diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:59:43 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:59:43 -0700 |
| commit | ea56cdabbfe8f57d4a5e0915b1621289af984e3a (patch) | |
| tree | 7f92317c94a345422e00e4b020a88dbe148d999d | |
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33545-h.zip | bin | 0 -> 25460 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33545-h/33545-h.htm | 1410 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33545.txt | 1524 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33545.zip | bin | 0 -> 24380 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 |
7 files changed, 2950 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/33545-h.zip b/33545-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6f58b75 --- /dev/null +++ b/33545-h.zip diff --git a/33545-h/33545-h.htm b/33545-h/33545-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0bc426b --- /dev/null +++ b/33545-h/33545-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1410 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Food of the Crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos Brehm, in South-central Kansas, by Dwight Platt. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + } /* page numbers */ + + .linenum {position: absolute; top: auto; left: 4%;} /* poetry number */ + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + + .footnotes {border: dashed 1px;} + .footnote {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-size: 0.9em;} + .footnote .label {position: absolute; right: 84%; text-align: right;} + .fnanchor {vertical-align: super; font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + .poem {margin-left:10%; margin-right:10%; text-align: left;} + .poem br {display: none;} + .poem .stanza {margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em;} + .poem span.i0 {display: block; margin-left: 0em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i2 {display: block; margin-left: 1em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + .poem span.i4 {display: block; margin-left: 2em; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Food of the Crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos +Brehm, in South-central Kansas, by Dwight Platt + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Food of the Crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos Brehm, in South-central Kansas + +Author: Dwight Platt + +Release Date: August 27, 2010 [EBook #33545] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD OF THE CROW, CORVUS *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Josephine Paolucci +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<p class="center"><span class="smcap">University of Kansas Publications</span><br /> + +<span class="smcap">Museum of Natural History</span><br /> + +Volume 8, No. 8, pp. 477-498, 4 tables<br /> + +June 8, 1956</p> + + +<h1>Food of the Crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos Brehm, in South-central Kansas</h1> + +<h3>BY</h3> + +<h2>DWIGHT PLATT</h2> + + +<p class="center"> +<span class="smcap">University of Kansas<br /> +Lawrence</span><br /> +1956<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">University of Kansas Publications, Museum of Natural History</span><br /> +<br /> +Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard,<br /> +Robert W. Wilson<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +Volume 8, No. 8, pp. 477-498, 4 tables<br /> +Published June 8, 1956<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">University of Kansas</span><br /> +Lawrence, Kansas<br /> +<br /> +<br /> +PRINTED BY<br /> +FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER<br /> +TOPEKA, KANSAS<br /> +1956<br /> +</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /><p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_479" id="Page_479">[Pg 479]</a></span></p> +<h2>FOOD OF THE CROW, CORVUS BRACHYRHYNCHOS BREHM, IN SOUTH-CENTRAL KANSAS</h2> + +<h3>By Dwight Platt</h3> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>Introduction</h2> + + +<p>The yearly diet of the crow was studied from December, 1952, to +February, 1954, in Harvey County and the northeastern townships of Reno +County, in south-central Kansas. In the United States much attention has +been devoted previously to the food taken by the crow because it is of +economic importance. The work of Barrows and Schwarz (1895) was the +first of a series of studies made by the United States Department of +Agriculture. Kalmbach (1918, 1920, 1939) continued these studies by +analyzing stomach contents from various parts of the United States. Also +he diet of the crow has been studied by local areas (Imler—Oklahoma, +1939; Hering—New York, 1934; Black—Illinois, 1941; Lemaire—Louisiana, +1950).</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>I am grateful to Dr. Henry S. Fitch, for many valuable +suggestions and helpful encouragement given in the course of +my study. Professor E. Raymond Hall, who read the +manuscript, likewise offered valuable suggestions. Dr. R. L. +McGregor and Mr. Wilford Hanson provided invaluable +assistance in identification of plants and insects found in +the crow pellets.</p></div> + + +<h3>Methods</h3> + +<p>Previous studies were based mostly on analyses of stomach contents. My +study is based on the analysis of 617 regurgitated pellets collected +from roosts and lookout posts. Fifty-three collections of pellets were +made throughout the year at regular intervals, except that none was made +in January, March, or May. The pellets were wrapped individually in +paper or leaves as collected, and each was analyzed separately. The +percentages by bulk of different food residues (excluding sand and other +extraneous material) were estimated in each pellet and recorded.</p> + + +<h3>Description of the Study Area</h3> + +<p>The study area is on the eastern edge of the Great Bend Prairie +physiographic province of Moore (1930). The climate is characterized by +moderate precipitation (ann. 30"), a wide range of temperature +variations, moderately high wind velocities, and comparatively rapid +evaporation. The summers are generally hot, and the winters are +moderately cold but are free from excessive snowfall. The weather during +the study period was unusually dry, and the summer temperatures were +above normal. A drought had begun in 1952, following the cool and wet +summer of 1951.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_480" id="Page_480">[Pg 480]</a></span></p> + +<p>The study area includes the zone of transition from bluestem or +tall-grass prairie to the buffalo grass or short-grass prairie. The +principal farm crop in the study area is wheat. Sorghum grain, oats, hay +crops (especially alfalfa), and corn are also grown. The study area +supported a small population of breeding crows; an estimate based on +field observations mainly in eastern Harvey County, was not more than +one pair per square mile. In winter a large population of crows migrates +into the area from the northern Great Plains. Censuses showed that on +parts of the area the feeding population might be as great as 180 birds +per square mile. These wintering crows concentrate in the western part +of the study area where the flat, fertile wheat fields of central Harvey +County are replaced by sand dunes and the sandy Arkansas River Valley. +Here much land is devoted to raising livestock, and sorghum grain is an +important field crop. There is also more waste land there than elsewhere +in the area.</p> + + +<h3>Data From Analysis of Pellets</h3> + +<p>Data obtained from the analysis of pellets were grouped in biweekly +collections, and percentages of various food residues in the pellets +collected within each biweekly period were averaged. Also frequency of +occurrence was computed, and maximum and minimum percentages were +included to permit a broader interpretation. In determining the minimum +percentage, only those pellets were considered in which the food residue +was present.</p> + +<p>Pellets from roosts of resident crows were collected on a year round +basis in eastern Harvey County near Newton (see tables 1 and 2). The +data from these pellets were interpreted separately from data on +collections made in the western part of the study area from under roosts +of wintering crows (see tables 3 and 4).</p> + +<p>In studies of the food of owls analysis of materials in regurgitated +pellets has been widely used, but with crows this method has been little +used because the nature of their food makes identification of material +more difficult. Analysis of pellets has certain merits, however, and, if +closely correlated with field studies, can give valuable information +concerning food habits. The availability of pellets and the ease of +collecting them are obvious advantages. Under large roosts in winter the +number that can be collected is almost unlimited. At other seasons, +pellets are scarcer, but even so they usually are more available than +stomachs.</p> + +<p>The technique of pellet analysis is more easily applied to a study of +the yearly diet than is the technique of stomach analysis. The crow is +euryphagous and, as shown by this study, the diets of crows a few miles +apart may differ. Therefore a study made on a limited area within one +biotic community, on a year round basis, and correlated with changes in +the habitat should be of greatest value. For such a study, collection of +stomachs is not practical unless individuals are abundant so that many +can be sacrificed, but collection of pellets is practical and +profitable.</p> + +<p>One limitation of data based on material from pellets is the +impossibility of closely correlating the volume of indigestible residues +with the proportion of food items actually eaten. Such correlation is +prevented not only by the different percentages of indigestible residues +in different food items but also by irregularities in regurgitation and +in the efficiency of the crow's digestive system. Barrows and Schwarz +(1895:24-25) cite several instances of such<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_481" id="Page_481">[Pg 481]</a></span> irregularities in captive +crows. In certain pellets that I studied, part of the wheat or other +grain was undigested or partly digested, whereas in other pellets the +only residue was finely divided chaff. Certain foods that lack hard +parts may leave no recognizable residues in pellets. A captive crow that +I raised did not form pellets when fed soft food. Nevertheless, data +from analysis of pellets when supplemented by field observations, should +serve as a sound basis for valid conclusions concerning the relative +proportions of various foods eaten. The following field observations of +habitat factors aid in interpreting the information obtained from pellet +analysis.</p> + + +<h3>Field Observations and Correlations</h3> + +<p><span class="smcap">Resident Crows in Eastern Harvey County.</span>—Although no field observations +were made on feeding behavior in April, the large percentage of oat +hulls found in the pellets suggests that newly sown fields of oats must +have been one of the major feeding grounds in that month. Oats were +planted between February 15 and March 20.</p> + +<p>The pellets collected in June were all from the roost of one family +group of crows. This group spent much time in a cherry orchard and in +the shelterbelt near it. Residues of cherry and wheat constituted the +only plant foods found in the pellets. In both frequency and percentage, +scarabaeid beetles constituted the other important food source. The +wheat harvest started on June 17.</p> + +<p>The cherry harvest was over by June 29. Grain harvest was over and the +fields were being plowed by July 2. Alfalfa was being cut for hay in +early July and crows were then feeding on plowed fields and the newly +mown alfalfa fields. Much time in the middle of the day was spent along +the creeks where crayfish could be obtained. During most of the summer, +pellets were difficult to find because the roosts were small, shifting, +and scattered and because few pellets were produced. For weeks at a time +there were no usable pellets under roosts occupied by hundreds of birds, +although droppings and feathers were present. At other times large +collections of pellets could be gathered from small roosts. Plowing was +a major farm operation at the season when pellets were most scarce. +Larvae of insects (especially beetles), and earthworms might have +provided a major source of food which lacked sufficient indigestible +material to form pellets. A few feces were collected and analyzed in an +attempt to find the residue of such soft-bodied foods. Indigestible +materials were found in the feces, but these were of the same types as +those found in the pellets. Only a few fragments were found which might +have been the mouthparts of grubs.</p> + +<p>After mid-July pellets were common under one small roost. In late July +they were scarce, even at a roost with several hundred<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_482" id="Page_482">[Pg 482]</a></span> crows. The +principal feeding grounds of crows were stubble fields and plowed +fields. All grain picked up at this time was waste. Plowing was +interrupted by rain from July 11-18 but was the major farm operation +again after July 19.</p> + +<p>From late July into early September crows fed in plowed fields, stubble +fields, pastures, and newly mown hay fields. Pellets were scarce, +considering that hundreds of crows used the roost where pellets were +collected. Plowing was almost over by July 31. Brome grass was in full +head during the early part of this period. Corn was in the milk stage +during the early part of August but did not show up in any pellets. +Although Sudan grass was in head during the early part of this period, +other sorghum did not head out until September.</p> + +<p>From early September to early October sorghum was in full head. The +crows spent most of their feeding time in plowed fields, stubble fields, +or pastures. Much time was spent along creeks where pools, which +contained many small fish, were drying. Pellets were common under a +small roost. Grasshoppers and beetles were the two staple foods in the +diet at this time, as shown by their high frequencies and high +percentages in pellets. The high percentage and frequency of wheat +corroborates the observation that most of the feeding was being done in +wheat fields. The relatively large percentages of fish bones, crayfish, +and snail shells can be correlated with the observation that much time +was spent by the crows at the pools in creek beds. Many ants were in the +pellets. The total percentage of animal materials in the pellets was +much higher in this period than in other periods. Plant material had +been the highest, percentagewise, during most of the summer, except in +the latter part of July. Most studies of food of the crow have shown a +higher content of animal material during the summer than does my study. +It would seem that much of the food material which did not show up in +pellets during the summer was animal material.</p> + +<p>Grasshoppers predominated in the diet in early October; some pellets +consisted of little other than grasshopper mandibles and leg joints. +Wheat is sown in this area from September 10 to October 15, most of it +being sown after October 5, the recommended Hessian fly-free date. Most +of the grain sorghum is harvested by mid-October. However, the +utilization of both of these items was low in October. By October 10 +only one pool was left in the creek bed under observation. The amount of +fish bones, crayfish, and snail shells in the pellets decreased during +this period.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_483" id="Page_483">[Pg 483]</a></span></p> + +<p>Killing frosts occurred in mid-October. The percentage of grasshoppers +in the diet then declined rapidly and later in the autumn declined more +slowly. Nevertheless, grasshoppers and beetles remained the predominant +animal-food residues into December and frequencies of occurrence +remained relatively high.</p> + +<p>As autumn progressed and insects became scarcer, plant material made up +an ever-larger percentage of the diet. Wheat and sorghum constituted +more than one-half of the food residues in this period. However, in +December utilization of sorghum by resident crows in eastern Harvey +County decreased. Sorghum is not an important crop in this area.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Roosts of Wintering Crows.</span>—The collections of pellets from roosts of +wintering crows in western Harvey County and northeastern Reno County +differed in having a higher percentage of plant material. Sorghum, corn, +and wheat predominated in early autumn, while sorghum, sunflower seed, +and corn predominated in the winter. Ants were utilized to a much +greater extent in early autumn. For grasshoppers and beetles, frequency +of occurrence was high but percentages were low. Most of the standing +water in the sand dune country had dried approximately one year before, +and the aquatic component of the diet was almost entirely lacking.</p> + +<p>The two principal food items taken by crows in the winter of 1953 were +grain sorghum and sunflower seed. Censuses in late November and late +December, 1953, showed that feeding was mostly in harvested sorghum +fields and corn fields, but alfalfa fields, wheat fields, plowed fields, +and native pasture were also utilized.</p> + +<p>Sorghum and sunflower seeds were also the staple foods during December, +1952. Oats and wheat showed higher percentages than in 1953, perhaps +because different foods were available in these two winters or because +of differences in locality. The pellets collected in 1952 were from +western Harvey County, whereas most of those collected in 1953 were from +northeastern Reno County.</p> + +<p>The collection taken in February, 1954, showed a large percentage of +oats in the diet. Newly sown oat fields were probably a major source of +food at that time.</p> + + +<h3>Economic and Ecologic Significance</h3> + +<p>The chief factors that determine the economic bearing of crows locally +are: the yearly diet, the time of year in which each food item is taken, +and fluctuation in the population density at different times of year. In +the study here reported upon, the yearly diet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_484" id="Page_484">[Pg 484]</a></span> was computed by averaging +the percentages of each item determined for each biweekly period. Of the +twenty-one collecting periods shown in the tables, six are overlapping +pairs; that is to say, each includes one collection from eastern Harvey +County and one from the western part of the study area. The average of +these pairs was used in computing the yearly average. The yearly average +is therefore based upon eighteen separate samples.</p> + +<p>The percentages are weighted toward the food items taken in summer and +autumn, since many biweekly periods in late winter and early spring are +not represented. Of the collecting periods represented, two were in +spring, six were in summer, seven were in autumn, and three were in +winter. Pellets collected at a number of different localities are +averaged together as a percentage; consequently the figures obtainable +do not necessarily represent the diet of any one group of crows. +Nevertheless the percentages obtained by this method are perhaps valid +as a general indication of the diet of the crows in this area.</p> + +<p>In my samples, plant material amounted to 69 per cent of the +indigestible residues. Similar percentages have been found in other +studies, ranging from 57 per cent (Barrows and Schwarz, 1895:72) to +71.86 per cent (Kalmbach, 1918:43). The percentage of plant material was +highest in the winter. In one collection from a wintering crow roost it +amounted to 99.5 per cent. In December in eastern Harvey County it +averaged only 85.3 per cent. The lowest percentage (20) was found in the +first half of October in eastern Harvey County when grasshoppers +amounted to more than half the diet. At this same time pellets collected +from the wintering roosts contained 72.4 per cent plant material.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Percentages of the chief items in the total food residues, +and (in parentheses) number of sampling periods in which +each item was represented, are shown in the following list: +wheat 23.2 per cent (20), sorghum 15.2 (16), oat 7.8 (8), +sunflower 7.2 (8), corn 5.4 (12), brome 4.2 (5), other grass +2.4 (7), cherry 1.2 (2), beetle 13.3 (21), grasshopper 9.3 +(19), ant .7 (3), miscellaneous insect .2 (2), mammal 2.6 +(19), bird .8 (1), eggshell .5 (3), snake .1 (2), fish .9 +(9), crayfish 2.4 (12), snail .2 (9).</p></div> + +<p>Wheat is the "staff-of-life" of the crows in south-central Kansas and +the percentage recorded in the diet in my study is much higher than the +percentages found by other investigators. Wheat, being the principal +crop in this area, was a readily available food. The fluctuations in the +use of wheat were due to fluctuations in the availability of other foods +that were preferred. In eastern Harvey<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_485" id="Page_485">[Pg 485]</a></span> County wheat consumption was +35.7 per cent of the diet in the latter part of July, and 49.1 per cent +in December.</p> + +<p>Consumption of wheat was high (34.4 per cent) during the harvest in +June. However, this does not indicate serious damage since the crow +population at this time was low, and much of the wheat eaten probably +was shattered waste grain. When plowing began, wheat consumption was +much reduced. At the time wheat was sown, September 10 to October 15, +consumption was average to low.</p> + +<p>In western Harvey County wheat was less important in the diet of +wintering crows. After reaching a peak (22.7 per cent) in October, just +after sowing, it steadily decreased, varying from 6.9 per cent to none +in December.</p> + +<p>The wheat consumption of crows has little significance economically. No +instances of damage were reported to me either at the time of harvest or +at the time of sowing. Although crows undoubtedly do eat wheat from +newly sown fields, this utilization seldom damages the stand. No +evidence of pulling young wheat was found. Most wheat eaten was waste +grain.</p> + +<p>Grain sorghum was the staple food of the wintering crows. In eastern +Harvey County, where sorghum is not an important crop, its consumption +began in August, reached a peak in the last part of November, and fell +off sharply in December. The grain sorghum crop is vulnerable to damage +by crows and it is ripening in the autumn as the crow population is +building up. In certain areas and certain years the loss may be +important. An exceptional instance was reported to me of crows taking 40 +per cent of the crop from a small field of early ripening sorghum near a +roost. Most farmers and county agents interviewed thought that the +over-all damage was not great. The crop is usually combined and little +remains in the fields after October, when the majority of wintering +crows arrive. Nevertheless, even waste grain picked up after harvest +should be counted as a loss on some farms where stock are turned in to +clean up such grain.</p> + +<p>Oats were taken sparingly as waste grain in summer, autumn, and winter, +and most were eaten in late winter and early spring from newly sown +fields (37.2 per cent of the February diet and 72.6 per cent of the +April diet). These percentages were probably high, since there is a high +proportion of indigestible residues in oats. This is more than +compensated for in the yearly average by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_486" id="Page_486">[Pg 486]</a></span> paucity of collections +made in the period when consumption of oats was highest.</p> + +<p>Fields newly sown to oats provided a major supply of food in the early +spring when other food supplies had been depleted. However, no instance +of damage to a stand of oats was reported to me. Aldous (1944:294) +mentioned that crows fed on spring-sown oat fields in Oklahoma but +suggested that they picked up only grain which was not covered.</p> + +<p>Sunflower seeds, although not important as a food of the crows in +eastern Harvey County, were a staple food of these wintering in the +western part of the study area. Consumption of sunflower seeds began in +September. In the latter part of December the percentage increased and +many pellets were composed entirely of sunflower seed hulls. Sunflower +seeds have a high percentage of indigestible residue.</p> + +<p>In both popular accounts and scientific studies, the economic +significance of the consumption of weed seeds such as those of +sunflowers by birds often has been interpreted in an oversimplified +manner. It has been assumed that if crows eat several million sunflower +seeds in the winter, the sunflowers growing in the farmers' fields the +next year will have been reduced by the same number. However, like most +annual plants, sunflowers produce a great surplus of seeds each year. +Most of the seeds consumed by crows would never have a chance to grow to +maturity, even if they were not eaten. Therefore this component of the +crow's diet is only slightly beneficial or neutral for the farmer. The +effect of crows (or of the entire bird population for that matter) upon +the sunflower crop in the farmers' fields is probably slight.</p> + +<p>Corn is one of the preferred foods of crows, but little corn was grown +in the study area. Other investigators have found higher percentages +elsewhere. In eastern Harvey County corn reached its highest point in +December but was insignificant in the diet. In the western part of the +study area it made up a larger percentage of the diet of wintering +crows. The corn eaten early in the season was undoubtedly from the +standing crop. However, most of that picked up in late autumn and in +winter was waste grain. Since little corn was shocked and left in the +fields, there was less opportunity for damage. The amount of corn +pulling at planting time was not determined, since no pellets were +collected then. However, the population of crows at that time was low. I +received no complaints of such damage to corn nor of significant damage +to the corn crop at other seasons.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_487" id="Page_487">[Pg 487]</a></span></p> + +<p>There were pastures of brome grass in the area under study in eastern +Harvey County, and the seeds seemed to be a preferred food, constituting +a major food supply for the crows in the latter part of July and the +first part of August. Having a high content of indigestible residues +they probably showed up in the pellets in percentages out of proportion +to their importance in the diet. They were unimportant in the diet of +wintering crows in the western part of the study area. This component of +brome grass in the diet was economically of little significance in the +study area, although it could be of significance where brome grass seed +was being harvested.</p> + +<p>Cherries were recorded only in June and only from one family of crows in +eastern Harvey County; cherry orchards are few in this area. The damage +done by the crows in the cherry orchard was slight, since only a few +crows fed there.</p> + +<p>Weed seeds such as those of spurges (<i>Euphorbia</i>), ragweed, and pigweed +were found in trace amounts in the diet of the crows. However, they were +not preferred foods, since they were available in large quantities.</p> + +<p>Wild fruits such as grape and pokeberry also showed up in trace amounts. +Elsewhere, investigators have found wild fruit forming a major source of +food in winter. However, it was not readily available in this area.</p> + +<p>Plant fibers and seeds unidentifiable with the resources at hand formed +2.2 per cent of the residues.</p> + +<p>It was reported to me that crows caused damage to watermelons which are +extensively grown in the sandhills region but no residues of this crop +were found in any pellets collected.</p> + +<p>Insects were most important in the animal portion of the food. The +economic and ecologic significance of insects in the diet of birds is +often oversimplified. The effects of predation upon animal populations +are complex, and predation is often a by-product of population rather +than a controlling factor.</p> + +<p>A female insect eaten before oviposition has a greater ecologic +significance than one eaten after she has laid her eggs and is ready to +die.</p> + +<p>Beetles made up more than half of the insect component of the diet. +Scarabaeids were readily recognizable. Other beetles were classified as +predaceous or non-predaceous according to the type of mandibles found. +When mandibles were lacking the occurrences were listed merely as +unclassified beetles, and those made up 5.6 per cent of the yearly food +residues. Predaceous beetles made<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_488" id="Page_488">[Pg 488]</a></span> up 3.3 per cent, whereas +non-predaceous beetles made up only 1.3 per cent. Both were found in +one-half of the collecting periods. Predaceous and non-predaceous +beetles formed 1.2 per cent of the yearly food residues. This +preponderance of predaceous beetle material is what might be expected +from the manner in which crows feed. Many predaceous ground beetles of +the family Carabidae would be found under rocks and clods and on the +ground.</p> + +<p>Beetles were a constant component of the diet in summer. They reached a +peak of 48.7 per cent in the last part of July. In November the +percentage declined and by December they formed only 2.5 per cent of the +diet.</p> + +<p>Scarabaeid beetles were utilized in large quantities when they were most +abundant; they made up 28.7 per cent of the diet in the latter part of +June. The larvae of scarabaeid beetles are destructive to wheat and +alfalfa and live in the ground from one to three years before +metamorphosing into adult beetles. Adults emerge from the ground from +April to mid-August, the maximum flight occurring in May and June. Most +of the eggs are laid from the last of May to the middle of July (Hayes, +1920:306). Afterward the adults soon die. Many of the beetles are +nocturnal, but some of the more important destructive forms are diurnal +(Hayes, 1918:142). Crows pick up the diurnal forms when they are active +and perhaps find the nocturnal forms under clods or in burrows and eat +them in ecologically significant numbers.</p> + +<p>Crows are beneficial to the farmer insofar as they control the +populations of scarabaeids and other non-predaceous beetles. However, +destruction of predaceous beetles is harmful to the farmers' best +interests.</p> + +<p>Grasshoppers, second only to beetles in the insect component of the +diet, are among the most destructive insects in Kansas. Eggs laid in +autumn overwinter and hatch the next summer, from April to August, +depending upon the species. The maximum numbers of grasshoppers are +present in late summer and early autumn and they continue feeding on +crops until the first killing frost. The greatest damage is caused by +the destruction of the foliage of corn, wheat, and alfalfa (Smith, <i>et +al.</i>, 1943:126). The consumption of grasshoppers closely followed the +curve of their availability, since they are a preferred food of the +crow. They were picked up in small quantities even in winter. In summer +they made up 6 to 10 per cent of the diet of the crows in eastern Harvey +County. Through the late summer and autumn this percentage rose, until +during the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_489" id="Page_489">[Pg 489]</a></span> first half of October they made up 59.6 per cent of the +diet. However, in the western part of the study area, they constituted a +smaller part of the diet.</p> + +<p>Predation upon grasshoppers, especially in summer and early autumn, +benefits the farmer by helping to stabilize populations of grasshoppers. +However, when grasshopper consumption was highest, in early October, +many of those eaten probably already had completed their breeding cycle, +and their consumption was hence of little significance economically or +ecologically.</p> + +<p>Ants were consumed only in September and October when they constituted +as much as 14.9 per cent of the diet. Crows may make an entire meal from +a large colony; at any rate, whenever ants were found in a pellet, they +constituted a large percentage of it.</p> + +<p>Miscellaneous insect remains constituted two-tenths of one per cent of +the yearly diet. Hemipteran remains were present only in trace +quantities (.5 per cent of the July 13-26 sample from eastern Harvey +County).</p> + +<p>Only a few questionable fragments from insect larvae were found in the +pellets collected in the course of this study. However, as mentioned +earlier, there is evidence that larvae constituted a major food supply +during much of the summer.</p> + +<p>Many investigators have found that crows feed on grubs and caterpillars +(Aldous, 1944; Alexander, 1930; Lemaire, 1950; Kalmbach, 1918; Barrows +and Schwarz, 1895). A number of county agents with whom I had +correspondence mentioned that crows aided the farmer in this way. More +investigation is required to determine the significance of crow +predation upon insect larvae in this area. Most of the bone material +recorded was fragmentary. Phalangeal or podial elements of rodents and +various bones of rabbits were identified. The only teeth identified were +those of the genus <i>Rattus</i>. Barrows and Schwarz (1895:24-25) found that +small bones of mammals may be completely ground up and digested by the +crow. Hence the amount of food furnished by mammals, either alive or as +carrion, may be higher than my figures indicate.</p> + +<p>Bones of birds were found in only one pellet, obtained in early July. +However, few pellets were collected in the nesting season.</p> + +<p>The eggshell occurring in the pellets probably was indicative of +extensive feeding on dumping grounds, and I received no reports of eggs +lost to crows on poultry farms. Such damage has been reduced to a +minimum since most poultry flocks are well-housed.</p> + +<p>The percentage of aquatic animals (fish, crayfish and snail) in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_490" id="Page_490">[Pg 490]</a></span> the +diet increased during the early autumn, as the creeks dried up in +eastern Harvey County, but after mid-October declined rapidly, as all +the pools were then gone.</p> + + +<h3>Conclusions</h3> + +<p>The large wintering flocks of crows are important consumers of grain +sorghums in south-central Kansas. In the early autumn when the crow +population is building up, it damages the sorghum crop before harvest. +The damage varies from year to year, being much more keenly felt in dry +years when the crop is poor or in years when the crop is late. However, +most of the sorghums, which are the principal item of diet of these +wintering crows, are waste grain taken from the fields after harvest. +Some of this waste grain taken should be counted as a loss because the +farmer would normally let his livestock utilize it.</p> + +<p>Crows use newly sown oat fields as a major source of food during the +late winter and early spring. However, damage to the crop is slight. +Corn is not an important crop in this area. The crow population is low +at the season when corn is planted, so probably little damage is done at +this time. Much of the corn eaten in winter is waste grain. Feeding on +wheat is of little economic importance, since most of that taken is +waste grain. Feeding on sunflower seeds may be counted as neutral to +slightly beneficial. Damage to watermelons, which are extensively grown +in the sandhills region, may be important at times. Crow feeding upon +other crops is only locally significant.</p> + +<p>Although it has food preferences, the crow is euryphagous, and its diet +is governed to a large extent by the availability of various types of +food in its habitat. Therefore, in its ecologic relationships with many +other species, it is a density dependent predator. It reduces the +numbers of a certain species when the latter becomes unusually abundant +but lessens the mortality pressure against it when the prey population +is low. Predators of this type tend to maintain stability in a community +in contrast to the violent oscillations often caused by a more +stenophagous predator. This study indicates that in south-central Kansas +crows help to stabilize the populations of grasshoppers, ground-dwelling +beetles both predaceous and non-predaceous, and probably those of other +types of insects whose soil dwelling larvae are subject to predation +during summer plowing.</p> + +<p>Crows also serve as scavengers, feeding on carrion and at dumping<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_491" id="Page_491">[Pg 491]</a></span> +grounds, as indicated by the high frequency of eggshell and mammalian +bone in the diet. Bird bones were found in an insignificant amount in +this study, but extensive collections were not made during the main +nesting season.</p> + + +<h3>Summary</h3> + +<p>An intensive study of the yearly diet of crows was carried on from +December, 1952, to February, 1954, in Harvey County and the northeastern +townships of Reno County, Kansas, in order to discover some of the +ecologic and economic relationships of the population of crows in +south-central Kansas. The study is based upon the analysis of 617 +regurgitated pellets collected throughout the year. Data obtained from +this analysis have been correlated with field observations on crows and +habitat changes.</p> + +<p>The area is in the zone of transition between tall-grass and short-grass +prairie, and the predominant agricultural crop is wheat. The study area +supports a breeding population of approximately one pair of crows per +square mile, but large flocks of wintering crows move into the western +part of the area near the Arkansas River Valley.</p> + +<p>Plant material amounted to 69.0 per cent of the pellet residues. Wheat +is the food taken in greatest amount in the yearly average, but the +staple foods of the wintering crows are grain sorghum, sunflower seeds, +and corn. Crows use newly sown oat fields as a major source of food in +late winter and early spring, but damage to the crop seems to be slight. +Growers of grain sorghum and, locally, growers of corn and watermelons, +sustain serious damage from crows.</p> + +<p>Being euryphagous, crows exert a stabilizing influence on many kinds of +prey and on the biotic community as a whole. This study indicates that +their effects are especially important in helping to stabilize the +populations of grasshoppers and of ground-dwelling beetles, and possibly +those of some other insects that have soil-dwelling larvae.</p> + +<p>Carrion and material from dumping grounds furnish another fairly +constant component of the crow's diet.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_492" id="Page_492">[Pg 492]</a></span></p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Table 1. Average, Maximum, and Minimum Percentages of Food Residues in +Pellets Collected in Eastern Harvey County, in 1953.</span></p> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>April 6-19</td><td align='left'> June 15-28</td><td align='left'>June 29-July 12</td><td align='left'>July 13-26</td><td align='left'>July 27-Aug. 9</td><td align='left'>Aug. 10-23</td><td align='left'>Sept. 7-20</td><td align='left'>Sept.21-Oct. 4</td><td align='left'> Oct. 5-18</td><td align='left'>Oct. 19-Nov. 1</td><td align='left'> Nov. 2-15</td><td align='left'> Nov. 16-29</td><td align='left'>Nov. 30-Dec. 13</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Number of pellets</td><td align='left'> 9</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 6</td><td align='left'> 19</td><td align='left'> 18</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 57</td><td align='left'> 29</td><td align='left'> 27</td><td align='left'> 24</td><td align='left'> 25</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 8</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>No. of collections</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 3</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 2</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">wheat</td><td align='left'> 18.2</td><td align='left'> 34.4</td><td align='left'> 1.7</td><td align='left'> 35.7</td><td align='left'> 28.5</td><td align='left'> 29.0</td><td align='left'> 23.4</td><td align='left'> 21.5</td><td align='left'> 10.8</td><td align='left'> 35.4</td><td align='left'> 33.0</td><td align='left'> 43.7</td><td align='left'> 49.1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> (90-5)</td><td align='left'>(99-50)</td><td align='left'> (10)</td><td align='left'>(80-10)</td><td align='left'> (80-5)</td><td align='left'>(55-20)</td><td align='left'>(100-5)</td><td align='left'>(100-5)</td><td align='left'>(60-15)</td><td align='left'>(85-10)</td><td align='left'> (80-35)</td><td align='left'>(98-30)</td><td align='left'>(98-20)</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">sorghum</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 2.0</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 10.7</td><td align='left'> 14.0</td><td align='left'> 7.6</td><td align='left'> 24.4</td><td align='left'> 24.7</td><td align='left'> 28.6</td><td align='left'> 6.9</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (35)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(90-10)</td><td align='left'> (75-5)</td><td align='left'> (60-3)</td><td align='left'> (85-5)</td><td align='left'>(100-10)</td><td align='left'> (80-5)</td><td align='left'>(40-15)</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">oats</td><td align='left'> 72.6</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1.6</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(99-50)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (30)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">sunflower seed</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 6.4</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> (40-5)</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">corn</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 4.5</td><td align='left'> 4.0</td><td align='left'> 1.4</td><td align='left'> 15.0</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (50-10)</td><td align='left'> (80-10)</td><td align='left'> (10)</td><td align='left'>(70-50)</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">grass seed</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .5</td><td align='left'> 44.6</td><td align='left'> 28.6</td><td align='left'> 4.8</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'> (90-60)</td><td align='left'> (85-5)</td><td align='left'> (70-5)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">grape</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (2)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">cherry</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 20.1</td><td align='left'> 1.7</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(70-20)</td><td align='left'> (10)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">spurge</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .8</td><td align='left'> .1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .2</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'> (2)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">misc. plant</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1.6</td><td align='left'> 5.2</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 4.4</td><td align='left'> 1.6</td><td align='left'> 2.1</td><td align='left'> 5.5</td><td align='left'> 2.9</td><td align='left'> 14.3</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(30-10)</td><td align='left'> (95)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (90-40)</td><td align='left'> (45)</td><td align='left'> (50)</td><td align='left'> (75-10)</td><td align='left'> (20)</td><td align='left'>(70-45)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>TOTAL PLANT</td><td align='left'> 90.8</td><td align='left'> 54.5</td><td align='left'> 4.2</td><td align='left'> 39.5</td><td align='left'> 80.3</td><td align='left'> 57.6</td><td align='left'> 39.0</td><td align='left'> 39.9</td><td align='left'> 20.0</td><td align='left'> 66.6</td><td align='left'> 67.2</td><td align='left'> 83.0</td><td align='left'> 85.3</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">scarabaeid beetle</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 28.7</td><td align='left'> 5.0</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(75-25)</td><td align='left'> (30)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">other beetle</td><td align='left'> 2.7</td><td align='left'> .1</td><td align='left'> 34.2</td><td align='left'> 48.7</td><td align='left'> 10.0</td><td align='left'> 21.0</td><td align='left'> 19.0</td><td align='left'> 10.6</td><td align='left'> 15.5</td><td align='left'> 13.9</td><td align='left'> 14.4</td><td align='left'> 5.3</td><td align='left'> 2.5</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> (10-5)</td><td align='left'> (3)</td><td align='left'>(100-20)</td><td align='left'>(90-10)</td><td align='left'> (90-10)</td><td align='left'>(45-10)</td><td align='left'>(80-5)</td><td align='left'> (95-5)</td><td align='left'>(98-1)</td><td align='left'> (70-5)</td><td align='left'> (65-5)</td><td align='left'> (15-2)</td><td align='left'> (20)</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">grasshopper</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .1</td><td align='left'> 6.6</td><td align='left'> 10.9</td><td align='left'> 4.2</td><td align='left'> 15.0</td><td align='left'> 23.4</td><td align='left'> 36.3</td><td align='left'> 59.6</td><td align='left'> 11.8</td><td align='left'> 14.3</td><td align='left'> 10.3</td><td align='left'> 4.4</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (2)</td><td align='left'>( 40)</td><td align='left'>(40-5)</td><td align='left'> (40-5)</td><td align='left'>(30-5)</td><td align='left'>(100-5)</td><td align='left'> (95-5)</td><td align='left'>(90-34)</td><td align='left'> (65-5)</td><td align='left'> (99-5)</td><td align='left'> (65-2)</td><td align='left'>(10-5)</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">ant</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 5.9</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(90-75)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">misc. insect</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1.9</td><td align='left'> 2.8</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .5</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(50-5)</td><td align='left'> (60)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">crayfish</td><td align='left'> .5</td><td align='left'> 1.5</td><td align='left'> 35.0</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .6</td><td align='left'> 1.0</td><td align='left'> 1.2</td><td align='left'> .2</td><td align='left'> .4</td><td align='left'> 1.4</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'> (10)</td><td align='left'>(100-10)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (10)</td><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'>(25-10)</td><td align='left'> (5-2)</td><td align='left'> (5-2)</td><td align='left'> (20-10)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">snail</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .6</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .6</td><td align='left'> 1.3</td><td align='left'> trace</td><td align='left'> 1.1</td><td align='left'> .2</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (10)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(10-2)</td><td align='left'> (20-5)</td><td align='left'> (1)</td><td align='left'> (10-5)</td><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">fish</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .1</td><td align='left'> 4.8</td><td align='left'> 7.3</td><td align='left'> 2.5</td><td align='left'> 3.4</td><td align='left'> .6</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (7)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'>(20-5)</td><td align='left'> (20.5)</td><td align='left'>(20.1)</td><td align='left'> (20-5)</td><td align='left'> (10-5)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">bird</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 15</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (90)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">eggshell</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .3</td><td align='left'> .6</td><td align='left'> 3.0</td><td align='left'> 2.0</td><td align='left'> 1.1</td><td align='left'> .4</td><td align='left'> .2</td><td align='left'> .8</td><td align='left'> .7</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'> (10)</td><td align='left'>(10-5)</td><td align='left'> (30-5)</td><td align='left'> (10-5)</td><td align='left'> (1)</td><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'> (20)</td><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">mammal</td><td align='left'> 6</td><td align='left'> 15.1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 3.7</td><td align='left'> 1.4</td><td align='left'> 2.2</td><td align='left'> .5</td><td align='left'> 1.6</td><td align='left'> 1.6</td><td align='left'> 2.5</td><td align='left'> .7</td><td align='left'> 7.8</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(45-10)</td><td align='left'>(100-5)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (50-5)</td><td align='left'> (5-2)</td><td align='left'> (60-2)</td><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'> (20-2)</td><td align='left'> (10-5)</td><td align='left'> (20-1)</td><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'>(25-2)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>TOTAL ANIMAL</td><td align='left'> 9.2</td><td align='left'> 45.5</td><td align='left'> 95.8</td><td align='left'> 60.5</td><td align='left'> 19.7</td><td align='left'> 42.4</td><td align='left'> 61.0</td><td align='left'> 60.1</td><td align='left'> 80.0</td><td align='left'> 33.4</td><td align='left'> 32.8</td><td align='left'> 17.0</td><td align='left'> 14.7</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_494" id="Page_494">[Pg 494]</a></span></p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Table 2. Frequencies of Occurrence of Food Residues in Pellets Collected +in the Eastern Part of Harvey County—1953.</span></h3> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>April 6-19</td><td align='left'>June 15-28</td><td align='left'>June 29-July 12</td><td align='left'>July 13-26</td><td align='left'>July 27-Aug. 9</td><td align='left'>Aug. 10-23</td><td align='left'>Sept. 7-20</td><td align='left'>Sept. 21-Oct. 4</td><td align='left'>Oct. 5-18</td><td align='left'>Oct. 19-Nov. 1</td><td align='left'>Nov. 2-15</td><td align='left'>Nov. 16-29</td><td align='left'>Nov. 30-Dec. 13</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>No. of pellets</td><td align='left'> 9</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 6</td><td align='left'> 19</td><td align='left'> 18</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 57</td><td align='left'> 29</td><td align='left'> 27</td><td align='left'> 24</td><td align='left'> 25</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 8</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wheat</td><td align='left'> 6</td><td align='left'> 3</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 18</td><td align='left'> 16</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 27</td><td align='left'> 12</td><td align='left'> 10</td><td align='left'> 15</td><td align='left'> 13</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 6</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sorghum</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 20</td><td align='left'> 12</td><td align='left'> 10</td><td align='left'> 12</td><td align='left'> 12</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 2</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sunflower seed</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>oats</td><td align='left'> 8</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>brome grass</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'> 10</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>corn</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 3</td><td align='left'> 3</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 2</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>cherry</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 3</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>grass seed</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 11</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>spurge</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>grape</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>misc. plant</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 3</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 2</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>beetle (scarabaeid)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>beetle (other)</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 19</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 39</td><td align='left'> 15</td><td align='left'> 17</td><td align='left'> 16</td><td align='left'> 14</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>grasshopper</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 12</td><td align='left'> 6</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 39</td><td align='left'> 22</td><td align='left'> 24</td><td align='left'> 12</td><td align='left'> 18</td><td align='left'> 3</td><td align='left'> 6</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ant</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bug (hemipteran)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>misc. insect</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 3</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>crayfish</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 3</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 3</td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>snail</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>fish</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 28</td><td align='left'> 14</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>bird</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>eggshell</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'> 10</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 8</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>mammal</td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'> 8</td><td align='left'> 3</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 8</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 5</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_495" id="Page_495">[Pg 495]</a></span></p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Table 3. Average, Maximum, and Minimum Percentages of Food Residues in +Pellets Collected at Wintering Crow Roosts in the Western Part of the +Study Area—1952-53-54.</span></h3> + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>Dec. 28-Jan. 11</td><td align='left'>Aug. 24-Sept. 6</td><td align='left'>Sept. 7-20</td><td align='left'>Oct. 5-18</td><td align='left'>Nov. 16-29</td><td align='left'>Dec. 14-27</td><td align='left'>Dec. 28-Jan. 10</td><td align='left'>Feb. 8-21</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Number of pellets</td><td align='left'> 62</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 38</td><td align='left'> 65</td><td align='left'> 56</td><td align='left'> 22</td><td align='left'> 96</td><td align='left'> 32</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>No. of Collections</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'>3</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 1</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">wheat</td><td align='left'>6.9</td><td align='left'> 62.8</td><td align='left'> 14.6</td><td align='left'> 22.7</td><td align='left'> 2.2</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> 3.3</td><td align='left'> 2.8</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(100-10)</td><td align='left'>(99-35)</td><td align='left'>(90-10)</td><td align='left'>(90-10)</td><td align='left'>(95-10)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(90-30)</td><td align='left'>(50-10)</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">sorghum</td><td align='left'>29</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 22.4</td><td align='left'> 31.2</td><td align='left'> 41.2</td><td align='left'> 42.5</td><td align='left'> 32.4</td><td align='left'> 21.6</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(100-5)</td><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'>(95-5)</td><td align='left'>(100-10)</td><td align='left'>(100-5)</td><td align='left'>(100-5)</td><td align='left'>(100-10)</td><td align='left'>(100-10)</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">sunflower seed</td><td align='left'> 26.3</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 3.3</td><td align='left'> 5.0</td><td align='left'> 26.9</td><td align='left'> 22.0</td><td align='left'> 32.4</td><td align='left'> 21.6</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> (90-5)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (95-5)</td><td align='left'> (60-10)</td><td align='left'> (95-3)</td><td align='left'> (90-5)</td><td align='left'>(100-5)</td><td align='left'>(80-10)</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">corn</td><td align='left'> 11.4</td><td align='left'> 19.0</td><td align='left'> 12.4</td><td align='left'> 4.5</td><td align='left'> 14.0</td><td align='left'>11.4</td><td align='left'> 14.1</td><td align='left'> 1.2</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(100-10)</td><td align='left'>(40-15)</td><td align='left'> (95-5)</td><td align='left'> (85-30)</td><td align='left'>(100-5)</td><td align='left'>(100-10)</td><td align='left'>(100-5)</td><td align='left'>(20-10)</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">oats</td><td align='left'>14.1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 4.9</td><td align='left'> 5.7</td><td align='left'> 5.5</td><td align='left'> 4.6</td><td align='left'> 37.2</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>(100-10)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (80-15)</td><td align='left'> (70-5)</td><td align='left'> (75-5)</td><td align='left'> (95-5)</td><td align='left'>(100-10)</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">brome grass</td><td align='left'> 1.4</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .1</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> (85)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (10)</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">Other Grass</td><td align='left'> 9.4</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 3.2</td><td align='left'> 4.0</td><td align='left'> 15.7</td><td align='left'> 8.8</td><td align='left'> 6.3</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> (95-5)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (80-20)</td><td align='left'>(90-10)</td><td align='left'> (95-10)</td><td align='left'>(100-10)</td><td align='left'>(50-20)</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">grape</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> trace</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .1</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (2)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (10)</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">pokeberry</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .4</td><td align='left'> .5</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (15)</td><td align='left'> (30-2)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">spurge</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .4</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .2</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (25)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (10-1)</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">ragweed</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .5</td><td align='left'> .2</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (10-5)</td><td align='left'> (5)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>misc. plant</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .8</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .8</td><td align='left'> .2</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (50-1)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (30)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (80-2)</td><td align='left'> (3-2)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>TOTAL PLANT</td><td align='left'> 99.5</td><td align='left'> 82.8</td><td align='left'> 53.9</td><td align='left'> 72.4</td><td align='left'> 94.1</td><td align='left'> 97.1</td><td align='left'>97.4</td><td align='left'> 97.4</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">grasshopper</td><td align='left'> .1</td><td align='left'> 6.0</td><td align='left'> 8.9</td><td align='left'> 10.5</td><td align='left'> 1.4</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .5</td><td align='left'> .3</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'> (30)</td><td align='left'> (30-5)</td><td align='left'> (70-5)</td><td align='left'>(15-5)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (15-5)</td><td align='left'> (5)</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">beetle</td><td align='left'> .1</td><td align='left'> 9</td><td align='left'> 17.8</td><td align='left'> 12.1</td><td align='left'> 1.7</td><td align='left'> .9</td><td align='left'> .4</td><td align='left'>.9</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'>(15-10)</td><td align='left'> (95-2)</td><td align='left'> (80-3)</td><td align='left'>(15-2)</td><td align='left'> (10-5)</td><td align='left'> (10-5)</td><td align='left'> (10-5)</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">ant</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>14.9</td><td align='left'> 3.4</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(95-73)</td><td align='left'> (85-5)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">crayfish</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>.7</td><td align='left'> .8</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .5</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(10-5)</td><td align='left'> (50)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (50)</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">snail</td><td align='left'>.1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .1</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">fish</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>.1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> .1</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (5)</td><td align='left'> </td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">snake</td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'> </td><td align='left'>1.8</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>.9</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(60-5)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> (20)</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">eggshell</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>.3</td><td align='left'>.4</td><td align='left'>.6</td><td align='left'>1.1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>(10-5)</td><td align='left'> (10)</td><td align='left'> (10-5)</td><td align='left'> (20-5)</td></tr> +<tr><td rowspan="2">mammal</td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'> 2.2 </td><td align='left'>1.9 </td><td align='left'>.8</td><td align='left'> 2.4 </td><td align='left'>.7 </td><td align='left'>.4</td><td align='left'> .3</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'> (10-5)</td><td align='left'> (5-1)</td><td align='left'>(20-5)</td><td align='left'> (10-5)</td><td align='left'>(60-5)</td><td align='left'> (10-5)</td><td align='left'> (10-5)</td><td align='left'> (10)</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>TOTAL ANIMAL</td><td align='left'> .5</td><td align='left'> 17.2</td><td align='left'> 46.1</td><td align='left'> 27.6</td><td align='left'> 5.9</td><td align='left'> 2.9</td><td align='left'> 2.6</td><td align='left'> 2.6</td></tr> +</table></div> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_496" id="Page_496">[Pg 496]</a></span></p> + + +<h3><span class="smcap">Table 4. Frequencies of Occurrence of Food Residues in Pellets Collected +at Wintering Crow Roosts in the Western Part of the Study +Area—1952-53-54.</span></h3> + + +<div class='center'> +<table border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" summary=""> +<tr><td align='left'></td><td align='left'>Dec. 28-Jan. 11</td><td align='left'> Aug. 24-Sept. 6</td><td align='left'> Sept. 7-20</td><td align='left'> Oct. 5-18</td><td align='left'> Nov. 16-29</td><td align='left'> Dec. 14-27</td><td align='left'> Dec. 28-Jan. 10</td><td align='left'> Feb. 8-21</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>Number of pellets</td><td align='left'> 62</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 38</td><td align='left'> 65</td><td align='left'> 56</td><td align='left'> 22</td><td align='left'> 96</td><td align='left'> 32</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>wheat</td><td align='left'> 11</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 10</td><td align='left'> 27</td><td align='left'> 3</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 4</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sorghum</td><td align='left'> 45</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 22</td><td align='left'> 36</td><td align='left'> 44</td><td align='left'> 16</td><td align='left'> 74</td><td align='left'> 18</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>sunflower seed</td><td align='left'> 43</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 12</td><td align='left'> 32</td><td align='left'> 9</td><td align='left'> 68</td><td align='left'> 19</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>corn</td><td align='left'> 14</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 11</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 12</td><td align='left'> 8</td><td align='left'> 27</td><td align='left'> 3</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>brome grass</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>other grass</td><td align='left'> 15</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 15</td><td align='left'> 5</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>grape</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>pokeberry</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>spurge</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ragweed</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 8</td><td align='left'> 1</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>misc. plant</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'> 2</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>grasshopper</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 23</td><td align='left'> 38</td><td align='left'> 10</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 2</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>beetle</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 4</td><td align='left'> 38</td><td align='left'> 48</td><td align='left'> 15</td><td align='left'> 3</td><td align='left'> 6</td><td align='left'> 4</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>ant</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 6</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>crayfish</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 3</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>snail</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>fish</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>snake</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>eggshell</td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'></td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'> 1</td><td align='left'> 9</td><td align='left'> 3</td></tr> +<tr><td align='left'>mammal</td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'> 3</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 7</td><td align='left'> 10</td><td align='left'> 2</td><td align='left'> 5</td><td align='left'> 1</td></tr> +</table></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_497" id="Page_497">[Pg 497]</a></span></p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>Literature Cited</h2> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Aldous, S. E.</span></p> + +<p>1944. Winter habits of crows in Oklahoma. Jour. Wildlife Management, +8:290-295, 1 fig.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Alexander, F. M.</span></p> + +<p>1930. Notes on the birds of south-central Kansas. Wilson Bull., +42:241-244.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Barrows, W. B.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Schwarz, E. A.</span></p> + +<p>1895. The common crow of the United States. U. S. Dept. of Agric. Div. +Ornith. and Mammal., 6:1-98, 2 figs.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Black, C. T.</span></p> + +<p>1941. Ecological and economic relations of the crow with special +reference to Illinois. Unpublished thesis, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, +Illinois.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Hayes, W. P.</span></p> + +<p>1918. Studies on the life history of two Kansas Scarabaeidae. Jour. +Econ. Entom., 11:136-144.</p> + +<p>1920. The life histories of some Kansas Lachnosterna. Jour. Econ. +Entom., 12:109-117.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Hering, P. E.</span></p> + +<p>1934. The food of the American crow in central New York State. Auk, +51:470-476.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Imler, R. H.</span></p> + +<p>1939. Comparison of the food of the white-necked ravens and crows in +Oklahoma. Wilson Bull., 51:121-122.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Kalmbach, E. R.</span></p> + +<p>1918. The crow and its relation to man. U. S. Dept. of Agric. Farm. +Bull., 621:1-92, 3 figs., 2 plates, 4 tables.</p> + +<p>1920. The crow in its relation to agriculture. U. S. Dept. of Agric. +Farm. Bull., 1102:1-20, 3 figs.</p> + +<p>1939. The crow in its relation to agriculture. U. S. Dept. of Agric. +Farm. Bull., 1102; rev. ed.: 1-21, 6 figs., 2 tables.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Lemaire, R. J.</span></p> + +<p>1950. The fall, winter and spring food habits of crows in the Baton +Rouge region of Louisiana. Unpublished thesis, Louisiana State +University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Moore, R. C.</span></p> + +<p>1930. Surface features of Kansas. Kansas Geological Survey map, scale +1:1,056,000.</p> + + +<p><span class="smcap">Smith, R. C., Kelly</span>, <span class="smcap">E. G., Dean</span>, <span class="smcap">G. A., Bryson</span>, <span class="smcap">H. R.</span>, and <span class="smcap">Parker, R. +L.</span></p> + +<p>1943. Insects in Kansas. Report of the Kansas State Bd. of Agric., 440 +pp., 6 pls., 464 figs.</p> + +<h4><i>Transmitted November 9, 1955.</i></h4> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Food of the Crow, Corvus +brachyrhynchos Brehm, in South-central Kansas, by Dwight Platt + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD OF THE CROW, CORVUS *** + +***** This file should be named 33545-h.htm or 33545-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/5/4/33545/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Josephine Paolucci +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> diff --git a/33545.txt b/33545.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2966452 --- /dev/null +++ b/33545.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1524 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Food of the Crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos +Brehm, in South-central Kansas, by Dwight Platt + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Food of the Crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos Brehm, in South-central Kansas + +Author: Dwight Platt + +Release Date: August 27, 2010 [EBook #33545] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD OF THE CROW, CORVUS *** + + + + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Josephine Paolucci +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + +UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS + +MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY + + +Volume 8, No. 8, pp. 477-498, 4 tables + +June 8, 1956 + + +Food of the Crow, Corvus brachyrhynchos Brehm, in South-central Kansas + +BY + +DWIGHT PLATT + + +UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS +LAWRENCE +1956 + + +UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS PUBLICATIONS, MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY + +Editors: E. Raymond Hall, Chairman, A. Byron Leonard, +Robert W. Wilson + + +Volume 8, No. 8, pp. 477-498, 4 tables +Published June 8, 1956 + + +UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS +Lawrence, Kansas + + +PRINTED BY +FERD VOILAND, JR., STATE PRINTER +TOPEKA, KANSAS +1956 + + + + +FOOD OF THE CROW, CORVUS BRACHYRHYNCHOS BREHM, IN SOUTH-CENTRAL KANSAS + +By Dwight Platt + + + + +Introduction + + +The yearly diet of the crow was studied from December, 1952, to +February, 1954, in Harvey County and the northeastern townships of Reno +County, in south-central Kansas. In the United States much attention has +been devoted previously to the food taken by the crow because it is of +economic importance. The work of Barrows and Schwarz (1895) was the +first of a series of studies made by the United States Department of +Agriculture. Kalmbach (1918, 1920, 1939) continued these studies by +analyzing stomach contents from various parts of the United States. Also +the diet of the crow has been studied by local areas (Imler--Oklahoma, +1939; Hering--New York, 1934; Black--Illinois, 1941; Lemaire--Louisiana, +1950). + + I am grateful to Dr. Henry S. Fitch, for many valuable + suggestions and helpful encouragement given in the course of + my study. Professor E. Raymond Hall, who read the + manuscript, likewise offered valuable suggestions. Dr. R. L. + McGregor and Mr. Wilford Hanson provided invaluable + assistance in identification of plants and insects found in + the crow pellets. + + +Methods + +Previous studies were based mostly on analyses of stomach contents. My +study is based on the analysis of 617 regurgitated pellets collected +from roosts and lookout posts. Fifty-three collections of pellets were +made throughout the year at regular intervals, except that none was made +in January, March, or May. The pellets were wrapped individually in +paper or leaves as collected, and each was analyzed separately. The +percentages by bulk of different food residues (excluding sand and other +extraneous material) were estimated in each pellet and recorded. + + +Description of the Study Area + +The study area is on the eastern edge of the Great Bend Prairie +physiographic province of Moore (1930). The climate is characterized by +moderate precipitation (ann. 30"), a wide range of temperature +variations, moderately high wind velocities, and comparatively rapid +evaporation. The summers are generally hot, and the winters are +moderately cold but are free from excessive snowfall. The weather during +the study period was unusually dry, and the summer temperatures were +above normal. A drought had begun in 1952, following the cool and wet +summer of 1951. + +The study area includes the zone of transition from bluestem or +tall-grass prairie to the buffalo grass or short-grass prairie. The +principal farm crop in the study area is wheat. Sorghum grain, oats, hay +crops (especially alfalfa), and corn are also grown. The study area +supported a small population of breeding crows; an estimate based on +field observations mainly in eastern Harvey County, was not more than +one pair per square mile. In winter a large population of crows migrates +into the area from the northern Great Plains. Censuses showed that on +parts of the area the feeding population might be as great as 180 birds +per square mile. These wintering crows concentrate in the western part +of the study area where the flat, fertile wheat fields of central Harvey +County are replaced by sand dunes and the sandy Arkansas River Valley. +Here much land is devoted to raising livestock, and sorghum grain is an +important field crop. There is also more waste land there than elsewhere +in the area. + + +Data From Analysis of Pellets + +Data obtained from the analysis of pellets were grouped in biweekly +collections, and percentages of various food residues in the pellets +collected within each biweekly period were averaged. Also frequency of +occurrence was computed, and maximum and minimum percentages were +included to permit a broader interpretation. In determining the minimum +percentage, only those pellets were considered in which the food residue +was present. + +Pellets from roosts of resident crows were collected on a year round +basis in eastern Harvey County near Newton (see tables 1 and 2). The +data from these pellets were interpreted separately from data on +collections made in the western part of the study area from under roosts +of wintering crows (see tables 3 and 4). + +In studies of the food of owls analysis of materials in regurgitated +pellets has been widely used, but with crows this method has been little +used because the nature of their food makes identification of material +more difficult. Analysis of pellets has certain merits, however, and, if +closely correlated with field studies, can give valuable information +concerning food habits. The availability of pellets and the ease of +collecting them are obvious advantages. Under large roosts in winter the +number that can be collected is almost unlimited. At other seasons, +pellets are scarcer, but even so they usually are more available than +stomachs. + +The technique of pellet analysis is more easily applied to a study of +the yearly diet than is the technique of stomach analysis. The crow is +euryphagous and, as shown by this study, the diets of crows a few miles +apart may differ. Therefore a study made on a limited area within one +biotic community, on a year round basis, and correlated with changes in +the habitat should be of greatest value. For such a study, collection of +stomachs is not practical unless individuals are abundant so that many +can be sacrificed, but collection of pellets is practical and +profitable. + +One limitation of data based on material from pellets is the +impossibility of closely correlating the volume of indigestible residues +with the proportion of food items actually eaten. Such correlation is +prevented not only by the different percentages of indigestible residues +in different food items but also by irregularities in regurgitation and +in the efficiency of the crow's digestive system. Barrows and Schwarz +(1895:24-25) cite several instances of such irregularities in captive +crows. In certain pellets that I studied, part of the wheat or other +grain was undigested or partly digested, whereas in other pellets the +only residue was finely divided chaff. Certain foods that lack hard +parts may leave no recognizable residues in pellets. A captive crow that +I raised did not form pellets when fed soft food. Nevertheless, data +from analysis of pellets when supplemented by field observations, should +serve as a sound basis for valid conclusions concerning the relative +proportions of various foods eaten. The following field observations of +habitat factors aid in interpreting the information obtained from pellet +analysis. + + +Field Observations and Correlations + +RESIDENT CROWS IN EASTERN HARVEY COUNTY.--Although no field observations +were made on feeding behavior in April, the large percentage of oat +hulls found in the pellets suggests that newly sown fields of oats must +have been one of the major feeding grounds in that month. Oats were +planted between February 15 and March 20. + +The pellets collected in June were all from the roost of one family +group of crows. This group spent much time in a cherry orchard and in +the shelterbelt near it. Residues of cherry and wheat constituted the +only plant foods found in the pellets. In both frequency and percentage, +scarabaeid beetles constituted the other important food source. The +wheat harvest started on June 17. + +The cherry harvest was over by June 29. Grain harvest was over and the +fields were being plowed by July 2. Alfalfa was being cut for hay in +early July and crows were then feeding on plowed fields and the newly +mown alfalfa fields. Much time in the middle of the day was spent along +the creeks where crayfish could be obtained. During most of the summer, +pellets were difficult to find because the roosts were small, shifting, +and scattered and because few pellets were produced. For weeks at a time +there were no usable pellets under roosts occupied by hundreds of birds, +although droppings and feathers were present. At other times large +collections of pellets could be gathered from small roosts. Plowing was +a major farm operation at the season when pellets were most scarce. +Larvae of insects (especially beetles), and earthworms might have +provided a major source of food which lacked sufficient indigestible +material to form pellets. A few feces were collected and analyzed in an +attempt to find the residue of such soft-bodied foods. Indigestible +materials were found in the feces, but these were of the same types as +those found in the pellets. Only a few fragments were found which might +have been the mouthparts of grubs. + +After mid-July pellets were common under one small roost. In late July +they were scarce, even at a roost with several hundred crows. The +principal feeding grounds of crows were stubble fields and plowed +fields. All grain picked up at this time was waste. Plowing was +interrupted by rain from July 11-18 but was the major farm operation +again after July 19. + +From late July into early September crows fed in plowed fields, stubble +fields, pastures, and newly mown hay fields. Pellets were scarce, +considering that hundreds of crows used the roost where pellets were +collected. Plowing was almost over by July 31. Brome grass was in full +head during the early part of this period. Corn was in the milk stage +during the early part of August but did not show up in any pellets. +Although Sudan grass was in head during the early part of this period, +other sorghum did not head out until September. + +From early September to early October sorghum was in full head. The +crows spent most of their feeding time in plowed fields, stubble fields, +or pastures. Much time was spent along creeks where pools, which +contained many small fish, were drying. Pellets were common under a +small roost. Grasshoppers and beetles were the two staple foods in the +diet at this time, as shown by their high frequencies and high +percentages in pellets. The high percentage and frequency of wheat +corroborates the observation that most of the feeding was being done in +wheat fields. The relatively large percentages of fish bones, crayfish, +and snail shells can be correlated with the observation that much time +was spent by the crows at the pools in creek beds. Many ants were in the +pellets. The total percentage of animal materials in the pellets was +much higher in this period than in other periods. Plant material had +been the highest, percentagewise, during most of the summer, except in +the latter part of July. Most studies of food of the crow have shown a +higher content of animal material during the summer than does my study. +It would seem that much of the food material which did not show up in +pellets during the summer was animal material. + +Grasshoppers predominated in the diet in early October; some pellets +consisted of little other than grasshopper mandibles and leg joints. +Wheat is sown in this area from September 10 to October 15, most of it +being sown after October 5, the recommended Hessian fly-free date. Most +of the grain sorghum is harvested by mid-October. However, the +utilization of both of these items was low in October. By October 10 +only one pool was left in the creek bed under observation. The amount of +fish bones, crayfish, and snail shells in the pellets decreased during +this period. + +Killing frosts occurred in mid-October. The percentage of grasshoppers +in the diet then declined rapidly and later in the autumn declined more +slowly. Nevertheless, grasshoppers and beetles remained the predominant +animal-food residues into December and frequencies of occurrence +remained relatively high. + +As autumn progressed and insects became scarcer, plant material made up +an ever-larger percentage of the diet. Wheat and sorghum constituted +more than one-half of the food residues in this period. However, in +December utilization of sorghum by resident crows in eastern Harvey +County decreased. Sorghum is not an important crop in this area. + +ROOSTS OF WINTERING CROWS.--The collections of pellets from roosts of +wintering crows in western Harvey County and northeastern Reno County +differed in having a higher percentage of plant material. Sorghum, corn, +and wheat predominated in early autumn, while sorghum, sunflower seed, +and corn predominated in the winter. Ants were utilized to a much +greater extent in early autumn. For grasshoppers and beetles, frequency +of occurrence was high but percentages were low. Most of the standing +water in the sand dune country had dried approximately one year before, +and the aquatic component of the diet was almost entirely lacking. + +The two principal food items taken by crows in the winter of 1953 were +grain sorghum and sunflower seed. Censuses in late November and late +December, 1953, showed that feeding was mostly in harvested sorghum +fields and corn fields, but alfalfa fields, wheat fields, plowed fields, +and native pasture were also utilized. + +Sorghum and sunflower seeds were also the staple foods during December, +1952. Oats and wheat showed higher percentages than in 1953, perhaps +because different foods were available in these two winters or because +of differences in locality. The pellets collected in 1952 were from +western Harvey County, whereas most of those collected in 1953 were from +northeastern Reno County. + +The collection taken in February, 1954, showed a large percentage of +oats in the diet. Newly sown oat fields were probably a major source of +food at that time. + + +Economic and Ecologic Significance + +The chief factors that determine the economic bearing of crows locally +are: the yearly diet, the time of year in which each food item is taken, +and fluctuation in the population density at different times of year. In +the study here reported upon, the yearly diet was computed by averaging +the percentages of each item determined for each biweekly period. Of the +twenty-one collecting periods shown in the tables, six are overlapping +pairs; that is to say, each includes one collection from eastern Harvey +County and one from the western part of the study area. The average of +these pairs was used in computing the yearly average. The yearly average +is therefore based upon eighteen separate samples. + +The percentages are weighted toward the food items taken in summer and +autumn, since many biweekly periods in late winter and early spring are +not represented. Of the collecting periods represented, two were in +spring, six were in summer, seven were in autumn, and three were in +winter. Pellets collected at a number of different localities are +averaged together as a percentage; consequently the figures obtainable +do not necessarily represent the diet of any one group of crows. +Nevertheless the percentages obtained by this method are perhaps valid +as a general indication of the diet of the crows in this area. + +In my samples, plant material amounted to 69 per cent of the +indigestible residues. Similar percentages have been found in other +studies, ranging from 57 per cent (Barrows and Schwarz, 1895:72) to +71.86 per cent (Kalmbach, 1918:43). The percentage of plant material was +highest in the winter. In one collection from a wintering crow roost it +amounted to 99.5 per cent. In December in eastern Harvey County it +averaged only 85.3 per cent. The lowest percentage (20) was found in the +first half of October in eastern Harvey County when grasshoppers +amounted to more than half the diet. At this same time pellets collected +from the wintering roosts contained 72.4 per cent plant material. + + Percentages of the chief items in the total food residues, + and (in parentheses) number of sampling periods in which + each item was represented, are shown in the following list: + wheat 23.2 per cent (20), sorghum 15.2 (16), oat 7.8 (8), + sunflower 7.2 (8), corn 5.4 (12), brome 4.2 (5), other grass + 2.4 (7), cherry 1.2 (2), beetle 13.3 (21), grasshopper 9.3 + (19), ant .7 (3), miscellaneous insect .2 (2), mammal 2.6 + (19), bird .8 (1), eggshell .5 (3), snake .1 (2), fish .9 + (9), crayfish 2.4 (12), snail .2 (9). + +Wheat is the "staff-of-life" of the crows in south-central Kansas and +the percentage recorded in the diet in my study is much higher than the +percentages found by other investigators. Wheat, being the principal +crop in this area, was a readily available food. The fluctuations in the +use of wheat were due to fluctuations in the availability of other foods +that were preferred. In eastern Harvey County wheat consumption was +35.7 per cent of the diet in the latter part of July, and 49.1 per cent +in December. + +Consumption of wheat was high (34.4 per cent) during the harvest in +June. However, this does not indicate serious damage since the crow +population at this time was low, and much of the wheat eaten probably +was shattered waste grain. When plowing began, wheat consumption was +much reduced. At the time wheat was sown, September 10 to October 15, +consumption was average to low. + +In western Harvey County wheat was less important in the diet of +wintering crows. After reaching a peak (22.7 per cent) in October, just +after sowing, it steadily decreased, varying from 6.9 per cent to none +in December. + +The wheat consumption of crows has little significance economically. No +instances of damage were reported to me either at the time of harvest or +at the time of sowing. Although crows undoubtedly do eat wheat from +newly sown fields, this utilization seldom damages the stand. No +evidence of pulling young wheat was found. Most wheat eaten was waste +grain. + +Grain sorghum was the staple food of the wintering crows. In eastern +Harvey County, where sorghum is not an important crop, its consumption +began in August, reached a peak in the last part of November, and fell +off sharply in December. The grain sorghum crop is vulnerable to damage +by crows and it is ripening in the autumn as the crow population is +building up. In certain areas and certain years the loss may be +important. An exceptional instance was reported to me of crows taking 40 +per cent of the crop from a small field of early ripening sorghum near a +roost. Most farmers and county agents interviewed thought that the +over-all damage was not great. The crop is usually combined and little +remains in the fields after October, when the majority of wintering +crows arrive. Nevertheless, even waste grain picked up after harvest +should be counted as a loss on some farms where stock are turned in to +clean up such grain. + +Oats were taken sparingly as waste grain in summer, autumn, and winter, +and most were eaten in late winter and early spring from newly sown +fields (37.2 per cent of the February diet and 72.6 per cent of the +April diet). These percentages were probably high, since there is a high +proportion of indigestible residues in oats. This is more than +compensated for in the yearly average by the paucity of collections +made in the period when consumption of oats was highest. + +Fields newly sown to oats provided a major supply of food in the early +spring when other food supplies had been depleted. However, no instance +of damage to a stand of oats was reported to me. Aldous (1944:294) +mentioned that crows fed on spring-sown oat fields in Oklahoma but +suggested that they picked up only grain which was not covered. + +Sunflower seeds, although not important as a food of the crows in +eastern Harvey County, were a staple food of these wintering in the +western part of the study area. Consumption of sunflower seeds began in +September. In the latter part of December the percentage increased and +many pellets were composed entirely of sunflower seed hulls. Sunflower +seeds have a high percentage of indigestible residue. + +In both popular accounts and scientific studies, the economic +significance of the consumption of weed seeds such as those of +sunflowers by birds often has been interpreted in an oversimplified +manner. It has been assumed that if crows eat several million sunflower +seeds in the winter, the sunflowers growing in the farmers' fields the +next year will have been reduced by the same number. However, like most +annual plants, sunflowers produce a great surplus of seeds each year. +Most of the seeds consumed by crows would never have a chance to grow to +maturity, even if they were not eaten. Therefore this component of the +crow's diet is only slightly beneficial or neutral for the farmer. The +effect of crows (or of the entire bird population for that matter) upon +the sunflower crop in the farmers' fields is probably slight. + +Corn is one of the preferred foods of crows, but little corn was grown +in the study area. Other investigators have found higher percentages +elsewhere. In eastern Harvey County corn reached its highest point in +December but was insignificant in the diet. In the western part of the +study area it made up a larger percentage of the diet of wintering +crows. The corn eaten early in the season was undoubtedly from the +standing crop. However, most of that picked up in late autumn and in +winter was waste grain. Since little corn was shocked and left in the +fields, there was less opportunity for damage. The amount of corn +pulling at planting time was not determined, since no pellets were +collected then. However, the population of crows at that time was low. I +received no complaints of such damage to corn nor of significant damage +to the corn crop at other seasons. + +There were pastures of brome grass in the area under study in eastern +Harvey County, and the seeds seemed to be a preferred food, constituting +a major food supply for the crows in the latter part of July and the +first part of August. Having a high content of indigestible residues +they probably showed up in the pellets in percentages out of proportion +to their importance in the diet. They were unimportant in the diet of +wintering crows in the western part of the study area. This component of +brome grass in the diet was economically of little significance in the +study area, although it could be of significance where brome grass seed +was being harvested. + +Cherries were recorded only in June and only from one family of crows in +eastern Harvey County; cherry orchards are few in this area. The damage +done by the crows in the cherry orchard was slight, since only a few +crows fed there. + +Weed seeds such as those of spurges (_Euphorbia_), ragweed, and pigweed +were found in trace amounts in the diet of the crows. However, they were +not preferred foods, since they were available in large quantities. + +Wild fruits such as grape and pokeberry also showed up in trace amounts. +Elsewhere, investigators have found wild fruit forming a major source of +food in winter. However, it was not readily available in this area. + +Plant fibers and seeds unidentifiable with the resources at hand formed +2.2 per cent of the residues. + +It was reported to me that crows caused damage to watermelons which are +extensively grown in the sandhills region but no residues of this crop +were found in any pellets collected. + +Insects were most important in the animal portion of the food. The +economic and ecologic significance of insects in the diet of birds is +often oversimplified. The effects of predation upon animal populations +are complex, and predation is often a by-product of population rather +than a controlling factor. + +A female insect eaten before oviposition has a greater ecologic +significance than one eaten after she has laid her eggs and is ready to +die. + +Beetles made up more than half of the insect component of the diet. +Scarabaeids were readily recognizable. Other beetles were classified as +predaceous or non-predaceous according to the type of mandibles found. +When mandibles were lacking the occurrences were listed merely as +unclassified beetles, and those made up 5.6 per cent of the yearly food +residues. Predaceous beetles made up 3.3 per cent, whereas +non-predaceous beetles made up only 1.3 per cent. Both were found in +one-half of the collecting periods. Predaceous and non-predaceous +beetles formed 1.2 per cent of the yearly food residues. This +preponderance of predaceous beetle material is what might be expected +from the manner in which crows feed. Many predaceous ground beetles of +the family Carabidae would be found under rocks and clods and on the +ground. + +Beetles were a constant component of the diet in summer. They reached a +peak of 48.7 per cent in the last part of July. In November the +percentage declined and by December they formed only 2.5 per cent of the +diet. + +Scarabaeid beetles were utilized in large quantities when they were most +abundant; they made up 28.7 per cent of the diet in the latter part of +June. The larvae of scarabaeid beetles are destructive to wheat and +alfalfa and live in the ground from one to three years before +metamorphosing into adult beetles. Adults emerge from the ground from +April to mid-August, the maximum flight occurring in May and June. Most +of the eggs are laid from the last of May to the middle of July (Hayes, +1920:306). Afterward the adults soon die. Many of the beetles are +nocturnal, but some of the more important destructive forms are diurnal +(Hayes, 1918:142). Crows pick up the diurnal forms when they are active +and perhaps find the nocturnal forms under clods or in burrows and eat +them in ecologically significant numbers. + +Crows are beneficial to the farmer insofar as they control the +populations of scarabaeids and other non-predaceous beetles. However, +destruction of predaceous beetles is harmful to the farmers' best +interests. + +Grasshoppers, second only to beetles in the insect component of the +diet, are among the most destructive insects in Kansas. Eggs laid in +autumn overwinter and hatch the next summer, from April to August, +depending upon the species. The maximum numbers of grasshoppers are +present in late summer and early autumn and they continue feeding on +crops until the first killing frost. The greatest damage is caused by +the destruction of the foliage of corn, wheat, and alfalfa (Smith, _et +al._, 1943:126). The consumption of grasshoppers closely followed the +curve of their availability, since they are a preferred food of the +crow. They were picked up in small quantities even in winter. In summer +they made up 6 to 10 per cent of the diet of the crows in eastern Harvey +County. Through the late summer and autumn this percentage rose, until +during the first half of October they made up 59.6 per cent of the +diet. However, in the western part of the study area, they constituted a +smaller part of the diet. + +Predation upon grasshoppers, especially in summer and early autumn, +benefits the farmer by helping to stabilize populations of grasshoppers. +However, when grasshopper consumption was highest, in early October, +many of those eaten probably already had completed their breeding cycle, +and their consumption was hence of little significance economically or +ecologically. + +Ants were consumed only in September and October when they constituted +as much as 14.9 per cent of the diet. Crows may make an entire meal from +a large colony; at any rate, whenever ants were found in a pellet, they +constituted a large percentage of it. + +Miscellaneous insect remains constituted two-tenths of one per cent of +the yearly diet. Hemipteran remains were present only in trace +quantities (.5 per cent of the July 13-26 sample from eastern Harvey +County). + +Only a few questionable fragments from insect larvae were found in the +pellets collected in the course of this study. However, as mentioned +earlier, there is evidence that larvae constituted a major food supply +during much of the summer. + +Many investigators have found that crows feed on grubs and caterpillars +(Aldous, 1944; Alexander, 1930; Lemaire, 1950; Kalmbach, 1918; Barrows +and Schwarz, 1895). A number of county agents with whom I had +correspondence mentioned that crows aided the farmer in this way. More +investigation is required to determine the significance of crow +predation upon insect larvae in this area. Most of the bone material +recorded was fragmentary. Phalangeal or podial elements of rodents and +various bones of rabbits were identified. The only teeth identified were +those of the genus _Rattus_. Barrows and Schwarz (1895:24-25) found that +small bones of mammals may be completely ground up and digested by the +crow. Hence the amount of food furnished by mammals, either alive or as +carrion, may be higher than my figures indicate. + +Bones of birds were found in only one pellet, obtained in early July. +However, few pellets were collected in the nesting season. + +The eggshell occurring in the pellets probably was indicative of +extensive feeding on dumping grounds, and I received no reports of eggs +lost to crows on poultry farms. Such damage has been reduced to a +minimum since most poultry flocks are well-housed. + +The percentage of aquatic animals (fish, crayfish and snail) in the +diet increased during the early autumn, as the creeks dried up in +eastern Harvey County, but after mid-October declined rapidly, as all +the pools were then gone. + + +Conclusions + +The large wintering flocks of crows are important consumers of grain +sorghums in south-central Kansas. In the early autumn when the crow +population is building up, it damages the sorghum crop before harvest. +The damage varies from year to year, being much more keenly felt in dry +years when the crop is poor or in years when the crop is late. However, +most of the sorghums, which are the principal item of diet of these +wintering crows, are waste grain taken from the fields after harvest. +Some of this waste grain taken should be counted as a loss because the +farmer would normally let his livestock utilize it. + +Crows use newly sown oat fields as a major source of food during the +late winter and early spring. However, damage to the crop is slight. +Corn is not an important crop in this area. The crow population is low +at the season when corn is planted, so probably little damage is done at +this time. Much of the corn eaten in winter is waste grain. Feeding on +wheat is of little economic importance, since most of that taken is +waste grain. Feeding on sunflower seeds may be counted as neutral to +slightly beneficial. Damage to watermelons, which are extensively grown +in the sandhills region, may be important at times. Crow feeding upon +other crops is only locally significant. + +Although it has food preferences, the crow is euryphagous, and its diet +is governed to a large extent by the availability of various types of +food in its habitat. Therefore, in its ecologic relationships with many +other species, it is a density dependent predator. It reduces the +numbers of a certain species when the latter becomes unusually abundant +but lessens the mortality pressure against it when the prey population +is low. Predators of this type tend to maintain stability in a community +in contrast to the violent oscillations often caused by a more +stenophagous predator. This study indicates that in south-central Kansas +crows help to stabilize the populations of grasshoppers, ground-dwelling +beetles both predaceous and non-predaceous, and probably those of other +types of insects whose soil dwelling larvae are subject to predation +during summer plowing. + +Crows also serve as scavengers, feeding on carrion and at dumping +grounds, as indicated by the high frequency of eggshell and mammalian +bone in the diet. Bird bones were found in an insignificant amount in +this study, but extensive collections were not made during the main +nesting season. + + +Summary + +An intensive study of the yearly diet of crows was carried on from +December, 1952, to February, 1954, in Harvey County and the northeastern +townships of Reno County, Kansas, in order to discover some of the +ecologic and economic relationships of the population of crows in +south-central Kansas. The study is based upon the analysis of 617 +regurgitated pellets collected throughout the year. Data obtained from +this analysis have been correlated with field observations on crows and +habitat changes. + +The area is in the zone of transition between tall-grass and short-grass +prairie, and the predominant agricultural crop is wheat. The study area +supports a breeding population of approximately one pair of crows per +square mile, but large flocks of wintering crows move into the western +part of the area near the Arkansas River Valley. + +Plant material amounted to 69.0 per cent of the pellet residues. Wheat +is the food taken in greatest amount in the yearly average, but the +staple foods of the wintering crows are grain sorghum, sunflower seeds, +and corn. Crows use newly sown oat fields as a major source of food in +late winter and early spring, but damage to the crop seems to be slight. +Growers of grain sorghum and, locally, growers of corn and watermelons, +sustain serious damage from crows. + +Being euryphagous, crows exert a stabilizing influence on many kinds of +prey and on the biotic community as a whole. This study indicates that +their effects are especially important in helping to stabilize the +populations of grasshoppers and of ground-dwelling beetles, and possibly +those of some other insects that have soil-dwelling larvae. + +Carrion and material from dumping grounds furnish another fairly +constant component of the crow's diet. + + +TABLE 1. AVERAGE, MAXIMUM, AND MINIMUM PERCENTAGES OF FOOD RESIDUES IN +PELLETS COLLECTED IN EASTERN HARVEY COUNTY, IN 1953. + +[Transcriber's note: Table split in two] + + | April | June |June 29-| July |July 27-| Aug. | Sept. | + | 6-19 | 15-28 |July 12 | 13-26 |Aug. 9 | 10-23 | 7-20 | +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| +Number of | | | | | | | | + pellets | 9 | 7 | 6 | 19 | 18 | 5 | 57 | +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| +No. of | | | | | | | | + Collections | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 5 | +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | 18.2 | 34.4 | 1.7 | 35.7 | 28.5 | 29.0 | 23.4 | +wheat | (90-5)|(99-50)| (10) |(80-10)| (80-5) |(55-20)|(100-5)| +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | | | | | 2.0 | | 10.7 | +sorghum | | | | | (35) | |(90-10)| +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | 72.6 | | | 1.6 | | | | +oats |(99-50)| | | (30) | | | | +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| +sunflower | | | | | | | | +seed | | | | | | | | +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | | | | | | | | +corn | | | | | | | | +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | | | | .5 | 44.6 | 28.6 | 4.8 | +grass seed | | | | (5) | (90-60)| (85-5)| (70-5)| +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | | | | | | | .1 | +grape | | | | | | | (2) | +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | | 20.1 | 1.7 | | | | | +cherry | |(70-20)| (10) | | | | | +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | | | .8 | .1 | | | | +spurge | | | (5) | (2) | | | | +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | | | | 1.6 | 5.2 | | | +misc. plant | | | |(30-10)| (95) | | | +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| +TOTAL PLANT | 90.8 | 54.5 | 4.2 | 39.5 | 80.3 | 57.6 | 39.0 | +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| +scarabaeid | | 28.7 | 5.0 | | | | | +beetle | |(75-25)| (30) | | | | | +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| +other | 2.7 | .1 | 34.2 | 48.7 | 10.0 | 21.0 | 19.0 | +beetle | (10-5)| (3) |(100-20)|(90-10)| (90-10)|(45-10)|(80-5) | +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | | .1 | 6.6 | 10.9 | 4.2 | 15.0 | 23.4 | +grasshopper | | (2) |( 40) |(40-5) | (40-5) |(30-5) |(100-5)| +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | | | | | | | 5.9 | +ant | | | | | | |(90-75)| +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | | | | | | | 1.9 | +misc. insect | | | | .5 | | |(50-5) | +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | .5 | 1.5 | 35.0 | | .6 | 1.0 | 1.2 | +crayfish | (5) | (10) |(100-10)| | (10) | (5) |(25-10)| +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | | | | | .6 | | .6 | +snail | | | | | (10) | |(10-2) | +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | | | | .1 | | .1 | 4.8 | +fish | | | | (7) | | (5) |(20-5) | +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | | | 15 | | | | | +bird | | | (90) | | | | | +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | | | | .3 | .6 | 3.0 | 2.0 | +eggshell | | | | (5) | (10) |(10-5) | (30-5)| +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| + | 6 | 15.1 | | | 3.7 | 1.4 | 2.2 | +mammal |(45-10)|(100-5)| | | (50-5) | (5-2) | (60-2)| +-------------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------| +TOTAL ANIMAL | 9.2 | 45.5 | 95.8 | 60.5 | 19.7 | 42.4 | 61.0 | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------| + + + |Sept. 21-| Oct. |Oct. 19-| Nov. | Nov. |Nov. 30- + |Oct. 4 | 5-18 |Nov. 1 | 2-15 | 16-29 |Dec. 13 +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- +Number of | | | | | | + pellets | 29 | 27 | 24 | 25 | 7 | 8 +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- +No. of | | | | | | + Collections | 4 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 1 | 2 +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- + | 21.5 | 10.8 | 35.4 | 33.0 | 43.7 | 49.1 +wheat |(100-5) |(60-15)|(85-10) | (80-35)|(98-30)|(98-20) +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- + | 14.0 | 7.6 | 24.4 | 24.7 | 28.6 | 6.9 +sorghum | (75-5) | (60-3)| (85-5) |(100-10)| (80-5)|(40-15) +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- + | | | | | | +oats | | | | | | +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- +sunflower | | | | | 6.4 | +seed | | | | | (40-5)| +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- + | | | 4.5 | 4.0 | 1.4 | 15.0 +corn | | | (50-10)| (80-10)| (10) |(70-50) +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- + | | | | | | +grass seed | | | | | | +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- + | | | | | | +grape | | | | | | +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- + | | | | | | +cherry | | | | | | +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- + | | | .2 | | | +spurge | | | (5) | | | +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- + | 4.4 | 1.6 | 2.1 | 5.5 | 2.9 | 14.3 +misc. plant | (90-40) | (45) | (50) | (75-10)| (20) |(70-45) +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- +TOTAL PLANT | 39.9 | 20.0 | 66.6 | 67.2 | 83.0 | 85.3 +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- +scarabaeid | | | | | | +beetle | | | | | | +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- +other | 10.6 | 15.5 | 13.9 | 14.4 | 5.3 | 2.5 +beetle | (95-5) |(98-1) | (70-5) | (65-5) | (15-2)| (20) +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- + | 36.3 | 59.6 | 11.8 | 14.3 | 10.3 | 4.4 +grasshopper | (95-5) |(90-34)| (65-5) | (99-5) | (65-2)|(10-5) +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- + | | | | | | +ant | | | | | | +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- + | 2.8 | | | | | +misc. insect | (60) | | | | | +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- + | .2 | .4 | 1.4 | | | +crayfish | (5-2) | (5-2) | (20-10)| | | +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- + | 1.3 | trace | 1.1 | .2 | | +snail | (20-5) | (1) | (10-5) | (5) | | +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- + | 7.3 | 2.5 | 3.4 | .6 | | +fish | (20.5) |(20.1) | (20-5) | (10-5) | | +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- + | | | | | | +bird | | | | | | +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- + | 1.1 | .4 | .2 | .8 | .7 | +eggshell | (10-5) | (1) | (5) | (20) | (5) | +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- + | .5 | 1.6 | 1.6 | 2.5 | .7 | 7.8 +mammal | (5) | (20-2)| (10-5) | (20-1) | (5) |(25-2) +-------------+---------+-------+--------+--------+-------+-------- +TOTAL ANIMAL | 60.1 | 80.0 | 33.4 | 32.8 | 17.0 | 14.7 +------------------------------------------------------------------ + + +TABLE 2. FREQUENCIES OF OCCURRENCE OF FOOD RESIDUES IN PELLETS COLLECTED +IN THE EASTERN PART OF HARVEY COUNTY--1953. + +=============================================================================== + |April 6-19 + | |June 15-28 + | | |June 29-July 12 + | | | |July 13-26 + | | | | |July 27-Aug. 9 + | | | | | |Aug. 10-23 + | | | | | | |Sept. 7-20 + | | | | | | | |Sept. 21-Oct. 4 + | | | | | | | | |Oct. 5-18 + | | | | | | | | | |Oct. 19-Nov. 1 + | | | | | | | | | | |Nov. 2-15 + | | | | | | | | | | | |Nov. 16-29 + | | | | | | | | | | | | |Nov. 30-Dec. 13 +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +No. of pellets | 9 | 7 | 6 | 19| 18| 5 | 57| 29| 27| 24| 25| 7 | 8 +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +wheat | 6 | 3 | 1 | 18| 16| 4 | 27| 12| 10| 15| 13| 4 | 6 +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +sorghum | | | | | 1| | 20| 12| 10| 12| 12| 4 | 2 +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +sunflower seed | | | | | | | | | | | | 2 | +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +oats | 8 | | | 1| | | | | | | | | +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +brome grass | | | | 2| 10| 4 | | | | | | | +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +corn | | | | | | | | | | 3| 3| 1 | 2 +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +cherry | | 3 | 1 | | | | | | | | | | +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +grass seed | | | | | | | 11| | | | | | +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +spurge | | | 1 | 1| | | | | | 1| | | +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +grape | | | | | | | 1| | | | | | +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +misc. plant | | | | 2| 1| | | 2| 1| 1| 3| 1 | 2 +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +beetle | | | | | | | | | | | | | +(scarabaeid) | | 4 | 1 | | | | | | | | | | +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +beetle (other) | 4 | 1 | 4 | 19| 5| 5 | 39| 15| 17| 16| 14| 4 | 1 +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +grasshopper | | 1 | 1 | 12| 6| 5 | 39| 22| 24| 12| 18| 3 | 6 +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +ant | | | | | | | 4| | | | | | +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +bug | | | | | | | | | | | | | +(hemipteran) | | | | 1| | | | | | | | | +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +misc. insect | | | | | | | 3| 1| | | | | +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +crayfish | 1 | 1 | 3 | | 1| 1 | 3| 2| 2| 2| | | +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +snail | | | | | 1| | 7| 4| 1| 4| 1| | +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +fish | | | | 2| | 1 | 28| 14| 7| 7| 2| | +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +bird | | | 1 | | | | | | | | | | +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +eggshell | | | | 1| 1| 2 | 10| 5| 8| 1| 1| 1 | +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- +mammal | 2 | 2 | | | 4| 2 | 8| 3| 5| 5| 8| 1 | 5 +---------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+--------------- + + +TABLE 3. AVERAGE, MAXIMUM, AND MINIMUM PERCENTAGES OF FOOD RESIDUES IN +PELLETS COLLECTED AT WINTERING CROW ROOSTS IN THE WESTERN PART OF THE +STUDY AREA--1952-53-54. + + |Dec. 28-Jan. 11 + | |Aug. 24-Sept. 6 + | | |Sept. 7-20 + | | | |Oct. 5-18 + | | | | |Nov. 16-29 + | | | | | |Dec. 14-27 + | | | | | | |Dec. 28-Jan. 10 + | | | | | | | |Feb. 8-21 +=============================================================================== +Number of| | | | | | | | + pellets | 62 | 5 | 38 | 65 | 56 | 22 | 96 | 32 +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- +No. of | | | | | | | | + Collec- | | | | | | | | + tions | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 +---------+--------+-------+--------+-------+-------+--------+--------+--------- + | 6.9 | 62.8 | 14.6 | 22.7 | 2.2 | | 3.3 | 2.8 +wheat |(100-10)|(99-35)|(90-10)|(90-10) |(95-10)| |(90-30) |(50-10) +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- + | 29 | 1 | 22.4 | 31.2 | 41.2 | 42.5 | 32.4 | 21.6 +sorghum |(100-5) | (5) |(95-5) |(100-10)|(100-5)|(100-5) |(100-10)|(100-10) +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- +sunflower| 26.3 | | 3.3 | 5.0 | 26.9 | 22.0 | 32.4 | 21.6 +seed | (90-5) | | (95-5)| (60-10)| (95-3)| (90-5) |(100-5) |(80-10) +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- + | 11.4 | 19.0 | 12.4 | 4.5 | 14.0 | 11.4 | 14.1 | 1.2 +corn |(100-10)|(40-15)| (95-5)| (85-30)|(100-5)|(100-10)|(100-5) |(20-10) +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- + | 14.1 | | | 4.9 | 5.7 | 5.5 | 4.6 | 37.2 +oats |(100-10)| | | (80-15)| (70-5)| (75-5) | (95-5) |(100-10) +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- +brome | 1.4 | | | | | | .1 | +grass | (85) | | | | | | (10) | +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- +Other | 9.4 | | | 3.2 | 4.0 | 15.7 | 8.8 | 6.3 +Grass | (95-5) | | | (80-20)|(90-10)| (95-10)|(100-10)|(50-20) +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- + | | | trace | | | | .1 | +grape | | | (2) | | | | (10) | +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- + | | | .4 | .5 | | | | +pokeberry| | | (15) | (30-2) | | | | +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- + | | | | .4 | | | .2 | +spurge | | | | (25) | | | (10-1) | +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- + | | | | | .1 | | .5 | .2 +ragweed | | | | | (5) | | (10-5) | (5) +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- +misc. | 1 | | .8 | | | | .8 | .2 +plant | (50-1) | | (30) | | | | (80-2) | (3-2) +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- +TOTAL | | | | | | | | + PLANT | 99.5 | 82.8 | 53.9 | 72.4 | 94.1 | 97.1 | 97.4 | 97.4 +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- +grass- | .1 | 6.0 | 8.9 | 10.5 | 1.4 | | .5 | .3 +hopper | (5) | (30) | (30-5)| (70-5) |(15-5) | | (15-5) | (5) +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- + | .1 | 9 | 17.8 | 12.1 | 1.7 | .9 | .4 | .9 +beetle | (5) |(15-10)| (95-2)| (80-3) |(15-2) | (10-5) | (10-5) | (10-5) +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- + | | | 14.9 | 3.4 | | | | +ant | | |(95-73)| (85-5) | | | | +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- + | | | .7 | .8 | | | .5 | +crayfish | | |(10-5) | (50) | | | (50) | +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- + | .1 | | | | .1 | | .1 | +snail | (5) | | | | (5) | | (5) | +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- + | | | .1 | | | | .1 | +fish | | | (5) | | | | (5) | +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- + | | | 1.8 | | | .9 | | +snake | | |(60-5) | | | (20) | | +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- + | | | | | .3 | .4 | .6 | 1.1 +eggshell | | | | |(10-5) | (10) | (10-5) | (20-5) +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- + | 2 | 2.2 | 1.9 | .8 | 2.4 | .7 | .4 | .3 +mammal | (10-5) | (5-1) |(20-5) | (10-5) |(60-5) | (10-5) | (10-5) | (10) +---------+--------+-------+-------+--------+-------+--------+--------+--------- +TOTAL | | | | | | | | + ANIMAL | .5 | 17.2 | 46.1 | 27.6 | 5.9 | 2.9 | 2.6 | 2.6 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + + +TABLE 4. FREQUENCIES OF OCCURRENCE OF FOOD RESIDUES IN PELLETS COLLECTED +AT WINTERING CROW ROOSTS IN THE WESTERN PART OF THE STUDY +AREA--1952-53-54. + +===================+==================================================== + | Dec. 28-Jan. 11 + | +----------------- + | | Aug. 24-Sept. 6 + | | +----------- + | | | Sept. 7-20 + | | | +---------- + | | | | Oct. 5-18 + | | | | +----------- + | | | | | Nov. 16-29 + | | | | | +----------- + | | | | | | Dec. 14-27 + | | | | | | +---------------- + | | | | | | | Dec. 28-Jan. 10 + | | | | | | | +---------- + | | | | | | | | Feb. 8-21 +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +Number of pellets | 62 | 5 | 38 | 65 | 56 | 22 | 96 | 32 | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +wheat | 11 | 5 | 10 | 27 | 3 | | 5 | 4 | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +sorghum | 45 | 1 | 22 | 36 | 44 | 16 | 74 | 18 | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +sunflower seed | 43 | | 5 | 12 | 32 | 9 | 68 | 19 | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +corn | 14 | 4 | 11 | 5 | 12 | 8 | 27 | 3 | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +oats | 18 | | | 8 | 9 | 3 | 12 | 24 | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +brome grass | 1 | | | | | | 1 | | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +other grass | 15 | | | 5 | 5 | 7 | 15 | 5 | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +grape | | | 1 | | | | 1 | | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +pokeberry | | | 1 | 2 | | | | | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +spurge | | | | 1 | | | 5 | | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +ragweed | | | | | 1 | | 8 | 1 | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +misc. plant | 4 | | 1 | | | | 2 | 2 | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +grasshopper | 1 | 1 | 23 | 38 | 10 | | 5 | 2 | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +beetle | 1 | 4 | 38 | 48 | 15 | 3 | 6 | 4 | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +ant | | | 7 | 6 | | | | | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +crayfish | | | 3 | 1 | | | 1 | | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +snail | 1 | | | | 1 | | 1 | | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +fish | | | 1 | | | | 1 | | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +snake | | | 2 | | | 1 | | | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +eggshell | | | | | 2 | 1 | 9 | 3 | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ +mammal | 2 | 3 | 5 | 7 | 10 | 2 | 5 | 1 | +-------------------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ + + + + +Literature Cited + + +ALDOUS, S. E. + +1944. Winter habits of crows in Oklahoma. Jour. Wildlife Management, +8:290-295, 1 fig. + + +ALEXANDER, F. M. + +1930. Notes on the birds of south-central Kansas. Wilson Bull., +42:241-244. + + +BARROWS, W. B., and SCHWARZ, E. A. + +1895. The common crow of the United States. U. S. Dept. of Agric. Div. +Ornith. and Mammal., 6:1-98, 2 figs. + + +BLACK, C. T. + +1941. Ecological and economic relations of the crow with special +reference to Illinois. Unpublished thesis, Univ. of Illinois, Urbana, +Illinois. + + +HAYES, W. P. + +1918. Studies on the life history of two Kansas Scarabaeidae. Jour. +Econ. Entom., 11:136-144. + +1920. The life histories of some Kansas Lachnosterna. Jour. Econ. +Entom., 12:109-117. + + +HERING, P. E. + +1934. The food of the American crow in central New York State. Auk, +51:470-476. + + +IMLER, R. H. + +1939. Comparison of the food of the white-necked ravens and crows in +Oklahoma. Wilson Bull., 51:121-122. + + +KALMBACH, E. R. + +1918. The crow and its relation to man. U. S. Dept. of Agric. Farm. +Bull., 621:1-92, 3 figs., 2 plates, 4 tables. + +1920. The crow in its relation to agriculture. U. S. Dept. of Agric. +Farm. Bull., 1102:1-20, 3 figs. + +1939. The crow in its relation to agriculture. U. S. Dept. of Agric. +Farm. Bull., 1102; rev. ed.: 1-21, 6 figs., 2 tables. + + +LEMAIRE, R. J. + +1950. The fall, winter and spring food habits of crows in the Baton +Rouge region of Louisiana. Unpublished thesis, Louisiana State +University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana. + + +MOORE, R. C. + +1930. Surface features of Kansas. Kansas Geological Survey map, scale +1:1,056,000. + + +SMITH, R. C., KELLY, E. G., DEAN, G. A., BRYSON, H. R., and PARKER, R. +L. + +1943. Insects in Kansas. Report of the Kansas State Bd. of Agric., 440 +pp., 6 pls., 464 figs. + +_Transmitted November 9, 1955._ + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Food of the Crow, Corvus +brachyrhynchos Brehm, in South-central Kansas, by Dwight Platt + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FOOD OF THE CROW, CORVUS *** + +***** This file should be named 33545.txt or 33545.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/5/4/33545/ + +Produced by Chris Curnow, Joseph Cooper, Josephine Paolucci +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. diff --git a/33545.zip b/33545.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..eacccf7 --- /dev/null +++ b/33545.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8e113d3 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #33545 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/33545) |