorous rule of Shishak had not ceased long +before Egypt once more sank into a state of anarchy +and weakness, which ended in its conquest by the +Ethiopian Sabako, the So of the Old Testament +(2 Kings xvii. 4). Meanwhile Assyria had recovered +its strength, and had entered upon a new career of +conquest. In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 858 Shalmaneser II came to the +throne, and his long reign of thirty-five years was one +continuous history of campaigns against his neighbours, +in the course of which the authority of Assyria was +extended as far as the Mediterranean. The growing +power of Damascus, which Rezon had torn from the +empire of David in the time of Solomon (1 Kings xi. +23-25), formed the chief object of his attack. Already, +in the sixth year of his reign, he had overthrown the +combined forces of Damascus, of Hamath, and of the +Hittites, and had slain 20,500 of his enemies in battle. +Damascus was at this time governed by Hadad-idri or +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page102">[pg 102]</span><a name="Pg102" id="Pg102" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Hadadezer, the Ben-hadad II of Scripture, the Scriptural +name being a standing title of the Syrian kings, +and signifying <span class="tei tei-q">“the son of Hadad,”</span> the supreme deity +of Damascus. Three years later Shalmaneser again +attacked the Syrian king; but it was not until his +fourteenth year, when he crossed the Euphrates with an +army of 120,000 men, that he achieved any substantial +success. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The campaign of the sixth year is narrated in detail +in an inscription engraved by the Assyrian monarch +on the rocks of Armenia. Here we learn that, after +crossing the Euphrates, he received the tribute of the +Hittite states in Pethor, the city of Balaam, which +he describes as being situated at the junction of the +Euphrates and Sajur. He then marched to Aleppo, +where more gifts were brought to him, and after capturing +three of the fortresses of Hamath, reached the +royal city of Karkar or Aroer. This, he says, <span class="tei tei-q">“I threw +down, I dug up, I burned with fire; 1,200 chariots, +1,200 war-magazines, and 20,000 men belonging to +Hadadezer of Damascus; 700 chariots, 700 war-magazines, +and 10,000 men belonging to Irkhulina of Hamath; +2,000 chariots and 10,000 men belonging to Ahab of +Israel (<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Sirlâ</span></span>); 500 men of the Kuans; 1,000 men from +Egypt; 10 chariots and 10,000 men from the land of +Irkanat; 2,000 men belonging to Matinu-baal of Arvad; +2,000 men from the land of Usanat; 30 chariots and +10,000 men belonging to Adoni-baal of Sizan; 1,000 +men belonging to Gindibuh of the Arabians; and +several hundred men belonging to Baasha, the son of +Rehob, of the Ammonites—these twelve kings led their +troops to its help, and came to make war and fighting +against me. By the supreme help which Assur, the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page103">[pg 103]</span><a name="Pg103" id="Pg103" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +lord, gave (me), with the mighty weapons which the +great defender who went before me lent (to me), I +fought with them. From the city of Karkar, as far as +the city of Guzau I overthrew them. Fourteen thousand +of their fighting men I slew with weapons; like the +Air-god I bade the storm issue forth upon them; with +their corpses I filled the face of the waters; their vast +armies I brought down with my weapons; there was +not room enough in the country for their dead bodies; +to preserve the life of it I brought back a vast multitude, +and distributed them among its men. The banks +of the River Orontes I reached. In the midst of this +battle I took away from them their chariots, their war-magazines, +and their horses trained to the yoke.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The first question that presents itself to us when we +read this inscription is how we are to reconcile the +mention of Ahab in it with the date of the battle of +Karkar (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 853). According to the chronology +adopted in the margin of our Bibles, Ahab would have +been dead long before the event. The Assyrian monuments, +however, have proved that this chronology +exceeds the true one by more than forty years; and the +date assigned to Ahab by the inscription harmonises +completely with the dates that other inscriptions assign +to later kings of Israel and Judah. In all probability, +the battle of Karkar took place shortly before Ahab's +death; and it was no doubt in consequence of the defeat +undergone there by the Syrian forces that Ahab was +not only enabled to shake off his subjection to Damascus, +but also to ally himself with Judah, and endeavour +to recover the frontier fortress of Ramoth, of which +Israel had been robbed. The alliance between Ahab and +the king of Damascus is recorded in 1 Kings xx. 34. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page104">[pg 104]</span><a name="Pg104" id="Pg104" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +The battle of Karkar must have followed not very +long afterwards, since the attack on Ramoth was made +within three years after the conclusion of the alliance. +Ahab's death may, therefore, be placed in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 851. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another question that may be asked is how the Assyrian +monarch can say that twelve princes were arrayed in +arms against him, when, according to his own enumeration, +the forces of only eleven nations were present, some +of which do not seem to have been under the command of +any king. The only answer that can be given is that +Shalmaneser is guilty of a similar arithmetical inaccuracy +to that which makes him say that 14,000 of the +enemy fell in battle, whereas, according to other +accounts, the number was really 20,500; though it is +possible that the latter number may include the loss in +other battles that took place during the campaign +besides the decisive one at Karkar. When, however, +we find such arithmetical corruptions as these in contemporaneous +documents, we need not wonder that the +numerical statements of the Old Testament have +become changed and uncertain in their passage through +the hands of generations of copyists. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We may infer from the fifth chapter of 2 Kings that +the god Rimmon was the chief object of worship of +Hadadezer or Ben-hadad, the Syrian king. The Assyrian +inscriptions have shown us why this was so. +Rimmon is the Assyrian Ramman, the Air-god, and +Ramman is specially identified with the Syrian deity +Hadad, whose name enters into that of Hadadezer. +Hadad-Rimmon, in fact, was the supreme divinity of +Damascus, where he represented, not the god of the +air, as among the Assyrians, but Baal, the Sun-god, +himself. Hence it is that in Zechariah xii. 11, reference +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page105">[pg 105]</span><a name="Pg105" id="Pg105" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +is made to the <span class="tei tei-q">“mourning of Hadad-Rimmon in the +valley of Megiddo,”</span> that is to say, to the yearly festival, +when the women mourned for the death of the Sun-god, +slain, as it was imagined, by the winter. In +Phœnicia the god was known as Adônis, the <span class="tei tei-q">“lord,”</span> or +under his old Babylonian title of Tammuz. It was for +Tammuz, it will be remembered, that Ezekiel saw the +women sitting and weeping within the precincts of <span class="tei tei-q">“the +Lord's house”</span> itself in Jerusalem (Ezek. viii. 14). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hadadezer was murdered between the fourteenth +and eighteenth years of Shalmaneser, and the crown +seized by Hazael. In his eighteenth year the Assyrian +king moved against the usurper, and captured his camp +along with 1,121 chariots and 470 war-magazines. The +battle took place on the summit of Sanir or Shenir—the +name given to Mount Hermon by the Amorites +according to Deut. iii. 9—<span class="tei tei-q">“which lies over against +Lebanon.”</span> Here 16,000 of the Syrians fell in battle, and +Hazael fled to Damascus, whither he was followed by +the Assyrians. Damascus, however, proved too strong +to be captured, and Shalmaneser accordingly contented +himself with cutting down the trees by which it was +surrounded, and retiring into the Haurân, where he +burnt the unwalled towns, and carried away their +inhabitants into captivity. He then followed the high +road from Damascus to the Mediterranean, and on the +promontory of Baal-rosh, at the mouth of the Dog +River, near Beyrût, had an image of himself carved +upon the rocks. At the same place he received the +tribute of Tyre and Sidon, as well as of <span class="tei tei-q">“Yahua, the +son of Khumri,”</span> that is to say, of Jehu, the descendant +of Omri. In calling Jehu a descendant of Omri, the +Assyrian king was misinformed; he had heard nothing +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page106">[pg 106]</span><a name="Pg106" id="Pg106" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of the revolution which had extirpated the house of +Omri, and had placed Jehu upon the throne. Like +Ahab, therefore, Jehu was supposed to be a son of +Omri, the founder of Samaria, which is frequently +termed Beth-Omri, <span class="tei tei-q">“the house of Omri,”</span> in the Assyrian +inscriptions, though in the later days of Tiglath-Pileser +II and Sargon, <span class="tei tei-q">“Beth-Omri”</span> is superseded by +<span class="tei tei-q">“Samirina.”</span> This was the Aramaic form of the native +name—Shimrôn, and must consequently have been +derived by the Assyrians from the Aramaic neighbours +of the Israelites. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the Assyrian Hall of the British Museum there +now stands a small obelisk of black marble, which was +brought from Calah by Sir A. H. Layard, on which +Shalmaneser records the annals of his reign. The +upper portion of the monument is occupied by a series +of reliefs representing the tribute brought to the Assyrian +monarch by the distant nations which had sought his +favour. Among the reliefs is one in which the ambassadors +of Jehu are depicted bearing their offerings of gold +and silver bars, of a golden vase and a golden spoon, of +cups and goblets of gold, of pieces of lead, of a royal +sceptre and of clubs of wood. Their features are those +which are still characteristic of the Jewish race, and their +fringed robes descend to their ankles. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The death of Shalmaneser brought with it a period +of peace for Damascus and Palestine. His son and +successor turned his arms in other directions, and Hazael +and his successor, Ben-hadad III, were left free to ravage +Israel (2 Kings xiii. 3). It was not until the Israelites, +under Jeroboam II, had taken ample revenge upon the +Syrians, and the coast of Israel was restored <span class="tei tei-q">“from the +entering of Hamath unto the sea of the plain,”</span> that an +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page107">[pg 107]</span><a name="Pg107" id="Pg107" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Assyrian monarch once more marched towards the +west. This was Rimmon-nirari, grandson of Shalmaneser, +who reigned from <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 810 to 781, and reduced +the kingdom of Damascus to a condition of vassalage. +Damascus was now under the government of a king +called Marih, the successor, probably, of Ben-hadad III, +who, after undergoing a siege at the hands of the +Assyrians, was glad to make terms with them by +acknowledging the supremacy of Rimmon-nirari, and by +giving him 2,300 talents of silver, 20 talents of gold, +3,000 talents of copper, 5,000 talents of iron, embroidered +robes and clothes of fine linen, a couch inlaid with ivory +and an ivory parasol, besides other treasures and furniture +without number which his palace contained. It is +very possible that Jeroboam's successes against the +Syrians were in large measure due to the extent to +which they had been weakened by the Assyrians. +Rimmon-nirari also claims to have received tribute from +Tyre and Sidon, from Beth-Omri, from Edom, and from +Palastu or Palestine—a name under which we should +probably include not only the district inhabited by the +Philistines, but the kingdom of Judah as well. The +tribute was no doubt sent to him after his triumphal +entry into Damascus. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With Rimmon-nirari the power of the older dynasty +of the Assyrian kings came to an end. His successors +were scarcely able to defend themselves against the +attacks of their neighbours on the north and south; +diseases and insurrections broke out in the great cities +of the kingdom, and finally, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 746, there was a +rising in Calah; the king either died or was put to +death, and before the year was over, in the month of +April, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 745, the crown was seized by a military +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page108">[pg 108]</span><a name="Pg108" id="Pg108" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +adventurer, named Pul, who assumed the title of Tiglath-Pileser +II. Tiglath-Pileser I had been the most famous +monarch and most extensive conqueror of the older +dynasty, and had reigned over Assyria five centuries +previously; by assuming his name, therefore, the usurper +wished to show that he intended to emulate his deeds. +According to later tradition, the new king had begun +his career as a gardener; whether this were true or not, +he showed great military and executive capacities after +he had established himself on the throne, and it was to +him that the second Assyrian empire owed its origin. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Tiglath-Pileser determined to cement the various +states of Western Asia into a single empire, governed by +satraps appointed at Nineveh, and accountable only to +the king. Each satrapy, or province, had to provide a +certain number of men for the imperial army, and to +pay a fixed annual tribute to the imperial treasury. +Thus, Nineveh itself was assessed at 30 talents, ten of +which went to the general expenditure, while the remaining +twenty were devoted to the maintenance of the +fleet. Calah paid 9 talents; Carchemish, once the rich +capital of the Hittites, paid 100; Arpad 30; and +Megiddo but 15. Besides gold and silver, the cities and +provinces were called upon to furnish chariots, clothing, +and other similar contributions. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Two years after his accession (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 743) Tiglath-Pileser +II turned his attention to the west. Arpad, now +Tel-Erfad, near Aleppo, was the first object of attack. +It held out for three years, and did not fall until <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> +740. But, meanwhile, the kingdom of Hamath had +been shattered by the Assyrian arms. Nineteen of its +districts were placed under Assyrian governors, and the +Assyrian forces made their way as far as the Mediterranean +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page109">[pg 109]</span><a name="Pg109" id="Pg109" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Sea. Azri-yahu, or Azariah (Uzziah), the +Jewish king, had been the ally of Hamath, and from +him also punishment was accordingly exacted. He was +compelled to purchase peace by the offer of submission +and the payment of tribute. The alliance between +Judah and Hamath had been of long standing. David +had been the friend of its king Tou or Toi; and at the +beginning of Sargon's reign the king of Hamath bears a +distinctively Jewish name. This is Yahu-bihdi, or, as +it is elsewhere written, Ilu-bihdi, where the word +<span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">ilu</span></span>, +<span class="tei tei-q">“god,”</span> takes the place of the name of the covenant God +of Israel. It is even possible that Yahu-bihdi was a +Jew who had been placed on the throne of Hamath by +Azariah. At any rate, the alliance between Judah and +Hamath explains a passage in 2 Kings xiv. 28, which +has long presented a difficulty. It is now clear that +Jeroboam is here stated to have won over Hamath to +Israel, though previously it had <span class="tei tei-q">“been allied with Judah.”</span> +But after Jeroboam's death, Jewish influence must +once more have gained an ascendency among the +Hamathites. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Two years after the fall of Arpad, Tiglath-Pileser was +again in the west. On this occasion he held a <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">levée</span></span> of +subject princes, among whom Rezon of Damascus and +Manahem of Samaria came to offer their gifts and do +homage to their sovereign lord.<a id="noteref_7" name="noteref_7" href="#note_7"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">7</span></span></a> The tribute which +Tiglath-Pileser states that he then received from the +Israelitish king was given, according to the Book of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page110">[pg 110]</span><a name="Pg110" id="Pg110" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Kings, to Pul. We may infer from this, therefore, that +the Assyrian monarch was still known to the neighbouring +nations by his original name, and that it was not +until later that they became accustomed to the new title +he had assumed. The inference is further borne out by +the statement of an ancient Greek astronomer, Ptolemy. +When speaking of the eclipses which were observed at +Babylon, Ptolemy gives a list of Babylonian kings, with +the length of their reigns, from the so-called era of +Nabonassar, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 747, down to the time of Alexander +the Great. In this list, Tiglath-Pileser, after his conquest +of Babylon, is named Poros or Por, Por being the +Persian form of Pul. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +During the lifetime of Menahem Israel remained +tributary to Assyria, and the Assyrian king did not +again turn his arms against the west. After the death +of Menahem and the murder of his son Pekahiah, however, +important changes took place. The usurper, +Pekah, in alliance with Rezon of Damascus, attacked +Judah with the intention of overthrowing the dynasty +of David and placing on the throne of Jerusalem a vassal +king whose father's name, Tabeel, shows that he must +have been a Syrian. Jotham, the Jewish king, died +shortly after the war began, and the youth and weakness +of his son and successor Ahaz laid Judah open to +its antagonists, who were further aided by a disaffected +party within the capital itself (Isa. viii. 6). In his +extremity, therefore, Ahaz appealed to the Assyrian +monarch, who was already seeking an excuse for crushing +Damascus, and reducing the Jewish kingdom, with +its important fortress of Jerusalem, to a condition of +vassalage. In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 734, accordingly, Tiglath-Pileser +marched into Syria. Rezon was defeated in a pitched +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page111">[pg 111]</span><a name="Pg111" id="Pg111" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +battle, his chariots broken in pieces, his captains captured +and impaled, while he himself escaped to Damascus, +where he was closely besieged by the enemy. The +territory of Damascus was now devastated with fire and +sword, its sixteen districts were <span class="tei tei-q">“overwhelmed as with a +flood,”</span> and the beautiful gardens by which the capital +was surrounded were destroyed, every tree being cut +down for use in the siege. The city itself, however, +proved too strong to be taken by assault; so, leaving a +sufficient force before it to reduce it by famine, Tiglath-Pileser +proceeded against the late allies of the Syrian +king. Israel was the first to be attacked. The north of +the country was overrun, and the tribes beyond the +Jordan carried into captivity. Gilead and Abel-beth-maachah +are mentioned by name as among the towns +that were taken and sacked.<a id="noteref_8" name="noteref_8" href="#note_8"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">8</span></span></a> The Assyrians then fell +upon Ammon and Moab, which had aided Israel and +Syria in the attack on Judah, and next made their way +along the sea-coast into the country of the Philistines, +who had seized the opportunity of the late war to shake +off the yoke of the Jewish king. Their leader, Khanun +or Hanno of Gaza, fled into Egypt; but Gaza itself was +captured and laid under tribute, its gods carried away, +and an image of the Assyrian king set up in the temple +of Dagon. Ekron and Ashdod were also punished, and +Metinti of Ashkelon committed suicide in order to escape +the vengeance of the conqueror. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now that all fear of danger in the south had been +removed, Tiglath-Pileser marched back into the northern +kingdom, took Samaria, and (according to his own +account) put Pekah to death, appointing Hosea king in +his place. A yearly tribute of ten talents of gold and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page112">[pg 112]</span><a name="Pg112" id="Pg112" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a thousand of silver was at the same time exacted. +Shortly afterwards some of the Assyrian troops were +sent against the Edomites and the Queen of the Arabs, +who had also revolted against Assyria and joined the +Syro-Israelite league. Indeed, this league seems to have +been formed for the purpose of checking the Assyrian +advance, and the war against Judah to have been due to +a refusal of Jotham to take part in it. It was an anticipation +of the league that was afterwards formed in the +time of Hezekiah against the growing power of Sargon. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Meanwhile, after a siege of two years, Damascus fell +in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 732. Rezon was slain, his subjects transported +into captivity, and a great court, like a durbar in modern +India, was held in his palace by Tiglath-Pileser. Among +the subject-princes who attended it was Ahaz of Judah. +He is called Jehoahaz in the Assyrian inscriptions, and it +is therefore clear that the sacred historians have dropped +the first part of the name, in consequence of the character +of the king. The divine name would have been profaned +by its association with an idolatrous and unworthy +prince. As Khanun appeared at the court along with +Kavus-melech of Edom, Metinti of Ashkelon, Solomon +of Moab, and Sanib of Ammon, he must have succeeded +in obtaining a pardon. It was while Ahaz was at +Damascus in attendance on the Assyrian monarch that +he saw the altar, the pattern of which he sent to Urijah, +ordering it to be set up in the court of the Lord's +house. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Tiglath-Pileser died in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 727, and was succeeded by +Shalmaneser IV. The refusal of Hosea to continue the +annual tribute brought the new Assyrian monarch into +the west. Tyre was besieged unsuccessfully, Hosea +carried away captive, and Samaria blockaded for three +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page113">[pg 113]</span><a name="Pg113" id="Pg113" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +years. During the blockade Shalmaneser died, and the +crown was seized by one of the Assyrian generals. The +latter assumed the name of Sargon, in memory of the +famous Babylonian monarch who had reigned so many +centuries before. The capture of Samaria took place in +his first year (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 722); 27,280 of its inhabitants were +sent into exile, but only fifty chariots were found in the +city. An Assyrian governor was appointed over it, who +was commissioned to send each year to Nineveh the +same tribute as that paid by Hosea. The comparatively +small number of Israelites who were carried into captivity +shows that Sargon contented himself with removing +only those persons and their families who had +taken part in the revolt against him; in fact, Samaria +was treated pretty much as Jerusalem was by Nebuchadrezzar +in the time of Jehoiachin. The greater part +of the old population was allowed to remain in its +native land. This fact disposes of the modern theories +which assume that the whole of the Ten Tribes were +carried away. The districts to which the captives were +taken were Halah, the banks of the Habor, or river of +Gozan, and the cities of the Medes. Halah was not far +from Haran in Mesopotamia, on the western side of +the Habor, the modern Khabur, which flows into the +Euphrates, and rises in the country called Guzana, or +Gozan, in the Assyrian inscriptions. The Medes were +the tribes who lived eastward of Kurdistan, which, like +Mesopotamia, had been overrun by Tiglath-Pileser. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The places of the captive Israelites were not supplied +immediately. We learn from the Old Testament that it +was from Hamath and the cities of Babylonia that the +new inhabitants were brought. Now Hamath was not +conquered by Sargon until <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 720, and Babylonia not +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page114">[pg 114]</span><a name="Pg114" id="Pg114" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +until <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 710. Hamath had broken into revolt under +Yahu-bihdi or Ilu-bihdi, who induced Arpad, Damascus, +and Samaria to follow its example. But its chastisement +was speedy and sharp. Sargon captured Ilu-bihdi +in the city of Aroer, and flayed him alive; while Hamath +received a colony of 4,300 Assyrians and an Assyrian +governor. Samaria was next punished, and Sargon +then marched southward against the combined forces of +Khanun of Gaza and Sabako or So of Egypt. A +battle at Raphia decided the fate of the struggle, and +Khanun fell into the hands of his enemies. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Babylonian cities from which some of the new +settlers in Samaria were taken were Cuthah and Sepharvaim. +Cuthah is now represented by the mounds of +Tel Ibrahim, to the north-west of Babylon. It was +under the special protection of Nergal, whose name +means <span class="tei tei-q">“the lord of the great city,”</span> the god of the under-world. +Sepharvaim, or <span class="tei tei-q">“the two Sipparas,”</span> stood on +opposite banks of the Euphrates. The quarter on the +eastern bank, now called Abu-Habba, was Sippara +proper, where, according to Babylonian tradition, Sisuthros +had buried his books before the Deluge; the +quarter on the other bank being Agadé or Accad, the +old capital of Sargon I, which gave its name to the +whole of the northern portion of Chaldea. In later +times the two quarters were distinguished from one +another as <span class="tei tei-q">“Sippara of Samas,”</span> the Sun-god, and +<span class="tei tei-q">“Sippara of Anunit.”</span> Anunit was the wife of the god +Anu, <span class="tei tei-q">“the sky”</span>; and when the Bible says that <span class="tei tei-q">“the +Sepharvites burnt their children in fire to Anammelech”</span> +reference is made to <span class="tei tei-q">“Anu the king.”</span> Adrammelech, or +<span class="tei tei-q">“Adar the king,”</span> was another Babylonian deity, who was +originally a form of the Sun-god. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page115">[pg 115]</span><a name="Pg115" id="Pg115" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +We may gather from Ezra iv. 2, 10, that Samaria was +colonised a second time by the Assyrians, perhaps in +consequence of an unsuccessful revolt. This took place +in the reign of Esar-haddon. His son Asnapper, or +Assur-bani-pal, settled a number of Elamite tribes in +the country, among them being natives of Susa and of +Apharsa or Mal Amir. Men from Babylon and Erech +were also settled there at the same time. The names of +the new colonists would suit the reign of Assur-bani-pal +better than that of Esar-haddon, since it was Assur-bani-pal, +and not Esar-haddon, who conquered Elam +and Susa, and took by storm both Babylon and Erech. +It is, therefore, probable that Esar-haddon in verse 2 is +a scribe's error for Asnapper. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The reduction of the northern kingdom of Israel into +an Assyrian province brought the Assyrian empire to +the very borders of Judah, and the Assyrian kings began +to cast longing eyes upon the territory of the latter. Its +capital, Jerusalem, was an almost impregnable fortress, +the possession of which would open the road into Egypt, +as well as block the passage of an Egyptian army into +Asia. But as yet there was no excuse for attacking it. +Hezekiah, the successor of Ahaz, continued to pay the +tribute his father had consented to give to the Assyrians, +and Sargon accordingly occupied himself in wars elsewhere. +Suddenly, however, an event occurred which +brought him once more into Palestine. In order to +understand this, we must turn our eyes for a moment or +two to Babylonia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Babylonians had seized the opportunity offered +by the death of Tiglath-Pileser to shake off the +Assyrian yoke. For five years they remained free. +Then in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 722 the country was occupied by a man of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page116">[pg 116]</span><a name="Pg116" id="Pg116" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +great energy and ability, Merodach-baladan, the son of +Yagina.<a id="noteref_9" name="noteref_9" href="#note_9"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">9</span></span></a> Merodach-baladan was the hereditary chief +of the Kaldâ or Chaldeans, a small tribe at that time +settled in the marshes at the mouth of the Euphrates, +but which, in consequence of his conquest of Babylon +afterwards, became the dominant caste in Babylonia +itself. For twelve years he continued undisputed master +of the country we may henceforth call Chaldea. Sargon, +however, was becoming every year more powerful, and it +was evident that another Assyrian invasion of Babylonia +would not be long postponed. Merodach-baladan +determined to anticipate the attack. He therefore +endeavoured to form a vast league between the states on +both the eastern and the western sides of the Assyrian +empire, whose independence was menaced by their +powerful neighbour. Babylonia and Elam were the +eastern members of the league, and ambassadors were +sent to the west, to concert measures with the various +states of Palestine, as well as with Egypt, for common +action against Sargon. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hezekiah, now in the fourteenth year of his reign +(2 Kings xx. 6), had just recovered from a dangerous +illness, which had been aggravated by the fear of +Assyria, and the fact that as yet he had no son +to succeed him. The illness formed the pretext by +which the conspirators hoped to blind the eyes of +Sargon to the real objects of the embassy; it was +published to the world that the ambassadors had come +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page117">[pg 117]</span><a name="Pg117" id="Pg117" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +merely to congratulate the Jewish king on his recovery. +But Sargon knew well that Merodach-baladan would not +have troubled himself to enquire after the health of a +brother-king without a further motive, and he doubtless +learned that Hezekiah had shown the ambassadors all +the treasures and arms with which he hoped to support +the league. The consequence was, that before the confederates +were prepared to resist him, the Assyrian +monarch had swooped down upon them and attacked +them singly. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Palestine was the first to suffer. Akhimit, whom +Sargon had appointed king of Ashdod, had been dethroned, +and the crown given to an usurper named +Yavan or <span class="tei tei-q">“the Greek.”</span> Yavan seems to have been the +nominee of Hezekiah, who at this time exercised a sort +of suzerainty over the Philistine cities, and he was set +up as king for the purpose of heading the Philistine +revolt against Assyria. Edom and Moab also sent +contingents to the war, and the Ethiopian king of Egypt +promised help. Of the details of the struggle between +Sargon and the western states we unfortunately know +nothing. But it did not last long; neither Babylonia +nor Egypt had time to send any assistance to their +allies. The <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Tartan</span></span> or Commander-in-chief was ordered +to invest Ashdod (see Isa. xx. 1), while Sargon himself +overran <span class="tei tei-q">“the wide-spreading land of Judah,”</span> and captured +its capital Jerusalem. This conquest of Judah by +Sargon explains prophecies of Isaiah which have +hitherto been unsolved mysteries. Thus an explanation +is at length offered of the circumstances described by the +prophet in chapters x. and xi. Here the Assyrian army +is described as marching along the usual high-road from +the north-east, and as halting at Nob, only an hour's +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page118">[pg 118]</span><a name="Pg118" id="Pg118" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +journey distant from Jerusalem, on the very day when +the oracle was uttered,<a id="noteref_10" name="noteref_10" href="#note_10"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">10</span></span></a> while Isaiah declares that the +capital itself shall fall into the hands of the enemy +(x. 6, 12, 22, 24, 34). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +All this is inapplicable to the invasion of Sennacherib, +when a detachment only of the Assyrian army +was sent against Jerusalem from the south-west, and +when Isaiah was commissioned by God to promise +that the king of Assyria should <span class="tei tei-q">“not come into this +city, nor shoot an arrow there, nor come before it +with shield, nor cast a bank against it.”</span> The older +commentators were accordingly driven to the desperate +expedient of supposing that the invasion described by +Isaiah in the tenth chapter of his prophecies was an +ideal one. Thanks, however, to the decipherment of the +cuneiform inscriptions, all is now clear, and we can now +understand why it is that the Assyrian monarch, whose +march is described by Isaiah, claims to be the conqueror +of Calno and Carchemish, of Hamath and Arpad, of +Damascus and Samaria (w. 8-10). All these were +conquests of Sargon, not of Sennacherib. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ashdod was taken and razed to the ground, and its +inhabitants sold into captivity. Yavan managed to +escape to the Egyptian king, who was cowardly enough +to give him up to his enemies. Edom and Moab were +punished for the part they had taken in the rebellion, +and the authority of Sargon was paramount as far as +the frontier of Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +All this happened in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 711. The following year +the whole power of Assyria was hurled against Merodach-baladan. +The Elamites were defeated and their +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page119">[pg 119]</span><a name="Pg119" id="Pg119" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +border-towns sacked, and the Babylonian king was +compelled to retreat southwards, leaving Babylon in the +hands of the Assyrians. A year later he was pursued +by Sargon into his last refuge; Bit-Yagina, his ancestral +capital, was taken by storm, and he himself forced to +surrender. His good fortune never returned. On +Sargon's death he once more entered Babylon, but his +second reign only lasted six months. After a battle +which ended in the complete victory of Sennacherib, he +fled again to the marshes, but was driven out of them +four years later, and sailed across the Persian Gulf to +find a new home on the western coast of Elam. But +even here his implacable enemies followed him. In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> +697, Sennacherib manned a fleet with Phœnician sailors +and destroyed the town the old Chaldean prince had +built. After this we hear of him no more. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The tenth chapter of Isaiah teaches us to look for +references to the capture of Jerusalem by Sargon in +other parts of the book. It is impossible not to +recognise one of these in the twenty-second chapter. +Here the prophet presents us with the picture of a siege +which has already lasted some time, and when the +inhabitants of Jerusalem are no longer slain by the +sword, but by famine, while the city is on the point of +being starved out. Here also the message which Isaiah +is bidden to deliver is not a promise of deliverance from +the enemy, but the reverse: <span class="tei tei-q">“It was revealed in my +ears by the Lord of Hosts, surely this iniquity shall not +be purged from you till ye die, saith the Lord God of +Hosts.”</span> It is only the campaign of Sargon that can +explain these words. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ten years later Judah was again invaded by an +Assyrian king, and Jerusalem again threatened by an +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page120">[pg 120]</span><a name="Pg120" id="Pg120" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Assyrian army. Sargon had been murdered by his +soldiers, and succeeded by his son, Sennacherib, who +mounted the throne on the 12th of the month of Ab, +or July, <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 705. He was a very different man from his +father, weak and vain-glorious, fonder of boasting than +of deeds. Trusting to the support of Tirhakah, the +Ethiopian king of Egypt, Hezekiah threw off his allegiance +to Assyria, and refused to send the yearly +tribute to Nineveh. The Phœnicians did the same, +while the Jewish king reasserted his former supremacy +over the cities of the Philistines. Padi, the king of +Ekron, who remained faithful to Assyria, was carried +in chains to Jerusalem, and Zedekiah, who is named in +the Assyrian records as the king of Ashkelon, was +probably of Jewish origin. It was not until three years +after his accession that Sennacherib found himself able +to march against the rebels. In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 701 he crossed +the Euphrates, and made his way to the shores of the +Mediterranean. Great and Little Sidon, Sarepta, Acre, +and other Phœnician towns, surrendered to the invader, +the Sidonian monarch fled to Cyprus, and the kings of +Arvad and Gebal hastened to pay their court to the +conquerer. Metinti of Ashdod, Pedael of Ammon, +Chemosh-nadad of Moab, and Melech-ram of Edom, +who were also suspected of having taken part in the +rebellion, came at the same time. Judah and the +dependent Philistine states alone still held out. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The rest of the history had best be told in Sennacherib's +own words. <span class="tei tei-q">“Zedekiah, king of Ashkelon,”</span> he +says, <span class="tei tei-q">“who had not submitted to my yoke, himself, the +gods of the house of his fathers, his wife, his sons, his +daughters and his brothers, the seed of the house of his +fathers, I removed, and I sent him to Assyria. I set +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page121">[pg 121]</span><a name="Pg121" id="Pg121" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +over the men of Ashkelon, Sarludari, the son of Rukipti, +their former king, and I imposed upon him the payment +of tribute, and the homage due to my majesty, and he +became a vassal. In the course of my campaign I +approached and captured Beth-Dagon, Joppa, Bene-berak +and Azur, the cities of Zedekiah, which did +not submit at once to my yoke, and I carried away +their spoil. The priests, the chief men, and the common +people of Ekron, who had thrown into chains their king +Padi because he was faithful to his oaths to Assyria, and +had given him up to Hezekiah, the Jew, who imprisoned +him like an enemy in a dark dungeon, feared in their +hearts. The king of Egypt, the bowmen, the chariots +and the horses of the king of Ethiopia, had gathered +together innumerable forces and gone to their assistance. +In sight of the town of Eltekeh was their order +of battle drawn up; they called their troops (to the +battle). Trusting in Assur, my lord, I fought with them +and overthrew them. My hands took the captains of +the chariots and the sons of the king of Egypt, as well +as the captains of the chariots of the king of Ethiopia, +alive in the midst of the battle. I approached and +captured the towns of Eltekeh and Timnath, and I +carried away their spoil. I marched against the city of +Ekron, and put to death the priests and the chief men +who had committed the sin (of rebellion), and I hung +up their bodies on stakes all round the city. The +citizens who had done wrong and wickedness I counted +as a spoil; as for the rest of them who had done no sin +or crime, in whom no fault was found, I proclaimed +their freedom (from punishment). I had Padi, their +king, brought out from the midst of Jerusalem, and I +seated him on the throne of royalty over them, and I +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page122">[pg 122]</span><a name="Pg122" id="Pg122" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +laid upon him the tribute due to my majesty. But as +for Hezekiah of Judah, who had not submitted to my +yoke, forty-six of his strong cities, together with innumerable +fortresses and small towns which depended on +them, by overthrowing the walls and open attack, by +battle, engines and battering-rams I besieged, I captured. +I brought out from the midst of them and counted +as a spoil 200,150 persons, great and small, male and +female, horses, mules, asses, camels, oxen and sheep +without number. Hezekiah himself I shut up like a +bird in a cage in Jerusalem, his royal city. I built a +line of forts against him, and I kept back his heel from +going forth out of the great gate of his city. I cut off +his cities which I had spoiled from the midst of his land, +and gave them to Metinti, king of Ashdod, Padi, king of +Ekron, and Zil-baal, king of Gaza, and I made his +country small. In addition to their former tribute and +yearly gifts I added other tribute, and the homage due +to my majesty, and I laid it upon them. The fear of +the greatness of my majesty overwhelmed him, even +Hezekiah, and he sent after me to Nineveh, my royal +city, by way of gift and tribute, the Arabs and his +body-guard whom he had brought for the defence of +Jerusalem, his royal city, and had furnished with pay, +along with thirty talents of gold, 800 talents of pure +silver, carbuncles and other precious stones, a couch of +ivory, thrones of ivory, an elephant's hide, an elephant's +tusk, rare woods, whatever their names, a vast treasure, +as well as the eunuchs of his palace, dancing men and +dancing women; and he sent his ambassador to offer +homage.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The Assyrian and the Biblical accounts complete and +supplement one another. Sennacherib naturally glosses +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page123">[pg 123]</span><a name="Pg123" id="Pg123" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +over the disaster that befel him in Palestine, and +transfers the payment of the tribute from the time when +Hezekiah vainly hoped to buy off the siege of Jerusalem +to the end of the campaign. But he cannot conceal +the fact that he never succeeded in taking the revolted +city or in punishing Hezekiah, as he had punished other +rebel kings, nor did he again undertake a campaign in +the west. We find him the next year in Babylonia; then +he attacked the tribes of Cilicia; but he never again +ventured into Palestine. During the rest of his lifetime +Judah had nothing more to fear from the Assyrian +king. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +At first sight there seems to be a discrepancy between +the number of silver talents stated in the Bible to have +been paid by Hezekiah, and the number which Sennacherib +claims to have received. But the discrepancy is +only an apparent one. It has been shown that there +were two standards of value, according to one of which +500 talents of silver would be equivalent to 800 talents, +if reckoned by the other. A more real discrepancy is to +be found in the statement of Sennacherib that he had +built a line of forts round about Jerusalem, and prevented +Hezekiah from getting out of it. This is in +flagrant contradiction to the words of Isaiah, that the +Assyrian king should not shoot an arrow into Jerusalem, +nor assault it under the cover of shields, nor cast a bank +against it. Sennacherib claims to have performed more +than he actually did. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another discrepancy has been found in the date +assigned by the Biblical narrative to the Assyrian +invasion. The year <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 701 was the twenty-fourth +year of Hezekiah, not the fourteenth, which fell in +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 711, the year of Sargon's campaign. But this very +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page124">[pg 124]</span><a name="Pg124" id="Pg124" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +fact supplies an explanation of the difficulty. In the +retrospective record of the prophetical annalist, the two +campaigns of Sargon and Sennacherib have been +brought into association, though the history dwells only +upon that one which illustrated God's way of dealing +with His faithful servants. Hence it is that reminiscences +of the earlier invasion are allowed to enter here +and there into the narrative. It was Sargon, and not +Sennacherib, who was the conqueror of Hamath and +Arpad, of Sepharvaim and Samaria (2 Kings xviii. 34-36). +It was Sargon, and not Sennacherib, who invaded +Judah in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah's reign. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +There is a bas-relief in the British Museum which +represents Sennacherib seated on his throne in front of +Lachish, and receiving the spoil of the city as it passed +before him. It was while he was encamped before this +city that Hezekiah despatched the embassy with gifts +and tribute and prayers for pardon. Sennacherib +accepted the gifts, but refused the pardon; nothing +would content him but the absolute surrender of +Jerusalem and its king. Hezekiah then prepared for +his defence. We gather from Isaiah's writings that there +were at that period three parties in the State, each of +which at different times gained an influence over the +king and his councillors. There was first the party +headed by Shebna—whose name proves him to have +been of Syrian parentage—which advocated alliance +with Egypt and hostility to Assyria. This was the +party with which Isaiah had mainly to contend, but its +power was not finally extinguished until after the +retreat of Tirhakah from the battle of Eltekeh, and this +visible proof that Egypt was but a bruised reed to lean +upon. The second party inherited the policy of Ahaz, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page125">[pg 125]</span><a name="Pg125" id="Pg125" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +and urged that Judah's only chance of safety lay in +submission to the mighty Empire of Assyria. Isaiah +was the representative of the third party. He announced +God's own declaration, that He would defend +His city and temple if only its inhabitants would trust +and fear Him, and reject all alliances with the heathen +nations that surrounded them. <span class="tei tei-q">“In quietness and in +confidence”</span> should be their strength. It was not until +events had demonstrated the truth of Isaiah's message +that the rulers of Jerusalem reluctantly accepted it, and +recognised at last that the true policy of Judah was to +abstain from mixing in the wars and intrigues of the +foreign idolater. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When the Jewish embassy arrived at Lachish, the +Egyptian party seems still to have been in the ascendant. +In spite of the prophet's warning, envoys had been +sent to Egypt (Isa. xxx. xxxi.), and had returned full of +confidence in an alliance, which yet was to be to them +not <span class="tei tei-q">“an help nor profit, but a shame and also a +reproach.”</span> The battle of Eltekeh dissipated their hopes. +This was fought after the capture of Lachish, when +Sennacherib was endeavouring to take the neighbouring +fortress of Libnah (2 Kings xix. 8, 9). The Rab-shakeh or +Prime Minister had been sent against Jerusalem along +with the Tartan or Commander-in-chief and the Rab-saris +or Chamberlain, and after delivering his message to +its defenders had returned to Sennacherib, leaving a +considerable force under the Tartan encamped outside +its walls. The message had been delivered in Hebrew, +not in Assyrian or in Aramaic (Syrian), which at that +time was the general language of trade and diplomacy +in Western Asia, like French in modern Europe. Every +politician was expected to speak it, and Hezekiah's +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page126">[pg 126]</span><a name="Pg126" id="Pg126" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +ministers take it for granted that the Rab-shakeh would +be able to do so. The fact that he preferred to speak in +Hebrew gives us a high idea of the education of the +age. Every cultivated Assyrian was acquainted with +Accadian, the old dead language of Babylonia, which +was to an Assyrian what Latin is to us; and in addition +to this diplomatists and men of business were required +to know Aramaic, while we here find the highest of +Assyrian officials further able to converse in Hebrew. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A reminiscence of the disaster which befel the +Assyrian army was preserved in an Egyptian legend, +which ascribed it to the piety of an Egyptian king. +Influenced by this legend, some scholars have supposed +that it took place at Pelusium, on the Egyptian +frontier; but the language of Scripture seems hardly to +leave a doubt that it really happened before Jerusalem. +The result was the abrupt breaking up of the Assyrian +camp and the termination of the siege of Jerusalem. +Sennacherib hastened back to Nineveh, and the court +annalists were bidden to draw a veil of silence over the +conclusion of the campaign. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Hezekiah did not long survive his wonderful deliverance. +Next to Solomon he seems to have been the +most cultivated of the Jewish kings. His public works +rendered Jerusalem one of the most formidable fortresses +of the ancient world; and if the tunnel of Siloam +belongs to his reign, it is clear that he had at his +disposal engineering skill of a high order. He was not +only himself a poet, but a restorer of the old psalmody +and a patron of literature. In imitation, probably, of +the libraries of Assyria and Babylonia, he established a +library in Jerusalem, where scribes were employed, as +they were at Nineveh, in making new editions of ancient +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page127">[pg 127]</span><a name="Pg127" id="Pg127" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +works (see Prov. xxv. 1.). Ahaz had introduced into +Judah the study of astronomy, for which the Babylonians +were renowned, and had set up a gnomon or +sun-dial in the palace-court (2 Kings xx. 11). It is +possible that some of the astronomical literature of +Babylonia, which has been recovered from the cuneiform +tablets now in the British Museum, was introduced at +the same time, with its multitudinous observations and +prediction of eclipses, its notices of the appearance of +comets, of the movements of the planets and fixed stars, +of the phases of Venus, and even of spots on the sun. +It is also possible that the Assyrian calendar and the +Assyrian names of the months now first became +familiar to the Jews. At any rate, it would seem, from +Jer. xxiii. 10, 11, that clay came to be used in Judah +as a writing material, just as it was at Babylon or +Nineveh, the inner clay record of a contract being +covered with an outer coating, on which was inscribed +an abstract of its contents, together with the names of +the witnesses. Jeremiah's deed of purchase, moreover, +was preserved in a jar, like the numerous clay deeds of +the Egibi banking-firm, which existed at Babylon from +the age of Nebuchadrezzar to that of Xerxes. These +jars served the purpose of our modern safes. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Sennacherib lived for twenty years after his withdrawal +from Palestine. In <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 681 he was murdered +by his two elder sons, Adar-melech and Nergal-sharezer, +who were jealous of the favour shown by him towards +their younger brother Esar-haddon. A curious evidence +of this favour exists among the tablets in the British +Museum. This is nothing less than the will of Sennacherib, +made apparently some years before his death, in +which he bequeaths to Esar-haddon certain private property. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page128">[pg 128]</span><a name="Pg128" id="Pg128" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +The document reads as follows:—<span class="tei tei-q">“I, Sennacherib, +king of multitudes, king of Assyria, bequeath +armlets of gold, quantities of ivory, a platter of gold, +ornaments, and chains for the neck, all these beautiful +things of which there are heaps, and three sorts of precious +stones, one and a half manehs and two and a half +shekels in weight, to Esar-haddon my son, whose name +was afterwards changed to Assur-sar-illik-pal by my wish. +The treasure is deposited in the house of Amuk.”</span> The +king was excused the necessity of having his will +attested by witnesses, as was obligatory in the case of +other persons; and it is plain that at the time when it +was made Esar-haddon was not the recognised heir to +the throne. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The murder of the old king took place, according to +the Bible, <span class="tei tei-q">“as he was worshipping in the house of Nisroch +his god.”</span> The reading of the god's name, however, is +corrupt, since no such deity was known to the Assyrians, +and it is possible that Nusku, the companion of Nebo, +the patron of literature, is intended. A war was going +on at the time between Assyria and Armenia, and the +murderers finding, apparently, no adherents in Nineveh, +fled to Erimenas, the Armenian king. Esar-haddon, at +the head of the Assyrian veterans, met them and the +Armenian forces, a few weeks afterwards, at a place not +far from Melitene, the modern Malatiyeh, in Kappadokia. +The battle ended in the complete victory of the Assyrians, +and Esar-haddon was saluted <span class="tei tei-q">“king”</span> on the spot by +his soldiers. He then returned to Nineveh, and there +formally ascended the throne. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Esar-haddon resembled his father but little. He was +one of the ablest generals Assyria ever produced, and +was distinguished from his predecessors by his mild and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page129">[pg 129]</span><a name="Pg129" id="Pg129" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +conciliatory policy. Under him the Assyrian empire +reached its furthest limits, Egypt being conquered, and +placed under twenty Assyrian satraps, while an Assyrian +army penetrated into the very heart of the Arabian +desert. But the conquests which had been won in war +were cemented by a policy of justice and moderation. +Thus Babylon, which had been razed to the ground +by Sennacherib in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 691, and the adjoining river +choked with its ruins, was rebuilt, and Esar-haddon +endeavoured to win over the Babylonians by residing +in it during half the year. This affords an explanation +of a fact mentioned in the Second Book of Chronicles +(xxxiii. 11), which has long been a stumbling-block in +the way of critics. It is there said that the king of +Assyria, after crushing the revolt of Manasseh, carried +him away captive to Babylon. The cause of this is now +clear. As Esar-haddon spent part of his time at Babylon +it merely depended on the season of the year to which +of his two capitals, Nineveh or Babylon, a political +prisoner should be brought. The treatment of Manasseh +was in full accordance with the treatment of other rebel +princes in the time of Esar-haddon's son, Assur-bani-pal. +Like them, he was at first loaded with chains, but +was afterwards allowed to return to his kingdom and +reinstated in the government of it. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The name of <span class="tei tei-q">“Manasseth, king of Judah,”</span> twice occurs +on the Assyrian monuments. Once he is mentioned +among the tributaries of Esar-haddon, once among those +of Assur-bani-pal. It is clear, therefore, that at some +period shortly after Hezekiah's death, Judah was again +forced to pay tribute and do homage to the Assyrian +king. When Esar-haddon passed through Palestine on +his way to Egypt, he found there only submission and +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page130">[pg 130]</span><a name="Pg130" id="Pg130" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +respect. Sidon alone withstood him, and Sidon was +accordingly destroyed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The <span class="tei tei-q">“burden”</span> pronounced upon Egypt by Isaiah +(ch. xix.) must belong to the age of Esar-haddon. The +condition of Egypt at the time was exactly that +described by the prophet. The country was divided +into hostile kingdoms, which fought <span class="tei tei-q">“every one against +his brother, and every one against his neighbour; city +against city, and kingdom against kingdom.”</span> Tirhakah +the Ethiopian, whom the Assyrians had driven out, +invaded it from the south, and Esar-haddon came down +upon it from the north. He it is who is <span class="tei tei-q">“the fierce +king”</span> who, the Lord declared, should rule over the +Egyptians. For about twenty years the unhappy country +was wasted with fire and sword. The twenty governors +appointed by the Assyrians were constantly intriguing +against one another and their suzerain; and again and +again the Assyrian armies were called upon to return to +Egypt to suppress a revolt. It was during one of these +campaigns—that which happened about <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 665, in the +reign of Assur-bani-pal—that Thebes, the ancient capital +of Upper Egypt, was destroyed. It is termed Ni in the +Assyrian texts, a name which corresponds to the Hebrew +No-Amon, or No of Amun, the supreme god of the city. +Its temples and palaces were overthrown, their treasures +were carried away, and two obelisks, which together +weighed over seventy tons, were sent as trophies to +Nineveh. Nahum (iii. 8) alludes to this destruction of +Thebes as a recent event, and thus fixes the approximate +age of his life and ministry. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The reign of Esar-haddon was a short one. In +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 670, on the 12th day of Iyyar, or April, he convened +by edict a great assembly in Nineveh, and there associated +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page131">[pg 131]</span><a name="Pg131" id="Pg131" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +his son Assur-bani-pal, whom the Greeks called +Sardanapalus, in the government. Two years later he +died, and Assur-bani-pal was proclaimed sole king on +the 27th of Ab, or July. Assur-bani-pal, the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">grand +monarque</span></span> of Assyria, whose long reign was a continuous +series of wars, and building, and magnificent patronage of +art and literature, has little direct contact with Biblical +history. The conquest of Elam by his generals removed +the last civilized power which could struggle with +Assyria; but it was not fully accomplished when the +mighty empire began to totter to its fall. A general +rebellion broke out, at the heart of which was Assur-bani-pal's +own brother, the viceroy of Babylonia. All +the strength of Assyria was spent in crushing it; and +Egypt, which had revolted through the help of Gyges of +Lydia, was never reconquered. Palestine, strangely +enough, seems to have been but little affected by the +almost universal outbreak; indeed, Chemosh-khalta of +Moab materially assisted Assur-bani-pal, by defeating +the Kedarites and sending their sheikh in chains to +Nineveh. One or two Phœnician cities alone took +occasion to refuse their tribute. We do not know the +year of Assur-bani-pal's death, but it was probably about +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 630. He left a troubled heritage to his successors. +The viceroy of Babylonia was becoming more and more +independent; Elam, the latest Assyrian conquest, was +threatened by the Persians, and a new and ferocious +enemy had appeared in the north. These were the +Scythians, who had descended upon the civilised world +from the steppes of Southern Russia. They extended +their ravages as far as Palestine, and their occupation of +Beth-Shan caused it to be known in later days as +Scythopolis, <span class="tei tei-q">“the city of the Scythians.”</span> The earlier +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page132">[pg 132]</span><a name="Pg132" id="Pg132" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +prophecies of Jeremiah refer to the miseries inflicted on +the country by these barbarians, who must have entered +it towards the middle of Josiah's reign. By this time +the authority of Assyria in the west could have been but +nominal. Nineveh itself had undergone a siege at the +hands of the Medes, and was only saved from utter +destruction by the Scythian irruption. Hence we can +understand how it was that Josiah was able to re-unite +the monarchy of David, and extend his sway over what +had once been the kingdom of Samaria. There was no +longer an Assyrian governor to forbid his overthrowing +the altar at Bethel or the <span class="tei tei-q">“houses of the high places +that were in the cities of Samaria.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The date of the final fall and destruction of Nineveh +is not certain, and much depends on the interpretation +given to the words <span class="tei tei-q">“the king of Assyria”</span> in 2 Kings +xxiii. 29. If, as is usually supposed, these really signify +the king of Babylon, who had succeeded to the power +of Assyria, we may place the fall of the Assyrian +capital in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 610; otherwise the date must be as late +as <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 606. It cannot be later, since, when Jeremiah +reviews in this year the existing nations of the east +(xxv. 19-26), he says not a word about either Nineveh +or Assyria. The vengeance the prophets had predicted +for the Assyrians had already fallen upon them. What +it was to be like we may gather from the language of +Nahum. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The last king of Assyria was Esar-haddon II, called +Sarakos by the Greek writers. He has left us a few +records, which were written when his enemies were +gathering about him, and when his people were vainly +calling upon their gods for help. The Medes, the Minni, +the Kimmerians or Gomer, had all banded themselves +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page133">[pg 133]</span><a name="Pg133" id="Pg133" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +together, and were steadily approaching Nineveh. The +frontier cities had been stormed, and the enemy was +spreading like an inundation over the whole country. +In their despair the Assyrian rulers ordained a solemn +fast of 100 days and 100 nights, and besought the Sun-god +to pardon their sin. But all was in vain. The +measure of the iniquities of Assyria was filled up; the +time had come when the desolater should himself be +desolate, and Nineveh, as God's prophets had threatened, +was laid utterly waste.<a id="noteref_11" name="noteref_11" href="#note_11"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">11</span></span></a> +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page135">[pg 135]</span><a name="Pg135" id="Pg135" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc15" id="toc15"></a> +<a name="pdf16" id="pdf16"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Chapter VII. Nebuchadrezzar and Cyrus.</span></h1> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">Rise of the Babylonian +empire.—Media.—Pharaoh-Necho.—The battle of +Carchemish.—Nebuchadrezzar ascends the throne.—The splendour of +Babylon.—No monuments yet discovered recording Nebuchadrezzar's Jewish +and Syrian campaigns.—Evil-Merodach.—Clay documents recently discovered +in Babylonia.—New light thrown on the empire of Cyrus.—The +cylinder of Cyrus.—Cyrus not a monotheist.—The Babylonian King of +Isaiah xiv.—Cyrus not a King of Persia at all.—Babylon not besieged by +Cyrus.—How Cyrus came to let the Jews return.—Correspondence between +the language of Cyrus and of Scripture.—</span><span class="tei tei-q"><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">The god who raises the dead to +life.</span><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">”</span></span><span style="font-size: 90%; font-style: italic">—Prayer after a bad dream.—Babylonian penitential psalms.—A +translation of one of them.—Chronological table of the events of the +chapter.</span></span> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The empire of Babylonia arose out of the ashes of the +empire of Assyria. While the bands of the enemy were +gathering round the doomed city of Nineveh, Nabopolassar, +the viceroy of Babylonia, seized the opportunity +for revolt. There were no armies now, as in former +days, that could pour out of the gates of the Assyrian +capital to punish the rebel, and Nabopolassar was +allowed to establish his new monarchy undisturbed. +But the fall of the imperial city left the other provinces +of the Assyrian empire without a master or a defence. +Its latest conquest, Elam, seems to have recovered its +independence for a short time—at all events, Jeremiah +(xxv. 25) in the year 606 <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> speaks of <span class="tei tei-q">“the kings of +Elam”</span>—but elsewhere its possessions became the battle-ground +of the three rival powers of Babylon, of Media, +and of Egypt. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page136">[pg 136]</span><a name="Pg136" id="Pg136" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Media was the name given by Persian and Greek +writers to the kingdom of Ekbatana, a city now represented +by Hamadan. Its native name, at all events in +the time of Sargon, was Ellip, and the title of Media +applied to it in later history seems to have been due +to a confusion between the Assyrian words <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Madâ</span></span> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Medes,”</span> and <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Manda</span></span>, <span class="tei tei-q">“barbarian.”</span> As we shall +see, Astyages, the king of Ekbatana, is called <span class="tei tei-q">“the king of +the people of <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Manda</span></span>,”</span> or <span class="tei tei-q">“barbarians,”</span> by the +Babylonian king Nabonidos. The tablets which describe the +approach of the last enemies of Nineveh draw a careful +distinction between Kaztarit, or Kyaxares, <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of the +city of Car-Cassi,”</span> and Mamiti-arsu, <span class="tei tei-q">“lord of the city of +the Medes.”</span> For the Assyrians, the Medes were only +the small tribes which inhabited the regions eastward of +Kurdistan. The error, however, which turned the kingdom +of Ekbatana into a kingdom of Media has fixed +itself in literature, and the Old Testament also has +adopted in regard to it the current language of the day. +It is now too late to disturb the time-honoured title, and +we shall therefore continue to speak of a Median empire +and a Median kingdom, even though we now know that +the terms rest on an ancient mistake. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +As the power of Assyria had dwindled, the power of +Egypt had increased. The Egyptian kings began to +dream again of an Asiatic empire, such as they had once +held in days long gone by, and their first efforts were +directed towards securing afresh the cities of the Philistines. +Gaza and Ashdod were captured after a long +siege;<a id="noteref_12" name="noteref_12" href="#note_12"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">12</span></span></a> Cyprus became an Egyptian province, and +Pharaoh Necho, whose Phœnician fleet had circumnavigated +Africa, set about the task of conquering Asia. +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page137">[pg 137]</span><a name="Pg137" id="Pg137" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Josiah was now on the throne of Judah. He still called +himself a vassal of Assyria, and could not but see with +alarm the rise of a new enemy, just as the old one had +ceased to be formidable. In the name of his suzerain, +therefore, he attempted to bar the advance of Necho; +the two armies of Egypt and Judah met on the plain of +Megiddo, where the battle ended in the death of the +Jewish king and the slaughter of the flower of the +Jewish soldiery. The death of Josiah proved an irremediable +disaster to the Jewish state. He left behind +him a family torn by jealousies and supported by rival +factions, a people hostile to the religious reforms he +had carried through, and an army which had lost both +its leader and its veterans. From henceforth Judah was +no longer able to defend itself from an invader, whether +Egyptian or Babylonian; and even the strong walls of +Jerusalem no longer proved a defence in days when the +method of warfare had changed, and a victorious army +was content to sit down for years before a fortress until +its defenders had been starved out. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Necho's triumph, however, was short-lived. Three +years after the battle of Megiddo (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 606), he had to +meet the Babylonian army, under its young general +Nebuchadrezzar, the son of Nabopolassar, at the ford +of the Euphrates, which was protected by the old +Hittite city of Carchemish. Nabopolassar was now +independent king of Babylonia, and his son had given +evidence of great military capacities. He had disputed +with the Median kingdom of Ekbatana the possession of +Mesopotamia; and though the ruins of Nineveh and +other Assyrian cities on the eastern bank of the Tigris +continued to remain in the hands of the Median ruler, +as well as the high road which led across Northern +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page138">[pg 138]</span><a name="Pg138" id="Pg138" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Mesopotamia into Asia Minor, and passed through the +patriarchal city of Haran, he had secured for his father +the southern regions enclosed between the Tigris and +the Euphrates. The battle of Carchemish finally decided +who should be the master of Western Asia. The +Egyptian forces were completely shattered, and Necho +retreated with the wreck of his army to his ancestral +kingdom. Judah and the countries which adjoined it +passed under the yoke of Babylonia. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Two years later, in <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> 604, Nabopolassar died, and +Nebuchadrezzar succeeded to the throne. His name is +written Nabu-kudur-uzur, <span class="tei tei-q">“O Nebo, defend the crown,”</span> +in the cuneiform, so that the form Nebuchadrezzar, +which is found in the Book of Jeremiah, is the only +correct one, Nebuchadnezzar being a corruption of it, like +Asnapper for Assur-bani-pal. Nebuchadrezzar was not +only a great general, he was also a great builder and an +able administrator. Under him, Babylon, which had +been little more than a provincial town, became one of +the most splendid cities in the ancient world. In the +middle of it rose the gigantic temple of Bel or Baal, in +eight stages, now represented by a mound of ruins, +which goes under the name of Babil. A winding road +led from the foot of it to the shrine on the summit, +wherein was a golden image of the god, forty feet high, +and a golden table in front of it for the showbread. +Nebuchadrezzar's palace, now called the Kasr mound, +was on a scale equally vast, though the wall that surrounded +it, according to the king's own statement, had +been built in fifteen days; within were the famous +hanging gardens, raised on lofty arcades, and watered +by means of a screw. In the suburb of Borsippa, on +the western side of the Euphrates, stood another temple, +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page139">[pg 139]</span><a name="Pg139" id="Pg139" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the modern Birs-i-Nimrud. This was dedicated to +Nebo, and had been begun by an earlier king. But it +was completed by Nebuchadrezzar, who called it <span class="tei tei-q">“the +temple of the seven lights of the earth,”</span> and built it in +seven stages, each coloured according to the supposed +colours of the seven planets. The upper stages were +artificially vitrified, wood having been piled up against +the surfaces of the bricks of which they were composed, +and then set on fire. Both Borsippa and Babylon were +surrounded by a single line of fortification, consisting of +a double wall. It was pierced by a hundred gates, all +of bronze. So broad were the walls, that two chariots +could pass one another upon them. Walls were also +built on either side of the river, which flowed through +the centre of the city, and was furnished with handsome +quays. There were gates in these walls at the end of each +of the wide and straight streets by which the city was +intersected, and between every gate a ferry-boat plied. +Besides the ferry-boats there was also a drawbridge, +which was drawn up every night. Such was <span class="tei tei-q">“great +Babylon,”</span> which Nebuchadrezzar boasted he had built +<span class="tei tei-q">“for the house of the kingdom, by the might of his +power, and for the honour of his majesty.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Records of Nebuchadrezzar's building operations +exist in plenty, but of his annals only a small fragment +has as yet been discovered. This, however, contains an +allusion to his campaign in Egypt, of which Jeremiah +and Ezekiel prophesied, and which an over-hasty +criticism has denied. The campaign, we learn, took +place in the thirty-seventh year of his reign. Other +references to it have been detected on the Egyptian +monuments, and we gather from these that the Babylonian +army swept the whole of the northern part of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page140">[pg 140]</span><a name="Pg140" id="Pg140" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Egypt, and penetrated as far south as Assouan, from +whence they were forced to retreat by the Egyptian +general Hor. Amasis was at this time king of Egypt, +having dethroned and murdered Apries, the Pharaoh +Hophra of the Bible, whose miserable end had been +foretold by Jeremiah (xliv. 30). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +No account has yet been discovered among the +cuneiform documents of the campaigns of Nebuchadrezzar +against Tyre and Judah. But a curious memorial +of them was found two years ago on the northern bank +of the Nahr el-Kelb, or Dog River, about eight miles to +the north of Beyrût. The ancient high road from +Damascus to the sea-coast led along the gorge through +which this river makes its way to the sea, and traces +of it can still be seen cut here and there in the rock. +The foreign conquerors of Asia, whether Egyptian or +Assyrian have left monuments of themselves carved +by the side of this old road, where it winds round a +promontory that forms the southern bank of the river. +Ramses II, Sennacherib, Esar-haddon, all have recorded +their names and deeds upon the face of the +cliff; and the obliterated monuments of other and +perhaps older kings may still be seen near to them. +The existence of these monuments has long been known. +But it was never suspected that a long inscription of +Nebuchadrezzar also existed on the loftier cliff on the +northern side of the river, completely concealed from +view under a mass of luxuriant shrubs and drooping +maiden-hair fern. It was brought to light by an accident, +and though much injured by time and weather is +still partly decipherable. Unfortunately, the royal author +gives no history in it of his Syrian and Jewish campaigns; +the clearest part of the text is occupied only with +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page141">[pg 141]</span><a name="Pg141" id="Pg141" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +a list of the wines of the Lebanon, among which the wine +of Helbon, near Damascus, was the most highly prized.<a id="noteref_13" name="noteref_13" href="#note_13"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">13</span></span></a> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Nebuchadrezzar had a long reign of nearly forty-three +years. His son and successor, Evil-Merodach (<span class="tei tei-q">“the +man of the god Merodach”</span>), lived hardly three years +after his accession, and then was murdered by his +brother-in-law, Nergal-sharezer, who seized the crown. +The latter calls himself the son of <span class="tei tei-q">“Bel-suma-iskun, +king of Babylon”</span>—a title to which his father could +have had no right—and he seems to have been the Rab-Mag +(a word of unknown signification) who is mentioned +by Jeremiah (xxxix. 3) as among the princes of +Babylon at the time of the capture of Jerusalem. The +chief event of his short reign of four years and four +months was the construction of a new palace. His +son, who succeeded him, was but a mere boy, and was +murdered after a brief reign of four months. The +throne was then usurped by Nabu-nahid, the Nabonidos +of the Greeks, who does not seem to have belonged to +the royal family, and calls his father, <span class="tei tei-q">“Nabu-balatsu-ikbi, +the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Rubu-emga</span></span>,”</span> which may possibly be the Rab-Mag +of the Old Testament. Nabonidos reigned for +seventeen years, and witnessed the rise of a new power +in the east. This was the empire of Cyrus, about whom +the cuneiform records have recently given us information +of a most startling kind. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Among the clay documents lately discovered in +Babylonia by Mr. Rassam are three inscriptions, which +have been published and translated by Sir Henry Rawlinson +and Mr. Pinches. The first of these is a cylinder, +inscribed by order of Cyrus, the second a tablet which +describes the conquest of Babylonia by Cyrus and the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page142">[pg 142]</span><a name="Pg142" id="Pg142" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +causes which led up to it, while the third is an account +given by Nabonidos of his restoration of the temple of +the Moon-god at Haran, and of the temples of the +Sun-god and of Anunit at Sepharvaim. Haran, we are +told in the last-mentioned record, had been taken and +destroyed by the <span class="tei tei-foreign"><span style="font-style: italic">Manda</span></span>, or <span class="tei tei-q">“barbarians,”</span> of +Ekbatana, and the temple of the Moon-god had shared in the +general ruin of the city. <span class="tei tei-q">“Then,”</span> says Nabonidos, <span class="tei tei-q">“at the +beginning of my long reign, Merodach, the great lord, and +Sin (the Moon-god), the illuminator of heaven and earth, +the strong one of the universe, revealed unto me a dream. +Merodach spake with me (thus): <span class="tei tei-q">‘O Nabonidos, king of +Babylon, go up with the horse of thy chariot; make +bricks for the Temple of Rejoicing, and let the seat of +Sin, the great lord, enter within it.’</span> Reverently I spake +to Merodach, the lords of the gods: <span class="tei tei-q">‘I will build this +house whereof thou hast spoken. The barbarians went +about it, and their forces were terrible.’</span> Merodach +answered me: <span class="tei tei-q">‘The barbarians of whom thou hast +spoken shall not exist, neither they nor their lands, nor +the kings their allies.’</span> In the third year when it came, +when they (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, the barbarians) had caused Cyrus, the +king of Elam, his young servant, to march amongst his +army, they provoked him (to battle); the wide-spread +barbarians he overthrew; he captured Astyages, king of +the barbarians, and seized his treasures; to his own +land he took (them).”</span> After this Nabonidos carried +out the will of the gods. His <span class="tei tei-q">“vast army”</span> was summoned +from Gaza on the one side to the Persian Gulf +on the other, and set to work to restore the temple of +Haran, which had been built three centuries before by +the Assyrian king, Shalmaneser II, and subsequently +repaired by Assur-bani-pal. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page143">[pg 143]</span><a name="Pg143" id="Pg143" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Two statements will be noticed in the inscription +which will appear strange to students of ancient history. +Cyrus is called <span class="tei tei-q">“the young servant”</span> of Merodach, the +patron-deity of Babylon, and <span class="tei tei-q">“king of Anzan,”</span> or +Elam, not of Persia. But both statements will be found +to be borne out by the two inscriptions of Cyrus himself, +which we shall now quote. Both on his cylinder and +in the annalistic tablet Cyrus, hitherto supposed to be a +Persian and a Zoroastrian monotheist, appears as an +Elamite and as a polytheist. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The annalistic tablet, which is unfortunately somewhat +mutilated, begins with the first year of the reign +of Nabonidos. The first three years after his accession +seem to have been occupied with disturbances in +Syria. Then, in the sixth year, we are informed, +<span class="tei tei-q">“Astyages gathered (his army) and marched against +Cyrus, king of Elam. But the soldiers of Astyages +revolted from him, and seized him and delivered him up +to Cyrus. Cyrus (proceeded) to the land of Ekbatana, +the royal city. The silver, the gold, the furniture, and +the spoil of the land of Ekbatana he carried away, and +brought the furniture and the spoil which he has taken +to the land of Elam.—The seventh year the king +(Nabonidos) was in the town of Tema (a suburb of +Babylon). The king's son, the nobles, and his soldiers +were in Accad (or Northern Babylonia). The king did +not go to Babylon, neither did Nebo nor Bel. But they +kept a festival; they sacrificed peace-offerings in the +temples of Saggil and Zida to the gods for (the preservation) +of Babylon and Borsippa. The governor inspected +the garden and the temple.—In the eighth year (no event +took place).—The ninth year Nabonidos, the king, was +in Tema, the king's son, the nobles, and his soldiers +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page144">[pg 144]</span><a name="Pg144" id="Pg144" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +were in Accad. Until the month of Nisan (March) the +king did not go to Babylon, neither did Nebo nor Bel. +But they kept a festival; they sacrificed peace-offerings +to the gods in the temples of Saggil and Zida +for the preservation of Babylon and Borsippa. On the +fifth day of Nisan, the king's mother, who was in the +fortress of the camp on the river Euphrates, above +Sippara, died. The king's son and his soldiers mourned +for her three days running. In the month Sivan (May), +there was a mourning for the king's mother throughout +the land of Accad. In the month Nisan, Cyrus, king of +Persia, collected his soldiers and crossed the Tigris +below Arbela, and the following month (marched) +against the land of.... Its king took (his) +silver and himself; he made his own children mount +(the pyre); afterwards both king and children were +(burnt) in the midst (of it)—The tenth year the king +was in Tema; the king's son, the officers, and his +soldiers were in Accad. Until (Nisan) the king (did +not go to Babylon), neither did Nebo nor Bel. But +they kept the festival; they sacrificed peace-offerings to +the gods in the temples (of Saggil and Zida) for the +preservation of Babylon and Borsippa. On the 21st +day of Sivan (the soldiers) of Elam marched into +Accad. A prefect (was appointed?) in Erech.—The +eleventh year the king was in Tema; the king's son, +the nobles, and his soldiers were in Accad. Until Elul +(August), the king did not come forth (to worship) Bel, +but they kept the festival; they sacrificed peace-offerings +(to the gods in the temples of Saggil and +Zida for the preservation of) Babylon and Borsippa.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Here a break occurs in the record. When the inscription +becomes legible again we find ourselves transported +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page145">[pg 145]</span><a name="Pg145" id="Pg145" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +to the seventeenth year of Nabonidos, when the tribes on +<span class="tei tei-q">“the lower sea”</span> or Persian Gulf were in revolt. Cyrus, +who had failed to break through the Babylonian army in +Accad, had spent his time in intriguing with a disaffected +party—probably the Jews—within Babylonia itself, and +at last, when all was ripe, prepared to attack his enemy +from the south-east. Nabonidos now turned to the +gods for help, and had the images of them brought to +Babylon from their various shrines, in the vain hope that +their presence would save the city from capture. <span class="tei tei-q">“The +gods of Marad, Zamama and the gods of Kis, Beltis +and the gods of Kharsak-kalama, were brought to +Babylon; up to the end of Elul, the gods of Accad +which are above and below the sky were brought to +Babylon but the gods of Borsippa, of Cuthah, and of +Sippara, were not brought. In the month Tammuz +(June) Cyrus gave battle to the army of Accad in the +town of Rutum, upon the river Nizallat. The men of +Accad broke into revolt. On the 14th day (of the +month) the garrison of Sippara was taken without +fighting. Nabonidos flies. On the 16th day Gobryas, +the governor of Gutium (Kurdistan) and the army of +Cyrus entered Babylon without fighting. Afterwards +he takes Nabonidos, and puts him into fetters in +Babylon. Up to the end of the month Tammuz, some +rebels from Kurdistan kept the gates of the temple of +Saggil closed, but there was nothing in the way of +weapons in the temple of Saggil, nor was there +an opportunity (for fighting). On the 3rd day of +Marchesvan (October), Cyrus entered Babylon. The +roads(?) before him were covered. He grants peace to +the city, to the whole of Babylon Cyrus proclaims +peace. Gobryas, his governor, was appointed over the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page146">[pg 146]</span><a name="Pg146" id="Pg146" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +(other) governors in Babylon, and from the month Chisleu +(November) to the month Adar (February) the gods +of Accad, whom Nabonidos had brought to Babylon, +were restored to their shrines. On the 11th day of +the previous Marchesvan, Gobryas (was appointed) over +(Babylon), and the king (Nabonidos) died. From the +27th of Adar to the 3rd of Nisan, (there was) a +mourning in Accad; all the people smote their heads. +On the 4th day, Kambyses, the son of Cyrus, arranged +the burial in the temple of the Sceptre of the World. +The priests of the temple of the Sceptre of Nebo went +(to it).”</span> The rest of the text, which is very imperfect +from this point, describes the honours paid by Cyrus +and his son to the Babylonian gods, their sacrifices of +victims to Bel, and their restoration of Nebo to his old +shrine. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +It is at this place that the cylinder of Cyrus +comes in to complete the story. Cyrus here says that +Nabonidos had neglected the worship of the gods, who +accordingly were angry with him: <span class="tei tei-q">“The gods dwelling +within them left their shrines in anger when (Nabonidos) +brought them into Babylon. Merodach went about to all +men, wherever were their seats; and the men of Sumer +and Accad, whom he had sworn should attend him +(besought him to return). The favour he granted, he +came back; all lands, even the whole of them, rejoiced +and ate. And he appointed a king to guide aright in +the heart what his hand upholds; Cyrus, king of +Elam, he proclaimed by name for the sovereignty: +all men everywhere commemorate his name. The +men of Kurdistan and all the barbarians (of Ekbatana) +he made bow down to his feet, the men of the +black-headed race (the Accadians), whom he had conquered +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page147">[pg 147]</span><a name="Pg147" id="Pg147" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +with his hand, he governed in justice and +righteousness. Merodach, the great lord, the restorer of +his people, beheld with joy the deeds of his vicegerent, +who was righteous in hand and heart. To his city of +Babylon he summoned his march, and he bade him take +the road to Babylon; like a friend and a comrade he +went at his side. The weapons of his vast army, whose +number, like the waters of a river, could not be known, +he marshalled at his side. Without fighting or battle +he caused him to enter into Babylon; his city of Babylon +feared; in a place difficult of access Nabonidos, the +king, who worshipped him not, he gave into his hand. +The men of Babylon, all of them, (and) the whole of +Sumer and Accad, the nobles and priests who had +revolted, kissed his feet, they rejoiced in his sovereignty, +their faces shone. The god who in his ministry raises +the dead to life, who benefits all men in difficulty and +prayer, has in goodness drawn nigh to him, has made +strong his name. I am Cyrus, the king of legions, the +great king, the powerful king, the king of Babylon, +the king of Sumer and Accad, the king of the four +zones, the son of Kambyses the great king, the king of +Elam; the grandson of Cyrus the great king, the king +of Elam; the great-grandson of Teispes, the great king, +the king of Elam; of the ancient seed-royal, whose +rule has been beloved by Bel and Nebo, whose sovereignty +they cherished according to the goodness of their hearts. +At that time I entered Babylon in peace. With joy and +gladness in the palace of the kings I enlarged the seat of +my dominion. Merodach, the great lord, (cheered) the +heart of his servant, whom the sons of Babylon (obeyed +each) year and day.... My vast armies he marshalled +peacefully in the midst of Babylon; throughout +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page148">[pg 148]</span><a name="Pg148" id="Pg148" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Sumer and Accad I had no revilers. The sanctuaries +of Babylon and all its fortresses I established in peace. +As for the sons of Babylon ... their ruins I +repaired, and I delivered their prisoners. For the work +(of restoring the shrine) of Merodach, the great lord, I +prepared, and he graciously drew nigh unto me, Cyrus, +the king, his worshipper, and to Kambyses, my son, the +offspring of my heart, and to all my army, and in peace +we duly restored its front (in) glory. All the kings who +dwell in the high-places of all regions from the Upper +Sea to the Lower Sea, who dwell in (the high-places) of +the kings of Phœnicia and Sutar, all of them brought +their rich tribute, and in the midst of Babylon kissed +my feet. From (the city of) ... to the cities of +Assur and Istar ... Accad, Marad, Zamban, Me-Turnat, +and Duran as far as the border of Kurdistan, +the fortresses (which lie) upon the Tigris, wherein from +of old were their seats, I restored the gods who dwelt +within them to their places, and I enlarged (for them) +seats that should be long-enduring; all their peoples I +assembled, and I restored their lands. And the gods of +Sumer and Accad, whom Nabonidos, to the anger of the +lord of gods (Merodach), had brought into Babylon, I +settled in peace in their sanctuaries by the command of +Merodach, the great lord. In the goodness of their +hearts may all the gods whom I have brought into their +strong places daily intercede before Bel and Nebo that +they should grant me length of days; may they bless +my projects with prosperity, and may they say to Merodach +my lord that Cyrus the king, thy worshipper, and +Kambyses his son (deserve his favour).”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Such are the records, which have risen up, as it were, +out of the tomb, to revolutionise all our previous conceptions +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page149">[pg 149]</span><a name="Pg149" id="Pg149" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of that part of ancient history with which they +are concerned. We must give up the belief that Cyrus +was a monotheist, bent on destroying the idols of +Babylon; on the contrary, from the time when we first +hear of him, he is a worshipper of Bel-Merodach, the +patron-god of Babylon, and the first care of himself and +his son, after his conquest of Babylonia, is to restore the +Babylonian gods to the shrines from which they had +been impiously removed by Nabonidos. He asks the +gods to intercede on his behalf with Bel and Nebo, the +two supreme gods of Babylonian worship. It is clear, +therefore, that Cyrus was a polytheist, who, like other +polytheists in other ages, adopted the gods of the +country he had conquered from motives of State +policy. The Egyptian monuments give the same +account of his son Kambyses. They show that the +story told by Herodotus how Kambyses had scoffed at +the gods of Egypt, had destroyed their images, and had +finally stabbed the sacred bull Apis, was a mere Greek +fable. Kambyses appears on contemporaneous monuments +as the friend of the Egyptian priests, the adorer +of their gods, and the benefactor of their temples. +The very bull he was said to have murdered has been +discovered in its huge sarcophagus of granite, with a +sculpture above, wherein Kambyses is represented as +kneeling before the bull-god, while an inscription states +that the bull was honoured with the usual funeral, in +which Kambyses himself took part. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The theory, accordingly, which held that Cyrus had +allowed the Jews to return to their own land, because, +like them, he believed in but one supreme god—the +Ormazd or good spirit of the Zoroastrian creed—must be +abandoned. God consecrated Cyrus to be His instrument +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page150">[pg 150]</span><a name="Pg150" id="Pg150" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +in restoring His chosen people to their land, not +because the king of Elam was a monotheist, but +because the period of Jewish trial and punishment had +come to an end. God's instruments may be unworthy +as well as worthy; it was through the hardness of heart +of an unbelieving Pharaoh that the deliverance from +Egypt had been accomplished in days long before. Nor +is there any contradiction between the treatment +actually experienced by the Babylonians and that which +is predicted for them in the Book of Isaiah. The +language of the prophet is necessarily figurative, and +when he declares (Isa. xlvi. 1, 2) that Bel and Nebo had +gone into captivity, nothing more is meant than that +the people whose gods they were, and whom they +represented, had passed under the yoke of a foreign +conqueror. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And yet, though the prophet's language was thus +figurative, the prediction was eventually fulfilled in a +very literal way. The empire of Cyrus was broken up +after the death of Kambyses, and had to be reconquered +by Darius the son of Hystaspes, the real founder of the +Persian Empire. Darius was a Zoroastrian monotheist +as well as a Persian, and under him and his successors +polytheism ceased to be the religion of the State. +Twice during his reign he had to besiege Babylon. +Hardly had he been proclaimed king when it revolted +under a certain Nidinta-Bel, who called himself <span class="tei tei-q">“Nebuchadrezzar, +the son of Nabonidos.”</span> A cameo exists +with his helmeted profile, engraved by a Greek artist, +and surrounded by the words, <span class="tei tei-q">“To Merodach, his lord, +Nebuchadrezzar, the king of Babylon, has made (it) +for his life;”</span> unless, perhaps, Professor Schrader is right +in referring the portrait, not to the pretender, but to +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page151">[pg 151]</span><a name="Pg151" id="Pg151" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +the real Nebuchadrezzar of Biblical history. Babylon +endured a siege of two years, and was at last captured +by Darius only by the help of a stratagem. Six years +afterwards it again rose in revolt, under an Armenian, +who professed, like his predecessor, to be <span class="tei tei-q">“Nebuchadrezzar, +the son of Nabonidos.”</span> Once more, however, it +was besieged and taken, and this time the pretender +was put to death by impalement. His predecessor, +Nidinta-Bel, seems to have been slain while the Persian +troops were forcing their way into the captured city. +After the second capture of Babylon Darius pulled +down its walls; and his son Xerxes completed the +work of destruction by destroying the great temple +of Bel, and carrying away the golden image of the +god. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In Nidinta-Bel the line of independent Babylonian +kings may be regarded as having come to an end, since +the leader of the second revolt was not a native, but an +Armenian settler. To him, therefore, we may apply +the magnificent description of the death of the last +Babylonian monarch on the battle-field, and his descent +into the under-world, which we read in Isaiah xiv. +Illustrations have been taken by the prophet from +Babylonian mythology, in order to heighten the horror +of the scene. The king of Babylonia is compared to the +morning star, whose movements the Babylonians had +been the first of mankind to record. He is represented +as saying in his heart, <span class="tei tei-q">“I will ascend into heaven, I will +exalt my throne above the (other) stars of God: I will +sit also upon the mount of the assembly (of the gods) +in the furthest regions of the north.”</span> This mount, as +we have seen in an earlier chapter, was the Olympos of +the Accadians, by whom it was called Kharsak-kurra +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page152">[pg 152]</span><a name="Pg152" id="Pg152" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<span class="tei tei-q">“the mountain of the east.”</span> Its peak was the pivot on +which the sky rested, and it was therefore also known as +<span class="tei tei-q">“the mountain of the world.”</span> It lay far away in the +regions of the north-east, the entrance, as it was +supposed, to the lower world, and it was sometimes +identified with the mountain of Nizir, the modern +Rowandiz, on whose summit the ark of the Chaldean +Noah was believed to have rested. From the heights of +this mountain, where he had vainly dreamed of sitting +among the gods, the Babylonian king was to be hurled +into the world below. Here again the prophet borrows +his illustration from the mythology of Accad. The +heroes of the past are placed before us seated in Hades +on their shadowy thrones, from which they rise to greet +the arrival of their new comrade. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The best commentary on the description is to be found +in the words of an old Babylonian poem, which tells of +the descent of the goddess Istar into Hades, in search +of her dead husband Tammuz. The poem opens as +follows:— +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">To Hades, the land whence none return, the land of darkness,</span></span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Istar the daughter of the Moon-god inclined her ear,</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Yea, the daughter of the Moon-god inclined her ear.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">To the house of darkness, the dwelling of the god Irkalla,</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">To the house out of which there is no exit,</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">To the road from which there is no return,</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">To the house from whose entrance the light is taken,</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">The place where dust is their nourishment, and mud their food;</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Light is never seen, in darkness they dwell.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Parallel with this is the description of Hades, supposed +to be given by the dead friend of Gisdhubar, in the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page153">[pg 153]</span><a name="Pg153" id="Pg153" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +great Chaldean epic in which the account of the deluge +is embodied. Here we read— +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">To Hades, the land whence none return, I turn myself,</span></span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">I spread like a bird my hands.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">I descend, I descend, to the house of darkness, the dwelling of the god Irkalla.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">To the house out of which there is no exit.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">To the road from which there is no return,</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">To the house from whose entrance the light is taken,</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">The place where dust is their nourishment, and mud their food,</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">And its chiefs are like birds covered with feathers;</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Light is never seen, in darkness they dwell.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">In that house, O my friend, which I shall enter.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">There is treasured up for me a crown.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">With those wearing crowns, who from days of old ruled the earth.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">To whom the gods Anu and Bel have given names of rule.</span><span style="font-size: 90%">”</span></span></div> +</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But it is time for us to return to the inscriptions +of Cyrus. Next to the fact that he was a polytheist, +the most startling revelation they make is that he was +not a king of Persia at all. Persia seems to have been +acquired by him after his conquest of Astyages, at some +time between the sixth and ninth year of Nabonidos. +Both he and his ancestors were kings of Anzan or Elam. +It is true, he could trace his descent back to a member +of the royal Persian clan, Teispes, who appears to have +taken possession of Elam during the troublous period +that followed the fall of Assyria, and to have resigned +his Persian dominions to his son Ariaramnes, the +great-grandfather of Darius. It must be this conquest +of Elam which was prophesied by Jeremiah at the +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page154">[pg 154]</span><a name="Pg154" id="Pg154" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +beginning of Zedekiah's reign (Jer. xlix. 34-39), and +the result of it was to make Cyrus an Elamite in education +and religion. The empire which he founded was +not a Persian one; Darius, the son of Hystaspes, was +the real founder of that. It was only as the predecessor +of Darius, and for the sake of intelligibility to the readers +of a later day, that Cyrus could be called a king of +Persia, as he is in the Book of Ezra, where the original +words of his proclamation, <span class="tei tei-q">“king of Elam”</span> have been +changed into the more familiar and intelligible <span class="tei tei-q">“king of +Persia”</span> (Ez. i. 2.). Elsewhere in the Bible (Isa. xxi. +1-10), where the invasion of Babylonia is described, +there is no mention of Persia, only of Elam and Media, +that is to say, of the ancestral dominions of Cyrus and +that kingdom of Ekbatana which he had annexed. +This is in strict accordance with the revelations of the +monuments, and is a most interesting testimony to +the accuracy of the Old Testament records. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another fact of an equally revolutionary kind which +the inscriptions teach us is that Babylon was not +besieged and taken by Cyrus. It opened its gates to his +general long before he came near it, and needed neither +fighting nor battle for its occupation. It thus becomes +evident that the siege of Babylon described by Herodotus +really belongs to the reign of Darius, and has +been transferred by tradition to the reign of Cyrus, and +that the late Mr. Bosanquet was right in asserting that +the Darius of the Book of Daniel is Darius the son of +Hystaspes. Belshazzar, as we know from an inscription +of Nabonidos, which mentions him, was the eldest +son of that monarch, and he is no doubt the <span class="tei tei-q">“king's +son”</span> who commanded the Babylonian army, according +to the tablet translated above. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page155">[pg 155]</span><a name="Pg155" id="Pg155" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But besides the main facts to be derived from these +newly found inscriptions, there is much else in them which +is worthy of regard. This is especially the case with the +inscription on the clay cylinder, in which we find a +reference to the restoration of the Babylonian captives +to their several homes. The experience of Cyrus had +taught him that the old Assyrian and Babylonian +system of transporting conquered nations was an error, +and did but introduce a dangerously disaffected people +into the country to which they had been brought. +Through this conviction, which seemed to Cyrus himself +merely the result of his own experience and political +sagacity, God worked to bring about the fulfilment of +His promises to the Jewish exiles. Those who chose to +return to Jerusalem were allowed to do so, and there +rebuild a fortress which Cyrus considered would be +useful to him as a check upon Egypt. The nations +which had been brought from east and west were +restored to their lands, along with their gods, whom they +were henceforth to worship in peace. Among them, as +we learn from the Old Testament, were the captives of +Judah, the worshippers of the one true God. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Another fact which we gather from the words of Cyrus +is that Nabonidos had offended the Babylonian priesthood, +and had been accused by some of them of impiety. +His removal of the images of the local deities from +their shrines seems to have been regarded as a peculiar +sin; and Cyrus goes so far as to assert that Nabonidos +had brought them into Babylon, <span class="tei tei-q">“to the anger of the +lord of gods.”</span> Indeed, he even says that the Babylonian +king had not worshipped the patron god of his +own capital. How little, however, this statement was +really justified may be seen from the inscription of +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page156">[pg 156]</span><a name="Pg156" id="Pg156" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +Nabonidos quoted above, in which reference is made +for the first time to Cyrus, <span class="tei tei-q">“the young servant”</span> of +Merodach. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The language used of himself by Cyrus reminds us +sometimes of the inspired words in which he is spoken +of in the prophecies of Isaiah. When he says that he +<span class="tei tei-q">“governed in justice and righteousness,”</span> and that Merodach +<span class="tei tei-q">“beheld with joy the deeds of his vicegerent, who +was righteous in hand and heart,”</span> we cannot help +thinking of God's declaration that He had <span class="tei tei-q">“raised him +up in righteousness,”</span> (Isa. xlv. 13). When he says that +<span class="tei tei-q">“Merodach, who in his ministry raises the dead to life, +who benefits all men in difficulty and prayer, has in +goodness drawn nigh to him, has made strong his name,”</span> +we almost fancy we hear an echo of the words of +Scripture: <span class="tei tei-q">“For Jacob My servant's sake, and Israel +Mine elect, I have even called thee by thy name; I have +surnamed thee, though thou hast not known Me. I am +the LORD, and there is none else, there is no God beside +Me. I girded thee, though thou hast not known Me”</span> +(Isa. xlv. 4, 5). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The title given to Merodach—<span class="tei tei-q">“the god who raises +the dead to life”</span>—is a remarkable one, but it was a title +which was applied to the god as early as the Accadian +epoch. In the religious hymns of the Accadians, Merodach +plays the part of a mediator and intercessor; if +the gods are angry, it is Merodach who intercedes for +man. Mankind, in fact, are his especial care; he was +supposed to heal their diseases and to raise them after +death to life. Whether there was any reference here to +the doctrine of the resurrection is doubtful: more probably +nothing further was meant than that the spirit +of the dead man, through the help of Merodach, was +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page157">[pg 157]</span><a name="Pg157" id="Pg157" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +allowed to drink of <span class="tei tei-q">“the waters of life,”</span> that bubbled up +in Hades beneath the golden throne of the spirits of +earth, and so to ascend to the Accadian heaven, <span class="tei tei-q">“the +land of the silver sky,”</span> where the heroes lay reclined +among the gods on couches, feasting at banquets which +knew no end. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Merodach was originally the Sun-god, and when +Babylonia passed into the hands of the Semites he +still continued to be worshipped, as the interceding god +who hears prayers and <span class="tei tei-q">“raises the dead to life.”</span> But he +was now more specially honoured as Bel or Baal, <span class="tei tei-q">“lord”</span> +a title which properly belonged to an older deity, but +which came in time to be almost confined to Merodach, +alone. When Bel and Nebo are mentioned together in +the Bible (Isa. xlvi. 1), it is Merodach, the tutelary +divinity of Babylon, that is meant, Nebo, <span class="tei tei-q">“the prophet,”</span> +to whom peculiar honour was paid at Babylon after the +rise of the dynasty of Nebuchadrezzar, being usually +associated with him. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +A large number of prayers have been discovered +addressed for the most part to Merodach, though there +are some which are addressed also to the other deities. +These prayers are written in Assyrian, and constitute a +sort of manual of devotion. They are seldom of great +length, one of the longest being a prayer after a bad +dream, which is, however, addressed to the goddess +Istar as well as to Merodach. Portions of it have been +lost; what remains may be quoted as an example of +this species of literature, and is as follows: <span class="tei tei-q">“May the +lord set my prayer at rest, (may he remove) my heavy +(sin)! May the lord (grant) a return of favour. By +day direct unto death all that disquiets me. O my +goddess, be gracious unto me; when (wilt thou hear) +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page158">[pg 158]</span><a name="Pg158" id="Pg158" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +my prayer? May they pardon my sin, my wickedness, +(and) my transgression. May the exalted one deliver, +may the holy one love. May the seven winds carry +away my groaning. May the worm lay it low, may the +bird bear it upwards to heaven. May a shoal of fish +carry it away; may the river bear it along. May the +creeping thing of the field come unto me; may the +waters of the river as they flow cleanse me. Enlighten +me like a mask of gold. Food and drink perpetually +before thee may I get. Heap up the worm, take away +his life. The steps of thine altar, thy many ones, may +I ascend. With the worm make me pass, and may I +be kept with thee. Make me to be fed, and may a +favourable dream come. May the dream I dream +be favourable; may the dream I dream be fulfilled, +May the dream I dream turn to prosperity. May +Makhir, the god of dreams, settle upon my head. +Let me enter Beth-Saggil, the palace of the gods, +the temple of the lord. Give me unto Merodach, +the merciful, to prosperity, even to prospering hands. +May thy entering be exalted, may thy divinity be +glorious; may the men of my city extol thy mighty deeds.”</span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The tone of this prayer is not very high, and it +reveals how much superstition was mixed with even +the best aspirations of Assyrian spiritual life. It is, +therefore, somewhat surprising that a series of penitential +psalms exists, coming down from the earliest period +of Babylonian history, which breathe a much more +exalted and purer spirit. These psalms are not +written in Accadian, but in the closely-allied dialect +of Sumer or Shinar, and an Assyrian interlinear +translation is attached to them. From time to time +expressions that occur in them remind us of the Book +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page159">[pg 159]</span><a name="Pg159" id="Pg159" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +of Psalms. No more suitable way can be found of +concluding our review of the illustrations of the Old +Testament Scriptures afforded by modern discovery, +than by giving at full length a translation of one of +these touching relics of old time. In reading it we do +indeed feel that even in the darkest ages of ignorance +and heathenism God was still moving the hearts of men, +<span class="tei tei-q">“that they should seek the Lord, if haply they might +feel after Him and find Him:”</span> +</p> + +<div class="block tei tei-quote" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"> +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 0.90em; margin-top: 0.90em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span class="tei tei-q" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">“</span><span style="font-size: 90%">My Lord is wroth in his heart; may he be appeased again.</span></span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">May God be appeased again, for I knew not that I sinned.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">May Istar, my mother, be appeased again, for I knew not that I sinned.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">God knoweth that I knew not; may he be appeased.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Istar, my mother, knoweth that I knew not; may she be appeased.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">May the heart of my God be appeased.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">May the heart of Istar, my mother, be appeased.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">May God and Istar, my mother, be appeased.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">May God cease from his anger.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">May Istar, my mother, (cease from her anger).</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">The transgression (I committed my God) knew.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 9.00em"><span style="font-size: 90%">[The next few lines are obliterated.]</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">The transgression (I committed Istar, my mother, knew).</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">(My tears) I drink like the waters of the sea.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">That which was forbidden by my God, I ate without knowing.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">That which was forbidden by Istar, my mother, I trampled on without knowing.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">O my Lord, my transgression is great, many are my sins.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">O my God, my transgression is great, many are my sins.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">O Istar, my mother, my transgression is great, many are my sins.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">O my God, who knowest that I knew not, my transgression is great, many are my sins.</span></div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page160">[pg 160]</span><a name="Pg160" id="Pg160" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">O Istar, my mother, who knowest that I knew not, my transgression is great, many are my sins.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">The transgression that I committed I knew not.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">The sin that I sinned I knew not.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">The forbidden thing did I eat.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">The forbidden thing did I trample on.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">My Lord, in the anger of his heart, has punished me.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">God in the strength of his heart has received me.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Istar, my mother, has seized upon me and put me to grief.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">God, who knoweth that I knew not, has afflicted me.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Istar, my mother, who knoweth that I knew not, has caused darkness.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">I prayed and none takes my hand.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">I wept and none held my palm.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">I cry aloud; but there is none that will hear me.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">I am in darkness and hiding, I dare not look up.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">To God I refer my distress, I utter my prayer.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">The feet of Istar, my mother, I embrace.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">To God, who knoweth that I knew not, my prayer I utter.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">To Istar, my mother, who knoweth that I knew not, my prayer I address.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 10.80em"><span style="font-size: 90%">[The next four lines are lost.]</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">How long, O God (shall I suffer)?</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">How long, O Istar, my mother (shall I suffer)?</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">How long, O God, who knoweth that I knew not, (shall I feel thy) strength?</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">How long, O Istar, my mother, who knoweth that I knew not, shall thy heart (be angry)?</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Thou writest the number (?) of mankind, and none knoweth it.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Thou callest man by his name, and what does he know?</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Whether he shall be afflicted, or whether he shall be prosperous, there is no man that knows.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">O my God, thou givest not rest to thy servant.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">In the waters of the raging flood take his hand.</span></div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page161">[pg 161]</span><a name="Pg161" id="Pg161" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">The sin he has sinned turn into good.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Let the wind carry away the transgression I have committed.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">Destroy my manifold wickedness like a garment.</span></div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 90%">O my God, seven times seven are my transgressions, my transgressions are (ever) before me.</span><a id="noteref_14" name="noteref_14" href="#note_14"><span class="tei tei-noteref" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">14</span></span></a></div> +</div> +</div> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page162">[pg 162]</span><a name="Pg162" id="Pg162" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc17" id="toc17"></a> +<a name="pdf18" id="pdf18"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Appendix I.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The text of the Treaty between the Hittites and Ramses II +(Dr. Brugsch's translation):— +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the year 21, in the month of Tybi, on the 21st day of the +month, in the reign of king Ramessu Mi-Amun, the dispenser +of life eternally and for ever, the worshipper of the divinities, +Amun-Ra (of Thebes), Hor-em-khu (of Heliopolis), Ptah (of +Memphis), Mut, the lady of the Asher Lake (near Karnak), +and Khonsu, the peace-loving, there took place a public sitting +on the throne of Horus among the living, resembling his father, +Hor-em-khu in eternity, in eternity, evermore. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +On that day the king was in the city of Ramses (Zoan), presenting +his peace-offerings to his father, Amun-ra, and to the +gods, Hor-em-khu-Tum, the lord of Heliopolis (On), and to +Amun of Ramessu Mi-Amun, to Ptah of Ramessu Mi-Amun, +and to Sutekh, the strong, the son of Nut, the goddess of +heaven, that they might grant to him many thirty years' jubilee +feasts, and innumerable happy years, and the subjection of all +peoples under his feet for ever. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Then came forward the ambassador of the king and the +governor (of his house, by name..., and presented +the ambassadors) of the great king of the Hittites (Khita), +Khita-sir, who were sent to Pharaoh to propose friendship with +the king, Ramessu Mi-Amun, the dispenser of life eternally and +for ever, just as his father, the Sun-god (dispenses it), each day. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page163">[pg 163]</span><a name="Pg163" id="Pg163" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This is the copy of the contents of the silver tablet, which +the great king of the Hittites, Khita-sir, had caused to be +made, and which was presented to the Pharaoh by the hand of +his ambassador Tartibus and his ambassador Ra-mes, to propose +friendship to the king, Ramessu Mi-Amun, the bull +among the princes, who places his boundary-marks where it +pleases him in all lands. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The treaty which had been proposed by the great king of +the Hittites, Khita-sir, the powerful, the son of Maro-sir, the +great king of the Hittites, the powerful, the grandson of +Sapalili, the great king of the Hittites, the powerful, on the +silver tablet, to Ramessu Mi-Amun, the great prince of Egypt, +the powerful, the grandson of Ramessu I, the great king of +Egypt, the powerful,—this was a good treaty for friendship and +concord, which assured peace (and established concord) for a +longer period than was previously the case for a long time. +For it was the agreement of the great prince of Egypt in common +with the great king of the Hittites, that the god should +not allow enmity to exist between them, on the basis of a treaty. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To wit, in the times of Mauthaner, the great king of the +Hittites, my brother, he was at war with (Meneptah Seti I) the +great prince of Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But now, from this very day forward, Khita-sir, the great +king of the Hittites, shall look upon this treaty, so that the +agreement may remain, which the Sun-god, Ra, has made, +which the god Sutekh has made, for the people of Egypt and +for the people of the Hittites, that there should be no enmity +between them for evermore. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And these are the contents:— +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Khita-sir, the great king of the Hittites, is in covenant with +Ramessu Mi-Amun, the great prince of Egypt, from this very +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page164">[pg 164]</span><a name="Pg164" id="Pg164" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +day forward, that there may subsist a good friendship and a +good understanding between them for evermore. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +He shall be my ally; he shall be my friend. I will be his +ally; I will be his friend; for ever. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +To wit: in the time of Mauthaner, the great king of the +Hittites, his brother, Khita-sir, after his murder, placed himself +on the throne of his father as the great king of the Hittites. +I strove for friendship with Ramessu Mi-Amun, the great +prince of Egypt, and it is (my wish) that the friendship and +the concord may be better than the friendship and the concord +which before existed, and which was broken. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +I declare: I, the great king of the Hittites, will hold together +with (Ramessu Mi-Amun) the great prince of Egypt, in good +friendship and good concord. The sons of the sons of the +great king of the Hittites will hold together and be friends +with the sons of the sons of Ramessu Mi-Amun, the great +prince of Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In virtue of our treaty for concord, and in virtue of our +agreement (for friendship, let the people) of Egypt (be bound +in friendship) with the people of the Hittites. Let a like +friendship and a like concord subsist in such measure for ever. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Never let enmity rise between them. Never let the great +king of the Hittites invade the land of Egypt, if anything has +been plundered from it (the land of the Hittites). Never let +Ramessu Mi-Amun, the great prince of Egypt, overstep the +boundary of the land (of the Hittites, if anything shall have +been plundered) from it (the land of Egypt). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +The just treaty which existed in the times of Sapalili, the +great king of the Hittites, likewise the just treaty which existed +in the times of Mauthaner, the great king of the Hittites, my +brother, that will I keep. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page165">[pg 165]</span><a name="Pg165" id="Pg165" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Ramessu Mi-Amun, the great prince of Egypt, declares +that he will keep it. (We have come to an understanding +about it) with one another at the same time from this day +forward, and we will fulfil it, and will act in a righteous +manner. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If another shall come as an enemy to the lands of Ramessu +Mi-Amun, the great prince of Egypt, then let him send an +embassy to the great king of the Hittites to this effect: +<span class="tei tei-q">“Come, and make me stronger than him.”</span> Then shall the +great king of the Hittites (assemble his warriors), and the king +of the Hittites (shall come) and smite his enemies. But if it +should not be the wish of the great king of the Hittites to +march out in person, then he shall send his warriors and his +chariots that they may smite his enemies. Otherwise (he would +incur) the wrath of Ramessu Mi-Amun (the great prince of +Egypt. And if Ramessu Mi-Amun, the great prince of Egypt, +should banish for a crime) subjects from his country, and they +should commit further crime against him, then shall the king +of the Hittites come forward to kill them. The great king of +the Hittites shall act in common with (the great prince of +Egypt). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(If another should come as an enemy to the lands of the +great king of the Hittites, then shall he send an embassy to the +great prince of Egypt with the request that) he would come in +great power to kill his enemies; and if it be the intention of +Ramessu Mi-Amun, the great prince of Egypt, (himself) to +come, he shall (smite the enemies of the great king of the +Hittites. If it is not the intention of the great prince of Egypt +to march out in person, then he shall send his warriors and his +two)-horse chariots, while he sends back the answer to the +people of the Hittites. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page166">[pg 166]</span><a name="Pg166" id="Pg166" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If any subjects of the great king of the Hittites have offended +him, then Ramessu Mi-Amun (the great prince of Egypt, shall +not receive them in his land, but shall advance to kill them) +... the oath with the wish to say, I will go ... +until ... Ramessu Mi-Amun, the great prince of +Egypt, living for ever ... that he may be given for +them (?) to the lord, and that Ramessu Mi-Amun, the great +prince of Egypt, may speak according to his agreement for +evermore.... +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(If servants shall flee away) out of the territories of Ramessu +Mi-Amun, the great prince of Egypt, to betake themselves to) +the great king of the Hittites, the great king of the Hittites +shall not receive them, but the great king of the Hittites shall +give them up to Ramessu Mi-Amun, the great prince of Egypt +(that they may be punished). +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If servants of Ramessu Mi-Amun, the great prince of Egypt, +leave his country, and betake themselves to the land of the +Hittites, to make themselves servants of another, they shall not +remain in the land of the Hittites, (but shall be given up) to +Ramessu Mi-Amun, the great prince of Egypt. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If, on the other hand, there should flee away (servants of the +great king of the Hittites, in order to betake themselves to) +Ramessu Mi-Amun, the great prince of Egypt, (in order to stay +in Egypt), then those who have come from the land of the +Hittites in order to betake themselves to Ramessu Mi-Amun, +the great prince of Egypt, shall not be (received) by Ramessu +Mi-Amun, the great prince of Egypt, (but) the great prince of +Egypt, Ramessu Mi-Amun, (shall deliver them up to the great +king of the Hittites. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +And if shall leave the land of the Hittites persons) of skilled +mind, so that they come to the land of Egypt to make themselves +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page167">[pg 167]</span><a name="Pg167" id="Pg167" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +servants of another, then Ramessu Mi-Amun shall not +allow them to settle, he shall deliver them up to the great +king of the Hittites. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +When this (treaty) shall be known (by the inhabitants of the +land of Egypt and of the land of the Hittites, then shall they +not offend against it, for all that stands written on) the silver +tablet, these are words which will have been approved by the +company of the gods, among the male gods, and among the +female gods, among those, namely, of the land of the Hittites, +and by the company of the gods among the male gods and +among the female gods, among those, namely, of the land of +Egypt. They are witnesses for me (to the validity) of these +words, (which they have allowed. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +This is the catalogue of the gods of the land of the +Hittites:— +</p> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">(Sutekh of the city of) Tunep,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sutekh of the land of the Hittites,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sutekh of the city of Arnema,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sutekh of the city Zaranda [<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">or</span></span> Ta-Orontes],</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sutekh of the city of Pilka [<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">or</span></span> Pairaka],</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sutekh of the city of Khisasap,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sutekh of the city of Sarsu,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sutekh of the city of Aleppo,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sutekh of the city of...,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">(Sutekh of the city of...),</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sutekh of the city of Sarpina,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Astartha [<span class="tei tei-hi" style="text-align: left"><span style="font-style: italic">or</span></span> Antarata] of the land of the Hittites,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The god of the land of Zaiath-khirri,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The god of the land of Ka...,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The god of the land of Kher...,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The goddess of the city of Akh...,</div> +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page168">[pg 168]</span><a name="Pg168" id="Pg168" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">(The goddess of the city of....) and of the land of A ... ua,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The goddess of the land of Zaina,</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">The god of the land of ... nath ... er.</div> +</div> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(I have invoked these male and these) female (gods of the +land of the Hittites, these are the gods) of the land, as +(witnesses to) my oath. (With them have been associated the +male and the female gods) of the mountains, and of the rivers +of the land of the Hittites, the gods of the land of Kazawatana. +Amun, Ra, Sutekh, and the male and female gods of the land +of Egypt, of the earth, of the sea, of the winds, and of the +storms. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +With regard to the commandment which the silver tablet +contains for the people of the Hittites and for the people of +Egypt, he who shall not observe it shall be given over (to the +vengeance) of the company of the gods of the Hittites, and +shall be given over (to the vengeance of the) company of the +gods of Egypt, (he) and his house and his servants. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +But he who shall observe these commandments, which the +silver tablet contains, whether he be of the people of the +Hittites or (of the people of the Egyptians), because he has +not neglected them, the company of the gods of the land of +the Hittites and the company of the gods of the land of Egypt +shall secure his reward and preserve life (for him) and his +servants, and those who are with him and who are with his +servants. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +If there flee away of the inhabitants (one from the land of +Egypt), or two or three, and they betake themselves to the +great king of the Hittites, (the great king of the Hittites shall +not) allow them (to remain, but he shall) deliver them up, and +send them back to Ramessu Mi-Amun, the great prince of Egypt. +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page169">[pg 169]</span><a name="Pg169" id="Pg169" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Now with regard to the (inhabitant of the land of Egypt), +who is delivered up to Ramessu Mi-Amun, the great prince of +Egypt, his fault shall not be avenged upon him, his (house) +shall not be taken away, nor his (wife), nor his (children). +There shall not be (put to death his mother, neither shall he be +punished in his eyes, nor in his mouth, nor on the soles of his +feet), so that thus no crime shall be brought forward against +him. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +In the same way shall it be done, if inhabitants of the land +of the Hittites take to flight, be it one alone, or two or three, +to betake themselves to Ramessu Mi-Amun, the great prince of +Egypt; Ramessu Mi-Amun, the great prince of Egypt, shall +cause them to be seized, and they shall be delivered up to the +great king of the Hittites. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +(With regard to) him who (is delivered up, his crime shall not +be brought forward against him). His (house) shall not be +taken away, nor his wives nor his children, nor his people; his +mother shall not be put to death, he shall not be punished in +his eyes, nor on his mouth, nor on the soles of his feet, nor +shall any accusation be brought forward against him. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +That which is in the middle of this silver tablet and on its +front side is a likeness of the god Sutekh ... surrounded +by an inscription to this effect: <span class="tei tei-q">“This is the (picture) of the +god Sutekh, the king of heaven and (earth).”</span> At the time +(?) of the treaty which the great king of the Hittites, Khita-sir +made.... +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page171">[pg 171]</span><a name="Pg171" id="Pg171" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc19" id="toc19"></a> +<a name="pdf20" id="pdf20"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Appendix II.</span></h1> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +Translation of a cylinder of Nabonidos, king of Babylonia, +containing the name of Belshazzar. The cylinder is one of +four, each containing the same text and buried at the four +corners of the temple of Sin, the Moon-god, at Mugheir or Ur. +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Col. I.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“Nabonidos, the king of Babylon, the beautifier of Bit-Saggil +and Bit-Zida, the worshipper of the great gods, am I. The +temple of the king who provides plenty (Sin), the tower of the +temple of Gis-nu-gal,<a id="noteref_15" name="noteref_15" href="#note_15"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">15</span></span></a> which is within Ur, which Lig-Bagas, an +ancient king, had made but did not finish, Dungi, his son, +completed its work. I looked into the cylinders of Lig-Bagas +and Dungi his son, and (read) how Lig-Bagas had made this +tower but did not finish it, and how Dungi his son completed +its work. Subsequently this tower became old, and accordingly +above the old platform which Lig-Bagas and Dungi his +son had made I built the walls<a id="noteref_16" name="noteref_16" href="#note_16"><span class="tei tei-noteref"><span style="font-size: 60%; vertical-align: super">16</span></span></a> of this tower, as of old, with +cement and brick, and I founded and erected them for Sin, the +lord of the gods of heaven and earth, the king of the gods, even +the gods of gods, who inhabit heaven, the great ones, the lord +of the temple of Gis-nu-gal within Ur, my lord.”</span> +</p> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page172">[pg 172]</span><a name="Pg172" id="Pg172" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">Col. II.</span></span> +</p> + +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-q">“O Sin, lord of the gods, king of the gods of heaven and +earth, even the gods of gods, who inhabit heaven, the great +ones, for this temple, with joy at thy entrance, may thy lips +establish the blessings of Bit-Saggil, Bit-Zida, and Bit-Gis-nu-gal, +the temples of thy great divinity; set the fear of thy great +divinity in the hearts of his (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, Nabonidos') men that they err +not; for thy great divinity may their foundations remain firm +like the heavens. As for me, Nabonidos, the king of Babylon, +preserve me from sinning against thy great divinity, and grant +me the gift of a life of long days; and plant in the heart of +Bilu-sarra-utsur (Belshazzar), the eldest son, the offspring of my +heart, reverence for thy great divinity, and never may he incline +to sin; with fulness of life may he be satisfied.”</span> +</p> + +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page173">[pg 173]</span><a name="Pg173" id="Pg173" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<hr class="page" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> +<a name="toc21" id="toc21"></a> +<a name="pdf22" id="pdf22"></a> +<h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Index.</span></h1> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Abraham, origin of word, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">birthplace of, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">campaign of, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">in Egypt, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Accadian account of the Deluge, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">translation of, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Accadian Olympos, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Accadians, the, <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">20</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Achæmenian inscriptions, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Adam, origin of word, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ahab, date of death of, <a href="#Pg103" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">103</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Alphabet, origin of, <a href="#Pg074" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">74</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Aram, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ararat, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Arpad, fall of, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Arphaxad, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">43</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Asshur, or Assur, <a href="#Pg043" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">43</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Assur-bani-pal, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Assyrian king, the last, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Assyrian prayers, <a href="#Pg157" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">157</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Assyrian texts of inscriptions, <a href="#Pg013" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">13</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Assyrians, rites of, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Babel, Tower of, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Babylon, description of, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">rebuilt by Esar-haddon, <a href="#Pg129" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">129</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Babylonian empire, rise of, <a href="#Pg135" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">135</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Babylonian gem, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Babylonian king, the last, <a href="#Pg151" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">151</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Babylonian libraries, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Babylonian psalm, <a href="#Pg159" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">159</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Babylonian Sabbath, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Babylonians, rites of, <a href="#Pg067" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">67</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Bel, prayer to, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page174">[pg 174]</span><a name="Pg174" id="Pg174" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Canaan, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Carchemish, battle of, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chaldæan account of the Deluge, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">translation of, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chaldæans, meaning of the word, <a href="#Pg021" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">21</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chedor-laomer, campaign of, <a href="#Pg047" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">47</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cherub, origin of word, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Chronological tables, <a href="#Pg133" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">133</a>, <a href="#Pg161" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">161</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Circumcision, rite of, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Creation, legend of the, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">translation of, <a href="#Pg023" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">23</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cuneiform inscriptions, decipherment of, <a href="#Pg009" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">9</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Grotefend's guess, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">studies of Lassen and Rawlinson, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">discoveries of Layard, <a href="#Pg014" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">14</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">of Smith and Rassam, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">hieroglyphic origin of, <a href="#Pg015" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">15</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cush, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cyprus, names of, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Cyrus, empire of, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">141</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">not a Persian, <a href="#Pg143" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">143</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cylinder of, <a href="#Pg146" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">146</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">a polytheist, <a href="#Pg149" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">149</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">not King of Persia, <a href="#Pg153" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">153</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">language of, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Damascus, capture of, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">overthrow of, <a href="#Pg111" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">111</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Darius, <a href="#Pg150" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">150</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Deluge, Accadian account of, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Egypt during sojourn of Israelites, <a href="#Pg058" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">58</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Egypt, the burden of, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Egyptian traditions, <a href="#Pg049" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">49</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Elam, <a href="#Pg042" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">42</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Esar-haddon, <a href="#Pg130" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">130</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Evil-Merodach, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">141</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Exodus, the, time of, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>; stages of, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Fall of man, Babylonian account of, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Genesis, Book of, confirmations of, <a href="#Pg019" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">19</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the creation, <a href="#Pg022" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">22</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Sabbath, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the fall of man, <a href="#Pg025" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">25</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the site of Paradise, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Deluge, <a href="#Pg027" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">27</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">monotheism of, <a href="#Pg034" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">34</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">site of Ararat, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">the Tower of Babel, <a href="#Pg037" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">37</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">dispersion of mankind, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Abraham, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">Joseph, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gisdhubar, adventures of, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Gomer, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Goshen, land of, <a href="#Pg056" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">56</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Grotefend, guess of, as to decipherment of inscriptions, <a href="#Pg010" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">10</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ham, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hamath, discovery of Hittite inscriptions at, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Haran, site of, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page175">[pg 175]</span><a name="Pg175" id="Pg175" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hazael, contest of, with Shalmaneser, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hebrew inscriptions, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hezekiah, illness of, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">deliverance of, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">library of, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hiddekhel, origin of word, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hittite inscriptions, discovery of, <a href="#Pg095" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">95</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hittites, empire of, discovery of, <a href="#Pg092" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">92</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">cities of, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">origin of, <a href="#Pg096" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">96</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">dress of, <a href="#Pg097" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">97</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">art of, <a href="#Pg098" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">98</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Hyksos, the, <a href="#Pg050" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">50</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Istar, descent of, into Hades, <a href="#Pg152" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">152</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Japhet, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Javan, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jehovah, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg063" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">63</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jerusalem, capture of, by Shishak, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">capture of, by Sargon, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Jerusalem, underground, <a href="#Pg091" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">91</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Joseph in Egypt, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Josiah, <a href="#Pg137" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">137</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kadesh, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Kirjath-sepher, <a href="#Pg094" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">94</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Klein, Dr., discovers Moabite Stone, <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lassen's studies of inscriptions, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Lud, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Madai, <a href="#Pg039" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">39</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Media, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Merodach, the god who raises the dead to life, <a href="#Pg156" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">156</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Merodach-baladan, wars of, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Mizraim, <a href="#Pg040" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">40</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Moab, language of, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Moabite Stone, the, discovery of <a href="#Pg076" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">76</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">translation of inscription, <a href="#Pg077" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">77</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">language of, <a href="#Pg079" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">79</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">forms of the letters, <a href="#Pg082" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">82</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Months, names given to, <a href="#Pg072" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">72</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Moses, origin of the word, <a href="#Pg066" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">66</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nabonidos, inscription concerning, <a href="#Pg141" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">141</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Naville, M., discovery of, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nebuchadrezzar, <a href="#Pg138" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">138</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">wars of, <a href="#Pg139" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">139</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">inscription of, <a href="#Pg140" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">140</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nimrod, <a href="#Pg044" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">44</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nineveh, fall of, <a href="#Pg132" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">132</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Nizir, land of, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>.</div> +</div> + +<span class="tei tei-pb" id="page176">[pg 176]</span><a name="Pg176" id="Pg176" class="tei tei-anchor"></a> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Omri, tribute of, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Palestine, early travels in, <a href="#Pg059" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">59</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Paradise, site of, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pharaoh, origin of word, <a href="#Pg051" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">51</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pharaoh Necho, <a href="#Pg136" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">136</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Phœnician ritual, <a href="#Pg068" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">68</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Phut, <a href="#Pg041" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">41</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pishon, origin of word, <a href="#Pg026" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">26</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pithom, site of, <a href="#Pg062" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">62</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Pool of Siloam, site of, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">recent discoveries at, <a href="#Pg090" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">90</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ramses, sites of, <a href="#Pg060" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">60</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rawlinson's studies of inscriptions, <a href="#Pg012" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">12</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rimmon, <a href="#Pg104" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">104</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rimmon-nirari, conquests of, <a href="#Pg107" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">107</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Rowandiz, <a href="#Pg035" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">35</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sabbath, Babylonian, <a href="#Pg024" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">24</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Samaria, capture of, <a href="#Pg113" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">113</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">re-settlement of, <a href="#Pg114" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">114</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sarah, origin of word, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sargon, wars of, <a href="#Pg116" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">116</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">capture of Jerusalem by, <a href="#Pg117" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">117</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">death of, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Scythians, the, <a href="#Pg131" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">131</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sennacherib, wars of, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">inscription of, <a href="#Pg120" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">120</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">bas-relief of, <a href="#Pg124" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">124</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">at Lachish, <a href="#Pg125" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">125</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">defeat of, <a href="#Pg126" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">126</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">murder of, <a href="#Pg127" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">127</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shalmaneser II, campaigns of, <a href="#Pg101" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">101</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">inscription of, <a href="#Pg102" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">102</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">conquers Hazael, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">erects his own image, <a href="#Pg105" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">105</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">obelisk of, <a href="#Pg106" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">106</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shem, <a href="#Pg038" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">38</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Shishak, capture of Jerusalem by, <a href="#Pg100" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">100</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Siloam inscription, discovery of, <a href="#Pg083" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">83</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">site of, <a href="#Pg084" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">84</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">translation of, <a href="#Pg087" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">87</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">language of, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">date of, <a href="#Pg088" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">88</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sisuthros, adventures of, <a href="#Pg028" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">28</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">translation of legend concerning, <a href="#Pg029" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">29</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">meaning of the name, <a href="#Pg036" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">36</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Sumirians, the, <a href="#Pg020" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">20</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tariff of Sacrifices, translation of, <a href="#Pg069" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">69</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Tiglath-Pileser, campaigns of, <a href="#Pg108" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">108</a>;</div> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left; margin-left: 2.00em">death of, <a href="#Pg112" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">112</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Two Brothers, Tale of the, <a href="#Pg054" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">54</a>.</div> +</div> + +<div class="tei tei-lg" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"> +<div class="tei tei-l" style="text-align: left">Ur, site of, <a href="#Pg046" class="tei tei-ref" style="text-align: left">46</a>.</div> +</div> + +</div> + +</div> +<hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-back" style="margin-bottom: 2.00em; margin-top: 6.00em"> + <div id="footnotes" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <a name="toc23" id="toc23"></a> + <a name="pdf24" id="pdf24"></a> + <h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Footnotes</span></h1> + <dl class="tei tei-list-footnotes"><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_1" name="note_1" href="#noteref_1">1.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Deut. +ii. 23, Jer. xlvii. 4, Amos ix. 7.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_2" name="note_2" href="#noteref_2">2.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Brugsch, +<span class="tei tei-q">“History of Egypt”</span> (Eng. Tr.) I, p. 158.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_3" name="note_3" href="#noteref_3">3.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Brugsch, +<span class="tei tei-q">“History of Egypt”</span> (Eng. Tr.), I, pp. 309-311.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_4" name="note_4" href="#noteref_4">4.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Called Anab, +<span class="tei tei-q">“(the city of) grapes,”</span> in Josh. xi. 21.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_5" name="note_5" href="#noteref_5">5.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The invention +of the existing Masoretic system of vowel-points and accents is ascribed +to Mokha of Tiberias (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">a.d.</span></span> 570) and his son Moses, +who are said to have based it on a system invented shortly before by Akha +the Babylonian. Only a very few MSS. are known written in the Babylonian +system of punctuation.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_6" name="note_6" href="#noteref_6">6.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">A coin from Gaza, +of the fourth century <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span>, is now in the British +Museum, on one side of which is the figure of the Canaanitish Baal in a +chariot of fire, but otherwise with the attributes of the Greek Zeus, and with +the word YHU (<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i.e.</span></span>, Yahu or Yeho) written +above him in old Phœnician letters.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_7" name="note_7" href="#noteref_7">7.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The Assyrian +inscriptions show that the true form of the name of the +king of Damascus was Rezon, like that of the founder of the kingdom +(1 Kings xi. 23), the Biblical form with <span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-style: italic">i</span></span> +being due to the same vocalic +change as that in <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Toi</span></span> +(2 Sam. viii. 9) by the side of <span lang="he" class="tei tei-foreign" xml:lang="he"><span style="font-style: italic">Tou</span></span> +(1 Chr. xviii. 9), +or Hiram (1 Kings v. 1) by the side of Huram (2 Chr. ii. 11). Hezion +in 1 Kings xv. 18 is probably a copyist's error for Rezon.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_8" name="note_8" href="#noteref_8">8.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare 2 Kings xv. +29.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_9" name="note_9" href="#noteref_9">9.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">The name of Baladan in 2 Kings xx. 12 (and Isa. xxxix. 1) is +due to the error of a copyist, like Berodach for Merodach. His eye must have +run back to the name of Merodach-baladan in the preceding line. Merodach-baladan +means <span class="tei tei-q">“Merodach has given a son,”</span> and without <span class="tei tei-q">“Merodach”</span> +would be incomplete.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_10" name="note_10" href="#noteref_10">10.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“That day”</span> in +the A. V. should be corrected into <span class="tei tei-q">“to-day”</span> (Isa. x. +32).</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_11" name="note_11" href="#noteref_11">11.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The following +chronological table will enable the reader to understand +without difficulty the order of the events described in the preceding +chapter:— +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +1130. Reign of Tiglath-Pileser I, in Assyria: campaigns in Syria and +Cilicia. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +900. Recovery of Assyria after a period of decline. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +858. Accession of Shalmaneser II. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +853. Battle of Karkar. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +851. Death of Ahab. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +850. Campaign of Shalmaneser against Hadadezer (Ben-hadad II). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +845. Campaign against Hadadezer. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +843. Murder of Hadadezer by Hazael. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +841. Campaign against Hazael; tribute paid to Shalmaneser by Jehu. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +823. Shalmaneser II succeeded by Samas-Rimmon. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +810. Samas-Rimmon succeeded by Rimmon-nirari. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +804. Damascus captured by the Assyrians: tribute paid by Samaria. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +781. Rimmon-nirari succeeded by Shalmaneser III. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +773. Campaign against Damascus. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +745. April. Pul, who takes the name of Tiglath-Pileser II, usurps the +Assyrian throne. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +743-40. War with Hamath; submission of Uzziah; fall of Arpad. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +738. Tribute paid to the Assyrians by Menahem and Rezon. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +734. Damascus besieged; the tribes beyond the Jordan carried away; +Jehoahaz (Ahaz) of Judah becomes an Assyrian vassal. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +733 (? 729). Pekah put to death; Hosea succeeds. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +732. Damascus taken; Rezon slain. Ahaz at Damascus. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +727. Tiglath-Pileser succeeded by Shalmaneser IV. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +722. Sargon seizes the throne and captures Samaria. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +721. Merodach-baladan conquers Babylonia. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +720. Hamath conquered; Sabako (So) of Egypt defeated at Raphia. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +712. Embassy of Merodach-baladan to Hezekiah. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +711. Capture of Jerusalem and Ashdod by Sargon. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +710. Merodach-baladan driven from Babylonia. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +705. Murder of Sargon; his son Sennacherib succeeds on the 12th of +Ab. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +704. Merodach-baladan holds Babylon for six months. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +701. Campaign against Judah; battle of Eltekeh; retreat of Sennacherib +from Jerusalem. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +681. Murder of Sennacherib; accession of Esar-haddon. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +676. Manasseh appears among the Assyrian tributaries. Egypt conquered. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +670. Assur-bani-pal (Sardanapalus) associated in the government on the +12th of Iyyar. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +668. Esar-haddon dies; Assur-bani-pal succeeds on the 27th of Ab. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +665. Destruction of Thebes (No-Amun) by the Assyrians. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +?606. Fall of Nineveh, Esar-haddon II or Sarakos being the last king. +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_12" name="note_12" href="#noteref_12">12.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">See Jer. xlvii. 1.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_13" name="note_13" href="#noteref_13">13.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Compare +Ezek. xxvii. 18.</dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_14" name="note_14" href="#noteref_14">14.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">The following +chronological table will assist the reader in understanding +the sequence of events in the preceding chapter:— +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +<span class="tei tei-hi"><span style="font-variant: small-caps">b.c.</span></span> +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +609. Battle of Megiddo; Josiah slain; Pharaoh Necho overruns Western +Asia. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +606. Necho defeated at Carchemish by Nebuchadrezzar; foundation of +the Babylonian empire. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +604. Nebuchadrezzar succeeds his father Nabopolassar. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +599. Jerusalem captured; Jehoiachin sent to Babylon. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +588. Destruction of Jerusalem; murder of Gedaliah. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +567. The Babylonians overrun Egypt, then governed by Amasis. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +561. Nebuchadrezzar succeeded by his son Evil-Merodach. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +559. Nergal-sharezer, son of Bel-sum-iskun, seizes the Babylonian crown. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +555. Nergal-sharezer succeeded by Laborosoarchod. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +555. The crown seized by Nabonidos, son of Nabu-balatsu-ikbi. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +552. The dream of Nabonidos. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +549. Conquest of Astyages of Ekbatana (Media) by Cyrus, king of Elam. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +548. Death of <span class="tei tei-q">“the king's mother”</span> (Nitokris). +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +538. Overthrow and death of Nabonidos; Cyrus occupies Babylon. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +529. Death of Cyrus and accession of Kambyses. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +521. Darius, the son of Hystaspes, elected to the throne of Persia. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +520-19. Revolt of Babylon under Nidinta-Bel. +</p> +<p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em"> +513. Second revolt of Babylon under Arakha. +</p></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_15" name="note_15" href="#noteref_15">15.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext"><span class="tei tei-q">“The wood of the great +prince.”</span></dd><dt class="tei tei-notelabel"><a id="note_16" name="note_16" href="#noteref_16">16.</a></dt><dd class="tei tei-notetext">Literally, +<span class="tei tei-q">“I took the framework.”</span></dd></dl> + </div> + <hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 5.00em; margin-top: 5.00em"> + <div id="pgfooter" class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 4.00em; margin-top: 4.00em"><pre class="pre tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em">***END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FRESH LIGHT FROM THE ANCIENT MONUMENTS*** +</pre><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader25" id="rightpageheader25"></a><a name="pgtoc26" id="pgtoc26"></a><a name="pdf27" id="pdf27"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">Credits</span></h1><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr><th class="tei tei-label tei-label-gloss">June 18, 2010 </th></tr><tr><td class="tei tei-item tei-item-gloss"><table summary="This is a list." class="tei tei-list" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em; margin-top: 1.00em"><tbody><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item">Project Gutenberg TEI edition 1</td></tr><tr class="tei tei-labelitem"><th class="tei tei-label"></th><td class="tei tei-item"><span class="tei tei-respStmt"> + <span class="tei tei-name"> + Produced by Bryan Ness, David King, and the Online + Distributed Proofreading Team at <http://www.pgdp.net/>. + (This book was produced from scanned images of public + domain material from the Google Print project.) + </span> + </span></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table></div><hr class="doublepage" /><div class="tei tei-div" style="margin-bottom: 3.00em; margin-top: 3.00em"><a name="rightpageheader28" id="rightpageheader28"></a><a name="pgtoc29" id="pgtoc29"></a><a name="pdf30" id="pdf30"></a><h1 class="tei tei-head" style="text-align: left; margin-bottom: 3.46em; margin-top: 3.46em"><span style="font-size: 173%">A Word from Project Gutenberg</span></h1><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This file should be named + 32883-h.html or + 32883-h.zip.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">This and all associated files of various formats will be found + in: + + <a href="http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/3/2/8/8/32883/" class="block tei tei-xref" style="margin-bottom: 1.80em; margin-left: 3.60em; margin-top: 1.80em; margin-right: 3.60em"><span style="font-size: 90%">http://www.gutenberg.org</span><span style="font-size: 90%">/dirs/3/2/8/8/32883/</span></a></p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Updated editions will replace the previous one — the old + editions will be renamed.</p><p class="tei tei-p" style="margin-bottom: 1.00em">Creating the works from public domain print editions means that + no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the + Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United + States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. + Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this + license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works + to protect the Project Gutenberg™ concept and trademark. 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