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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Development of Armor-piercing Shells, by 
+Carlos de Zafra
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Development of Armor-piercing Shells
+       with Suggestions for their Improvement
+
+Author: Carlos de Zafra
+
+Release Date: August 25, 2010 [EBook #33535]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DEVELOPMENT OF ARMOR-PIERCING SHELLS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE DEVELOPMENT OF
+
+Armor-piercing Shells
+
+(With Suggestions for their Improvement)
+
+
+
+By
+
+CARLOS DE ZAFRA, M.E.
+
+Faculty Lecturer, New York University
+
+
+
+1915
+
+
+
+
+Historical
+
+
+The manufacture of projectiles to meet the requirements of the modern
+science of warfare has been brought to its present high stage of
+development through a long series of experiments based, at first, more
+upon theory than perhaps any other branch of engineering.
+
+In the days of wooden vessels very little thought was given to the
+actual _physical_ properties of the then cast iron spherical mass.
+The gun was the agent upon which depended the ability of the projectile
+to penetrate. The projectile, being confronted by so slight a resisting
+material as wood, was distorted or physically affected to practically
+no degree by the resisting medium. When fighting yard-arm to yard-arm
+the power of the gun was sufficient to fully penetrate the enemy, while
+at long ranges considerable damage would be executed without in the
+least impairing, by the shock of impact (which was inconsiderable as
+compared with modern conditions) the physical condition of the shot.
+
+In the days of the all-wood vessel the guns were of the smooth-bore
+class divided into various types with nomenclature according to the
+size or weight of the shot, very much as they are today, i.e.,
+3-pounder, 6-pounder, 4-inch, 10-inch, etc.
+
+A general review of the gradual development of projectiles will be
+found beneficial and helpful to a more complete understanding of the
+complexities involved in overcoming the present day difficulties.
+
+In the smooth-bore gun spherical shot was used. This was by no means a
+tight fitting device. Upon firing the gun considerable powder pressure
+was lost through the rapid escape of the gases past the shot between it
+and the bore of the gun. This would most naturally be expected since at
+best the surface of contact between the shot and the bore would be only
+a circular line quickly eliminated or worn away through friction under
+the high temperature of the burning gases behind the shot. The most
+obvious way to eliminate that wearing away of the bearing surface was
+to increase it, in doing which the escape of gas past the projectile
+would be greatly checked, and the gas pressure behind the projectile
+increased (exerting, thereby, a greater propelling force) and imparting
+to the projectile greater velocity, increased momentum, and consequent
+increased penetration. But an increase in the bearing surface of the
+shot necessitated an alteration in its shape introducing difficulties
+affecting the accuracy of its passage through the air.
+
+It was not an appreciation of any ineffectiveness in the early shot
+that first brought about a realization of the importance of obtaining
+the highest possible results from the material at hand, for no
+difficulty was experienced in penetrating the early wooden barriers.
+But with the introduction of rail-road and boiler iron and anchor
+chains along the sides of the vessels of war as a protection it was
+demonstrated that the old round shot previously most effective at the
+same range was now of little consequence. Armored vessels, though crude
+as was their armor, could with impunity run up along side a wooden
+enemy and demand immediate surrender with immediate destruction as the
+penalty for non-compliance. It is only necessary to refer to the Naval
+History of the Civil War of the United States for the most convincing
+proof that this was so.
+
+Thus began one of the greatest industrial wars of the World--the Battle
+of Guns and Armor, which has been constantly waged through years of
+international peace and prosperity, and is destined to continue
+indefinitely or until the Utopian days of Universal Disarmament and
+everlasting peace arrive.
+
+
+
+
+Early Developments
+
+
+With the change from the spherical to the longitudinal projectile,
+difficulties in securing accuracy of flight arose not previously
+existing. It was found that the elongated projectile would tumble or
+revolve about its transverse axis during its flight, also wobble or
+describe a cork screw or spiral trajectory--capital defects requiring
+immediate attention.
+
+The principle of the gyroscope to the effect that a body would maintain
+any desired position while revolving at a high rate about the proper
+axis was known and it was found desirable to adopt this principle in
+some practical manner to the development and improvement of the
+projectile. It was believed that were it possible to give a high
+rotative speed to the projectile about its major axis the desired
+object of keeping that axis co-incident with the vertical plane of the
+trajectory would be accomplished.
+
+Among the first steps towards the development of the modern rifled
+artillery and elongated projectile we find certain improvements to have
+originated in the small arms pieces. In his "Report on the Art of War
+in Europe in 1854, 1855, and 1856" Colonel R. Delafield, U.S.A.,
+gives the first reference of immediate importance to the subject in
+question. The small arms bullet was of lead which readily adapted
+itself to such configuration as was desired. Great contrariety of
+opinion existed as to the best form of ball and principle, even, by
+which it was caused to partake of the rifle twist of the gun barrel.
+The following are some of the first forms and methods adopted and are
+worthy of consideration:
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1]
+
+Among the French and some others the "tige principle" was employed. It
+consisted in forcing the base of the ball open so "as to fit the bore
+and rifle grooves by driving it on a projecting spike in the bottom of
+the gun attached to the breech, and rising through the charge of
+powder," as in Fig. 1. For this purpose a countersunk rammer head to
+fit over the head of the ball had to be used.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 2
+
+Fig. 3
+
+Fig. 4
+
+Fig. 5
+
+Fig. 6
+
+Fig. 7]
+
+In the English Enfield rifle a form of ball was used consisting of a
+hollow cup or cone in the bored-out base of the ball (Figs. 2 and 3)
+the action of the powder driving this cup into the ball causing it to
+expand and take the rifling. Iron cups were used in the Crimea but
+because of occasionally cutting off and leaving in the bore a ring of
+lead were discarded for solid wood or papier maché cups (Fig. 4). Figs.
+5 and 6 show forms of hollow base balls used by the French and
+Russians, in which the direct action of the powder on the base caused
+the sought for expansion into the rifling.
+
+The Russians at Sebastopol employed also a fourth principle consisting
+of two short projections or lugs on the cylindrical part of the solid
+ball to engage in two grooves cut in the bore of the gun. Its
+proportions are illustrated by Fig. 7.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8
+
+Fig. 9
+
+Fig. 10
+
+Fig. 11
+
+Fig. 12
+
+Fig. 13]
+
+The modifications of the preceding forms, shown in Figs. 8 and 9 were
+used in the Crimea by the Sardinian army which also used a smoothbore
+musket with solid ball as per Fig. 10. The French army Zouaves used a
+solid cylindro-conical grooved ball, as in Fig. 11, in a tige rifle.
+
+The 1856 Austrian rifle used a solid cylindro-conical ball, "with two
+deep grooves cut in the cylindrical part such that the parts between
+the grooves are forced together and outwards, or upset by the explosion
+of the powder, to fill the bore and the rifle grooves," as in Fig. 12.
+Fig. 13 illustrates the same principle as used by the Saxon army.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14
+
+Fig. 15
+
+Fig. 16
+
+Fig. 17
+
+Fig. 18]
+
+Other forms used at the time by the various Powers are illustrated in
+Figs. 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18. But it was an open question as to which
+was the best form, no Power being fully satisfied.
+
+It may be noted here that as the breech-loading rifle had not up to
+this time been sufficiently perfected, all the above bullets were for
+muzzle loading rifles. Breech-loading arms had been known for over two
+centuries but were as yet unreliable, clumsy, and generally imperfect.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 19. The Lancaster Gun.]
+
+The early methods adopted in the construction of cannon to impart to
+the projectile the desired rotary motion are as interesting as the
+early methods adopted in the construction of the projectile. Heavy
+rifled artillery was introduced in 1856 against Cronstadt. The English
+artillery at Sebastopol used the Lancaster Gun, illustrated in Fig. 19.
+The form of the bore section of this gun was that of an ellipse of 8"
+and 8-5/8" diameters, the bore being generated by the section of such
+an elipse making a revolution of about one-quarter turn in the length
+of the bore, the center of the section always co-incident with the
+longitudinal axis of the gun, forming thereby a continuous elliptical
+cylinder, the greater axis at the muzzle lying in the vertical plane
+and gradually becoming horizontal at the breech section, or in other
+words, the whole length and section of the bore was a rifle twist of
+one quarter of a turn in its length.
+
+The projectile was a wrought iron shell of the form and size indicated
+in Fig. 20, as ascertained by measurement of one found in the trenches
+at Sebastopol.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 20]
+
+The use of these guns in the siege was by no means satisfactory, giving
+neither precision of fire nor extraordinary range, while the gun more
+often failed by bursting than other types. The principle, however, met
+with favor and was studied and improved upon.
+
+Another method of applying the rifle principle to heavy guns consisted
+in casting a segment of a sphere (nearly) on the side of the cylinder
+part of the shot with corresponding grooves in the bore of the gun,
+making about one turn in twenty feet. It is somewhat like the principle
+of the solid musket ball, Fig. 7 with a difference in the shape of the
+projections, as shown in the annexed Fig. 21, giving the form and size
+(nearly) of the shot.
+
+Guns of this pattern were adopted for many of the gunboats fitted out
+by France for operations in the Baltic in 1856, some with four and
+others with two guns each.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 22]
+
+The bore of the gun had a circular section of 6-1/2" diameter with two
+grooves cut in it, as shown in Fig. 22, which in the length of the bore
+had a twist equal to one turn in six meters.
+
+Figures 23 and 24 represent cast iron shot "of very peculiar shape,
+intended apparently, as a substitute for the rifle groove. They were
+cylinders of about four inches diameter, with a flattened spherical
+head from which three spiral openings communicate with the open
+interior of the cylinder. The cylindrical part was formed with
+grooves...."
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 23]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 24]
+
+
+
+
+The Modern Type of Gun
+
+
+From these earliest examples the development of artillery has been
+gradual until the present day of the built-up gun with an energy and
+range undreamed of in the earlier days. The built-up gun of today has
+attained to a calibre of 16 inches, a length of nearly 50 feet, a weight
+of 124 tons, and an extreme range at 42° elevation of 20.9 miles with a
+maximum height of trajectory of over 5-3/4 miles. The projectile, too,
+has increased in size from a few pounds to the one ton or 2,240-pound
+mass used in the above gun. The energy imparted to it at the muzzle
+amounts to 6,408-foot tons assuring a penetration at the muzzle of 33.8
+inches of steel, or at 3,500 yards of 27.5 inches, the muzzle velocity
+being 1,975-foot-seconds and powder charge 640 pounds of smokeless. The
+maximum pressure in the powder chamber allowed is 37,000 pounds per
+square inch.
+
+Briefly the modern gun is a built-up piece, constructed by fitting or
+shrinking super-imposed hoops or cylinders one over the other in size
+and number as diagramatically explained in Fig. 25, sufficient to
+re-inforce the bore to withstand the varied pressures.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 25. 13-inch B.L.R. (Total Length, 40 feet.)]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26]
+
+The twist or rotary motion is imparted to the projectile by means of
+the "rifling" in the bore. Fig. 26 shows the cross-section of an 8-inch
+gun with the dimensions of the rifling, which is composed of two
+elements, the "groove" or spiral cut made in the bore and the "land" or
+space between two adjacent grooves. To take these grooves "rotating
+bands" of soft metal, generally copper, are fitted to the projectile as
+will be explained under "Manufacture of Projectiles."
+
+
+
+
+Classification of Projectiles
+
+
+Projectiles are classified according to their calibre, type of gun for
+which they are intended, material of which they are made, etc., as
+per the following scheme used in the U.S. Army for marking cases of
+projectiles:
+
+                   { Cast steel
+    Inch  { Rifle  { Cast iron
+          { Mortar { Common steel   { Shot
+                   { Armor piercing { Shell
+                   { Rendable A.P.
+          Weight empty--Lbs.
+          Capped or uncapped
+               or
+          Capped and grooved for base cover
+               or
+          Uncapped and grooved for base cover
+          Base  } Fuze
+          Point }
+
+
+
+
+Manufacture of Projectiles
+
+
+While a high state of development has been attained in the manufacture
+of armor-piercing shells attention will be confined to their
+manufacture in so much as the methods for improvement hereinafter
+suggested are intended to affect the physical and not the chemical
+properties of the material, and are, therefore, applicable to all
+projectiles in which the stresses to be resisted exceed the resisting
+powers of the projectiles as at present manufactured.
+
+The function to be performed by an armor-piercing shell is that of
+fully penetrating, without disruption to itself, an armor plate in
+thickness equal to, at least, the calibre of the shell in question, and
+then be in condition for effective bursting.
+
+The following extracts from the Army and Navy specifications pertain
+to:
+
+
+MATERIAL AND WORKMANSHIP
+
+(Art 20, O. D., U.S.A.)
+
+The projectiles must be of forged steel, sound, and _free from cracks,
+seams, and other defects_[1].
+
+      [1] _Italics_ are those of the author and refer to defects which
+      it is the object of his design and method of manufacture to
+      remedy.
+
+The base plugs must be of forged steel, annealed after forging or
+tempering, free from seams, cracks, and other defects, and have the
+following physical properties:
+
+    Elastic limit          50,000 to  60,000 pounds
+    Tensile strength       90,000 to 100,000   "
+    Elongation                       18 per cent.
+    Contraction                      25 "    "
+
+The projectiles shall be machine-finished, before treatment, as close
+to the prescribed dimensions as may be consistent with that operation,
+and must, if necessary, be finally finished to the prescribed
+dimensions within the allowed variations.
+
+Cylindrical tensile-test specimens with diameter of stem of 0.505 inch
+will be used in all cases when the piece is sufficiently thick to
+finish the stem to that dimension; when not, the inspectors will
+determine the exact form or diameter of the specimens to be used, the
+largest practicable being used, considering the piece under test. A
+length of stem between gauge marks of 2 inches will be used in all
+cases where the elongation is to be taken.
+
+
+CAPPING
+
+(Art. 21, O. D., U.S.A.)
+
+All steel projectiles shall be fitted, when required, with a cap of
+soft steel placed upon the point,[2] the caps to be of the dimensions
+shown on the approved drawings and secured in a manner satisfactory to
+the Chief of Ordnance by means of a groove, to be turned on the head of
+the projectile prior to tempering.
+
+      [2] See Frontispiece.
+
+The steel for the cap must show a tensile strength not to exceed 60,000
+pounds per square inch, an elongation after rupture of not less than 30
+per cent, and a reduction in area of not less than 45 per cent on
+standard specimens, 2 inches long between measuring points and 0.505
+inch in diameter. These caps will be thoroughly annealed before being
+placed upon the projectiles and will be free from cracks and all other
+defects.
+
+
+TEST FOR DETECTION OF HOLES, CRACKS, ETC.
+
+(Art. 27, O. D., U.S.A.)
+
+After the submission of a lot to the inspector for selection of samples
+for ballistic test, and before final delivery, the projectiles must be
+subjected to an interior hydraulic pressure of 500 pounds per square
+inch for one minute. All projectiles in which _holes_, _cracks_, _or
+any unsoundness_ are developed by this test will be rejected.
+
+
+TENSILE TEST
+
+(Art. 28, O. D., U.S.A.)
+
+After forging, the projectiles shall be annealed at a temperature of at
+least 1,200° F.; and after being annealed, tangential test specimens
+shall be taken from the base or base prolonged of 2 per cent of the
+projectiles from each lot selected at random by the inspector.
+
+The tensile strength of the projectiles in a lot shall not vary more
+than 20,000 pounds from the highest to the lowest.
+
+
+CHEMICAL TEST
+
+(Art. 30, O. D., U.S.A.)
+
+A careful and complete chemical analysis shall be made of the metal of
+each heat from which the projectiles are manufactured under these
+specifications.
+
+
+TESTS FOR THE DETECTION OF INITIAL STRAINS BORDERING ON RUPTURE
+
+(Art. 31, O. D., U.S.A.)
+
+After final treatment and before acceptance for the ballistic test, all
+A.P. shot must be cooled to a temperature of about 40° F., and then
+suddenly heated by being plunged into a bath of water at a temperature
+of from 180° F. to 212° F., as the Chief of Ordnance may direct. When
+thoroughly heated to this temperature each projectile must be plunged,
+with its axis horizontal, halfway into a bath of water at a temperature
+not greater than 40° F., and after a brief period shall be turned 180°
+for a like immersion of the opposite side, after which the projectile
+shall be removed from the bath.
+
+This test shall be made in the presence of the inspector, and an
+interval of at least three days must elapse between the final treatment
+and the submission of the projectiles to this test. This test is not
+required for shell.
+
+
+BALLISTIC TEST
+
+(Art. 32, O. D., U.S.A.)
+
+Each lot of projectiles shall be subjected to the following ballistic
+test:
+
+After a final treatment and on presentation of the entire lot for
+the ballistic test, the inspector shall select three projectiles to
+represent the lot, which shall be finished, inspected and delivered
+in the same manner as required for the rest of the lot.
+
+(a) Armor-piercing shot. Two capped shot, sandloaded to standard
+weight, shall be fired against a hard-faced Krupp armor plate from 1
+to 1-1/2 calibres thick, secured to a timber backing in a manner
+satisfactory to the Chief of Ordnance, with about the corresponding
+velocity given by the following table, with the requirement that the
+shot shall perforate the plate unbroken and then be in condition for
+effective bursting.
+
+If both projectiles fulfill the above test, the lot will be accepted.
+
+If, one of the shots fails to pass the test here prescribed, a
+supplementary test shall be made by firing the third shot under the
+same conditions as the first two shot; if this passes the test as
+prescribed above, the lot shall be accepted; if it fails to do this,
+the lot shall not be accepted.
+
+    --------------+-------------+----------------+-------------
+      Calibre of  |  Weight of  |  Thickness of  | Velocity for
+         shot     |     shot    |     plate      | penetration
+    --------------+-------------+----------------+-------------
+      4-inch      |     33[3]   |   {  4-inch    |    1,930
+                  |             |   {  5-inch    |    2,295
+                  |             |                |
+      4.7-inch    |     45[3]   |      5-inch    |    2,220
+                  |             |                |
+      5-inch      |     58      |   {  5-inch    |    2,005
+                  |             |   {  6-inch    |    2,320
+                  |             |                |
+      6-inch      |    106      |   {  6-inch    |    1,950
+                  |             |   {  8-inch    |    2,450
+                  |             |                |
+      8-inch      |    316      |   {  8-inch    |    1,760
+                  |             |   { 10-inch    |    2,100
+                  |             |                |
+     10-inch      |    604      |   { 10-inch    |    1,745
+                  |             |   { 12-inch    |    2,020
+                  |             |                |
+     12-inch      |  1,046      |     12-inch    |    1,730
+    --------------+-------------+----------------+-------------
+
+      [3] Weight uncapped.
+
+For intermediate thickness the velocity shall be determined by
+interpolation.
+
+(b) Armor-piercing shell. Two capped shell, sandloaded to standard
+weight, shall be fired against a hard-faced Harveyized armor plate
+secure to a timber backing in a manner satisfactory to the Chief of
+Ordnance, of 3-inches thickness for 5-inch and 6-inch shell, 4-inches
+for 8-inch shell, 5-inches for 10-inch shell, and 6-inches for 12-inch
+shell, with a velocity[4] of about 1,420 f.s. for the 5-inch shell,
+1,220 f.s. for the 6-inch shell and 920 f.s. for the 8-inch, 10-inch
+and 12-inch shell at impact, with the requirement that the shell shall
+go through the plate unbroken, and then be in a condition for effective
+bursting.
+
+      [4] The weight of powder charge to give the prescribed velocity
+      will be determined shortly before the test, cast iron projectiles
+      of proper weight being fired for the purpose; this weight of
+      charge will be taken as giving the prescribed velocity to the
+      projectiles undergoing test.
+
+                 *       *       *       *       *
+
+(c) 12-inch deck piercing shell. Two shell, sandfilled to standard
+weight, will be fired with a striking velocity sufficient to pass
+completely through a 4-1/2-inch nickel-steel protective-deck plate
+inclined so as to give an angle of impact of 60 degrees, and to be
+supported by a suitable backing of wood; or both shell shall be
+subjected to such alternate ballistic test as the Department may judge
+to be an equivalent to the above in its effect upon the projectile.
+
+                 *       *       *       *       *
+
+The nickel-steel protective-deck plate shall be manufactured by the
+open-hearth process and shall contain about 3-1/4 per cent of nickel,
+not more than six one-hundredths of one per cent of phosphorous; not
+more than four one-hundredths of one per cent of sulphur, shall be the
+best composition in all respects.
+
+It shall be oil or water tempered and annealed, and the whole plate
+shall be subjected to the same treatment at the same time.
+
+Tensile test will be made after final treatment. One longitudinal
+specimen for tensile test will be taken from each plate. Each shall
+show a tensile strength of at least 80,000 pounds per square inch and
+an elongation in 2 inches of at least 27 per cent.
+
+Bending tests will be made as follows: A piece cut from the plate shall
+be doubled cold around a curve of which the diameter is not more than
+the thickness of the piece tested without showing any cracks. The ends
+of the piece are to be parallel after bending. These specimens shall be
+12 inches long, 1-1/2 inches wide, and 1 inch thick.
+
+At the discretion of the inspector, bending specimens 1/2 inch square
+taken with a hollow drill, may be substituted. Such specimens must bend
+cold to 180 degrees flat, without sign of fracture on outer surface.
+
+(d) 12-inch Torpedo Shell. Two shell, sandloaded to standard weight,
+will be fired from a gun or mortar into a sand butt with a pressure in
+the powder chamber of about 37,000 pounds per square inch to test
+structural ability.
+
+If the shell are found not seriously deformed by discharge from the
+piece and in a condition for effective bursting, the lot will be
+accepted.
+
+If any of the shell fail to pass this test, the lot will be rejected.
+
+The following extract from the "Circulars and Specifications of the
+Navy Department concerning Armor Plate and Appurtenances for Vessels of
+the U.S. Navy," (April 22, 1907) while pertaining to another subject,
+will be pardoned if introduced here for the purpose of demonstrating
+the seemingly paradoxical requirements a manufacturer is called upon to
+meet:
+
+(Par. 60.) The ballistic test for acceptance of armor shall be made as
+strictly as practicable in accordance with the following tables, the
+Department reserving the right to use guns of other calibres than
+designated for any plate if it is deemed advisable.
+
+In the test of armor of Class A there shall be three impacts with
+striking velocities as given in the following table, capped
+armor-piercing projectiles being used:
+
+    -------------+-----------+-------------+-----------
+     Wt. of shell| Calibre of| Thickness of| Striking
+       capped    |    gun    |   plates    | velocity
+       Pounds    |  Inches   |   Inches    |Ft.-seconds
+    -------------+-----------+-------------+-----------
+         105     |      6    |      5      |   1,451
+         105     |      6    |      6      |   1,648
+         105     |      6    |      7      |   1,836
+         165     |      7    |      6      |   1,464
+         165     |      7    |      7      |   1,631
+         165     |      7    |      8      |   1,791
+         260     |      8    |      7      |   1,459
+         260     |      8    |      8      |   1,603
+         260     |      8    |      9      |   1,741
+         510     |     10    |      9      |   1,458
+         510     |     10    |     10      |   1,568
+         510     |     10    |     11      |   1,676
+         870     |     12    |     11      |   1,424
+         870     |     12    |     12      |   1,514
+    -------------+-----------+-------------+-----------
+
+The first impact shall be located near the central portion of the
+plate, and the other two impacts shall be located as directed by the
+Bureau; no impact, however, to be nearer another impact or an edge of
+the plate than 3-1/2 calibres of the projectile used.
+
+On these three impacts no projectile or fragment thereof shall get
+entirely through the plate and backing, nor shall any through crack
+develop to an edge of the plate or to another impact.
+
+                 *       *       *       *       *
+
+From the above it is seen that a manufacturer supplying both
+armor-plate and shell to the Government is called upon to produce a
+shell with sufficient integrity to completely penetrate, and without
+breaking up, his armor-plate of sufficient thickness to resist that
+shell.
+
+The capping of projectiles consists in placing over the point a cone or
+mass of metal of comparative softness. In the United States services
+soft steel is used for the purpose. Authorities disagree as to the
+exact function which the cap plays, some claiming it to act as a
+lubricating metal facilitating the passage of the projectile, others
+claim that it gives an initial shock to the armor-plate before the
+shell proper has struck it, which latter then strikes the plate in a
+state of molecular unrest, and, therefore, of impaired resisting power.
+Firing tests of shell at armor-plate at oblique angles have proven the
+capped shell superior, which would indicate that the cap in this
+instance at any rate is capable of securing a hold on the plate which
+the bare point of the shell cannot, in so much as uncapped shells
+glance off. At any rate capped projectiles are, on the whole, superior
+to the uncapped and the practice of capping is recommended as an
+additional advantage when used in conjunction with the improvements
+here-in-after described.
+
+At a specified distance from the base of the shell a groove or
+band-score is turned for the rotation band. For projectiles under
+7-inches calibre, pure copper is usually employed, but for larger
+calibre an alloy of 97-1/2 per cent of pure copper and 2-1/2 per cent
+of nickel is used and is annealed before banding. The rough bands are
+in a form of solid rings cut from drawn tubes or cylindrical castings,
+and must be carefully hammered into the score or preferably pressed in
+by hydraulic pressure and finally turned to proper size, shape, and
+finish.
+
+Their use has been previously described and the improvements in
+armor-piercing shells hereinafter described are based upon a study of
+the stresses sustained by a projectile upon impact while rotating about
+its major axis at the high rotative velocity which the engaging of
+these bands with the rifling of the gun has imparted to the shell.
+
+The following table compiled by the author gives the rotative
+velocities of various projectiles:
+
+    -------+----------+----------+-------+-------+------+------------
+           |          |          |       |       | Muz. |
+           |          |          |       |       | Engy.|
+    Calibre|Wt., lbs. | Muz. Vel.|       |       |  Ft. | Type of
+    Inches |Projectile| Ft. Secs.| R.P.S.| R.P.M.| Tons |   Gun
+    -------+----------+----------+-------+-------+------+------------
+      3    |   12     |     870  |  139  |  8,340|   63 |Hotchkiss
+      3.2  |   13.5   |   1,685  |  253  | 15,180|  266 |Field '90
+      3.6  |   20     |   1,550  |  206  | 12,360|  333 |  "   1891
+      3.6  |   20     |     650  |   86  |  5,160|   59 |Mortar 1890
+      5    |   45     |   1,830  |  176  |  9,560|1,045 |Siege 1890
+      7    |   105    |   1,085  |   76  |  4,560|  853 |Howitzer '90
+      7    |   125    |     690  |   49  |  2,940|  412 |Mortar '92
+    -------+----------+----------+-------+-------+------+------------
+
+    U.S. SEA-COAST LAND SERVICE GUNS
+
+    -------+----------+----------+-------+-------+--------+----------
+           |          |          |       |       |  Muz.  |
+           |          |          |       |       |  Engy. |
+    Calibre|Wt., lbs. | Muz. Vel.|       |       |   Ft.  | Type of
+    Inches |Projectile| Ft. Secs.| R.P.S.| R.P.M.|  Tons  |   Gun
+    -------+----------+----------+-------+-------+--------+----------
+      8    |    300   |  1,950   |  111  | 6,660 |  7,907 | 1888M
+     10    |    575   |  1,975   |   95  | 5,700 | 15,548 | 1888M
+     12    |  1,000   |  2,100   |   84  | 5,040 | 30,750 | 1902
+     16    |  2,370   |  1,975   |   59  | 3,540 | 64,084 |
+    -------+----------+----------+-------+-------+--------+----------
+
+    KRUPP GUNS
+
+    -------+----------+----------+-------+--------+-------+----------
+           |          |          |       |        | Muz.  |
+           |          |          |       |        | Engy. |
+    Calibre|Wt., lbs. | Muz. Vel.|       |        |  Ft.  | Type of
+    Inches |Projectile| Ft. Secs.| R.P.S.| R.P.M. | Tons  |   Gun
+    -------+----------+----------+-------+--------+-------+----------
+      6    |          |   2,600  |  192  | 15,520 |       |
+           |          |   3,000  |  222  | 13,320 |       |
+      8    |          |   2,200  |  133  |  7,980 |       |
+     10    |          |   2,250  |  108  |  6,480 |       |
+     12    |          |   2,250  |   90  |  6,400 |       |
+    -------+----------+----------+-------+--------+-------+----------
+
+From the above table it will be noted that the R.P.M. are exceedingly
+high in some cases. Upon the impact of a shell with armor-plate the
+physical phenomena occur instantaneously and the resultant forces are
+so great that it is impossible to mechanically record their action. A
+study of the stresses in the shell can, however, be made on a
+theoretical basis.
+
+In the first place, if the projectile were twenty calibres in length
+and of a material offering less resistance to torsional stress than
+steel and rotated at the high velocities indicated we would find that
+upon impact the torsion would be plainly evident as per the following:
+
+Assume a projectile A of length twenty calibres, about to penetrate an
+armor-plate B of thickness sufficient to prevent complete penetration
+by the shell in question.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 27]
+
+The tendency of the impact is to stop the rotation of the projectile,
+owing to the friction between the surfaces in contact, but owing to the
+length of the projectile the point receives this retarding influence
+before it can be transmitted throughout the body of the shell to its
+base. The consequent result is that the head will finally come to a
+stop while the base is still rotating, however slightly that may be.
+
+Theoretically considering the projectile to be composed of a series of
+discs a line drawn parallel to the major axis, while at rest, would be
+represented by the line _cd_. Upon impact, however, the rotative force
+tends to create a twisting couple with the result that each disc will
+tend to slide on its preceding disc, so that by the time these twisting
+couples have been transmitted to the base of the shell the original
+line _cd_ will have taken some such position as _de_.
+
+The objection to the present method of forging shells is as a result,
+the grain or fibre of the metal lies parallel with the major axis of
+the forging, the forging process causing an elongation of the ingot and
+the metal grain following the direction of elongation. Consequently any
+flaws occurring in the material will extend parallel to the grain or
+major axis. If a flaw remains undiscovered in a finished projectile--as
+is sometimes the case--the projectile is not only weakened thereby, but
+the element of weakness lies in such a direction that the compression
+forces and counterforces produce very much the same results as would a
+wedge driven into a niche, i.e. the separation of adjacent material.
+The author is in possession of a shell in which a longitudinal flaw was
+revealed in the ogive by the cutting away of a longitudinal quarter
+section, Fig. 28.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28. Armor-Piercing Shell. Showing position of
+flaw.]
+
+There are, therefore, two great forces with which to contend in the
+design of projectiles, to one of which, compression, has been given the
+greatest attention because of its recognized tendency to cause the base
+of the shell to crowd upon the head and cause the shell to break up
+about the ogive. The other force, torsion, seems not to have been
+considered prior to the present instance, at any rate so far as the
+author has been able to ascertain, not because thought to be
+unimportant, but because of oversight or failure on the part of
+investigators to take into consideration in this instance, an element
+of reaction commonly considered in mechanical engineering practice, as
+in shafting for vessels and for power transmission in shops, etc.
+
+The writer maintains that immediately upon impact the metal in a shell
+assumes a state of physical unrest, due to stresses similar to those in
+a propeller shaft when in motion, except that in the former case the
+intensity of the compression stresses greatly exceed those in the
+latter. Because a shell is only 3-1/2 calibres in length is no
+criterion that the same stresses do not exist there as would exist in
+the theoretical projectile considered of twenty calibres, or one of
+even more exaggerated proportions--there would be merely a difference
+in the _intensity_ of these stresses.
+
+In a projectile making one complete revolution about its major axis in
+every twenty-five calibres flight, any one elementary unit area or mass
+in that shell likewise makes one complete revolution in the same
+distance of travel, and the path traversed by that unit area or mass is
+that of a spiral of radius equal to the distance of that unit area or
+mass from the major axis of the shell, the diameter of which spiral
+would be the diameter of the shell in question--and the pitch
+twenty-five calibres--if said unit area were on the surface of the body
+of the shell.
+
+Upon impact the tendency of this unit area would be to continue its
+flight along the continuation of that spiral or along the line _ed_
+of our theoretical shell of twenty calibres. The result would be for
+each disc element theoretically considered to crowd upon the next
+corresponding disc element and these two upon the third corresponding
+disc element etc., such crowding taking place along the line _ed_.
+Therefore the projectile must be designed not only to penetrate, as
+well as to withstand the great compressional stresses upon the
+advancing head of the shell but the body of the shell must be so
+designed as to give a maximum of integrity. The torsional stresses act
+along _ed_, and in order to resist these stresses the shell must be so
+designed that the resisting ability will be increased along that line,
+re-acting along _de_.
+
+This the author advocates by means of a "twist forging," in which the
+grain of the metal will lie co-incident with the lines of the torsional
+stresses, and by the introduction of spiral ribs lying co-incident also
+with the lines of the torsional stresses and the grain of the "twist
+forging" manufactured by a process indicated in the patent herewith
+appended. By the introduction of the spiral ribs it will be seen that
+each disc is reinforced to withstand the tendency of the disc behind to
+crowd upon it and that by means of a properly designed shell of this
+type the whole energy of the shell can be better transmitted to the
+point of impact by means of the spiral ribs and twisted grain.
+
+Furthermore, should any flaws be present in the ingot, their size would
+be reduced by the twisting, as are the spaces between the strands of a
+rope when twisted in the proper direction for so doing. Also, with a
+flaw in a finished projectile, and lying in a spiral direction the
+result of the compression stresses would be to jump across the flaw or
+to decrease the gap instead of acting wedgelike along the flaw causing
+it to open as before mentioned. Finally, an increase in integrity means
+an increase in penetrability, or in the percentage of complete
+penetration, with the ultimate necessity of increasing the thickness of
+armor-plate to successfully exclude the improved armor-piercing shell.
+
+
+    No. 863,248.    PATENTED AUG. 13, 1907.
+
+    C. DE ZAFRA.
+
+    PROJECTILE.
+
+    APPLICATION FILED DEC. 10, 1906.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 1.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 2.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 3.]
+
+    [Illustration: Witnesses
+    [Names are illegible]
+
+    Carlos de Zafra Inventor
+
+    By his Attorney Hensey Gough
+
+
+
+
+United States Patent Office
+
+CARLOS DE ZAFRA, OF NEW YORK, N.Y.
+
+Projectile
+
+
+No. 863,248
+
+SPECIFICATION OF LETTERS PATENT. Patented Aug. 13, 1907.
+
+Application filed December 10, 1906, Serial No. 347,055
+
+
+_To all whom it may concern:_
+
+Be it known that I, CARLOS DE ZAFRA, a citizen of the United States,
+residing at New York city, county of New York, and State of New York,
+have invented certain new and useful Improvements in Projectiles, of
+which the following is a specification.
+
+My invention, relates to an improved form of explosive shell or other
+projectile, and more particularly to those projectiles which are
+reinforced by longitudinal ribs.
+
+It further relates to a method whereby such a projectile may be made.
+
+The object of my invention is to provide a shell having a maximum
+strength or perforating power, together with a maximum capacity for an
+explosive charge, and the invention consists in forming the projectile
+with the fibers or grain of the metal running in a spiral direction
+from the base of the shell to the top thereof, and in reinforcing the
+interior of the shell with ribs which shall run in the same direction,
+starting at the base of the projectile and ending at the top end of the
+inner chamber.
+
+In the drawings, Figure 1 is a side view of a projectile, the grain or
+fiber of which is indicated by dotted lines. Fig. 2 is a longitudinal
+section showing the interior ribs. Fig. 3 is a transverse section on
+the line 3--3, Fig. 2.
+
+While the tendency to rupture is very much lessened by the use of
+straight longitudinal ribs on the interior of shells and projectiles of
+various kinds, yet such a straight longitudinal rib is itself liable to
+a sheering and disruptive stress along transverse lines when the
+projectile strikes, due to the rotative inertia of the projectile in
+its flight.
+
+The aim of my invention is to provide ribs which will be coincident
+with the rotative travel of the shell so that when the point of the
+projectile enters an armor plate, the stress of this sudden stoppage of
+rotation will be taken up along the fiber or grain of the shell and by
+the spiral ribs therein. Thus the sheering tendency of the metal in the
+walls of the shell is greatly reduced and greater strength is given to
+resist the tendency of the rear end of the shell to twist off, due to
+the rotatory course when the head of the shell is embedded in an armor
+plate.
+
+Like letters in the figures designate like parts.
+
+A represents the shell, and B the fuse, B´ being the rotating band
+which is secured on the shell near the base in the usual way. The
+hollow portion of the shell consists of a chamber C extending from the
+base to the forward end of the shell. The walls of this chamber are
+provided with the ribs D extending from the base to the point of the
+chamber in a spiral direction. In the drawings, I have shown the pitch
+of this spiral as one quarter turn in the length of the chamber, but it
+is to be understood that I may use a greater or less pitch without
+departing in any way from my invention.
+
+I have shown a pitch of one quarter turn particularly for purposes of
+illustration, as if a greater pitch had been used the section Fig. 2
+would not have shown any one rib entirely.
+
+As will be seen by Fig. 1, the grain or fiber of the metal is also
+twisted spirally in accordance with the pitch of the ribs D, in this
+case a quarter turn from the rear end of the projectile to its point.
+
+In order to manufacture a projectile of this character I have devised
+the following method which I deem preferable, though I do not wish to
+limit myself thereto. This consists first in casting an ingot from
+which the solid forging is to be produced. Previous to, during or after
+the process of forging, the ingot is twisted in a torsion apparatus,
+one end of the ingot being held fixed while the other end is being
+rotated by any suitable rotative gripping mechanism through an arc of
+the number of degrees desired. This will result in what I term a "twist
+forging" in which the grain or fiber will lie in any predetermined or
+desired spiral direction or pitch. The spiral ribs which are to lie in
+the direction preferably parallel to the grain or fiber of the metal
+may now be formed by the boring process similar to that employed in the
+rifling of modern artillery.
+
+My projectile might also be formed by forming the shell with the ribs
+running longitudinally there along in a direct line from front to rear
+and with the fiber of the metal also running in a direct line parallel
+with the ribs. The projectile might then be reheated for forging and
+while being forged the rear could be held in any suitable gripping
+device and the forward end be rotated, as before explained. Thus the
+fiber of the shell and the interior ribs will both be given the spiral
+twist desired.
+
+It will be seen that with either of these processes the fiber of the
+shell and the spiral ribs lie parallel to each other and are most
+perfectly formed to resist the shock of impact, the reaction of which
+will be along the line coincident with the resultant of the angular or
+rotative and the trajectoral velocities, which line will lie parallel
+with the spiral ribs, the pitch of such fiber and ribs having been
+predetermined by suitable calculation.
+
+The above described methods while not claimed herein are to form the
+subject-matter of a separate application.
+
+Having described my invention what I claim is:
+
+1. A projectile provided with a chamber extending along its length, the
+walls of said chamber being provided with longitudinal ribs extending
+in a spiral direction from the base of the chamber to the forward end
+thereof.
+
+2. A projectile provided with a chamber extending along its length, the
+forward end of said chamber being pointed, the walls of said chamber
+being provided with longitudinal ribs extending in a spiral direction
+from the base of the chamber to the point thereof.
+
+3. A projectile having the fibers of its material twisted in a spiral
+direction from the base of said projectile to the end thereof.
+
+4. A projectile having the fibers of its material twisted in a spiral
+direction from the base of said projectile to the end thereof, said
+projectile having a central chamber, the walls of which are provided
+with longitudinal ribs extending in a spiral direction from the base of
+the chamber to the point thereof.
+
+In testimony whereof, I have signed my name to this specification in
+the presence of two subscribing witnesses, this sixth day of December,
+1906.
+
+    CARLOS DE ZAFRA.
+
+    Witnesses:
+
+    EMILO BELARI,
+    EMMA RODERICK.
+
+
+
+
+Bibliography
+
+
+ORDNANCE AND GUNNERY                                    BRUFF
+
+TEST BOOK OF ORDNANCE AND GUNNERY                   INGERSOLL
+
+REPORT ON THE ART OF WAR IN EUROPE--1854-1855-1856
+                                    COL. R. DELAFIELD, U.S.A.
+
+JOURNAL OF THE U.S. ARTILLERY
+
+THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
+
+SPECIFICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF ORDNANCE, U.S. NAVY DEPARTMENT
+
+SPECIFICATIONS OF THE ORDNANCE DEPARTMENT, U.S. ARMY
+
+
+[Illustration: The de Zafra Improved Armor-Piercing Shell]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Development of Armor-piercing
+Shells, by Carlos de Zafra
+
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