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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Indian Heroes and Great Chieftains, by 
+[AKA Ohiyesa], Charles A. Eastman
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Indian Heroes and Great Chieftains
+
+Author: [AKA Ohiyesa], Charles A. Eastman
+
+Release Date: July 5, 2008 [EBook #336]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK INDIAN HEROES AND GREAT CHIEFTAINS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Judith Boss
+
+
+
+
+
+INDIAN HEROES AND GREAT CHIEFTAINS
+
+By Charles A. Eastman (Ohiyesa)
+
+
+
+
+     CONTENTS
+
+
+      1.  RED CLOUD
+      2.  SPOTTED TAIL
+      3.  LITTLE CROW
+      4.  TAMAHAY
+      5.  GALL
+      6.  CRAZY HORSE
+      7.  SITTING BULL
+      8.  RAIN-IN-THE-FACE
+      9.  TWO STRIKE
+     10.  AMERICAN HORSE
+     11.  DULL KNIFE
+     12.  ROMAN NOSE
+     13.  CHIEF JOSEPH
+     14.  LITTLE WOLF
+     15.  HOLE-IN-THE-DAY
+
+
+
+
+
+INDIAN HEROES AND GREAT CHIEFTAINS
+
+
+
+
+RED CLOUD
+
+
+EVERY age, every race, has its leaders and heroes. There were over sixty
+distinct tribes of Indians on this continent, each of which boasted
+its notable men. The names and deeds of some of these men will live
+in American history, yet in the true sense they are unknown, because
+misunderstood. I should like to present some of the greatest chiefs of
+modern times in the light of the native character and ideals, believing
+that the American people will gladly do them tardy justice.
+
+It is matter of history that the Sioux nation, to which I belong,
+was originally friendly to the Caucasian peoples which it met in
+succession-first, to the south the Spaniards; then the French, on the
+Mississippi River and along the Great Lakes; later the English, and
+finally the Americans. This powerful tribe then roamed over the whole
+extent of the Mississippi valley, between that river and the Rockies.
+Their usages and government united the various bands more closely than
+was the case with many of the neighboring tribes.
+
+During the early part of the nineteenth century, chiefs such as
+Wabashaw, Redwing, and Little Six among the eastern Sioux, Conquering
+Bear, Man-Afraid-of-His-Horse, and Hump of the western bands, were the
+last of the old type. After these, we have a coterie of new leaders,
+products of the new conditions brought about by close contact with the
+conquering race.
+
+This distinction must be borne in mind--that while the early chiefs
+were spokesmen and leaders in the simplest sense, possessing no real
+authority, those who headed their tribes during the transition period
+were more or less rulers and more or less politicians. It is a singular
+fact that many of the "chiefs", well known as such to the American
+public, were not chiefs at all according to the accepted usages of
+their tribesmen. Their prominence was simply the result of an abnormal
+situation, in which representatives of the United States Government made
+use of them for a definite purpose. In a few cases, where a chief met
+with a violent death, some ambitious man has taken advantage of the
+confusion to thrust himself upon the tribe and, perhaps with outside
+help, has succeeded in usurping the leadership.
+
+Red Cloud was born about 1820 near the forks of the Platte River. He
+was one of a family of nine children whose father, an able and respected
+warrior, reared his son under the old Spartan regime. The young Red
+Cloud is said to have been a fine horseman, able to swim across the
+Missouri and Yellowstone rivers, of high bearing and unquestionable
+courage, yet invariably gentle and courteous in everyday life. This
+last trait, together with a singularly musical and agreeable voice, has
+always been characteristic of the man.
+
+When he was about six years old, his father gave him a spirited colt,
+and said to him:
+
+"My son, when you are able to sit quietly upon the back of this colt
+without saddle or bridle, I shall be glad, for the boy who can win a
+wild creature and learn to use it will as a man be able to win and rule
+men."
+
+The little fellow, instead of going for advice and help to his
+grandfather, as most Indian boys would have done, began quietly to
+practice throwing the lariat. In a little while he was able to lasso
+the colt. He was dragged off his feet at once, but hung on, and finally
+managed to picket him near the teepee. When the big boys drove the herd
+of ponies to water, he drove his colt with the rest. Presently the pony
+became used to him and allowed himself to be handled. The boy began
+to ride him bareback; he was thrown many times, but persisted until he
+could ride without even a lariat, sitting with arms folded and guiding
+the animal by the movements of his body. From that time on he told me
+that he broke all his own ponies, and before long his father's as well.
+
+The old men, his contemporaries, have often related to me how Red
+Cloud was always successful in the hunt because his horses were so well
+broken. At the age of nine, he began to ride his father's pack pony upon
+the buffalo hunt. He was twelve years old, he told me, when he was
+first permitted to take part in the chase, and found to his great
+mortification that none of his arrows penetrated more than a few
+inches. Excited to recklessness, he whipped his horse nearer the fleeing
+buffalo, and before his father knew what he was about, he had seized one
+of the protruding arrows and tried to push it deeper. The furious animal
+tossed his massive head sidewise, and boy and horse were whirled into
+the air. Fortunately, the boy was thrown on the farther side of his
+pony, which received the full force of the second attack. The thundering
+hoofs of the stampeded herd soon passed them by, but the wounded and
+maddened buffalo refused to move, and some critical moments passed
+before Red Cloud's father succeeded in attracting its attention so that
+the boy might spring to his feet and run for his life.
+
+I once asked Red Cloud if he could recall having ever been afraid, and
+in reply he told me this story. He was about sixteen years old and had
+already been once or twice upon the warpath, when one fall his people
+were hunting in the Big Horn country, where they might expect trouble at
+any moment with the hostile Crows or Shoshones. Red Cloud had followed a
+single buffalo bull into the Bad Lands and was out of sight and hearing
+of his companions. When he had brought down his game, he noted carefully
+every feature of his surroundings so that he might at once detect
+anything unusual, and tied his horse with a long lariat to the horn of
+the dead bison, while skinning and cutting up the meat so as to pack
+it to camp. Every few minutes he paused in his work to scrutinize the
+landscape, for he had a feeling that danger was not far off.
+
+Suddenly, almost over his head, as it seemed, he heard a tremendous
+war whoop, and glancing sidewise, thought he beheld the charge of an
+overwhelming number of warriors. He tried desperately to give the usual
+undaunted war whoop in reply, but instead a yell of terror burst from
+his lips, his legs gave way under him, and he fell in a heap. When he
+realized, the next instant, that the war whoop was merely the sudden
+loud whinnying of his own horse, and the charging army a band of fleeing
+elk, he was so ashamed of himself that he never forgot the incident,
+although up to that time he had never mentioned it. His subsequent
+career would indicate that the lesson was well learned.
+
+The future leader was still a very young man when he joined a war party
+against the Utes. Having pushed eagerly forward on the trail, he found
+himself far in advance of his companions as night came on, and at the
+same time rain began to fall heavily. Among the scattered scrub pines,
+the lone warrior found a natural cave, and after a hasty examination, he
+decided to shelter there for the night.
+
+Scarcely had he rolled himself in his blanket when he heard a slight
+rustling at the entrance, as if some creature were preparing to share
+his retreat. It was pitch dark. He could see nothing, but judged that it
+must be either a man or a grizzly. There was not room to draw a bow. It
+must be between knife and knife, or between knife and claws, he said to
+himself.
+
+The intruder made no search but quietly lay down in the opposite corner
+of the cave. Red Cloud remained perfectly still, scarcely breathing,
+his hand upon his knife. Hour after hour he lay broad awake, while
+many thoughts passed through his brain. Suddenly, without warning,
+he sneezed, and instantly a strong man sprang to a sitting posture
+opposite. The first gray of morning was creeping into their rocky den,
+and behold! a Ute hunter sat before him.
+
+Desperate as the situation appeared, it was not without a grim humor.
+Neither could afford to take his eyes from the other's; the tension was
+great, till at last a smile wavered over the expressionless face of the
+Ute. Red Cloud answered the smile, and in that instant a treaty of peace
+was born between them.
+
+"Put your knife in its sheath. I shall do so also, and we will smoke
+together," signed Red Cloud. The other assented gladly, and they
+ratified thus the truce which assured to each a safe return to his
+friends. Having finished their smoke, they shook hands and separated.
+Neither had given the other any information. Red Cloud returned to his
+party and told his story, adding that he had divulged nothing and had
+nothing to report. Some were inclined to censure him for not fighting,
+but he was sustained by a majority of the warriors, who commended his
+self-restraint. In a day or two they discovered the main camp of the
+enemy and fought a remarkable battle, in which Red Cloud especially
+distinguished himself
+
+The Sioux were now entering upon the most stormy period of their
+history. The old things were fast giving place to new. The young men,
+for the first time engaging in serious and destructive warfare with the
+neighboring tribes, armed with the deadly weapons furnished by the
+white man, began to realize that they must soon enter upon a desperate
+struggle for their ancestral hunting grounds. The old men had been
+innocently cultivating the friendship of the stranger, saying among
+themselves, "Surely there is land enough for all!"
+
+Red Cloud was a modest and little known man of about twenty-eight years,
+when General Harney called all the western bands of Sioux together at
+Fort Laramie, Wyoming, for the purpose of securing an agreement and
+right of way through their territory. The Ogallalas held aloof from this
+proposal, but Bear Bull, an Ogallala chief, after having been plied with
+whisky, undertook to dictate submission to the rest of the clan. Enraged
+by failure, he fired upon a group of his own tribesmen, and Red Cloud's
+father and brother fell dead. According to Indian custom, it fell to him
+to avenge the deed. Calmly, without uttering a word, he faced old Bear
+Bull and his son, who attempted to defend his father, and shot them
+both. He did what he believed to be his duty, and the whole band
+sustained him. Indeed, the tragedy gave the young man at once a certain
+standing, as one who not only defended his people against enemies from
+without, but against injustice and aggression within the tribe. From
+this time on he was a recognized leader.
+
+Man-Afraid-of-His-Horse, then head chief of the Ogallalas, took council
+with Red Cloud in all important matters, and the young warrior rapidly
+advanced in authority and influence. In 1854, when he was barely
+thirty-five years old, the various bands were again encamped near Fort
+Laramie. A Mormon emigrant train, moving westward, left a footsore cow
+behind, and the young men killed her for food. The next day, to their
+astonishment, an officer with thirty men appeared at the Indian camp and
+demanded of old Conquering Bear that they be given up. The chief in vain
+protested that it was all a mistake and offered to make reparation. It
+would seem that either the officer was under the influence of liquor,
+or else had a mind to bully the Indians, for he would accept neither
+explanation nor payment, but demanded point-blank that the young men who
+had killed the cow be delivered up to summary punishment. The old chief
+refused to be intimidated and was shot dead on the spot. Not one soldier
+ever reached the gate of Fort Laramie! Here Red Cloud led the young
+Ogallalas, and so intense was the feeling that they even killed the
+half-breed interpreter.
+
+Curiously enough, there was no attempt at retaliation on the part of the
+army, and no serious break until 1860, when the Sioux were involved in
+troubles with the Cheyennes and Arapahoes. In 1862, a grave outbreak
+was precipitated by the eastern Sioux in Minnesota under Little Crow,
+in which the western bands took no part. Yet this event ushered in a new
+period for their race. The surveyors of the Union Pacific were laying
+out the proposed road through the heart of the southern buffalo country,
+the rendezvous of Ogallalas, Brules, Arapahoes, Comanches, and Pawnees,
+who followed the buffalo as a means of livelihood. To be sure, most of
+these tribes were at war with one another, yet during the summer
+months they met often to proclaim a truce and hold joint councils and
+festivities, which were now largely turned into discussions of the
+common enemy. It became evident, however, that some of the smaller
+and weaker tribes were inclined to welcome the new order of things,
+recognizing that it was the policy of the government to put an end to
+tribal warfare.
+
+Red Cloud's position was uncompromisingly against submission. He made
+some noted speeches in this line, one of which was repeated to me by
+an old man who had heard and remembered it with the remarkable verbal
+memory of an Indian.
+
+"Friends," said Red Cloud, "it has been our misfortune to welcome the
+white man. We have been deceived. He brought with him some shining
+things that pleased our eyes; he brought weapons more effective than our
+own: above all, he brought the spirit water that makes one forget for a
+time old age, weakness, and sorrow. But I wish to say to you that if you
+would possess these things for yourselves, you must begin anew and put
+away the wisdom of your fathers. You must lay up food, and forget the
+hungry. When your house is built, your storeroom filled, then look
+around for a neighbor whom you can take at a disadvantage, and seize all
+that he has! Give away only what you do not want; or rather, do not part
+with any of your possessions unless in exchange for another's.
+
+"My countrymen, shall the glittering trinkets of this rich man, his
+deceitful drink that overcomes the mind, shall these things tempt us to
+give up our homes, our hunting grounds, and the honorable teaching of
+our old men? Shall we permit ourselves to be driven to and fro--to be
+herded like the cattle of the white man?"
+
+His next speech that has been remembered was made in 1866, just before
+the attack on Fort Phil Kearny. The tension of feeling against the
+invaders had now reached its height. There was no dissenting voice in
+the council upon the Powder River, when it was decided to oppose to
+the uttermost the evident purpose of the government. Red Cloud was not
+altogether ignorant of the numerical strength and the resourcefulness
+of the white man, but he was determined to face any odds rather than
+submit.
+
+"Hear ye, Dakotas!" he exclaimed. "When the Great Father at Washington
+sent us his chief soldier [General Harney] to ask for a path through
+our hunting grounds, a way for his iron road to the mountains and the
+western sea, we were told that they wished merely to pass through our
+country, not to tarry among us, but to seek for gold in the far west.
+Our old chiefs thought to show their friendship and good will, when they
+allowed this dangerous snake in our midst. They promised to protect the
+wayfarers.
+
+"Yet before the ashes of the council fire are cold, the Great Father
+is building his forts among us. You have heard the sound of the white
+soldier's ax upon the Little Piney. His presence here is an insult and a
+threat. It is an insult to the spirits of our ancestors. Are we then
+to give up their sacred graves to be plowed for corn? Dakotas, I am for
+war!"
+
+In less than a week after this speech, the Sioux advanced upon Fort Phil
+Kearny, the new sentinel that had just taken her place upon the farthest
+frontier, guarding the Oregon Trail. Every detail of the attack had
+been planned with care, though not without heated discussion, and
+nearly every well-known Sioux chief had agreed in striking the blow.
+The brilliant young war leader, Crazy Horse, was appointed to lead the
+charge. His lieutenants were Sword, Hump, and Dull Knife, with Little
+Chief of the Cheyennes, while the older men acted as councilors. Their
+success was instantaneous. In less than half an hour, they had cut down
+nearly a hundred men under Captain Fetterman, whom they drew out of the
+fort by a ruse and then annihilated.
+
+Instead of sending troops to punish, the government sent a commission
+to treat with the Sioux. The result was the famous treaty of 1868, which
+Red Cloud was the last to sign, having refused to do so until all of the
+forts within their territory should be vacated. All of his demands were
+acceded to, the new road abandoned, the garrisons withdrawn, and in the
+new treaty it was distinctly stated that the Black Hills and the Big
+Horn were Indian country, set apart for their perpetual occupancy, and
+that no white man should enter that region without the consent of the
+Sioux.
+
+Scarcely was this treaty signed, however, when gold was discovered in
+the Black Hills, and the popular cry was: "Remove the Indians!" This
+was easier said than done. That very territory had just been solemnly
+guaranteed to them forever: yet how stem the irresistible rush for gold?
+The government, at first, entered some small protest, just enough to
+"save its face" as the saying is; but there was no serious attempt to
+prevent the wholesale violation of the treaty. It was this state of
+affairs that led to the last great speech made by Red Cloud, at a
+gathering upon the Little Rosebud River. It is brief, and touches upon
+the hopelessness of their future as a race. He seems at about this
+time to have reached the conclusion that resistance could not last much
+longer; in fact, the greater part of the Sioux nation was already under
+government control.
+
+"We are told," said he, "that Spotted Tail has consented to be the
+Beggars' Chief. Those Indians who go over to the white man can be
+nothing but beggars, for he respects only riches, and how can an Indian
+be a rich man? He cannot without ceasing to be an Indian. As for me,
+I have listened patiently to the promises of the Great Father, but his
+memory is short. I am now done with him. This is all I have to say."
+
+The wilder bands separated soon after this council, to follow the drift
+of the buffalo, some in the vicinity of the Black Hills and others in
+the Big Horn region. Small war parties came down from time to time upon
+stray travelers, who received no mercy at their hands, or made dashes
+upon neighboring forts. Red Cloud claimed the right to guard and hold
+by force, if need be, all this territory which had been conceded to his
+people by the treaty of 1868. The land became a very nest of outlawry.
+Aside from organized parties of prospectors, there were bands of white
+horse thieves and desperadoes who took advantage of the situation to
+plunder immigrants and Indians alike.
+
+An attempt was made by means of military camps to establish control and
+force all the Indians upon reservations, and another commission was sent
+to negotiate their removal to Indian Territory, but met with an absolute
+refusal. After much guerrilla warfare, an important military campaign
+against the Sioux was set on foot in 1876, ending in Custer's signal
+defeat upon the Little Big Horn.
+
+In this notable battle, Red Cloud did not participate in person, nor in
+the earlier one with Crook upon the Little Rosebud, but he had a son in
+both fights. He was now a councilor rather than a warrior, but his young
+men were constantly in the field, while Spotted Tail had definitely
+surrendered and was in close touch with representatives of the
+government.
+
+But the inevitable end was near. One morning in the fall of 1876 Red
+Cloud was surrounded by United States troops under the command of
+Colonel McKenzie, who disarmed his people and brought them into Fort
+Robinson, Nebraska. Thence they were removed to the Pine Ridge agency,
+where he lived for more than thirty years as a "reservation Indian." In
+order to humiliate him further, government authorities proclaimed the
+more tractable Spotted Tail head chief of the Sioux. Of course, Red
+Cloud's own people never recognized any other chief.
+
+In 1880 he appealed to Professor Marsh, of Yale, head of a scientific
+expedition to the Bad Lands, charging certain frauds at the agency
+and apparently proving his case; at any rate the matter was considered
+worthy of official investigation. In 1890-1891, during the "Ghost Dance
+craze" and the difficulties that followed, he was suspected of collusion
+with the hostiles, but he did not join them openly, and nothing could
+be proved against him. He was already an old man, and became almost
+entirely blind before his death in 1909 in his ninetieth year.
+
+His private life was exemplary. He was faithful to one wife all his
+days, and was a devoted father to his children. He was ambitious for his
+only son, known as Jack Red Cloud, and much desired him to be a great
+warrior. He started him on the warpath at the age of fifteen, not then
+realizing that the days of Indian warfare were well-nigh at an end.
+
+Among latter-day chiefs, Red Cloud was notable as a quiet man, simple
+and direct in speech, courageous in action, an ardent lover of his
+country, and possessed in a marked degree of the manly qualities
+characteristic of the American Indian in his best days.
+
+
+
+
+SPOTTED TAIL
+
+
+Among the Sioux chiefs of the "transition period" only one was shrewd
+enough to read coming events in their true light. It is said of Spotted
+Tail that he was rather a slow-moving boy, preferring in their various
+games and mimic battles to play the role of councilor, to plan and
+assign to the others their parts in the fray. This he did so cleverly
+that he soon became a leader among his youthful contemporaries; and
+withal he was apt at mimicry and impersonation, so that the other boys
+were accustomed to say of him, "He has his grandfather's wit and the
+wisdom of his grandmother!"
+
+Spotted Tail was an orphan, reared by his grandparents, and at an
+early age compelled to shift for himself. Thus he was somewhat at a
+disadvantage among the other boys; yet even this fact may have helped
+to develop in him courage and ingenuity. One little incident of his boy
+life, occurring at about his tenth year, is characteristic of the man.
+In the midst of a game, two boys became involved in a dispute which
+promised to be a serious one, as both drew knives. The young Spotted
+Tail instantly began to cry, "The Shoshones are upon us! To arms! to
+arms!" and the other boys joined in the war whoop. This distracted the
+attention of the combatants and ended the affair.
+
+Upon the whole, his boyhood is not so well remembered as is that of most
+of his leading contemporaries, probably because he had no parents to
+bring him frequently before the people, as was the custom with the
+wellborn, whose every step in their progress toward manhood was publicly
+announced at a feast given in their honor. It is known, however, that
+he began at an early age to carve out a position for himself. It is
+personal qualities alone that tell among our people, and the youthful
+Spotted Tail gained at every turn. At the age of seventeen, he had
+become a sure shot and a clever hunter; but, above all, he had already
+shown that he possessed a superior mind. He had come into contact with
+white people at the various trading posts, and according to his own
+story had made a careful study of the white man's habits and modes of
+thought, especially of his peculiar trait of economy and intense desire
+to accumulate property. He was accustomed to watch closely and listen
+attentively whenever any of this strange race had dealings with his
+people. When a council was held, and the other young men stood at a
+distance with their robes over their faces so as to avoid recognition,
+Spotted Tail always put himself in a position to hear all that was said
+on either side, and weighed all the arguments in his mind.
+
+When he first went upon the warpath, it appears that he was, if
+anything, overzealous to establish himself in the eye of his people; and
+as a matter of fact, it was especially hard for him to gain an assured
+position among the Brules, with whom he lived, both because he was an
+orphan, and because his father had been of another band. Yet it was not
+long before he had achieved his ambition, though in doing so he received
+several ugly wounds. It was in a battle with the Utes that he first
+notably served his people and their cause.
+
+The Utes were the attacking party and far outnumbered the Sioux on this
+occasion. Many of their bravest young men had fallen, and the Brules
+were face to face with utter annihilation, when Spotted Tail, with a
+handful of daring horsemen, dodged around the enemy's flank and fell
+upon them from the rear with so much spirit that they supposed that
+strong reinforcements had arrived, and retreated in confusion. The Sioux
+pursued on horseback; and it was in this pursuit that the noted chief
+Two Strike gained his historical name. But the chief honors of the fight
+belonged to Spotted Tail. The old chiefs, Conquering Bear and the rest,
+thanked him and at once made him a war chief.
+
+It had been the firm belief of Spotted Tail that it was unwise to allow
+the white man so much freedom in our country, long before the older
+chiefs saw any harm in it. After the opening of the Oregon Trail he,
+above all the others, was watchful of the conduct of the Americans as
+they journeyed toward the setting sun, and more than once he remarked in
+council that these white men were not like the French and the Spanish,
+with whom our old chiefs had been used to deal. He was not fully
+satisfied with the agreement with General Harney; but as a young warrior
+who had only just gained his position in the council, he could not force
+his views upon the older men.
+
+No sooner had the Oregon Trail been secured from the Sioux than Fort
+Laramie and other frontier posts were strengthened, and the soldiers
+became more insolent and overbearing than ever. It was soon discovered
+that the whites were prepared to violate most of the articles of their
+treaty as the Indians understood it. At this time, the presence of many
+Mormon emigrants on their way to the settlements in Utah and Wyoming
+added to the perils of the situation, as they constantly maneuvered for
+purposes of their own to bring about a clash between the soldiers and
+the Indians. Every summer there were storm-clouds blowing between these
+two--clouds usually taking their rise in some affair of the travelers
+along the trail.
+
+In 1854 an event occurred which has already been described and which
+snapped the last link of friendship between the races.
+
+By this time Spotted Tail had proved his courage both abroad and at
+home. He had fought a duel with one of the lesser chiefs, by whom he
+was attacked. He killed his opponent with an arrow, but himself received
+upon his head a blow from a battle-axe which brought him senseless to
+the ground. He was left for dead, but fortunately revived just as the
+men were preparing his body for burial.
+
+The Brules sustained him in this quarrel, as he had acted in
+self-defense; and for a few years he led them in bloody raids against
+the whites along the historic trail. He ambushed many stagecoaches and
+emigrant trains, and was responsible for waylaying the Kincaid coach
+with twenty thousand dollars. This relentless harrying of travelers soon
+brought General Harney to the Brule Sioux to demand explanations and
+reparation.
+
+The old chiefs of the Brules now appealed to Spotted Tail and his
+young warriors not to bring any general calamity upon the tribe. To the
+surprise of all, Spotted Tail declared that he would give himself up.
+He said that he had defended the rights of his people to the best of his
+ability, that he had avenged the blood of their chief, Conquering Bear,
+and that he was not afraid to accept the consequences. He therefore
+voluntarily surrendered to General Harney, and two of his lieutenants,
+Red Leaf and Old Woman, followed his example.
+
+Thus Spotted Tail played an important part at the very outset of those
+events which were soon to overthrow the free life of his people. I do
+not know how far he foresaw what was to follow; but whether so conceived
+or not, his surrender was a master stroke, winning for him not only
+the admiration of his own people but the confidence and respect of the
+military.
+
+Thus suddenly he found himself in prison, a hostage for the good
+behavior of his followers. There were many rumors as to the punishment
+reserved for him; but luckily for Spotted Tail, the promises of General
+Harney to the Brule chiefs in respect to him were faithfully kept.
+One of his fellow-prisoners committed suicide, but the other held out
+bravely for the two-year term of his imprisonment. During the second
+year, it was well understood that neither of the men sought to escape,
+and they were given much freedom. It was fine schooling for Spotted
+Tail, that tireless observer of the ways of the white man! It is a fact
+that his engaging personal qualities won for him kindness and sympathy
+at the fort before the time came for his release.
+
+One day some Indian horse thieves of another tribe stampeded the horses
+and mules belonging to the garrison. Spotted Tail asked permission of
+the commanding officer to accompany the pursuers. That officer, trusting
+in the honor of a Sioux brave, gave him a fast horse and a good carbine,
+and said to him: "I depend upon you to guide my soldiers so that they
+may overtake the thieves and recapture the horses!"
+
+The soldiers recaptured the horses without any loss, but Spotted Tail
+still followed the Indians. When they returned to the fort without him,
+everybody agreed that he would never turn up. However, next day he did
+"turn up", with the scalp of one of the marauders!
+
+Soon after this he was returned to his own people, who honored him by
+making him the successor of the old chief, Conquering Bear, whose
+blood he had avenged, for which act he had taken upon himself the full
+responsibility. He had made good use of his two years at the fort, and
+completed his studies of civilization to his own satisfaction. From this
+time on he was desirous of reconciling the Indian and the white
+man, thoroughly understanding the uselessness of opposition. He was
+accordingly in constant communication with the military; but the other
+chiefs did not understand his views and seem to have been suspicious of
+his motives.
+
+In 1860-1864 the Southern Cheyennes and Comanches were at war with the
+whites, and some of the Brules and Ogallalas, who were their neighbors
+and intimates, were suspected of complicity with the hostiles. Doubtless
+a few of their young men may have been involved; at any rate, Thunder
+Bear and Two Face, together with a few others who were roving with the
+warring tribes, purchased two captive white women and brought them to
+Fort Laramie. It was, however, reported at the post that these two men
+had maltreated the women while under their care.
+
+Of course, the commander demanded of Spotted Tail, then head chief, that
+he give up the guilty ones, and accordingly he had the two men arrested
+and delivered at the fort. At this there was an outcry among his own
+people; but he argued that if the charges were true, the men deserved
+punishment, and if false, they should be tried and cleared by process
+of law. The Indians never quite knew what evidence was produced at the
+court-martial, but at all events the two men were hanged, and as they
+had many influential connections, their relatives lost no time in
+fomenting trouble. The Sioux were then camping close by the fort and it
+was midwinter, which facts held them in check for a month or two; but as
+soon as spring came, they removed their camp across the river and rose
+in rebellion. A pitched battle was fought, in which the soldiers got the
+worst of it. Even the associate chief, Big Mouth, was against Spotted
+Tail, who was practically forced against his will and judgment to take
+up arms once more.
+
+At this juncture came the sudden and bloody uprising in the east among
+the Minnesota Sioux, and Sitting Bull's campaign in the north had begun
+in earnest; while to the south the Southern Cheyennes, Comanches, and
+Kiowas were all upon the warpath. Spotted Tail at about this time seems
+to have conceived the idea of uniting all the Rocky Mountain Indians in
+a great confederacy. He once said: "Our cause is as a child's cause,
+in comparison with the power of the white man, unless we can stop
+quarreling among ourselves and unite our energies for the common good."
+But old-time antagonisms were too strong; and he was probably held back
+also by his consciousness of the fact that the Indians called him "the
+white man's friend", while the military still had some faith in him
+which he did not care to lose. He was undoubtedly one of the brainiest
+and most brilliant Sioux who ever lived; and while he could not help
+being to a large extent in sympathy with the feeling of his race against
+the invader, yet he alone foresaw the inevitable outcome, and the
+problem as it presented itself to him was simply this: "What is the best
+policy to pursue in the existing situation?"
+
+Here is his speech as it has been given to me, delivered at the great
+council on the Powder River, just before the attack on Fort Phil
+Kearny. We can imagine that he threw all his wonderful tact and personal
+magnetism into this last effort at conciliation.
+
+"'Hay, hay, hay! Alas, alas!' Thus speaks the old man, when he knows
+that his former vigor and freedom is gone from him forever. So we may
+exclaim to-day, Alas! There is a time appointed to all things. Think
+for a moment how many multitudes of the animal tribes we ourselves
+have destroyed! Look upon the snow that appears to-day--to-morrow it
+is water! Listen to the dirge of the dry leaves, that were green and
+vigorous but a few moons before! We are a part of this life and it seems
+that our time is come.
+
+"Yet note how the decay of one nation invigorates another. This strange
+white man--consider him, his gifts are manifold! His tireless brain,
+his busy hand do wonders for his race. Those things which we despise
+he holds as treasures; yet he is so great and so flourishing that there
+must be some virtue and truth in his philosophy. I wish to say to you,
+my friends: Be not moved alone by heated arguments and thoughts of
+revenge! These are for the young. We are young no longer; let us think
+well, and give counsel as old men!"
+
+These words were greeted with an ominous silence. Not even the customary
+"How!" of assent followed the speech, and Sitting Bull immediately got
+up and replied in the celebrated harangue which will be introduced under
+his own name in another chapter. The situation was critical for Spotted
+Tail--the only man present to advocate submission to the stronger race
+whose ultimate supremacy he recognized as certain. The decision to
+attack Fort Phil Kearny was unanimous without him, and in order to
+hold his position among his tribesmen he joined in the charge. Several
+bullets passed through his war bonnet, and he was slightly wounded.
+
+When the commission of 1867-1868 was sent out to negotiate with the
+Sioux, Spotted Tail was ready to meet them, and eager to obtain for
+his people the very best terms that he could. He often puzzled and
+embarrassed them by his remarkable speeches, the pointed questions that
+he put, and his telling allusions to former negotiations. Meanwhile Red
+Cloud would not come into the council until after several deputations of
+Indians had been sent to him, and Sitting Bull did not come at all.
+
+The famous treaty was signed, and from this time on Spotted Tail never
+again took up arms against the whites. On the contrary, it was mainly
+attributed to his influence that the hostiles were subdued much sooner
+than might have been expected. He came into the reservation with his
+band, urged his young men to enlist as government scouts, and assisted
+materially in all negotiations. The hostile chiefs no longer influenced
+his action, and as soon as they had all been brought under military
+control, General Crook named Spotted Tail head chief of the Sioux, thus
+humiliating Red Cloud and arousing jealousy and ill-feeling among the
+Ogallalas. In order to avoid trouble, he prudently separated himself
+from the other bands, and moved to the new agency on Beaver Creek (Fort
+Sheridan, Nebraska), which was called "Spotted Tail Agency."
+
+Just before the daring war leader, Crazy Horse, surrendered to the
+military, he went down to the agency and roundly rebuked Spotted Tail
+for signing away the freedom of his people. From the point of view of
+the irreconcilables, the diplomatic chief was a "trimmer" and a traitor;
+and many of the Sioux have tried to implicate him in the conspiracy
+against Crazy Horse which led to his assassination, but I hold that the
+facts do not bear out this charge.
+
+The name of Spotted Tail was prominently before the people during the
+rest of his life. An obscure orphan, he had achieved distinction by his
+bravery and sagacity; but he copied the white politician too closely
+after he entered the reservation. He became a good manipulator, and was
+made conceited and overbearing by the attentions of the military and of
+the general public. Furthermore, there was an old feud in his immediate
+band which affected him closely. Against him for many years were the
+followers of Big Mouth, whom he had killed in a duel; and also a party
+led by a son and a nephew of the old chief, Conquering Bear, whom
+Spotted Tail had succeeded at his death. These two men had hoped that
+one or the other of them might obtain the succession.
+
+Crow Dog, the nephew of Conquering Bear, more than once taunted Spotted
+Tail with the fact that he was chief not by the will of the tribe, but
+by the help of the white soldiers, and told him that he would "keep
+a bullet for him" in case he ever disgraced his high position. Thus
+retribution lay in wait for him while at the height of his fame. Several
+high-handed actions of his at this time, including his elopement with
+another man's wife, increased his unpopularity with a large element of
+his own tribe. On the eve of the chief's departure for Washington, to
+negotiate (or so they suspected) for the sale of more of their land,
+Crow Dog took up his gun and fulfilled his threat, regarding
+himself, and regarded by his supporters, not as a murderer, but as an
+executioner.
+
+Such was the end of the man who may justly be called the Pontiac of the
+west. He possessed a remarkable mind and extraordinary foresight for
+an untutored savage; and yet he is the only one of our great men to be
+remembered with more honor by the white man, perhaps, than by his own
+people.
+
+
+
+
+LITTLE CROW
+
+
+Chief Little Crow was the eldest son of Cetanwakuwa (Charging Hawk).
+It was on account of his father's name, mistranslated Crow, that he was
+called by the whites "Little Crow." His real name was Taoyateduta, His
+Red People.
+
+As far back as Minnesota history goes, a band of the Sioux called
+Kaposia (Light Weight, because they were said to travel light) inhabited
+the Mille Lacs region. Later they dwelt about St. Croix Falls, and still
+later near St. Paul. In 1840, Cetanwakuwa was still living in what
+is now West St. Paul, but he was soon after killed by the accidental
+discharge of his gun.
+
+It was during a period of demoralization for the Kaposias that Little
+Crow became the leader of his people. His father, a well-known chief,
+had three wives, all from different bands of the Sioux. He was the only
+son of the first wife, a Leaf Dweller. There were two sons of the second
+and two of the third wife, and the second set of brothers conspired
+to kill their half-brother in order to keep the chieftainship in the
+family.
+
+Two kegs of whisky were bought, and all the men of the tribe invited
+to a feast. It was planned to pick some sort of quarrel when all were
+drunk, and in the confusion Little Crow was to be murdered. The plot
+went smoothly until the last instant, when a young brave saved the
+intended victim by knocking the gun aside with his hatchet, so that the
+shot went wild. However, it broke his right arm, which remained crooked
+all his life. The friends of the young chieftain hastily withdrew,
+avoiding a general fight; and later the council of the Kaposias
+condemned the two brothers, both of whom were executed, leaving him in
+undisputed possession.
+
+Such was the opening of a stormy career. Little Crow's mother had been
+a chief's daughter, celebrated for her beauty and spirit, and it is said
+that she used to plunge him into the lake through a hole in the ice,
+rubbing him afterward with snow, to strengthen his nerves, and that she
+would remain with him alone in the deep woods for days at a time, so
+that he might know that solitude is good, and not fear to be alone with
+nature.
+
+"My son," she would say, "if you are to be a leader of men, you must
+listen in silence to the mystery, the spirit."
+
+At a very early age she made a feast for her boy and announced that he
+would fast two days. This is what might be called a formal presentation
+to the spirit or God. She greatly desired him to become a worthy leader
+according to the ideas of her people. It appears that she left her
+husband when he took a second wife, and lived with her own band till her
+death. She did not marry again.
+
+Little Crow was an intensely ambitious man and without physical fear. He
+was always in perfect training and early acquired the art of warfare of
+the Indian type. It is told of him that when he was about ten years old,
+he engaged with other boys in a sham battle on the shore of a lake
+near St. Paul. Both sides were encamped at a little distance from one
+another, and the rule was that the enemy must be surprised, otherwise
+the attack would be considered a failure. One must come within so many
+paces undiscovered in order to be counted successful. Our hero had a
+favorite dog which, at his earnest request, was allowed to take part in
+the game, and as a scout he entered the enemy camp unseen, by the help
+of his dog.
+
+When he was twelve, he saved the life of a companion who had broken
+through the ice by tying the end of a pack line to a log, then at great
+risk to himself carrying it to the edge of the hole where his comrade
+went down. It is said that he also broke in, but both boys saved
+themselves by means of the line.
+
+As a young man, Little Crow was always ready to serve his people as a
+messenger to other tribes, a duty involving much danger and hardship.
+He was also known as one of the best hunters in his band. Although still
+young, he had already a war record when he became chief of the Kaposias,
+at a time when the Sioux were facing the greatest and most far-reaching
+changes that had ever come to them.
+
+At this juncture in the history of the northwest and its native
+inhabitants, the various fur companies had paramount influence. They
+did not hesitate to impress the Indians with the idea that they were the
+authorized representatives of the white races or peoples, and they were
+quick to realize the desirability of controlling the natives through
+their most influential chiefs. Little Crow became quite popular with
+post traders and factors. He was an orator as well as a diplomat,
+and one of the first of his nation to indulge in politics and promote
+unstable schemes to the detriment of his people.
+
+When the United States Government went into the business of acquiring
+territory from the Indians so that the flood of western settlement might
+not be checked, commissions were sent out to negotiate treaties, and in
+case of failure it often happened that a delegation of leading men of
+the tribe were invited to Washington. At that period, these visiting
+chiefs, attired in all the splendor of their costumes of ceremony, were
+treated like ambassadors from foreign countries.
+
+One winter in the late eighteen-fifties, a major general of the army
+gave a dinner to the Indian chiefs then in the city, and on this
+occasion Little Crow was appointed toastmaster. There were present a
+number of Senators and members of Congress, as well as judges of the
+Supreme Court, cabinet officers, and other distinguished citizens. When
+all the guests were seated, the Sioux arose and addressed them with much
+dignity as follows:
+
+"Warriors and friends: I am informed that the great white war chief who
+of his generosity and comradeship has given us this feast, has expressed
+the wish that we may follow to-night the usages and customs of my
+people. In other words, this is a warriors' feast, a braves' meal.
+I call upon the Ojibway chief, the Hole-in-the-Day, to give the lone
+wolf's hunger call, after which we will join him in our usual manner."
+
+The tall and handsome Ojibway now rose and straightened his superb form
+to utter one of the clearest and longest wolf howls that was ever heard
+in Washington, and at its close came a tremendous burst of war whoops
+that fairly rent the air, and no doubt electrified the officials there
+present.
+
+On one occasion Little Crow was invited by the commander of Fort
+Ridgeley, Minnesota, to call at the fort. On his way back, in company
+with a half-breed named Ross and the interpreter Mitchell, he was
+ambushed by a party of Ojibways, and again wounded in the same arm that
+had been broken in his attempted assassination. His companion Ross was
+killed, but he managed to hold the war party at bay until help came and
+thus saved his life.
+
+More and more as time passed, this naturally brave and ambitious man
+became a prey to the selfish interests of the traders and politicians.
+The immediate causes of the Sioux outbreak of 1862 came in quick
+succession to inflame to desperate action an outraged people. The two
+bands on the so-called "lower reservations" in Minnesota were Indians
+for whom nature had provided most abundantly in their free existence.
+After one hundred and fifty years of friendly intercourse first with
+the French, then the English, and finally the Americans, they found
+themselves cut off from every natural resource, on a tract of land
+twenty miles by thirty, which to them was virtual imprisonment. By
+treaty stipulation with the government, they were to be fed and clothed,
+houses were to be built for them, the men taught agriculture, and
+schools provided for the children. In addition to this, a trust fund
+of a million and a half was to be set aside for them, at five per cent
+interest, the interest to be paid annually per capita. They had signed
+the treaty under pressure, believing in these promises on the faith of a
+great nation.
+
+However, on entering the new life, the resources so rosily described to
+them failed to materialize. Many families faced starvation every winter,
+their only support the store of the Indian trader, who was baiting his
+trap for their destruction. Very gradually they awoke to the facts.
+At last it was planned to secure from them the north half of their
+reservation for ninety-eight thousand dollars, but it was not explained
+to the Indians that the traders were to receive all the money.
+Little Crow made the greatest mistake of his life when he signed this
+agreement.
+
+Meanwhile, to make matters worse, the cash annuities were not paid for
+nearly two years. Civil War had begun. When it was learned that the
+traders had taken all of the ninety-eight thousand dollars "on account",
+there was very bitter feeling. In fact, the heads of the leading stores
+were afraid to go about as usual, and most of them stayed in St. Paul.
+Little Crow was justly held in part responsible for the deceit, and his
+life was not safe.
+
+The murder of a white family near Acton, Minnesota, by a party of Indian
+duck hunters in August, 1862, precipitated the break. Messengers were
+sent to every village with the news, and at the villages of Little Crow
+and Little Six the war council was red-hot. It was proposed to take
+advantage of the fact that north and south were at war to wipe out the
+white settlers and to regain their freedom. A few men stood out against
+such a desperate step, but the conflagration had gone beyond their
+control.
+
+There were many mixed bloods among these Sioux, and some of the Indians
+held that these were accomplices of the white people in robbing them
+of their possessions, therefore their lives should not be spared. My
+father, Many Lightnings, who was practically the leader of the Mankato
+band (for Mankato, the chief, was a weak man), fought desperately for
+the lives of the half-breeds and the missionaries. The chiefs had great
+confidence in my father, yet they would not commit themselves, since
+their braves were clamoring for blood. Little Crow had been accused
+of all the misfortunes of his tribe, and he now hoped by leading them
+against the whites to regain his prestige with his people, and a part at
+least of their lost domain.
+
+There were moments when the pacifists were in grave peril. It was almost
+daybreak when my father saw that the approaching calamity could not be
+prevented. He and two others said to Little Crow: "If you want war, you
+must personally lead your men to-morrow. We will not murder women and
+children, but we will fight the soldiers when they come." They then
+left the council and hastened to warn my brother-in-law, Faribault, and
+others who were in danger.
+
+Little Crow declared he would be seen in the front of every battle, and
+it is true that he was foremost in all the succeeding bloodshed, urging
+his warriors to spare none. He ordered his war leader, Many Hail, to
+fire the first shot, killing the trader James Lynd, in the door of his
+store.
+
+After a year of fighting in which he had met with defeat, the
+discredited chief retreated to Fort Garry, now Winnipeg, Manitoba,
+where, together with Standing Buffalo, he undertook secret negotiations
+with his old friends the Indian traders. There was now a price upon his
+head, but he planned to reach St. Paul undetected and there surrender
+himself to his friends, who he hoped would protect him in return for
+past favors. It is true that he had helped them to secure perhaps the
+finest country held by any Indian nation for a mere song.
+
+He left Canada with a few trusted friends, including his youngest and
+favorite son. When within two or three days' journey of St. Paul, he
+told the others to return, keeping with him only his son, Wowinape, who
+was but fifteen years of age. He meant to steal into the city by night
+and go straight to Governor Ramsey, who was his personal friend. He was
+very hungry and was obliged to keep to the shelter of the deep woods.
+The next morning, as he was picking and eating wild raspberries, he was
+seen by a wood-chopper named Lamson. The man did not know who he was.
+He only knew that he was an Indian, and that was enough for him, so he
+lifted his rifle to his shoulder and fired, then ran at his best pace.
+The brilliant but misguided chief, who had made that part of the country
+unsafe for any white man to live in, sank to the ground and died without
+a struggle. The boy took his father's gun and made some effort to find
+the assassin, but as he did not even know in which direction to look for
+him, he soon gave up the attempt and went back to his friends.
+
+Meanwhile Lamson reached home breathless and made his report. The body
+of the chief was found and identified, in part by the twice broken arm,
+and this arm and his scalp may be seen to-day in the collection of the
+Minnesota Historical Society.
+
+
+
+
+TAMAHAY
+
+
+There was once a Sioux brave who declared that he would die young, yet
+not by his own hand. Tamahay was of heroic proportions, herculean in
+strength, a superb runner; in fact, he had all the physical qualities of
+an athlete or a typical Indian. In his scanty dress, he was beautiful as
+an antique statue in living bronze. When a mere youth, seventeen years
+of age, he met with an accident which determined his career. It was
+the loss of an eye, a fatal injury to the sensitive and high-spirited
+Indian. He announced his purpose in these words:
+
+"The 'Great Mystery' has decreed that I must be disgraced. There will be
+no pleasure for me now, and I shall be ridiculed even by my enemies. It
+will be well for me to enter soon into Paradise, for I shall be happy
+in spending my youth there. But I will sell my life dearly. Hereafter
+my name shall be spoken in the traditions of our race." With this speech
+Tamahay began his career.
+
+He now sought glory and defied danger with even more than the ordinary
+Indian recklessness. He accepted a personal friend, which was a custom
+among the Sioux, where each man chose a companion for life and death.
+The tie was stronger than one of blood relationship, a friendship sealed
+by solemn vow and covenant. Tamahay's intimate was fortunately almost
+his equal in physical powers, and the pair became the terror of
+neighboring tribes, with whom the Dakotas were continually at war. They
+made frequent raids upon their enemies and were usually successful,
+although not without thrilling experiences and almost miraculous
+escapes.
+
+Upon one of these occasions the two friends went north into the country
+of the Ojibways. After many days' journey, they discovered a small
+village of the foe. The wicked Tamahay proposed to his associate that
+they should arrange their toilets after the fashion of the Ojibways,
+and go among them; "and perhaps," he added, "we will indulge in a little
+flirtation with their pretty maids, and when we have had enough of the
+fun we can take the scalp of a brave or two and retreat!" His friend
+construed his daring proposition to be a test of courage, which it would
+not become him, as a brave, to decline; therefore he assented with a
+show of cheerfulness.
+
+The handsome strangers were well received by the Ojibway girls, but
+their perilous amusement was brought to an untimely close. A young
+maiden prematurely discovered their true characters, and her cry of
+alarm brought instantly to her side a jealous youth, who had been
+watching them from his place of concealment. With him Tamahay had a
+single-handed contest, and before a general alarm was given he had
+dispatched the foe and fled with his scalp.
+
+The unfortunate brave had been a favorite and a leader among the tribe;
+therefore the maddened Ojibways were soon in hot pursuit. The Sioux
+braves were fine runners, yet they were finally driven out upon the
+peninsula of a lake. As they became separated in their retreat, Tamahay
+shouted, "I'll meet you at the mouth of the St. Croix River, or in the
+spirit land!" Both managed to swim the lake, and so made good their
+escape.
+
+The exploits of this man were not all of a warlike nature. He was
+a great traveler and an expert scout, and he had some wonderful
+experiences with wild animals. He was once sent, with his intimate
+friend, on a scout for game. They were on ponies.
+
+They located a herd of buffaloes, and on their return to the camp espied
+a lonely buffalo. Tamahay suggested that they should chase it in order
+to take some fresh meat, as the law of the tribe allowed in the case of
+a single animal. His pony stumbled and threw him, after they had wounded
+the bison, and the latter attacked the dismounted man viciously. But
+he, as usual, was on the alert. He "took the bull by the horns", as the
+saying is, and cleverly straddled him on the neck. The buffalo had no
+means of harming his enemy, but pawed the earth and struggled until his
+strength was exhausted, when the Indian used his knife on the
+animal's throat. On account of this feat he received the name
+"Held-the-Bull-by-the-Horns."
+
+The origin of his name "Tamahay" is related as follows. When he was
+a young man he accompanied the chief Wabashaw to Mackinaw, Michigan,
+together with some other warriors. He was out with his friend one day,
+viewing the wonderful sights in the "white man's country", when they
+came upon a sow with her numerous pink little progeny. He was greatly
+amused and picked up one of the young pigs, but as soon as it squealed
+the mother ran furiously after them. He kept the pig and fled with
+it, still laughing; but his friend was soon compelled to run up the
+conveniently inclined trunk of a fallen tree, while our hero reached the
+shore of a lake near by, and plunged into the water. He swam and dived
+as long as he could, but the beast continued to threaten him with her
+sharp teeth, till, almost exhausted, he swam again to shore, where his
+friend came up and dispatched the vicious animal with a club. On account
+of this watery adventure he was at once called Tamahay, meaning Pike. He
+earned many other names, but preferred this one, because it was the name
+borne by a great friend of his, Lieutenant Pike, the first officer
+of the United States Army who came to Minnesota for the purpose of
+exploring the sources of the Mississippi River and of making peace with
+the natives. Tamahay assisted this officer in obtaining land from the
+Sioux upon which to build Fort Snelling. He appears in history under the
+name of "Tahamie" or the "One-Eyed Sioux."
+
+Always ready to brave danger and unpopularity, Tamahay was the only
+Sioux who sided with the United States in her struggle with Great
+Britain in 1819. For having espoused the cause of the Americans, he was
+ill-treated by the British officers and free traders, who for a long
+time controlled the northwest, even after peace had been effected
+between the two nations. At one time he was confined in a fort called
+McKay, where now stands the town of Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin. He had
+just returned from St. Louis, and was suspected of exciting his people
+to rebel against British subjects. His life was even threatened, but
+to this Tamahay merely replied that he was ready to die. A few months
+later, this fort was restored to the United States, and upon leaving
+it the British set the buildings on fire, though the United States flag
+floated above them. Some Indians who were present shouted to Tamahay,
+"Your friends', the Americans', fort is on fire!" He responded with a
+war whoop, rushed into the blazing fort, and brought out the flag. For
+this brave act he was rewarded with a present of a flag and medal. He
+was never tired of displaying this medal and his recommendation papers,
+and even preserved to the end of his life an old colonial stovepipe hat,
+which he wore upon state occasions.
+
+The Sioux long referred to the president of the United States as
+"Tamahay's father."
+
+The following story is told of him in his later days. He attempted one
+day to cross the first bridge over the Mississippi River, but was not
+recognized by the sentinel, who would not allow him to pass until he
+paid the toll. Tamahay, who was a privileged character, explained as
+best he could, with gestures and broken English, that he was always
+permitted to pass free; but as the sentinel still refused, and even
+threatened him with his bayonet, the old Indian silently seized the
+musket, threw it down into the waters of the Mississippi and went home.
+Later in the day a company of soldiers appeared in the Indian village,
+and escorted our hero to a sort of court-martial at the fort. When
+he was questioned by the Colonel, he simply replied: "If you were
+threatened by any one with a weapon, you would, in self-defense, either
+disable the man or get rid of the weapon. I did the latter, thinking
+that you would need the man more than the gun."
+
+Finally the officer said to them, "I see you are both partly wrong. Some
+one must be responsible for the loss of the gun; therefore, you two
+will wrestle, and the man who is downed must dive for the weapon to the
+bottom of the river."
+
+Scarcely was this speech ended when Tamahay was upon the soldier, who
+was surprised both by the order and by the unexpected readiness of the
+wily old Indian, so that he was not prepared, and the Sioux had the
+vantage hold. In a moment the bluecoat was down, amid shouts and peals
+of laughter from his comrades. Having thrown his man, the other turned
+and went home without a word.
+
+Sad to say, he acquired a great appetite for "minne-wakan", or
+"mysterious water", as the Sioux call it, which proved a source of
+trouble to him in his old age. It is told of him that he was treated
+one winter's day to a drink of whisky in a trader's store. He afterwards
+went home; but even the severe blizzard which soon arose did not prevent
+him from returning in the night to the friendly trader. He awoke that
+worthy from sleep about twelve o'clock by singing his death dirge upon
+the roof of the log cabin. In another moment he had jumped down the mud
+chimney, and into the blazing embers of a fire. The trader had to pour
+out to him some whisky in a tin pail, after which he begged the old
+man to "be good and go home." On the eve of the so-called "Minnesota
+Massacre" by the Sioux in 1862, Tamahay, although he was then very old
+and had almost lost the use of his remaining eye, made a famous speech
+at the meeting of the conspirators. These are some of his words, as
+reported to me by persons who were present.
+
+"What! What! is this Little Crow? Is that Little Six? You, too, White
+Dog, are you here? I cannot see well now, but I can see with my mind's
+eye the stream of blood you are about to pour upon the bosom of this
+mother of ours" (meaning the earth). "I stand before you on three legs,
+but the third leg has brought me wisdom" [referring to the staff with
+which he supported himself]. "I have traveled much, I have visited among
+the people whom you think to defy. This means the total surrender of our
+beautiful land, the land of a thousand lakes and streams. Methinks you
+are about to commit an act like that of the porcupine, who climbs a
+tree, balances himself upon a springy bough, and then gnaws off the very
+bough upon which he is sitting; hence, when it gives way, he falls upon
+the sharp rocks below. Behold the great Pontiac, whose grave I saw near
+St. Louis; he was murdered while an exile from his country! Think of the
+brave Black Hawk! Methinks his spirit is still wailing through Wisconsin
+and Illinois for his lost people! I do not say you have no cause to
+complain, but to resist is self-destruction. I am done."
+
+It is supposed that this speech was his last, and it was made, though
+vainly, in defense of the Americans whom he had loved. He died at Fort
+Pierre, South Dakota, in 1864. His people say that he died a natural
+death, of old age. And yet his exploits are not forgotten. Thus lived
+and departed a most active and fearless Sioux, Tamahay, who desired to
+die young!
+
+
+
+
+GALL
+
+
+Chief Gall was one of the most aggressive leaders of the Sioux nation in
+their last stand for freedom.
+
+The westward pressure of civilization during the past three centuries
+has been tremendous. When our hemisphere was "discovered", it had been
+inhabited by the natives for untold ages, but it was held undiscovered
+because the original owners did not chart or advertise it. Yet some of
+them at least had developed ideals of life which included real liberty
+and equality to all men, and they did not recognize individual ownership
+in land or other property beyond actual necessity. It was a soul
+development leading to essential manhood. Under this system they brought
+forth some striking characters.
+
+Gall was considered by both Indians and whites to be a most impressive
+type of physical manhood. From his picture you can judge of this for
+yourself.
+
+Let us follow his trail. He was no tenderfoot. He never asked a soft
+place for himself. He always played the game according to the rules and
+to a finish. To be sure, like every other man, he made some mistakes,
+but he was an Indian and never acted the coward.
+
+The earliest stories told of his life and doings indicate the spirit of
+the man in that of the boy.
+
+When he was only about three years old, the Blackfoot band of Sioux were
+on their usual roving hunt, following the buffalo while living their
+natural happy life upon the wonderful wide prairies of the Dakotas.
+
+It was the way of every Sioux mother to adjust her household effects
+on such dogs and pack ponies as she could muster from day to day, often
+lending one or two to accommodate some other woman whose horse or dog
+had died, or perhaps had been among those stampeded and carried away by
+a raiding band of Crow warriors. On this particular occasion, the mother
+of our young Sioux brave, Matohinshda, or Bear-Shedding-His-Hair
+(Gall's childhood name), intrusted her boy to an old Eskimo pack dog,
+experienced and reliable, except perhaps when unduly excited or very
+thirsty.
+
+On the day of removing camp the caravan made its morning march up the
+Powder River. Upon the wide table-land the women were busily digging
+teepsinna (an edible sweetish root, much used by them) as the moving
+village slowly progressed. As usual at such times, the trail was wide.
+An old jack rabbit had waited too long in hiding. Now, finding himself
+almost surrounded by the mighty plains people, he sprang up suddenly,
+his feathery ears conspicuously erect, a dangerous challenge to the dogs
+and the people.
+
+A whoop went up. Every dog accepted the challenge. Forgotten were the
+bundles, the kits, even the babies they were drawing or carrying. The
+chase was on, and the screams of the women reechoed from the opposite
+cliffs of the Powder, mingled with the yelps of dogs and the neighing of
+horses. The hand of every man was against the daring warrior, the lone
+Jack, and the confusion was great.
+
+When the fleeing one cleared the mass of his enemies, he emerged with a
+swiftness that commanded respect and gave promise of a determined chase.
+Behind him, his pursuers stretched out in a thin line, first the speedy,
+unburdened dogs and then the travois dogs headed by the old Eskimo
+with his precious freight. The youthful Gall was in a travois, a basket
+mounted on trailing poles and harnessed to the sides of the animal.
+
+"Hey! hey! they are gaining on him!" a warrior shouted. At this juncture
+two of the canines had almost nabbed their furry prey by the back. But
+he was too cunning for them. He dropped instantly and sent both dogs
+over his head, rolling and spinning, then made another flight at right
+angles to the first. This gave the Eskimo a chance to cut the triangle.
+He gained fifty yards, but being heavily handicapped, two unladen dogs
+passed him. The same trick was repeated by the Jack, and this time he
+saved himself from instant death by a double loop and was now running
+directly toward the crowd, followed by a dozen or more dogs. He was
+losing speed, but likewise his pursuers were dropping off steadily. Only
+the sturdy Eskimo dog held to his even gait, and behind him in the frail
+travois leaned forward the little Matohinshda, nude save a breech clout,
+his left hand holding fast the convenient tail of his dog, the right
+grasping firmly one of the poles of the travois. His black eyes were
+bulging almost out of their sockets; his long hair flowed out behind
+like a stream of dark water.
+
+The Jack now ran directly toward the howling spectators, but his
+marvelous speed and alertness were on the wane; while on the other hand
+his foremost pursuer, who had taken part in hundreds of similar events,
+had every confidence in his own endurance. Each leap brought him nearer,
+fiercer and more determined. The last effort of the Jack was to lose
+himself in the crowd, like a fish in muddy water; but the big dog made
+the one needed leap with unerring aim and his teeth flashed as he caught
+the rabbit in viselike jaws and held him limp in air, a victor!
+
+The people rushed up to him as he laid the victim down, and foremost
+among them was the frantic mother of Matohinshda, or Gall. "Michinkshe!
+michinkshe!" (My son! my son!) she screamed as she drew near. The boy
+seemed to be none the worse for his experience. "Mother!" he cried, "my
+dog is brave: he got the rabbit!" She snatched him off the travois,
+but he struggled out of her arms to look upon his dog lovingly and
+admiringly. Old men and boys crowded about the hero of the day, the dog,
+and the thoughtful grandmother of Matohinshda unharnessed him and poured
+some water from a parfleche water bag into a basin. "Here, my grandson,
+give your friend something to drink."
+
+"How, hechetu," pronounced an old warrior no longer in active service.
+"This may be only an accident, an ordinary affair; but such things
+sometimes indicate a career. The boy has had a wonderful ride. I
+prophesy that he will one day hold the attention of all the people with
+his doings."
+
+This is the first remembered story of the famous chief, but other boyish
+exploits foretold the man he was destined to be. He fought many sham
+battles, some successful and others not; but he was always a fierce
+fighter and a good loser.
+
+Once he was engaged in a battle with snowballs. There were probably
+nearly a hundred boys on each side, and the rule was that every fair hit
+made the receiver officially dead. He must not participate further, but
+must remain just where he was struck.
+
+Gall's side was fast losing, and the battle was growing hotter every
+minute when the youthful warrior worked toward an old water hole and
+took up his position there. His side was soon annihilated and there were
+eleven men left to fight him. He was pressed close in the wash-out, and
+as he dodged under cover before a volley of snowballs, there suddenly
+emerged in his stead a huge gray wolf. His opponents fled in every
+direction in superstitious terror, for they thought he had been
+transformed into the animal. To their astonishment he came out on the
+farther side and ran to the line of safety, a winner!
+
+It happened that the wolf's den had been partly covered with snow so
+that no one had noticed it until the yells of the boys aroused the
+inmate, and he beat a hasty retreat. The boys always looked upon this
+incident as an omen.
+
+Gall had an amiable disposition but was quick to resent insult or
+injustice. This sometimes involved him in difficulties, but he seldom
+fought without good cause and was popular with his associates. One of
+his characteristics was his ability to organize, and this was a large
+factor in his leadership when he became a man. He was tried in many
+ways, and never was known to hesitate when it was a question of physical
+courage and endurance. He entered the public service early in life, but
+not until he had proved himself competent and passed all tests.
+
+When a mere boy, he was once scouting for game in midwinter, far from
+camp, and was overtaken by a three days' blizzard. He was forced to
+abandon his horse and lie under the snow for that length of time.
+He afterward said he was not particularly hungry; it was thirst and
+stiffness from which he suffered most. One reason the Indian so loved
+his horse or dog was that at such times the animal would stay by him
+like a brother. On this occasion Gall's pony was not more than a stone's
+throw away when the storm subsided and the sun shone. There was a
+herd of buffalo in plain sight, and the young hunter was not long in
+procuring a meal.
+
+This chief's contemporaries still recall his wrestling match with the
+equally powerful Cheyenne boy, Roman Nose, who afterward became a chief
+well known to American history. It was a custom of the northwestern
+Indians, when two friendly tribes camped together, to establish the
+physical and athletic supremacy of the youth of the respective camps.
+
+The "Che-hoo-hoo" is a wrestling game in which there may be any number
+on a side, but the numbers are equal. All the boys of each camp are
+called together by a leader chosen for the purpose and draw themselves
+up in line of battle; then each at a given signal attacks his opponent.
+
+In this memorable contest, Matohinshda, or Gall, was placed opposite
+Roman Nose. The whole people turned out as spectators of the struggle,
+and the battlefield was a plateau between the two camps, in the midst
+of picturesque Bad Lands. There were many athletic youths present, but
+these two were really the Apollos of the two tribes.
+
+In this kind of sport it is not allowed to strike with the hand, nor
+catch around the neck, nor kick, nor pull by the hair. One may break
+away and run a few yards to get a fresh start, or clinch, or catch as
+catch can. When a boy is thrown and held to the ground, he is counted
+out. If a boy has met his superior, he may drop to the ground to escape
+rough handling, but it is very seldom one gives up without a full trial
+of strength.
+
+It seemed almost like a real battle, so great was the enthusiasm, as the
+shouts of sympathizers on both sides went up in a mighty chorus. At last
+all were either conquerors or subdued except Gall and Roman Nose. The
+pair seemed equally matched. Both were stripped to the breech clout, now
+tugging like two young buffalo or elk in mating time, again writhing and
+twisting like serpents. At times they fought like two wild stallions,
+straining every muscle of arms, legs, and back in the struggle. Every
+now and then one was lifted off his feet for a moment, but came down
+planted like a tree, and after swaying to and fro soon became rigid
+again.
+
+All eyes were upon the champions. Finally, either by trick or main
+force, Gall laid the other sprawling upon the ground and held him fast
+for a minute, then released him and stood erect, panting, a master
+youth. Shout after shout went up on the Sioux side of the camp. The
+mother of Roman Nose came forward and threw a superbly worked buffalo
+robe over Gall, whose mother returned the compliment by covering the
+young Cheyenne with a handsome blanket.
+
+Undoubtedly these early contests had their influence upon our hero's
+career. It was his habit to appear most opportunely in a crisis, and
+in a striking and dramatic manner to take command of the situation. The
+best known example of this is his entrance on the scene of confusion
+when Reno surprised the Sioux on the Little Big Horn. Many of the
+excitable youths, almost unarmed, rushed madly and blindly to meet the
+intruder, and the scene might have unnerved even an experienced warrior.
+It was Gall, with not a garment upon his superb body, who on his black
+charger dashed ahead of the boys and faced them. He stopped them on the
+dry creek, while the bullets of Reno's men whistled about their ears.
+
+"Hold hard, men! Steady, we are not ready yet! Wait for more guns, more
+horses, and the day is yours!"
+
+They obeyed, and in a few minutes the signal to charge was given, and
+Reno retreated pell mell before the onset of the Sioux.
+
+Sitting Bull had confidence in his men so long as Gall planned and
+directed the attack, whether against United States soldiers or the
+warriors of another tribe. He was a strategist, and able in a twinkling
+to note and seize upon an advantage. He was really the mainstay of
+Sitting Bull's effective last stand. He consistently upheld his people's
+right to their buffalo plains and believed that they should hold the
+government strictly to its agreements with them. When the treaty of 1868
+was disregarded, he agreed with Sitting Bull in defending the last of
+their once vast domain, and after the Custer battle entered Canada
+with his chief. They hoped to bring their lost cause before the English
+government and were much disappointed when they were asked to return to
+the United States.
+
+Gall finally reported at Fort Peck, Montana, in 1881, and brought half
+of the Hunkpapa band with him, whereupon he was soon followed by Sitting
+Bull himself. Although they had been promised by the United States
+commission who went to Canada to treat with them that they would not be
+punished if they returned, no sooner had Gall come down than a part of
+his people were attacked, and in the spring they were all brought to
+Fort Randall and held as military prisoners. From this point they were
+returned to Standing Rock agency.
+
+When "Buffalo Bill" successfully launched his first show, he made every
+effort to secure both Sitting Bull and Gall for his leading attractions.
+The military was in complete accord with him in this, for they still had
+grave suspicions of these two leaders. While Sitting Bull reluctantly
+agreed, Gall haughtily said: "I am not an animal to be exhibited before
+the crowd," and retired to his teepee. His spirit was much worn, and he
+lost strength from that time on. That superb manhood dwindled, and in
+a few years he died. He was a real hero of a free and natural people, a
+type that is never to be seen again.
+
+
+
+
+CRAZY HORSE
+
+
+Crazy Horse was born on the Republican River about 1845. He was
+killed at Fort Robinson, Nebraska, in 1877, so that he lived barely
+thirty-three years.
+
+He was an uncommonly handsome man. While not the equal of Gall in
+magnificence and imposing stature, he was physically perfect, an Apollo
+in symmetry. Furthermore he was a true type of Indian refinement and
+grace. He was modest and courteous as Chief Joseph; the difference is
+that he was a born warrior, while Joseph was not. However, he was a
+gentle warrior, a true brave, who stood for the highest ideal of the
+Sioux. Notwithstanding all that biased historians have said of him, it
+is only fair to judge a man by the estimate of his own people rather
+than that of his enemies.
+
+The boyhood of Crazy Horse was passed in the days when the western
+Sioux saw a white man but seldom, and then it was usually a trader or a
+soldier. He was carefully brought up according to the tribal customs. At
+that period the Sioux prided themselves on the training and development
+of their sons and daughters, and not a step in that development was
+overlooked as an excuse to bring the child before the public by giving
+a feast in its honor. At such times the parents often gave so generously
+to the needy that they almost impoverished themselves, thus setting an
+example to the child of self-denial for the general good. His first
+step alone, the first word spoken, first game killed, the attainment of
+manhood or womanhood, each was the occasion of a feast and dance in
+his honor, at which the poor always benefited to the full extent of the
+parents' ability.
+
+Big-heartedness, generosity, courage, and self-denial are the
+qualifications of a public servant, and the average Indian was keen
+to follow this ideal. As every one knows, these characteristic traits
+become a weakness when he enters a life founded upon commerce and gain.
+Under such conditions the life of Crazy Horse began. His mother, like
+other mothers, tender and watchful of her boy, would never once place an
+obstacle in the way of his father's severe physical training. They laid
+the spiritual and patriotic foundations of his education in such a way
+that he early became conscious of the demands of public service.
+
+He was perhaps four or five years old when the band was snowed in
+one severe winter. They were very short of food, but his father was
+a tireless hunter. The buffalo, their main dependence, were not to
+be found, but he was out in the storm and cold every day and finally
+brought in two antelopes. The little boy got on his pet pony and rode
+through the camp, telling the old folks to come to his mother's
+teepee for meat. It turned out that neither his father nor mother had
+authorized him to do this. Before they knew it, old men and women were
+lined up before the teepee home, ready to receive the meat, in answer to
+his invitation. As a result, the mother had to distribute nearly all of
+it, keeping only enough for two meals.
+
+On the following day the child asked for food. His mother told him that
+the old folks had taken it all, and added: "Remember, my son, they went
+home singing praises in your name, not my name or your father's. You
+must be brave. You must live up to your reputation."
+
+Crazy Horse loved horses, and his father gave him a pony of his own when
+he was very young. He became a fine horseman and accompanied his father
+on buffalo hunts, holding the pack horses while the men chased the
+buffalo and thus gradually learning the art. In those days the Sioux had
+but few guns, and the hunting was mostly done with bow and arrows.
+
+Another story told of his boyhood is that when he was about twelve he
+went to look for the ponies with his little brother, whom he loved much,
+and took a great deal of pains to teach what he had already learned.
+They came to some wild cherry trees full of ripe fruit, and while they
+were enjoying it, the brothers were startled by the growl and sudden
+rush of a bear. Young Crazy Horse pushed his brother up into the nearest
+tree and himself sprang upon the back of one of the horses, which was
+frightened and ran some distance before he could control him. As soon
+as he could, however, he turned him about and came back, yelling and
+swinging his lariat over his head. The bear at first showed fight but
+finally turned and ran. The old man who told me this story added that
+young as he was, he had some power, so that even a grizzly did not
+care to tackle him. I believe it is a fact that a silver-tip will dare
+anything except a bell or a lasso line, so that accidentally the boy had
+hit upon the very thing which would drive him off.
+
+It was usual for Sioux boys of his day to wait in the field after a
+buffalo hunt until sundown, when the young calves would come out in the
+open, hungrily seeking their mothers. Then these wild children would
+enjoy a mimic hunt, and lasso the calves or drive them into camp. Crazy
+Horse was found to be a determined little fellow, and it was settled
+one day among the larger boys that they would "stump" him to ride a
+good-sized bull calf. He rode the calf, and stayed on its back while it
+ran bawling over the hills, followed by the other boys on their ponies,
+until his strange mount stood trembling and exhausted.
+
+At the age of sixteen he joined a war party against the Gros Ventres. He
+was well in the front of the charge, and at once established his bravery
+by following closely one of the foremost Sioux warriors, by the name of
+Hump, drawing the enemy's fire and circling around their advance guard.
+Suddenly Hump's horse was shot from under him, and there was a rush
+of warriors to kill or capture him while down. But amidst a shower of
+arrows the youth leaped from his pony, helped his friend into his own
+saddle, sprang up behind him, and carried him off in safety, although
+they were hotly pursued by the enemy. Thus he associated himself in his
+maiden battle with the wizard of Indian warfare, and Hump, who was
+then at the height of his own career, pronounced Crazy Horse the coming
+warrior of the Teton Sioux.
+
+At this period of his life, as was customary with the best young men, he
+spent much time in prayer and solitude. Just what happened in these days
+of his fasting in the wilderness and upon the crown of bald buttes,
+no one will ever know; for these things may only be known when one has
+lived through the battles of life to an honored old age. He was much
+sought after by his youthful associates, but was noticeably reserved and
+modest; yet in the moment of danger he at once rose above them all--a
+natural leader! Crazy Horse was a typical Sioux brave, and from the
+point of view of our race an ideal hero, living at the height of the
+epical progress of the American Indian and maintaining in his own
+character all that was most subtle and ennobling of their spiritual
+life, and that has since been lost in the contact with a material
+civilization.
+
+He loved Hump, that peerless warrior, and the two became close friends,
+in spite of the difference in age. Men called them "the grizzly and his
+cub." Again and again the pair saved the day for the Sioux in a skirmish
+with some neighboring tribe. But one day they undertook a losing battle
+against the Snakes. The Sioux were in full retreat and were fast
+being overwhelmed by superior numbers. The old warrior fell in a last
+desperate charge; but Crazy Horse and his younger brother, though
+dismounted, killed two of the enemy and thus made good their retreat.
+
+It was observed of him that when he pursued the enemy into their
+stronghold, as he was wont to do, he often refrained from killing, and
+simply struck them with a switch, showing that he did not fear their
+weapons nor care to waste his upon them. In attempting this very feat,
+he lost this only brother of his, who emulated him closely. A party of
+young warriors, led by Crazy Horse, had dashed upon a frontier post,
+killed one of the sentinels, stampeded the horses, and pursued the
+herder to the very gate of the stockade, thus drawing upon themselves
+the fire of the garrison. The leader escaped without a scratch, but his
+young brother was brought down from his horse and killed.
+
+While he was still under twenty, there was a great winter buffalo
+hunt, and he came back with ten buffaloes' tongues which he sent to the
+council lodge for the councilors' feast. He had in one winter day killed
+ten buffalo cows with his bow and arrows, and the unsuccessful hunters
+or those who had no swift ponies were made happy by his generosity. When
+the hunters returned, these came chanting songs of thanks. He knew that
+his father was an expert hunter and had a good horse, so he took no meat
+home, putting in practice the spirit of his early teaching.
+
+He attained his majority at the crisis of the difficulties between the
+United States and the Sioux. Even before that time, Crazy Horse had
+already proved his worth to his people in Indian warfare. He had risked
+his life again and again, and in some instances it was considered almost
+a miracle that he had saved others as well as himself. He was no orator
+nor was he the son of a chief. His success and influence was purely a
+matter of personality. He had never fought the whites up to this time,
+and indeed no "coup" was counted for killing or scalping a white man.
+
+Young Crazy Horse was twenty-one years old when all the Teton Sioux
+chiefs (the western or plains dwellers) met in council to determine upon
+their future policy toward the invader. Their former agreements had been
+by individual bands, each for itself, and every one was friendly. They
+reasoned that the country was wide, and that the white traders should be
+made welcome. Up to this time they had anticipated no conflict. They
+had permitted the Oregon Trail, but now to their astonishment forts were
+built and garrisoned in their territory.
+
+Most of the chiefs advocated a strong resistance. There were a few
+influential men who desired still to live in peace, and who were willing
+to make another treaty. Among these were White Bull, Two Kettle, Four
+Bears, and Swift Bear. Even Spotted Tail, afterward the great peace
+chief, was at this time with the majority, who decided in the year 1866
+to defend their rights and territory by force. Attacks were to be made
+upon the forts within their country and on every trespasser on the same.
+
+Crazy Horse took no part in the discussion, but he and all the young
+warriors were in accord with the decision of the council. Although so
+young, he was already a leader among them. Other prominent young braves
+were Sword (brother of the man of that name who was long captain of
+police at Pine Ridge), the younger Hump, Charging Bear, Spotted Elk,
+Crow King, No Water, Big Road, He Dog, the nephew of Red Cloud, and
+Touch-the-Cloud, intimate friend of Crazy Horse.
+
+The attack on Fort Phil Kearny was the first fruits of the new policy,
+and here Crazy Horse was chosen to lead the attack on the woodchoppers,
+designed to draw the soldiers out of the fort, while an army of six
+hundred lay in wait for them. The success of this stratagem was further
+enhanced by his masterful handling of his men. From this time on a
+general war was inaugurated; Sitting Bull looked to him as a principal
+war leader, and even the Cheyenne chiefs, allies of the Sioux,
+practically acknowledged his leadership. Yet during the following ten
+years of defensive war he was never known to make a speech, though his
+teepee was the rendezvous of the young men. He was depended upon to put
+into action the decisions of the council, and was frequently consulted
+by the older chiefs.
+
+Like Osceola, he rose suddenly; like Tecumseh he was always impatient
+for battle; like Pontiac, he fought on while his allies were suing for
+peace, and like Grant, the silent soldier, he was a man of deeds and
+not of words. He won from Custer and Fetterman and Crook. He won every
+battle that he undertook, with the exception of one or two occasions
+when he was surprised in the midst of his women and children, and
+even then he managed to extricate himself in safety from a difficult
+position.
+
+Early in the year 1876, his runners brought word from Sitting Bull
+that all the roving bands would converge upon the upper Tongue River in
+Montana for summer feasts and conferences. There was conflicting news
+from the reservation. It was rumored that the army would fight the Sioux
+to a finish; again, it was said that another commission would be sent
+out to treat with them.
+
+The Indians came together early in June, and formed a series of
+encampments stretching out from three to four miles, each band keeping
+separate camp. On June 17, scouts came in and reported the advance of a
+large body of troops under General Crook. The council sent Crazy Horse
+with seven hundred men to meet and attack him. These were nearly all
+young men, many of them under twenty, the flower of the hostile Sioux.
+They set out at night so as to steal a march upon the enemy, but within
+three or four miles of his camp they came unexpectedly upon some of his
+Crow scouts. There was a hurried exchange of shots; the Crows fled back
+to Crook's camp, pursued by the Sioux. The soldiers had their warning,
+and it was impossible to enter the well-protected camp. Again and again
+Crazy Horse charged with his bravest men, in the attempt to bring the
+troops into the open, but he succeeded only in drawing their fire.
+Toward afternoon he withdrew, and returned to camp disappointed. His
+scouts remained to watch Crook's movements, and later brought word
+that he had retreated to Goose Creek and seemed to have no further
+disposition to disturb the Sioux. It is well known to us that it is
+Crook rather than Reno who is to be blamed for cowardice in connection
+with Custer's fate. The latter had no chance to do anything, he was
+lucky to save himself; but if Crook had kept on his way, as ordered,
+to meet Terry, with his one thousand regulars and two hundred Crow and
+Shoshone scouts, he would inevitably have intercepted Custer in his
+advance and saved the day for him, and war with the Sioux would have
+ended right there. Instead of this, he fell back upon Fort Meade, eating
+his horses on the way, in a country swarming with game, for fear of
+Crazy Horse and his braves!
+
+The Indians now crossed the divide between the Tongue and the Little Big
+Horn, where they felt safe from immediate pursuit. Here, with all their
+precautions, they were caught unawares by General Custer, in the midst
+of their midday games and festivities, while many were out upon the
+daily hunt.
+
+On this twenty-fifth of June, 1876, the great camp was scattered for
+three miles or more along the level river bottom, back of the thin line
+of cottonwoods--five circular rows of teepees, ranging from half a mile
+to a mile and a half in circumference. Here and there stood out a large,
+white, solitary teepee; these were the lodges or "clubs" of the young
+men. Crazy Horse was a member of the "Strong Hearts" and the "Tokala"
+or Fox lodge. He was watching a game of ring-toss when the warning came
+from the southern end of the camp of the approach of troops.
+
+The Sioux and the Cheyennes were "minute men", and although taken by
+surprise, they instantly responded. Meanwhile, the women and children
+were thrown into confusion. Dogs were howling, ponies running hither and
+thither, pursued by their owners, while many of the old men were singing
+their lodge songs to encourage the warriors, or praising the "strong
+heart" of Crazy Horse.
+
+That leader had quickly saddled his favorite war pony and was starting
+with his young men for the south end of the camp, when a fresh alarm
+came from the opposite direction, and looking up, he saw Custer's force
+upon the top of the bluff directly across the river. As quick as a
+flash, he took in the situation--the enemy had planned to attack the
+camp at both ends at once; and knowing that Custer could not ford the
+river at that point, he instantly led his men northward to the ford to
+cut him off. The Cheyennes followed closely. Custer must have seen
+that wonderful dash up the sage-bush plain, and one wonders whether he
+realized its meaning. In a very few minutes, this wild general of the
+plains had outwitted one of the most brilliant leaders of the Civil War
+and ended at once his military career and his life.
+
+In this dashing charge, Crazy Horse snatched his most famous victory out
+of what seemed frightful peril, for the Sioux could not know how many
+were behind Custer. He was caught in his own trap. To the soldiers it
+must have seemed as if the Indians rose up from the earth to overwhelm
+them. They closed in from three sides and fought until not a white man
+was left alive. Then they went down to Reno's stand and found him so
+well intrenched in a deep gully that it was impossible to dislodge him.
+Gall and his men held him there until the approach of General Terry
+compelled the Sioux to break camp and scatter in different directions.
+
+While Sitting Bull was pursued into Canada, Crazy Horse and the
+Cheyennes wandered about, comparatively undisturbed, during the rest of
+that year, until in the winter the army surprised the Cheyennes, but did
+not do them much harm, possibly because they knew that Crazy Horse was
+not far off. His name was held in wholesome respect. From time to time,
+delegations of friendly Indians were sent to him, to urge him to come in
+to the reservation, promising a full hearing and fair treatment.
+
+For some time he held out, but the rapid disappearance of the buffalo,
+their only means of support, probably weighed with him more than any
+other influence. In July, 1877, he was finally prevailed upon to come in
+to Fort Robinson, Nebraska, with several thousand Indians, most of them
+Ogallala and Minneconwoju Sioux, on the distinct understanding that the
+government would hear and adjust their grievances.
+
+At this juncture General Crook proclaimed Spotted Tail, who had rendered
+much valuable service to the army, head chief of the Sioux, which
+was resented by many. The attention paid Crazy Horse was offensive to
+Spotted Tail and the Indian scouts, who planned a conspiracy against
+him. They reported to General Crook that the young chief would murder
+him at the next council, and stampede the Sioux into another war. He was
+urged not to attend the council and did not, but sent another officer to
+represent him. Meanwhile the friends of Crazy Horse discovered the plot
+and told him of it. His reply was, "Only cowards are murderers."
+
+His wife was critically ill at the time, and he decided to take her to
+her parents at Spotted Tail agency, whereupon his enemies circulated the
+story that he had fled, and a party of scouts was sent after him. They
+overtook him riding with his wife and one other but did not undertake to
+arrest him, and after he had left the sick woman with her people he went
+to call on Captain Lea, the agent for the Brules, accompanied by all
+the warriors of the Minneconwoju band. This volunteer escort made an
+imposing appearance on horseback, shouting and singing, and in the words
+of Captain Lea himself and the missionary, the Reverend Mr. Cleveland,
+the situation was extremely critical. Indeed, the scouts who had
+followed Crazy Horse from Red Cloud agency were advised not to show
+themselves, as some of the warriors had urged that they be taken out and
+horsewhipped publicly.
+
+Under these circumstances Crazy Horse again showed his masterful spirit
+by holding these young men in check. He said to them in his quiet
+way: "It is well to be brave in the field of battle; it is cowardly
+to display bravery against one's own tribesmen. These scouts have been
+compelled to do what they did; they are no better than servants of the
+white officers. I came here on a peaceful errand."
+
+The captain urged him to report at army headquarters to explain himself
+and correct false rumors, and on his giving consent, furnished him with
+a wagon and escort. It has been said that he went back under arrest, but
+this is untrue. Indians have boasted that they had a hand in bringing
+him in, but their stories are without foundation. He went of his own
+accord, either suspecting no treachery or determined to defy it.
+
+When he reached the military camp, Little Big Man walked arm-in-arm with
+him, and his cousin and friend, Touch-the-Cloud, was just in advance.
+After they passed the sentinel, an officer approached them and walked
+on his other side. He was unarmed but for the knife which is carried for
+ordinary uses by women as well as men. Unsuspectingly he walked toward
+the guardhouse, when Touch-the-Cloud suddenly turned back exclaiming:
+"Cousin, they will put you in prison!"
+
+"Another white man's trick! Let me go! Let me die fighting!" cried Crazy
+Horse. He stopped and tried to free himself and draw his knife, but
+both arms were held fast by Little Big Man and the officer. While he
+struggled thus, a soldier thrust him through with his bayonet from
+behind. The wound was mortal, and he died in the course of that night,
+his old father singing the death song over him and afterward carrying
+away the body, which they said must not be further polluted by the touch
+of a white man. They hid it somewhere in the Bad Lands, his resting
+place to this day.
+
+Thus died one of the ablest and truest American Indians. His life was
+ideal; his record clean. He was never involved in any of the numerous
+massacres on the trail, but was a leader in practically every open
+fight. Such characters as those of Crazy Horse and Chief Joseph are not
+easily found among so-called civilized people. The reputation of great
+men is apt to be shadowed by questionable motives and policies, but here
+are two pure patriots, as worthy of honor as any who ever breathed God's
+air in the wide spaces of a new world.
+
+
+
+
+SITTING BULL
+
+
+IT is not easy to characterize Sitting Bull, of all Sioux chiefs most
+generally known to the American people. There are few to whom his name
+is not familiar, and still fewer who have learned to connect it with
+anything more than the conventional notion of a bloodthirsty savage. The
+man was an enigma at best. He was not impulsive, nor was he phlegmatic.
+He was most serious when he seemed to be jocose. He was gifted with the
+power of sarcasm, and few have used it more artfully than he.
+
+His father was one of the best-known members of the Unkpapa band of
+Sioux. The manner of this man's death was characteristic. One day, when
+the Unkpapas were attacked by a large war party of Crows, he fell upon
+the enemy's war leader with his knife. In a hand-to-hand combat of
+this sort, we count the victor as entitled to a war bonnet of trailing
+plumes. It means certain death to one or both. In this case, both men
+dealt a mortal stroke, and Jumping Buffalo, the father of Sitting Bull,
+fell from his saddle and died in a few minutes. The other died later
+from the effects of the wound.
+
+Sitting Bull's boyhood must have been a happy one. It was long after the
+day of the dog-travaux, and his father owned many ponies of variegated
+colors. It was said of him in a joking way that his legs were bowed like
+the ribs of the ponies that he rode constantly from childhood. He had
+also a common nickname that was much to the point. It was "Hunkeshnee",
+which means "Slow", referring to his inability to run fast, or more
+probably to the fact that he seldom appeared on foot. In their boyish
+games he was wont to take the part of the "old man", but this does not
+mean that he was not active and brave. It is told that after a buffalo
+hunt the boys were enjoying a mimic hunt with the calves that had been
+left behind. A large calf turned viciously on Sitting Bull, whose pony
+had thrown him, but the alert youth got hold of both ears and struggled
+until the calf was pushed back into a buffalo wallow in a sitting
+posture. The boys shouted: "He has subdued the buffalo calf! He made
+it sit down!" And from this incident was derived his familiar name of
+Sitting Bull.
+
+It is a mistake to suppose that Sitting Bull, or any other Indian
+warrior, was of a murderous disposition. It is true that savage warfare
+had grown more and more harsh and cruel since the coming of white
+traders among them, bringing guns, knives, and whisky. Yet it was still
+regarded largely as a sort of game, undertaken in order to develop the
+manly qualities of their youth. It was the degree of risk which brought
+honor, rather than the number slain, and a brave must mourn thirty days,
+with blackened face and loosened hair, for the enemy whose life he had
+taken. While the spoils of war were allowed, this did not extend to
+territorial aggrandizement, nor was there any wish to overthrow another
+nation and enslave its people. It was a point of honor in the old days
+to treat a captive with kindness. The common impression that the Indian
+is naturally cruel and revengeful is entirely opposed to his philosophy
+and training. The revengeful tendency of the Indian was aroused by the
+white man. It is not the natural Indian who is mean and tricky; not
+Massasoit but King Philip; not Attackullakulla but Weatherford; not
+Wabashaw but Little Crow; not Jumping Buffalo but Sitting Bull! These
+men lifted their hands against the white man, while their fathers held
+theirs out to him with gifts.
+
+Remember that there were councils which gave their decisions in
+accordance with the highest ideal of human justice before there were
+any cities on this continent; before there were bridges to span the
+Mississippi; before this network of railroads was dreamed of! There were
+primitive communities upon the very spot where Chicago or New York City
+now stands, where men were as children, innocent of all the crimes
+now committed there daily and nightly. True morality is more easily
+maintained in connection with the simple life. You must accept the truth
+that you demoralize any race whom you have subjugated.
+
+From this point of view we shall consider Sitting Bull's career. We say
+he is an untutored man: that is true so far as learning of a literary
+type is concerned; but he was not an untutored man when you view him
+from the standpoint of his nation. To be sure, he did not learn his
+lessons from books. This is second-hand information at best. All that he
+learned he verified for himself and put into daily practice. In personal
+appearance he was rather commonplace and made no immediate impression,
+but as he talked he seemed to take hold of his hearers more and more. He
+was bull-headed; quick to grasp a situation, and not readily induced to
+change his mind. He was not suspicious until he was forced to be so. All
+his meaner traits were inevitably developed by the events of his later
+career.
+
+Sitting Bull's history has been written many times by newspaper men and
+army officers, but I find no account of him which is entirely correct.
+I met him personally in 1884, and since his death I have gone thoroughly
+into the details of his life with his relatives and contemporaries. It
+has often been said that he was a physical coward and not a warrior.
+Judge of this for yourselves from the deed which first gave him fame in
+his own tribe, when he was about twenty-eight years old.
+
+In an attack upon a band of Crow Indians, one of the enemy took his
+stand, after the rest had fled, in a deep ditch from which it seemed
+impossible to dislodge him. The situation had already cost the lives of
+several warriors, but they could not let him go to repeat such a boast
+over the Sioux!
+
+"Follow me!" said Sitting Bull, and charged. He raced his horse to the
+brim of the ditch and struck at the enemy with his coup-staff, thus
+compelling him to expose himself to the fire of the others while
+shooting his assailant. But the Crow merely poked his empty gun into his
+face and dodged back under cover. Then Sitting Bull stopped; he saw that
+no one had followed him, and he also perceived that the enemy had no
+more ammunition left. He rode deliberately up to the barrier and threw
+his loaded gun over it; then he went back to his party and told them
+what he thought of them.
+
+"Now," said he, "I have armed him, for I will not see a brave man killed
+unarmed. I will strike him again with my coup-staff to count the first
+feather; who will count the second?"
+
+Again he led the charge, and this time they all followed him. Sitting
+Bull was severely wounded by his own gun in the hands of the enemy, who
+was killed by those that came after him. This is a record that so far as
+I know was never made by any other warrior.
+
+The second incident that made him well known was his taking of a boy
+captive in battle with the Assiniboines. He saved this boy's life and
+adopted him as his brother. Hohay, as he was called, was devoted to
+Sitting Bull and helped much in later years to spread his fame. Sitting
+Bull was a born diplomat, a ready speaker, and in middle life he ceased
+to go upon the warpath, to become the councilor of his people. From this
+time on, this man represented him in all important battles, and upon
+every brave deed done was wont to exclaim aloud:
+
+"I, Sitting Bull's boy, do this in his name!"
+
+He had a nephew, now living, who resembles him strongly, and who also
+represented him personally upon the field; and so far as there is any
+remnant left of his immediate band, they look upon this man One Bull as
+their chief.
+
+When Sitting Bull was a boy, there was no thought of trouble with the
+whites. He was acquainted with many of the early traders, Picotte,
+Choteau, Primeau, Larpenteur, and others, and liked them, as did most
+of his people in those days. All the early records show this friendly
+attitude of the Sioux, and the great fur companies for a century and a
+half depended upon them for the bulk of their trade. It was not until
+the middle of the last century that they woke up all of a sudden to the
+danger threatening their very existence. Yet at that time many of the
+old chiefs had been already depraved by the whisky and other vices of
+the whites, and in the vicinity of the forts and trading posts at Sioux
+City, Saint Paul, and Cheyenne, there was general demoralization. The
+drunkards and hangers-on were ready to sell almost anything they had
+for the favor of the trader. The better and stronger element held aloof.
+They would not have anything of the white man except his hatchet, gun,
+and knife. They utterly refused to cede their lands; and as for the
+rest, they were willing to let him alone as long as he did not interfere
+with their life and customs, which was not long.
+
+It was not, however, the Unkpapa band of Sioux, Sitting Bull's band,
+which first took up arms against the whites; and this was not because
+they had come less in contact with them, for they dwelt on the Missouri
+River, the natural highway of trade. As early as 1854, the Ogallalas
+and Brules had trouble with the soldiers near Fort Laramie; and again
+in 1857 Inkpaduta massacred several families of settlers at Spirit Lake,
+Iowa. Finally, in 1869, the Minnesota Sioux, goaded by many wrongs,
+arose and murdered many of the settlers, afterward fleeing into the
+country of the Unkpapas and appealing to them for help, urging that
+all Indians should make common cause against the invader. This brought
+Sitting Bull face to face with a question which was not yet fully
+matured in his own mind; but having satisfied himself of the justice of
+their cause, he joined forces with the renegades during the summer of
+1863, and from this time on he was an acknowledged leader.
+
+In 1865 and 1866 he met the Canadian half-breed, Louis Riel, instigator
+of two rebellions, who had come across the line for safety; and in fact
+at this time he harbored a number of outlaws and fugitives from justice.
+His conversations with these, especially with the French mixed-bloods,
+who inflamed his prejudices against the Americans, all had their
+influence in making of the wily Sioux a determined enemy to the white
+man. While among his own people he was always affable and genial, he
+became boastful and domineering in his dealings with the hated race.
+He once remarked that "if we wish to make any impression upon the
+pale-face, it is necessary to put on his mask."
+
+Sitting Bull joined in the attack on Fort Phil Kearny and in the
+subsequent hostilities; but he accepted in good faith the treaty of
+1868, and soon after it was signed he visited Washington with Red Cloud
+and Spotted Tail, on which occasion the three distinguished chiefs
+attracted much attention and were entertained at dinner by President
+Grant and other notables. He considered that the life of the white man
+as he saw it was no life for his people, but hoped by close adherence
+to the terms of this treaty to preserve the Big Horn and Black Hills
+country for a permanent hunting ground. When gold was discovered and the
+irrepressible gold seekers made their historic dash across the plains
+into this forbidden paradise, then his faith in the white man's honor
+was gone forever, and he took his final and most persistent stand
+in defense of his nation and home. His bitter and at the same time
+well-grounded and philosophical dislike of the conquering race is well
+expressed in a speech made before the purely Indian council before
+referred to, upon the Powder River. I will give it in brief as it has
+been several times repeated to me by men who were present.
+
+"Behold, my friends, the spring is come; the earth has gladly received
+the embraces of the sun, and we shall soon see the results of their
+love! Every seed is awakened, and all animal life. It is through this
+mysterious power that we too have our being, and we therefore yield to
+our neighbors, even to our animal neighbors, the same right as ourselves
+to inhabit this vast land.
+
+"Yet hear me, friends! we have now to deal with another people, small
+and feeble when our forefathers first met with them, but now great and
+overbearing. Strangely enough, they have a mind to till the soil, and
+the love of possessions is a disease in them. These people have made
+many rules that the rich may break, but the poor may not! They have a
+religion in which the poor worship, but the rich will not! They even
+take tithes of the poor and weak to support the rich and those who rule.
+They claim this mother of ours, the Earth, for their own use, and fence
+their neighbors away from her, and deface her with their buildings and
+their refuse. They compel her to produce out of season, and when sterile
+she is made to take medicine in order to produce again. All this is
+sacrilege.
+
+"This nation is like a spring freshet; it overruns its banks and
+destroys all who are in its path. We cannot dwell side by side. Only
+seven years ago we made a treaty by which we were assured that the
+buffalo country should be left to us forever. Now they threaten to take
+that from us also. My brothers, shall we submit? or shall we say to
+them: 'First kill me, before you can take possession of my fatherland!'"
+
+As Sitting Bull spoke, so he felt, and he had the courage to stand
+by his words. Crazy Horse led his forces in the field; as for him, he
+applied his energies to state affairs, and by his strong and aggressive
+personality contributed much to holding the hostiles together.
+
+It may be said without fear of contradiction that Sitting Bull never
+killed any women or children. He was a fair fighter, and while not
+prominent in battle after his young manhood, he was the brains of the
+Sioux resistance. He has been called a "medicine man" and a "dreamer."
+Strictly speaking, he was neither of these, and the white historians
+are prone to confuse the two. A medicine man is a doctor or healer; a
+dreamer is an active war prophet who leads his war party according to
+his dream or prophecy. What is called by whites "making medicine" in war
+time is again a wrong conception. Every warrior carries a bag of sacred
+or lucky charms, supposed to protect the wearer alone, but it has
+nothing to do with the success or safety of the party as a whole. No one
+can make any "medicine" to affect the result of a battle, although it
+has been said that Sitting Bull did this at the battle of the Little Big
+Horn.
+
+When Custer and Reno attacked the camp at both ends, the chief was
+caught napping. The village was in danger of surprise, and the women and
+children must be placed in safety. Like other men of his age, Sitting
+Bull got his family together for flight, and then joined the warriors
+on the Reno side of the attack. Thus he was not in the famous charge
+against Custer; nevertheless, his voice was heard exhorting the warriors
+throughout that day.
+
+During the autumn of 1876, after the fall of Custer, Sitting Bull was
+hunted all through the Yellowstone region by the military. The
+following characteristic letter, doubtless written at his dictation by
+a half-breed interpreter, was sent to Colonel Otis immediately after a
+daring attack upon his wagon train.
+
+   "I want to know what you are doing, traveling on this road.
+   You scare all the buffalo away. I want to hunt in this place. I
+   want you to turn back from here. If you don't, I will fight you
+   again. I want you to leave what you have got here and turn back
+   from here.
+
+     "I am your friend
+
+    "Sitting Bull."
+
+   "I need all the rations you have got and some powder. Wish you
+   would write me as soon as you can."
+
+Otis, however, kept on and joined Colonel Miles, who followed Sitting
+Bull with about four hundred soldiers. He overtook him at last on Cedar
+Creek, near the Yellowstone, and the two met midway between the lines
+for a parley. The army report says: "Sitting Bull wanted peace in
+his own way." The truth was that he wanted nothing more than had been
+guaranteed to them by the treaty of 1868--the exclusive possession of
+their last hunting ground. This the government was not now prepared to
+grant, as it had been decided to place all the Indians under military
+control upon the various reservations.
+
+Since it was impossible to reconcile two such conflicting demands, the
+hostiles were driven about from pillar to post for several more years,
+and finally took refuge across the line in Canada, where Sitting Bull
+had placed his last hope of justice and freedom for his race. Here
+he was joined from time to time by parties of malcontents from the
+reservation, driven largely by starvation and ill-treatment to
+seek another home. Here, too, they were followed by United States
+commissioners, headed by General Terry, who endeavored to persuade him
+to return, promising abundance of food and fair treatment, despite the
+fact that the exiles were well aware of the miserable condition of the
+"good Indians" upon the reservations. He first refused to meet them at
+all, and only did so when advised to that effect by Major Walsh of the
+Canadian mounted police. This was his characteristic remark: "If you
+have one honest man in Washington, send him here and I will talk to
+him."
+
+Sitting Bull was not moved by fair words; but when he found that if
+they had liberty on that side, they had little else, that the Canadian
+government would give them protection but no food; that the buffalo had
+been all but exterminated and his starving people were already beginning
+to desert him, he was compelled at last, in 1881, to report at Fort
+Buford, North Dakota, with his band of hungry, homeless, and discouraged
+refugees. It was, after all, to hunger and not to the strong arm of the
+military that he surrendered in the end.
+
+In spite of the invitation that had been extended to him in the name
+of the "Great Father" at Washington, he was immediately thrown into a
+military prison, and afterward handed over to Colonel Cody ("Buffalo
+Bill") as an advertisement for his "Wild West Show." After traveling
+about for several years with the famous showman, thus increasing his
+knowledge of the weaknesses as well as the strength of the white man,
+the deposed and humiliated chief settled down quietly with his people
+upon the Standing Rock agency in North Dakota, where his immediate band
+occupied the Grand River district and set to raising cattle and
+horses. They made good progress; much better, in fact, than that of the
+"coffee-coolers" or "loafer" Indians, received the missionaries kindly
+and were soon a church-going people.
+
+When the Commissions of 1888 and 1889 came to treat with the Sioux for
+a further cession of land and a reduction of their reservations, nearly
+all were opposed to consent on any terms. Nevertheless, by hook or by
+crook, enough signatures were finally obtained to carry the measure
+through, although it is said that many were those of women and the
+so-called "squaw-men", who had no rights in the land. At the same
+time, rations were cut down, and there was general hardship and
+dissatisfaction. Crazy Horse was long since dead; Spotted Tail had
+fallen at the hands of one of his own tribe; Red Cloud had become a
+feeble old man, and the disaffected among the Sioux began once more to
+look to Sitting Bull for leadership.
+
+At this crisis a strange thing happened. A half-breed Indian in Nevada
+promulgated the news that the Messiah had appeared to him upon a peak in
+the Rockies, dressed in rabbit skins, and bringing a message to the red
+race. The message was to the effect that since his first coming had been
+in vain, since the white people had doubted and reviled him, had nailed
+him to the cross, and trampled upon his doctrines, he had come again in
+pity to save the Indian. He declared that he would cause the earth to
+shake and to overthrow the cities of the whites and destroy them, that
+the buffalo would return, and the land belong to the red race forever!
+These events were to come to pass within two years; and meanwhile they
+were to prepare for his coming by the ceremonies and dances which he
+commanded.
+
+This curious story spread like wildfire and met with eager acceptance
+among the suffering and discontented people. The teachings of Christian
+missionaries had prepared them to believe in a Messiah, and the
+prescribed ceremonial was much more in accord with their traditions than
+the conventional worship of the churches. Chiefs of many tribes sent
+delegations to the Indian prophet; Short Bull, Kicking Bear, and others
+went from among the Sioux, and on their return all inaugurated the
+dances at once. There was an attempt at first to keep the matter secret,
+but it soon became generally known and seriously disconcerted the Indian
+agents and others, who were quick to suspect a hostile conspiracy under
+all this religious enthusiasm. As a matter of fact, there was no thought
+of an uprising; the dancing was innocent enough, and pathetic enough
+their despairing hope in a pitiful Saviour who should overwhelm their
+oppressors and bring back their golden age.
+
+When the Indians refused to give up the "Ghost Dance" at the bidding of
+the authorities, the growing suspicion and alarm focused upon Sitting
+Bull, who in spirit had never been any too submissive, and it was
+determined to order his arrest. At the special request of Major
+McLaughlin, agent at Standing Rock, forty of his Indian police were sent
+out to Sitting Bull's home on Grand River to secure his person
+(followed at some little distance by a body of United States troops for
+reinforcement, in case of trouble). These police are enlisted from
+among the tribesmen at each agency, and have proved uniformly brave and
+faithful. They entered the cabin at daybreak, aroused the chief from
+a sound slumber, helped him to dress, and led him unresisting from the
+house; but when he came out in the gray dawn of that December morning in
+1890, to find his cabin surrounded by armed men and himself led away to
+he knew not what fate, he cried out loudly:
+
+"They have taken me: what say you to it?"
+
+Men poured out of the neighboring houses, and in a few minutes the
+police were themselves surrounded with an excited and rapidly increasing
+throng. They harangued the crowd in vain; Sitting Bull's blood was up,
+and he again appealed to his men. His adopted brother, the Assiniboine
+captive whose life he had saved so many years before, was the first to
+fire. His shot killed Lieutenant Bull Head, who held Sitting Bull by the
+arm. Then there was a short but sharp conflict, in which Sitting Bull
+and six of his defenders and six of the Indian police were slain, with
+many more wounded. The chief's young son, Crow Foot, and his devoted
+"brother" died with him. When all was over, and the terrified people had
+fled precipitately across the river, the soldiers appeared upon the brow
+of the long hill and fired their Hotchkiss guns into the deserted camp.
+
+Thus ended the life of a natural strategist of no mean courage and
+ability. The great chief was buried without honors outside the cemetery
+at the post, and for some years the grave was marked by a mere board at
+its head. Recently some women have built a cairn of rocks there in token
+of respect and remembrance.
+
+
+
+
+RAIN-IN-THE-FACE
+
+
+The noted Sioux warrior, Rain-in-the-Face, whose name once carried
+terror to every part of the frontier, died at his home on the Standing
+Rock reserve in North Dakota on September 14, 1905. About two months
+before his death I went to see him for the last time, where he lay upon
+the bed of sickness from which he never rose again, and drew from him
+his life-history.
+
+It had been my experience that you cannot induce an Indian to tell a
+story, or even his own name, by asking him directly.
+
+"Friend," I said, "even if a man is on a hot trail, he stops for a
+smoke! In the good old days, before the charge there was a smoke. At
+home, by the fireside, when the old men were asked to tell their brave
+deeds, again the pipe was passed. So come, let us smoke now to the
+memory of the old days!"
+
+He took of my tobacco and filled his long pipe, and we smoked. Then I
+told an old mirthful story to get him in the humor of relating his own
+history.
+
+The old man lay upon an iron bedstead, covered by a red blanket, in a
+corner of the little log cabin. He was all alone that day; only an old
+dog lay silent and watchful at his master's feet.
+
+Finally he looked up and said with a pleasant smile:
+
+"True, friend; it is the old custom to retrace one's trail before
+leaving it forever! I know that I am at the door of the spirit home.
+
+"I was born near the forks of the Cheyenne River, about seventy years
+ago. My father was not a chief; my grandfather was not a chief, but
+a good hunter and a feast-maker. On my mother's side I had some noted
+ancestors, but they left me no chieftainship. I had to work for my
+reputation.
+
+"When I was a boy, I loved to fight," he continued. "In all our boyish
+games I had the name of being hard to handle, and I took much pride in
+the fact.
+
+"I was about ten years old when we encountered a band of Cheyennes.
+They were on friendly terms with us, but we boys always indulged in sham
+fights on such occasions, and this time I got in an honest fight with a
+Cheyenne boy older than I. I got the best of the boy, but he hit me hard
+in the face several times, and my face was all spattered with blood and
+streaked where the paint had been washed away. The Sioux boys whooped
+and yelled:
+
+"'His enemy is down, and his face is spattered as if with rain!
+Rain-in-the-Face! His name shall be Rain-in-the-Face!'
+
+"Afterwards, when I was a young man, we went on a warpath against the
+Gros Ventres. We stole some of their horses, but were overtaken and had
+to abandon the horses and fight for our lives. I had wished my face to
+represent the sun when partly covered with darkness, so I painted it
+half black, half red. We fought all day in the rain, and my face was
+partly washed and streaked with red and black: so again I was christened
+Rain-in-the-Face. We considered it an honorable name.
+
+"I had been on many warpaths, but was not especially successful until
+about the time the Sioux began to fight with the white man. One of the
+most daring attacks that we ever made was at Fort Totten, North Dakota,
+in the summer of 1866.
+
+"Hohay, the Assiniboine captive of Sitting Bull, was the leader in this
+raid. Wapaypay, the Fearless Bear, who was afterward hanged at Yankton,
+was the bravest man among us. He dared Hohay to make the charge. Hohay
+accepted the challenge, and in turn dared the other to ride with him
+through the agency and right under the walls of the fort, which was well
+garrisoned and strong.
+
+"Wapaypay and I in those days called each other 'brother-friend.' It was
+a life-and-death vow. What one does the other must do; and that meant
+that I must be in the forefront of the charge, and if he is killed, I
+must fight until I die also!
+
+"I prepared for death. I painted as usual like an eclipse of the sun,
+half black and half red."
+
+His eyes gleamed and his face lighted up remarkably as he talked,
+pushing his black hair back from his forehead with a nervous gesture.
+
+"Now the signal for the charge was given! I started even with Wapaypay,
+but his horse was faster than mine, so he left me a little behind as we
+neared the fort. This was bad for me, for by that time the soldiers had
+somewhat recovered from the surprise and were aiming better.
+
+"Their big gun talked very loud, but my Wapaypay was leading on, leaning
+forward on his fleet pony like a flying squirrel on a smooth log! He
+held his rawhide shield on the right side, a little to the front, and
+so did I. Our warwhoop was like the coyotes singing in the evening, when
+they smell blood!
+
+"The soldiers' guns talked fast, but few were hurt. Their big gun was
+like a toothless old dog, who only makes himself hotter the more noise
+he makes," he remarked with some humor.
+
+"How much harm we did I do not know, but we made things lively for a
+time; and the white men acted as people do when a swarm of angry bees
+get into camp. We made a successful retreat, but some of the reservation
+Indians followed us yelling, until Hohay told them that he did not wish
+to fight with the captives of the white man, for there would be no honor
+in that. There was blood running down my leg, and I found that both my
+horse and I were slightly wounded.
+
+"Some two years later we attacked a fort west of the Black Hills [Fort
+Phil Kearny, Wyoming]. It was there we killed one hundred soldiers."
+[The military reports say eighty men, under the command of Captain
+Fetterman--not one left alive to tell the tale!] "Nearly every band of
+the Sioux nation was represented in that fight--Red Cloud, Spotted
+Tail, Crazy Horse, Sitting Bull, Big Foot, and all our great chiefs were
+there. Of course such men as I were then comparatively unknown. However,
+there were many noted young warriors, among them Sword, the younger
+Young-Man-Afraid, American Horse [afterward chief], Crow King, and
+others.
+
+"This was the plan decided upon after many councils. The main war party
+lay in ambush, and a few of the bravest young men were appointed to
+attack the woodchoppers who were cutting logs to complete the building
+of the fort. We were told not to kill these men, but to chase them into
+the fort and retreat slowly, defying the white men; and if the soldiers
+should follow, we were to lead them into the ambush. They took our bait
+exactly as we had hoped! It was a matter of a very few minutes, for
+every soldier lay dead in a shorter time than it takes to annihilate a
+small herd of buffalo.
+
+"This attack was hastened because most of the Sioux on the Missouri
+River and eastward had begun to talk of suing for peace. But even this
+did not stop the peace movement. The very next year a treaty was signed
+at Fort Rice, Dakota Territory, by nearly all the Sioux chiefs, in which
+it was agreed on the part of the Great Father in Washington that all the
+country north of the Republican River in Nebraska, including the Black
+Hills and the Big Horn Mountains, was to be always Sioux country, and no
+white man should intrude upon it without our permission. Even with this
+agreement Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse were not satisfied, and they
+would not sign.
+
+"Up to this time I had fought in some important battles, but had
+achieved no great deed. I was ambitious to make a name for myself.
+I joined war parties against the Crows, Mandans, Gros Ventres, and
+Pawnees, and gained some little distinction.
+
+"It was when the white men found the yellow metal in our country, and
+came in great numbers, driving away our game, that we took up arms
+against them for the last time. I must say here that the chiefs who were
+loudest for war were among the first to submit and accept reservation
+life. Spotted Tail was a great warrior, yet he was one of the first to
+yield, because he was promised by the Chief Soldiers that they would
+make him chief of all the Sioux. Ugh! he would have stayed with Sitting
+Bull to the last had it not been for his ambition.
+
+"About this time we young warriors began to watch the trails of the
+white men into the Black Hills, and when we saw a wagon coming we would
+hide at the crossing and kill them all without much trouble. We did
+this to discourage the whites from coming into our country without our
+permission. It was the duty of our Great Father at Washington, by the
+agreement of 1868, to keep his white children away.
+
+"During the troublesome time after this treaty, which no one seemed to
+respect, either white or Indian [but the whites broke it first], I was
+like many other young men--much on the warpath, but with little honor.
+I had not yet become noted for any great deed. Finally, Wapaypay and I
+waylaid and killed a white soldier on his way from the fort to his home
+in the east.
+
+"There were a few Indians who were liars, and never on the warpath,
+playing 'good Indian' with the Indian agents and the war chiefs at the
+forts. Some of this faithless set betrayed me, and told more than I
+ever did. I was seized and taken to the fort near Bismarck, North Dakota
+[Fort Abraham Lincoln], by a brother [Tom Custer] of the Long-Haired War
+Chief, and imprisoned there. These same lying Indians, who were selling
+their services as scouts to the white man, told me that I was to be shot
+to death, or else hanged upon a tree. I answered that I was not afraid
+to die.
+
+"However, there was an old soldier who used to bring my food and stand
+guard over me--he was a white man, it is true, but he had an Indian
+heart! He came to me one day and unfastened the iron chain and ball with
+which they had locked my leg, saying by signs and what little Sioux he
+could muster:
+
+"'Go, friend! take the chain and ball with you. I shall shoot, but the
+voice of the gun will lie.'
+
+"When he had made me understand, you may guess that I ran my best! I was
+almost over the bank when he fired his piece at me several times, but
+I had already gained cover and was safe. I have never told this before,
+and would not, lest it should do him an injury, but he was an old man
+then, and I am sure he must be dead long since. That old soldier
+taught me that some of the white people have hearts," he added, quite
+seriously.
+
+"I went back to Standing Rock in the night, and I had to hide for
+several days in the woods, where food was brought to me by my relatives.
+The Indian police were ordered to retake me, and they pretended to hunt
+for me, but really they did not, for if they had found me I would have
+died with one or two of them, and they knew it! In a few days I departed
+with several others, and we rejoined the hostile camp on the Powder
+River and made some trouble for the men who were building the great iron
+track north of us [Northern Pacific].
+
+"In the spring the hostile Sioux got together again upon the Tongue
+River. It was one of the greatest camps of the Sioux that I ever saw.
+There were some Northern Cheyennes with us, under Two Moon, and a few
+Santee Sioux, renegades from Canada, under Inkpaduta, who had killed
+white people in Iowa long before. We had decided to fight the white
+soldiers until no warrior should be left."
+
+At this point Rain-in-the-Face took up his tobacco pouch and began again
+to fill his pipe.
+
+"Of course the younger warriors were delighted with the prospect of
+a great fight! Our scouts had discovered piles of oats for horses and
+other supplies near the Missouri River. They had been brought by the
+white man's fire-boats. Presently they reported a great army about a
+day's travel to the south, with Shoshone and Crow scouts.
+
+"There was excitement among the people, and a great council was held.
+Many spoke. I was asked the condition of those Indians who had gone upon
+the reservation, and I told them truly that they were nothing more than
+prisoners. It was decided to go out and meet Three Stars [General Crook]
+at a safe distance from our camp.
+
+"We met him on the Little Rosebud. I believe that if we had waited
+and allowed him to make the attack, he would have fared no better than
+Custer. He was too strongly fortified where he was, and I think, too,
+that he was saved partly by his Indian allies, for the scouts discovered
+us first and fought us first, thus giving him time to make his
+preparations. I think he was more wise than brave! After we had left
+that neighborhood he might have pushed on and connected with the
+Long-Haired Chief. That would have saved Custer and perhaps won the day.
+
+"When we crossed from Tongue River to the Little Big Horn, on account
+of the scarcity of game, we did not anticipate any more trouble. Our
+runners had discovered that Crook had retraced his trail to Goose
+Creek, and we did not suppose that the white men would care to follow us
+farther into the rough country.
+
+"Suddenly the Long-Haired Chief appeared with his men! It was a
+surprise."
+
+"What part of the camp were you in when the soldiers attacked the lower
+end?" I asked.
+
+"I had been invited to a feast at one of the young men's lodges [a sort
+of club]. There was a certain warrior who was making preparations to go
+against the Crows, and I had decided to go also," he said.
+
+"While I was eating my meat we heard the war cry! We all rushed out,
+and saw a warrior riding at top speed from the lower camp, giving the
+warning as he came. Then we heard the reports of the soldiers' guns,
+which sounded differently from the guns fired by our people in battle.
+
+"I ran to my teepee and seized my gun, a bow, and a quiver full of
+arrows. I already had my stone war club, for you know we usually carry
+those by way of ornament. Just as I was about to set out to meet Reno, a
+body of soldiers appeared nearly opposite us, at the edge of a long line
+of cliffs across the river.
+
+"All of us who were mounted and ready immediately started down the
+stream toward the ford. There were Ogallalas, Minneconjous, Cheyennes,
+and some Unkpapas, and those around me seemed to be nearly all very
+young men.
+
+"'Behold, there is among us a young woman!' I shouted. 'Let no young man
+hide behind her garment!' I knew that would make those young men brave.
+
+"The woman was Tashenamani, or Moving Robe, whose brother had just been
+killed in the fight with Three Stars. Holding her brother's war staff
+over her head, and leaning forward upon her charger, she looked as
+pretty as a bird. Always when there is a woman in the charge, it causes
+the warriors to vie with one another in displaying their valor," he
+added.
+
+"The foremost warriors had almost surrounded the white men, and more
+were continually crossing the stream. The soldiers had dismounted, and
+were firing into the camp from the top of the cliff."
+
+"My friend, was Sitting Bull in this fight?" I inquired.
+
+"I did not see him there, but I learned afterward that he was among
+those who met Reno, and that was three or four of the white man's miles
+from Custer's position. Later he joined the attack upon Custer, but was
+not among the foremost.
+
+"When the troops were surrounded on two sides, with the river on the
+third, the order came to charge! There were many very young men, some of
+whom had only a war staff or a stone war club in hand, who plunged into
+the column, knocking the men over and stampeding their horses.
+
+"The soldiers had mounted and started back, but when the onset came they
+dismounted again and separated into several divisions, facing different
+ways. They fired as fast as they could load their guns, while we used
+chiefly arrows and war clubs. There seemed to be two distinct movements
+among the Indians. One body moved continually in a circle, while the
+other rode directly into and through the troops.
+
+"Presently some of the soldiers remounted and fled along the ridge
+toward Reno's position; but they were followed by our warriors, like
+hundreds of blackbirds after a hawk. A larger body remained together at
+the upper end of a little ravine, and fought bravely until they were cut
+to pieces. I had always thought that white men were cowards, but I had a
+great respect for them after this day.
+
+"It is generally said that a young man with nothing but a war staff in
+his hand broke through the column and knocked down the leader very early
+in the fight. We supposed him to be the leader, because he stood up in
+full view, swinging his big knife [sword] over his head, and talking
+loud. Some one unknown afterwards shot the chief, and he was probably
+killed also; for if not, he would have told of the deed, and called
+others to witness it. So it is that no one knows who killed the
+Long-Haired Chief [General Custer].
+
+"After the first rush was over, coups were counted as usual on the
+bodies of the slain. You know four coups [or blows] can be counted on
+the body of an enemy, and whoever counts the first one [touches it for
+the first time] is entitled to the 'first feather.'
+
+"There was an Indian here called Appearing Elk, who died a short time
+ago. He was slightly wounded in the charge. He had some of the weapons
+of the Long-Haired Chief, and the Indians used to say jokingly after we
+came upon the reservation that Appearing Elk must have killed the Chief,
+because he had his sword! However, the scramble for plunder did not
+begin until all were dead. I do not think he killed Custer, and if he
+had, the time to claim the honor was immediately after the fight.
+
+"Many lies have been told of me. Some say that I killed the Chief, and
+others that I cut out the heart of his brother [Tom Custer], because he
+had caused me to be imprisoned. Why, in that fight the excitement was
+so great that we scarcely recognized our nearest friends! Everything was
+done like lightning. After the battle we young men were chasing horses
+all over the prairie, while the old men and women plundered the bodies;
+and if any mutilating was done, it was by the old men.
+
+"I have lived peaceably ever since we came upon the reservation. No one
+can say that Rain-in-the-Face has broken the rules of the Great Father.
+I fought for my people and my country. When we were conquered I remained
+silent, as a warrior should. Rain-in-the-Face was killed when he put
+down his weapons before the Great Father. His spirit was gone then; only
+his poor body lived on, but now it is almost ready to lie down for the
+last time. Ho, hechetu! [It is well.]"
+
+
+
+
+TWO STRIKE
+
+
+It is a pity that so many interesting names of well-known Indians have
+been mistranslated, so that their meaning becomes very vague if it is
+not wholly lost. In some cases an opposite meaning is conveyed. For
+instance there is the name, "Young-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horses." It does
+not mean that the owner of the name is afraid of his own horse--far from
+it! Tashunkekokipapi signifies "The young men [of the enemy] fear his
+horses." Whenever that man attacks, the enemy knows there will be a
+determined charge.
+
+The name Tashunkewitko, or Crazy Horse, is a poetic simile. This leader
+was likened to an untrained or untouched horse, wild, ignorant of
+domestic uses, splendid in action, and unconscious of danger.
+
+The name of Two Strike is a deed name. In a battle with the Utes this
+man knocked two enemies from the back of a war horse. The true rendering
+of the name Nomkahpa would be, "He knocked off two."
+
+I was well acquainted with Two Strike and spent many pleasant hours
+with him, both at Washington, D. C., and in his home on the Rosebud
+reservation. What I have written is not all taken from his own mouth,
+because he was modest in talking about himself, but I had him vouch for
+the truth of the stories. He said that he was born near the Republican
+River about 1832. His earliest recollection was of an attack by the
+Shoshones upon their camp on the Little Piney. The first white men he
+ever met were traders who visited his people when he was very young.
+The incident was still vividly with him, because, he said, "They made
+my father crazy," [drunk]. This made a deep impression upon him, he
+told me, so that from that day he was always afraid of the white man's
+"mysterious water."
+
+Two Strike was not a large man, but he was very supple and alert in
+motion, as agile as an antelope. His face was mobile and intelligent.
+Although he had the usual somber visage of an Indian, his expression
+brightened up wonderfully when he talked. In some ways wily and shrewd
+in intellect, he was not deceitful nor mean. He had a high sense of duty
+and honor. Patriotism was his ideal and goal of life.
+
+As a young man he was modest and even shy, although both his father
+and grandfather were well-known chiefs. I could find few noteworthy
+incidents in his early life, save that he was an expert rider of wild
+horses. At one time I was pressing him to give me some interesting
+incident of his boyhood. He replied to the effect that there was plenty
+of excitement but "not much in it." There was a delegation of Sioux
+chiefs visiting Washington, and we were spending an evening together in
+their hotel. Hollow Horn Bear spoke up and said:
+
+"Why don't you tell him how you and a buffalo cow together held your
+poor father up and froze him almost to death?"
+
+Everybody laughed, and another man remarked: "I think he had better tell
+the medicine man (meaning myself) how he lost the power of speech when
+he first tried to court a girl." Two Strike, although he was then close
+to eighty years of age, was visibly embarrassed by their chaff.
+
+"Anyway, I stuck to the trail. I kept on till I got what I wanted," he
+muttered. And then came the story.
+
+The old chief, his father, was very fond of the buffalo hunt; and
+being accomplished in horsemanship and a fine shot, although not very
+powerfully built, young Two Strike was already following hard in his
+footsteps. Like every proud father, his was giving him every incentive
+to perfect his skill, and one day challenged his sixteen-year-old son to
+the feat of "one arrow to kill" at the very next chase.
+
+It was midwinter. A large herd of buffalo was reported by the game
+scout. The hunters gathered at daybreak prepared for the charge. The
+old chief had his tried charger equipped with a soft, pillow-like Indian
+saddle and a lariat. His old sinew-backed hickory bow was examined and
+strung, and a fine straight arrow with a steel head carefully selected
+for the test. He adjusted a keen butcher knife over his leather belt,
+which held a warm buffalo robe securely about his body. He wore neither
+shirt nor coat, although a piercing wind was blowing from the northwest.
+The youthful Two Strike had his favorite bow and his swift pony, which
+was perhaps dearer to him than his closest boy comrade.
+
+Now the hunters crouched upon their horses' necks like an army in line
+of battle, while behind them waited the boys and old men with pack
+ponies to carry the meat. "Hukahey!" shouted the leader as a warning.
+"Yekiya wo!" (Go) and in an instant all the ponies leaped forward
+against the cutting wind, as if it were the start in a horse race. Every
+rider leaned forward, tightly wrapped in his robe, watching the flying
+herd for an opening in the mass of buffalo, a chance to cut out some of
+the fattest cows. This was the object of the race.
+
+The chief had a fair start; his horse was well trained and needed no
+urging nor guidance. Without the slightest pull on the lariat he dashed
+into the thickest of the herd. The youth's pony had been prancing and
+rearing impatiently; he started a little behind, yet being swift passed
+many. His rider had one clear glimpse of his father ahead of him, then
+the snow arose in blinding clouds on the trail of the bison. The whoops
+of the hunters, the lowing of the cows, and the menacing glances of the
+bulls as they plunged along, or now and then stood at bay, were enough
+to unnerve a boy less well tried. He was unable to select his victim.
+He had been carried deeply into the midst of the herd and found himself
+helpless to make the one sure shot, therefore he held his one arrow in
+his mouth and merely strove to separate them so as to get his chance.
+
+At last the herd parted, and he cut out two fat cows, and was
+maneuvering for position when a rider appeared out of the snow cloud on
+their other side. This aroused him to make haste lest his rival secure
+both cows; he saw his chance, and in a twinkling his arrow sped clear
+through one of the animals so that she fell headlong.
+
+In this instant he observed that the man who had joined him was his
+own father, who had met with the same difficulties as himself. When the
+young man had shot his only arrow, the old chief with a whoop went after
+the cow that was left, but as he gained her broadside, his horse stepped
+in a badger hole and fell, throwing him headlong. The maddened buffalo,
+as sometimes happens in such cases, turned upon the pony and gored him
+to death. His rider lay motionless, while Two Strike rushed forward
+to draw her attention, but she merely tossed her head at him, while
+persistently standing guard over the dead horse and the all but frozen
+Indian.
+
+Alas for the game of "one arrow to kill!" The boy must think fast, for
+his father's robe had slipped off, and he was playing dead, lying almost
+naked in the bitter air upon the trampled snow. His bluff would not
+serve, so he flew back to pull out his solitary arrow from the body of
+the dead cow. Quickly wheeling again, he sent it into her side and she
+fell. The one arrow to kill had become one arrow to kill two buffalo! At
+the council lodge that evening Two Strike was the hero.
+
+The following story is equally characteristic of him, and in explanation
+it should be said that in the good old days among the Sioux, a young
+man is not supposed to associate with girls until he is ready to take
+a wife. It was a rule with our young men, especially the honorable and
+well-born, to gain some reputation in the hunt and in war,--the more
+difficult the feats achieved the better,--before even speaking to
+a young woman. Many a life was risked in the effort to establish a
+reputation along these lines. Courtship was no secret, but rather a
+social event, often celebrated by the proud parents with feasts and
+presents to the poor, and this etiquette was sometimes felt by a shy or
+sensitive youth as an insurmountable obstacle to the fulfilment of his
+desires.
+
+Two Strike was the son and grandson of a chief, but he could not claim
+any credit for the deeds of his forbears. He had not only to guard their
+good name but achieve one for himself. This he had set out to do, and he
+did well. He was now of marriageable age with a war record, and admitted
+to the council, yet he did not seem to trouble himself at all about a
+wife. His was strictly a bachelor career. Meanwhile, as is apt to be the
+case, his parents had thought much about a possible daughter-in-law, and
+had even collected ponies, fine robes, and other acceptable goods to be
+given away in honor of the event, whenever it should take place. Now and
+then they would drop a sly hint, but with no perceptible effect.
+
+They did not and could not know of the inward struggle that racked his
+mind at this period of his life. The shy and modest young man was dying
+for a wife, yet could not bear even to think of speaking to a young
+woman! The fearless hunter of buffaloes, mountain lions, and grizzlies,
+the youth who had won his eagle feathers in a battle with the Utes,
+could not bring himself to take this tremendous step.
+
+At last his father appealed to him directly. "My son," he declared, "it
+is your duty to take unto yourself a wife, in order that the honors won
+by your ancestors and by yourself may be handed down in the direct line.
+There are several eligible young women in our band whose parents have
+intimated a wish to have you for their son-in-law."
+
+Two Strike made no reply, but he was greatly disturbed. He had no wish
+to have the old folks select his bride, for if the truth were told,
+his choice was already made. He had simply lacked the courage to go
+a-courting!
+
+The next morning, after making an unusually careful toilet, he took his
+best horse and rode to a point overlooking the path by which the girls
+went for water. Here the young men were wont to take their stand, and,
+if fortunate, intercept the girl of their heart for a brief but fateful
+interview. Two Strike had determined to speak straight to the point,
+and as soon as he saw the pretty maid he came forward boldly and placed
+himself in her way. A long moment passed. She glanced up at him shyly
+but not without encouragement. His teeth fairly chattered with fright,
+and he could not say a word. She looked again, noted his strange looks,
+and believed him suddenly taken ill. He appeared to be suffering. At
+last he feebly made signs for her to go on and leave him alone. The
+maiden was sympathetic, but as she did not know what else to do she
+obeyed his request.
+
+The poor youth was so ashamed of his cowardice that he afterward
+admitted his first thought was to take his own life. He believed he
+had disgraced himself forever in the eyes of the only girl he had ever
+loved. However, he determined to conquer his weakness and win her,
+which he did. The story came out many years after and was told with much
+enjoyment by the old men.
+
+Two Strike was better known by his own people than by the whites, for
+he was individually a terror in battle rather than a leader. He achieved
+his honorable name in a skirmish with the Utes in Colorado. The Sioux
+regarded these people as their bravest enemies, and the outcome of
+the fight was for some time uncertain. First the Sioux were forced to
+retreat and then their opponents, and at the latter point the horse of a
+certain Ute was shot under him. A friend came to his rescue and took him
+up behind him. Our hero overtook them in flight, raised his war club,
+and knocked both men off with one blow.
+
+He was a very old man when he died, only two or three years ago, on the
+Rosebud reservation.
+
+
+
+
+AMERICAN HORSE
+
+
+One of the wittiest and shrewdest of the Sioux chiefs was American
+Horse, who succeeded to the name and position of an uncle, killed in
+the battle of Slim Buttes in 1876. The younger American Horse was born
+a little before the encroachments of the whites upon the Sioux country
+became serious and their methods aggressive, and his early manhood
+brought him into that most trying and critical period of our history. He
+had been tutored by his uncle, since his own father was killed in battle
+while he was still very young. The American Horse band was closely
+attached to a trading post, and its members in consequence were inclined
+to be friendly with the whites, a policy closely adhered to by their
+leader.
+
+When he was born, his old grandfather said: "Put him out in the sun!
+Let him ask his great-grandfather, the Sun, for the warm blood of a
+warrior!" And he had warm blood. He was a genial man, liking notoriety
+and excitement. He always seized an opportunity to leap into the center
+of the arena.
+
+In early life he was a clownish sort of boy among the boys--an expert
+mimic and impersonator. This talent made him popular and in his way a
+leader. He was a natural actor, and early showed marked ability as a
+speaker.
+
+American Horse was about ten years old when he was attacked by three
+Crow warriors, while driving a herd of ponies to water. Here he
+displayed native cunning and initiative. It seemed he had scarcely a
+chance to escape, for the enemy was near. He yelled frantically at the
+ponies to start them toward home, while he dropped off into a thicket
+of willows and hid there. A part of the herd was caught in sight of
+the camp and there was a counter chase, but the Crows got away with the
+ponies. Of course his mother was frantic, believing her boy had been
+killed or captured; but after the excitement was over, he appeared in
+camp unhurt. When questioned about his escape, he remarked: "I knew they
+would not take the time to hunt for small game when there was so much
+bigger close by."
+
+When he was quite a big boy, he joined in a buffalo hunt, and on the way
+back with the rest of the hunters his mule became unmanageable. American
+Horse had insisted on riding him in addition to a heavy load of meat and
+skins, and the animal evidently resented this, for he suddenly began to
+run and kick, scattering fresh meat along the road, to the merriment of
+the crowd. But the boy turned actor, and made it appear that it was at
+his wish the mule had given this diverting performance. He clung to the
+back of his plunging and braying mount like a circus rider, singing a
+Brave Heart song, and finally brought up amid the laughter and cheers
+of his companions. Far from admitting defeat, he boasted of his
+horsemanship and declared that his "brother" the donkey would put any
+enemy to flight, and that they should be called upon to lead a charge.
+
+It was several years later that he went to sleep early one night and
+slept soundly, having been scouting for two nights previous. It happened
+that there was a raid by the Crows, and when he awoke in the midst of
+the yelling and confusion, he sprang up and attempted to join in the
+fighting. Everybody knew his voice in all the din, so when he fired his
+gun and announced a coup, as was the custom, others rushed to the spot,
+to find that he had shot a hobbled pony belonging to their own camp.
+The laugh was on him, and he never recovered from his chagrin at this
+mistake. In fact, although he was undoubtedly fearless and tried hard to
+distinguish himself in warfare, he did not succeed.
+
+It is told of him that he once went with a war party of young men to
+the Wind River country against the Shoshones. At last they discovered
+a large camp, but there were only a dozen or so of the Sioux, therefore
+they hid themselves and watched for their opportunity to attack an
+isolated party of hunters. While waiting thus, they ran short of food.
+One day a small party of Shoshones was seen near at hand, and in the
+midst of the excitement and preparations for the attack, young American
+Horse caught sight of a fat black-tail deer close by. Unable to resist
+the temptation, he pulled an arrow from his quiver and sent it through
+the deer's heart, then with several of his half-starved companions
+sprang upon the yet quivering body of the animal to cut out the liver,
+which was sometimes eaten raw. One of the men was knocked down, it is
+said, by the last kick of the dying buck, but having swallowed a few
+mouthfuls the warriors rushed upon and routed their enemies. It is still
+told of American Horse how he killed game and feasted between the ambush
+and the attack.
+
+At another time he was drying his sacred war bonnet and other gear
+over a small fire. These articles were held in great veneration by the
+Indians and handled accordingly. Suddenly the fire blazed up, and our
+hero so far forgot himself as to begin energetically beating out the
+flames with the war bonnet, breaking off one of the sacred buffalo horns
+in the act. One could almost fill a book with his mishaps and exploits.
+I will give one of them in his own words as well as I can remember them.
+
+"We were as promising a party of young warriors as our tribe ever sent
+against any of its ancestral enemies. It was midsummer, and after going
+two days' journey from home we began to send two scouts ahead daily
+while the main body kept a half day behind. The scouts set out every
+evening and traveled all night. One night the great war pipe was held
+out to me and to Young-Man-Afraid-of-His-Horses. At daybreak, having met
+no one, we hid our horses and climbed to the top of the nearest butte to
+take an observation. It was a very hot day. We lay flat on our blankets,
+facing the west where the cliff fell off in a sheer descent, and with
+our backs toward the more gradual slope dotted with scrub pines and
+cedars. We stuck some tall grass on our heads and proceeded to study the
+landscape spread before us for any sign of man.
+
+"The sweeping valleys were dotted with herds, both large and small,
+of buffalo and elk, and now and then we caught a glimpse of a coyote
+slinking into the gulches, returning from night hunting to sleep. While
+intently watching some moving body at a distance, we could not yet tell
+whether of men or animals, I heard a faint noise behind me and slowly
+turned my head. Behold! a grizzly bear sneaking up on all fours and
+almost ready to spring!
+
+"'Run!' I yelled into the ear of my companion, and we both leaped to our
+feet in a second. 'Separate! separate!' he shouted, and as we did so,
+the bear chose me for his meat. I ran downhill as fast as I could, but
+he was gaining. 'Dodge around a tree!' screamed Young-Man-Afraid. I took
+a deep breath and made a last spurt, desperately circling the first tree
+I came to. As the ground was steep just there, I turned a somersault
+one way and the bear the other. I picked myself up in time to climb the
+tree, and was fairly out of reach when he gathered himself together and
+came at me more furiously than ever, holding in one paw the shreds of
+my breechcloth, for in the fall he had just scratched my back and cut my
+belt in two, and carried off my only garment for a trophy!
+
+"My friend was well up another tree and laughing heartily at my
+predicament, and when the bear saw that he could not get at either of us
+he reluctantly departed, after I had politely addressed him and promised
+to make an offering to his spirit on my safe return. I don't think I
+ever had a narrower escape," he concluded.
+
+During the troublous times from 1865 to 1877, American Horse advocated
+yielding to the government at any cost, being no doubt convinced of the
+uselessness of resistance. He was not a recognized leader until 1876,
+when he took the name and place of his uncle. Up to this time he bore
+the nickname of Manishnee (Can not walk, or Played out.)
+
+When the greater part of the Ogallalas, to which band he belonged, came
+into the reservation, he at once allied himself with the peace element
+at the Red Cloud agency, near Fort Robinson, Nebraska, and took no small
+part in keeping the young braves quiet. Since the older and better-known
+chiefs, with the exception of Spotted Tail, were believed to be hostile
+at heart, the military made much use of him. Many of his young men
+enlisted as scouts by his advice, and even he himself entered the
+service.
+
+In the early part of the year 1876, there was a rumor that certain bands
+were in danger of breaking away. Their leader was one Sioux Jim, so
+nicknamed by the soldiers. American Horse went to him as peacemaker, but
+was told he was a woman and no brave. He returned to his own camp and
+told his men that Sioux Jim meant mischief, and in order to prevent
+another calamity to the tribe, he must be chastised. He again approached
+the warlike Jim with several warriors at his back. The recalcitrant came
+out, gun in hand, but the wily chief was too quick for him. He shot and
+wounded the rebel, whereupon one of his men came forward and killed him.
+
+This quelled the people for the time being and up to the killing of
+Crazy Horse. In the crisis precipitated by this event, American Horse
+was again influential and energetic in the cause of the government. From
+this time on he became an active participant in the affairs of the
+Teton Sioux. He was noted for his eloquence, which was nearly always
+conciliatory, yet he could say very sharp things of the duplicity of
+the whites. He had much ease of manner and was a master of repartee. I
+recall his saying that if you have got to wear golden slippers to enter
+the white man's heaven no Indian will ever get there, as the whites have
+got the Black Hills and with them all the gold.
+
+It was during the last struggle of his people, at the time of the
+Messiah craze in 1890-1891 that he demonstrated as never before the real
+greatness of the man. While many of his friends were carried away by
+the new thought, he held aloof from it and cautioned his band to do the
+same. When it developed into an extensive upheaval among the nations he
+took his positive stand against it.
+
+Presently all Indians who did not dance the Ghost Dance were ordered
+to come into camp at Pine Ridge agency. American Horse was the first to
+bring in his people. I was there at the time and talked with him daily.
+When Little was arrested, it had been agreed among the disaffected to
+have him resist, which meant that he would be roughly handled. This was
+to be their excuse to attack the Indian police, which would probably
+lead to a general massacre or outbreak. I know that this desperate move
+was opposed from the beginning by American Horse, and it was believed
+that his life was threatened.
+
+On the day of the "Big Issue", when thousands of Indians were gathered
+at the agency, this man Little, who had been in hiding, walked boldly
+among them. Of course the police would arrest him at sight, and he was
+led toward the guardhouse. He struggled with them, but was overpowered.
+A crowd of warriors rushed to his rescue, and there was confusion and
+a general shout of "Hurry up with them! Kill them all!" I saw American
+Horse walk out of the agent's office and calmly face the excited mob.
+
+"What are you going to do?" he asked. "Stop, men, stop and think before
+you act! Will you murder your children, your women, yes, destroy your
+nation to-day?" He stood before them like a statue and the men who held
+the two policemen helpless paused for an instant. He went on: "You are
+brave to-day because you outnumber the white men, but what will you do
+to-morrow? There are railroads on all sides of you. The soldiers will
+pour in from every direction by thousands and surround you. You have
+little food or ammunition. It will be the end of your people. Stop, I
+say, stop now!"
+
+Jack Red Cloud, son of the old chief rushed up to him and thrust a
+revolver almost in his face. "It is you and men like you," he shouted,
+"who have reduced our race to slavery and starvation!" American Horse
+did not flinch but deliberately reentered the office, followed by Jack
+still flourishing the pistol. But his timely appearance and eloquence
+had saved the day. Others of the police force had time to reach the
+spot, and with a large crowd of friendly Indians had taken command of
+the situation.
+
+When I went into the office I found him alone but apparently quite calm.
+"Where are the agent and the clerks?" I asked. "They fled by the back
+door," he replied, smiling. "I think they are in the cellar. These fools
+outside had almost caught us asleep, but I think it is over now."
+
+American Horse was one of the earliest advocates of education for
+the Indian, and his son Samuel and nephew Robert were among the first
+students at Carlisle. I think one or two of his daughters were the
+handsomest Indian girls of full blood that I ever saw. His record as
+a councilor of his people and his policy in the new situation that
+confronted them was manly and consistent.
+
+
+
+
+DULL KNIFE
+
+
+The life of Dull Knife, the Cheyenne, is a true hero tale. Simple,
+child-like yet manful, and devoid of selfish aims, or love of gain, he
+is a pattern for heroes of any race.
+
+Dull Knife was a chief of the old school. Among all the Indians of the
+plains, nothing counts save proven worth. A man's caliber is measured
+by his courage, unselfishness and intelligence. Many writers confuse
+history with fiction, but in Indian history their women and old men and
+even children witness the main events, and not being absorbed in daily
+papers and magazines, these events are rehearsed over and over with
+few variations. Though orally preserved, their accounts are therefore
+accurate. But they have seldom been willing to give reliable information
+to strangers, especially when asked and paid for.
+
+Racial prejudice naturally enters into the account of a man's life by
+enemy writers, while one is likely to favor his own race. I am conscious
+that many readers may think that I have idealized the Indian. Therefore
+I will confess now that we have too many weak and unprincipled men among
+us. When I speak of the Indian hero, I do not forget the mongrel in
+spirit, false to the ideals of his people. Our trustfulness has been our
+weakness, and when the vices of civilization were added to our own, we
+fell heavily.
+
+It is said that Dull Knife as a boy was resourceful and self-reliant. He
+was only nine years old when his family was separated from the rest of
+the tribe while on a buffalo hunt. His father was away and his mother
+busy, and he was playing with his little sister on the banks of a
+stream, when a large herd of buffalo swept down upon them on a stampede
+for water. His mother climbed a tree, but the little boy led his sister
+into an old beaver house whose entrance was above water, and here they
+remained in shelter until the buffalo passed and they were found by
+their distracted parents.
+
+Dull Knife was quite a youth when his tribe was caught one winter in a
+region devoid of game, and threatened with starvation. The situation was
+made worse by heavy storms, but he secured help and led a relief party
+a hundred and fifty miles, carrying bales of dried buffalo meat on pack
+horses.
+
+Another exploit that made him dear to his people occurred in battle,
+when his brother-in-law was severely wounded and left lying where no one
+on either side dared to approach him. As soon as Dull Knife heard of it
+he got on a fresh horse, and made so daring a charge that others joined
+him; thus under cover of their fire he rescued his brother-in-law, and
+in so doing was wounded twice.
+
+The Sioux knew him as a man of high type, perhaps not so brilliant as
+Roman Nose and Two Moon, but surpassing both in honesty and simplicity,
+as well as in his war record. (Two Moon, in fact, was never a leader of
+his people, and became distinguished only in wars with the whites during
+the period of revolt.) A story is told of an ancestor of the same name
+that illustrates well the spirit of the age.
+
+It was the custom in those days for the older men to walk ahead of the
+moving caravan and decide upon all halts and camping places. One day the
+councilors came to a grove of wild cherries covered with ripe fruit, and
+they stopped at once. Suddenly a grizzly charged from the thicket. The
+men yelped and hooted, but the bear was not to be bluffed. He knocked
+down the first warrior who dared to face him and dragged his victim into
+the bushes.
+
+The whole caravan was in the wildest excitement. Several of the
+swiftest-footed warriors charged the bear, to bring him out into the
+open, while the women and dogs made all the noise they could. The bear
+accepted the challenge, and as he did so, the man whom they had supposed
+dead came running from the opposite end of the thicket. The Indians were
+delighted, and especially so when in the midst of their cheers, the man
+stopped running for his life and began to sing a Brave Heart song as he
+approached the grove with his butcher knife in his hand. He would dare
+his enemy again!
+
+The grizzly met him with a tremendous rush, and they went down together.
+Instantly the bear began to utter cries of distress, and at the same
+time the knife flashed, and he rolled over dead. The warrior was too
+quick for the animal; he first bit his sensitive nose to distract his
+attention, and then used the knife to stab him to the heart. He fought
+many battles with knives thereafter and claimed that the spirit of the
+bear gave him success. On one occasion, however, the enemy had a strong
+buffalo-hide shield which the Cheyenne bear fighter could not pierce
+through, and he was wounded; nevertheless he managed to dispatch his
+foe. It was from this incident that he received the name of Dull Knife,
+which was handed down to his descendant.
+
+As is well known, the Northern Cheyennes uncompromisingly supported
+the Sioux in their desperate defense of the Black Hills and Big Horn
+country. Why not? It was their last buffalo region--their subsistence.
+It was what our wheat fields are to a civilized nation.
+
+About the year 1875, a propaganda was started for confining all the
+Indians upon reservations, where they would be practically interned or
+imprisoned, regardless of their possessions and rights. The men who
+were the strongest advocates of the scheme generally wanted the Indians'
+property--the one main cause back of all Indian wars. From the warlike
+Apaches to the peaceful Nez Perces, all the tribes of the plains were
+hunted from place to place; then the government resorted to peace
+negotiations, but always with an army at hand to coerce. Once disarmed
+and helpless, they were to be taken under military guard to the Indian
+Territory.
+
+A few resisted, and declared they would fight to the death rather than
+go. Among these were the Sioux, but nearly all the smaller tribes were
+deported against their wishes. Of course those Indians who came from
+a mountainous and cold country suffered severely. The moist heat and
+malaria decimated the exiles. Chief Joseph of the Nez Perces and Chief
+Standing Bear of the Poncas appealed to the people of the United States,
+and finally succeeded in having their bands or the remnant of them
+returned to their own part of the country. Dull Knife was not successful
+in his plea, and the story of his flight is one of poignant interest.
+
+He was regarded by the authorities as a dangerous man, and with his
+depleted band was taken to the Indian Territory without his consent in
+1876. When he realized that his people were dying like sheep, he was
+deeply moved. He called them together. Every man and woman declared that
+they would rather die in their own country than stay there longer, and
+they resolved to flee to their northern homes.
+
+Here again was displayed the genius of these people. From the Indian
+Territory to Dakota is no short dash for freedom. They knew what they
+were facing. Their line of flight lay through a settled country and they
+would be closely pursued by the army. No sooner had they started than
+the telegraph wires sang one song: "The panther of the Cheyennes is at
+large. Not a child or a woman in Kansas or Nebraska is safe." Yet they
+evaded all the pursuing and intercepting troops and reached their native
+soil. The strain was terrible, the hardship great, and Dull Knife, like
+Joseph, was remarkable for his self-restraint in sparing those who came
+within his power on the way.
+
+But fate was against him, for there were those looking for blood money
+who betrayed him when he thought he was among friends. His people were
+tired out and famished when they were surrounded and taken to Fort
+Robinson. There the men were put in prison, and their wives guarded in
+camp. They were allowed to visit their men on certain days. Many of them
+had lost everything; there were but a few who had even one child left.
+They were heartbroken.
+
+These despairing women appealed to their husbands to die fighting: their
+liberty was gone, their homes broken up, and only slavery and gradual
+extinction in sight. At last Dull Knife listened. He said: "I have lived
+my life. I am ready." The others agreed. "If our women are willing to
+die with us, who is there to say no? If we are to do the deeds of men,
+it rests with you women to bring us our weapons."
+
+As they had been allowed to carry moccasins and other things to the men,
+so they contrived to take in some guns and knives under this disguise.
+The plan was to kill the sentinels and run to the nearest natural
+trench, there to make their last stand. The women and children were to
+join them. This arrangement was carried out. Not every brave had a gun,
+but all had agreed to die together. They fought till their small store
+of ammunition was exhausted, then exposed their broad chests for a
+target, and the mothers even held up their little ones to be shot. Thus
+died the fighting Cheyennes and their dauntless leader.
+
+
+
+
+ROMAN NOSE
+
+
+This Cheyenne war chief was a contemporary of Dull Knife. He was not
+so strong a character as the other, and was inclined to be pompous and
+boastful; but with all this he was a true type of native American in
+spirit and bravery.
+
+While Dull Knife was noted in warfare among Indians, Roman Nose made
+his record against the whites, in defense of territory embracing the
+Republican and Arickaree rivers. He was killed on the latter river in
+1868, in the celebrated battle with General Forsythe.
+
+Save Chief Gall and Washakie in the prime of their manhood, this chief
+had no peer in bodily perfection and masterful personality. No Greek or
+Roman gymnast was ever a finer model of physical beauty and power. He
+thrilled his men to frenzied action when he came upon the field. It was
+said of him that he sacrificed more youths by his personal influence in
+battle than any other leader, being very reckless himself in grand-stand
+charges. He was killed needlessly in this manner.
+
+Roman Nose always rode an uncommonly fine, spirited horse, and with
+his war bonnet and other paraphernalia gave a wonderful exhibition. The
+Indians used to say that the soldiers must gaze at him rather than aim
+at him, as they so seldom hit him even when running the gantlet before a
+firing line.
+
+He did a remarkable thing once when on a one-arrow-to-kill buffalo hunt
+with his brother-in-law. His companion had selected his animal and
+drew so powerfully on his sinew bowstring that it broke. Roman Nose
+had killed his own cow and was whipping up close to the other when the
+misfortune occurred. Both horses were going at full speed and the arrow
+jerked up in the air. Roman Nose caught it and shot the cow for him.
+
+Another curious story told of him is to the effect that he had an
+intimate Sioux friend who was courting a Cheyenne girl, but without
+success. As the wooing of both Sioux and Cheyennes was pretty much all
+effected in the night time, Roman Nose told his friend to let him do
+the courting for him. He arranged with the young woman to elope the next
+night and to spend the honeymoon among his Sioux friends. He then told
+his friend what to do. The Sioux followed instructions and carried off
+the Cheyenne maid, and not until morning did she discover her mistake.
+It is said she never admitted it, and that the two lived happily
+together to a good old age, so perhaps there was no mistake after all.
+
+Perhaps no other chief attacked more emigrants going west on the Oregon
+Trail between 1860 and 1868. He once made an attack on a large party of
+Mormons, and in this instance the Mormons had time to form a corral
+with their wagons and shelter their women, children, and horses. The
+men stood outside and met the Indians with well-aimed volleys, but they
+circled the wagons with whirlwind speed, and whenever a white man fell,
+it was the signal for Roman Nose to charge and count the "coup." The
+hat of one of the dead men was off, and although he had heavy hair and
+beard, the top of his head was bald from the forehead up. As custom
+required such a deed to be announced on the spot, the chief yelled at
+the top of his voice:
+
+"Your Roman Nose has counted the first coup on the longest-faced white
+man who was ever killed!"
+
+When the Northern Cheyennes under this daring leader attacked a body of
+scouting troops under the brilliant officer General Forsythe, Roman Nose
+thought that he had a comparatively easy task. The first onset failed,
+and the command entrenched itself on a little island. The wily chief
+thought he could stampede them and urged on his braves with the
+declaration that the first to reach the island should be entitled to
+wear a trailing war bonnet. Nevertheless he was disappointed, and his
+men received such a warm reception that none succeeded in reaching it.
+In order to inspire them to desperate deeds he had led them in person,
+and with him that meant victory or death. According to the army
+accounts, it was a thrilling moment, and might well have proved
+disastrous to the Forsythe command, whose leader was wounded and
+helpless. The danger was acute until Roman Nose fell, and even then his
+lieutenants were bent upon crossing at any cost, but some of the older
+chiefs prevailed upon them to withdraw.
+
+Thus the brilliant war chief of the Cheyennes came to his death. If he
+had lived until 1876, Sitting Bull would have had another bold ally.
+
+
+
+
+CHIEF JOSEPH
+
+
+The Nez Perce tribe of Indians, like other tribes too large to be
+united under one chief, was composed of several bands, each distinct in
+sovereignty. It was a loose confederacy. Joseph and his people occupied
+the Imnaha or Grande Ronde valley in Oregon, which was considered
+perhaps the finest land in that part of the country.
+
+When the last treaty was entered into by some of the bands of the Nez
+Perce, Joseph's band was at Lapwai, Idaho, and had nothing to do with
+the agreement. The elder chief in dying had counseled his son, then not
+more than twenty-two or twenty-three years of age, never to part with
+their home, assuring him that he had signed no papers. These peaceful
+non-treaty Indians did not even know what land had been ceded until the
+agent read them the government order to leave. Of course they refused.
+You and I would have done the same.
+
+When the agent failed to move them, he and the would-be settlers called
+upon the army to force them to be good, namely, without a murmur to
+leave their pleasant inheritance in the hands of a crowd of greedy
+grafters. General O. O. Howard, the Christian soldier, was sent to do
+the work.
+
+He had a long council with Joseph and his leading men, telling them they
+must obey the order or be driven out by force. We may be sure that he
+presented this hard alternative reluctantly. Joseph was a mere youth
+without experience in war or public affairs. He had been well brought
+up in obedience to parental wisdom and with his brother Ollicut had
+attended Missionary Spaulding's school where they had listened to the
+story of Christ and his religion of brotherhood. He now replied in
+his simple way that neither he nor his father had ever made any treaty
+disposing of their country, that no other band of the Nez Perces was
+authorized to speak for them, and it would seem a mighty injustice and
+unkindness to dispossess a friendly band.
+
+General Howard told them in effect that they had no rights, no voice in
+the matter: they had only to obey. Although some of the lesser chiefs
+counseled revolt then and there, Joseph maintained his self-control,
+seeking to calm his people, and still groping for a peaceful settlement
+of their difficulties. He finally asked for thirty days' time in which
+to find and dispose of their stock, and this was granted.
+
+Joseph steadfastly held his immediate followers to their promise, but
+the land-grabbers were impatient, and did everything in their power
+to bring about an immediate crisis so as to hasten the eviction of the
+Indians. Depredations were committed, and finally the Indians, or some
+of them, retaliated, which was just what their enemies had been looking
+for. There might be a score of white men murdered among themselves on
+the frontier and no outsider would ever hear about it, but if one were
+injured by an Indian--"Down with the bloodthirsty savages!" was the cry.
+
+Joseph told me himself that during all of those thirty days a tremendous
+pressure was brought upon him by his own people to resist the government
+order. "The worst of it was," said he, "that everything they said was
+true; besides"--he paused for a moment--"it seemed very soon for me to
+forget my father's dying words, 'Do not give up our home!'" Knowing as I
+do just what this would mean to an Indian, I felt for him deeply.
+
+Among the opposition leaders were Too-hul-hul-sote, White Bird, and
+Looking Glass, all of them strong men and respected by the Indians;
+while on the other side were men built up by emissaries of the
+government for their own purposes and advertised as "great friendly
+chiefs." As a rule such men are unworthy, and this is so well known to
+the Indians that it makes them distrustful of the government's sincerity
+at the start. Moreover, while Indians unqualifiedly say what they mean,
+the whites have a hundred ways of saying what they do not mean.
+
+The center of the storm was this simple young man, who so far as I can
+learn had never been upon the warpath, and he stood firm for peace and
+obedience. As for his father's sacred dying charge, he told himself that
+he would not sign any papers, he would not go of his free will but from
+compulsion, and this was his excuse.
+
+However, the whites were unduly impatient to clear the coveted valley,
+and by their insolence they aggravated to the danger point an already
+strained situation. The murder of an Indian was the climax and this
+happened in the absence of the young chief. He returned to find the
+leaders determined to die fighting. The nature of the country was in
+their favor and at least they could give the army a chase, but how long
+they could hold out they did not know. Even Joseph's younger brother
+Ollicut was won over. There was nothing for him to do but fight; and
+then and there began the peaceful Joseph's career as a general of
+unsurpassed strategy in conducting one of the most masterly retreats in
+history.
+
+This is not my judgment, but the unbiased opinion of men whose knowledge
+and experience fit them to render it. Bear in mind that these people
+were not scalp hunters like the Sioux, Cheyennes, and Utes, but peaceful
+hunters and fishermen. The first council of war was a strange business
+to Joseph. He had only this to say to his people:
+
+"I have tried to save you from suffering and sorrow. Resistance means
+all of that. We are few. They are many. You can see all we have at a
+glance. They have food and ammunition in abundance. We must suffer great
+hardship and loss." After this speech, he quietly began his plans for
+the defense.
+
+The main plan of campaign was to engineer a successful retreat into
+Montana and there form a junction with the hostile Sioux and Cheyennes
+under Sitting Bull. There was a relay scouting system, one set of
+scouts leaving the main body at evening and the second a little before
+daybreak, passing the first set on some commanding hill top. There were
+also decoy scouts set to trap Indian scouts of the army. I notice that
+General Howard charges his Crow scouts with being unfaithful.
+
+Their greatest difficulty was in meeting an unencumbered army, while
+carrying their women, children, and old men, with supplies and such
+household effects as were absolutely necessary. Joseph formed an
+auxiliary corps that was to effect a retreat at each engagement, upon a
+definite plan and in definite order, while the unencumbered women were
+made into an ambulance corps to take care of the wounded.
+
+It was decided that the main rear guard should meet General Howard's
+command in White Bird Canyon, and every detail was planned in advance,
+yet left flexible according to Indian custom, giving each leader freedom
+to act according to circumstances. Perhaps no better ambush was ever
+planned than the one Chief Joseph set for the shrewd and experienced
+General Howard. He expected to be hotly pursued, but he calculated that
+the pursuing force would consist of not more than two hundred and fifty
+soldiers. He prepared false trails to mislead them into thinking that
+he was about to cross or had crossed the Salmon River, which he had no
+thought of doing at that time. Some of the tents were pitched in plain
+sight, while the women and children were hidden on the inaccessible
+ridges, and the men concealed in the canyon ready to fire upon the
+soldiers with deadly effect with scarcely any danger to themselves. They
+could even roll rocks upon them.
+
+In a very few minutes the troops had learned a lesson. The soldiers
+showed some fight, but a large body of frontiersmen who accompanied
+them were soon in disorder. The warriors chased them nearly ten miles,
+securing rifles and much ammunition, and killing and wounding many.
+
+The Nez Perces next crossed the river, made a detour and recrossed it
+at another point, then took their way eastward. All this was by way of
+delaying pursuit. Joseph told me that he estimated it would take six
+or seven days to get a sufficient force in the field to take up their
+trail, and the correctness of his reasoning is apparent from the facts
+as detailed in General Howard's book. He tells us that he waited six
+days for the arrival of men from various forts in his department, then
+followed Joseph with six hundred soldiers, beside a large number of
+citizen volunteers and his Indian scouts. As it was evident they had
+a long chase over trackless wilderness in prospect, he discarded his
+supply wagons and took pack mules instead. But by this time the Indians
+had a good start.
+
+Meanwhile General Howard had sent a dispatch to Colonel Gibbons, with
+orders to head Joseph off, which he undertook to do at the Montana end
+of the Lolo Trail. The wily commander had no knowledge of this move, but
+he was not to be surprised. He was too brainy for his pursuers, whom he
+constantly outwitted, and only gave battle when he was ready. There at
+the Big Hole Pass he met Colonel Gibbons' fresh troops and pressed them
+close. He sent a party under his brother Ollicut to harass Gibbons' rear
+and rout the pack mules, thus throwing him on the defensive and causing
+him to send for help, while Joseph continued his masterly retreat toward
+the Yellowstone Park, then a wilderness. However, this was but little
+advantage to him, since he must necessarily leave a broad trail, and the
+army was augmenting its columns day by day with celebrated scouts, both
+white and Indian. The two commands came together, and although General
+Howard says their horses were by this time worn out, and by inference
+the men as well, they persisted on the trail of a party encumbered by
+women and children, the old, sick, and wounded.
+
+It was decided to send a detachment of cavalry under Bacon, to Tash
+Pass, the gateway of the National Park, which Joseph would have to pass,
+with orders to detain him there until the rest could come up with them.
+Here is what General Howard says of the affair. "Bacon got into position
+soon enough but he did not have the heart to fight the Indians on
+account of their number." Meanwhile another incident had occurred. Right
+under the eyes of the chosen scouts and vigilant sentinels, Joseph's
+warriors fired upon the army camp at night and ran off their mules. He
+went straight on toward the park, where Lieutenant Bacon let him get by
+and pass through the narrow gateway without firing a shot.
+
+Here again it was demonstrated that General Howard could not depend upon
+the volunteers, many of whom had joined him in the chase, and were going
+to show the soldiers how to fight Indians. In this night attack at Camas
+Meadow, they were demoralized, and while crossing the river next day
+many lost their guns in the water, whereupon all packed up and went
+home, leaving the army to be guided by the Indian scouts.
+
+However, this succession of defeats did not discourage General Howard,
+who kept on with as many of his men as were able to carry a gun,
+meanwhile sending dispatches to all the frontier posts with orders to
+intercept Joseph if possible. Sturgis tried to stop him as the Indians
+entered the Park, but they did not meet until he was about to come out,
+when there was another fight, with Joseph again victorious. General
+Howard came upon the battle field soon afterward and saw that the
+Indians were off again, and from here he sent fresh messages to General
+Miles, asking for reinforcements.
+
+Joseph had now turned northeastward toward the Upper Missouri. He told
+me that when he got into that part of the country he knew he was very
+near the Canadian line and could not be far from Sitting Bull, with whom
+he desired to form an alliance. He also believed that he had cleared all
+the forts. Therefore he went more slowly and tried to give his people
+some rest. Some of their best men had been killed or wounded in battle,
+and the wounded were a great burden to him; nevertheless they were
+carried and tended patiently all during this wonderful flight. Not one
+was ever left behind.
+
+It is the general belief that Indians are cruel and revengeful, and
+surely these people had reason to hate the race who had driven them from
+their homes if any people ever had. Yet it is a fact that when Joseph
+met visitors and travelers in the Park, some of whom were women, he
+allowed them to pass unharmed, and in at least one instance let them
+have horses. He told me that he gave strict orders to his men not to
+kill any women or children. He wished to meet his adversaries according
+to their own standards of warfare, but he afterward learned that in
+spite of professions of humanity, white soldiers have not seldom been
+known to kill women and children indiscriminately.
+
+Another remarkable thing about this noted retreat is that Joseph's
+people stood behind him to a man, and even the women and little boys did
+each his part. The latter were used as scouts in the immediate vicinity
+of the camp.
+
+The Bittersweet valley, which they had now entered, was full of game,
+and the Indians hunted for food, while resting their worn-out ponies.
+One morning they had a council to which Joseph rode over bareback, as
+they had camped in two divisions a little apart. His fifteen-year-old
+daughter went with him. They discussed sending runners to Sitting Bull
+to ascertain his exact whereabouts and whether it would be agreeable to
+him to join forces with the Nez Perces. In the midst of the council,
+a force of United States cavalry charged down the hill between the
+two camps. This once Joseph was surprised. He had seen no trace of the
+soldiers and had somewhat relaxed his vigilance.
+
+He told his little daughter to stay where she was, and himself cut right
+through the cavalry and rode up to his own teepee, where his wife met
+him at the door with his rifle, crying: "Here is your gun, husband!" The
+warriors quickly gathered and pressed the soldiers so hard that they
+had to withdraw. Meanwhile one set of the people fled while Joseph's own
+band entrenched themselves in a very favorable position from which they
+could not easily be dislodged.
+
+General Miles had received and acted on General Howard's message, and he
+now sent one of his officers with some Indian scouts into Joseph's camp
+to negotiate with the chief. Meantime Howard and Sturgis came up with
+the encampment, and Howard had with him two friendly Nez Perce scouts
+who were directed to talk to Joseph in his own language. He decided that
+there was nothing to do but surrender.
+
+He had believed that his escape was all but secure: then at the last
+moment he was surprised and caught at a disadvantage. His army was
+shattered; he had lost most of the leaders in these various fights;
+his people, including children, women, and the wounded, had traveled
+thirteen hundred miles in about fifty days, and he himself a young man
+who had never before taken any important responsibility! Even now he was
+not actually conquered. He was well entrenched; his people were willing
+to die fighting; but the army of the United States offered peace and he
+agreed, as he said, out of pity for his suffering people. Some of his
+warriors still refused to surrender and slipped out of the camp at night
+and through the lines. Joseph had, as he told me, between three and four
+hundred fighting men in the beginning, which means over one thousand
+persons, and of these several hundred surrendered with him.
+
+His own story of the conditions he made was prepared by himself with my
+help in 1897, when he came to Washington to present his grievances. I
+sat up with him nearly all of one night; and I may add here that we
+took the document to General Miles who was then stationed in Washington,
+before presenting it to the Department. The General said that every word
+of it was true.
+
+In the first place, his people were to be kept at Fort Keogh, Montana,
+over the winter and then returned to their reservation. Instead they
+were taken to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, and placed between a lagoon and
+the Missouri River, where the sanitary conditions made havoc with them.
+Those who did not die were then taken to the Indian Territory, where the
+health situation was even worse. Joseph appealed to the government again
+and again, and at last by the help of Bishops Whipple and Hare he was
+moved to the Colville reservation in Washington. Here the land was very
+poor, unlike their own fertile valley. General Miles said to the chief
+that he had recommended and urged that their agreement be kept, but the
+politicians and the people who occupied the Indians' land declared they
+were afraid if he returned he would break out again and murder innocent
+white settlers! What irony!
+
+The great Chief Joseph died broken-spirited and broken-hearted. He did
+not hate the whites, for there was nothing small about him, and when he
+laid down his weapons he would not fight on with his mind. But he was
+profoundly disappointed in the claims of a Christian civilization. I
+call him great because he was simple and honest. Without education or
+special training he demonstrated his ability to lead and to fight
+when justice demanded. He outgeneraled the best and most experienced
+commanders in the army of the United States, although their troops were
+well provisioned, well armed, and above all unencumbered. He was great
+finally, because he never boasted of his remarkable feat. I am proud of
+him, because he was a true American.
+
+
+
+
+LITTLE WOLF
+
+
+If any people ever fought for liberty and justice, it was the Cheyennes.
+If any ever demonstrated their physical and moral courage beyond cavil,
+it was this race of purely American heroes, among whom Little Wolf was a
+leader.
+
+I knew the chief personally very well. As a young doctor, I was sent to
+the Pine Ridge agency in 1890, as government physician to the Sioux and
+the Northern Cheyennes. While I heard from his own lips of that gallant
+dash of his people from their southern exile to their northern home, I
+prefer that Americans should read of it in Doctor George Bird Grinnell's
+book, "The Fighting Cheyennes." No account could be clearer or simpler;
+and then too, the author cannot be charged with a bias in favor of his
+own race.
+
+At the time that I knew him, Little Wolf was a handsome man, with the
+native dignity and gentleness, musical voice, and pleasant address of so
+many brave leaders of his people. One day when he was dining with us at
+our home on the reservation, I asked him, as I had a habit of doing, for
+some reminiscences of his early life. He was rather reluctant to speak,
+but a friend who was present contributed the following:
+
+"Perhaps I can tell you why it is that he has been a lucky man all his
+life. When quite a small boy, the tribe was one winter in want of food,
+and his good mother had saved a small piece of buffalo meat, which she
+solemnly brought forth and placed before him with the remark: 'My son
+must be patient, for when he grows up he will know even harder times
+than this.'
+
+"He had eaten nothing all day and was pretty hungry, but before he could
+lay hands on the meat a starving dog snatched it and bolted from
+the teepee. The mother ran after the dog and brought him back for
+punishment. She tied him to a post and was about to whip him when the
+boy interfered. 'Don't hurt him, mother!' he cried; 'he took the meat
+because he was hungrier than I am!'"
+
+I was told of another kind act of his under trying circumstances. While
+still a youth, he was caught out with a party of buffalo hunters in a
+blinding blizzard. They were compelled to lie down side by side in the
+snowdrifts, and it was a day and a night before they could get out. The
+weather turned very cold, and when the men arose they were in danger of
+freezing. Little Wolf pressed his fine buffalo robe upon an old man who
+was shaking with a chill and himself took the other's thin blanket.
+
+As a full-grown young man, he was attracted by a maiden of his tribe,
+and according to the custom then in vogue the pair disappeared. When
+they returned to the camp as man and wife, behold! there was great
+excitement over the affair. It seemed that a certain chief had given
+many presents and paid unmistakable court to the maid with the intention
+of marrying her, and her parents had accepted the presents, which meant
+consent so far as they were concerned. But the girl herself had not
+given consent.
+
+The resentment of the disappointed suitor was great. It was reported in
+the village that he had openly declared that the young man who defied
+and insulted him must expect to be punished. As soon as Little Wolf
+heard of the threats, he told his father and friends that he had done
+only what it is every man's privilege to do.
+
+"Tell the chief," said he, "to come out with any weapon he pleases, and
+I will meet him within the circle of lodges. He shall either do this
+or eat his words. The woman is not his. Her people accepted his gifts
+against her wishes. Her heart is mine."
+
+The chief apologized, and thus avoided the inevitable duel, which would
+have been a fight to the death.
+
+The early life of Little Wolf offered many examples of the dashing
+bravery characteristic of the Cheyennes, and inspired the younger men
+to win laurels for themselves. He was still a young man, perhaps
+thirty-five, when the most trying crisis in the history of his
+people came upon them. As I know and as Doctor Grinnell's book amply
+corroborates, he was the general who largely guided and defended them in
+that tragic flight from the Indian Territory to their northern home. I
+will not discuss the justice of their cause: I prefer to quote Doctor
+Grinnell, lest it appear that I am in any way exaggerating the facts.
+
+"They had come," he writes, "from the high, dry country of Montana and
+North Dakota to the hot and humid Indian Territory. They had come from
+a country where buffalo and other game were still plentiful to a land
+where the game had been exterminated. Immediately on their arrival they
+were attacked by fever and ague, a disease wholly new to them. Food was
+scanty, and they began to starve. The agent testified before a committee
+of the Senate that he never received supplies to subsist the Indians for
+more than nine months in each year. These people were meat-eaters, but
+the beef furnished them by the government inspectors was no more than
+skin and bone. The agent in describing their sufferings said: 'They have
+lived and that is about all.'
+
+"The Indians endured this for about a year, and then their patience gave
+out. They left the agency to which they had been sent and started north.
+Though troops were camped close to them, they attempted no concealment
+of their purpose. Instead, they openly announced that they intended to
+return to their own country.
+
+"We have heard much in past years of the march of the Nez Perces under
+Chief Joseph, but little is remembered of the Dull Knife outbreak and
+the march to the north led by Little Wolf. The story of the journey has
+not been told, but in the traditions of the old army this campaign was
+notable, and old men who were stationed on the plains forty years ago
+are apt to tell you, if you ask them, that there never was such another
+journey since the Greeks marched to the sea....
+
+"The fugitives pressed constantly northward undaunted, while orders were
+flying over the wires, and special trains were carrying men and horses
+to cut them off at all probable points on the different railway lines
+they must cross. Of the three hundred Indians, sixty or seventy were
+fighting men--the rest old men, women, and children. An army officer
+once told me that thirteen thousand troops were hurrying over the
+country to capture or kill these few poor people who had left the
+fever-stricken South, and in the face of every obstacle were steadily
+marching northward.
+
+"The War Department set all its resources in operation against them,
+yet they kept on. If troops attacked them, they stopped and fought
+until they had driven off the soldiers, and then started north again.
+Sometimes they did not even stop, but marched along, fighting as they
+marched. For the most part they tried--and with success--to avoid
+conflicts, and had but four real hard fights, in which they lost half a
+dozen men killed and about as many wounded."
+
+It must not be overlooked that the appeal to justice had first been
+tried before taking this desperate step. Little Wolf had gone to the
+agent about the middle of the summer and said to him: "This is not a
+good country for us, and we wish to return to our home in the mountains
+where we were always well. If you have not the power to give permission,
+let some of us go to Washington and tell them there how it is, or do you
+write to Washington and get permission for us to go back."
+
+"Stay one more year," replied the agent, "and then we will see what we
+can do for you." "No," said Little Wolf. "Before another year there will
+be none left to travel north. We must go now."
+
+Soon after this it was found that three of the Indians had disappeared
+and the chief was ordered to surrender ten men as hostages for their
+return. He refused. "Three men," said he, "who are traveling over wild
+country can hide so that they cannot be found. You would never get back
+these three, and you would keep my men prisoners always."
+
+The agent then threatened if the ten men were not given up to withhold
+their rations and starve the entire tribe into submission. He forgot
+that he was addressing a Cheyenne. These people had not understood that
+they were prisoners when they agreed to friendly relations with the
+government and came upon the reservation. Little Wolf stood up and shook
+hands with all present before making his final deliberate address.
+
+"Listen, my friends, I am a friend of the white people and have been so
+for a long time. I do not want to see blood spilt about this agency. I
+am going north to my own country. If you are going to send your soldiers
+after me, I wish you would let us get a little distance away. Then if
+you want to fight, I will fight you, and we can make the ground bloody
+at that place."
+
+The Cheyenne was not bluffing. He said just what he meant, and I presume
+the agent took the hint, for although the military were there they
+did not undertake to prevent the Indians' departure. Next morning the
+teepees were pulled down early and quickly. Toward evening of the second
+day, the scouts signaled the approach of troops. Little Wolf called his
+men together and advised them under no circumstances to fire until
+fired upon. An Arapahoe scout was sent to them with a message. "If you
+surrender now, you will get your rations and be well treated." After
+what they had endured, it was impossible not to hear such a promise with
+contempt. Said Little Wolf: "We are going back to our own country. We do
+not want to fight." He was riding still nearer when the soldiers fired,
+and at a signal the Cheyennes made a charge. They succeeded in holding
+off the troops for two days, with only five men wounded and none killed,
+and when the military retreated the Indians continued northward carrying
+their wounded.
+
+This sort of thing was repeated again and again. Meanwhile Little
+Wolf held his men under perfect control. There were practically no
+depredations. They secured some boxes of ammunition left behind by
+retreating troops, and at one point the young men were eager to follow
+and destroy an entire command who were apparently at their mercy, but
+their leader withheld them. They had now reached the buffalo country,
+and he always kept his main object in sight. He was extraordinarily
+calm. Doctor Grinnell was told by one of his men years afterward:
+"Little Wolf did not seem like a human being. He seemed like a bear."
+It is true that a man of his type in a crisis becomes spiritually
+transformed and moves as one in a dream.
+
+At the Running Water the band divided, Dull Knife going toward Red Cloud
+agency. He was near Fort Robinson when he surrendered and met his sad
+fate. Little Wolf remained all winter in the Sand Hills, where there was
+plenty of game and no white men. Later he went to Montana and then to
+Pine Ridge, where he and his people remained in peace until they were
+removed to Lame Deer, Montana, and there he spent the remainder of his
+days. There is a clear sky beyond the clouds of racial prejudice, and
+in that final Court of Honor a noble soul like that of Little Wolf has a
+place.
+
+
+
+HOLE-IN-THE-DAY
+
+[I wish to thank Reverend C. H. Beaulieu of Le Soeur, Minnesota, for
+much of the material used in this chapter.]
+
+In the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Indian nations of the
+Northwest first experienced the pressure of civilization. At this period
+there were among them some brilliant leaders unknown to history, for the
+curious reason that they cordially received and welcomed the newcomers
+rather than opposed them. The only difficulties were those arising among
+the European nations themselves, and often involving the native tribes.
+Thus new environments brought new motives, and our temptations were
+increased manyfold with the new weapons, new goods, and above all the
+subtly destructive "spirit water."
+
+Gradually it became known that the new race had a definite purpose, and
+that purpose was to chart and possess the whole country, regardless of
+the rights of its earlier inhabitants. Still the old chiefs cautioned
+their people to be patient, for, said they, the land is vast, both races
+can live on it, each in their own way. Let us therefore befriend them
+and trust to their friendship. While they reasoned thus, the temptations
+of graft and self-aggrandizement overtook some of the leaders.
+
+Hole-in-the-Day (or Bug-o-nay-ki-shig) was born in the opening days of
+this era. The word "ki-shig" means either "day" or "sky", and the name
+is perhaps more correctly translated Hole-in-the-Sky. This gifted man
+inherited his name and much of his ability from his father, who was a
+war chief among the Ojibways, a Napoleon of the common people, and who
+carried on a relentless warfare against the Sioux. And yet, as was our
+custom at the time, peaceful meetings were held every summer, at which
+representatives of the two tribes would recount to one another all the
+events that had come to pass during the preceding year.
+
+Hole-in-the-Day the younger was a handsome man, tall and symmetrically
+formed, with much grace of manner and natural refinement. He was an
+astute student of diplomacy. The Ojibways allowed polygamy, and whether
+or not he approved the principle, he made political use of it by
+marrying the daughter of a chief in nearly every band. Through these
+alliances he held a controlling influence over the whole Ojibway nation.
+Reverend Claude H. Beaulieu says of him:
+
+"Hole-in-the-Day was a man of distinguished appearance and native
+courtliness of manner. His voice was musical and magnetic, and with
+these qualities he had a subtle brain, a logical mind, and quite a
+remarkable gift of oratory. In speech he was not impassioned, but clear
+and convincing, and held fast the attention of his hearers."
+
+It is of interest to note that his everyday name among his tribesmen was
+"The Boy." What a boy he must have been! I wonder if the name had the
+same significance as with the Sioux, who applied it to any man who
+performs a difficult duty with alertness, dash, and natural courage.
+"The Man" applies to one who adds to these qualities wisdom and maturity
+of judgment.
+
+The Sioux tell many stories of both the elder and the younger
+Hole-in-the-Day. Once when The Boy was still under ten years of age, he
+was fishing on Gull Lake in a leaky birch-bark canoe. Presently there
+came such a burst of frantic warwhoops that his father was startled. He
+could not think of anything but an attack by the dreaded Sioux. Seizing
+his weapons, he ran to the rescue of his son, only to find that the
+little fellow had caught a fish so large that it was pulling his canoe
+all over the lake. "Ugh," exclaimed the father, "if a mere fish scares
+you so badly, I fear you will never make a warrior!"
+
+It is told of him that when he was very small, the father once brought
+home two bear cubs and gave them to him for pets. The Boy was feeding
+and getting acquainted with them outside his mother's birch-bark teepee,
+when suddenly he was heard to yell for help. The two little bears had
+treed The Boy and were waltzing around the tree. His mother scared them
+off, but again the father laughed at him for thinking that he could
+climb trees better than a bear.
+
+The elder Hole-in-the-Day was a daring warrior and once attacked and
+scalped a Sioux who was carrying his pelts to the trading post, in full
+sight of his friends. Of course he was instantly pursued, and he leaped
+into a canoe which was lying near by and crossed to an island in the
+Mississippi River near Fort Snelling. When almost surrounded by Sioux
+warriors, he left the canoe and swam along the shore with only his nose
+above water, but as they were about to head him off he landed and hid
+behind the falling sheet of water known as Minnehaha Falls, thus saving
+his life.
+
+It often happens that one who offers his life freely will after all
+die a natural death. The elder Hole-in-the-Day so died when The Boy was
+still a youth. Like Philip of Massachusetts, Chief Joseph the younger,
+and the brilliant Osceola, the mantle fell gracefully upon his
+shoulders, and he wore it during a short but eventful term of
+chieftainship. It was his to see the end of the original democracy on
+this continent. The clouds were fast thickening on the eastern horizon.
+The day of individualism and equity between man and man must yield to
+the terrific forces of civilization, the mass play of materialism,
+the cupidity of commerce with its twin brother politics. Under such
+conditions the younger Hole-in-the-Day undertook to guide his tribesmen.
+At first they were inclined to doubt the wisdom of so young a leader,
+but he soon proved a ready student of his people's traditions, and yet,
+like Spotted Tail and Little Crow, he adopted too willingly the white
+man's politics. He maintained the territory won from the Sioux by
+his predecessors. He negotiated treaties with the ability of a born
+diplomat, with one exception, and that exception cost him his life.
+
+Like other able Indians who foresaw the inevitable downfall of their
+race, he favored a gradual change of customs leading to complete
+adoption of the white man's ways. In order to accustom the people to a
+new standard, he held that the chiefs must have authority and must be
+given compensation for their services. This was a serious departure from
+the old rule but was tacitly accepted, and in every treaty he made there
+was provision for himself in the way of a land grant or a cash payment.
+He early departed from the old idea of joint ownership with the Lake
+Superior Ojibways, because he foresaw that it would cause no end of
+trouble for the Mississippi River branch of which he was then the
+recognized head. But there were difficulties to come with the Leech Lake
+and Red Lake bands, who held aloof from his policy, and the question of
+boundaries began to arise.
+
+In the first treaty negotiated with the government by young
+Hole-in-the-Day in 1855, a "surplus" was provided for the chiefs
+aside from the regular per capita payment, and this surplus was to
+be distributed in proportion to the number of Indians under each.
+Hole-in-the-Day had by far the largest enrollment, therefore he got the
+lion's share of this fund. Furthermore he received another sum set apart
+for the use of the "head chief", and these things did not look right to
+the tribe. In the very next treaty he provided himself with an annuity
+of one thousand dollars for twenty years, beside a section of land near
+the village of Crow Wing, and the government was induced to build him
+a good house upon this land. In his home he had many white servants and
+henchmen and really lived like a lord. He dressed well in native style
+with a touch of civilized elegance, wearing coat and leggings of fine
+broadcloth, linen shirt with collar, and, topping all, a handsome
+black or blue blanket. His moccasins were of the finest deerskin and
+beautifully worked. His long beautiful hair added much to his personal
+appearance. He was fond of entertaining and being entertained and was
+a favorite both among army officers and civilians. He was especially
+popular with the ladies, and this fact will appear later in the story.
+
+At about this time, the United States government took it upon itself to
+put an end to warfare between the Sioux and Ojibways. A peace meeting
+was arranged at Fort Snelling, with the United States as mediator.
+When the representatives of the two nations met at this grand council,
+Hole-in-the-Day came as the head chief of his people, and with the
+other chiefs appeared in considerable pomp and dignity. The wives of the
+government officials were eager for admission to this unusual gathering,
+but when they arrived there was hardly any space left except next to
+the Sioux chiefs, and the white ladies soon crowded this space to
+overflowing. One of the Sioux remarked: "I thought this was to be a
+council of chiefs and braves, but I see many women among us." Thereupon
+the Ojibway arose and spoke in his courtliest manner. "The Ojibway
+chiefs will feel highly honored," said he, "if the ladies will consent
+to sit on our side."
+
+Another sign of his alertness to gain favor among the whites was seen in
+the fact that he took part in the territorial campaigns, a most unusual
+thing for an Indian of that day. Being a man of means and influence,
+he was listened to with respect by the scattered white settlers in his
+vicinity. He would make a political speech through an interpreter, but
+would occasionally break loose in his broken English, and wind up with
+an invitation to drink in the following words: "Chentimen, you Pemicans
+(Republicans), come out and drink!"
+
+From 1855 to 1864 Hole-in-the-Day was a well-known figure in Minnesota,
+and scarcely less so in Washington, for he visited the capital quite
+often on tribal affairs. As I have said before, he was an unusually
+handsome man, and was not unresponsive to flattery and the attentions
+of women. At the time of this incident he was perhaps thirty-five years
+old, but looked younger. He had called upon the President and was on his
+way back to his hotel, when he happened to pass the Treasury building
+just as the clerks were leaving for the day. He was immediately
+surrounded by an inquisitive throng. Among them was a handsome young
+woman who asked through the interpreter if the chief would consent to
+an interview about his people, to aid her in a paper she had promised to
+prepare.
+
+Hole-in-the-Day replied: "If the beautiful lady is willing to risk
+calling on the chief at his hotel, her request will be granted." The
+lady went, and the result was so sudden and strong an attachment that
+both forgot all racial biases and differences of language and custom.
+She followed him as far as Minneapolis, and there the chief advised her
+to remain, for he feared the jealousy of some of his many wives. She
+died there, soon after giving birth to a son, who was brought up by a
+family named Woodbury; and some fifteen years ago I met the young man
+in Washington and was taken by him to call upon certain of his mother's
+relatives.
+
+The ascendancy of Hole-in-the-Day was not gained entirely through the
+consent of his people, but largely by government favor, therefore there
+was strong suppressed resentment among his associate chiefs, and the Red
+Lake and Leech Lake bands in fact never acknowledged him as their head,
+while they suspected him of making treaties which involved some of their
+land. He was in personal danger from this source, and his life was
+twice attempted, but, though wounded, in each case he recovered. His
+popularity with Indian agents and officers lasted till the Republicans
+came into power in the sixties and there was a new deal. The chief no
+longer received the favors and tips to which he was accustomed; in
+fact he was in want of luxuries, and worse still, his pride was hurt by
+neglect. The new party had promised Christian treatment to the Indians,
+but it appeared that they were greater grafters than their predecessors,
+and unlike them kept everything for themselves, allowing no perquisites
+to any Indian chief.
+
+In his indignation at this treatment, Hole-in-the-Day began exposing
+the frauds on his people, and so at a late day was converted to their
+defense. Perhaps he had not fully understood the nature of graft until
+he was in a position to view it from the outside. After all, he was
+excusable in seeking to maintain the dignity of his office, but he had
+departed from one of the fundamental rules of the race, namely: "Let no
+material gain be the motive or reward of public duty." He had wounded
+the ideals of his people beyond forgiveness, and he suffered the
+penalty; yet his courage was not diminished by the mistakes of his past.
+Like the Sioux chief Little Crow, he was called "the betrayer of
+his people", and like him he made a desperate effort to regain lost
+prestige, and turned savagely against the original betrayers of his
+confidence, the agents and Indian traders.
+
+When the Sioux finally broke out in 1862, the first thought of the
+local politicians was to humiliate Hole-in-the-Day by arresting him
+and proclaiming some other "head chief" in his stead. In so doing they
+almost forced the Ojibways to fight under his leadership. The chief had
+no thought of alliance with the Sioux, and was wholly unaware of the
+proposed action of the military on pretense of such a conspiracy on his
+part. He was on his way to the agency in his own carriage when a runner
+warned him of his danger. He thereupon jumped down and instructed the
+driver to proceed. His coachman was arrested by a file of soldiers, who
+when they discovered their mistake went to his residence in search of
+him, but meanwhile he had sent runners in every direction to notify
+his warriors, and had moved his family across the Mississippi. When
+the military reached the river bank he was still in sight, and the
+lieutenant called upon him to surrender. When he refused, the soldiers
+were ordered to fire upon him, but he replied with his own rifle, and
+with a whoop disappeared among the pine groves.
+
+It was remarkable how the whole tribe now rallied to the call of
+Hole-in-the-Day. He allowed no depredations to the young men under
+his leadership, but camped openly near the agency and awaited an
+explanation. Presently Judge Cooper of St. Paul, a personal friend
+of the chief, appeared, and later on the Assistant Secretary of the
+Interior, accompanied by Mr. Nicolay, private secretary of President
+Lincoln. Apparently that great humanitarian President saw the whole
+injustice of the proceeding against a loyal nation, and the difficulty
+was at an end.
+
+Through the treaties of 1864, 1867, and 1868 was accomplished the final
+destiny of the Mississippi River Ojibways. Hole-in-the-Day was against
+their removal to what is now White Earth reservation, but he was
+defeated in this and realized that the new turn of events meant the
+downfall of his race. He declared that he would never go on the new
+reservation, and he kept his word. He remained on one of his land grants
+near Crow Wing. As the other chiefs assumed more power, the old feeling
+of suspicion and hatred became stronger, especially among the Pillager
+and Red Lake bands. One day he was waylaid and shot by a party of these
+disaffected Indians. He uttered a whoop and fell dead from his buggy.
+
+Thus died one of the most brilliant chiefs of the Northwest, who never
+defended his birthright by force of arms, although almost compelled to
+do so. He succeeded in diplomacy so long as he was the recognized head
+of his people. Since we have not passed over his weaknesses, he should
+be given credit for much insight in causing the article prohibiting the
+introduction of liquor into the Indian country to be inserted into the
+treaty of 1858. I think it was in 1910 that this forgotten provision was
+discovered and again enforced over a large expanse of territory occupied
+by whites, it being found that the provision had never been repealed.
+
+Although he left many children, none seem to have made their mark, yet
+it may be that in one of his descendants that undaunted spirit will rise
+again.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Indian Heroes and Great Chieftains, by 
+[AKA Ohiyesa], Charles A. Eastman
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