diff options
| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:59:56 -0700 |
|---|---|---|
| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-14 19:59:56 -0700 |
| commit | baca6f817a86adfee7934fcec792193fcecaad04 (patch) | |
| tree | 211a542441b1256cda559591c1e229557c61c197 /33614-h | |
Diffstat (limited to '33614-h')
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/33614-h.htm | 20189 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img135.jpg | bin | 0 -> 31600 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img141a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 1932 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img141b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 27354 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img142a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 45590 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img142b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 26053 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img142c.jpg | bin | 0 -> 45039 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img143a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 58732 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img143b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 73430 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img143c.jpg | bin | 0 -> 38061 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img144a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 16701 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img144b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 37531 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img144c.jpg | bin | 0 -> 21554 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img145a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 65009 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img145b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 75731 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img145c.jpg | bin | 0 -> 88306 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img146.jpg | bin | 0 -> 83887 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img147.jpg | bin | 0 -> 117682 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img148.jpg | bin | 0 -> 73593 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img149a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 53243 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img149b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 71128 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img149c.jpg | bin | 0 -> 15685 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img150.jpg | bin | 0 -> 77454 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img152.jpg | bin | 0 -> 112485 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img167.jpg | bin | 0 -> 171057 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img183a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 10596 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img183b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 11447 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img216a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 13710 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img216b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 12776 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img216c.jpg | bin | 0 -> 15735 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img216d.jpg | bin | 0 -> 38847 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img216e.jpg | bin | 0 -> 22542 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img216f.jpg | bin | 0 -> 19150 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img216g.jpg | bin | 0 -> 16801 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img216h.jpg | bin | 0 -> 17412 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img219.jpg | bin | 0 -> 96040 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img220a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 9338 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img220b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 86538 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img220c.jpg | bin | 0 -> 50206 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img221.jpg | bin | 0 -> 56436 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img229a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 61416 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img229b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 26505 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img230a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 31237 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img230b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 75673 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img231.jpg | bin | 0 -> 102882 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img232a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 55527 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img232b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 71422 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img232c.jpg | bin | 0 -> 76035 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img232d.jpg | bin | 0 -> 24864 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img232e.jpg | bin | 0 -> 36414 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img232f.jpg | bin | 0 -> 60729 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img232g.jpg | bin | 0 -> 63329 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img236a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 2719 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img236b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 9917 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img241.jpg | bin | 0 -> 16607 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img242a.jpg | bin | 0 -> 56362 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img242b.jpg | bin | 0 -> 13925 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | 33614-h/images/img243.jpg | bin | 0 -> 14765 bytes |
58 files changed, 20189 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/33614-h/33614-h.htm b/33614-h/33614-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e79af4c --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/33614-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,20189 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> + + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= + "text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" /> + + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume IV Slice II - Bohemia to Borgia, Francis. + </title> + + <style type="text/css"> + + body { margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%; text-align: justify; } + p { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;} + p.c { margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 1em; line-height: 1.4em;} + p.noind { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; text-indent: 0; } + + h2,h3 { text-align: center; } + hr { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: center; width: 70%; height: 5px; background-color: #dcdcdc; border:none; } + hr.art { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 40%; height: 5px; background-color: #778899; + margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 6em } + hr.foot {margin-left: 2em; width: 16%; background-color: black; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 0; height: 1px; } + hr.full {width: 100%} + + table.ws {white-space: nowrap; border-collapse: collapse; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; + margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em;} + table.reg { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both; } + table.nobctr { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse; } + table.pic { margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; } + table.math0 { vertical-align: middle; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border-collapse: collapse;} + table.math0 td {text-align: center;} + table.math0 td.np {text-align: center; padding-left: 0; padding-right: 0;} + + table.reg td { padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em; white-space: normal;} + table.reg td.tc5p { padding-left: 2em; text-indent: 0em; white-space: normal;} + table.nobctr td { white-space: normal; } + table.pic td { white-space: normal; text-indent: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-right: 1em;} + table.nobctr p {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;} + table.pic td p {text-indent: -1.5em; margin-left: 1.5em;} + + td { white-space: nowrap; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;} + td.norm { white-space: normal; } + td.denom { border-top: 1px solid black; text-align: center; padding-right: 0.3em; padding-left: 0.3em;} + + td.tcc { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: top;} + td.tccm { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;} + td.tccb { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: center; vertical-align: bottom;} + td.tcr { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: top;} + td.tcrb { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: bottom;} + td.tcrm { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;} + td.tcl { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;} + td.tclb { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: bottom;} + td.tclm { padding-right: 0.5em; padding-left: 0.5em; text-align: left; vertical-align: middle;} + td.vb { vertical-align: bottom; } + + .caption { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: center; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + .caption1 { font-size: 0.9em; text-align: left; padding-bottom: 1em; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 2em;} + + td.lb {border-left: black 1px solid;} + td.ltb {border-left: black 1px solid; border-top: black 1px solid;} + td.rb {border-right: black 1px solid;} + td.rb2 {border-right: black 2px solid;} + td.tb, span.tb {border-top: black 1px solid;} + td.bb {border-bottom: black 1px solid;} + td.bb1 {border-bottom: #808080 3px solid; padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + td.rlb {border-right: black 1px solid; border-left : black 1px solid;} + td.allb {border: black 1px solid;} + td.cl, tr.cl {background-color: #e0e0e0} + + table p { margin: 0;} + + a:link, a:visited, link {text-decoration:none} + + .author {text-align: right; margin-top: -1em; margin-right: 1em; font-variant: small-caps;} + .center {text-align: center; text-indent: 0;} + .center1 {text-align: center; text-indent: 0; margin-top: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em;} + .grk {font-style: normal; font-family:"Palatino Linotype","New Athena Unicode",Gentium,"Lucida Grande", Galilee, "Arial Unicode MS", sans-serif;} + + .f80 {font-size: 80%} + .f90 {font-size: 90%} + .f150 {font-size: 150%} + .f200 {font-size: 200%} + + .sp {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em;} + .sp1 {position: relative; bottom: 0.6em; font-size: 0.75em;} + .su {position: relative; top: 0.3em; font-size: 0.75em;} + .su1 {position: relative; top: 0.5em; font-size: 0.75em; margin-left: -1.2ex;} + .spp {position: relative; bottom: 0.5em; font-size: 0.6em;} + .suu {position: relative; top: 0.2em; font-size: 0.6em;} + .sc {font-variant: small-caps;} + .scs {text-transform: lowercase; font-variant: small-caps;} + .un {text-decoration: underline} + .cl {background-color: #f5f5f5;} + .bk {padding-left: 0; font-size: 80%;} + .bk1 {margin-left: -1em;} + + .pagenum {position: absolute; right: 5%; text-align: right; font-size: 10pt; + background-color: #f5f5f5; color: #778899; text-indent: 0; + padding-left: 0.5em; padding-right: 0.5em; font-style: normal; } + span.sidenote {width: 8em; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: 1.7em; margin-right: 2em; + font-size: 85%; float: left; clear: left; font-weight: bold; + font-style: italic; text-align: left; text-indent: 0; + background-color: #f5f5f5; color: black; } + .note {margin-left: 2em; margin-right: 2em; font-size: 0.9em; } + .fn { position: absolute; left: 12%; text-align: left; background-color: #f5f5f5; + text-indent: 0; padding-left: 0.2em; padding-right: 0.2em; } + span.correction {border-bottom: 1px dashed red;} + + div.poemr { margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em;} + div.poemr p { margin-left: 0; padding-left: 3em; text-indent: -3em; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; } + div.poemr p.s { margin-top: 1.5em; } + div.poemr p.i05 { margin-left: 0.4em; } + div.poemr p.i1 { margin-left: 1em; } + div.poemr p.i2 { margin-left: 2em; } + + .figright1 { padding-right: 1em; padding-left: 2em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; } + .figleft1 { padding-right: 2em; padding-left: 1em; padding-top: 1.5em; text-align: center; } + .figcenter {text-align: center; margin: auto; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 1.5em;} + .figcenter1 {text-align: center; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding-top: 2em; padding-bottom: 2em;} + .figure {text-align: center; padding-left: 1.5em; padding-right: 1.5em; padding-top: 1.5em; padding-bottom: 0;} + .bold {font-weight: bold; } + + div.minind {text-align: justify;} + div.condensed, div.condensed1 { line-height: 1.3em; margin-left: 3%; margin-right: 3%; font-size: 95%; } + div.condensed1 p {margin-left: 0; padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;} + div.condensed span.sidenote {font-size: 90%} + + div.list {margin-left: 0;} + div.list p {padding-left: 4em; text-indent: -2em;} + div.list1 {margin-left: 0;} + div.list1 p {padding-left: 5em; text-indent: -3em;} + + .pt05 {padding-top: 0.5em;} + .pt1 {padding-top: 1em;} + .pt2 {padding-top: 2em;} + .ptb1 {padding-top: 1em; padding-bottom: 1em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 4, Slice 2, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Slice 2 + "Bohemia" to "Borgia, Francis" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: September 3, 2010 [EBook #33614] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note"> +<tr> +<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top"> +Transcriber’s note: +</td> +<td class="norm"> +A few typographical errors have been corrected. It +appears in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the +explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked +passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration +when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the +Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will +display an unaccented version. <br /><br /> +<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will +be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online. +</td> +</tr> +</table> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<h2>THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA</h2> + +<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2> + +<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p> +<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">BOHEMIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">BONER, ULRICH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">BOHEMUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">BO’NESS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">BÖHMER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">BONFIGLI, BENEDETTO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">BOHN, HENRY GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">BONFIRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">BÖHTLINGK, OTTO VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">BONGARS, JACQUES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">BOHUN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">BONGHI, RUGGERO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">BOIARDO, MATTEO MARIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">BONGO</a> (tribe of Sudan)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">BOIE, HEINRICH CHRISTIAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">BONGO</a> (West African bushbuck)</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">BOIELDIEU, FRANÇOIS ADRIEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">BONHAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">BOIGNE, BENOÎT DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">BONHEUR, ROSA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">BOII</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">BONHEUR DU JOUR</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">BOIL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">BONI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">BOILEAU-DESPRÉAUX, NICOLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">BONIFACE, SAINT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">BOILER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">BONIFACE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">BOILING TO DEATH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">BONIFACE OF SAVOY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">BOIS BRÛLÉS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">BONIFACIO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">BOISÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">BONIFACIUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">BOISGOBEY, FORTUNÉ DU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">BONIN ISLANDS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">BOISGUILBERT, PIERRE LE PESANT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">BONITZ, HERMANN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">BOISROBERT, FRANÇOIS LE METEL DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">BONIVARD, FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">BOISSARD, JEAN JACQUES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">BONN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">BOISSIER, MARIE LOUIS ANTOINE GASTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">BONNAT, LÉON JOSEPH FLORENTIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">BOISSONADE DE FONTARABIE, JEAN FRANÇOIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">BONNE-CARRÈRE, GUILLAUME DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">BOISSY D’ANGLAS, FRANÇOIS ANTOINE DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">BONNER, EDMUND</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">BOITO, ARRIGO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">BONNET, CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">BOIVIN, FRANÇOIS DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">BONNET</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">BOKENAM, OSBERN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">BONNEVAL, CLAUDE ALÉXANDRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">BOKHARA</a> (state)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">BONNEVILLE, BENJAMIN L. E.</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">BOKHARA</a> (capital of Bokhara)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">BONNEY, THOMAS GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">BOKSBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">BONNIER, ANGE ELISABETH LOUIS ANTOINE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">BOLAN PASS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">BONNIVET, GUILLAUME GOUFFIER</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">BOLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">BONOMI, GIUSEPPI</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">BOLBEC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">BONONCINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">BOLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">BONONIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">BOLESLAUS I.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">BONPLAND, AIMÉ JACQUES ALEXANDRE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">BOLESLAUS II.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">BONSTETTEN, CHARLES VICTOR DE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">BOLESLAUS III.</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">BONUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">BOLETUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">BONZE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">BOLEYN, ANNE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">BOOK</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">BOLGARI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">BOOKBINDING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">BOLI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">BOOKCASE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">BOLINGBROKE, HENRY ST JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">BOOK-COLLECTING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">BOLIVAR, SIMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">BOOK-KEEPING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">BOLÍVAR</a> (department of Colombia)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">BOOK-PLATES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">BOLÍVAR</a> (state of Venezuela)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">BOOK-SCORPION</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">BOLIVIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">BOOKSELLING</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">BOLKHOV</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">BOOLE, GEORGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">BOLL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">BOOM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">BOLLANDISTS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">BOOMERANG</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">BOONE, DANIEL</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">BOLOGNA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">BOONE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">BOLSENA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">BOONVILLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">BOLSOVER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">BOORDE, ANDREW</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">BOLSWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">BOOS, MARTIN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">BOLT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">BOOT</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">BOLTON, DUKES OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">BOÖTES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">BOLTON, EDMUND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">BOOTH, BARTON</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">BOLTON</a> (county of England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">BOOTH, CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">BOLTON ABBEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">BOOTH, EDWIN [THOMAS]</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">BOLZANO, BERNHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">BOOTH, WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">BOMA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">BOOTH</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">BOMB</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">BOOTHIA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">BOMBARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">BOOTLE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">BOMBARDIER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">BOOTY</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">BOMBARDMENT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">BOPP, FRANZ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">BOMBARDON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">BOPPARD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">BOMBAY CITY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">BORA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">BOMBAY FURNITURE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">BORACITE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">BOMBAY PRESIDENCY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">BORAGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">BOMBAZINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">BORAGINACEAE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">BOMBELLES, MARC MARIE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">BORÅS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">BOMBERG, DANIEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">BORAX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">BONA, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">BORDA, JEAN CHARLES</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">BONA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">BORDAGE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">BONA DEA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">BORDEAUX</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">BONA FIDE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">BORDEN, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">BONALD, LOUIS GABRIEL AMBROISE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">BORDEN, ROBERT LAIRD</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">BONAPARTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">BORDENTOWN</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">BONAR, HORATIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">BORDERS, THE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">BONAVENTURA, SAINT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171">BORDIGHERA</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">BONCHAMPS, CHARLES MELCHIOR ARTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">BORDONE, PARIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">BORE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">BOND</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">BOREAS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">BONDAGER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">BOREL, PETRUS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">BONDE, GUSTAF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">BORELLI, GIOVANNI ALFONSO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">BONDED WAREHOUSE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">BORGÅ</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">BONDU</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">BORGHESE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">BONE, HENRY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">BORGHESI, BARTOLOMMEO</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">BONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">BORGIA, CESARE</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">BONE BED</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">BORGIA, FRANCIS</a></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">BONE-LACE</a></td> <td class="tcl"> </td></tr> + +</table> + +<hr class="full" /> +<h3>VOLUME IV SLICE II<br /><br /> +Bohemia to Borgia, Francis</h3> +<hr class="full" /> +<div style="padding-top: 3em; "> </div> + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page121" id="page121"></a>121</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BOHEMIA<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span><a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (Ger. <i>Böhmen</i>, Czech <i>Čechy</i>, Lat. <i>Bohemia</i>), a +kingdom and crownland of Austria, bounded N.E. by Prussian +Silesia, S.E. by Moravia and Lower Austria, S. by Upper Austria, +S.W. by Bavaria and N.W. by Saxony. It has an area of 20,060 +sq. m., or about two-thirds the size of Scotland, and forms the +principal province of the Austrian empire. Situated in the +geographical centre of the European continent, at about equal +distance from all the European seas, enclosed by high mountains, +and nevertheless easily accessible through Moravia from +the Danubian plain and opened by the valley of the Elbe to the +German plain, Bohemia was bound to play a leading part in the +cultural development of Europe. It became early the scene of +important historical events, the avenue and junction of the +migration of peoples; and it forms the borderland between the +German and Slavonic worlds.</p> + +<p><i>Geography</i>.—Bohemia has the form of an irregular rhomb, of +which the northernmost place, Buchberg, just above Hainspach, +is at the same time the farthest north in the whole Austro-Hungarian +monarchy. From an orographic point of view, +Bohemia constitutes amongst the Austrian provinces a separate +massif, bordered on three sides by mountain ranges: on the +S.W. by the Böhmerwald or Bohemian Forest; on the N.W. +by the Erzgebirge or Ore Mountains; and on the N.E. by the +Riesengebirge or Giant Mountains and other ranges of the +Sudetes. The Böhmerwald, which, like its parallel range, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122"></a>122</span> +Sudetes, has a general direction from S.E. to N.W., is divided +by the pass of Neumark into two parts. The northern part (Czech +<i>Cesky Les</i>) attains in the massif of Czerkov an altitude of 3300 ft., +but the southern part (Czech <i>Šumava</i>) is at the same time the +highest and the most picturesque part of the range, including +on the Bohemian side the Osser (4053 ft.) and the Plöckenstein +(4513 ft.), although the highest peak, the Arber (4872), is in +Bavaria. The beauty of this range of mountains consists in its +pure crystalline torrents, in the numerous blue lakes of its valleys, +and above all in the magnificent forests of oak and pine with +which its sides are covered. The pass of Neumark, called also +the pass of Neugedein, has always been the principal approach +to Bohemia from Germany. It stretches towards the east, above +the small town of Taus (Czech <i>Domažlice</i>, once called <i>Tuhoŝt</i>, +<i>i.e.</i> the Fortress), and is the place where some of the bloodiest +battles in the history of Bohemia were fought. Here in the first +half of the 7th century Samo repulsed the invading hordes of +the Avars, which threatened the independence of the newly-settled +Slavonic inhabitants; here also Wratislas II. defeated +the German emperor Henry III. in a two-days’ battle (August +22 and 23, 1040). It was in the same place that the Hussites +gained in 1431 one of their greatest victories against a German +army of crusaders, and another similar German army was vanquished +here by George of Poděbrad.</p> + +<p>The Erzgebirge (Czech <i>Rudo Horí</i>), which form the north-west +frontier, have an average altitude of 2600 ft., and as their +highest point, the Keilberg (4080 ft.). The numerous mining +villages, the great number of cultivated areas and the easy +passes, traversed by good roads, give those mountains in many +places the aspect of a hilly undulating plain. Several of the +villages are built very near the summit of the mountains, and +one of them, Gottesgab (pop. about 1500), lies at an altitude of +3345 ft., the highest place in Bohemia and central Germany. +To the west the Erzgebirge combine through the Elstergebirge +with the Fichtelgebirge, which in their turn are united with the +Böhmerwald through the plateau of Waldsassen. To the east +the Erzgebirge are separated from the Elbsandsteingebirge by +the Nollendorf pass, traversed by the ancient military route to +Saxony; it was the route followed by Napoleon I. after the +battle of Dresden (1813). To the south stretches the “Thermopylae +of Bohemia,” the scene of the battle of Kulm and +Arbesau. A little farther to the east the Elbe escapes into +Saxony at the lowest point in Bohemia (alt. 367 ft.). The north-east +frontier is formed by the Sudetes, which comprise the +Lausitzergebirge (2500 ft.), the Isergebirge (with the highest +peak, the Tafelfichte, 3683 ft.), the Jeschkengebirge (3322 ft.), +and the Riesengebirge. The Riesengebirge (Czech <i>Kroknosě</i>) +are, after the Alps, among the highest mountains of central +Europe, and attain in the Schneekoppe an altitude of 5264 ft. +The last groups of the Sudetes in Bohemia are the Heuscheuergebirge +(2532 ft.) and the Adlergebirge (3664 ft.). The fourth side +of the rhomb is formed by the so-called Bohemian-Moravian +Hills, a plateau or broad series of low hills, composed of primitive +rocks, and attaining in some places an altitude of 2500 ft.</p> + +<p>The interior of Bohemia has sometimes been compared to a +deep basin; but for the most part it is an undulating plateau, +over 1000 ft. high, formed by a succession of terraces, which +gradually slope down from south to north. Its lowest-lying +points are not in the middle but in the north, in the valley of the +Elbe, and the country can be divided into two parts by a line +passing through Hohenmauth-Prague-Komotau. The part +lying to the south of this line can be designated as highland, and +only the part north of it as lowland. The mountain-ranges of +the interior of Bohemia are the Brdywald (2798 ft.) in the middle; +the Tepler Gebirge (2657 ft.), the Karsbader Gebirge (3057 ft.) +and the Kaiserwald (3238 ft.), in the north-west part; while the +northern corner is occupied by the Mittelgebirge (2739 ft.), a +volcanic massif, stretching on both sides of the Elbe.</p> + +<p>Bohemia belongs to the watershed of the Elbe, which rises +within the territory and receives on the right the Iser and the +Polzen, and on the left the Adler; the Eger with its affluent the +Tepl; the Biela and the Moldau. But the principal river of +Bohemia, from every point of view, is the Moldau (Czech +<i>Vltava</i>), not the Elbe. A glance at the hydrographic structure +of Bohemia, which is of such a striking regularity, shows us that +the Moldau is the main stem, while the Elbe and the other rivers +are only lateral branches; moreover, the Elbe below Melnik, +the point of its confluence with the Moldau, follows the general +direction of the Moldau. Besides, the Moldau is the principal +commercial artery of the country, being navigable below Budweis, +while the Upper-Elbe is not navigable; its basin (11,890 sq. m.) +is twice as great as that of the Elbe, and its width and depth +are also greater. It has a length of 270 m., 47 m. longer than +the Upper-Elbe, but it runs through a deep and narrow valley, +in which there is neither road nor railway, extending from above +Budweis to about 15 m. south of Prague. The Moldau receives +on the right the Lužniza and the Sazawa and on the left the +Wottawa and the Beraun. The Beraun is formed by the union +of the Mies with the Radbusa, Angel and Uslawa, and is the +third most important river of the country. There are only a few +lakes, which are mostly found at high altitudes.</p> + +<p><i>Climate</i>.—Bohemia has a continental, generally healthy +climate, which varies much in different parts of the country. +It is mildest in the centre, where, <i>e.g.</i> at Prague, the mean annual +temperature is 48.5° F. The rainfall varies also according to the +districts, the rainy season being the summer. Thus the mean +annual rainfall in the interior of Bohemia is 18 in., in the Riesengebirge +40 in., while in the Böhmerwald it reaches 60 to 70 in.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture</i>.—Favoured with a suitable climate and inhabited +by a thriving rural population, Bohemia is very highly developed +in the matter of agriculture. Over 50% of the whole area is +under cultivation and the soil is in many parts very fertile, the +best-known regions being the “Golden Road” round Königgrätz, +the “Paradise” round Teplitz, and the “Garden of +Bohemia” round Leitmeritz. The principal products are oats, +rye, barley and wheat, but since the competition of Hungarian +wheat large tracts of land have been converted to the cultivation +of beetroot. The potato crop, which forms the staple food of the +people, is great; the Saaz district is celebrated for hops, and the +flax is also of a good quality. Fruit, especially plums, is very +abundant and constitutes a great article of export. The forests +cover 29.01% of the total area; meadows, 10.05, pastures 5.05, +and gardens 1.35%. Cattle-rearing is not so well developed as +agriculture, but great flocks of geese are reared, especially in +the south, and bee-cultivation constitutes another important +industry. Pisciculture has been for centuries successfully +pursued by the Bohemian peasants, and the attempts recently +made for the rearing of silkworms have met with fair success.</p> + +<p><i>Minerals</i>.—Except salt, which is entirely absent, almost +every useful metal and mineral is to be found. First in importance, +both in quantity and in value, come lignite and coal. +Some of the richest lignite fields in Europe are found in the +north-east corner of Bohemia round Brüx, Dux, Falkenau, +Ossegg and Teplitz. Coal is mined round Kladno, Buschtěhrad, +Pilsen, Schlan, Rakonitz, Nürschan and Radnitz, the last-named +place containing the oldest coal mines of Bohemia (17th +century). Iron ores are found at Kruŝnahora and Nuĉic, and +the principal foundries are round Kladno and Königshof. +Owing to the improvements in refining, Bohemia has become +an important centre of the iron industry. Silver is extracted +at Přibram and Joachimsthal, but the silver mines near Kuttenberg, +famous in the middle ages, are now abandoned. Lead is +extracted at Přibram, tin at Graupen in the Erzgebirge, the only +place in Austria where this metal is found. Antimony is extracted +at Milleschau near Tabor; uranium and radium near Joachimsthal; +graphite near Krumau and Budweis; porcelain-earth near +Carlsbad. Other minerals found in various places of Bohemia +are copper, sulphur, cobalt, alum, nickel, arsenic and various +sorts of precious stone, like the Bohemian garnet (pyrope), +and building stone. A large amount of peat is collected, +especially in the south-west of Bohemia, as well as a great +quantity of asphalt.</p> + +<p>Bohemia possesses over two hundred mineral springs, but +only a few are used for medicinal purposes. Among them are +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123"></a>123</span> +some of the most celebrated mineral springs in the world, such +as Carlsbad, Marienbad, Franzensbad, Teplitz-Schönau and +Bilin. Other springs of importance are Püllna, Sedlitz and +Seidschitz near Brüx; Giesshübl near Carlsbad; Liebwerda, +Königswart, Sangerberg, Neudorf, Tetschen, Johannisbad, +situated at the foot of the Schneekoppe, &c.</p> + +<p><i>Manufactures and Commerce.</i>—From an industrial point of +view, Bohemia takes the first rank amongst the Austrian provinces, +and at the same time is one of the greatest manufacturing +centres of Europe. Rich as the country is in coal and iron, and +in water supplies which can be transformed into motive power, +the inhabitants were not slow to utilize these advantages, so +that the industry of Bohemia made enormous strides during the +last half of the 19th century. The glass industry was introduced +from Venice in the 13th century and soon attained a vast importance; +the factories are in the neighbourhood of the mountains, +where minerals, and especially silica and fuel, are plentiful. +The finest product, the crystal-glass, is made round Haida and +Steinschönau. The very extensive porcelain industry is concentrated +in and around Carlsbad. The textile industry stands in +the front rank and is mostly concentrated in the north-east +corner of Bohemia, round Reichenberg, and in the valley of the +Lower Elbe. The cloth manufacture is located at Reichenberg; +Rumburg and Trautenau are the centre of the linen industry; +woollen yarns are made at Aussig and Asch. Lace, which is +pursued as a home-industry in the Erzgebirge region, has its +principal centre at Weipert, while Strakonitz has the speciality +of the manufacture of red fezes (Turkish caps). The metallurgic +industries, favoured by the abundance of coal and iron, are +concentrated round the mines. Industrial and agricultural +machinery are manufactured at Reichenberg, Pilsen and Prague, +and at the last-named place is also to be found a great establishment +for the production of railway rolling-stock. Sugar refining +is another industry, which, although of recent date, has had a +very great development, and the breweries produce a beer +which is appreciated all over the world. Other important +branches of industry are:—the manufacture of chemicals at +Prague and Aussig; pencils at Budweis; musical instruments +at Graslitz and Schönbach; paper, leather, dyeing and +calico-printing. Hand-in-hand with the industrial activity of the +country goes its commercial development, which is stimulated +by an extensive railway system, good roads and navigable +rivers. The centre of the railway system, which had in 1898 +a length of some 3500 m., or 30% of the total length of the +Austrian railways, is Prague; and through the Elbe Bohemia +has easy access to the sea for its export trade.</p> + +<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>—Bohemia had in 1900 a +population of 6,318,280, which corresponds to 315 inhabitants +per square mile. As regards numbers, it occupies the second place +amongst the Austrian provinces, coming after Galicia, and as +regards density of population it stands third, Silesia and Lower +Austria, which contains Vienna, standing higher. In 1800 the +population was a little over 3,000,000. According to nationality, +about 35% are Germans and 65% Czechs. The Czechs occupy +the middle of the country, as well as its south and south-east +region, while the Germans are concentrated near its borders, +especially in the north and west, and are also found all over +the country in the large towns. Besides, there are numerous +German-speaking enclaves situated in purely Czech districts; +on the other hand, the Czechs have shown a tendency to invade +the purely German mining and manufacturing districts. +Notwithstanding its rich natural resources and its great industrial +development, Bohemia sends out a steady flow of emigrants, +who either settle in the other provinces of the monarchy, in +Germany and in Russia, or cross the Atlantic to America. To +the Roman Catholic Church belong 96% of the total population; +Bohemia is divided into the archbishopric of Prague, and the +three bishoprics of Budweis, Königgrätz and Leitmeritz.</p> + +<p>Education is well advanced, and Bohemia has the lowest +proportion of illiterates amongst the Austrian provinces. At +the head of the educational establishments stand the two +universities at Prague, one German and the other Czech.</p> + +<p>Bohemia sends 130 deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna; the +local diet, to which belong <i>ex officio</i> the archbishop, the three +bishops, and the two rectors of the universities, consists of +242 members. For administrative purposes Bohemia is divided +into ninety-four districts and two autonomous municipalities, +Prague (pop. 204,478), the capital, and Reichenberg (34,204). +Other important towns are Pilsen (68,292), Budweis (39,360), +Aussig (37,255), Schönau (24,110), Eger (23,665), Warnsdorf +(21,150), Brüx (21,525), Gablonz (21,086), Asch (18,675), Kladno +(18,600), Pardubitz (17,029), Saaz (16,168), Komotau (15,925), +Kolin (15,025), Kuttenberg (14,799), Trautenau (14,777), +Carlsbad (14,640), Přibram (13,576), Jungbunzlau (13,479), +Leitmeritz (13,075), Chrudim (13,017), Dux (11,921), Bodenbach +(10,782), Tabor (10,692), Bohmisch-Leipa (10,674), Rumburg +(10,382), Weipert (10,037).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Umlauft, <i>Die Länder Österreich-Ungarns in Wort und Bild</i>, +(15 vols., Vienna, 1881-1889), vol. vii.; Mikowec, <i>Altertümer und +Denkwürdigkeiten Bohmen’s</i> (2 vols., Prague, 1859-1865); F. Rivnáĉ, +<i>Reisehandbuch fur das Konigreich Bohmen</i> (Prague, 1882), very useful +for its numerous and detailed historical notes.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(O. Br.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">History</p> + +<p>The country derives its name from the Boii, a Celtic tribe +which in the earliest historical period inhabited part of the land. +According to very ancient traditions accepted by the modern +historians of Bohemia, the Boii, whose capital was called +Boiohemum, were weakened by continual warfare with neighbouring +tribes, and finally subdued by the Teutonic tribe of the +Marcomanni (about 12 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). The Marcomanni were afterwards +expelled by other Teutonic tribes, and eventually Bohemia was +conquered by Slavic tribes, of whom the Čechs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Czech</a></span>) +were the most important. The date of the arrival of the Čechs +in Bohemia is very uncertain, and the scanty references to the +country in classical and Byzantine writers are rather +<span class="sidenote">Slav Conquest.</span> +misleading than otherwise. Recent archaeological +research has proved the existence of Slavic inhabitants +in Bohemia as far back as the beginning of the Christian era. +The Čechs appear to have become the masters of the country +in the 5th century. The first of their rulers mentioned in +history is Samo, who is stated to have defeated the Avars, a +Turanian tribe which had for a time obtained the overlordship +over Bohemia. Samo also defeated the Franks in a great battle +that took place at Wogatisburg (630), probably near the site +of the present town of Eger. After the death of Samo the history +of Bohemia again becomes absolutely obscure for about 130 +years. The next events that are recorded by the oldest chroniclers, +such as Cosmas, refer to the foundation of a Bohemian principality +by Krok (or Crocus) and his daughter Libussa. The +latter is said to have married Přemysl, a peasant who was found +ploughing his field—a legend that is common in most Slavic +countries. Beginning with this semi-mythic ruler, the ancient +chroniclers have constructed a continuous list of Přemyslide +princes. Neither the deeds attributed to these princes nor the +dates of their reigns can be considered as historical.</p> + +<p>From the time of the introduction of Christianity into Bohemia +the history of the country becomes less obscure. The first +attempts to introduce Christianity undoubtedly came +from Germany. They met with little success, as +<span class="sidenote">Christianity.</span> +innate distrust of the Germans naturally rendered the +Bohemians unfavourable to a creed which reached them from +the realm of their western neighbours. Matters were different +when Christianity approached them from Moravia, where its +doctrine had been taught by Cyrillus and Methodius—Greek +monks from Thessalonica. About the year 873 the Bohemian +prince Bořivoj was baptized by Methodius, and the Bohemians +<span class="sidenote">Wenceslas</span> +now rapidly adopted the Christian faith. Of the +rulers of Bohemia the most famous at this period was +Wenceslas, surnamed the Holy, who in 935 was +murdered by his brother Boleslav, and who was afterwards +canonized by the Church of Rome. As Wenceslas had been an +ally of Germany, his murder resulted in a war with that country, +in which, as far as we can judge by the scanty records of the time. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124"></a>124</span> +Boleslav, the brother and successor of Wenceslas, was on the +whole successful. During the reigns of Boleslav and his son, +<span class="sidenote">Boleslav.</span> +Boleslav II., Bohemia extended its frontiers in several +directions. Boleslav II. indeed established his rule +not only over Bohemia and Moravia, but also over a large part +of Silesia, and over that part of Poland which is now the Austrian +province of Galicia. Like most Slavic states at this and even +a later period, the great Bohemian empire of Boleslav II. did not +endure long. Boleslav III., son of Boleslav II., lost all his +foreign possessions to Boleslav the Great, king of Poland. +During his reign Bohemia was involved in constant civil war, +caused by the dissensions between Boleslav III. and his brothers +Jaromir and Ulrick. Though the prince succeeded in expelling +his brothers from the country, his cruelty induced the Bohemians +to dethrone him and to choose as their ruler the Polish prince +<span class="sidenote">Vladivoj.</span> +Vladivoj, brother of Boleslav the Great, and son of the +Bohemian princess Ďubravka (Dobrawa). Vladivoj +attempted to strengthen his hold over Bohemia by securing the +aid of Germany. He consented not only to continue to pay the +tribute which the Germans had already obtained from several +previous rulers of Bohemia, but also to become a vassal of +the German empire and to receive the German title of duke. +This state continued when after the death of Vladivoj the +Přemyslide dynasty was restored. The Přemyslide prince Břetislav +<span class="sidenote">Břetislav I.</span> +I. (1037-1055) restored the former power of Bohemia, +and again added Moravia, Silesia and a considerable +part of Poland to the Bohemian dominions. To obviate the +incessant struggles which had endangered the land at every +vacancy of the throne, Břetislav, with the consent of the nobles, +decreed that the oldest member of the house of Přemysl should +be the ruler of Bohemia. Břetislav was therefore succeeded +first by his eldest son Spitihněv, and then by his second son +Vratislav.</p> + +<p>In 1088 Vratislav obtained the title of king from the emperor +Henry IV., whom he had assisted in the struggle with the papal +see which is known as the contest about investitures. +Though the title of king was only conferred on Vratislav +<span class="sidenote">Vratislav becomes “king”.</span> +personally, the German king, Conrad III., conferred +on the Bohemian prince Sobeslav (1125-1140) the +title of hereditary cupbearer of the Empire, thus granting a +certain influence on the election of the emperors to Bohemia, +which hitherto had only obligations towards the Empire but no +part in its government. In 1156 the emperor Frederick I. +Barbarossa ceded Upper Lusatia to the Bohemian prince +Vladislav II., and conferred on him the title of king on condition +of his taking part in Frederick’s Italian campaigns. It was +intended that that title should henceforth be hereditary, but +it again fell into abeyance during the struggles between the +Přemyslide princes which followed the abdication of Vladislav +in 1173.</p> + +<p>The consequences of these constant internal struggles were +twofold; the German influence became stronger, and the +power of the sovereign declined, as the nobility on whose support +the competitors for the crown were obliged to rely constantly +obtained new privileges. In 1197 Přemysl Ottakar became +undisputed ruler of Bohemia, and he was crowned as king in the +following year. The royal title of the Bohemian sovereigns +was continued uninterruptedly from that date. Wenceslas I. +(1230-1253) succeeded his father as king of Bohemia without +opposition. The last years of his reign were troubled by internal +<span class="sidenote">Ottakar II.</span> +discord. Wenceslas’s son, Přemysl Ottakar II., who +under the sovereignty of his father ruled Moravia, +became for a time the chief leader of the malcontents. +A reconciliation between son and father, however, took place +before the latter’s death. Přemysl Ottakar II. was one of the +greatest of Bohemia’s kings. He had during the lifetime of his +father obtained possession of the archduchies of Austria, and, +about the time of his accession to the Bohemian throne, the +nobility of Styria also recognized him as their ruler. These +extensions of his dominions involved Přemysl Ottakar II. in +repeated wars with Hungary. In 1260 he decisively defeated +Bela, king of Hungary, in the great battle of Kressenbrunn. +After this victory Ottakar’s power rose to its greatest height. +He now obtained possession of Carinthia, Istria and parts of +northern Italy. His possessions extended from the Giant +Mountains in Bohemia to the Adriatic, and included almost all +the parts of the present Habsburg empire west of the Leitha. +His contemporaries called Ottakar “the man of gold” because +of his great wealth, or “the man of iron” because of his military +power. From political rather than racial causes Ottakar +favoured the immigration of Germans into his dominions. He +hoped to find in the German townsmen a counterpoise to the +overwhelming power of the Bohemian nobility. In 1273 +Rudolph, count of Habsburg, was elected king of the Romans. +It is very probable that the German crown had previously been +offered to Ottakar, but that he had refused it. Several causes, +among others his Slavic nationality, which was likely to render +him obnoxious to the Germans, contributed to his decision. +As Rudolph immediately claimed as vacant fiefs of the Empire +most of the lands held by Ottakar, war was inevitable. Ottakar +was deserted by many of his new subjects, and even by part of +the Bohemian nobility. He was therefore unable to resist +the German king, and was obliged to surrender to him all his +lands except Bohemia and Moravia, and to recognize Rudolph +as his overlord. New dissensions between the two sovereigns +broke out almost immediately. In 1278 Ottakar invaded the +Austrian duchies, now under the rule of Rudolph, but was +defeated and killed at the battle of Durnkrut on the Marchfeld.</p> + +<p>Ottakar’s son, Wenceslas II., was only seven years of age at +the death of his father, and Otto of Brandenburg, a nephew of +Ottakar, for a time governed Bohemia as guardian of +the young sovereign. Otto’s rule was very unpopular, +<span class="sidenote">Wenceslas II.</span> +an insurrection broke out against him, and Bohemia +was for a time in a state of complete anarchy. The country +was at last pacified through the intervention of Rudolph of +Habsburg, and at the age of twelve Wenceslas became nominal +ruler of the country. All power was, however, in the hands of +Zavis of Falkenstein, one of the great Bohemian nobles, who +had married the king’s mother, Kunegunda. The power of +Zavis at last became invidious to the king, by whose order he +was beheaded in 1290. Wenceslas, though only nineteen years +of age, henceforth governed Bohemia himself, and his short +reign was a period of great happiness for the country. Poland +also accepted the rule of Wenceslas and the Hungarian crown +was offered to him. Towards the end of his reign Wenceslas +became involved in war with Albert, archduke of Austria, afterwards +king of the Romans. While preparing to invade Austria +Wenceslas died suddenly (1305). His son and successor, +Wenceslas III., was then only sixteen years of age, and he only +ruled over Bohemia for one year. While planning a warlike +expedition against Poland, on which country the Bohemian +sovereigns now again maintained their claim, he was murdered +by unknown assassins (1306). With him ended the rule of the +Přemyslide dynasty over Bohemia.</p> + +<p>Albert, king of the Romans, declared that Bohemia was a +vacant fief of the Empire, and, mainly by intimidation, induced +the Bohemians to elect his son Rudolph as their sovereign; +but Rudolph died after a reign of only one year. Though the +Habsburg princes at this period already claimed a hereditary +right to the Bohemian throne, the Bohemians determined to +maintain their right of electing their sovereign, and they chose +Henry, duke of Carinthia, who had married a daughter of King +Wenceslas II. Henry soon became unpopular, as he was accused +of unduly favouring the German settlers in Bohemia. It was +decided to depose him, and the choice of the Bohemians now +<span class="sidenote">John of Luxemburg.</span> +fell on John of Luxemburg, son of Henry, king of the +Romans. The Luxemburg dynasty henceforth ruled +over Bohemia up to the time of its extinction at the +death of Sigismund (1437). Though King John, by +his marriage to the princess Elizabeth, a daughter of Wenceslas +II., became more closely connected with Bohemia, he +does not appear to have felt much interest in that country. +Most of his life was spent in other lands, his campaigns ranging +from Italy in the south to Lithuania in the north. It became +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>125</span> +proverbial “that nothing could be done in the world without +the help of God and of the king of Bohemia.” The policy of +John was founded on a close alliance with France, the country +for which he felt most sympathy. Fighting as an ally of France +he fell at the battle of Crécy (1346).</p> + +<p>He was succeeded as king of Bohemia by his son Charles, +whom the German electors had previously elected as their +sovereign at Rense (1346). Charles proved one of the +greatest rulers of Bohemia, where his memory is still +<span class="sidenote">King Charles.</span> +revered. Prague was his favourite residence, and by +the foundation of the nové město (new town) he greatly enlarged +the city, which now had three times its former extent, and soon +also trebled its population. He also added greatly to the +importance of the city by founding the famous university of +Prague. Charles succeeded in re-establishing order in Bohemia. +The country had been in a very disturbed state in consequence +of feuds that were incessant during the reign of John, who +had almost always been absent from Bohemia. Charles also +attempted to codify the obscure and contradictory laws of +Bohemia; but this attempt failed through the resistance of +the powerful nobility of the country. During the reign of +Charles, the first symptoms of that movement in favour of +church reform that afterwards acquired a world-wide importance, +appeared in Bohemia. As Charles has often been accused +of undue subserviency to the Church of Rome, it should be mentioned +that he granted his protection to several priests who +favoured the cause of church reform. In his foreign policy +Charles differed from his father. The relations with France +gradually became colder, and at the end of his reign Charles +favoured an alliance with England; he died in 1378 at the +age of sixty-two, prematurely exhausted by arduous work.</p> + +<p>Charles was succeeded by his son Wenceslas, who was then +seventeen years of age. His reign marks the decline of the rule +of the house of Luxemburg over Bohemia. He was +a weak and incapable sovereign, but the very exaggerated +<span class="sidenote">Wenceslas IV.</span> +accusations against him, which are found +principally in the works of older historians, are mainly due to +the fact that the king and to a larger extent his queen, Sophia, +for a time furthered the cause of church reform, thus incurring +the displeasure of Romanist writers. During the earlier part of +the reign of Wenceslas a continual struggle took place between +the king and the powerful Bohemian nobles, who indeed twice +imprisoned their sovereign. Wenceslas also became involved +in a dispute with the archbishop, which resulted in the death +of the famous John of Nepomuk.</p> + +<p>The later part of the reign of Wenceslas is a record of incipient +religious conflict. The hold of the Church of Rome on Bohemia +had already been weakened during the reign of King +Charles by attacks on the immorality of the clergy, +<span class="sidenote">Huss and the Hussites.</span> +which proceeded from pious priests such as Milić and +Waldhauser. The church schism, during which the +rival pontiffs assailed each other with all the wild threats and +objurgations of medieval theological strife, necessarily alienated +the Bohemians to a yet greater extent. Almost the whole +Bohemian nation therefore espoused the cause of Huss (<i>q.v.</i>). +Wenceslas on the occasion of these disputes displayed the +weakness and irresolution that always characterized him, but +Queen Sophia openly favoured the cause of Huss, who for some +time was her confessor. Huss was tried before the council +of Constance (<i>q.v.</i>), to which he had proceeded with a letter of +safe conduct given by Wenceslas’s brother Sigismund, king of +the Romans. He was declared a heretic and burnt on the 6th +of July 1415. The inevitable and immediate result of this event +was the outbreak of civil war in Bohemia, where Huss was +greatly revered by the large majority of the population. The +nobles of Bohemia and Moravia met at Prague on the 2nd of +September 1415, and sent to the council the famed <i>Protestatio +Bohemorum</i>, in which they strongly protested against the +execution of Huss, “a good, just and catholic man who had for +many years been favourably known in the Kingdom by his life, +conduct and fame, and who had been convicted of no offence.” +They further declared that all who affirmed that heresy existed +in Bohemia were “liars, vile traitors and calumniators of +Bohemia and Moravia, the worst of all heretics, full of all evil, +sons of the devil.” They finally stated “that they would defend +the law of our Lord Jesus Christ and its pious, humble and steadfast +preachers at the cost of their blood, scorning all fear and all +human decrees that might be contrary to them.”<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> This +protest was a declaration of war against the Roman church, +and marks the beginning of the Hussite wars. The council, +indeed, summoned the nobles before its tribunal, but they +refused to appear. A large number of the nobles and knights +who had met at Prague formed a confederacy and declared +that they consented to freedom of preaching the word of God +on their estates, that they declined to recognize the authority +of the council of Constance, but would obey the Bohemian +bishops and a future pope lawfully elected. Meanwhile they +declared the university of Prague the supreme authority in all +matters of religion. The members of the confederacy attempted, +though unsuccessfully, to induce King Wenceslas to become their +leader. The Romanist nobles, who were not numerous, but +some of whom owned vast estates, now also formed a confederacy, +pledging themselves to support the pope and the council. After +the closing of the council in 1418, Sigismund, who—Wenceslas +being childless—was heir to the Bohemian throne, sent a letter +to his brother, which was practically a manifesto addressed +to the Bohemian people. He threatened with the severest +penalties all who should continue to resist the authority of +Rome. Wenceslas maintained the vacillating attitude that +was characteristic of his whole reign, though Queen Sophia still +extended her protection to the reformers. By doing this, indeed, +she incurred the wrath of the Church to so great an extent that +an act of accusation against her was drawn up at the council +of Constance. Intimidated by his brother, Wenceslas now attempted +to stem the current of religious enthusiasm. Immediately +after the death of Huss many priests who refused to +administer communion in the two kinds—now the principal +tenet of the adherents of Huss—had been expelled from their +parishes. Wenceslas decreed that they should be reinstated, +and it was only after some hesitation that he even permitted +that religious services according to the Utraquist doctrine should +be held in three of the churches of Prague. Some of the more +advanced reformers left Prague and formed the party known +as the Taborites, from the town of Tabor which became their +centre. Troubles soon broke out at Prague. When on the 30th +of July 1419, the Hussite priest, John of Zelivo, was leading +a procession through the streets of Prague, stones were thrown +at him and his followers from the town hall of the “new town.” +The Hussites, led by John Žižka (<i>q.v.</i>), stormed the town-hall and +threw the magistrates from its windows. On receiving the news +of these riots King Wenceslas was immediately seized by an attack +of apoplexy; a second fit on the 16th of August ended his life.</p> + +<p>The news of the death of the king caused renewed rioting +in Prague and many other Bohemian cities, from which many +Germans, mostly adherents of the Church of Rome, +were expelled. Finally a temporary truce was +<span class="sidenote">Sigismund.</span> +concluded, and, early in the following year, Sigismund, +who now claimed the Bohemian crown as successor of his brother, +arrived at Kutna Hora (Kuttenberg). Pope Martin V. on the +1st of March 1420 proclaimed a crusade against Bohemia, and +crusaders from all parts of Europe joined Sigismund’s army. +“On the 30th day of June the Hungarian king, Sigismund, with a +large army consisting of men of various countries, as well as of +Bohemians, occupied the castle of Prague, determined to conquer +the city, which they considered a heretical community because +they used the sacred chalice and accepted other evangelical +truths.”<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> But the attempt of the crusaders to +conquer Prague failed, and after an attack by them on the Vitkov +(now Zizkov) hill had been repulsed by the desperate bravery +of the Taborites, led by Žižka, Sigismund determined to abandon +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>126</span> +the siege of Prague. An attempt of Sigismund to relieve the +besieged garrison of the Vyŝehrad fortress on the outskirts of +Prague also failed, as he was again entirely defeated at the battle +of the Vyŝehrad (November 1, 1420).</p> + +<p>Royal authority now ceased in Bohemia. At a meeting of +the diet at Caslav (June 1, 1421) Sigismund was deposed. It +was decided that a Polish prince should be chosen as sovereign, +and that meanwhile a provisional government, composed of +twenty men belonging to the various parties, should be established. +In 1422 Sigismund again invaded Bohemia, but was +decisively defeated by Žižka at Nêmecký Brod (Deutschbrod). +The Polish prince, Sigismund Korybutoviĉ, now arrived in +Bohemia, and was recognized as regent by the large majority +of the inhabitants; but through the influence of the papal see +<span class="sidenote">Religious War.</span> +he was recalled by the rulers of Poland after a stay +of only a few months. After his departure, civil +war between the moderate Hussites (Calixtines or +Utraquists) and the advanced Taborite party broke out for the +first time, though there had previously been isolated disturbances +between them. The return of Prince Korybutoviĉ and the +menace of a German invasion soon reunited the Bohemians, +who gained a decisive victory over the Germans at Aussig in +1426. Shortly afterwards Korybutoviĉ, who had taken part +in this great victory, incurred the dislike of the extreme Hussites, +and was obliged to leave Bohemia. All hope of establishing an +independent Slav dynasty in Bohemia thus came to an end. +In 1427 several German princes undertook a new crusade against +the Hussites. With the German and other invaders were 1000 +English archers, bodyguard to Henry Beaufort, bishop of +Winchester, who took part in the crusade as papal legate. +The crusaders were seized by a sudden panic, both at Mies +(Střibro) and at Tachau, as soon as they approached the Hussites, +and they fled hurriedly across the mountains into Bavaria. +Though internal disturbances again broke out, the Bohemians +after this success assumed the offensive, and repeatedly invaded +Hungary and the German states.</p> + +<p>The impossibility of conquering Bohemia had now become +obvious, and it was resolved that a council should meet at Basel +(<i>q.v.</i>) to examine the demands of the Hussites. The Germans, +however, influenced by Sigismund, determined to make a last +attempt to subdue Bohemia by armed force. The Bohemians, +as usual united in the moment of peril, defeated the Germans at +Domažlice (Taus) on the 1st of August 1431, after a very short +fight. In the course of the same year negotiations began at +Basel, the Hussites being represented by a numerous embassy +under the leadership of Prokop the Great. The negotiations +proceeded very slowly, and in 1433 the Bohemians returned to +their own country, accompanied, however, by envoys of the +council. Dissensions had meanwhile again broken out in +Bohemia, and they were now of a political rather than a religious +nature. The more aristocratic Hussites raised an armed force +which was known as “the army of the nobles.” The Taborites +also collected their men, who formed “the army of the towns.” +The two armies met at Lipan, near Kolin, on the 30th of May +1434. The Taborites were defeated, and the two Prokops and +most of their other leaders perished on the battlefield. The +victory of the moderate party paved the way to a reconciliation +with Sigismund and the Church of Rome. The Bohemians +<span class="sidenote">The “Compacts.”</span> +recognized Sigismund as their sovereign, but obtained +considerable concessions with regard to religious +matters. These concessions, which were formulated +in the so-called Compacts, granted to the Bohemians the +right of communion in both kinds, and of preaching the gospel +freely, and also to a certain extent limited the power of the clergy +to acquire worldly goods.</p> + +<p>After the Compacts had been formally recognized at Iglau in +Moravia, Sigismund proceeded to Prague and was accepted as +king. He died in the following year (1437) and was succeeded +by his son-in-law, Albert of Austria, whom the estates chose as +their king. Albert died after he had reigned over Bohemia less +than two years. Though it was known that Albert’s widow +Elizabeth would shortly give birth to a child, the question as to +the succession to the throne again arose; for it was only in 1627 +that the question whether the Bohemian crown was elective +or hereditary was decided for ever. The nobles formed two +parties, one of which, the national one, had George of +<span class="sidenote">George of Poděbrad.</span> +Poděbrad (<i>q.v.</i>) as its leader. Ulrich of Rosenberg +was the leader of the Roman or Austrian division of +the nobility. The two parties finally came to an agreement +known as the “Letter of Peace” (<i>list mirný</i>). Those who signed +it pledged themselves to recognise the Compacts, and to support +as archbishop of Prague, John of Rokycan, who had been chosen +by the estates in accordance with an agreement made simultaneously +with the Compacts, but whom the Church of Rome +refused to recognize. On the other hand, the national party +abandoned the candidature to the throne of Prince Casimir of +Poland, thus paving the way to the eventual succession of +Albert’s heir. On the 22nd of February 1440 Queen Elizabeth +gave birth to a son, who received the name of Ladislas. The +Bohemians formally acknowledged him as their king, though +only after their crown had been declined by Albert, duke of +Bavaria. Ladislas remained in Austria under the guardianship +of his uncle Frederick, duke of Styria, afterwards the emperor +Frederick III., and Bohemia, still without regular government, +continued to be the scene of constant conflicts between the rival +parties of the nobility. In 1446 a general meeting of the estates +of Bohemia together with those of Moravia, Silesia and Lusatia—and +so-called “lands of the Bohemian crown”—took place. +This meeting has exceptional importance for the constitutional +history of Bohemia. It was decreed that at the meeting of the +estates their members should be divided into three bodies—known +as <i>curiae</i>—representing the nobles, the knights and the +towns. These <i>curiae</i> were to deliberate separately and only to +meet for a final decision. An attempt made at this meeting to +appoint a regent was unsuccessful. The negotiations with the +papal see continued meanwhile, but led to no result, as the +members of the Roman party used their influence at the papal +court for the purpose of dissuading it from granting any concessions +to their countrymen. Shortly after the termination of +the diet of 1446 George of Poděbrad therefore determined to +appeal to the fortune of war. He assembled a considerable army +at Kutna Hora and marched on Prague (1448). He occupied +the town almost without resistance and assumed the regency +over the kingdom. The diet in 1451 recognized his title, which +was also sanctioned by the emperor Frederick III., guardian of +the young king. Poděbrad was none the less opposed, almost +from the first, by the Romanists, who even concluded an alliance +against him with their extreme opponents, Kolda of Žampach +and the other remaining Taborites. In October 1453 Ladislas +arrived in Bohemia and was crowned king at Prague; but he +died somewhat suddenly on the 23rd of November 1457. George +of Poděbrad has from the first frequently been accused of having +poisoned him, but historical research has proved that this +accusation is entirely unfounded. The Bohemian throne was +now again vacant, for, when electing Ladislas the estates had +reaffirmed the elective character of the monarchy. Though +there were several foreign candidates, the estates unanimously +elected George of Poděbrad, who had now for some time administered +the country. Though the Romanist lords, whom Poděbrad +had for a time won over, also voted for him, the election was +considered a great victory of the national party and was welcomed +with enthusiasm by the citizens of Prague.</p> + +<p>During the earlier and more prosperous part of his reign the +policy of King George was founded on a firm alliance with +Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, through whose influence +he was crowned by the Romanist bishop of Waitzen. The +reign of King George, whose principal supporters were the men +of the smaller nobility and of the towns, was at first very prosperous. +After a certain time, however, some of the Romanist +nobles became hostile to the king, and, partly through their +influence, he became involved in a protracted struggle with the +papal see. It was in consequence of this struggle that some of +George’s far-reaching plans—he endeavoured for a time to obtain +the supremacy over Germany—failed. After the negotiations +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>127</span> +with Rome had proved unsuccessful George assembled the +estates at Prague in 1452 and declared that he would to his +death remain true to the communion in both kinds, and that +he was ready to risk his life and his crown in the defence of his +faith. The Romanist party in Bohemia became yet more +embittered against the king, and at a meeting at Zelena Hora +(Grünberg) in 1465 many nobles of the Roman religion joined in +a confederacy against him. In the following year Pope Paul II. +granted his moral support to the confederates by pronouncing +sentence of excommunication against George of Poděbrad and by +releasing all Bohemians from their oath of allegiance to him. It +was also through papal influence that King Matthias of Hungary, +deserting his former ally, supported the lords of the league of +Zelena Hora. Desultory warfare broke out between the two +parties, in which George was at first successful; but fortune +changed when the king of Hungary invaded Moravia and +obtained possession of Brünn, the capital of the country. At a +meeting of the Catholic nobles of Bohemia and Moravia at +Olmütz in Moravia, Matthias was proclaimed king of Bohemia +(May 3, 1469). In the following year George obtained some +successes over his rival, but his death in 1471 for a time put a +stop to the war. George of Poděbrad, the only Hussite king of +Bohemia, has always, with Charles IV., been the ruler of Bohemia +whose memory has most endeared itself to his countrymen.</p> + +<p>George of Poděbrad had undoubtedly during the more prosperous +part of his reign intended to found a national dynasty. +In later years, however, hope of obtaining aid from Poland in his +struggle against King Matthias induced him to offer the succession +to the Bohemian throne to Vladislav (Wladislaus, Ladislaus), +son of Casimir, king of Poland. No formal agreement was made, +and at the death of George many Bohemian nobles supported +the claim of Matthias of Hungary, who had already been proclaimed +king of Bohemia. Protracted negotiations ensued, but +<span class="sidenote">Vladislav of Poland.</span> +they ended by the election of Prince Vladislav of +Poland at Kutna Hora, the 27th of May 1471. This +election was a victory of the national party, and +may be considered as evidence of the strong anti-clerical +feeling which then prevailed in Bohemia; for Matthias was an +unconditional adherent of Rome, while the Polish envoys who +represented Vladislav promised that he would maintain the +Compacts. At the beginning of his reign the new king was +involved in a struggle with Matthias of Hungary, who maintained +his claim to the Bohemian throne. Prolonged desultory warfare +continued up to 1478, when a treaty concluded at Olmütz +secured Bohemia to Vladislav; Matthias was to retain the +so-called “lands of the Bohemian crown”—Moravia, Silesia +and Lusatia—during his lifetime, and they were to be restored +to Bohemia after his death. Though Vladislav was faithful to +his promise of maintaining the Compacts, and did not attempt +to prevent the Bohemians from receiving the communion in +both kinds, yet his policy was on the whole a reactionary one, +both as regards matters of state and the religious controversies. +The king appointed as government officials at Prague men of +that section of the Utraquist party that was nearest to Rome, +while a severe persecution of the extreme Hussites known as the +Bohemian Brethren took place (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hussites</a></span>). Serious riots +took place at Prague, and the more advanced Hussites stormed +the three town halls of the city. The nobles of the same faith +also formed a league to guard themselves against the menaced +reaction. A meeting of all the estates at Kutna Hora in 1485, +however, for a time restored peace. Both parties agreed to +respect the religious views of their opponents and to abstain from +all violence, and the Compacts were again confirmed.</p> + +<p>As regards matters of state the reign of Vladislav is marked +by a decrease of the royal prerogative, while the power of the +nobility attained an unprecedented height, at the expense, not +only of the royal power, but also of the rights of the townsmen +and peasants. A decree of 1487 practically established serfdom +in Bohemia, where it had hitherto been almost unknown. It is +impossible to exaggerate the importance of this measure for the +future of Bohemia. The rulers of the country were henceforth +unable to rely on that numerous sturdy and independent +peasantry of which the armies of Žižka and the Prokops had +mainly consisted. Various enactments belonging to this reign +also curtailed the rights of the Bohemian townsmen. A decree +known as the “regulations of King Vladislav” codified these +changes. It enumerated all the rights of the nobles and knights, +but entirely ignored those of the towns. It was tacitly assumed +that the townsmen had no inherent rights, but only such +privileges as might be granted them by their sovereign with +the consent of the nobles and knights. Civil discord was the +inevitable consequence of these enactments. Several meeting? +of the diet took place at which the towns were not represented. +The latter in 1513 formed a confederacy to defend their rights, +and chose Prince Bartholomew of Münsterberg—a grandson of +King George—as their leader.</p> + +<p>Vladislav was elected king of Hungary in 1490 and many of +the events of his later life belong to the history of Hungary. He +married in 1502 Anna de Candale, who was connected +with the royal family of France. He had two children +<span class="sidenote">Louis.</span> +by her, Anna, who afterwards married the archduke Ferdinand +of Austria, and Louis. Vladislav died in Hungary in 1516. His +successor was his son Louis, who had already been crowned as +king of Bohemia at the age of three. According to the instructions +of Vladislav, Sigismund, king of Poland, and the emperor +Maximilian I. were to act as guardians of the young king. The +Bohemian estates recognized this decision, but they refused to +allow the guardians any right of interference in the affairs of +Bohemia. The great Bohemian nobles, and in particular the +supreme burgrave, Zdeněk Leo, lord of Rožmital, ruled the +country almost without control. The beginning of the nominal +reign of King Louis is marked by an event which had great +importance for the constitutional development of Bohemia. At +a meeting of the estates in 1517 known as the diet of St Wenceslas—as +the members first assembled on the 28th of September, the +anniversary of that saint—they came to terms and settled the +questions which had been the causes of discord. The citizens +renounced certain privileges which they had hitherto claimed, +while the two other estates recognized their municipal autonomy +and tacitly sanctioned their presence at the meetings of the diet, +to which they had already been informally readmitted since 1508. +At the first sitting of this diet, on the 24th of October, it was +declared that the three estates had agreed henceforth “to live +together in friendly intercourse, as became men belonging to the +same country and race.” In 1522 Louis arrived in Bohemia from +Hungary, of which country he had also been elected king. On his +arrival at Prague he dismissed all the Bohemian state officials, +including the powerful Leo of Rožmital. He appointed Charles +of Münsterberg, a cousin of Prince Bartholomew and also a +grandson of King George, as regent of Bohemia during his +absences, and John of Wartenberg as burgrave. The new +officials appear to have supported the more advanced Hussite +party, while Rožmital and the members of the town council of +Prague who had acted in concert with him had been the allies of +the Romanists and those Utraquists who were nearest to the +Church of Rome. The new officials thus incurred the displeasure +of King Louis, who was at that moment seeking the aid of the +pope in his warfare with Turkey. The king therefore reinstated +Leo of Rožmital in his offices in 1525. Shortly afterwards +Rožmital became involved in a feud with the lords of Rosenberg; +the feud became a civil war, in which most of the nobles and +cities of Bohemia took sides. Meanwhile Louis, who had +returned to Hungary, opened his campaign against the Turks. +He requested aid from his Bohemian subjects, and this was +granted, by the Rosenberg faction, while Rožmital and his party +purposely delayed sending any forces to Hungary. There were, +therefore, but few Bohemian troops at the battle of Mohács +(August 29, 1526) at which Louis was decisively defeated and +perished.</p> + +<p>The death of Louis found Bohemia in a state of great disorder, +almost of anarchy. The two last kings had mainly resided in +Hungary, and in spite of the temporary agreement obtained at +the diet of St Wenceslas, the Bohemians had not succeeded in +establishing a strong indigenous government which might have +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>128</span> +taken the place of the absentee monarchs. Archduke Ferdinand +<span class="sidenote">Origin of the Habsburg dynasty.</span> +of Austria—afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I.—laid claim to +the Bohemian throne as husband of Anna, daughter +of King Vladislav. King Sigismund of Poland, +the dukes Louis and William of Bavaria, several +other German princes, as well as several Bohemian +noblemen, of whom Leo of Rožmital was the most important, +were also candidates. The diet resolved to entrust the election +to twenty-four of their members, chosen in equal number from +the three estates. These electors, on the 23rd of October (1526), +<span class="sidenote">Ferdinand.</span> +chose Ferdinand of Habsburg as their king. This date +is memorable, as it marks the permanent accession +of the Habsburg dynasty to the Bohemian throne, though +the Austrian archdukes Rudolph and Albert had previously been +rulers of Bohemia for short periods. Though Ferdinand fully +shared that devotion to Rome which is traditional in the +Habsburg dynasty, he showed great moderation in religious +matters, particularly at the beginning of his reign. His principal +object was to establish the hereditary right of his dynasty to the +Bohemian throne, and this object he pursued with characteristic +obstinacy. When a great fire broke out at Prague in 1541, which +destroyed all the state documents, Ferdinand obtained the +consent of the estates to the substitution of a charter stating +that he had been recognized as king in consequence of the +hereditary rights of his wife Anna, in the place of the former one, +which had stated that he had become king by election. This +caused great dissatisfaction and was one of the principal causes +of the troubles that broke out shortly afterwards. Ferdinand +had in 1531, mainly through the influence of his brother the +emperor Charles V., been elected king of the Romans and heir to +the Empire. He henceforth took a large part in the politics of +Germany, particularly after he had in 1547 concluded a treaty of +peace with Turkey, which assured the safety of the eastern +frontiers of his dominions. Charles V. about the same time +concluded his war with France, and the brothers determined to +adopt a firmer policy towards the Protestants of Germany, whose +power had recently greatly increased. The latter had, about the +time of the recognition of Ferdinand as king of the Romans, and +partly in consequence of that event, formed at Schmalkalden a +league, of which John Frederick, elector of Saxony, and Philip, +landgrave of Hesse, were the leaders. War broke out in Germany +in the summer of 1546, and Charles relied on the aid of his brother, +while the German Protestants on the other hand appealed to +their Bohemian co-religionists for aid.</p> + +<p>Since the beginning of the Reformation in Germany the views +of the Bohemian reformers had undergone a considerable change. +Some of the more advanced Utraquists differed but +little from the German Lutherans, while the Bohemian +<span class="sidenote">Struggles in the war against German Protestantism.</span> +Brethren, who at this moment greatly increased in +influence through the accession of several powerful +nobles, strongly sympathized with the Protestants of +Germany. Ferdinand’s task of raising a Bohemian +army in support of his brother was therefore a difficult +one. He again employed his usual tortuous policy. He persuaded +the estates to vote a general levy of the forces of the +country under the somewhat disingenuous pretext that Bohemia +was menaced by the Turks; for at that period no armed force +could be raised in Bohemia without the consent of the estates of +the realm. Ferdinand fixed the town of Kaaden on the Saxon +frontier as the spot where the troops were to meet, but on his +arrival there he found that many cities and nobles—particularly +those who belonged to the community of the Bohemian Brethren—had +sent no men. Of the soldiers who arrived many were +Protestants who sympathized with their German co-religionists. +The Bohemian army refused to cross the Saxon frontier, and +towards the end of the year 1546 Ferdinand was obliged to disband +his Bohemian forces. Early in the following year he again called +on his Bohemian subjects to furnish an army in aid of his brother. +Only a few of the Romanists and more retrograde Utraquists +obeyed his order. The large majority of Bohemians, on the other +hand, considered the moment opportune for recovering the +ancient liberties of Bohemia, on which Ferdinand had encroached +in various ways by claiming hereditary right to the crown and by +curtailing the old privileges of the land. The estates met at +Prague in March 1547, without awaiting a royal summons,—undoubtedly +an unconstitutional proceeding. The assembly, +in which the influence of the representatives of the town of Prague +and of the knights and nobles who belonged to the Bohemian +Brotherhood was predominant, had a very revolutionary character. +This became yet more marked when the news of the +elector of Saxony’s victory at Rochlitz reached Prague. The +estates demanded the re-establishment of the elective character +of the Bohemian kingdom, the recognition of religious liberty for +all, and various enactments limiting the royal prerogative. It +was decided to entrust the management of state affairs to a +committee of twelve members chosen in equal number from the +three estates. Of the members of the committee chosen by the +knights and nobles four belonged to the Bohemian Brotherhood. +The committee decided to equip an armed force, the command of +which was conferred on Kaspar Pflug of Rabenstein (d. 1576). +According to his instructions he was merely to march to the +Saxon frontier, and there await further orders from the estates; +there seems, however, little doubt that he was secretly instructed +to afford aid to the German Protestants. Pflug marched to +Joachimsthal on the frontier, but refused to enter Saxon territory +without a special command of the estates.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile the great victory of the imperialists at Mühlberg +had for a time crushed German Protestantism. The Bohemians +were in a very difficult position. They had seriously offended +their sovereign and yet afforded no aid to the German Protestants. +The army of Pflug hastily dispersed, and the estates +still assembled at Prague endeavoured to propitiate Ferdinand. +They sent envoys to the camp of the king who, with his brother +Charles, was then besieging Wittenberg. Ferdinand received +the envoys better than they had perhaps expected. He indeed +always maintained his plan of making Bohemia a hereditary +kingdom under Habsburg rule, and of curtailing as far as possible +its ancient constitution, but he did not wish to drive to despair +a still warlike people. Ferdinand demanded that the Bohemians +should renounce all alliances with the German Protestants, and +declared that he would make his will known after his arrival +in Prague. He arrived there on the 20th of July, with a large +force of Spanish and Walloon mercenaries, and occupied the city +almost without resistance. Ferdinand treated the nobles and +knights with great forbearance, and contented himself with the +confiscation of the estates of some of those who had been most +compromised. On the other hand he dealt very severely with the +towns—Prague in particular. He declared that their ancient +privileges should be revised—a measure that practically signified +a broad confiscation of lands that belonged to the municipalities. +Ferdinand also forced the townsmen to accept the control of +state officials who were to be called town-judges and in Prague +town-captains. These royal representatives were given almost +unlimited control over municipal affairs. The Bohemian +Brethren were also severely persecuted, and their bishop Augusta +was imprisoned for many years.</p> + +<p>Ferdinand’s policy here was as able as it always was. The +peasantry had ceased to be dangerous since the establishment of +serfdom; the power of the cities was now thoroughly undermined. +Ferdinand had only to deal with the nobles and knights, +and he hoped that the influence of his court, and yet more that +of the Jesuits, whom he established in Bohemia about this time, +would gradually render them amenable to the royal will. If +we consider the customs of his time Ferdinand cannot be considered +as having acted with cruelty in the moment of his success. +Only four of the principal leaders of the revolt—two knights, +and two citizens of Prague—were sentenced to death. They +were decapitated on the square outside the Hradĉany palace +where the estates met on that day (August 22). This diet +therefore became known as the “Krvavy’sneěm” (bloody diet). +In one of the last years of his life (1562) Ferdinand succeeded in +obtaining the coronation of his eldest son Maximilian as king of +Bohemia, thus ensuring to him the succession to the Bohemian +throne. As Ferdinand I. acceded to the Hungarian throne at +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>129</span> +the same time as to that of Bohemia, and as he also became king +of the Romans and after the death of Charles V. emperor, many +events of his life do not belong to the history of Bohemia. He +died in 1564.</p> + +<p>Maximilian succeeded his father as king of Bohemia without +any opposition. Circumstances were greatly in his favour; he +had in his youth mainly been educated by Protestant +tutors, and for a time openly avowed strong sympathy +<span class="sidenote">Maximilian.</span> +for the party of church reform. This fact, which +became known in Bohemia, secured for him the support of the +Bohemian church reformers, while the Romanists and retrograde +Utraquists were traditionally on the side of the house of Habsburg. +The reign of Maximilian did not fulfil the hopes that met +it. Though he published new decrees against the Bohemian +Brethren, he generally refused to sanction any measures against +the Protestants, in spite of the advice of the Jesuits, who were +gradually obtaining great influence in Bohemia. He did nothing, +however, to satisfy the expectations of the partisans of church reform, +and indeed after a time began again to assist at the functions +of the Roman church, from which he had long absented himself. +Indifference, perhaps founded on religious scepticism, characterized +the king during the many ecclesiastical disputes that +played so large a part in his reign. In 1567 Maximilian, who had +also succeeded his father as king of Hungary and emperor, +visited the Bohemians for the first time since his accession to the +throne. Like most princes of the Habsburg dynasty, he was +constantly confronted at this period by the difficulty of raising +funds for warfare against the Turks. When he asked the +Bohemians to grant him supplies for this purpose, they immediately +<span class="sidenote">Abolition of the “Compacts.”</span> +retorted by bringing forward their demands with +regard to matters of religion. Their principal +demand appears somewhat strange in the light of the +events of the past. The estates expressed the wish that +the celebrated Compacts should cease to form part of the laws +of the country. These enactments had indeed granted freedom +of worship to the most moderate Utraquists—men who, except +that they claimed the right to receive the communion in both +kinds, hardly differed in their faith from the Roman church. +On the other hand Ferdinand I. had used the Compacts as an +instrument which justified him in oppressing the Bohemian +Brethren, and the advanced Utraquists, whose teaching now +differed but little from that of Luther. He had argued that all +those who professed doctrines differing from the Church of Rome +more widely than did the retrograde Utraquists, were outside +the pale of religious toleration. Maximilian, indifferent as usual +to matters of religious controversy, consented to the abolition +of the Compacts, and these enactments, which had once been +sacred to the Bohemian people, perished unregretted by all +parties. The Romanists had always hated them, believing them +not to be in accord with the general custom of the papal church, +while the Lutherans and Bohemian Brethren considered their +suppression a guarantee of their own liberty of worship.</p> + +<p>In 1575 Maximilian, who had long been absent from Bohemia, +returned there, as the estates refused to grant subsidies to an +absentee monarch. The sittings of the diet that met in 1575 were +very prolonged. The king maintained a vacillating attitude, +influenced now by the threats of the Bohemians, now by the +advice of the papal nuncio, who had followed him to Prague. +The latter strongly represented to him how great would be the +difficulties that he would encounter in his other dominions, +should he make concessions to the Protestants of Bohemia. +The principal demand of the Bohemians was that the “Confession +<span class="sidenote">Confessio Bohemica.</span> +of Augsburg”—a summary of Luther’s teaching—should +be recognized in Bohemia. They further +renewed the demand, which they had already expressed +at the diet of 1567, that the estates should have the right +of appointing the members of the consistory—the ecclesiastical +body which ruled the Utraquist church; for since the +death of John of Rokycan that church had had no archbishop. +After long deliberations and the king’s final refusal to recognize +the confession of Augsburg, the majority of the diet, consisting +of members of the Bohemian brotherhood and advanced Utraquists, +drew up a profession of faith that became known as the +<i>Confessio Bohemica</i>. It was in most points identical with the +Augsburg confession, but differed from it with regard to the +doctrine of the sacrament of the Lord’s Supper. Here the +Bohemian profession agreed with the views of Calvin rather than +with those of Luther. This is undoubtedly due to the influence +of the Bohemian Brethren. The <i>Confessio Bohemica</i> was presented +to Maximilian, who verbally expressed his approval, but +would not consent to this being made public, and also refused +his consent to the inclusion of the <i>Confessio</i> among the charters +of the kingdom. Maximilian rejected the demand of the +Bohemian estates, that they and not the king should in future +appoint the members of the consistory. He finally, however, +consented to exempt the Lutherans and advanced Utraquists +from the jurisdiction of the consistory, and allowed them to +choose fifteen defenders—five of whom were to belong to each +of the estates—who were to have supreme control over the +Lutheran church. These defenders were to appoint for each +district a superintendent (moderator), who was to maintain order +and discipline among the clergy. As the Bohemian Brotherhood +had never recognized the consistory, that body now lost whatever +influence it had still possessed. It became, indeed, subservient +to the Romanist archbishopric of Prague, which had been re-established +by Ferdinand I. Its members henceforth were men +who on almost all points agreed with Rome, and sometimes even +men who had joined the Roman church, but continued by order +of their superiors to remain members of the consistory, where +it was thought that their influence might be useful to their new +creed.</p> + +<p>The results of the diet of 1575 were on the whole favourable +to the estates, and they seem to have taken this view, for almost +immediately afterwards they recognized Maximilian’s +eldest son Rudolph as his successor and consented to his +<span class="sidenote">Rudolph.</span> +being crowned king of Bohemia. Maximilian died in the following +year, and Rudolph succeeded him without any opposition. +The events of the last years of the reign of Rudolph have the +greatest importance for Bohemian history, but the earlier part +of his reign requires little notice. As Rudolph had been educated +in Spain it was at first thought that he would treat the Bohemian +church reformers with great severity. The new sovereign, however, +showed with regard to the unceasing religious controversy +the same apathy and indifference with which he also met matters +of state. He had been from his early youth subject to fits of +melancholia, and during several short periods was actually +insane. Rudolph was a great patron of the arts, and he greatly +contributed to the embellishment of Prague, which, as it was +his favourite residence, became the centre of the vast Habsburg +dominions. In 1600 the mental condition of Rudolph became so +seriously impaired that the princes of the house of Habsburg +thought it necessary to consider the future of the state, particularly +as Rudolph had no legitimate descendants. Matthias, +the eldest of his brothers, came to Prague and pointed out to +Rudolph the necessity of appointing a coadjutor, should he be +incapacitated from fulfilling his royal duties, and also of making +arrangements concerning the succession to the throne. These +suggestions were indignantly repelled by Rudolph, whose anger +was greatly increased by a letter of Pope Clement VIII. The +pope in a forcible though formally courteous manner pointed +out to him the evil results which his neglect of his royal duties +would entail on his subjects, and called on him to appoint one +of the Habsburg princes his successor both to the imperial +crown and to the thrones of Bohemia and Hungary. It is +probable that the fear that the pope might make good the +threats contained in this letter induced Rudolph, who had +hitherto been indifferent to matters of religion, to become +more subservient to the Roman church. The papal nuncio at +Prague, in particular, appears for a time to have obtained great +influence over the king. Under this influence, Rudolph in +1602 issued a decree which renewed obsolete enactments against +the Bohemian Brethren that had been published by King +Vladislav in 1508. The royal decree was purposely worded +in an obscure manner. It referred to the Compacts that had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>130</span> +been abolished, and was liable to an interpretation excluding +from tolerance all but the Romanists and the retrograde +Utraquists. It appeared therefore as a menace to the Lutherans—and +all the more advanced Utraquists had now embraced +that creed—as well as to the Bohemian Brethren. The estates +of Bohemia met at Prague in January 1603. The discussions +were very stormy. Budovec of Budova, a nobleman belonging +to the community of the Bohemian Brethren, became the leader +of all those who were opposed to the Church of Rome. He +vigorously attacked the royal decree, which he declared to be +contrary to the promises made by King Maximilian. He, however, +advised the estates to vote the supplies that King Rudolph +had demanded. Immediately after this vote had been passed, +the diet was closed by order of the king. Though the royal +power was at that period very weak in Bohemia, the open +partisanship of the king encouraged the Romanist nobles, who +were not numerous, but among whom were some owners of large +estates, to attempt to re-establish the Roman creed on their +territories. Some of these nobles committed great cruelties +while attempting to obtain these forcible conversions.</p> + +<p>Strife again broke out between Rudolph and his treacherous +younger brother Matthias, who used the religious and political +controversies of the time for the purpose of supplanting his +brother. The formal cause of the rupture between the two +princes was Rudolph’s refusal to sanction a treaty of peace with +Turkey, which Matthias had concluded as his brother’s representative +in Hungary. The Hungarians accepted Matthias as +their ruler, and when his forces entered Moravia the estates of +that country had, by Charles, lord of Žerotin, also renounced +the allegiance of Rudolph. Matthias then invaded Bohemia, +and invited the estates of the kingdom to meet him at Časlav +(Ceslau). In consequence of a sudden revolution of feeling for +which it is difficult to account, the Bohemians declined the +overtures of Matthias. The estates met at Prague in March +1608, and, though again submitting their demands concerning +ecclesiastical matters to Rudolph, authorized him to levy +troops for the defence of Bohemia. The forces of Matthias had +meanwhile entered Bohemia and had arrived at Libeň, a small +town near Prague now incorporated with that city. Here +Matthias, probably disappointed by the refusal of the Bohemians +to join his standard, came to an understanding with his brother +(June 25, 1608). Rudolph formally ceded to Matthias the +government of Hungary, Moravia, and Upper and Lower +Austria, but retained his rights as king of Bohemia.</p> + +<p>Soon after the conclusion of this temporary settlement, the +estates of Bohemia again brought their demands before their +king. Rudolph had declined to discuss all religious +matters during the time that the troops of his brother +<span class="sidenote">Diet of 1609. Demand for religious liberty.</span> +occupied part of Bohemia. The diet that met on the +20th of January 1609 is one of the most important +in the history of Bohemia. Here, as so frequently +in the 17th century, the religious controversies were +largely influenced by personal enmities. Rudolph never forgave +the treachery of his brother, and was secretly negotiating (at +the time when he again appeared as champion of Catholicism) +with Christian of Anhalt, the leader of the German Protestants. +This was known to the court of Spain, and the Bohemians also +knew that the king could therefore rely on no aid from that +quarter. They were therefore not intimidated when Rudolph, +vacillating as ever, suddenly assumed a most truculent attitude. +The estates had at their meeting in March of the previous +year drawn up a document consisting of twenty-five so-called +Articles, which formulated their demands with regard to matters +of religion. The king now demanded that this document, +which he considered illegal, should be delivered up to him for +destruction. The “articles” expressed the wish that the +<i>Confessio Bohemica</i> should be recognized as one of the fundamental +laws of the kingdom, and that complete religious liberty +should be granted to all classes. They further demanded that +the Protestants—as it now became customary to call jointly +the Utraquists, Lutherans and Bohemian Brethren—and the +Roman Catholics should have an equal right to hold all the +offices of state, and that the power of the Jesuits to acquire land +should be limited. They finally asked for redress of several +grievances caused by the misrule of Rudolph. This document +had remained in the hands of Budova, who refused to deliver +it to the king. The estates then chose twelve of their number—among +whom was Count Henry Matthias Thurn—who were to +negotiate with the king and his councillors. Protracted discussions +ensued, and the king finally stated, on the 31st of March, +that he could grant no concessions in matters of religion. On +the following day the estates met under the leadership of Budova. +They decided to arm for the defence of their rights, and when +the king immediately afterwards dissolved the diet, it was +resolved to meet again after a month, even without a royal +summons. When they returned to Prague, Adam of Sternberg, +the burgrave, again informed Budova that the king would grant +no concessions in ecclesiastical matters. Bohemia appeared +to be on the verge of a revolution. It is unnecessary to record +the frequent and contradictory resolutions of the king, influenced +now by the extreme Romanists, now by those of his councillors +who favoured a peaceful solution. Finally—on the 9th of July +1609—Rudolph signed the famed “Letter of Majesty” which +gave satisfaction to all the legitimate demands of the Bohemian +Protestants. In the “Letter of Majesty” Rudolph recognized +the <i>Confessio Bohemica</i>. He further granted to the Protestant +estates the control over the university of Prague, and authorized +them to elect the members of the Utraquist consistory. They +were further empowered to elect “defenders” chosen in equal +number from the estates of the nobles, knights and citizens, +who were to superintend the execution of the enactments of +the Letter of Majesty and generally to uphold the rights of the +Protestants. On the same day the Romanist and the Protestant +members of the diet also signed an agreement by which they +guaranteed to each other full liberty of religious worship and +declared that this liberty should be extended to all classes of +the population.</p> + +<p>In 1611 the peace of Bohemia was again disturbed by the +invasion of the archduke Leopold of Austria, bishop of Passau, +who probably acted in connivance with his cousin +King Rudolph. Leopold succeeded in obtaining +<span class="sidenote">Matthias.</span> +possession of part of the town of Prague, but his army was +defeated by the troops which the Bohemian estates had hurriedly +raised, and he was obliged to leave Bohemia. Matthias considered +his hereditary rights menaced by the raid of Leopold +and again occupied Bohemia. Mainly at his instigation the +estates now formally deposed Rudolph, who survived his dethronement +only a few months, and died on the 20th of January +1612. Though Matthias had allied himself with the Bohemian +Protestants during his prolonged struggle against his brother, +he now adopted that policy favourable to the Church of Rome +which is traditional of the Habsburg dynasty. His relations +with the Bohemian Protestants, therefore, soon became strained. +In 1615 Matthias convoked a general diet, <i>i.e.</i> one that besides +the Bohemian representatives included also the representatives +of the “lands of the Bohemian crown.” At the meeting of this +diet the question of nationality, which through the constant +religious controversies had receded to the background, again +became predominant. Former enactments enforcing the use +of the national language were reaffirmed, and it was decreed that +Bohemian should be the “authorized” (<i>i.e.</i> official) language +of the country.</p> + +<p>As Matthias was childless, the question as to the succession +to the Bohemian throne again arose. The king wished to secure +the succession to his cousin Ferdinand, duke of Styria. +Ferdinand was known as a fanatical adherent of the Church of +Rome and as a cruel persecutor of the Protestants of Styria. +None the less the state officials of Bohemia, by not very scrupulous +means, succeeded in persuading the estates to accept Ferdinand +as heir to the throne and to consent to his coronation, which +took place at Prague on the 17th of June 1617. No doubt +through the influence of Ferdinand, the policy of Matthias henceforth +assumed a yet more pronouncedly ultramontane character. +The king’s councillors, all adherents of the Church of Rome, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page131" id="page131"></a>131</span> +openly expressed their hope that the Catholic Church would soon +recover its ancient hold over Bohemia. On the other hand the +Bohemian Protestants, led by Count Thurn, one of the few nobles +who had refused to vote for the recognition of Ferdinand as heir +to the throne, did not wish to defer what they considered an +inevitable conflict. It appeared to them more advantageous to +encounter the weak Matthias than his younger and more fanatical +successor. A comparatively unimportant incident precipitated +matters. In December 1617, the archbishop of Prague and the +abbot of Břevnov (Braunau) ordered the suppression of the +Protestant religious services in churches that had been built on +their domains. This was a direct infringement of the agreement +concluded by the Romanist and Utraquist estates on the day on +which King Rudolph had signed the Letter of Majesty. The +defenders took immediate action, by inviting all Protestant +members of the diet to meet at Prague. They assembled there +on 21st of May 1618, and decided to proceed in full armour to +the Hradĉany palace to bring their complaints to the knowledge +of the councillors of Matthias. On the following day, Thurn, +Wenceslas of Ruppa, Ulrich of Kinsky, and other members of +the more advanced party held a secret meeting, at which it was +decided to put to death the most influential of Matthias’s +councillors. On the 23rd the representatives of the Protestants +of Bohemia proceeded to the Hradĉany. Violent accusations +were brought forward, particularly against Martinic and Slavata, +the king’s most trusted councillors, who were accused of having +advised him to oppose the wishes of the Bohemians. Finally +these two councillors, together with Fabricius, secretary of the +royal council, were thrown from the windows of the Hradĉany +into the moat below—an event known in history as the Defenestration +of Prague. Both Martinic and Slavata were but +little injured, and succeeded in escaping from Prague. The +Bohemians immediately established a provisional government +consisting of thirty “directors,” ten of whom were chosen by +each of the estates. They also proceeded to raise an armed +force, the command of which was given to Count Thurn. +Hostilities with Austria began in July, when an imperial force +entered Bohemia. The troops of Matthias were, however, soon +repulsed by the Bohemians, and in November Thurn’s army +entered Austria, but was soon obliged to retire to Bohemia +because of the lateness of the season.</p> + +<p>In the following March the Bohemian crown became vacant +by the death of Matthias. On the 31st of July the Bohemian +estates pronounced the formal deposition of Ferdinand, +and on the 26th of August they elected as their king +<span class="sidenote">War with the emperor Ferdinand.</span> +Frederick, elector palatine. The new king and his +queen, Elizabeth of England, arrived in Bohemia in +October, and were crowned somewhat later at St Vitus’s +cathedral in Prague. Warfare with Austria continued during +this year—1619. Thurn occupied Moravia, which now threw +in its lot with Bohemia, and he even advanced on Vienna, but +was soon obliged to retreat. In the following year events took +a fatal turn for Bohemia. The powerful duke Maximilian of +Bavaria joined his forces to those of Ferdinand, who had become +Matthias’s successor as emperor, and who was determined to +reconquer Bohemia. Ferdinand also received aid from Spain, +Poland and several Italian states. Even the Lutheran elector of +Saxony espoused his cause. A large imperialist army, under +the command of the duke of Bavaria, Tilly and Bouquoi, +entered Bohemia in September 1620. After several skirmishes, +in all of which the Bohemians were defeated, the imperial forces +arrived at the outskirts of Prague on the evening of the 7th +of November. On the following morning they attacked the +Bohemian army, which occupied a slightly fortified position +on the plateau known as the “Bila Hora” (White Hill). The +Bohemians were defeated after a struggle of only a few hours, +and on the evening of battle the imperialists already occupied +the port of Prague, situated on the left bank of the Vltava +(Moldau). King Frederick, who had lost all courage, hurriedly +left Prague on the following morning.</p> + +<p>Bohemia itself, as well as the lands of the Bohemian crown, +now submitted to Ferdinand almost without resistance. The +battle of the White Hill marks an epoch in the history of Bohemia. +The execution of the principal leaders of the national movement +<span class="sidenote">Submission of Bohemia.</span> +(June 21, 1621) was followed by a system +of wholesale confiscation of the lands of all who +had in any way participated in the national movement. +Almost the entire ancient nobility of Bohemia was +driven into exile, and adventurers from all countries, mostly +men who had served in the imperial army, shared the spoils. +Gradually all those who refused to recognize the creed of the +Roman church were expelled from Bohemia, and by the use of +terrible cruelty Catholicism was entirely re-established in the +country. In 1627 Ferdinand published a decree, which formally +suppressed the ancient free constitution of Bohemia, though a +semblance of representative government was left to the country. +The new constitution proclaimed the heredity of the Bohemian +crown in the house of Habsburg. It added a new “estate,” +that of the clergy, to the three already existing. This estate, +which was to take precedence of all the others, consisted of the +Roman archbishop of Prague and of all the ecclesiastics who were +endowed with landed estates. The diet was deprived of all +legislative power, which was exclusively vested in the sovereign. +At its meetings the diet was to discuss such matters only as were +laid before it by the representatives of the king. The estates +continued to have the right of voting taxes, but they were +specially forbidden to attach any conditions to the grants of +money which they made to their sovereign. It was finally decreed +that the German language should have equal right with the +Bohemian one in all the government offices and law-courts of +the kingdom. This had indeed become a necessity, since, in +consequence of the vast confiscations, the greatest part of the +land was in the hands of foreigners to whom the national +language was unknown. Though these enactments still left +some autonomy to Bohemia, the country gradually lost all +individuality. Its history from this moment to the beginning +of the 19th century is but a part of the history of Austria +(<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>Bohemia was the theatre of hostilities during a large part of +the Thirty Years’ War, which had begun in its capital. In 1631 +the Saxons for a time occupied a large part of Bohemia, +and even attempted to re-establish Protestantism, +<span class="sidenote">Bohemia under Austrian domination.</span> +During the later period of the Thirty Years’ War +Bohemia was frequently pillaged by Swedish troops, +and the taking of part of Prague by the Swedish general +Königsmark in 1648 was the last event of the great war. The +attempts of the Swedish envoys to obtain a certain amount of +toleration for the Bohemian Protestants proved fruitless, as the +imperial representatives were inflexible on this point. At the +beginning of the 18th century the possibility of the extinction of +the male line of the house of Habsburg arose. The estates of +Bohemia, at a meeting that took place at Prague on the 16th of +October 1720, sanctioned the female succession to the Bohemian +throne and recognized the so-called Pragmatic Sanction which +proclaimed the indivisibility of the Habsburg realm. The +archduchess Maria Theresa, in whose favour these enactments +were made, none the less met with great opposition on the death +of her father the emperor Charles VI. Charles, elector of Bavaria, +raised claims to the Bohemian throne and invaded the country +with a large army of Bavarian, French and Saxon troops. He +occupied Prague, and a large part of the nobles and knights of +Bohemia took the oath of allegiance to him (December 19, +1741). The fortune of war, however, changed shortly afterwards. +Maria Theresa recovered Bohemia and the other lands that had +been under the rule of the house of Habsburg. During the reign of +Maria Theresa, and to a greater extent during that of her son +Joseph II., many changes in the internal administration of the +Habsburg realm took place which all tended to limit yet further +the autonomy of Bohemia. A decree of 1749 abolished the +separate law-courts that still existed in Bohemia, and a few years +later an Austro-Bohemian chancellor was appointed who was to +have the control of the administration of Bohemia, as well as of +the German domains of the house of Habsburg. The power of +the royal officials who constituted the executive government of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page132" id="page132"></a>132</span> +Bohemia was greatly curtailed, and though the chief representative +of the sovereign in Prague continued to bear the ancient +title of supreme burgrave, he was instructed to conform in all +matters to the orders of the central government of Vienna. Yet +more extreme measures tending to centralization were introduced +by the emperor Joseph, who refused to be crowned at Prague as +king of Bohemia. The powers of the Bohemian diet and of the +royal officials at Prague were yet further limited, and the German +language was introduced into all the upper schools of Bohemia. +Some of the reforms introduced by Joseph were, incidentally and +contrary to the wishes of their originator, favourable to the +Bohemian nationality. Thus the greater liberty which he granted +to the press enabled the Bohemians to publish a newspaper in +the national language. After the death of Joseph in 1790 the +Bohemian estates, whose meetings had been suspended during +his reign, again assembled, but they at first made but scanty +attempts to reassert their former rights. During the long +Napoleonic wars, in which the house of Habsburg was almost +continuously engaged, Bohemia continued in its previous lethargic +state. In 1804 a merely formal change in the constitutional +position of Bohemia took place when Francis I. assumed +the hereditary title of emperor of Austria. It was stated in an +imperial decree that the new title of the sovereign should in +no way prejudice the ancient rights of Bohemia and that the +sovereigns would continue to be crowned as kings of Bohemia.</p> + +<p>After the re-establishment of European peace in 1815 the +long-suppressed national aspirations of Bohemia began to +revive. The national movement, however, at first only +found expression in the revival of Bohemian literature. +<span class="sidenote">Revival of national aspirations.</span> +The arbitrary and absolutist government of Prince +Metternich rendered all political action impossible in +the lands ruled by the house of Habsburg. In spite of this +pressure the estates of Bohemia began in 1845 to assume an +attitude of opposition to the government of Vienna. They +affirmed their right of voting the taxes of the country—a right +that was due to them according to the constitution of 1627. To +obtain the support of the wider classes of the population, they +determined in 1847 to propose at their session of the following +year that the towns should have a more extensive representation +at the diet, that the control of the estates over the finances of the +country should be made more stringent, and that the Bohemian +language should be introduced into all the higher schools of the +country. The revolutionary outbreak of 1848 prevented this +<span class="sidenote">Collapse in 1848.</span> +meeting of the estates. When the news of the February revolution +in Paris reached Prague the excitement there was very great. +On the 11th of March a vast public meeting voted a petition to +the government of Vienna which demanded that the Bohemian +language should enjoy equal rights with the German in all the +government offices of the country, that a general diet comprising +all the Bohemian lands, but elected on an extensive suffrage, +should be convoked, and that numerous liberal reforms should +be introduced. The deputation which presented these demands +in Vienna received a somewhat equivocal answer. In reply, +however, to a second deputation, the emperor Ferdinand declared +on the 8th of April that equality of rights would be secured to +both nationalities in Bohemia, that the question of the reunion of +Moravia and Silesia to Bohemia should be left to a general +meeting of representatives of all parts of Austria, and +that a new meeting of the estates of Bohemia, which +would include representatives of the principal towns, +would shortly be convoked. This assembly, which was to have +had full powers to create a new constitution, and which would +have established complete autonomy, never met, though the +election of its members took place on the 17th of May. In +consequence of the general national movement which is so +characteristic of the year 1848, it was decided to hold at Prague +a “Slavic congress” to which Slavs of all parts of the Austrian +empire, as well as those belonging to other countries, were +invited. The deliberations were interrupted by the serious riots +that broke out in the streets of Prague on the 12th of June. +They were suppressed after prolonged fighting and considerable +bloodshed. The Austrian commander, Prince Windischgrätz, +bombarded the city, which finally capitulated unconditionally. +The nationalist and liberal movement in Bohemia was thus +suddenly checked, though the Bohemians took part in the +Austrian constituent assembly that met at Vienna, and afterwards +at Kroměřiž (Kremsier).</p> + +<p>By the end of the year 1849 all constitutional government had +ceased in Bohemia, as in all parts of the Habsburg empire. The +reaction that now ensued was felt more severely than in any +other part of the monarchy; for not only were all attempts to +obtain self-government and liberty ruthlessly suppressed, but +a determined attempt was made to exterminate the national +language. The German language was again exclusively used in +all schools and government offices, all Bohemian newspapers +were suppressed, and even the society of the Bohemian museum—a +society composed of Bohemian noblemen and scholars—was for +a time only allowed to hold its meetings under the supervision of +the police.</p> + +<p>The events of the Italian campaign of 1859 rendered the +continuation of absolutism in the Austrian empire impossible. +It was attempted to establish a constitutional system +which, while maintaining to a certain extent the unity +<span class="sidenote">Austrian constitutional changes.</span> +of the empire, should yet recognize the ancient +constitutional rights of some of the countries united under +the rule of the house of Habsburg. A decree published on the +20th of October 1860 established diets with limited powers. +The composition of these parliamentary assemblies was to a +certain extent modelled on that of the ancient diets of Bohemia +and other parts of the empire. This decree was favourably +received in Bohemia, but the hopes which it raised in the country +fell when a new imperial decree appeared on the 26th of February +1861. This established a central parliament at Vienna with very +extensive powers, and introduced an electoral system which was +grossly partial to the Germans. The Bohemians indeed consented +to send their representatives to Vienna, but they left the +parliament in 1863, stating that the assembly had encroached on +the power which constitutionally belonged to the diet of Prague. +Two years later the central parliament of Vienna was suspended, +and in the following year—1866—the Austro-Prussian war caused +a complete change in the constitutional position of Bohemia. +The congress of Vienna in 1815 had declared that that country +should form part of the newly formed Germanic Confederation; +this was done without consulting the estates of the country, as +had been customary even after the battle of the White Hill on +the occasion of serious constitutional changes. The treaty with +Prussia, signed at Prague on the 23rd of August 1866, excluded +from Germany all lands ruled by the house of Habsburg. As a +natural consequence German influence declined in the Austrian +empire, and in Bohemia in particular. While Hungary now +obtained complete independence, the new constitution of 1867, +which applied only to the German and Slavic parts of the +Habsburg empire, maintained the system of centralization and +attempted to maintain the waning German influence. The +Bohemians energetically opposed this new constitution and +refused to send representatives to Vienna.</p> + +<p>In 1871 it appeared probable for a moment that the wishes +of the Bohemians, who desired that their ancient constitution +should be re-established in a modernized form, would +be realized. The new Austrian prime minister, Count +<span class="sidenote">Renewed struggles of Bohemian nationalism.</span> +Karl Hohenwart, took office with the firm intention +of accomplishing an agreement between Bohemia and +the other parts of the Habsburg empire. Prolonged +negotiations ensued, and an attempt was made to +establish a constitutional system which, while satisfying the +claims of the Bohemians, would yet have firmly connected them +with the other lands ruled by the house of Habsburg. An +imperial message addressed to the diet of Prague (September 14, +1871) stated that the sovereign “in consideration of the former +constitutional position of Bohemia and remembering the power +and glory which its crown had given to his ancestors, and the +constant fidelity of its population, gladly recognized the rights +of the kingdom of Bohemia, and was willing to confirm this +assurance by taking the coronation oath.” Various influences +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page133" id="page133"></a>133</span> +caused the failure of this attempt to reconcile Bohemia with +Austria. In 1872 a government with a pronounced German +tendency took office in Vienna, and the Bohemians for a time +again refused to attend the parliamentary assemblies of Vienna +and Prague. In 1879 Count Eduard Taaffe became Austrian prime +minister, and he succeeded in persuading the representatives +of Bohemia to take part in the deliberations of the +parliament of Vienna. They did so, after stating that they took +this step without prejudice to their view that Bohemia with +Moravia and Silesia constituted a separate state under the rule +of the same sovereign as Austria and Hungary. The government +of Count Taaffe, in recognition of this concession by the +Bohemians, consented to remove some of the grossest anomalies +connected with the electoral system of Bohemia, which had +hitherto been grossly partial to the German minority of the +population. The government of Count Taaffe also consented +to the foundation of a Bohemian university at Prague, which +greatly contributed to the intellectual development of the +country. On the fall of the government of Count Taaffe, Prince +Alfred Windischgrätz became prime minister. The policy of his +short-lived government was hostile to Bohemia and he was +soon replaced by Count Badeni.</p> + +<p>Badeni again attempted to conciliate Bohemia. He did not +indeed consider it feasible to reopen the question of its +autonomy, but he endeavoured to remedy some of the most +serious grievances of the country. In the beginning +<span class="sidenote">The language question.</span> +of 1897 Count Badeni issued a decree which stated +that after a certain date all government officials who +wished to be employed in Bohemia would have to prove a certain +knowledge of the Bohemian as well as of the German language. +This decree met with violent opposition on the part of the +German inhabitants of Austria, and caused the fall of Count +Badeni’s cabinet at the end of the year 1897. After a brief +interval he was succeeded by Count Thun and then by Count +Clary, whose government repealed the decrees that had to a +certain extent granted equal rights to the Bohemian language. +In consequence troubles broke out in Prague, and were severely +repressed by the Austrian authorities. During the subsequent +ministries of Körber and Gautsch the Bohemians continued +to oppose the central government of Vienna, and to assert their +national rights.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See generally Count Lützow, <i>Bohemia, a Historical Sketch</i> (London, +1896). The valuable collection of historical documents entitled +<i>Fontes Rerum Bohemicarum</i>, published at Prague in the latter part +of the 19th century, has superseded earlier ones such as Freherus +(Marquard Freher), <i>Rerum Bohemicarum Antiqui Scriptores</i>. Similarly, +the earlier historical works of Pubitschka, Pelzl and De Florgy +are superseded by Frantisek Palacký’s <i>Geschichte von Bohmen</i> +(Prague, 1844-1867), which, however, ends with the year 1526. +Rezek, Gindely and others have dealt with the history of Bohemia +posterior to the year 1526. Professor Adolf Bachmann published +(vol. i. in 1899, vol. ii. 1905) a <i>Geschichte Bohmens</i> up to 1526, +which has a strongly marked German tendency. Of French works Professor +Ernest Denis’s <i>Jean Hus, et la guerre des Hussites</i> (Paris, 1878), +<i>Fin de l’independance bohème</i> (2 vols., 1890), and <i>La Bohême depuis +la Montagne Blanche</i> (2 vols., 1903), give a continuous account of +Bohemian history from the beginning of the 15th century.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Literature</p> + +<p>The earliest records of the Bohemian or Čzech language are +very ancient, though the so-called MSS. of Zelena Hora (Grüneberg) +and Kralodvur (Königinhof) are almost certainly forgeries +of the early part of the 19th century. The earliest genuine +documents of the Bohemian language comprise several hymns +and legends; of the latter the legend of St Catherine and that +of St Dorothy have the greatest value. Several ancient epic +fragments have also been preserved, such as the <i>Alexandreis</i> +and <i>Tandarias a Floribella</i>. These and other early Bohemian +writings have been printed since the revival of Bohemian +literature in the 19th century. Of considerable historical value +is the rhymed chronicle generally though wrongly known as the +chronicle of Dalimil. The author, who probably lived during +the reign of King John (1310-1346), records the events of +Bohemian history from the earliest period to the reign of King +Henry of Carinthia, the immediate predecessor of John. A +strong feeling of racial antipathy to the Germans pervades the +chronicle.</p> + +<p>It is undoubtedly to be attributed to the high intellectual +level which Bohemia attained in the 14th century that at that +period we already find writers on religious and philosophical +subjects who used the national language. +<span class="sidenote">Old Czech literature.</span> +Of these the most important is Thomas of Štitný +(<i>c.</i> 1331-1401). Of his works, which contain many ideas similar +to those of his contemporary Wycliffe, those entitled +<i>O obecnych vecech Krestanskych</i> (on general Christian matters) +and <i>Besedni reči</i> (in a rough translation “learned entertainments”) +have most value. Štitný and some of his contemporaries +whose Bohemian writings have perished are known as the +forerunners of Huss. Huss, like many of his contemporaries +in Bohemia, wrote both in Bohemian and in Latin. Of +the Bohemian writings of Huss, who contributed greatly to the +development of his native language, the most important is his +<i>Výklad viry, desatera Boziho prikazani, a patere</i> (exposition +of the creed, the ten commandments and the Lord’s Prayer) written +in 1412. Of his numerous other Bohemian works we may +mention the <i>Postilla</i> (collection of sermons), the treatises +<i>O poznani cesty prave k spaseni</i> (the true road to salvation) +and <i>O svatokupectvi</i> (on simony), and a large collection of +letters; those written in prison are very touching.</p> + +<p>The years that followed the death of Huss formed in Bohemia +a period of incessant theological strife. The anti-Roman or +Hussite movement was largely a democratic one, and it is therefore +natural that the national language rather than Latin should +have been used in the writings that belong to this period. +Unfortunately in consequence of the systematic destruction of all +Bohemian writings which took place through the agency of the +Jesuits, after the battle of the White Hill (1620), a large part +of this controversial literature has perished. Thus the writings +of the members of the extreme Hussite party, the so-called +Taborites, have been entirely destroyed. Of the writings of the +more moderate Hussites, known as the Calixtines or Utraquists, +some have been preserved. Such are the books entitled <i>Of +the Great Torment of the Holy Church</i> and the <i>Lives of the +Priests of Tabor</i>, written in a sense violently hostile to that +community. A Bohemian work by Archbishop John of Rokycan has also +been preserved; it is entitled <i>Postilla</i> and is similar though +inferior to the work of Huss that bears the same name.</p> + +<p>A quite independent religious writer who belongs to the period +of the Hussite wars is Peter Chelcicky (born in the last years of +the 14th century, died 1460), who may be called the Tolstoy of +the 15th. His dominant ideas were horror of bloodshed and the +determination to accept unresistingly all, even unjust, decrees of +the worldly authorities. Though a strenuous enemy of the Church of +Rome, Chelcicky joined none of the Hussite parties. His masterpiece +is the <i>Sít viry</i> (the net of faith). Among his other works +his <i>Postilla</i> and polemical writings in the form of letters +to Archbishop John of Rokycan and Bishop Nicolas of Pelhrimov +deserve mention.</p> + +<p>The Hussite period is rather poor in historical works written +in the language of the country. We should, however, mention +some chroniclers who were contemporaries and sometimes +eye-witnesses of the events of the Hussite wars. Their writings +have been collected and published by Frantisek Palacký under +the title of <i>Stare česke letopisy</i>.</p> + +<p>In the 16th century when Bohemia was in a state of comparative +tranquillity, the native literature was largely developed. +Besides the writers of the community of the Bohemian Brethren, +we meet at this period with three historians of merit. Of these +far the best-known is Wenceslas Hajek of Libočan. The year +of his birth is uncertain, but we read of him as a priest in 1524; +he died in 1553. His great work <i>Kronika česka</i> was dedicated +to the emperor Ferdinand I., king of Bohemia, and appeared +under the auspices of government officials. It has therefore a +strong dynastic and Romanist tendency, and its circulation was +permitted even at the time when most Bohemian books were +prohibited and many totally destroyed. Hajek’s book was +translated into several languages and frequently quoted. We +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page134" id="page134"></a>134</span> +find such second-hand quotations even in the works of many +writers who had probably never heard of Hajek. His book is, +however, inaccurate and grossly partial. Very little known on +the other hand are the works of Bartoš, surnamed “pisár” +(the writer), as he was for many years employed as secretary by +the city of Prague, and those of Sixt of Ottersdorf. The work +of Bartoš (or Bartholomew) entitled the <i>Chronicle of Prague</i> has +great historical value. He describes the troubles that befell +Prague and Bohemia generally during the reign of the weak +and absentee sovereign King Louis. The year of the birth of +Bartos is uncertain, but it is known that he died in 1539. The +somewhat later work of Sixt of Ottersdorf (1500-1583) deals with +a short but very important episode in the history of Bohemia. +It is entitled <i>Memorials of the Troubled Years 1546 and 1547</i>. +The book describes the unsuccessful rising of the Bohemians +against Ferdinand I. of Austria. Sixt took a considerable part +in this movement, a fact that greatly enhances the value of his +book.</p> + +<p>Though the life of Chelĉicky, who has already been mentioned, +was an isolated one, he is undoubtedly the indirect founder of +the community of the “Bohemian Brethren,” who greatly +influenced Bohemian literature. Almost all their historical and +theological works were written in the national language, which +through their influence became far more refined and polished. +Before referring to some of the writings of members of the +community we should mention the famed translation of the Scriptures +known as the <i>Bible of Kralice</i>. It was the joint work +of several divines of the brotherhood, and was first printed at +Kralice in Moravia in 1593. Brother Gregory, surnamed the +patriarch of the brotherhood, has left a large number of writings +dealing mainly with theological matters. Most important are the +<i>Letters to Archbishop Rokycan</i> and the book <i>On good and evil +priests</i>. After the death of Brother Gregory in 1480 discord +broke out in the community, and it resulted in very great literary +activity. Brothers Lucas, Blahoslav and Jaffet, as well as +Augusta, a bishop of the community, have left us numerous +controversial works. Very interesting is the account of the +captivity of Bishop Augusta, written by his companion the young +priest Jan Bilek. We have evidence that numerous historical +works written by members of the brotherhood existed, but +most of them perished in the 17th century when nearly all +anti-Roman books written in Bohemia were destroyed. Thus +only fragments of Blahoslav’s <i>History of the Unity</i> (<i>i.e.</i> +the brotherhood) have been preserved. One of the historians of +the brotherhood, Wenceslas Brezan, wrote a <i>History of the +House of Rosenberg</i>, of which only the biographies of William +and Peter of Rosenberg have been preserved. The greatest writer +of the brotherhood is John Amos Komensky or Comenius (1592-1670). +Of his many works written in his native language the most important +is his <i>Labyrinth of the World</i>, an allegorical tale +which is perhaps the most famous work written in Bohemian.<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +Many of the numerous devotional and educational writings of +Comenius,—his works number 142,—are also written in his +native tongue.</p> + +<p>The year 1620, which witnessed the downfall of Bohemian +independence, also marks the beginning of a period of decline +of the national tongue, which indeed later, in the 18th century, +was almost extinct as a written language. Yet we must notice +besides Comenius two other writers, both historians, whose +works belong to a date later than 1620. Of these one was an +adherent of the nationalist, the other of the imperialist party. +Paul Skála ze Zhoře (1582-c. 1640) was an official in the service +of the “winter king” Frederick of the Palatinate. He for a +time followed his sovereign into exile, and spent the last years of +his life at Freiberg in Saxony. It was at this period of his life, +after his political activity had ceased, that he wrote his historical +works. His first work was a short book which is a mere series +of chronological tables. Somewhat later he undertook a vast work +entitled <i>Histoire cirkevni</i> (history of the church). In spite +of its title the book, which consists of ten enormous MS. volumes, +deals as much with political as with ecclesiastical matters. The +most valuable part, that dealing with events of 1602 to 1623, of +which Skála writes as a contemporary and often as an eye-witness, +has been edited and published by Prof. Tieftrunk. A contemporary +and a political opponent of Skála was William Count +Slavata (1572-1652). He was a faithful servant of the house of +Habsburg, and one of the government officials who were thrown +from the windows of the Hradĉany palace in 1618, at the beginning +of the Bohemian uprising. In 1637 Slavata published his +<i>Pamety</i> (memoirs) which deal exclusively with the events of +the years 1618 and 1619, in which he had played so great a part. +During the leisure of the last years of his long life Slavata +composed a vast work entitled <i>Historické Spisovani</i> (historical +works). It consists of fourteen large MS. volumes, two of which +contain the previously-written memoirs. These two volumes +have recently been edited and published by Dr Jos. Jirěcek.</p> + +<p>After the deaths of Skála, Slavata and Comenius, no works +of any importance were written in the Bohemian language for +a considerable period, and the new Austrian government +endeavoured in every way to discourage the +<span class="sidenote">19th-century revival.</span> +use of that language. A change took place when the +romantic movement started at the beginning of the +19th century. The early revival of the Bohemian language was +very modest, and at first almost exclusively translations from +foreign languages were published. The first writer who again +drew attention to the then almost forgotten Bohemian language +was Joseph Dobrovský (1753-1829). His works, which include +a grammar of the Bohemian language and a history of Bohemian +literature, were mostly written in German or Latin, and his only +Bohemian works are some essays which he contributed to the +early numbers of the <i>Časopis Musea Království CČeského</i> +(Journal of the Bohemian Museum) and a collection of letters.</p> + +<p>It is, however, to four men belonging to a time somewhat +subsequent to that of Dobrovský that the revival of the language +and literature of Bohemia is mainly due. They are Jungmann, +Kolar, Šafařik and Palacký. Joseph Jungmann (1773-1847) +published early in life numerous Bohemian translations of +German and English writers. His most important works are his +<i>Dejepes literatury česka</i> (history of Bohemian literature), +and his monumental German and Bohemian dictionary, which largely +contributed to the development of the Bohemian language. +John Kolar (1793-1852) was the greatest poet of the Bohemian +revival, and it is only in quite recent days that Bohemian poetry +has risen to a higher level. Kolar’s principal poem is the <i>Slavy +dcera</i> (daughter of Slavia), a personification of the Slavic race. +Its principal importance at the present time consists rather in +the part it played in the revival of Bohemian literature than in +its artistic value. Kolar’s other works are mostly philological +studies. Paul Joseph Šafařik (1795-1861) was a very fruitful +writer. His <i>Starožitnosti Slovanské</i> (Slavic antiquities), an +attempt to record the then almost unknown history and literature +of the early Slavs, has still considerable value. Francis Palacký +(1798-1876) is undoubtedly the greatest of Bohemian historians. +Among his many works his history of Bohemia from the earliest +period to the year 1526 is the most important.</p> + +<p>Other Bohemian writers whose work belongs mainly to the +earlier part of the 19th century are the poets Francis Ladislav +Čelakovský, author of the <i>Růže stolistova</i> (the hundred-leaved +rose), Erben, Macha, Tyl, to mention but a few of the most +famous writers. The talented writer Karel Havlicek, the +founder of Bohemian journalism, deserves special notice.</p> + +<p>During the latter part of the 19th century, and particularly +after the foundation of the national university in 1882, Bohemian +literature has developed to an extent that few perhaps foresaw. +Of older writers Božena Němceva, whose <i>Babička</i> has been +translated into many languages, and Benes Trebizky, author +of many historical novels, should be named. John Neruda +(1834-1891) was a very fruitful and talented writer both of +poetry and of prose. Perhaps the most valuable of his many +works is his philosophical epic entitled <i>Kosmicke basne</i> (cosmic +poems). Julius Zeyer (1841-1901) also wrote much both in +prose and in verse. His epic poem entitled <i>Vysehrad</i>, which +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page135" id="page135"></a>135</span> +celebrates the ancient glory of the acropolis of Prague, has great +value, and of his many novels <i>Jan Maria Plojhar</i> has had the +greatest success. Of later Bohemian poets the best are Adolf +Heyduk, Svatopluk Čech and Jaroslav Vrchlický (b. 1853). +Of Svatopluk Cech’s many poems, which are all inspired by +national enthusiasm, <i>Václav z Michalovic, Lesetinsky Kovar</i> +(the smith of Lesetin) and <i>Basne otroka</i> (the songs of a slave) +are the most notable. While Vrchlický (pseudonym of Emil +Frida) has no less strong patriotic feelings, he has been more +catholic in the choice of the subjects of his many works, both in +poetry and in prose. Of his many collections of lyric poems +<i>Rok na jihu</i> (a year in the south), <i>Poute k Eldoradu</i> (pilgrimages +to Eldorado) and <i>Sonety Samotare</i> (sonnets of a recluse) have +particular value. Vrchlický is also a very brilliant dramatist. +Bohemian novelists have become very numerous. Mention +should be made of Alois Jirásek, also a distinguished dramatic +author; Jacob Arbes, whose <i>Romanetta</i> have great merit; and +Václav Hladík, whose <i>Evzen Voldan</i> is a very striking representation +of the life of modern Prague. Like so many Bohemian +authors, Hladík also is a copious dramatic author.</p> + +<p>Bohemia has been very fruitful in historic writers. Wenceslas +Tomek (1818-1905) left many historical works, of which his +<i>Dějepis miěsta Prahy</i> (history of the town of Prague) is the +most important. Jaroslav Goll (b. 1846) is the author of many +historical works, especially on the community of the Bohemian +Brethren. Professor Joseph Kalousek has written much on the +early history of Bohemia, and is also the author of a very valuable +study of the ancient constitution (<i>Statni pravo</i>) of Bohemia. +Dr Anton Rezek is the author of important historical studies, +many of which appeared in the Journal of the Bohemian Museum +and in the <i>Česky Časopis Historický</i> (Bohemian Historical +Review), which he founded in 1895 jointly with Professor Jaroslav +Goll. More recently Dr Václav Flajshans has published some +excellent studies on the life and writings of John Huss, and +Professors Pic and Niederle have published learned archaeological +studies on the earliest period of Bohemian history.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Count Lützow, <i>A History of Bohemian Literature</i> (London, +1899); W.R. Morfill, <i>Slavonic Literature</i> (1883); A.N. Pypin and +V.D. Spasovič, <i>History of Slavonic Literature</i> (written in Russian, +translated into German by Trangott Pech, <i>Gesch. der slav. Literaturen</i>, +2 vols., Leipzig, 1880-1884). There are modern histories of Bohemian +literature written in the national language by Dr Karel Tieftrunk, +Dr Václav Flajšhans and Mr Jaroslav Vlaek.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> As a guide to the English-speaking reader, the following notes +on the pronunciation of Bohemian names are appended. The Czech +(Čech) alphabet is the same as the English, with the omission of the +letters q, w and x. Certain letters, however, vary in pronunciation, +and are distinguished by diacritical marks, a device orginated by +John Huss. The vowels a, e, i, (y), o, u, are pronounced as in +Italian; but ě = Eng. yě in “yet,” and ů = Eng. oo.</p> + +<p>The consonants, b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, r, v, z, are as in English; +g = Eng. g in “gone”; s = Eng. initial s. But ň = Span. ñ (in <i>cañon</i>); +ř = rsh; š = sh; ž = zh (<i>i.e.</i> the French j); k before d = g; v before +k, p, s, t = f. Of the other consonants c = Eng. ts; č = ch; ch = +Germ. ch; j = Eng. y, but is not pronounced before d, m, s. Accents +on vowels lengthen them; on d and t they are softening marks. +H is always pronounced in Czech. At the end of words and before +k and t it = Germ, ch; in other places, as in <i>bahno</i> (morass) its +pronunciation is somewhat softer.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Protestatio Bohemorum</i>, frequently printed in English and +German, as well as in the Latin original.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Laurence of Brezova’s (contemporary) +<i>Kronika Husitská</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> This work has been translated into English by Count Lützow +for the “Temple Classics.”</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOHEMUND,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> the name of a series of princes of Antioch, +afterwards counts of Tripoli. Their connexion is shown in the +following table:—</p> + +<div class="ptb1"><img style="width:760px; height:341px" src="images/img135.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p><span class="sc">Bohemund I.</span> (<i>c</i>. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1058-1111), prince of Otranto and +afterwards of Antioch, whose first name was Marc, was the +eldest son of Robert Guiscard, <i>dux Apuliae et Calabriae</i>, by an +early marriage contracted before 1059. He served under his +father in the great attack on the East Roman empire (1080-1085), +and commanded the Normans during Guiscard’s absence +(1082-1084), penetrating into Thessaly as far as Larissa, but +being repulsed by Alexius Comnenus. This early hostility to +Alexius had a great influence in determining the course of his +future career, and thereby helped to determine the history of +the First Crusade, of which Bohemund may be regarded as the +leader. On the death of Guiscard in 1085, his younger son +Roger, born “in the purple” of a Lombard princess Sicelgaeta, +succeeded to the duchy of Apulia and Calabria, and a war arose +between Bohemund (whom his father had destined for the +throne of Constantinople) and Duke Roger. The war was finally +composed by the mediation of Urban II. and the award of +Otranto and other possessions to Bohemund. In 1096 Bohemund, +along with his uncle the great count of Sicily, was attacking +Amalfi, which had revolted against Duke Roger, when bands of +crusaders began to pass, on their way through Italy to Constantinople. +The zeal of the crusader came upon Bohemund: it is +possible, too, that he saw in the First Crusade a chance of +realizing his father’s policy (which was also an old Norse instinct) +of the <i>Drang nach Osten</i>, and hoped from the first to carve for +himself an eastern principality. He gathered a fine Norman +army (perhaps the finest division in the crusading host), at the +head of which he crossed the Adriatic, and penetrated to Constantinople +along the route he had tried to follow in 1082-1084. +He was careful to observe a “correct” attitude towards +Alexius, and when he arrived at Constantinople in April 1097 he +did homage to the emperor. He may have negotiated with +Alexius about a principality at Antioch; if he did so, he +had little encouragement. From Constantinople to Antioch +Bohemund was the real leader of the First Crusade; and it says +much for his leading that the First Crusade succeeded in crossing +Asia Minor, which the Crusades of 1101, 1147 and 1189 failed to +accomplish. A <i>politique</i>, Bohemund was resolved to engineer +the enthusiasm of the crusaders to his own ends; and when his +nephew Tancred left the main army at Heraclea, and attempted +to establish a footing in Cilicia, the movement may have been +already intended as a preparation for Bohemund’s eastern +principality. Bohemund was the first to get into position +before Antioch (October 1097), and he took a great part in the +siege, beating off the Mahommedan attempts at relief from the +east, and connecting the besiegers on the west with the port +of St Simeon and the Italian ships which lay there. The capture +of Antioch was due to his connexion with Firuz, one of the +commanders in the city; but he would not bring matters to an +issue until the possession of the city was assured him (May 1098), +under the terror of the approach of Kerbogha with a great army +of relief, and with a reservation in favour of Alexius, if Alexius +should fulfil his promise to aid the crusaders. But Bohemund +was not secure in the possession of Antioch, even after its +surrender and the defeat of Kerbogha; +he had to make good his +claims against Raymund of Toulouse, +who championed the rights of +Alexius. He obtained full possession +in January 1099, and stayed in the +neighbourhood of Antioch to secure +his position, while the other crusaders +moved southward to the capture of +Jerusalem. He came to Jerusalem +at Christmas 1099, and had Dagobert +of Pisa elected as patriarch, +perhaps in order to check the growth +of a strong Lotharingian power in +the city. It might seem in 1100 +that Bohemund was destined to +found a great principality in Antioch, +which would dwarf Jerusalem; he +had a fine territory, a good strategical position and a strong +army. But he had to face two great forces—the East Roman +empire, which claimed the whole of his territories and was +supported in its claim by Raymund of Toulouse, and the strong +Mahommedan principalities in the north-east of Syria. Against +these two forces he failed. In 1100 he was captured by Danishmend +of Sivas, and he languished in prison till 1103. Tancred +took his place; but meanwhile Raymund established himself +with the aid of Alexius in Tripoli, and was able to check the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page136" id="page136"></a>136</span> +expansion of Antioch to the south. Ransomed in 1103 by the +generosity of an Armenian prince, Bohemund made it his first +object to attack the neighbouring Mahommedan powers in +order to gain supplies. But in heading an attack on Harran, +in 1104, he was severely defeated at Balich, near Rakka on the +Euphrates. The defeat was decisive; it made impossible the +great eastern principality which Bohemund had contemplated. +It was followed by a Greek attack on Cilicia; and despairing of +his own resources, Bohemund returned to Europe for reinforcements +in order to defend his position. His attractive personality +won him the hand of Constance, the daughter of the French king, +Philip I., and he collected a large army. Dazzled by his success, +he resolved to use his army not to defend Antioch against the +Greeks, but to attack Alexius. He did so; but Alexius, aided +by the Venetians, proved too strong, and Bohemund had to +submit to a humiliating peace (1108), by which he became the +vassal of Alexius, consented to receive his pay, with the title of +<i>Sebastos</i>, and promised to cede disputed territories and to admit +a Greek patriarch into Antioch. Henceforth Bohemund was a +broken man. He died without returning to the East, and was +buried at Canossa in Apulia, in 1111.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—The anonymous <i>Gesta Francorum</i> (edited by H. +Hagenmeyer) is written by one of Bohemund’s followers; and the +<i>Alexiad</i> of Anna Comnena is a primary authority for the whole of +his life. His career is discussed by B. von Kügler, <i>Bohemund und +Tancred</i> (Tübingen, 1862); while L. von Heinemann, <i>Geschichte der +Normannen in Sicilien und Unteritalien</i> (Leipzig, 1894), and R. +Röhricht, <i>Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges</i> (Innsbruck, 1901), and +<i>Geschichte des Königreichs Jerusalem</i> (Innsbruck, 1898), may also be +consulted for his history.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Bohemund II.</span> (1108-1131), son of the great Bohemund by his +marriage with Constance of France, was born in 1108, the year of +his father’s defeat at Durazzo. In 1126 he came from Apulia to +Antioch (which, since the fall of Roger, the successor of Tancred, +in 1119, had been under the regency of Baldwin II.); and in 1127 +he married Alice, the younger daughter of Baldwin. After some +trouble with Joscelin of Edessa, and after joining with Baldwin II. +in an attack on Damascus (1127), he was defeated and slain on +his northern frontier by a Mahommedan army from Aleppo +(1131). He had shown that he had his father’s courage: if time +had sufficed, he might have shown that he had the other qualities +of the first Bohemund.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bohemund III.</span> was the son of Constance, daughter of +Bohemund II., by her first husband, Raymund of Antioch. He +succeeded his mother in the principality of Antioch in 1163, and +first appears prominently in 1164, as regent of the kingdom of +Jerusalem during the expedition of Amalric I. to Egypt. During +the absence of Amalric, he was defeated and captured by +Nureddin (August 1164) at Harenc, to the east of Antioch. He +was at once ransomed by his brother-in-law, the emperor Manuel, +and went to Constantinople, whence he returned with a Greek +patriarch. In 1180 he deserted his second wife, the princess +Orguilleuse, for a certain Sibylla, and he was in consequence +excommunicated. By Orguilleuse he had had two sons, Raymund +and Bohemund (the future Bohemund IV.), whose relations +and actions determined the rest of his life. Raymund married +Alice, a daughter of the Armenian prince Rhupen (Rupin), brother +of Leo of Armenia, and died in 1197, leaving behind him a son, +Raymund Rhupen. Bohemund, the younger brother of Raymund, +had succeeded the last count of Tripoli in the possession +of that county, 1187; and the problem which occupied the last +years of Bohemund III. was to determine whether his grandson, +Raymund Rhupen, or his younger son, Bohemund, should succeed +him in Antioch. Leo of Armenia was naturally the champion of +his great-nephew, Raymund Rhupen; indeed he had already +claimed Antioch in his own right, before the marriage of his niece +to Raymund, in 1194, when he had captured Bohemund III. at +Gastin, and attempted without success to force him to cede +Antioch.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Bohemund the younger, however, prosecuted his +claim with vigour, and even evicted his father from Antioch +about 1199: but he was ousted by Leo (now king of Armenia by +the grace of the emperor, Henry VI.), and Bohemund III. died +in possession of his principality (1201).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bohemund IV.</span>, younger son of Bohemund III. by his second +wife Orguilleuse, became count of Tripoli in 1187, and succeeded +his father in the principality of Antioch, to the exclusion of +Raymund Rhupen, in 1201. But the dispute lasted for many +years (Leo of Armenia continuing to champion the cause of his +great-nephew), and long occupied the attention of Innocent III. +Bohemund IV. enjoyed the support of the Templars (who, like +the Knights of St John, had estates in Tripoli) and of the Greek +inhabitants of Antioch, to whom he granted their own patriarch +in 1207, while Leo appealed (1210-1211) both to Innocent III. +and the emperor Otto IV., and was supported by the Hospitallers. +In 1216 Leo captured Antioch, and established Raymund Rhupen +as its prince; but he lost it again in less than four years, and it +was once more in the possession of Bohemund IV. when Leo died +in 1220. Raymund Rhupen died in 1221; and after the event +Bohemund reigned in Antioch and Tripoli till his death, proving +himself a determined enemy of the Hospitallers, and thereby +incurring excommunication in 1230. He first joined, and then +deserted, the emperor Frederick II., during the crusade of +1228-29; and he was excluded from the operation of the +treaty of 1229. When he died in 1233, he had just concluded +peace with the Hospitallers, and Gregory IX. had released him +from the excommunication of 1230.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bohemund V.</span>, son of Bohemund IV. by his wife Plaisance +(daughter of Hugh of Gibelet), succeeded his father in 1233. He +was prince of Antioch and count of Tripoli, like his father; and +like him he enjoyed the alliance of the Templars and experienced +the hostility of Armenia, which was not appeased till 1251, when +the mediation of St Louis, and the marriage of the future +Bohemund VI. to the sister of the Armenian king, finally brought +peace. By his first marriage in 1225 with Alice, the widow of +Hugh I. of Cyprus, Bohemund V. connected the history of +Antioch for a time with that of Cyprus. He died in 1251. He +had resided chiefly at Tripoli, and under him Antioch was left to +be governed by its bailiff and commune.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bohemund VI.</span> was the son of Bohemund V. by Luciana, a +daughter of the count of Segni, nephew of Innocent III. Born +in 1237, Bohemund VI. succeeded his father in 1251, and was +knighted by St Louis in 1252. His sister Plaisance had married +in 1250 Henry I. of Cyprus, the son of Hugh I.; and the Cypriot +connexion of Antioch, originally formed by the marriage of Bohemund +V. and Alice, the widow of Hugh I., was thus maintained. +In 1252 Bohemund VI. established himself in Antioch, leaving +Tripoli to itself, and in 1257 he procured the recognition of his +nephew, Hugh II., the son of Henry I. by Plaisance, as king of +Jerusalem. He allied himself to the Mongols against the advance +of the Egyptian sultan; but in 1268 he lost Antioch to +Bibars, and when he died in 1275 he was only count of Tripoli.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bohemund VII.</span>, son of Bohemund VI. by Sibylla, sister +of Leo III. of Armenia, succeeded to the county of Tripoli in +1275, with his mother as regent. In his short and troubled reign +he had trouble with the Templars who were established in +Tripoli; and in the very year of his death (1287) he lost Laodicea +to the sultan of Egypt. He died without issue; and as, within +two years of his death, Tripoli was captured, the county of +Tripoli may be said to have become extinct with him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—The history of the Bohemunds is the history of +the principality of Antioch, and, after Bohemund IV., of the county +of Tripoli also. For Antioch, we possess its <i>Assises</i> (Venice, 1876); +and two articles on its history have appeared in the <i>Revue de l’Orient +Latin</i> (Paris, 1893, fol.), both by E. Rey (“Resumé chronologique +de l’histpire des princes d’Antioche,” vol. iv., and “Les dignitaires +de la principauté d’Antioche,” vol. viii.). R. Röhricht, <i>Geschichte +des Königreichs Jerusalem</i> (Innsbruck, 1898), gives practically all +that is known about the history of Antioch and Tripoli.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Br.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> During the captivity of Bohemund III. the patriarch of Antioch +helped to found a commune, which persisted, with its mayor +and <i>jurats</i>, during the 13th century.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÖHMER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1795-1863), German +historian, son of Karl Ludwig Böhmer (d. 1817), was born at +Frankfort-on-Main on the 22nd of April 1795. Educated at +the universities of Heidelberg and Göttingen, he showed an +interest in art and visited Italy; but returning to Frankfort +he turned his attention to the study of history, and became +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page137" id="page137"></a>137</span> +secretary of the <i>Gesellschaft für ältere deutsche Geschichtskunde</i>. +He was also archivist and then librarian of the city of Frankfort. +Böhmer had a great dislike of Prussia and the Protestant faith, +and a corresponding affection for Austria and the Roman +Catholic Church, to which, however, he did not belong. His +critical sense was, perhaps, somewhat warped; but his researches +are of great value to students. He died unmarried, at Frankfort, +on the 22nd of October 1863. Böhmer’s historical work was +chiefly concerned with collecting and tabulating charters and +other imperial documents of the middle ages. First appeared +an abstract, the <i>Regesta chronologico-diplomatica regum atque +imperatorum Romanorum 911-1313</i> (Frankfort, 1831), which was +followed by the <i>Regesta chronologico-diplomatica Karolorum. +Die Urkunden sämtlicher Karolinger in kurzen Auszügen</i> (Frankfort, +1833), and a series of <i>Regesta imperii</i>. For the period +1314-1347 (Frankfort, 1839) the <i>Regesta</i> was followed by three, +and for the period 1246-1313 (Frankfort, 1844) by two supplementary +volumes. The remaining period of the <i>Regesta</i>, as edited +by Böhmer, is 1198-1254 (Stuttgart, 1849). These collections +contain introductions and explanatory passages by the author. +Very valuable also is the <i>Fontes rerum Germanicarum</i> (Stuttgart, +1843-1868), a collection of original authorities for German history +during the 13th and 14th centuries. The fourth and last volume +of this work was edited by A. Huber after the author’s death. +Other collections edited by Böhmer are: <i>Die Reichsgesetze +900-1400</i> (Frankfort, 1832); <i>Wittelsbachische Regesten von der +Erwerbung des Herzogtums Bayern bis zu 1340</i> (Stuttgart, 1854); +and <i>Codex diplomaticus Moeno-Francofurtanus. Urkundenbuch +der Reichsstadt Frankfurt</i> (Frankfort, 1836; new edition by F. +Law, 1901). Other volumes and editions of the <i>Regesta imperii</i>, +edited by J. Ficker, E. Mühlbacher, E. Winkelmann and others, +are largely based on Böhmer’s work. Böhmer left a great amount +of unpublished material, and after his death two other works +were published from his papers: <i>Acta imperii selecta</i>, edited by +J. Ficker (Innsbruck, 1870); and <i>Regesta archiepiscoporum +Maguntinensium</i>, edited by C. Will (Innsbruck, 1877-1886).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Janssen, <i>J.F. Böhmers Leben, Briefe und kleinere Schriften</i> +(Freiburg, 1868).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOHN, HENRY GEORGE<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1796-1884), British publisher, +son of a German bookbinder settled in England, was born in +London on the 4th of January 1796. In 1831 he started as a +dealer in rare books and “remainders.” In 1841 he issued his +“Guinea” Catalogue of books, a monumental work containing +23,208 items. Bohn was noted for his book auction sales: one +held in 1848 lasted four days, the catalogue comprising twenty +folio pages. Printed on this catalogue was the information: +“Dinner at 2 o’clock, dessert at 4, tea at 5, and supper at 10.” +The name of Bohn is principally remembered by the important +<i>Libraries</i> which he inaugurated: these were begun in 1846 and +comprised editions of standard works and translations, dealing +with history, science, classics, theology and archaeology, consisting +in all of 766 volumes. One of Bohn’s most useful and +laborious undertakings was his revision (6 vols. 1864) of <i>The +Bibliographer’s Manual of English Literature</i> (1834) of W.T. +Lowndes. The plan includes bibliographical and critical notices, +particulars of prices, &c., and a considerable addition to the +original work. It had been one of Bohn’s ambitions to found +a great publishing house, but, finding that his sons had no taste +for the trade, he sold the <i>Libraries</i> in 1864 to Messrs. Bell and +Daldy, afterwards G. Bell & Sons. Bohn was a man of wide +culture and many interests. He himself made considerable +contributions to his <i>Libraries</i>: he collected pictures, china and +ivories, and was a famous rose-grower. He died at Twickenham +on the 22nd of August 1884.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BÖHTLINGK, OTTO VON<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1815-1004) German Sanskrit +scholar, was born on the 30th of May (11th of June O.S.) 1815 +at St Petersburg. Having studied (1833-1835) Oriental languages, +particularly Arabic, Persian and Sanskrit, at the university of +St Petersburg, he continued his studies in Germany, first in +Berlin and then (1839-1842) in Bonn. Returning to St Petersburg +in 1842, he was attached to the Royal Academy of Sciences, +and was elected an ordinary member of that society in 1855. +In 1860 he was made “Russian state councillor,” and later +“privy councillor” with a title of nobility. In 1868 he settled +at Jena, and in 1885 removed to Leipzig, where he resided until +his death there on the 1st of April 1904. Böhtlingk was one of +the most distinguished scholars of the 19th century, and his +works are of pre-eminent value in the field of Indian and comparative +philology. His first great work was an edition of +Panini’s <i>Acht Bücher grammatischer Regeln</i> (Bonn, 1839-1840), +which was in reality a criticism of Franz Bopp’s philological +methods. This book Böhtlingk again took up forty-seven years +later, when he republished it with a complete translation under +the title <i>Paninis Grammatik mit Übersetzung</i> (Leipzig, 1887). The +earlier edition was followed by <i>Vopadevas Grammatik</i> (St Petersburg, +1847); <i>Über die Sprache der Jakuten</i> (St Petersburg, 1851); +<i>Indische Spruche</i> (2nd ed. in 3 parts, St Petersburg, 1870-1873, to +which an index was published by Blau, Leipzig, 1893); a critical examination +and translation of <i>Chhandogya-upanishad (St Petersburg, +1889) and a translation of Brihadaranyaka-upanishad</i> (St +Petersburg, 1889). In addition to these he published several +smaller treatises, notably one on the Sanskrit accents, <i>Über den +Accent im Sanskrit</i> (1843). But his <i>magnum opus</i> is his great +Sanskrit dictionary, <i>Sanskrit-Wörterbuch</i> (7 vols., St Petersburg, +1853-1875; new ed. 7 vols., St Petersburg, 1879-1889), which with +the assistance of his two friends, Rudolf Roth (1821-1895) and +Albrecht Weber (b. 1825), was completed in twenty-three years.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOHUN,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> the name of a family which plays an important part in +English history during the 13th and 14th centuries; it was taken +from a village situated in the Cotentin between Coutances and +the estuary of the Vire. The Bohuns came into England at, or +shortly after, the Norman Conquest; but their early history +there is obscure. The founder of their greatness was Humphrey +III., who in the latter years of Henry I., makes his appearance +as a <i>dapifer</i>, or steward, in the royal household. He married +the daughter of Milo of Gloucester, and played an ambiguous +part in Stephen’s reign, siding at first with the king and afterwards +with the empress. Humphrey III. lived until 1187, but +his history is uneventful. He remained loyal to Henry II. +through all changes, and fought in 1173 at Farnham against +the rebels of East Anglia. Outliving his eldest son, Humphrey +IV., he was succeeded in the family estates by his grandson +Henry. Henry was connected with the royal house of Scotland +through his mother Margaret, a sister of William the Lion; +an alliance which no doubt assisted him to obtain the earldom +of Hereford from John (1199). The lands of the family lay +chiefly on the Welsh Marches, and from this date the Bohuns +take a foremost place among the Marcher barons. Henry de +Bohun figures with the earls of Clare and Gloucester among the +twenty-five barons who were elected by their fellows to enforce +the terms of the Great Charter. In the subsequent civil war he +fought on the side of Louis, and was captured at the battle of +Lincoln (1217). He took the cross in the same year and died +on his pilgrimage (June 1, 1220). Humphrey V., his son and +heir, returned to the path of loyalty, and was permitted, some +time before 1239, to inherit the earldom of Essex from his +maternal uncle, William de Mandeville. But in 1258 this +Humphrey fell away, like his father, from the royal to the +baronial cause. He served as a nominee of the opposition on the +committee of twenty-four which was appointed, in the Oxford +parliament of that year, to reform the administration. It was +only the alliance of Montfort with Llewelyn of North Wales that +brought the earl of Hereford back to his allegiance. Humphrey +V. headed the first secession of the Welsh Marchers from the +party of the opposition (1263), and was amongst the captives +whom the Montfortians took at Lewes. The earl’s son and namesake +was on the victorious side, and shared in the defeat of +Evesham, which he did not long survive. Humphrey V. was, +therefore, naturally selected as one of the twelve arbitrators +to draw up the ban of Kenilworth (1266), by which the disinherited +rebels were allowed to make their peace. Dying in +1275, he was succeeded by his grandson Humphrey VII. This +Bohun lives in history as one of the recalcitrant barons of the year +1297, who extorted from Edward I. the <i>Confirmatio Cartarum</i>. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page138" id="page138"></a>138</span> +The motives of the earl’s defiance were not altogether disinterested. +He had suffered twice from the chicanery of Edward’s +lawyers; in 1284 when a dispute between himself and the royal +favourite, John Giffard, was decided in the latter’s favour; +and again in 1292 when he was punished with temporary imprisonment +and sequestration for a technical, and apparently +unwitting, contempt of the king’s court. In company, therefore, +with the earl of Norfolk he refused to render foreign service in +Gascony, on the plea that they were only bound to serve with the +king, who was himself bound for Flanders. Their attitude +brought to a head the general discontent which Edward had +excited by his arbitrary taxation; and Edward was obliged +to make a surrender on all the subjects of complaint. At +Falkirk (1298) Humphrey VII. redeemed his character for +loyalty. His son, Humphrey VIII., who succeeded him in the +same year, was allowed to marry one of the king’s daughters, +Eleanor, the widowed countess of Holland (1302). This close +connexion with the royal house did not prevent him, as it did +not prevent Earl Thomas of Lancaster, from joining the opposition +to the feeble Edward II. In 1310 Humphrey VIII. figured +among the Lords Ordainers; though, with more patriotism +than some of his fellow-commissioners, he afterwards followed +the king to Bannockburn. He was taken captive in the battle, +but exchanged for the wife of Robert Bruce. Subsequently he +returned to the cause of his order, and fell on the side of Earl +Thomas at the field of Boroughbridge (1322). With him, as with +his father, the politics of the Marches had been the main consideration; +his final change of side was due to jealousy of +the younger Despenser, whose lordship of Glamorgan was too +great for the comfort of the Bohuns in Brecon. With the death +of Humphrey VIII. the fortunes of the family enter on a more +peaceful stage. Earl John (d. 1335) was inconspicuous; +Humphrey IX. (d. 1361) merely distinguished himself as a +captain in the Breton campaigns of the Hundred Years’ War, +winning the victories of Morlaix (1342) and La Roche Derrien +(1347). His nephew and heir, Humphrey X., who inherited +the earldom of Northampton from his father, was territorially +the most important representative of the Bohuns. But the male +line was extinguished by his death (1373). The three earldoms +and the broad lands of the Bohuns were divided between two +co-heiresses. Both married members of the royal house. The +elder, Eleanor, was given in 1374 to Thomas of Woodstock, +seventh son of Edward III.; the younger, Mary, to Henry, +earl of Derby, son of John of Gaunt and afterwards Henry IV., +in 1380 or 1381. From these two marriages sprang the houses +of Lancaster and Stafford.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.E. Doyle’s <i>Official Baronage of England</i> (1886), the <i>Complete +Peerage</i> of G. E. C(okayne), (1867-1898); T.F. Tout’s “Wales and +the March during the Barons’ War,” in Owens College Historical +Essays, pp. 87-136 (1902); J.E. Morris’ <i>Welsh Wars of King +Edward I.</i>, chs. vi., viii. (1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. W. C. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOIARDO, MATTEO MARIA,<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1434-1404), Italian +poet, who came of a noble and illustrious house established at +Ferrara, but originally from Reggio, was born at Scandiano, +one of the seignorial estates of his family, near Reggio di Modena, +about the year 1434, according to Tiraboschi, or 1420 according +to Mazzuchelli. At an early age he entered the university of +Ferrara, where he acquired a good knowledge of Greek and +Latin, and even of the Oriental languages, and was in due time +admitted doctor in philosophy and in law. At the court of +Ferrara, where he enjoyed the favour of Duke Borso d’Este and +his successor Hercules, he was entrusted with several honourable +employments, and in particular was named governor of Reggio, +an appointment which he held in the year 1478. Three years +afterwards he was elected captain of Modena, and reappointed +governor of the town and citadel of Reggio, where he died in the +year 1494, though in what month is uncertain.</p> + +<p>Almost all Boiardo’s works, and especially his great poem +of the <i>Orlando Inamorato</i>, were composed for the amusement +of Duke Hercules and his court, though not written within its +precincts. His practice, it is said, was to retire to Scandiano or +some other of his estates, and there to devote himself to composition; +and Castelvetro, Vallisnieri, Mazzuchelli and Tiraboschi +all unite in stating that he took care to insert in the +descriptions of his poem those of the agreeable environs of his +chateau, and that the greater part of the names of his heroes, as +Mandricardo, Gradasse, Sacripant, Agramant and others, were +merely the names of some of his peasants, which, from their +uncouthness, appeared to him proper to be given to Saracen +warriors. Be this as it may, the <i>Orlando Inamorato</i> deserves +to be considered as one of the most important poems in Italian +literature, since it forms the first example of the romantic epic +worthy to serve as a model, and, as such, undoubtedly produced +Ariosto’s <i>Orlando Furioso</i>. Gravina and Mazzuchell have said, +and succeeding writers have repeated on their authority, that +Boiardo proposed to himself as his model the <i>Iliad</i> of Homer; +that Paris is besieged like the city of Troy; that Angelica holds +the place of Helen; and that, in short, the one poem is a sort of +reflex image of the other. In point of fact, however, the subject-matter +of the poem is derived from the <i>Fabulous Chronicle</i> of the +pseudo-Turpin; though, with the exception of the names of +Charlemagne, Roland, Oliver, and some other principal warriors, +who necessarily figure as important characters in the various +scenes, there is little resemblance between the detailed plot of the +one and that of the other. The poem, which Boiardo did not +live to finish, was printed at Scandiano the year after his death, +under the superintendence of his son Count Camillo. The title +of the book is without date; but a Latin letter from Antonia +Caraffa di Reggio, prefixed to the poem, is dated the kalends of +June 1495. A second edition, also without date, but which +must have been printed before the year 1500, appeared at +Venice; and the poem was twice reprinted there during the +first twenty years of the 16th century. These editions are the +more curious and valuable since they contain nothing but the +text of the author, which is comprised in three books, divided +into cantos, the third book being incomplete. But Niccolo +degli Agostini, an indifferent poet, had the courage to continue +the work commenced by Boiardo, adding to it three books, +which were printed at Venice in 1526-1531, in 4to; and since +that time no edition of the <i>Orlando</i> has been printed without +the continuation of Agostini, wretched as it unquestionably is. +Boiardo’s poem suffers from the incurable defect of a laboured +and heavy style. His story is skilfully constructed, the characters +are well drawn and sustained throughout; many of the incidents +show a power and fertility of imagination not inferior to that of +Ariosto, but the perfect workmanship indispensable for a great +work of art is wanting. The poem in its original shape was not +popular, and has been completely superseded by the <i>Rifacimento</i> +of Francesco Berni (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<p>The other works of Boiardo are—(1) <i>Il Timone</i>, a comedy, +Scandiano, 1500, 4to; (2) <i>Sonnetti e Canzoni</i>, Reggio, 1499, +4to; (3) <i>Carmen Bucolicon</i>, Reggio, 1500, 4to; (4) <i>Cinque +Capitoli in terza rima</i>, Venice, 1523 or 1533; (5) <i>Apulejo dell’ +Asino d’Oro</i>, Venice, 1516, 1518; (6) <i>Asino d’Oro de Luciano +tradolto in volgare</i>, Venice, 1523, 8vo; (7) <i>Erodoto Alicarnasseo +istorico, tradotto di Greco in Lingua Italiana</i>, Venice, 1533 and +1538, 8vo; (8) <i>Rerum Italicarum Scriptores</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Panizzi’s <i>Boiardo</i> (9 vols., 1830-1831).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOIE, HEINRICH CHRISTIAN<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1744-1806), German author, +was born at Meldorf in the then Danish province of Schleswig-Holstein +on the 19th of July 1744. After studying law at Jena, +he went in 1769 to Göttingen, where he became one of the +leading spirits in the Göttingen “Dichterbund” or “Hain.” +Boie’s poetical talent was not great, but his thorough knowledge +of literature, his excellent taste and sound judgment, made him +an ideal person to awake the poetical genius of others. Together +with F.W. Gotter (<i>q.v.</i>) he founded in 1770 the Göttingen +<i>Musenalmanach</i>, which he directed and edited until 1775, when, +in conjunction with C.W. von Dohm (1751-1820), he brought +out <i>Das deutsche Museum</i>, which became one of the best literary +periodicals of the day. In 1776 Boie became secretary to the +commander-in-chief at Hanover, and in 1781 was appointed +administrator of the province of Süderditmarschen in Holstein. +He died at Meldorf on the 3rd of March 1806.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See K. Weinhold, <i>Heinrich Christian Boie</i> (Halle, 1868).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page139" id="page139"></a>139</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BOIELDIEU, FRANÇOIS ADRIEN<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> (1775-1834), French +composer of comic opera, was born at Rouen on the 15th of +December 1775. He received his first musical education from +M. Broche, the cathedral organist, who appears to have treated +him very harshly. He began composing songs and chamber +music at a very early age-his first opera, <i>La Fille coupable</i> +(the libretto by his father), and his second opera, <i>Rosalie et +Myrza</i>, being produced on the stage of Rouen in 1795. Not +satisfied with his local success he went to Paris in 1795. His +scores were submitted to Cherubini, Méhul and others, but met +with little approbation. Grand opera was the order of the day. +Boieldieu had to fall back on his talent as a pianoforte-player for +a livelihood. Success came at last from an unexpected source. +P.J. Garat, a fashionable singer of the period, admired Boieldleu’s +touch on the piano, and made him his accompanist. In the +drawing-rooms of the Directoire Garat sang the charming songs +and ballads with which the young composer supplied him. +Thus Boieldieu’s reputation gradually extended to wider circles. +In 1796 <i>Les Deux lettres</i> was produced, and in 1797 <i>La Famille +suisse</i> appeared for the first time on a Paris stage, and was well +received. Several other operas followed in rapid succession, of +which only <i>Le Calife de Bagdad</i> (1800) has escaped oblivion. +After the enormous success of this work, Boieldieu felt the want +of a thorough musical training and took lessons from Cherubini, +the influence of that great master being clearly discernible in +the higher artistic finish of his pupil’s later compositions. In +1802 Boieldieu, to escape the domestic troubles caused by his +marriage with Clotilde Aug. Mafleuroy, a celebrated ballet-dancer +of the Paris opera, took flight and went to Russia, where +he was received with open arms by the emperor Alexander. +During his prolonged stay at St Petersburg he composed a +number of operas. He also set to music the choruses of Racine’s +<i>Athalie</i>, one of his few attempts at the tragic style of dramatic +writing. In 1811 he returned to his own country, where the +following year witnessed the production of one of his finest works, +<i>Jean de Paris</i>, in which he depicted with much felicity the +charming coquetry of the queen of Navarre, the chivalrous <i>verve</i> +of the king, the officious pedantry of the seneschal, and the +amorous tenderness of the page. He succeeded Méhul as +professor of composition at the Conservatoire in 1817. <i>Le +Chapeau rouge</i> was produced with great success in 1818. +Boieldieu’s second and greatest masterpiece was his <i>Dame +blanche</i> (1825). The libretto, written by Scribe, was partly +suggested by Walter Scott’s <i>Monastery</i>, and several original +Scottish tunes cleverly introduced by the composer add to the +melodious charm and local colour of the work. On the death +of his wife in 1825, Boieldieu married a singer. His own death +was due to a violent attack of pulmonary disease. He vainly +tried to escape the rapid progress of the illness by travel in Italy +and the south of France, but returned to Paris only to die on +the 8th of October 1834.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Lives of Boieldieu have been written by Pougin (Paris, 1875), +J.A. Refeuvaille (Rouen, 1836), Hequet (Paris, 1864), Emile Duval +(Geneva, 1883). See also Adolphe Charles Adam, <i>Derniers souvenirs +d’un musicien</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOIGNE, BENOÎT DE,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1751-1830), the first of the +French military adventurers in India, was born at Chambéry +in Savoy on the 8th of March 1751, being the son of a fur +merchant. He joined the Irish Brigade in France in 1768, and +subsequently he entered the Russian service and was captured +by the Turks. Hearing of the wealth of India, he made his way +to that country, and after serving for a short time in the East +India Company, he resigned and joined Mahadji Sindhia in +1784 for the purpose of training his troops in the European +methods of war. In the battles of Lalsot and Chaksana Boigne +and his two battalions proved their worth by holding the field +when the rest of the Mahratta army was defeated by the Rajputs. +In the battle of Agra (1788) he restored the Mahratta fortunes, +and made Mahadji Sindhia undisputed master of Hindostan. +This success led to his being given the command of a brigade +of ten battalions of infantry, with which he won the victories +of Patan and Merta in 1790. In consequence Boigne was allowed +to raise two further brigades of disciplined infantry, and made +commander-in-chief of Sindhia’s army. In the battle of Lakhairi +(1793) he defeated Holkar’s army. On the death of Mahadji +Sindhia in 1794, Boigne could have made himself master of +Hindostan had he wished it, but he remained loyal to Daulat +Rao Sindhia. In 1795 his health began to fail, and he resigned +his command, and in the following year returned to Europe +with a fortune of £400,000. He lived in retirement during +the lifetime of Napoleon, but was greatly honoured by Louis +XVIII. He died on the 21st of June 1830.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Compton, <i>European Military Adventurers of Hindustan</i> (1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOII<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> (perhaps = “the terrible”), a Celtic people, whose original +home was Gallia Transalpina. They were known to the Romans, +at least by name, in the time of Plautus, as is shown by the +contemptuous reference in the <i>Captivi</i> (888). At an early date +they split up into two main groups, one of which made its way +into Italy, the other into Germany. Some, however, appear +to have stayed behind, since, during the Second Punic War, +Magalus, a Boian prince, offered to show Hannibal the way into +Italy after he had crossed the Pyrenees (Livy xxi. 29). The +first group of immigrants is said to have crossed the Pennine Alps +(Great St Bernard) into the valley of the Po. Finding the +district already occupied, they proceeded over the river, drove +out the Etruscans and Umbrians, and established themselves +as far as the Apennines in the modern Romagna. According +to Cato (in Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> iii. 116) they comprised as many +as 112 different tribes, and from the remains discovered in the +tombs at Hallstatt, La Tène and other places, they appear to +have been fairly civilized. Several wars took place between them +and the Romans. In 283 they were defeated, together with +the Etruscans, at the Vadimonian lake; in 224, after the battle +of Telamon in Etruria, they were forced to submit. But they still +cherished a hatred of the Romans, and during the Second Punic +War (218), irritated by the foundation of the Roman colonies +of Cremona and Placentia, they rendered valuable assistance to +Hannibal. They continued the struggle against Rome from +201 to 191, when they were finally subdued by P. Cornelius Scipio +Nasica, and deprived of nearly half their territory. According +to Strabo (v. p. 213) the Boii were driven back across the Alps +and settled on the land of their kinsmen, the Taurisci, on the +Danube, adjoining Vindelicia and Raetia. Most authorities, +however, assume that there had been a settlement of the Boii +on the Danube from very early times, in part of the modern +Bohemia (anc. <i>Boiohemum</i>, “land of the Boii”). About 60 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> +some of the Boii migrated to Noricum and Pannonia, when +32,000 of them joined the expedition of the Helvetians into +Gaul, and shared their defeat near Bibracte (58). They were +subsequently allowed by Caesar to settle in the territory of the +Aedui between the Loire and the Allier. Their chief town was +Gorgobina (site uncertain). Those who remained on the Danube +were exterminated by the Dacian king, Boerebista, and the +district they had occupied was afterwards called the “desert of +the Boii” (Strabo vii. p. 292). In <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 69 a Boian named +Mariccus stirred up a fanatical revolt, but was soon defeated +and put to death. Some remnants of the Boii are mentioned +as dwelling near Bordeaux; but Mommsen inclines to the opinion +that the three groups (in Bordeaux, Bohemia and the Po +districts) were not really scattered branches of one and the same +stock, but that they are instances of a mere similarity of name.</p> + +<p>The Boii, as we know them, belonged almost certainly to the +Early Iron age. They probably used long iron swords for dealing +cutting blows, and from the size of the handles they must have +been a race of large men (cf. Polybius ii. 30). For their +ethnological affinities and especially their possible connexion with +the Homeric Achaeans see W. Ridgeway’s <i>Early Age of Greece</i> +(vol. i., 1901).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See L. Contzen, <i>Die Wanderungen der Kelten</i> (Leipzig, 1861); +A. Desjardins, <i>Géographie historique de la Gaule romaine</i>, ii. (1876-1893); +T.R. Holmes, <i>Caesar’s Conquest of Gaul</i> (1899), pp. 426-428; +T. Mommsen, <i>Hist. of Rome</i>, ii. (Eng. trans. 5 vols., 1894), p. 373 note; +M. Ihm in Pauly-Wissowa’s <i>Realencyclopadie</i>, iii. pt. 1 (1897); +A. Holder, <i>Alt-celtischer Sprachschatz</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page140" id="page140"></a>140</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BOIL,<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> in medicine, a progressive local inflammation of the +skin, taking the form of a hard suppurating tumour, with a core +of dead tissue, resulting from infection by a microbe, +<i>Staphylococcus pyogenes</i>, and commonly occurring in young persons +whose blood is disordered, or as a complication in certain diseases. +Treatment proceeds on the lines of bringing the mischief out, +assisting the evacuation of the boil by the lancet, and clearing +the system. In the English Bible, and also in popular medical +terminology, “boil” is used of various forms of ulcerous affection. +The boils which were one of the plagues in Egypt were apparently +the bubonic plague. The terms Aleppo boil (or button), Delhi +boil, Oriental boil, Biskra button, &c., have been given to a +tropical epidemic, characterized by ulcers on the face, due to +a diplococcus parasite.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOILEAU-DESPRÉAUX, NICOLAS<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1636-1711), French +poet and critic, was born on the 1st of November 1636 in the +rue de Jérusalem, Paris. The same Despréaux was derived +from a small property at Crosne near Villeneuve Saint-Georges. +He was the fifteenth child of Gilles Boileau, a clerk in the +parlement. Two of his brothers attained some distinction: Gilles +Boileau (1631-1669), the author of a translation of Epictetus; +and Jacques Boileau, who became a canon of the Sainte-Chapelle, +and made valuable contributions to church history. His mother +died when he was two years old; and Nicolas Boileau, who had +a delicate constitution, seems to have suffered something from +want of care. Sainte-Beuve puts down his somewhat hard and +unsympathetic outlook quite as much to the uninspiring circumstances +of these days as to the general character of his time. +He cannot be said to have been early disenchanted, for he never +seems to have had any illusions; he grew up with a single passion, +“the hatred of stupid books.” He was educated at the Collège +de Beauvais, and was then sent to study theology at the Sorbonne. +He exchanged theology for law, however, and was called +to the bar on the 4th of December 1656. From the profession +of law, after a short trial, he recoiled in disgust, complaining +bitterly of the amount of chicanery which passed under the name +of law and justice. His father died in 1657, leaving him a small +fortune, and thenceforward he devoted himself to letters.</p> + +<p>Such of his early poems as have been preserved hardly contain +the promise of what he ultimately became. The first piece in +which his peculiar powers were displayed was the first satire +(1660), in imitation of the third satire of Juvenal; it embodied +the farewell of a poet to the city of Paris. This was quickly +followed by eight others, and the number was at a later period +increased to twelve. A twofold interest attaches to the satires. +In the first place the author skilfully parodies and attacks +writers who at the time were placed in the very first rank, such +as Jean Chapelain, the abbé Charles Cotin, Philippe Quinault +and Georges de Scudéry; he openly raised the standard of +revolt against the older poets. But in the second place he showed +both by precept and practice what were the poetical capabilities +of the French language. Prose in the hands of such writers as +Descartes and Pascal had proved itself a flexible and powerful +instrument of expression, with a distinct mechanism and form. +But except with Malherbe, there had been no attempt to fashion +French versification according to rule or method. In Boileau +for the first time appeared terseness and vigour of expression, +with perfect regularity of verse structure. His admiration for +Molière found expression in the stanzas addressed to him (1663), +and in the second satire (1664). In 1664 he composed his prose +<i>Dialogue des héros de roman</i>, a satire on the elaborate romances +of the time, which may be said to have once for all abolished +the lucubrations of La Calprenède, Mlle de Scudéry and their +fellows. Though fairly widely read in manuscript, the book +was not published till 1713, out of regard, it is said, for Mlle +de Scudéry. To these early days belong the reunions at the +<i>Moulon Blanc</i> and the <i>Pomme du Pin</i>, where Boileau, Molière, +Racine, Chapelle and Antoine Furetière met to discuss literary +questions. To Molière and Racine he proved a constant friend, +and supported their interests on many occasions.</p> + +<p>In 1666, prompted by the publication of two unauthorized +editions, he published <i>Satires du Sieur D....</i>, containing +seven satires and the <i>Discours au roi</i>. From 1669 onwards +appeared his epistles, graver in tone than the satires, maturer +in thought, more exquisite and polished in style. The <i>Épitres</i> +gained for him the favour of Louis XIV., who desired his presence +at court. The king asked him which he thought his best verses. +Whereupon Boileau diplomatically selected as his “least bad” +some still unprinted lines in honour of the grand monarch and +proceeded to recite them. He received forthwith a pension of +2000 livres. In 1674 his two masterpieces, <i>L’Art poétique</i> and +<i>Le Lutrin</i>, were published with some earlier works as the <i>Œuvres +diverses du sieur D....</i> The first, in imitation of the <i>Ars +Poetica</i> of Horace, lays down the code for all future French +verse, and may be said to fill in French literature a parallel place +to that held by its prototype in Latin. On English literature +the maxims of Boileau, through the translation revised by +Dryden, and through the magnificent imitation of them in +Pope’s <i>Essay on Criticism</i>, have exercised no slight influence. +Boileau does not merely lay down rules for the language of poetry, +but analyses carefully the various kinds of verse composition, +and enunciates the principles peculiar to each. Of the four books +of <i>L’Art poétique</i>, the first and last consist of general precepts, +inculcating mainly the great rule of <i>bon sens</i>; the second treats +of the pastoral, the elegy, the ode, the epigram and satire; and +the third of tragic and epic poetry. Though the rules laid down +are of value, their tendency is rather to hamper and render too +mechanical the efforts of poetry. Boileau himself, a great, +though by no means infallible critic in verse, cannot be considered +a great poet. He rendered the utmost service in destroying the +exaggerated reputations of the mediocrities of his time, but +his judgment was sometimes at fault. The <i>Lutrin</i>, a mock +heroic poem, of which four cantos appeared in 1674, furnished +Alexander Pope with a model for the <i>Rape of the Lock</i>, but the +English poem is superior in richness of imagination and subtlety +of invention. The fifth and sixth cantos, afterwards added by +Boileau, rather detract from the beauty of the poem; the last +canto in particular is quite unworthy of his genius. In 1674 +appeared also his translation of Longinus <i>On the Sublime</i>, to +which were added in 1693 certain critical reflections, chiefly +directed against the theory of the superiority of the moderns +over the ancients as advanced by Charles Perrault.</p> + +<p>Boileau was made historiographer to the king in 1677. From +this time the amount of his production diminished. To this +period of his life belong the satire, <i>Sur les femmes</i>, the ode, <i>Sur +la prise de Namur</i>, the epistles, <i>À mes vers</i> and <i>Sur l’amour de +Dieu</i>, and the satire <i>Sur l’homme</i>. The satires had raised up a +crowd of enemies against Boileau. The 10th satire, on women, +provoked an <i>Apologie des femmes</i> from Charles Perrault. +Antoine Arnauld in the year of his death wrote a letter in defence +of Boileau, but when at the desire of his friends he submitted +his reply to Bossuet, the bishop pronounced all satire to be +incompatible with the spirit of Christianity, and the 10th satire +to be subversive of morality. The friends of Arnauld had +declared that it was inconsistent with the dignity of a churchman +to write on any subject so trivial as poetry. The epistle, +<i>Sur l’amour de Dieu</i>, was a triumphant vindication on the part +of Boileau of the dignity of his art. It was not until the 15th +of April 1684 that he was admitted to the Academy, and then +only by the king’s wish. In 1687 he retired to a country-house +he had bought at Auteuil, which Racine, because of the numerous +guests, calls his <i>hôtellerie d’Auteuil</i>. In 1705 he sold his house +and returned to Paris, where he lived with his confessor in the +cloisters of Notre Dame. In the 12th satire, <i>Sur l’équivoque</i>, +he attacked the Jesuits in verses which Sainte-Beuve called a +recapitulation of the <i>Lettres provinciales</i> of Pascal. This was +written about 1705. He then gave his attention to the arrangement +of a complete and definitive edition of his works. But +the Jesuit fathers obtained from Louis XIV. the withdrawal of +the privilege already granted for the publication, and demanded +the suppression of the 12th satire. These annoyances are said to +have hastened his death, which took place on the 13th of March 1711.</p> + +<p>Boileau was a man of warm and kindly feelings, honest, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page141" id="page141"></a>141</span> +outspoken and benevolent. Many anecdotes are told of his +frankness of speech at court, and of his generous actions. He +holds a well-defined place in French literature, as the first who +reduced its versification to rule, and taught the value of workmanship +for its own sake. His influence on English literature, through +Pope and his contemporaries, was not less strong, though less +durable. After much undue depreciation Boileau’s critical work +has been rehabilitated by recent writers, perhaps to the extent +of some exaggeration in the other direction. It has been shown +that in spite of undue harshness in individual cases most of his +criticisms have been substantially adopted by his successors.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Numerous editions of Boileau’s works were published during his +lifetime. The last of these, <i>Œuvres diverses</i> (1701), known as the +“favourite” edition of the poet, was reprinted with variants and +notes by Alphonse Pauly (2 vols., 1894). The critical text of his +works was established by Berriat Saint-Prix, <i>Œuvres de Boileau</i> +(4 vols., 1830-1837), who made use of some 350 editions. This text, +edited with notes by Paul Chéron, with the <i>Boloeana</i> of 1740, and +an essay by Sainte-Beuve, was reprinted by Garnier <i>frères</i> (1860).</p> + +<p>See also Sainte-Beuve, <i>Causeries du lundi</i>, vol. vi.; F. Brunetière, +“L’Esthétique de Boileau” (<i>Revue des Deux Mondes</i>, June 1889), and +an exhaustive article by the same critic in <i>La Grande encyclopédie</i>; +G. Lanson, <i>Boileau</i> (1892), in the series of <i>Grands écrivains français</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOILER,<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> a vessel in which water or other liquid is heated to +the boiling point; specifically, the apparatus by which steam is +produced from water, as one step in the process whereby the +potential energy of coal or other fuel is converted into mechanical +work by means of the steam-engine. Boilers of the latter kind +must all possess certain essential features, whilst of other qualities +that are desirable some may not be altogether compatible with +the special conditions under which the boilers are to be worked. +Amongst the essentials are a receptacle capable of containing +the water and the steam produced by its evaporation, and strong +enough continuously to withstand with safety the highest pressure +of steam for which the boiler is intended. Another essential is a +furnace for burning the fuel, and a further one is the provision of +a sufficiency of heating surface for the transmission of the heat +produced by the combustion of the fuel to the water which is +required to be evaporated. Desirable qualities are that the +arrangements of the furnaces should be such that a reasonably +perfect combustion of the fuel should be possible, and that the +heating surfaces should be capable of transmitting a large +proportion of the heat produced to the water so as to obtain a +high evaporative efficiency. Further, the design generally should +be compact, not too heavy or costly, and such that the cleaning +necessary to maintain the evaporative efficiency can be easily +effected. It should also be such that the cost of upkeep will be +small, and that only an average amount of skill and attention +will be required under working conditions. It is for providing +these qualities in different degrees according to the special +requirements of various circumstances that the very different +designs of the various types of boilers have been evolved.</p> + +<p><i>Classes of Boilers.</i>—Boilers generally may be divided into two +distinct classes, one comprising those which are generally called +“tank” boilers, containing relatively large quantities of water, +and the other those which are generally called “water-tube” +boilers, in which the water is mainly contained in numerous +comparatively small tubes. There are, however, some types of +boiler which combine to some extent the properties of both these +classes. Each class has its representatives amongst both land +and marine boilers. In “tank” boilers the outer shell is wholly +or partially cylindrical, this form being one in which the necessary +strength can be obtained without the use of a large number of +stays. The boilers are generally internally fired, the furnace +plates being surrounded with water and forming the most efficient +portion of the heating surfaces. On leaving the furnace the +products of combustion are led into a chamber and thence +through flues or through numerous small tubes which serve to +transmit some of the heat of combustion to the water contained +in the boiler. In “water-tube” boilers the fire is usually placed +under a collection of tubes containing water and forming the +major portion of the heating surface of the boiler. Both the +fire and the tubes are enclosed in an outer casing of brickwork +or other fire-resisting substance. In some forms of water-tube +boiler the fire is entirely surrounded by water-tubes and the +casing is in no part exposed to the direct action of the fire. In +“tank” boilers generally no difficulty is experienced in keeping +all the heating surfaces in close contact with water, but in +“water-tube” boilers special provision has to be made in the +design for maintaining the circulation of water through the +tubes. (For “flash” boilers see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Motor Vehicles</a></span>, and for +domestic hot-water boilers <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heating</a></span>.)</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 210px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:159px; height:97px" src="images/img141a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Adamson Joint.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Tank Boilers.</i>—Of large stationary boilers the forms most +commonly used are those known as the “Lancashire” boiler, and +its modification the “Galloway” boiler. These boilers +are made from 26 to 30 ft. long, with diameters from 6½ to +<span class="sidenote">Lancashire.</span> +8 ft., and have two cylindrical furnace flues which in the +“Lancashire” boiler extend for its whole length (see fig. 3). The +working pressure is about 60 ℔ per sq. in. in the older boilers, from +100 ℔ to 120 ℔ per sq. in. in those supplying steam to compound +engines, and from 150 to 170 ℔ where triple expansion +engines are used. In some cases they have been constructed for a +pressure of 200 ℔ per sq. in. The furnace flues are usually +made in sections from 3 to 3½ ft. long. Each section consists of one +plate bent into a cylindrical form, the longitudinal joint being +welded, and is flanged at both ends, the +various pieces being joined together by an +“Adamson” joint (fig. 1.). It will be seen +that these joints do not expose either rivets +or double thickness of plate to the action of +the fire; they further serve as stiffening +rings to prevent collapse of the flue. In +most of these boilers the heating surface is +increased by fitting in the furnace flues a +number of “Galloway” tubes. These are +conical tubes, made with a flange at each end, by means of which +they are connected to the furnace plate. They are so proportioned +that the diameter of the large end of the tube is slightly greater +than that of the flange of the small end; this enables them to be +readily removed and replaced if necessary. These tubes not only +add to the heating surface, but they stiffen the flue, promote +circulation of the water in the boiler, and by mixing up the flue +gases improve the evaporative efficiency.</p> + +<p>In the “Galloway” boiler the two furnaces extend only for about +9 or 10 ft. into the boiler, and lead into a large chamber or flue in +which a number of “Galloway” tubes are fitted, and which extends +from the furnace end to the end of the boiler. A cross section of this +flue showing the distribution of the Galloway tubes is shown in +fig. 2. When boilers less than about 6½ ft. in diameter are needed, +a somewhat similar type to the Lancashire boiler is used containing +only one furnace. This is called a “Cornish” boiler.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 370px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:324px; height:353px" src="images/img141b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Galloway Boiler: Section beyond the Bridge.</td></tr></table> + +<p>In all three types of boiler the brickwork is constructed to form +one central flue passing along the bottom of the boiler and two side +flues extending up the side nearly to the water-level. A cross section +of the brickwork is shown in fig. 2. The usual arrangement is for +the flue gases to be divided as they leave the internal flue; one-half +returns along each side flue to the front of the boiler, and the whole +then passes downwards into the central flue, travelling under the +bottom of the boiler until the gases again reach the back end, +where they pass into the chimney. In a few cases the arrangement +is reversed, the gases first passing along the bottom flue and returning +along the side flues. This latter arrangement, +whilst promoting a more rapid circulation of water, has the disadvantage +of requiring two dampers, and it is not suitable for those +cases in which heavy deposits form on the bottoms of the boilers.</p> + +<p>Where floor space is limited and also for small installations, other +forms of cylindrical boilers are used, most of them being of the +vertical type. That most commonly used is the simple +vertical boiler, with a plain vertical fire-box, and an internal +<span class="sidenote">Vertical.</span> +smoke stack traversing the steam space. The fire-box is made slightly +tapering in diameter, the space between it and the shell being filled +with water. In all but the small sizes cross tubes are generally fitted. +These are made about 9 in. in diameter of <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span>-in. plate flanged at +each end to enable them to be riveted to the fire-box plates. They are +usually fitted with a slight inclination to facilitate water circulation. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page142" id="page142"></a>142</span> +and a hand-hole closed by a suitable door is provided in the outer +shell opposite to each tube for cleaning purposes. A boiler of +this kind is illustrated in fig. 4. This form is often used on board +ship for auxiliary purposes. Where more heating surface is required +than can be obtained in the cross-tube boiler other types of vertical +boiler are employed. For instance, in the “Tyne” boiler (fig. 5) +the furnace is hemispherical, and the products of combustion are led +into an upper combustion chamber traversed by four or more +inclined water-tubes of about 9 in. diameter and by several vertical +water-tubes of less diameter. In the “Victoria” boiler made by +Messrs Clarke, Chapman & Co., and illustrated in fig. 6, the furnace +is hemispherical; the furnace gases are led to an internal combustion +chamber, and thence through numerous horizontal smoke-tubes +to a smoke-box placed on the side of the boiler. In the somewhat +similar boiler known as the “Cochran,” the combustion chamber is +made with a “dry” back. Instead of a water space at the back of +the chamber, doors lined with firebrick are fitted. These give easy +access to the tube ends.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:878px; height:270px" src="images/img142a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Lancashire Boiler (Messrs Tinker, Ltd.).</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:233px; height:690px" src="images/img142b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—Simple Vertical Boiler.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The cylindrical multitubular +return tube boiler is in +almost universal use in +merchant steamers. It is made in +various sizes ranging up to 17 ft. +in diameter, the usual working +pressure being from 160 to 200 ℔ +<span class="sidenote">Marine.</span> +per sq. in., although in some +few cases pressures of 265 ℔ per +sq. in. are in use. These boilers +are of two types, double- and +single-ended. In single-ended +boilers, which are those most generally +used, the furnaces are fitted at +one end only and vary in number +from one in the smallest boiler +to four in the largest. Three +furnaces are the most usual practice. +Each furnace generally has its own +separate combustion chamber. In +four furnace boilers, however, one +chamber is sometimes made common +to the two middle furnaces, and +sometimes one chamber is fitted to +each pair of side furnaces. In +double-ended boilers furnaces are +fitted at each end. In some cases +each furnace has a separate +combustion chamber, but more usually +one chamber is made to serve for +two furnaces, one at each end of +the boiler. The two types of boilers +are shown in figs. 7 and 8, which +illustrate boilers made by Messrs +D. Rowan & Co. of Glasgow, and +which may be taken as representing +good modern practice. The furnaces +used in the smaller sizes are +often of the plain cylindrical type, +the thickness of plate varying from +<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. up to ¾ in. according to the +diameter of the furnace and the +working pressure. Occasionally +furnaces with “Adamson” joints +similar to those used in Lancashire +boilers are employed, but for large +furnaces and for high pressures corrugated or ribbed furnaces +are usually adopted. Sketches of the sections of these are shown +in fig. 9. The sections of the Morison, Fox and Deighton types are +made from plates originally rolled of a uniform thickness, made +into a cylindrical form with a welded longitudinal joint and then +corrugated, the only difference between them being in the shapes of +the corrugations. In the other three types the plates from which the +furnaces are made are rolled with ribs or thickened portions at +distances of 9 in. These furnaces are stronger to resist collapse +than plain furnaces of the same thickness, and accommodate themselves +more readily to changes of temperature.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:466px; height:670px" src="images/img142c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Vertical Boiler with Water-tubes (the “Tyne,” by +Messrs Clarke, Chapman & Co.).</td></tr></table> + +<p>There are two distinct types of connexion between the furnaces +and the combustion chambers. In one, shown in fig. 8, the furnace +is flanged at the crown portion for riveting to the tube plate, and +the lower part of the furnace is riveted to the “wrapper” or side +plate of the combustion chamber. In the other type, shown in fig. 7, +and known generally as the “Gourlay back end,” the end of the +furnace is contracted into an oval conical form, and is then flanged +outwards round the whole of its circumference. The tube plate is +made to extend to the bottom of the combustion chamber, and the +furnace is riveted to the tube plate. The advantage of the Gourlay +back end is that in case of accident to the furnace it can be removed +from the boiler and be replaced by one of the same design without +disturbing the end plates, which is not possible with the other design. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page143" id="page143"></a>143</span> +The Gourlay back end, however, is not so stiff as the other, and more +longitudinal stays are required in the boiler.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:504px; height:725px" src="images/img143a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—Vertical Boiler with internal combustion chamber (the +“Victoria,” by Messrs Clarke, Chapman & Co.).</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:778px; height:436px" src="images/img143b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—Single-ended Marine Boiler.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The flat sides and backs of the combustion chambers are stayed +either to one another or to the shell of the boiler by numerous screw +stays which are screwed through the two plates they connect, and +which are nearly always fitted with nuts inside the combustion +chambers. The tops of the chambers are usually stayed by strong +girders resting upon the tube plates and chamber back plates. In +a few cases, however, they are stayed by vertical stays attached to +T bars riveted to the boiler shell. A few boilers are made in which +the chamber tops are strengthened by heavy transverse girder +plates. The end plates of the boiler in the steam space and below +the combustion chambers are stayed by longitudinal stays passing +through the whole length of the boiler and secured by double nuts +at each end. The tube plates are strengthened by stay tubes screwed +into them.</p> + +<p>Where natural or chimney draught is used the tubes are generally +made 3 or 3¼ in. outside diameter and are rarely more than 7 ft. +long, but where “forced” draught is employed they are usually +made 2½ in. diameter and 8 to 8½ ft. long. A clear space of 1¼ in. +between the tubes is almost always arranged for, irrespective of size +of tubes.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:516px; height:425px" src="images/img143c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.—Double-ended Marine Boiler.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Stay tubes are screwed at both ends, the threads of the two ends +being continuous so that they can be screwed into both tube plates; +occasionally nuts are fitted to the front ends. The stay tubes are +expanded into the plates and then beaded over.</p> + +<p>The locomotive boiler consists of a cylindrical barrel attached to +a portion containing the fire-box, which is nearly rectangular both +in horizontal and vertical section. The fire-box sides are +stayed to the fire-box shell by numerous stays about +<span class="sidenote">Locomotive.</span> +1 in. in diameter, usually pitched 4 in. apart both vertically +and horizontally. The top of the fire-box in small boilers is stayed +by means of girder stays running longitudinally and supported at +the ends upon the tube plate and the opposite fire-box plate. In +some boilers the girders are partly supported by slings from the +crown of the boiler. In larger boilers the crown of the boiler above +the fire-box is made flat and the fire-box crown is supported by +vertical stays connecting it with the shell crown. Provision is +generally made for the expansion +of the tube plate, which is of +copper, by allowing the two or +three cross rows of stays nearest +the tube plate to have freedom +of motion upwards but not downwards. +The ordinary tubes are +usually 1¾ in. diameter. The +fire-bars are generally, though not +always, made to slope downwards +away from the fire door, +and just below the lowest tubes +a fire-bridge or baffle is fitted, +extending about half-way from +the tube plate to the fire-door +side of the fire-box. In some +cases water-tubes are fitted, +extending right across the fire-box. +In a boiler for the London & +South-Western Railway Co., having +a grate area of 31.5 sq. ft. and +a total heating surface of 2727 sq. +ft., there are 112 water-tubes +each 2¾ in. diameter. These are +arranged in two clusters, each +containing 56, one set being +placed above the fire-bridge, and +the other set nearer the fire-door +end of the boiler. The +water-tubes are of seamless steel, +and are expanded into the fire-box side plates. In way +of these tubes the outer shell side plates are supported by +stay bars passing right through the water-tubes. The usual +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page144" id="page144"></a>144</span> +pressure of locomotive boilers is about 175 ℔ to 200 ℔ per sq. in.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:439px; height:342px" src="images/img144a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.</td></tr></table> + +<p>A good example of an express locomotive boiler is shown in fig. 10. +In this case the grate area is 30.9 sq. ft. and the heating surface +2500 sq. ft. The barrel is 5 ft. 6 in. diameter, 16 ft. long between +tube plates. The fire-box crown is stayed by vertical stays extending +to the shell crown, except for the three rows of stays nearest the tube +plates. These are supported by cross girders resting upon brackets +secured to the outer shell.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:884px; height:303px" src="images/img144b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.—Express Locomotive Boiler, with widened fire-box (Great Northern Railway, England).</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:246px; height:301px" src="images/img144c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Water-Tube Boilers.</i>—The “Babcock & Wilcox” boiler, as fitted +for land purposes, and illustrated in fig. 11, consists of a +horizontal cylinder forming a steam chest, having dished ends and +two specially constructed cross-boxes riveted to the +<span class="sidenote">Babcock and Wilcox stationary.</span> +bottom. Under the cylinder is placed a sloping nest of +tubes, under the upper end of which is the fire. The sides +and back of the boiler are enclosed in brickwork up to +the height of the centre of the horizontal cylinder and the +front is fitted with an iron casing lined with brick at the lower part. +Suitable brickwork baffles are arranged between the tubes themselves, +and between the nests of tubes and the cylinder, to ensure a +proper circulation of the products of combustion, which are made to +pass between the tubes three times. The nest of tubes consists of +several separate elements, each formed by a front and back header +made of wrought steel of sinuous form connected by a number of +tubes. The upper ends of the front headers are connected by +short tubes to the front cross-box of the horizontal cylinder, the +lower ends being closed. The upper ends of the back headers are +connected by longer pipes to the back cross-box, and their lower +ends by short pipes to a horizontal mud drum to which a blow-off +cock and pipe are attached. The headers are furnished with holes +on two opposite sides; those on one side form the means of connexion +between the headers and tubes, and the others allow access +for fixing the tubes in position and cleaning. The outer holes are +oval, and closed by special fittings shown in fig. 18, the watertightness +of the joints being secured by the outer cover plates. The holes +being oval, the inside fitting can be placed in position from outside, +and it is so made as to cover the opening and prevent any great +outrush of steam or water should the bolt break. Any desired +working pressure can be provided for in these boilers; in some +special cases it rises as high as 500 ℔ per sq. in., but a more +usual pressure is 180 ℔ Like all water-tube boilers, they require to +be frequently cleaned if impure feed-water is used, but the straightness +of their tubes enables their condition to be ascertained at any +time when the boiler is out of use, and any accumulation of scale to +be removed. The superheaters, which are frequently fitted, consist +of two cross-boxes or headers placed transversely under the cylindrical +drum and connected by numerous C-shaped tubes. They +are situated between the tubes and the steam-chest, and are exposed +to the heat of the furnace gases after their first passage across the +tubes. The steam is taken by an internal pipe passing through the +bottom of the drum into the upper cross-box, then through the C tubes +into the lower box, and thence to the steam pipe. When steam is +being raised, the superheater is flooded with water, which is drained +out through a blow-off pipe before communication is opened with +the steam-pipe. In large boilers of this type, two steam-chests are +placed side by side connected together by two cross steam pipes and +by the mud drum. Each, however, has its own separate feed supply. +The largest boiler made has two steam chests 4½ ft. diameter by +25½ ft. long, a grate surface of 85 sq. ft., and a total heating +surface of 6182 sq. ft.</p> + +<p>Another type of water-tube boiler in use for stationary purposes +is the “Stirling” (fig. 12). This boiler consists of four or five +horizontal drums, of which the three upper form the +steam-space, and the one or two lower contain water. +<span class="sidenote">Stirling.</span> +The lower drums, where two are fitted, are connected to each other +at about the middle of their height by horizontal tubes, and to the +upper drums by numerous nearly vertical tubes which form the +major portion of the heating surfaces. The central upper drum is +at a slightly higher level than the others, and communicates with +that nearest the back of the boiler by a set of curved tubes entirely +above the water-level, and with the front drum by two sets—the +upper one being above and the lower below the water-level. The +whole boiler is enclosed in brickwork, into which the supporting +columns and girders are built. Brickwork baffles +compel the furnace gases to take specified courses among +the tubes. It will be seen that the space between the +boiler front and the tubes form a large combustion +chamber into which all the furnace gases must pass +before they enter the spaces between the tubes; in this +chamber a baffle-bridge is sometimes built. Another +chamber is formed between the first and second sets of tubes. +The feed-water enters the back upper drum, and must pass +down the third set of tubes into the lower drum before it +reaches the other parts of the boiler. Thus the coldest water is +always where the temperature of the furnace gases is lowest; and +as the current through the lower drum is slight, the solid matters +separated from the feed-water while its temperature is being raised +have an opportunity of settling to the bottom of this drum, where +the heating is not great and where therefore their presence will not +be injurious. When superheaters are required, they are made of +two drums connected by numerous small tubes, and are somewhat +similar in construction to the boiler proper. The superheater is +placed between the first and second sets of tubes, where it is +exposed to the furnace gases before too much heat has been taken +from them. Arrangements are provided for flooding the superheater +while steam is being raised, and for draining it before the steam is +passed through it.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page145" id="page145"></a>145</span></p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:575px; height:431px" src="images/img145a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.—Babcock & Wilcox Water-tube Boiler fitted with Superheaters.</td></tr></table> + +<p>A somewhat similar boiler is made by Messrs. Clarke, Chapman & Co., +and is known as the “Woodeson” boiler (fig. 13). It consists +of three upper drums placed side by side connected +together by numerous short tubes, some above and some +<span class="sidenote">Woodeson.</span> +below the water-level, and of three smaller lower drums also +connected by short cross tubes. The upper and lower drums are +connected by numerous nearly vertical straight tubes. The whole is +enclosed in firebrick casing. The design permits of the insides +of all the tubes being readily inspected, and also of any tube +being taken out and renewed without displacing any other part +of the boiler.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:510px; height:519px" src="images/img145b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—Stirling Water-tube Boiler.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The earliest form of water-tube boiler which came into general use +in the British navy is the Belleville. Two views of this boiler are +shown in fig. 14. It is composed of two parts, the boiler +proper and the “economizer.” Each of these consists of +<span class="sidenote">Belleville.</span> +several sets of elements placed side by side; those of the boiler +proper are situated immediately over the fire, and those of the +economizer in the uptake above the boiler, the intervening space +being designed to act as a combustion chamber. Each element is +constructed of a number of straight tubes connected at their ends +by means of screwed joints to junction-boxes which are made of +malleable cast iron. These are arranged vertically over one another, +and except in the case of the upper and lower ones at the front of the +boiler, each connects the upper end of one tube with the lower end +of the next tube of the element. The boxes at the back of the +boiler are all close-ended, but those at the front are provided with +a small oval hole, opposite to each tube end, closed by an internal +door with bolt and cross-bar; the purpose of these openings is to +permit the inside of the tubes to be examined and +cleaned. The lower front box of each element of the +boiler proper is connected to a horizontal cross-tube of +square section, called a “feed-collector,” which extends +the whole width of the boiler. When the boiler is not in +use, any element can be readily disconnected and a spare +one inserted. The lower part of the steam-chest is +connected to the feed-collector by vertical pipes at each +end of the boiler, and prolongations of these pipes below +the level of the feed-collector form closed pockets for the +collection of sediment. The tubes are made of seamless +steel. They are generally about 4½ in. in external +diameter: the two lower rows are <span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. thick, the next two +rows <span class="spp">5</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> and the remainder about <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">5</span> in. The construction +of the economizer is similar to that of the boiler proper, +but the tubes are shorter and smaller, being generally +about 2¾ in. in diameter. The lower boxes of the economizer +elements are connected to a horizontal feed pipe +which is kept supplied with water by a feed-pumping +engine, and the upper boxes are connected to another +horizontal pipe from which the heated feed-water is taken +into the steam-chest. Both the boiler proper and the +economizer are enclosed in a casing which is formed of +two thicknesses of thin iron separated by non-conducting +material and lined with firebrick at the part between the +fire-bar level and the lower rows of tubes. Along the front +of the boiler, above the level of the firing-doors, there is +a small tube having several nozzles directed across the +fire-grate, and supplied with compressed air at a pressure +of about 10 ℔ per sq. in. In this way not only +is additional air supplied, but the gases issuing from +the fire are stirred up and mixed, their combustion being +thereby facilitated before they pass into the spaces between the +tubes. A similar air-tube is provided for the space between the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page146" id="page146"></a>146</span> +boiler proper and the economizer. Any water suspended in the +steam is separated in a special separator fitted in the main +steam-pipe, and the steam is further dried by passing through a +reducing-valve, which ensures a steady pressure on the engine side +of the valve, notwithstanding fluctuations of pressure in the boiler. +The boiler pressure is usually maintained at about 50 ℔ per sq. in. +in excess of that at which the engines are working, the excess forming +a reservoir of energy to provide for irregular firing or feeding.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:508px; height:751px" src="images/img145c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—Woodeson Boiler (Messrs Clarke, Chapman & Co.).</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:668px; height:590px" src="images/img146.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.—Belleville Boiler.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Another type of large-tube boiler which has been used in the +British and in other navies is the “Niclausse,” shown in fig. 15. +It is also in use on land in several electric-light installations. +It consists of a horizontal steam-chest under +<span class="sidenote">Niclausse.</span> +which is placed a number of elements arranged side by side +over the fire, the whole being enclosed in an iron casing lined +with firebrick where it is exposed to the direct action of the fire. +Each element consists of a header of rectangular cross-section, +fitted with two rows of inclined close-ended tubes, which slope +downwards towards the back of the boiler with an inclination of +6° to the horizontal. The headers are usually of malleable cast +iron with diaphragms cast in them, but sometimes steel has been +employed, the bottoms being closed by a riveted steel plate, and +the diaphragms being made of the same material. The headers are +bolted to socket-pieces which are riveted to the bottom of the +steam-chest, so that any element may be easily removed. The +tube-holes are accurately bored, at an angle to suit the inclination +of the tubes, through both the front and back of the headers and +through the diaphragm, those in the header walls being slightly +conical. The tubes themselves, which are made of seamless steel, +are of peculiar construction. The lower or back ends are reduced in +diameter and screwed and fitted with cap-nuts which entirely close +them. The front ends are thickened by being upset, and the parts +where they fit into the header walls and in the diaphragm are +carefully turned to gauge. The upper and lower parts of the tubes +between these fitting portions are then cut away, the side portions +only being retained, and the end is termed a “lanterne.” A small +water-circulating tube of thin sheet steel, fitted inside each +generating tube, is open at the lower end, and at the other is secured +to a smaller “lanterne,” which, however, only extends from the front +of the header to the diaphragm. This smaller “lanterne” closes +the front end of the generating tube. The whole arrangement is +such that when the tubes are in place only the small inner circulating +tubes communicate with the space between the front of the header +and the diaphragm, while the annular spaces in the generating tubes +around the water-circulating tubes communicate only with the space +between the diaphragm and the back of the header. The steam +formed in the tubes escapes from them into this back space, through +which it rises into the steam-chest, whilst the space in the front +of the header always contains a down-current of water supplying +the inner circulating tubes. The tubes are maintained in position +by cross-bars, each secured by one stud-bolt screwed into the header +front wall, and each serving to fix two tubes. The products of +combustion ascend directly from the fire amongst the tubes, and the +combustion is rendered more complete by the introduction of jets of +high-pressure air immediately over the fire, as in the “Belleville” +boiler.</p> + +<p>The “Dürr” boiler, in use in several vessels in the German +navy, and in a few vessels of the British navy, in some +respects resembles the “Niclausse.” The separate headers of +the latter, however, are replaced by one large water-chamber +<span class="sidenote">Dürr.</span> +formed of steel plates with welded joints, and instead of +the tubes being secured by “lanternes” to two plates they are +secured to the inner plate only by conical joints, the holes in the +outer plate being closed by small round doors fitted from the inside. +In fixing the tubes each is separately forced into its position by +means of a small portable hydraulic jack. The lower ends of the +caps are closed by cap-nuts made of a special heat-resisting alloy of +copper and manganese. Circulation is provided for by a diaphragm +in the water-chamber and by inner tubes as in the Niclausse boiler. +Baffle plates are fitted amongst the tubes to ensure a circulation +of the furnace gases amongst them. Above the main set of tubes is +a smaller set arranged horizontally, and connected directly to the +steam receiver. These are fitted with internal tubes, and an internal +diaphragm is provided so that steam from the chest circulates through +these tubes on its way to the stop-valves. This +supplementary set of tubes is intended to serve +as a superheater, but the amount of surface is +not sufficient to obtain more than a very small +amount of superheat.</p> + +<p>The Yarrow boiler (fig. 16) is largely in use in +the British and also in several other navies. It +consists of a large cylindrical steam +chest and two lower water-chambers, +<span class="sidenote">Yarrow.</span> +connected by numerous straight tubes. In the +boilers for large vessels all the tubes are of 1¾ in. +external diameter, but in the large express boilers +the two rows nearest to the fire on each side are +of 1¼ in. and the remainder of 1 in. diameter. +They are arranged with their centres forming +equilateral triangles, and are spaced so that +they can be cleaned externally both from the +front of the boiler and also cross-ways in two +directions. In some boilers the lower part of +the steam-chest is connected with the water-chambers +by large pipes outside the casings with +the view of improving the circulation.</p> + +<p>The largest size of single-ended large tube +boiler in use has a steam drum 4 ft. 2 in. +diameter, a grate area of 73.5 sq. ft. and 3750 +sq. ft. of heating surface, but much larger +double-ended boilers have been made, these +being fired from both ends.</p> + +<p>In most of the boilers made, access to the +inside is obtained by manholes in the steam-chest +and water-chamber ends, but in the +smaller sizes fitted in torpedo boats the +water-chambers are too small for this, and they are +each arranged in two parts connected by a bolted +joint, which makes all the tube ends accessible.</p> + +<p>The Babcock & Wilcox marine boiler (fig. 17) is +much used in the American and British navies, and +it has also been used in several yachts and merchant +steamers. It consists of a horizontal cylindrical +steam-chest placed transversely over a group of elements, beneath +which is the fire, the whole being enclosed in an iron casing lined +with firebrick. Each element consists of a front and back header +connected by numerous water-tubes which have a considerable +inclination to facilitate the circulation. The upper ends of the +front headers are situated immediately under the steam-chest and are +connected to it by short nipples; by a similar means they are +connected at the bottom to a pipe of square section which extends +across the width of the boiler. Additional connexions are made by +nearly vertical tubes between this cross-pipe and the bottom of the +steam-chest. The back headers are each connected at their upper +ends by means of two long horizontal tubes with the steam-chest, +the bottom ends of the headers being closed. The headers are made +of wrought steel, and except the outer pairs, which are flat on the +outer portions, they are sinuous on both sides, the sinuosities fitting +into one another. The tubes are of two sizes, the two lower rows +and the return tubes between the back headers and steam-chest +being 3<span class="spp">15</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> in. outside diameter, and the remaining tubes 1<span class="spp">13</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> in. +The small tubes are arranged in groups of two or four to nearly all +of the sinuosities of the headers, the purpose of this arrangement +being to give opportunities for the furnace gases to become well +mixed together, and to ensure their contact with the heating surfaces. +Access for securing the tubes in the headers is provided by a +hole formed on the other side of the header opposite each of the tubes, +where they are grouped in fours, and by one larger hole opposite +each group of two tubes. The larger holes are oval, and are closed +by fittings similar to those used in the land boiler (fig. 18). The +smaller holes are conical, with the larger diameter on the inside, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page147" id="page147"></a>147</span> +and are closed by special conical fittings: the conical portion and +bolt are one forging, and the nut is close-ended. In case of the +breakage of the bolt, the fitting would be retained in place by the +steam-pressure. A set of firebrick baffles is placed so as to cover +rather more than half of the spaces between the upper of the two +bottom rows of large tubes, and another set of baffles covers about +two-thirds of the spaces between the upper small tubes. Vertical +baffles are also built between the smaller tubes, as shown in the +longitudinal section. These baffles compel the products of combustion +to circulate among the tubes in the direction shown by the +arrows. Experience has shown that this arrangement gives a better +evaporative efficiency than where the furnace gases are allowed to +pass unbaffled straight up between the tubes. The boilers are +usually fitted in pairs placed back to back, and one side of each is +always made accessible. On this side the casing is provided with +numerous small doors, through any of which a steam jet can be +inserted for the purpose of sweeping the tubes.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:671px; height:836px" src="images/img147.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 15.—Niclausse Boiler—transverse section.</td></tr></table> + +<p>A class of water-tube boilers largely in use in torpedo-boat +destroyers and cruisers, where the maximum of power is required +in proportion to the total weight of the installation, is +generally known as express boilers. In these the tubes +<span class="sidenote">Express boilers.</span> +are made of smaller diameter than those used in the +boilers already described, and the boilers are designed to admit of a +high rate of combustion of fuel obtained by a high degree of “forced +draught.” Of these express boilers the Yarrow is of similar +construction to the large tube Yarrow boiler already described with +the exception that the tubes are smaller in diameter and much more +closely arranged.</p> + +<p>In the Normand boiler (fig. 19) there are three chambers as in the +Yarrow, connected together by a large number of bent tubes which +form the heating surface, and also connected at each end +by large outside circulating tubes. The two outer rows +<span class="sidenote">Normand.</span> +of heating tubes on each side are arranged to touch one another to +nearly their whole length so as to form a “water-wall” for the +protection of the outer casing. They enter the steam-chest at about +the water-level. The two inner rows of tubes, which are bent to the +form shown in the figure, also form a water-wall for the larger portion +of the length of the boiler, and thus compel the products of +combustion to pass in a definite course amongst all the tubes. In the +Blechynden and White-Foster boilers there are also three chambers +connected by bent tubes, the curvature being so arranged that in the +former boiler any of the tubes can be taken out of the boiler through +small doors provided in the upper part of the steam-chest, and in +the White-Foster boiler they can be taken out through the manhole +in the end of the steam-chest.</p> + +<p>In the Reed boiler the tubes are longer and more curved than in +the Normand boiler, and there are no “water-walls,” the products +of combustion passing from the fire-grate amongst all +the tubes direct to the chimney. The special feature of +<span class="sidenote">Reed.</span> +the boiler is that each tube, instead of being expanded into the +tube plate, is fitted at each end with specially +designed screw and nut connexions to enable +them to be quickly taken out and replaced if +necessary. At their lower ends the tubes are +reduced in diameter to enable smaller chambers +to be used than would otherwise be necessary. +Provision is made for access to the lower tube +ends by means of numerous doors in the water-chambers. +Access to the top ends is obtained in the steam-chest.</p> + +<p>Messrs John I. Thornycroft & Co. make +two forms of express boiler. One called the +Thornycroft boiler consists of three +chambers connected by tubes which +are straight for the major portion of +their length but bent at each end to enable +<span class="sidenote">Thornycroft.</span> +them to enter the steam- and water-chambers +normally. The outer rows of tubes form +“water-walls” at their lower parts, but permit the +passage of the gases between them at their +upper ends. Similarly the inner rows form +“water-walls” at their upper parts, but are +open at the lower ends. The products of +combustion are thus compelled to pass over the +whole of the heating surfaces. The fire-rows of +tubes in this boiler are made 1<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. outside +diameter and the remainder are made 1<span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">8</span> in. +diameter. Large outside circulating pipes are +provided at the front end of the boiler.</p> + +<p>In the other type of boiler, known as the +Thornycroft-Schulz boiler (fig. 20), there are four +chambers, and the fire-grate is arranged +in two separate portions. The two +outermost rows of tubes on each side +are arranged to form water-walls at +<span class="sidenote">Thornycroft-Schulz.</span> +their lower part, and permit the gases to pass +between them at the upper part. The rows +nearest the fires are arranged similarly to those +in the Thornycroft boiler. Circulation in the +outer sets of tubes is arranged for by outer +circulating pipes of large diameter connecting the +steam- and water-chambers. For the middle +water-chamber several nearly vertical down-comers +are provided in the centre of the boiler. +Boilers of this type are extensively used in the +British and German navies.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Material of Boilers.</i>—In ordinary land +boilers and in marine boilers of all types the +plates and stays are almost invariably made +of mild steel. For the shell plates and for +long stays, a quality having a tensile strength +ranging from 28 to 32 tons per sq. in. is usually +employed, and for furnaces and flues, for plates +which have to be flanged, and for short-screwed stays, a somewhat +softer steel with a strength ranging from 26 to 30 tons per sq. in. +is used. The tubes of ordinary land and marine boilers are +usually made of lap-welded wrought iron. In water-tube boilers +for naval purposes seamless steel tubes are invariably used. In +locomotive boilers the shells are generally of mild steel, the +fire-box plates of copper (in America of steel), the fire-box side +stays of copper or special bronze, and other stays of steel. The +tubes are usually of brass with a composition either of two parts +by weight of copper to one of zinc or 70% copper, 30% zinc; +sometimes, however, copper tubes and occasionally steel tubes +are used. Where water tubes are used they are made of seamless steel.</p> + +<p><i>Boiler Accessories.</i>—All boilers must be provided with certain +mountings and accessories. The water-level in them must be +kept above the highest part of the heating surfaces. In some +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page148" id="page148"></a>148</span> +land boilers, and in some of the water-tube boilers used on +shipboard, the feeding is automatically regulated by mechanism +actuated by a float, but in these cases means of regulating the +feed-supply by hand are also provided. In most boilers hand +regulation only is relied upon. The actual level of water in the +boiler is ascertained by a glass water-gauge, which consists of a +glass tube and three cocks, two communicating directly with the +boiler, one above and one below the desired water-level, and the +third acting as a blow-out for cleaning the gauge and for testing +its working. Three small try-cocks are also fitted, one just at, +one above, and one below the proper water-level. The feeding +of the boiler is sometimes performed by a pump driven from the +main engine, sometimes by an independent steam-pump, and +sometimes by means of an injector. The feed-water is admitted +by a “check-valve,” the lift of which is regulated by a screw and +hand-wheel, and which when the feed-pump is not working is +kept on its seating by the boiler pressure.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:737px; height:725px" src="images/img148.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 16.—Yarrow Water-tube Boiler.</td></tr></table> + +<p>Every boiler is in addition supplied with a steam-gauge to +indicate the steam-pressure, with a stop-valve for regulating the +admission of steam to the steam-pipes, and with one or two safety-valves. +These last in stationary boilers usually consist of valves +kept in their seats against the steam-pressure in the boiler by +levers carrying weights, but in marine and locomotive boilers the +valves are kept closed by means of steel springs. One at least of +the safety-valves is fitted with easing gear by which it can be +lifted at any time for blowing off the steam. Blow-out cocks are +fitted for emptying the boiler.</p> + +<p>Openings must always be made in boilers for access for cleaning +and examination. When these are large enough to allow a man +to enter the boiler they are termed man-holes. They are usually +made oval, as this shape permits the doors by which they are +closed to be placed on the inside so that the pressure upon them +tends to keep them shut. The doors are held in place by one or +two bolts, secured to cross-bars or “dogs” outside the boiler. +It is important in making these doors that they should fit the +holes so accurately that the jointing material cannot be forced +out of its proper position. In the few cases where doors are +fitted outside a boiler, so that the steam-pressure tends to +open them, they are always secured by several bolts so +that the breakage of one bolt will not allow the door to be +forced off.</p> + +<p><i>Water-softening.</i>—Seeing that the impurities contained +in the feed-water are not evaporated in the steam they become +concentrated in the boiler water. Most of them become precipitated +in the boiler either in the form of mud or else as scale which +forms on the heating surfaces. Some of the mud and such of the +impurities as remain soluble may be removed by means of the +blow-off cocks, but the scale can only be removed by +periodical cleaning. Incrustations on the +heating surface not only lessen the +efficiency of the boiler by obstructing +the transmission of heat through the +plates and tubes, but if excessive they +become a source of considerable danger +by permitting the plates to become +overheated and thereby weakened. When +the feed-water is very impure, therefore, +the boilers used are those which +permit of very easy cleaning, such as +the Lancashire, Galloway and Cornish +types, to the exclusion of multitubular +or water-tube boilers in which thorough +cleaning is more difficult. In other +cases, however, the feed-water is +purified by passing it through some type +of “softener” before pumping it into +the boiler. Most of the impurities in +ordinary feed-water are either lime or +magnesia salts, which although soluble +in cold water are much less so in hot +water. In the “softener” measured +quantities of feed-water and of some +chemical reagents are thoroughly +mixed and at the same time the +temperature is raised either by exhaust +steam or by other means. Most of +the impurity is thus precipitated, and +some of the remainder is converted +into more soluble salts which remain +in solution in the boiler until blown +out. The water is filtered before being +pumped into the boiler. The quantity +and kind of chemical employed is +determined according to the nature +and amount of the impurity in the +“hard” feed-water.</p> + +<p><i>Thermal Storage.</i>—In some cases +where the work required is very intermittent, “thermal storage” +is employed. Above the boiler a large cylindrical storage vessel +is placed, having sufficient capacity to contain enough feed-water +to supply the boiler throughout the periods when the maximum +output is required. The upper part of this storage vessel is +always in free communication with the steam space of the boiler, +and from the lower part of it the feed-water may be run into the +boiler when required. The feed-water is delivered into the upper +part of the vessel, and arrangements are made by which before it +falls to the bottom of the chamber it runs over very extended +surfaces exposed to the steam, its temperature being thus raised +to that of the steam. At times when less than the normal supply +of steam is required for the engine more than the average quantity +of feed-water is pumped into the chamber, and the excess +accumulates with its temperature raised to the evaporation point. +When an extra supply of steam is required, the feed-pump is +stopped and the boiler is fed with the hot water stored in the +chamber. Besides the “storage” effect, it is found that many +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page149" id="page149"></a>149</span> +of the impurities of the feed become deposited in the chamber, +where they are comparatively harmless and from which they are +readily removable.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:438px; height:636px" src="images/img149a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Longitudinal section.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:577px; height:623px" src="images/img149b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">Section at AB—Front elevation.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 17.—Bobcock & Wilcox Water-tube Boiler (marine type).</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Oil Separators.</i>—When the steam from the engines is condensed +and used as feed-water, as is the case with marine boilers, +much difficulty is often experienced with the oil which passes +over with the steam. Feed-filters are employed to stop the +coarser particles of the oil, but some of the oil becomes +“emulsified” or suspended in the water in such extremely minute +particles that they pass through the finest filtering materials. +On the evaporation of the water in the boiler, this oil is left +as a thin film upon the heating surfaces, and by preventing the +actual contact of water with the plates has been the cause of +serious trouble. An attempt has been made to overcome the +emulsion difficulty by uniformly mixing with the water a small +quantity of solution of lime. On the water being raised in +temperature the lime is precipitated, and the minute particles +separated apparently attract the small globules of oil and become +aggregated in sufficient size to deposit themselves in quiet parts +of the boiler, whence they can be occasionally removed either +by blowing out or by cleaning. Much, however, still remains +to be done before the oil difficulty will be thoroughly removed.</p> + +<p><i>Corrosion.</i>—When chemicals of any kind are used to soften +or purify feed-water it is essential that neither they nor the +products they form should have a corrosive effect upon the +boiler-plates, &c. Much of the corrosion which occasionally +occurs has been traced to the action of the oxygen of the air +which enters the boiler in solution in the feed-water, and the +best practice now provides for the delivery of the feed into the +boiler at such positions that the air evolved from it as it +becomes heated passes direct to the steam space without having +an opportunity of becoming disengaged upon the under-water +surfaces of the boiler.</p> + +<p>Where corrosion is feared it is usual to fit zinc slabs in the +water spaces of the boiler. Experience shows that it is better +to make them of rolled rather than of cast zinc, and to secure +them on studs which can be kept bright, so as to ensure a direct +metallic contact between the zinc and the boiler-plate. The +function of the zinc is to set up galvanic action; it plays the +part of the negative metal, and is dissolved while the metal of +the shell is kept electro-positive. Care must always be taken +that the fragments which break off the zinc as it wastes away +cannot fall upon the heating surfaces of the boiler.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:236px; height:298px" src="images/img149c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 18.—Handhole Fittings.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Evaporators.</i>—In marine boilers the waste of water which +occurs from leakages in the cycle of the evaporation in the boiler, +use in the engine, condensation in the condenser and return to +the boiler as feed-water, is made up by fresh water distilled from +sea-water in “evaporators.” Of these there are many forms with +different provisions for cleaning the coils, but they are all +identical in principle. They are fed with sea-water, and means +are provided for blowing out the brine produced in them when +some of the water is evaporated. The heat required for the +evaporation is obtained from live +steam from the boilers, which is +admitted into coils of copper pipe. +The water condensed in these coils +is returned direct to the feed-water, +and the steam evaporated +from the sea-water is led either +into the low-pressure receiver of +the steam-engine or into the +condenser.</p> + +<p><i>Efficiency of Boilers.</i>—The +useful work obtained from any boiler +depends upon many considerations. +For a high efficiency, that +is, a large amount of steam +produced in proportion to the +amount of fuel consumed, different +conditions have to be fulfilled +from those required where a large output of steam from a given +plant is of more importance than economy of fuel. For a high +efficiency, completeness of combustion of fuel must be combined +with sufficient heating surface to absorb so much of the heat +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page150" id="page150"></a>150</span> +produced as will reduce the temperature of the funnel gases +to nearly that of steam. Completeness of combustion can +only be obtained by admitting considerably more air to the fire +than is theoretically necessary fully to oxidize the combustible +portions of the fuel, and by providing sufficient time and +opportunity for a thorough mixture of the air and furnace gases to +take place before the temperature is lowered to that critical +point below which combustion will not take place. It is generally +considered that the amount of excess air required is nearly +equal to that theoretically necessary; experience, however, +tends to show that much less than this is really required if +proper means are provided for ensuring an early complete +mixture of the gases. Different means are needed to effect this +with different kinds of coal, those necessary for properly +burning Welsh coal being altogether unsuitable for use with North +Country or Scottish coal. As all the excess air has to be raised +to the same temperature as that of the really burnt gases, it +follows that an excess of air passing through the fire lowers the +temperature in the fire and flues, and therefore lessens the heat +transmission; and as it leaves the boiler at a high temperature +it carries off some of the heat produced. A reduction of the +amount of air, therefore, may, by increasing the fire temperature +and lessening the chimney waste, actually increase the efficiency +even if at the same time it is accompanied by a slight incompleteness +of combustion.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:892px; height:428px" src="images/img150.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 19.—Normand Boiler.</td></tr></table> + +<p><i>Mechanical Stoking.</i>—Most boilers are hand-fired, a system +involving much labour and frequent openings of the furnace +doors, whereby large quantities of cold air are admitted above +the fires. Many systems of mechanical stoking have been tried, +but none has been found free from objections. That most +usually employed is known as the “chain-grate” stoker. In this +system, which is illustrated in fig. 13 (Woodeson boiler), the +grate consists of a wide endless chain formed of short cast-iron +bars; this passes over suitable drums at the front and back of +the boiler, by the slow rotation of which the grate travels very +slowly from front to back. The coal, which is broken small, is +fed from a hopper over the whole width of the grate, the thickness +of the fire being regulated by a door which can be raised or +lowered as desired. Thus the volatile portions of the coal are +distilled at the front of the fire, and pass over the incandescent +fuel at the back end. The speed of travel is so regulated that +by the time the remaining parts of the fuel reach the back end +the combustion is nearly complete. It will be seen that the fire +becomes thinner towards the back, and too much air is prevented +from entering the thin portion by means of vanes actuated from +the front of the boiler.</p> + +<p><i>Draught.</i>—In most boilers the draught necessary for +combustion is “natural,” <i>i.e.</i> produced by a chimney. For marine +purposes, although “natural” draught is the more common, +many boiler installations are fitted with “forced” draught +arrangements. Two distinct systems are used. In that known +as the “closed stokehold” the stokehold compartment of the +vessel is so closed that the only exit for air from it is through +the fires. Air is driven into the stokehold by means of fans +which are made so that they can maintain an air pressure in the +stokehold above that of the outside atmosphere. This is the +system almost universally adopted in war vessels, and it is used +also in some fast passenger ships. The air pressure usually +adopted in large vessels is that corresponding to a height of from +1 to 1½ in. of water, whilst so much as 4 in. is sometimes used in +torpedo-boats and similar craft. This is, of course, in addition +to the chimney-draught due to the height of the funnel. In the +closed ashpit or Howden system, the stokehold is open, and fans +drive the air round a number of tubes, situated in the uptake, +through which the products of combustion pass on their way to +the chimney. The air thus becomes heated, and part of it is +then delivered into the ashpit below the fire and part into a +casing round the furnace front from which it enters the furnace +above the fire. In locomotive boilers the draught is produced +by the blast or the exhaust steam. With natural draught a +combustion of about 15 to 20 ℔ of coal per sq. ft. of grate +area per hour can be obtained. With forced draught much greater +rates can be maintained, ranging from 20 ℔ to 35 ℔ in the +larger vessels with a moderate air pressure, to as much as 70 and +even 80 ℔ per sq. ft. in the express types of boiler used in +torpedo boats and similar craft.</p> + +<p><i>Performance of Boilers.</i>—The makers of several types of boilers +have published particulars regarding the efficiency of the boilers +they construct, but naturally these results have been obtained +under the most favourable circumstances which may not always +represent the conditions of ordinary working. The following +table of actual results of marine boiler trials, made at the instance +of the British admiralty, is particularly useful because the trials +were made with great care under working conditions, the whole +of the coal being weighed and the feed-water measured throughout +the trials by skilled observers. The various trials can be compared +amongst themselves as South Welsh coal of excellent quality was +used in all cases.</p> + +<p>In experimental tests such as those above referred to, many +conditions have to be taken into account, the principal being +the duration of the trial. It is essential that the condition of the +boiler at the conclusion of the test should be precisely the same +as at the commencement, both as regards the quantity of +unconsumed coals on the fire-grate and the quantity of water and +the steam-pressure in the boiler. The longer the period over which +the observations are taken the less is the influence of errors +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page151" id="page151"></a>151</span> +in the estimation of these particulars. Further, in order properly +to represent working conditions, the rate of combustion of the +fuel throughout the trial must be the same as that intended +to be used in ordinary working, and the duration of the test must +be sufficient to include proportionately as much cleaning of fires +as would occur under the normal working conditions. The tests +should always be made with the kind of coal intended to be +generally used, and the records should include a test of the +calorific value of a sample of the fuel carefully selected so as +fairly to represent the bulk of the coal used during the trial. The +periodic records taken are the weights of the fuel used and of +the ashes, &c., produced, the temperature and quantity of the +feed-water, the steam pressure maintained, and the wetness of +the steam produced. This last should be ascertained from +samples taken from the steam pipe at a position where the +full pressure is maintained. In order to reduce to a common +standard observations taken under different conditions of feed +temperatures and steam pressures, the results are calculated +to an equivalent evaporation at the atmospheric pressure from +a feed temperature of 212° F.</p> +<div class="author">(J. T. Mi.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Trials of Various Types of Marine Boilers</p> + + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + + +<tr class="f80"><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Description of Boiler.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Grate<br />Area<br />sq. ft.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Heating<br />Surface<br />sq. ft.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Duration<br />of Trial<br />Hours.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Coal<br />burned<br />Per sq. ft.<br />of Grate<br />per Hour.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Air<br />Pressure<br />in Stoke-<br />hold—<br />Inches of<br />Water.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Chimney<br />Draught—<br />Inches of<br />Water</td> + <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Water Evaporated<br />per ℔ of Coal.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Water<br />Evapor-<br />ated per<br />sq. ft. of<br />Heating<br />Surface.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Thermal<br />Units per<br />℔ of<br />coal.</td> + <td class="tccm allb" rowspan="2">Effic-<br />iency<br />of<br />Boiler<br />%.</td></tr> + +<tr class="f80"><td class="tccm allb">Actual</td> + <td class="tccm allb">From and<br />at<br />212° F.</td></tr> + +<tr class="f80"><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> + <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> + <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> <td class="tcc rb">℔</td> + <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb" rowspan="4">Ordinary cylindrical single-<br /> ended; 3 furnaces; 155 ℔<br /> working pressure; closed<br /> stokehold system.*</td> +<td class="tcc rb">81</td> <td class="tcc rb">2308</td> <td class="tcc rb">25</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">Nil</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.36</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.56</td> <td class="tcc rb">10.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,267</td> <td class="tcc rb">69.7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">24</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.50</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.84</td> <td class="tcc rb">10.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.32</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,697</td> <td class="tcc rb">68.0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">30.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.81</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.39</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.93</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.27</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.46</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,686</td> <td class="tcc rb">61.4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 8½</td> <td class="tcc rb">29.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.65</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.32</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.84</td> <td class="tcc rb">10.34</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.05</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,612</td> <td class="tcc rb">68.4</td></tr> + +<tr class="cl"><td class="tclm lb rb">Ordinary cylindrical single-<br /> ended; 3 furnaces; 210 ℔<br /> working pressure; closed<br /> ashpit, Howden system.**</td> +<td class="tccm rb">63.2</td> <td class="tccm rb">2876 in<br />boiler,<br />766 in<br />air heaters</td> <td class="tccm rb">13</td> <td class="tccm rb">20.6</td> <td class="tccm rb">In Ash-<br />pit<br />1.53</td> <td class="tccm rb">0.58</td> <td class="tccm rb">11.30</td> <td class="tccm rb">12.33</td> <td class="tccm rb">5.14</td> <td class="tccm rb">14,475</td> <td class="tccm rb">82.3</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb" rowspan="3">Niclausse water-tube; 160<br /> ℔ working pressure.</td> +<td class="tcc rb">46</td> <td class="tcc rb">1322</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">Nil</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.20</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.41</td> <td class="tcc rb">10.15</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.75</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,680</td> <td class="tcc rb">66.9 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">21.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.20</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.01</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.40</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.11</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,760</td> <td class="tcc rb">62.1 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">37</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.62</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.44</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,600</td> <td class="tcc rb">60.5 </td></tr> + +<tr class="cl"><td class="tclm lb rb" rowspan="3">Niclausse water-tube;<br /> 250 ℔ working pressure.</td> +<td class="tcc rb">34</td> <td class="tcc rb">990</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">14.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.10</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.77</td> <td class="tcc rb">10.50</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.17</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,640</td> <td class="tcc rb">69.8 </td></tr> +<tr class="cl"><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.27</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.68</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.06</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.74</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,640</td> <td class="tcc rb">60.4 </td></tr> +<tr class="cl"><td class="tccm rb">”</td> <td class="tccm rb">”</td> <td class="tccm rb">90</td> <td class="tccm rb">15.4</td> <td class="tccm rb">Nil</td> <td class="tccm rb">Not asce-<br />rtained</td> <td class="tccm rb">7.61</td> <td class="tccm rb">9.08</td> <td class="tccm rb">4.00</td> <td class="tccm rb">14,630</td> <td class="tccm rb">59.9 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb" rowspan="3">Babcock water-tube; 3<span class="spp">3</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span><br /> in. tubes; 260 ℔ working<br /> pressure.</td> +<td class="tcc rb">36</td> <td class="tcc rb">1010</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">13.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.31</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.02</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,590</td> <td class="tcc rb">73.2 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.0</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.18</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.20</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.58</td> <td class="tcc rb">10.11</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.13</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,590</td> <td class="tcc rb">67.0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tccm rb">”</td> <td class="tccm rb">”</td> <td class="tccm rb">90</td> <td class="tccm rb">14.5</td> <td class="tccm rb">Nil</td> <td class="tccm rb">Not asce-<br />rtained</td> <td class="tccm rb">8.09</td> <td class="tccm rb">9.53</td> <td class="tccm rb">4.18</td> <td class="tccm rb">· ·</td> <td class="tccm rb">63.1 </td></tr> + +<tr class="cl"><td class="tclm lb rb" rowspan="6">Babcock water-tube; 1<span class="spp">13</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span><br /> in. tubes; 270 ℔ working<br /> pressure.***</td> +<td class="tcc rb">62</td> <td class="tcc rb">2167</td> <td class="tcc rb">28</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.45</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.94</td> <td class="tcc rb">10.61</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.61</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,520</td> <td class="tcc rb">70.7 </td></tr> +<tr class="cl"><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">24</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.93</td> <td class="tcc rb">10.59</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.82</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,390</td> <td class="tcc rb">71.1 </td></tr> +<tr class="cl"><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.42</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.42</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.04</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.41</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,080</td> <td class="tcc rb">75.8 </td></tr> +<tr class="cl"><td class="tccm rb">”</td> <td class="tccm rb">”</td> <td class="tccm rb"> 7</td> <td class="tccm rb">28.9</td> <td class="tccm rb">0.50</td> <td class="tccm rb">Not asce-<br />rtained</td> <td class="tccm rb">8.54</td> <td class="tccm rb">9.88</td> <td class="tccm rb">6.91</td> <td class="tccm rb">14,390</td> <td class="tccm rb">66.3 </td></tr> +<tr class="cl"><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">30</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">Nil</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.38</td> <td class="tcc rb">10.11</td> <td class="tcc rb">12.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.01</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,530</td> <td class="tcc rb">79.9 </td></tr> +<tr class="cl"><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">29</td> <td class="tcc rb">27.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.66</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.96</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.67</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.05</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,630</td> <td class="tcc rb">77.1 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb" rowspan="4">Belleville water-tube with<br /> economizers; 320 ℔<br /> working pressure.</td> +<td class="tcc rb">44</td> <td class="tcc rb">910 in boiler;</td> <td class="tcc rb">24½</td> <td class="tcc rb">15.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">Nil</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.36</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.65</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.46</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.94</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,697</td> <td class="tcc rb">77.2 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">447 in econo-</td> <td class="tcc rb">24</td> <td class="tcc rb">17.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.39</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,805</td> <td class="tcc rb">71.8 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">mizer;</td> <td class="tcc rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">19.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.43</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.39</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.03</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.38</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,578</td> <td class="tcc rb">73.3 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">1357 total.</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">27.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.39</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.79</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.78</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 14,611</td> <td class="tcc rb">65.0 </td></tr> + +<tr class="cl"><td class="tclm lb rb" rowspan="7">Yarrow water tube; 1¾ in.<br /> tubes; 250 ℔ working<br /> pressure.</td> +<td class="tcc rb">56</td> <td class="tcc rb">2896</td> <td class="tcc rb">26</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">Nil</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.31</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.57</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.45</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.12</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,750</td> <td class="tcc rb">75.0 </td></tr> +<tr class="cl"><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">26</td> <td class="tcc rb">18.2</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.31</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.37</td> <td class="tcc rb">11.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,500</td> <td class="tcc rb">75.7 </td></tr> +<tr class="cl"><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">25</td> <td class="tcc rb">21.3</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.31</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.83</td> <td class="tcc rb">10.45</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.63</td> <td class="tcc rb">13,500</td> <td class="tcc rb">75.2 </td></tr> +<tr class="cl"><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">30</td> <td class="tcc rb">35.4</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.53</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.82</td> <td class="tcc rb">10.59</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.04</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,430</td> <td class="tcc rb">70.9 </td></tr> +<tr class="cl"><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">41.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.86</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.31</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.24</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.94</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.69</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,500</td> <td class="tcc rb">66.3 </td></tr> +<tr class="cl"><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.31</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.39</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.93</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.47</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,680</td> <td class="tcc rb">65.4 </td></tr> +<tr class="cl"><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">39.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.82</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.24</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.85</td> <td class="tcc rb">10.43</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.81</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,530</td> <td class="tcc rb">69.5 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tclm lb rb bb" rowspan="9">Dürr water-tube; 250 ℔<br /> working pressure.</td> <td class="tcc rb">71</td> +<td class="tccm rb bb" rowspan="9">2671 in boiler,<br />140 in super-<br />heater;<br />2811 total.</td> +<td class="tcc rb">26</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.1</td> <td class="tcc rb"> Nil</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.39</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.95</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.50</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.24</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,500</td> <td class="tcc rb">63.8 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">26</td> <td class="tcc rb">17.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.06</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.43</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,620</td> <td class="tcc rb">61.7 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">25</td> <td class="tcc rb">21.1</td> <td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.31</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.62</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.08</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.05</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,650</td> <td class="tcc rb">60.3 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 7</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.70</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.36</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.72</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.59</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,570</td> <td class="tcc rb">62.7 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">26.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.35</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.86</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,320</td> <td class="tcc rb">63.1 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb"> 8</td> <td class="tcc rb">34.6</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.11</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.20</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.02</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.53</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.02</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,230</td> <td class="tcc rb">64.8 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">22</td> <td class="tcc rb">34.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.73</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.16</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.84</td> <td class="tcc rb">8.06</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.02</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,430</td> <td class="tcc rb">54.0 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb">24</td> <td class="tcc rb">29.9</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.35</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.12</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.62</td> <td class="tcc rb">9.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.75</td> <td class="tcc rb">14,240</td> <td class="tcc rb">61.2 </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb bb">”</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">20</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">19.9</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">Nil</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.21</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">7.30</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8.33</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.66</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">14,240</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">8.6 </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="12">*  In the first three trials no retarders were used in the tubes. +In the last trial retarders were used.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="12">**  In this trial retarders were used in the tubes.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="12">*** The first four trials were made with horizontal baffles above the tubes; +the last two trials with the baffling described in the text.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Boiler Making</p> + +<p>The practice of the boiler, bridge and girder shops may here +be conveniently treated together, because similar materials and +methods are employed in each, notwithstanding that many points +of divergence in practice generally relegate them to separate +departments. The materials used are chiefly iron and steel. +The methods mostly adopted are those involved in the working +of plates and rolled sections, which vastly predominate over the +bars and rods used chiefly in the smithy. But there are numerous +differences in methods of construction. Flanging occupies a +large place in boilermaking, for end-plates, tube-plates, furnace +flues, &c., but is scarcely represented in bridge and girder work. +Plates are bent to cylindrical shapes in boilermaking, for shells +and furnaces, but not in girder work. Welding is much more +common in the first than in the second, furnace flues being +always welded and stand pipes frequently. In boiler work +holes are generally drilled through the seams of adjacent plates. +In bridge work each plate or bar is usually drilled or punched +apart from its fellows. Boilers, again, being subject to high +temperatures and pressures, must be constructed with provisions +to ensure some elasticity and freedom of movement under varying +temperatures to prevent fractures or grooving, and must +be made of materials that combine high ductility with strength +when heated to furnace temperatures. Flanging of certain +parts, judicious staying, limitation of the length of the tubes, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page152" id="page152"></a>152</span> +the forms of which are inherently weak, provide for the first; +the selection of steel or iron of high percentage elongation, +and the imposition of temper, or bending tests, both hot and cold, +provide for the second.</p> + +<p>The following are the leading features of present-day methods.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>It might be hastily supposed that, because plates, angles, tees, +channels and joist sections are rolled ready for use, little work +could be left for the plater and boilermaker. But actually so much +is involved that subdivisions of tasks are numerous; the operations +of templet-making, rolling, planing, punching and shearing, bending, +welding and forging, flanging, drilling, riveting, caulking, and tubing +require the labours of several groups of machine attendants, and of +gangs of unskilled labourers or helpers. Some operations also have +to be done at a red or white heat, others cold. To the first belong +flanging and welding, to the latter generally all the other operations. +Heating is necessary for the rolling of tubes of small diameter; +bending is done cold or hot according to circumstances.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:752px; height:841px" src="images/img152.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 20.—Thornycroft-Schulz Water-tube Boiler.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The fact that some kinds of treatment, as shearing and punching, +flanging and bending, are of a very violent character explains why +practice has changed radically in regard to the method of performing +these operations in cases where safety is a cardinal matter. Shearing +and punching are both severely detrusive operations performed on +cold metal; both leave jagged edges and, as experience has proved, +very minute cracks, the tendency of which is to extend under subsequent +stress, with liability to produce fracture. But it has been +found that, when a shorn edge is planed and a punched hole enlarged +by reamering, no harm results, provided not less than about <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">16</span> in. +is removed. A great advance was therefore made when specifications +first insisted on the removal of the rough edges before the parts +were united.</p> + +<p>In the work of riveting another evil long existed. When holes are +punched it is practically impossible to ensure the exact coincidence +of holes in different plates which have to be brought together for +the purpose of riveting. From this followed the use of the drift,—a +tapered rod driven forcibly by hammer blows through corresponding +holes in adjacent plates, by which violent treatment the holes +were forcibly drawn into alignment. This drifting stressed the plates, +setting up permanent strains and enlarging incipient cracks, and +many boiler explosions have been clearly traceable to the abuse of +this tool. Then, next, specifications insisted that all holes should be +enlarged by reamering <i>after</i> the plates were in place. But even that +did not prove a safeguard, because it often happened that the metal +reamered was nearly all removed from one side of a hole, so leaving +the other side just as the punch had torn it. Ultimately came the +era of drilling rivet-holes, to which there is no exception now in +high-class boiler work. For average girder and bridge work the practice +of punching and reamering is still in use, because the conditions of +service are not so severe as are those in steam boilers.</p> + +<p>Flanging signifies the turning or bending over of the edges of a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page153" id="page153"></a>153</span> +plate to afford a means of union to other plates. Examples occur in +the back end-plates of Lancashire and Cornish boilers, the front and +back plates of marine boilers, the fire-boxes of locomotive boilers, +the crowns of vertical boilers, the ends of conical cross-tubes, and +the Adamson seams of furnace flues. This practice has superseded +the older system of effecting union by means of rings forming two +sides of a rectangular section (angle iron rings). These were a +fruitful source of grooving and explosions in steam boilers, because +their sharp angular form lacked elasticity; hence the reason for the +substitution of a flange turned with a large radius, which afforded the +elasticity necessary to counteract the effects of changes in temperature. +In girder work where such conditions do not exist, the method of +union with angles is of course retained. In the early days of flanging +the process was performed in detail by a skilled workman (the +angle ironsmith), and it is still so done in small establishments. +A length of edge of about 10 in. or a foot is heated, and bent by +hammering around the edge of a block of iron of suitable shape. +Then another “heat” is taken and flanged, and another, until the +work is complete. But in modern boiler shops little hand work is +ever done; instead, plates 4 ft., 6 ft., or 8 ft. in diameter, and fire-box +plates for locomotive boilers, have their entire flanges bent at a +single squeeze between massive dies in a hydraulic press. In the case +of the ends of marine boilers which are too large for such treatment, +a special form of press bends the edges over in successive heats. +The flanges of Adamson seams are rolled over in a special machine. +A length of flue is rotated on a table, while the flange is turned +over within a minute between revolving rollers. There is another +advantage in the adoption of machine-flanging, besides the enormous +saving of time, namely, that the material suffers far less injury than +it does in hand-flanging.</p> + +<p>These differences in practice would not have assumed such magnitude +but for the introduction of mild steel in place of malleable iron. +Iron suffers less from overheating and irregular heating than does +steel. Steel possesses higher ductility, but it is also more liable to +develop cracks if subjected to improper treatment. All this and much +more is writ large in the early testing of steel, and is reflected +in present-day practice.</p> + +<p>A feature peculiar to the boiler and plating shops is the enormous +number of rivet holes which have to be made, and of rivets to be +inserted. These requirements are reflected in machine design. To +punch or drill holes singly is too slow a process in the best practice, +and so machines are made for producing many holes simultaneously. +Besides this, the different sections of boilers are drilled in machines +of different types, some for shells, some for furnaces, some peculiar +to the shells or furnaces of one type of boilers, others to those of +another type only. And generally now these machines not only drill, +but can also be adjusted to drill to exact pitch, the necessity +thus being avoided of marking out the holes as guides to the drills.</p> + +<p>Hand-riveting has mostly been displaced by hydraulic and +pneumatic machines, with resulting great saving in cost, and the +advantage of more trustworthy and uniform results. For boiler +work, machines are mostly of fixed type; for bridge and girder work +they are portable, being slung from chains and provided with +pressure water or compressed air by systems of flexible pipes.</p> + +<p>Welding fills a large place in boiler work, but it is that of the edges +of plates chiefly, predominating over that of the bars and rods of +the smithy. The edges to be united are thin and long, so that short +lengths have to be done in succession at successive “heats.” Much +of this is hand work, and “gluts” or insertion pieces are generally +preferred to overlapping joints. But in large shops, steam-driven +power hammers are used for closing the welds. Parts that are +commonly welded are the furnace flues, the conical cross-tubes and +angle rings.</p> + +<p>Another aspect of the work of these departments is the immense +proportions of the modern machine tools used. This development +is due in great degree to the substitution of steel for iron. The steel +shell-plates of the largest boilers are 1½ in. thick, and these have +to be bent into cylindrical forms. In the old days of iron boilers the +capacity of rolls never exceeded about ¾ in. plate. Often, alternatively +to rolling, these thick plates are bent by squeezing them in +successive sections between huge blocks operated by hydraulic +pressure acting on toggle levers. And other machines besides the +rolls are made more massive than formerly to deal with the immense +plates of modern marine boilers.</p> + +<p>The boiler and plating shops have been affected by the general +tendency to specialize manufactures. Firms have fallen into the +practice of restricting their range of product, with increase in volume. +The time has gone past when a single shop could turn out several +classes of boilers, and undertake any bridge and girder work as well. +One reason is to be found in the diminution of hand work and the +growth of the machine tool. Almost every distinct operation on +every section of a boiler or bridge may now be accomplished by one +of several highly specialized machines. Repetitive operations are +provided for thus, and by a system of templeting. If twenty or +fifty similar boilers are made in a year, each plate, hole, flange or +stay will be exactly like every similar one in the set. Dimensions of +plates will be marked from a sample or templet plate, and holes +will be marked similarly; or in many cases they are not marked +at all, but pitched and drilled at once by self-acting mechanism +embodied in drilling machines specially designed for one set of +operations on one kind of plate. Hundreds of bracing bars for bridges +and girders will be cut off all alike, and drilled or punched from a +templet bar, so that they are ready to take their place in bridge or +girder without any adjustments or fitting.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. G. H.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOILING TO DEATH,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> a punishment once common both in +England and on the continent. The only extant legislative +notice of it in England occurs in an act passed in 1531 during +the reign of Henry VIII., providing that convicted poisoners +should be boiled to death; it is, however, frequently mentioned +earlier as a punishment for coining. The <i>Chronicles of the +Grey Friars</i> (published by the Camden Society, 1852) have an +account of boiling for poisoning at Smithfield in the year 1522, +the man being fastened to a chain and lowered into boiling +water several times until he died. The preamble of the statute +of Henry VIII. (which made poisoning treason) in 1531 recites +that one Richard Roose (or Coke), a cook, by putting poison +in some food intended for the household of the bishop of Rochester +and for the poor of the parish of Lambeth, killed a man +and woman. He was found guilty of treason and sentenced to +be boiled to death without benefit of clergy. He was publicly +boiled at Smithfield. In the same year a maid-servant for +poisoning her mistress was boiled at King’s Lynn. In 1542 Margaret +Davy, a servant, for poisoning her employer, was boiled at +Smithfield. In the reign of Edward VI., in 1547, the act was +repealed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also W. Andrews, <i>Old Time Punishments</i> (Hull, 1890); +<i>Notes and Queries</i>, vol. i. (1862), vol. ix. (1867); +Du Cange (<i>s.v.</i> <i>Caldariis decoquere</i>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOIS BRÛLÉS,<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Brulés</span> (a French translation of their +Indian name <span class="sc">Sichangu</span>), a sub-tribe of North American Dakota +Indians (Teton river division). The name is most frequently +associated with the half-breeds in Manitoba, who in 1869 came +into temporary prominence in connexion with Riel’s Rebellion +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Red River</a></span>); at that time they had lost all tribal purity, +and were alternatively called <i>Metis</i> (half-castes), the +majority being descendants of French-Canadians.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOISÉ,<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Ada county, Idaho, +U.S.A., and the capital of the state, situated on the N. side of +the Boisé river, in the S.W. part of the state, at an altitude of +about 2700 ft. Pop. (1890) 2311; (1900) 5957; (1910) 17,358. +It is served by the Oregon Short Line railway, being the terminus +of a branch connecting with the main line at Nampa, about 20 m. W.; +and by electric lines connecting with Caldwell and Nampa. +The principal buildings are the state capitol, the United States +assay office, a Carnegie library, a natatorium, and the Federal +building, containing the post office, the United States circuit +and district court rooms, and a U.S. land office. Boisé is the +seat of the state school for the deaf and blind (1906), and just +outside the city limits are the state soldiers’ home and the state +penitentiary. About 2 m. from the city are Federal barracks. +Hot water (175° F.) from artesian wells near the city is utilized +for the natatorium and to heat many residences and public +buildings. The Boisé valley is an excellent country for raising +apples, prunes and other fruits. The manufactured products of the +city are such as are demanded by a mining country, principally +lumber, flour and machine-shop products. Boisé is the trade +centre of the surrounding fruit-growing, agricultural and mining +country, and is an important wool market. The oldest settlement +in the vicinity was made by the Hudson’s Bay Fur Company on the +west side of the Boisé river, before 1860; the present city, +chartered in 1864, dates from 1863. After 1900 the city grew very +rapidly, principally owing to the great irrigation schemes in +southern Idaho; the water for the immense Boisé-Payette irrigation +system is taken from the Boisé, 8 m. above the city. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Idaho</a></span>.)</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOISGOBEY, FORTUNÉ DU<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1824-1891), French writer of +fiction, whose real surname was Castille, was born at Granville +(Manche) on the 11th of September 1824. He served in the +army pay department in Algeria from 1844 to 1848, and extended +his travels to the East. He made his literary debut in the <i>Petit +journal</i> with a story entitled <i>Deux comédiens</i> (1868). With +<i>Le Forçat colonel</i> (1872) he became one of the most popular +feuilleton writers. His police stories, though not so convincing +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page154" id="page154"></a>154</span> +as those of Émile Gaboriau, with whom his name is generally +associated, had a great circulation, and many of them have been +translated into English. Among his stories may be mentioned: +<i>Les Mystères du nouveau Paris</i> (1876), <i>Le Demi-Monde sous la +Terreur</i> (1877), <i>Les Nuits de Constantinople</i> (1882), <i>Le Cri du sang</i> +(1885), <i>La Main froide</i> (1889). Boisgobey died on the 26th of +February 1891.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOISGUILBERT, PIERRE LE PESANT,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> <span class="sc">Sieur de</span> (1676-1714), +French economist, was born at Rouen of an ancient noble +family of Normandy, allied to that of Corneille. He received +his classical education in Rouen, entered the magistracy and +became judge at Montivilliers, near Havre. In 1690 he became +president of the <i>bailliage</i> of Rouen, a post which he retained +almost until his death, leaving it to his son. In these two +situations he made a close study of local economic conditions, +personally supervising the cultivation of his lands, and entering +into relations with the principal merchants of Rouen. He was +thus led to consider the misery of the people under the burden +of taxation. In 1695 he published his principal work, <i>Le Détail +de la France; la cause de la diminution de ses biens, et la facilité +du remède</i>.... In it he drew a picture of the general ruin +of all classes of Frenchmen, caused by the bad economic régime. +In opposition to Colbert’s views he held that the wealth of a +country consists, not in the abundance of money which it possesses +but in what it produces and exchanges. The remedy for the +evils of the time was not so much the reduction as the equalization +of the imposts, which would allow the poor to consume +more, raise the production and add to the general wealth. He +demanded the reform of the <i>taille</i>, the suppression of internal +customs duties and greater freedom of trade. In his <i>Factum +de la France</i>, published in 1705 or 1706, he gave a more concise +<i>résumé</i> of his ideas. But his proposal to substitute for all aides +and customs duties a single capitation tax of a tenth of the +revenue of all property was naturally opposed by the farmers +of taxes and found little support. Indeed his work, written in +a diffuse and inelegant style, passed almost unnoticed. Saint +Simon relates that he once asked a hearing of the comte de +Pontchartrain, saying that he would at first believe him mad, +then become interested, and then see he was right. Pontchartrain +bluntly told him that he did think him mad, and turned +his back on him. With Michel de Chamillart, whom he had +known as intendant of Rouen (1689-1690), he had no better +success. Upon the disgrace of Vauban, whose <i>Dîme royale</i> +had much in common with Boisguilbert’s plan, Boisguilbert +violently attacked the controller in a pamphlet, <i>Supplément +au détail de la France</i>. The book was seized and condemned, +and its author exiled to Auvergne, though soon allowed to +return. At last in 1710 the controller-general, Nicolas Desmarets, +established a new impost, the “tenth” (<i>dixième</i>), +which had some analogy with the project of Boisguilbert. +Instead of replacing the former imposts, however, Desmarets +simply added his <i>dixième</i> to them; the experiment was naturally +disastrous, and the idea was abandoned.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>In 1712 appeared a <i>Testament politique de M. de Vauban</i>, which is +simply Boisguilbert’s <i>Détail de la France</i>. Vauban’s <i>Dîme royale</i> +was formerly wrongly attributed to him. Boisguilbert’s works were +collected by Daire in the first volume of the <i>Collection des grands +économistes</i>. His letters are in the <i>Correspondance des contrôleurs +généraux</i>, vol. i., published by M. de Boislisle.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOISROBERT, FRANÇOIS LE METEL DE<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1592-1662), +French poet, was born at Caen in 1592. He was trained for the +law, and practised for some time at the bar at Rouen. About +1622 he went to Paris, and by the next year had established a +footing at court, for he had a share in the ballet of the <i>Bacchanales</i> +performed at the Louvre in February. He accompanied an embassy +to England in 1625, and in 1630 visited Rome, where he won +the favour of Urban VIII. by his wit. He took orders, and was +made a canon of Rouen. He had been introduced to Richelieu +in 1623, and by his humour and his talent as a raconteur +soon made himself indispensable to the cardinal. Boisrobert +became one of the five poets who carried out Richelieu’s dramatic +ideas. He had a passion for play, and was a friend of Ninon de +l’Enclos; and his enemies found ready weapons against him +in the undisguised looseness of his life. He was more than once +disgraced, but never for long, although in his later years he was +compelled to give more attention to his duties as a priest. It +was Boisrobert who suggested to Richelieu the plan of the Academy, +and he was one of its earliest and most active members. +Rich as he was through the benefices conferred on him by his +patron, he was liberal to men of letters. After the death of +Richelieu, he attached himself to Mazarin, whom he served +faithfully throughout the Fronde. He died on the 30th of +March 1662. He wrote a number of comedies, to one of which, +<i>La Belle Plaideuse</i>, Molière’s <i>L’Avare</i> is said to owe something; +and also some volumes of verse. The licentious <i>Contes</i>, published +under the name of his brother D’Ouville, are often attributed to +him.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOISSARD, JEAN JACQUES<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1528-1602), French antiquary +and Latin poet, was born at Besançon. He studied at Louvain; +but, disgusted by the severity of his master, he secretly left +that seminary, and after traversing a great part of Germany +reached Italy, where he remained several years and was often +reduced to great straits. His residence in Italy developed in +his mind a taste for antiquities, and he soon formed a collection +of the most curious monuments from Rome and its vicinity. He +then visited the islands of the Archipelago, with the intention +of travelling through Greece, but a severe illness obliged him to +return to Rome. Here he resumed his favourite pursuits with +great ardour, and having completed his collection, returned to his +native country; but not being permitted to profess publicly +the Protestant religion, which he had embraced some time before, +he withdrew to Metz, where he died on the 30th of October 1602. +His most important works are: <i>Poemata</i> (1574); <i>Emblemata</i> +(1584); <i>Icones Virorum Illustrium</i> (1597); <i>Vitae et Icones +Sultanorum Turcicorum</i>, &c. (1597); <i>Theatrum Vitae Humanae</i> +(1596); <i>Romanae Urbis Topographia</i> (1597-1602), now very rare; +<i>De Divinatione et Magicis Praestigiis</i> (1605); <i>Habitus Variarum +Orbis Gentium</i> (1581), ornamented with seventy illuminated +figures.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOISSIER, MARIE LOUIS ANTOINE GASTON<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1823-1908), +French classical scholar, and secretary of the French Academy, +was born at Nimes on the 15th of August 1823. The Roman +monuments of his native town very early attracted Gaston +Boissier to the study of ancient history. He made epigraphy +his particular theme, and at the age of twenty-three became a +professor of rhetoric at Angoulême, where he lived and worked +for ten years without further ambition. A travelling inspector +of the university, however, happened to hear him lecture, and +Boissier was called to Paris to be professor at the Lycée Charlemagne. +He began his literary career by a thesis on the poet +Attius (1857) and a study on the life and work of M. Terentius +Varro (1861). In 1861 he was made professor of Latin oratory at +the Collège de France, and he became an active contributor to +the <i>Revue des deux mondes</i>. In 1865 he published <i>Cicéron +et ses amis</i> (Eng. trans, by A.D. Jones, 1897), which has enjoyed +a success such as rarely falls to the lot of a work of erudition. +In studying the manners of ancient Rome, Boissier had learned to +re-create its society and to reproduce its characteristics with +exquisite vivacity. In 1874 he published <i>La Religion romaine +d’Auguste aux Antonins</i> (2 vols.), in which he analysed the +great religious movement of antiquity that preceded the acceptance +of Christianity. In <i>L’Opposition sous les Césars</i> (1875) he +drew a remarkable picture of the political decadence of Rome +under the early successors of Augustus. By this time Boissier +had drawn to himself the universal respect of scholars and men of +letters, and on the death of H.J.G. Patin, the author of <i>Études +sur les tragiques grecs</i>, in 1876, he was elected a member of the +French Academy, of which he was appointed perpetual secretary +in 1895.</p> + +<p>His later works include <i>Promenades archéologiques: Rome +et Pompéi</i> (1880; second series, 1886); <i>L’Afrique romaine, +promenades archéologiques</i> (1901); <i>La Fin du paganisme</i> (2 vols., +1891); <i>Le Conjuration de Catilina</i> (1905); <i>Tacite</i> (1903, Eng. +trans, by W.G. Hutchison, 1906). He was a representative +example of the French talent for lucidity and elegance applied +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page155" id="page155"></a>155</span> +with entire seriousness to weighty matters of literature. Though +he devoted himself mainly to his great theme, the reconstruction +of the elements of Roman society, he also wrote monographs +on <i>Madame de Sévigné</i> (1887) and <i>Saint-Simon</i> (1892). He +died in June 1908.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOISSONADE DE FONTARABIE, JEAN FRANÇOIS<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> (1774-1857), +French classical scholar, was born at Paris on the 12th of +August 1774. In 1792 he entered the public service during the +administration of General Dumouriez. Driven from it in 1795, +he was restored by Lucien Bonaparte, during whose time of +office he served as secretary to the prefecture of the Upper Marne. +He then definitely resigned public employment and devoted himself +to the study of Greek. In 1809 he was appointed deputy +professor of Greek at the faculty of letters at Paris, and titular +professor in 1813 on the death of P.H. Larcher. In 1828 he +succeeded J.B. Gail in the chair of Greek at the Collège de +France. He also held the offices of librarian of the Bibliothèque +du Roi, and of perpetual secretary of the Académie des Inscriptions. +He died on the 8th of September 1857. Boissonade +chiefly devoted his attention to later Greek literature: Philostratus, +<i>Heroica</i> (1806) and <i>Epistolae</i> (1842); Marinus, <i>Vita +procli</i> (1814); Tiberius Rhetor, <i>De Figuris</i> (1815); Nicetas +Eugenianus, <i>Drosilla et Charicles</i> (1819); Herodian, <i>Partitiones</i> +(1819); Aristaenetus, <i>Epistolae</i> (1822); Eunapius, <i>Vitae Sophistarum</i> +(1822); Babrius, <i>Fables</i> (1844); Tzetzes, <i>Allegoriae +Iliados</i> (1851); and a <i>Collection of Greek Poets</i> in 24 vols. The +<i>Anecdota Graeca</i> (1829-1833) and <i>Anecdota Nova</i> (1844) are +important for Byzantine history and the Greek grammarians.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A selection of his papers was published by F. Colincamp, <i>Critique +littéraire sous le premier Empire</i> (1863), vol. i. of which contains a +complete list of his works, and a “Notice Historique sur Monsieur +B.,” by Naudet.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOISSY D’ANGLAS, FRANÇOIS ANTOINE DE<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> (1756-1828), +French statesman, received a careful education and busied +himself at first with literature. He had been a member of several +provincial academies before coming to Paris, where he purchased +a position as advocate to the parlement. In 1789 he was elected +by the third estate of the <i>sénéchaussée</i> of Annonay as deputy +to the states-general. He was one of those who induced the +states-general to proclaim itself a National Assembly on the 17th +of June 1789; approved, in several speeches, of the capture of +the Bastille and of the taking of the royal family to Paris (October +1789); demanded that strict measures be taken against the +royalists who were intriguing in the south of France, and published +some pamphlets on finance. During the Legislative Assembly +he was <i>procureur-syndic</i> for the directory of the department +of Ardeche. Elected to the Convention, he sat in the centre, +“<i>le Marais</i>,” voting in the trial of Louis XVI. for his detention +until deportation should be judged expedient for the state. He +was then sent on a mission to Lyons to investigate the frauds in +connexion with the supplies of the army of the Alps. During +the Terror he was one of those deputies of the centre who supported +Robespierre; but he was gained over by the members +of the Mountain hostile to Robespierre, and his support, along +with that of some other leaders of the <i>Marais</i>, made possible the +9th Thermidor. He was then elected a member of the Committee +of Public Safety and charged with the superintendence of the provisioning +of Paris. He presented the report supporting the decree +of the 3rd Ventose of the year III. which established liberty of +worship. In the critical days of Germinal and of Prairial of the +year III. he showed great courage. On the 12th Germinal +he was in the tribune, reading a report on the food supplies, +when the hall of the Convention was invaded by the rioters, and +when they withdrew he quietly continued where he had been +interrupted. On the 1st Prairial he presided over the Convention, +and remained unmoved by the insults and menaces of +the insurgents. When the head of the deputy, Jean Féraud, was +presented to him on the end of a pike, he saluted it impassively. +He was reporter of the committee which drew up the constitution +of the year III., and his report shows keen apprehension +of a return of the Reign of Terror, and presents reactionary +measures as precautions against the re-establishment of “tyranny +and anarchy.” This report, the proposal that he made +(August 27, 1795) to lessen the severity of the revolutionary +laws, and the eulogies he received from several Paris sections +suspected of disloyalty to the republic, resulted in his being +obliged to justify himself (October 15, 1795). As a member +of the Council of the Five Hundred he became more and more +suspected of royalism. He presented a measure in favour of +full liberty for the press, which at that time was almost +unanimously reactionary, protested against the outlawry of returned +<i>émigrés</i>, spoke in favour of the deported priests and attacked +the Directory. Accordingly he was proscribed on the 18th +Fructidor, and lived in England until the Consulate. In 1801 +he was made a member of the Tribunate, and in 1805 a senator. +In 1814 he voted for Napoleon’s abdication, which won for him +a seat in the chamber of peers; but during the Hundred Days he +served Napoleon, and in consequence, on the second Restoration, +was for a short while excluded. In the chamber he still sought +to obtain liberty for the press—a theme upon which he published +a volume of his speeches (Paris, 1817). He was a member of the +Institute from its foundation, and in 1816, at the reorganization, +became a member of the Académie des Inscriptions et +Belles-Lettres. He published in 1819-1821 a two-volume <i>Essai +sur la vie et les opinions de M. de Malesherbes</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F.A. Aulard, <i>Les Orateurs de la Révolution</i> (2nd ed., 1906); +L. Sciout, <i>Le Directoire</i> (4 vols., 1895); +and the “Notice sur la vie et les œuvres de M. Boissy d’Anglas” +in the <i>Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions</i>, ix.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. A.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOITO, ARRIGO<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> (1842-  ), Italian poet and musical +composer, was born at Padua on the 24th of February 1842. +He studied music at the Milan Conservatoire, but even in those +early days he devoted as much of his time to literature as to +music, forecasting the divided allegiance which was to be the +chief characteristic of his life’s history. While at the Conservatoire +he wrote and composed, in collaboration with Franco Faccio, +a cantata, <i>Le Sorelle d’Italia</i>, which was performed with success. +On completing his studies Boito travelled for some years, and +after his return to Italy settled down in Milan, dividing his +time between journalism and music. In 1866 he fought under +Garibaldi, and in 1868 conducted the first performance of his +opera <i>Mefistofele</i> at the Scala theatre, Milan. The work +failed completely, and was withdrawn after a second performance. +It was revived in 1875 at Bologna in a much altered and +abbreviated form, when its success was beyond question. It was +performed in London in 1880 with success, but in spite of frequent +revivals has never succeeded in firmly establishing itself in +popular favour. Boito treated the Faust legend in a spirit far more +nearly akin to the conception of Goethe than is found in Gounod’s +Faust, but, in spite of many isolated beauties, his opera lacks +cohesion and dramatic interest. His energies were afterwards chiefly +devoted to the composition of libretti, of which the principal are +<i>Otello</i> and <i>Falstaff</i>, set to music by Verdi; +<i>La Gioconda</i>, set by Ponchielli; <i>Amleto</i>, set by Faccio; +and <i>Ero e Leandre</i>, set by Bottesini and Mancinelli. These works +display a rare knowledge of the requirements of dramatic poetry, +together with uncommon literary value. Boito also published +a book of poems and a novel, <i>L’Alfier Meno</i>. The degree of +doctor of music was conferred upon him in 1893 by the university +of Cambridge.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOIVIN, FRANÇOIS DE,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> Baron de Villars (d. 1618), French +chronicler, entered the service of Charles, Marshal Brissac, as +secretary, and accompanied him to Piedmont in 1550 when the +marshal went to take command of the French troops in the war +with Spain. Remaining in this service he was sent after the +defeat of the French at St Quentin in 1557 to assure the French +king Henry II. of the support of Brissac. He took part in the +negotiations which led to the treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis in +April 1559, but was unable to prevent Henry II. from ceding +the conquests made by Brissac. Boivin wrote <i>Mémoires sur les +guerres démêlées tant dans le Piémont qu’au Montferrat et duche +de Milan par Charles de Cossé, comte de Brissac</i> (Paris, 1607), +which, in spite of some drawbacks, is valuable as the testimony +of an eye-witness of the war. An edition, carefully revised, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page156" id="page156"></a>156</span> +appears in the <i>Mémoires relatifs à l’histoire de France</i>, tome x., +edited by J.F. Michaud and J.J.F. Poujoulat (Paris, 1850). +He also wrote <i>Instruction sur les affaires d’état</i> (Lyons, 1610).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Lelong, <i>Bibliothèque historique de la France</i> (Paris, 1768-1778).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOKENAM, OSBERN<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1393?-1447?), English author, was born, +by his own account, on the 6th of October 1393. Dr Horstmann +suggests that he may have been a native of Bokeham, now +Bookham, in Surrey, and derived his name from the place. +In a concluding note to his <i>Lives of the Saints</i> he is described +as “a Suffolke man, frere Austyn of Stoke Clare.” He travelled +in Italy on at least two occasions, and in 1445 was a pilgrim to +Santiago de Compostela. He wrote a series of thirteen legends +of holy maidens and women. These are written chiefly in seven- +and eight-lined stanzas, and nine of them are preceded by +prologues. Bokenam was a follower of Chaucer and Lydgate, +and doubtless had in mind Chaucer’s <i>Legend of Good Women</i>. +His chief, but by no means his only, source was the <i>Legenda +Aurea</i> of Jacobus de Voragine, archbishop of Genoa, whom he cites +as “Januence.” The first of the legends, <i>Vita Scae Margaretae, +virginis et martiris</i>, was written for his friend, Thomas Burgh, +a Cambridge monk; others are dedicated to pious ladies who +desired the history of their name-saints. The Arundel MS. 327 +(British Museum) is a unique copy of Bokenam’s work; it was +finished, according to the concluding note, in 1447, and +presented by the scribe, Thomas Burgh, to a convent unnamed +“that the nuns may remember him and his sister, Dame Betrice +Burgh.” The poems were edited (1835) for the Roxburghe Club +with the title <i>Lyvys of Seyntys</i> ..., and by Dr Carl Horstmann +as <i>Osbern Bokenams Legenden</i> (Heilbronn, 1883), in E. Kölbing’s +<i>Altengl. Bibliothek</i>, vol. i. Both editions include a dialogue +written in Latin and English taken from Dugdale’s <i>Monasticon +Anglicanum</i> (ed. 1846, vol. vi. p. 1600); “this dialogue betwixt +a Secular asking and a Frere answerynge at the grave of Dame +Johan of Acres shewith the lyneal descent of the lordis of the +honoure of Clare fro ... MCCXLVIII to ... MCCCLVI”. +Bokenam wrote, as he tells us, plainly, in the Suffolk speech. +He explains his lack of decoration on the plea that the finest +flowers had been already plucked by Chaucer, Gower and Lydgate.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOKHARA,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bukhara</span> (the common central Asian pronunciation +is Bukhara), a state of central Asia, under the protection +of Russia. It lies on the right bank of the middle Oxus, +between 37° and 41° N., and between 62° and 72° E., and is +bounded by the Russian governments of Syr-darya, Samarkand +and Ferghana on the N., the Pamirs on the E., Afghanistan on +the S., and the Transcaspian territory and Khiva on the W. +Its south-eastern frontier on the Pamirs is undetermined except +where it touches the Russian dominions. Including the khanates +of Karateghin and Darvaz the area is about 85,000 sq. m. The +western portion of the state is a plain watered by the Zarafshan +and by countless irrigation canals drawn from it. It has in the +east the Karnap-chul steppe, covered with grass in early summer, +and in the north an intrusion of the Kara-kum sand desert. +Land suitable for cultivation is found only in oases, where it is +watered by irrigation canals, but these oases are very fertile. +The middle portion of the state is occupied by high plateaus, +about 4000 ft. in altitude, sloping from the Tian-shan, and +intersected by numerous rivers, flowing towards the Oxus. This +region, very fertile in the valleys and enjoying a cooler and damper +climate than the lower plains, is densely populated, and agriculture +and cattle-breeding are carried on extensively. Here are +the towns of Karshi, Kitab, Shaar, Chirakchi and Guzar or +Huzar. The Hissar range, a westward continuation of the Alai +Mountains, separates the Zarafshan from the tributaries of +the Oxus—the Surkhan, Kafirnihan and Vakhsh. Its length is +about 200 m., and its passes, 1000 to 3000 ft. below the surrounding +peaks, reach altitudes of 12,000 to 14,000 ft. and are extremely +difficult. Numbers of rivers pierce or flow in wild gorges between +its spurs. Its southern foot-hills, covered with loess, make the +fertile valleys of Hissar and the Vakhsh. The climate is so dry, +and the rains are so scarce, that an absence of forests and Alpine +meadows is characteristic of the ridge; but when heavy rain +falls simultaneously with the melting of the snows in the mountains, +the watercourses become filled with furious torrents, which +create great havoc. The main glaciers (12) are on the north slope, +but none creeps below 10,000 to 12,000 ft. The Peter the Great +range, or Periokh-tau, in Karateghin, south of the valley of the +Vakhsh, runs west-south-west to east-north-east for about 130 m., +and is higher than the Hissar range. From the meridian of Garm +or Harm it rises above the snowline, attaining at least 18,000 ft. +in the Sary-kaudal peak, and 20,000 ft. farther east where it +joins the snow-clad Darvaz range, and where the group Sandal, +adorned with several glaciers, rises to 24,000 or 25,000 ft. Only +three passes, very difficult, are known across it.</p> + +<p>Darvaz, a small vassal state of Bokhara, is situated on the +Panj, where it makes its sharp bend westwards, and is emphatically +a mountainous region, agriculture being possible only in +the lower parts of the valleys. The population, about 35,000, +consists chiefly of Moslem Tajiks, and the closely-related Galchas, +and its chief town is Kala-i-khumb on the Panj, at an altitude +of 4370 ft.</p> + +<p>The chief river of Bokhara is the Oxus or Amu-darya, which +separates it from Afghanistan on the south, and then flows along +its south-west border. It is navigated from the mouth of the +Surkhan, and steamboats ply on it up to Karki near the Afghan +frontier. The next largest river, the Zarafshan, 660 m. long, +the water of which is largely utilized for irrigation, is lost in the +sands 20 m. before reaching the Oxus. The Kashka-darya, +which flows westwards out of the glaciers of Hazret-sultan (west +of the Hissar range), supplies the Shahri-sabs (properly Shaar-sabiz) +oasis with water, but is lost in the desert to the west of +Karshi.</p> + +<p>The climate of Bokhara is extreme. In the lowlands a very +hot summer is followed by a short but cold winter, during which +a frost of -20° Fahr. may set in, and the Oxus may freeze for a +fortnight. In the highlands this hot and dry summer is followed +by four months of winter; and, finally, in the regions above +8000 ft. there is a great development of snowfields and glaciers, +the passes are buried under snow, and the short summer is rainy. +The lowlands are sometimes visited by terrible sand-storms from +the west, which exhaust men and kill the cotton trees. Malaria +is widely prevalent, and in some years, after a wet spring, assumes +a malignant character.</p> + +<p>The population is estimated at 1,250,000. The dominant race +is the Uzbegs, who are fanatical Moslem Sunnites, scorn work, +despise their Iranian subjects, and maintain their old division +into tribes or clans. The nomad Turkomans and the nomad +Kirghiz are also of Turkish origin; while the Sarts, who constitute +the bulk of the population in the towns, are a mixture of Turks +with Iranians. The great bulk of the population in the country +is composed of Iranian Tajiks, who differ but very little from +Sarts. Besides these there are Afghans, Persians, Jews, Arabs +and Armenians. Much of the trade is in the hands of a colony +of Hindus from Shikarpur. Nearly 20% of the population are +nomads and about 15% semi-nomads.</p> + +<p>On the irrigated lowlands rice, wheat and other cereals are +cultivated, and exported to the highlands. Cotton is widely +grown and exported. Silk is largely produced, and tobacco, +wine, flax, hemp and fruits are cultivated. Cattle-breeding +is vigorously prosecuted in Hissar and the highlands generally. +Cotton, silks, woollen cloth, and felt are manufactured, also +boots, saddles, cutlery and weapons, pottery and various oils. +Salt, as also some iron and copper, and small quantities of gold +are extracted. Trade has been greatly promoted by the building +of the Transcaspian railway across the country (from Charjui on +the Oxus to Kati-kurgan) in 1886-1888. The exports to Russia +consist of raw cotton and silk, lamb-skins, fruits and carpets, +and the imports of manufactured goods and sugar. The imports +from India are cottons, tea, shawls and indigo. There are very +few roads; goods are transported on camels, or on horses and +donkeys in the hilly tracts.</p> + +<p>Bokhara has for ages been looked upon as the centre of +Mussulman erudition in central Asia. About one-fourth of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page157" id="page157"></a>157</span> +population is said to be able to read and write. The primary +schools are numerous in the capital, as well as in the other cities, +and even exist in villages, and <i>madrasas</i> or theological seminaries +for higher courses of study are comparatively plentiful. The +<i>mullahs</i> or priests enjoy very great influence, but the people are +very superstitious, believing in witchcraft, omens, spirits and +the evil eye. Women occupy a low position in the social scale, +though slavery has been abolished at the instance of Russia. +The emir of Bokhara is an autocratic ruler, his power being +limited only by the traditional custom (<i>sheriat</i>) of the Mussulmans. +He maintains an army of some 11,000 men, but is +subject to Russian control, being in fact a vassal of that empire.</p> + +<p><i>History</i>.—Bokhara was known to the ancients under the name +of Sogdiana. It was too far removed to the east ever to be +brought under the dominion of Rome, but it has shared deeply +in all the various and bloody revolutions of Asia. The foundation +of the capital is ascribed to Efrasiab, the great Persian hero. +After the conquests of Alexander the Great Sogdiana formed +part of the empire of the Seleucidae, and shared the fortunes of +the rather better-known Bactria. Somewhat later the nomad +Yue-chi began to move into the valley of the Oxus from the east, +and gradually became a settled territorial power in Bactria and +Sogdiana, and the dominions of their king, Kadphises I. (who is +believed to have come to the throne about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 45), extended +from Bokhara to the Indus. The district, however, was reconquered +by Persia under the Sassanian dynasty, and we hear +of Nestorian Christians at Samarkand, at any rate in the 6th +century. Islam was introduced shortly after the Arab conquest +of Persia (640-642) and speedily became the dominant faith. +In the early centuries of Mahommedan rule Sogdiana was one of +the most celebrated and flourishing districts of central Asia. +It was called Sughd, and contained the two great cities of +Samarkand and Bokhara, of which the former was generally the +seat of government, while the latter had a high reputation as a +seat of religion and learning. During the early middle ages this +legion was also known as Ma wara ’l Nahr or Ma-vera-un-nahr, +the meaning of which is given in the alternative classical title +of Transoxiana. Malik Shah, third of the Seljuk dynasty of +Persia, passed the Oxus about the end of the 11th century, and +subdued the whole country watered by that river and the +Jaxartes. In 1216 Bokhara was again subdued by Mahommed +Shah Khwarizm, but his conquest was wrested from him by +Jenghiz Khan in 1220. The country was wasted by the fury of +this savage conqueror, but recovered something of its former +prosperity under Ogdai Khan, his son, whose disposition was +humane and benevolent. His posterity kept possession till 1369, +when Timur or Tamerlane bore down everything before him, and +established his capital at Samarkand, which with Bokhara +regained for a time its former splendour. Babar, the fifth in +descent from Timur, was originally prince of Ferghana, but +conquered Samarkand and northern India, where he founded +the Mogul (Mughal) empire. His descendants ruled in the +country until about 1500, when it was overrun by the Uzbeg +Tatars, under Abulkhair or Ebulkheir Khan, the founder of +the Shaibani dynasty, with which the history of Bokhara +properly commences. The most remarkable representative of +this family was Abdullah Khan (1556-1598), who greatly +extended the limits of his kingdom by the conquest of Badakshan, +Herat and Meshhed, and increased its prosperity by the public +works which he authorized. Before the close of the century, +however, the dynasty was extinct, and Bokhara was at once +desolated by a Kirghiz invasion and distracted by a disputed +succession. At length, in 1598, Baki Mehemet Khan, of the +Astrakhan branch of the Timur family, mounted the throne, +and thus introduced the dynasty of the Ashtarkhanides. The +principal event of his reign was the defeat he inflicted on Shah +Abbas of Persia in the neighbourhood of Balkh. His brother +Vali Mehemet, who succeeded in 1605, soon alienated his subjects, +and was supplanted by his nephew Imamkuli. After a highly +prosperous reign this prince resigned in favour of his brother, +Nazr Mehemet, under whom the country was greatly troubled +by the rebellion of his sons, who continued to quarrel with each +other after their father’s death. Meanwhile the district of Khiva, +previously subject to Bokhara, was made an independent +khanate by Abdul-Gazi Bahadur Khan; and in the reign of +Subhankuli, who ascended the throne in 1680, the political +power of Bokhara was still further lessened, though it continued +to enjoy the unbounded respect of the Sunnite Mahommedans. +Subhankuli died in 1702, and a war of succession broke out +between his two sons, who were supported by the rivalry of two +Uzbeg tribes. After five years the contest terminated in favour +of Obeidullah, who was little better than a puppet in the hands +of Rehim Bi Atalik, his vizier. The invasion of Nadir Shah of +Persia came to complete the degradation of the land; and in 1740 +the feeble king, Abu ’l-Faiz, paid homage to the conqueror, and +was soon after murdered and supplanted by his vizier. The +time of the Ashtarkhanides had been for the most part a time of +dissolution and decay; fanaticism and imbecility went hand in +hand. On its fall (1785) the throne was seized by the Manghit +family in the person of Mir Ma’sum, who pretended to the most +extravagant sanctity, and proved by his military career that he +had no small amount of ability. He turned his attention to the +encroachments of the Afghans, and in 1781 reconquered the +greater part of what had been lost to the south of the Oxus. +Dying in 1802 he was succeeded by Saïd, who in bigotry and +fanaticism was a true son of his father. In 1826 Nasrullah +mounted the throne, and began with the murder of his brother +a reign of continued oppression and cruelty. Meanwhile Bokhara +became an object of rivalry to Russia and England, and envoys +were sent by both nations to cultivate the favour of the emir, +who treated the Russians with arrogance and the English with +contempt. Two emissaries of the British government, Colonel +C. Stoddart and Captain A. Conolly, were thrown by Nasrullah +into prison, where they were put to death in 1842. In 1862-1864 +Arminius Vambéry made in the disguise of a dervish a memorable +journey through this fanatical state. At this time the Russian +armies were gradually advancing, and at last they appeared in +Khokand; but the new emir, Mozaffer-eddin, instead of attempting +to expiate the insults of his predecessor, sent a letter to +General M.G. Chernayev summoning him to evacuate the +country, and threatening to raise all the faithful against him. +In 1866 the Russians invaded the territory of Bokhara proper, +and a decisive battle was fought on the 20th of May at Irdjar +on the left bank of the Jaxartes. The Bokharians were defeated; +but after a period of reluctant peace they forced the emir to +renew the war. In 1868 the Russians entered Samarkand (May +14), and the emir was constrained to submit to the terms of the +conqueror, becoming henceforward only a Russian puppet.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Khanikov’s <i>Bokhara</i>, translated by De Bode (1845); Vambéry, +<i>Travels in Central Asia</i> (1864), <i>Sketches of Central Asia</i> (1868), and +<i>History of Bokhara</i> (1873); Fedchenko’s “Sketch of the Zarafshan +Valley” in <i>Journ. R. Geogr. Soc.</i> (1870); Hellwald, <i>Die Russen in +Central Asien</i> (1873); Lipsky, <i>Upper Bukhara</i>, in Russian (1902); +Skrine and Ross, <i>The Heart of Asia</i> (1899); Lord Ronaldshay, +<i>Outskirts of Empire in Asia</i> (1904); and Le Strange, <i>The Lands of the +Eastern Caliphate</i> (1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. A. K.; C. El.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOKHARA<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (Bokkara-i-Sherif), capital of the state of Bokhara, +on the left bank of the Zarafshan, and on the irrigation canal of +Shahri-rud, situated in a fertile plain. It is 8 m. from the +Bokhara station of the Transcaspian railway, 162 m. by rail +W. of Samarkand, in 39° 47′ N. lat. and 64° 27′ E. long. The +city is surrounded by a stone wall 28 ft. high and 8 m. long, with +semicircular towers and eleven gates of little value as a defence. +The present city was begun in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 830 on the site of an older +city, was destroyed by Jenghiz Khan in 1220, and rebuilt subsequently. +The water-supply is very unhealthy. The city has +no less than 360 mosques. Nearly 10,000 pupils are said to +receive their education in its 140 <i>madrasas</i> or theological colleges; +primary schools are kept at most mosques. Some of these +buildings exhibit very fine architecture. The most notable of +the mosques is the Mir-Arab, built in the 16th century, with +its beautiful lecture halls; the chief mosque of the emir is the +Mejid-kalyan, or Kok-humbez, close by which stands a brick +minaret, 203 ft. high, from the top of which state criminals used +to be thrown until 1871. Of the numerous squares the Raghistan +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page158" id="page158"></a>158</span> +is the principal. It has on one side the citadel, erected on an +artificially made eminence 45 ft. high, surrounded by a wall +1 m. long, and containing the palace of the emir, the houses of +the chief functionaries, the prison and the water-cisterns. The +houses are mostly one-storeyed, built of unburned bricks, and +have flat roofs.</p> + +<p>Bokhara has for ages been a centre of learning and religious +life. The mysticism which took hold on Persia in the middle +ages spread also to Bokhara, and later, when the Mongol invasions +of the 13th century laid waste Samarkand and other Moslem +cities, Bokhara, remaining independent, continued to be a chief +seat of Islamitic learning. The <i>madrasa</i> libraries, some of which +were very rich, have been scattered and lost, or confiscated by +the emirs, or have perished in conflagrations. But there are +still treasures of literature concealed in private libraries, and +Afghan, Persian, Armenian and Turkish bibliophiles still +repair to Bokhara to buy rare books. Bokhara is, in fact, the +principal book-market of central Asia. The population is +supposed by Russian travellers not to exceed 50,000 or 60,000, +but is otherwise estimated at 75,000 to 100,000. Amongst them +is a large and ancient colony of Jews. Bokhara is the most +important trading town in central Asia. In the city bazaars +are made or sold silk stuffs, metal (especially copper) wares, +Kara-kul (<i>i.e.</i> astrakhan) lamb-skins and carpets.</p> + +<p><i>New Bokhara</i>, or <i>Kagan</i>, a Russian town near the railway +station, 8 m. from Bokhara itself, is rapidly growing, on a +territory ceded by the emir. Pop. 2000.</p> +<div class="author">(P. A. K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOKSBURG,<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> a town of the Transvaal; 14 m. E. of Johannesburg +by rail. Pop. of the municipality (1904) 14,757, of whom +4175 were whites. It is the headquarters of the Witwatersrand +coal mining industry. The collieries extend from Boksburg eastward +to Springs, 11 m. distant. Brakpan, the largest colliery +in South Africa, lies midway between the places named.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLAN PASS,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> an important pass on the Baluch frontier, +connecting Jacobabad and Sibi with Quetta, which has always +occupied an important place in the history of British campaigns +in Afghanistan. Since the treaty of Gandamak, which was +signed at the close of the first phase of the Afghan War in 1879, +the Bolan route has been brought directly under British control, +and it was selected for the first alignment of the Sind-Pishin +railway from the plains to the plateau. From Sibi the line runs +south-west, skirting the hills to Rindli, and originally followed +the course of the Bolan stream to its head on the plateau. The +destructive action of floods, however, led to the abandonment +of this alignment, and the railway now follows the Mashkaf +valley (which debouches into the plains close to Sibi), and is +carried from near the head of the Mashkaf to a junction with the +Bolan at Mach. An alternative route from Sibi to Quetta was +found in the Harnai valley to the N.E. of Sibi, the line starting +in exactly the opposite direction to that of the Bolan and entering +the hills at Nari. The Harnai route, although longer, is the one +adopted for all ordinary traffic, the Bolan loop being reserved +for emergencies. At the Khundilani gorge of the Bolan route +conglomerate cliffs enclose the valley rising to a height of 800 ft., +and at Sir-i-Bolan the passage between the limestone rocks +hardly admits of three persons riding abreast. The temperature +of the pass in summer is very high, whereas in winter, +near its head, the cold is extreme, and the ice-cold wind rushing +down the narrow outlet becomes destructive to life. Since +1877, when the Quetta agency was founded, the freedom of +the pass from plundering bands of Baluch marauders (chiefly +Marris) has been secured, and it is now as safe as any pass in +Scotland.</p> +<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLAS<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> (plural of Span, <i>bola</i>, ball), a South American Indian +weapon of war and the chase, consisting of balls of stone attached +to the ends of a rope of twisted or braided hide or hemp. Charles +Darwin thus describes them in his <i>Voyage of the Beagle</i>: “The +<i>bolas</i>, or balls, are of two kinds: the simplest, which is used +chiefly for catching ostriches, consists of two round stones, +covered with leather, and united by a thin, plaited thong, about +8 ft. long. The other kind differs only in having three balls +united by thongs to a common centre. The Gaucho (native of +Spanish descent) holds the smallest of the three in his hand, and +whirls the other two around his head; then, taking aim, sends +them like chain shot revolving through the air. The balls no +sooner strike any object, than, winding round it, they cross each +other and become firmly hitched.” Bolas have been used for +centuries in the South American pampas and even the forest +regions of the Rio Grande. F. Ratzel (<i>History of Mankind</i>) +supposes them to be a form of lasso. The Eskimos use a somewhat +similar weapon to kill birds. <i>Bolas perdidas</i> (<i>i.e.</i> lost) are +stones attached to a very short thong, or, in some cases, having +none at all.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLBEC,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> a town of northern France, in the department of +Seine-Inférieure, on the Bolbec, 19 m. E.N.E. of Havre by rail. +Pop. (1906) 10,959. Bolbec is important for its cotton spinning +and weaving, and carries on the dyeing and printing of the fabric, +and the manufacture of sugar. There are a chamber of commerce +and a board of trade-arbitration. The town was enthusiastic +in the cause of the Reformed Religion in the 16th century, +and still contains many Protestants. It was burned almost to +the ground in 1765.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLE<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="bolos">βῶλος</span>, “a clod of earth”), a clay-like substance +of red, brown or yellow colour, consisting essentially of hydrous +aluminium silicate, with more or less iron. Most bole differs from +ordinary clay in not being plastic, but in dropping to pieces when +placed in water, thus behaving rather like fuller’s-earth. Bole +was formerly in great repute medicinally, the most famous kind +being the Lemnian Earth (<span class="grk" title="gae Laemnia">γῆ Λήμνια</span>), from the Isle of Lemnos +in the Greek Archipelago. The earth was dug with much ceremony +only once a year, and having been mixed with goats’ blood +was made into little cakes or balls, which were stamped by the +priests, whence they became known as <i>Terra sigillata</i> (“sealed +earth”). Large quantities of bole occur as red partings between +the successive lava flows of the Tertiary volcanic series in the +north of Ireland and the west of Scotland. Here it seems to have +resulted from the decomposition of the basalt and kindred rocks +by meteoric agencies, during periods of volcanic repose. In +Antrim the bole is associated with lithomarge, bauxite and +pisolitic iron-ore. Bole occurs in like manner between the great +sheets of the Deccan traps in India; and a similar substance is +also found interbedded with some of the doleritic lavas of Etna.</p> + +<p>In the sense of stem or trunk of a tree, “bole” is from the +O. Norwegian <i>bolr</i>, of. Ger. <i>Bohle</i>, plank. It is probably +connected with the large number of words, such as “boll,” +“ball,” “bowl,” &c., which stand for a round object.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLESLAUS I.,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> called “The Great,” king of Poland (d. 1025), +was the son of Mieszko, first Christian prince of Poland, and the +Bohemian princess Dobrawa, or Bona, whose chaplain, Jordan, +converted the court from paganism to Catholicism. He succeeded +his father in 992. A born warrior, he speedily raised the little +struggling Polish principality on the Vistula to the rank of a +great power. In 996 he gained a seaboard by seizing Pomerania, +and subsequently took advantage of the troubles in Bohemia +to occupy Cracow, previously a Czech city. Like his contemporaries, +Stephen of Hungary and Canute of Denmark, Boleslaus +recognized from the first the essential superiority of Christianity +over every other form of religion, and he deserves with them +the name of “Great” because he deliberately associated himself +with the new faith. Thus despite an inordinate love of adventure, +which makes him appear rather a wandering chieftain than an +established ruler, he was essentially a man of insight and progress. +He showed great sagacity in receiving the fugitive Adalbert, +bishop of Prague, and when the saint suffered martyrdom at +the hands of the pagan Slavs (April 23, 997), Boleslaus purchased +his relics and solemnly laid them in the church of Gnesen, founded +by his father, which now became the metropolitan see of Poland. +It was at Gnesen that Boleslaus in the year 1000 entertained +Otto III. so magnificently that the emperor, declaring such a +man too worthy to be merely <i>princeps</i>, conferred upon him the +royal crown, though twenty-five years later, in the last year of +his life, Boleslaus thought it necessary to crown himself king +a second time. On the death of Otto, Boleslaus invaded +Germany, penetrated to the Elbe, occupying Stralsund and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page159" id="page159"></a>159</span> +Meissen on his way, and extended his dominions to the Elster +and the Saale. He also occupied Bohemia, till driven out by +the emperor Henry IV. in 1004. The German war was terminated +in 1018 by the peace of Bautzen, greatly to the advantage of +Boleslaus, who retained Lusatia. He then turned his arms against +Jaroslav, grand duke of Kiev, whom he routed on the banks +of the Bug, then the boundary between Russia and Poland. +For ten months Boleslaus remained at Kiev, whence he addressed +triumphant letters to the emperors of the East and West. At +his death in 1025 he left Poland one of the mightiest states of +Europe, extending from the Bug to the Elbe, and from the Baltic +to the Danube, and possessing besides the overlordship of Russia. +But his greatest achievement was the establishment in Poland +of a native church, the first step towards political independence.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.N. Pawlowski, <i>St Adalbert</i> (Danzig, 1860); +<i>Chronica Nestoris</i> (Vienna, 1860); +Heinrich R. von Zeissberg, <i>Die Kriege Kaiser Heinrichs II. +mit Herzog Boleslaw I.</i> (Vienna, 1868).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLESLAUS II.,<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> called “The Bold,” king of Poland (1039-1081), +eldest son of Casimir I., succeeded his father in 1058. +The domestic order and tranquillity of the kingdom had been +restored by his painstaking father, but Poland had shrunk +territorially since the age of his grandfather Boleslaus I., and +it was the aim of Boleslaus II. to restore her dignity and +importance. The nearest enemy was Bohemia, to whom Poland had +lately been compelled to pay tribute for her oldest possession, +Silesia. But Boleslaus’s first Bohemian war proved unsuccessful, +and was terminated by the marriage of his sister Swatawa with +the Czech king Wratyslaus II. On the other hand Boleslaus’s +ally, the fugitive Magyar prince Bela, succeeded with Polish +assistance in winning the crown of Hungary. In the East +Boleslaus was more successful. In 1069 he succeeded in placing +Izaslaus on the throne of Kiev, thereby confirming Poland’s +overlordship over Russia and enabling Boleslaus to chastise +his other enemies, Bohemia among them, with the co-operation +of his Russian auxiliaries. But Wratyslaus of Bohemia speedily +appealed to the emperor for help, and a war between Poland +and the Empire was only prevented by the sudden rupture of +Henry IV. with the Holy See and the momentous events which +led to the humiliating surrender of the emperor at Canossa. +There is nothing to show that Boleslaus took any part in this +struggle, though at this time he was on the best of terms with +Gregory VII. and there was some talk of sending papal legates +to restore order in the Polish Church. On the 26th of December +1076 Boleslaus encircled his own brows with the royal diadem, +a striking proof that the Polish kings did not even yet consider +their title quite secure. A second successful expedition to Kiev +to reinstate his <i>protégé</i> Izaslaus, is Boleslaus’s last recorded +exploit. Almost immediately afterwards (1079) we find him an +exile in Hungary, where he died about 1081. The cause of this +sudden eclipse was the cruel vengeance he took on the <i>milites</i>, +or noble order, who, emulating the example of their brethren +in Bohemia, were already attempting to curb the royal power. +The churchmen headed by Stanislaus Szczepanowski, bishop of +Cracow, took the side of the nobles, whose grievances seem to +have been real. Boleslaus in his fury slew the saintly bishop, +but so general was the popular indignation that he had to fly +his kingdom.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M. Maksymilian Gumplowicz, <i>Zur Geschichte Polens im +Mittelalter</i> (Innsbruck, 1898); +W.P. Augerstein, <i>Der Konflikt des polnischen Königs Boleslaw II. +mit dem Bischof Stanislaus</i> (Thorn, 1895).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLESLAUS III.,<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> king of Poland (1086-1139), the son of +Wladislaus I. and Judith of Bohemia, was born on the 23rd of +December 1086 and succeeded his father in 1102. His earlier +years were troubled continually by the intrigues of his natural +half-brother Zbigniew, who till he was imprisoned and blinded +involved Boleslaus in frequent contests with Bohemia and the +emperor Henry V. The first of the German wars began in 1109, when +Henry, materially assisted by the Bohemians, invaded Silesia. +It was mainly a war of sieges, Henry sitting down before Lubusz, +Glogau and Breslau, all of which he failed to take. The Poles +avoided an encounter in the open field, but harried the Germans +so successfully around Breslau that the plain was covered +with corpses, which Henry had to leave to the dogs on his +disastrous retreat; hence the scene of the action was known as +“the field of dogs.” The chief political result of this disaster +was the complete independence of Poland for the next quarter +of a century. It was during this respite that Boleslaus devoted +himself to the main business of his life—the subjugation of +Pomerania (<i>i.e.</i> the maritime province) with the view of gaining +access to the sea. Pomerania, protected on the south by virgin +forests and almost impenetrable morasses, was in those days +inhabited by a valiant and savage Slavonic race akin to the +Wends, who clung to paganism with unconquerable obstinacy. +The possession of a seaboard enabled them to maintain fleets and +build relatively large towns such as Stettin and Kolberg, whilst +they ravaged at will the territories of their southern neighbours +the Poles. In self-defence Boleslaus was obliged to subdue +them. The struggle began in 1109, when Boleslaus inflicted a +terrible defeat on the Pomeranians at Nackel which compelled +their temporary submission. In 1120-1124 the rebellion of his +vassal Prince Warceslaus of Stettin again brought Boleslaus into +the country, but the resistance was as stout as ever, and only after +18,000 of his followers had fallen and 8000 more had been +expatriated did Warceslaus submit to his conqueror. The obstinacy +of the resistance convinced Boleslaus that Pomerania must be +christianized before it could be completely subdued; and this +important work was partially accomplished by St Otto, bishop +of Bamberg, an old friend of Boleslaus’s father, who knew the +Slavonic languages. In 1124 the southern portions of the land +were converted by St Otto, but it was only under the threat of +extermination if they persisted in their evil ways that the people +of Stettin accepted the faith in the following year. In 1128, +at the council of Usedom, St Otto appointed his disciple +Boniface bishop of Julin, the first Pomeranian diocese, and the +foundation of a better order of things was laid. In his later years +Boleslaus waged an unsuccessful war with Hungary and Bohemia, +and was forced to claim the mediation of the emperor Lothair, +to whom he did homage for Pomerania and Rügen at the diet of +Merseburg in 1135. He died in 1139.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Gallus, <i>Chronicon</i>, ed. Finkal (Cracow, 1899); Maksymilian +Gumplowicz, <i>Zur Geschichte Polens im Mittelalter</i> (Innsbruck, 1898).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLETUS,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> a well-marked genus of fungi (order <i>Polyporeae</i>), +characterized by the central stem, the cap or pileus, the soft, +fleshy tissue, and the vertical, closely-packed tubes or pores +which cover the under surface of the pileus and are easily +detachable. The species all grow on the ground, in woods or under +trees, in the early autumn. They are brown, red or yellow in +colour; the pores also vary in colour from pure white to brown, +red, yellow or green, and are from one or two lines to nearly +an inch long. A few are poisonous; several are good for eating. +One of the greatest favourites for the table is <i>Boletus edulis</i>, +recognized by its brown cap and white pores which become +green when old. It is the <i>ceps</i> of the continental European +markets. There are forty-nine British species of <i>Boletus</i>.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLEYN<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Bullen</span>), <span class="bold">ANNE</span> (<i>c.</i> 1507-1536), queen of Henry +VIII. of England, daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, afterwards +earl of Wiltshire and Ormonde, and of Elizabeth, daughter of +Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey, afterwards duke of Norfolk, +was born, according to Camden, in 1507, but her birth has been +ascribed, though not conclusively, to an earlier date (to 1502 or +1501) by some later writers.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In 1514 she accompanied Mary +Tudor to France on the marriage of the princess to Louis XII., +remained there after the king’s death, and became one of the +women in waiting to Queen Claude, wife of Francis I. She +returned in 1521 or 1522 to England, where she had many +admirers and suitors. Among the former was the poet Sir Thomas +Wyatt,<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and among the latter, Henry Percy, heir of the +earl of Northumberland, a marriage with whom, however, was +stopped by the king and another match provided for her in the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page160" id="page160"></a>160</span> +person of Sir James Butler. Anne Boleyn, however, remained +unmarried, and a series of grants and favours bestowed by Henry +on her father between 1522 and 1525 have been taken, though +very doubtfully, as a symptom of the king’s affections. Unlike +her sister Mary, who had fallen a victim to Henry’s solicitations,<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +Anne had no intention of being the king’s mistress; she meant +to be his queen, and her conduct seems to have been governed +entirely by motives of ambition. The exact period of the beginning +of Anne’s relations with Henry is not known. They have +been surmised as originating as early as 1523; but there is nothing +to prove that Henry’s passion was anterior to the proceedings +taken for the divorce in May 1527, the celebrated love letters +being undated. Her name is first openly connected with the +king’s as a possible wife in the event of Catherine’s divorce, in +a letter of Mendoza, the imperial ambassador, to Charles V. of +the 16th of August 1527,<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a> during the absence in France of +Wolsey, who, not blinded by passion like Henry, naturally +opposed the undesirable alliance, and was negotiating a marriage +with Renée, daughter of Louis XII. Henry meanwhile, however, +had sent William Knight, his secretary, on a separate mission to +Rome to obtain facilities for his marriage with Anne; and on the +cardinal’s return in August he found her installed as the +king’s companion and proposed successor to Catherine of Aragon. +After the king’s final separation from his wife in July 1531, +Anne’s position was still more marked, and in 1532 she accompanied +Henry on the visit to Francis I., while Catherine was left +at home neglected and practically a prisoner. Soon after their +return Anne was found to be pregnant, and in consequence +Henry married her about the 25th of January 1533<a name="fa5c" id="fa5c" href="#ft5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a> (the exact +date is unknown), their union not being made public till the +following Easter. Subsequently, on the 23rd of May, their +marriage was declared valid and that with Catherine null, and +in June Anne was crowned with great state in Westminster +Abbey. Anne Boleyn had now reached the zenith of her hopes. +A weak, giddy woman of no stability of character, her success +turned her head and caused her to behave with insolence and +impropriety, in strong contrast with Catherine’s quiet dignity +under her misfortunes. She, and not the king, probably was the +author of the petty persecutions inflicted upon Catherine and +upon the princess Mary, and her jealousy of the latter showed +itself in spiteful malice. Mary was to be forced into the position +of a humble attendant upon Anne’s infant, and her ears were to +be boxed if she proved recalcitrant. She urged that both should +be brought to trial under the new statute of succession passed in +1534, which declared her own children the lawful heirs to the +throne. She was reported as saying that when the king gave +opportunity by leaving England, she would put Mary to death +even if she were burnt or flayed alive for it.<a name="fa6c" id="fa6c" href="#ft6c"><span class="sp">6</span></a> She incurred the +remonstrances of the privy council and alienated her own friends +and relations. Her uncle, the duke of Norfolk, whom she was +reported to have treated “worse than a dog,” reviled her, calling +her a “grande putaine.” But her day of triumph was destined +to be even shorter than that of her predecessor. There were soon +signs that Henry’s affection, which had before been a genuine +passion, had cooled or ceased. He resented her arrogance, and +a few months after the marriage he gave her cause for jealousy, +and disputes arose. A strange and mysterious fate had prepared +for Anne the same domestic griefs that had vexed and ruined +Catherine and caused her abandonment. In September 1533 the +birth of a daughter, afterwards Queen Elizabeth, instead of the +long-hoped-for son, was a heavy disappointment; next year +there was a miscarriage, and on the 29th of January 1536, the +day of Catherine’s funeral, she gave birth to a dead male child.</p> + +<p>On the 1st of May following the king suddenly broke up a +tournament at Greenwich, leaving the company in bewilderment +and consternation. The cause was soon known. Inquiries had +been made on reports of the queen’s ill-conduct, and several +of her reputed lovers had been arrested. On the 2nd Anne +herself was committed to the Tower on a charge of adultery +with various persons, including her own brother, Lord Rochford. +On the 12th Sir Francis Weston, Henry Norris, William Brereton +and Mark Smeaton were declared guilty of high treason, while +Anne herself and Lord Rochford were condemned unanimously +by an assembly of twenty-six peers on the 15th. Her uncle, the +duke of Norfolk, presided as lord steward, and gave sentence, +weeping, that his niece was to be burned or beheaded as pleased +the king. Her former lover, the earl of Northumberland, left +the court seized with sudden illness. Her father, who was +excused attendance, had, however, been present at the trial +of the other offenders, and had there declared his conviction +of his daughter’s guilt. On the 16th, hoping probably to save +herself by these means, she informed Cranmer of a certain +supposed impediment to her marriage with the king—according to +some accounts a previous marriage with Northumberland, though +the latter solemnly and positively denied it—which was never +disclosed, but which, having been considered by the archbishop +and a committee of ecclesiastical lawyers, was pronounced, on +the 17th, sufficient to invalidate her marriage. The same day +all her reputed lovers were executed; and on the 19th she herself +suffered death on Tower Green, her head being struck off with +a sword by the executioner of Calais brought to England for the +purpose.<a name="fa7c" id="fa7c" href="#ft7c"><span class="sp">7</span></a> She had regarded the prospect of death with courage +and almost with levity, laughing heartily as she put her hands +about her “little neck” and recalled the skill of the executioner. +“I have seen many men” (wrote Sir William Kingston, governor +of the Tower) “and also women executed, and all they have +been in great sorrow, and to my knowledge this lady has much +joy and pleasure in death.” On the following day Henry was +betrothed to Jane Seymour.</p> + +<p>Amidst the vituperations of the adherents of the papacy and +the later Elizabethan eulogies, and in the absence of the records +on which her sentence was pronounced, Anne Boleyn’s guilt +remains unproved. To Sir William Kingston she protested +her entire innocence, and on the scaffold while expressing her +submission she made no confession.<a name="fa8c" id="fa8c" href="#ft8c"><span class="sp">8</span></a> Smeaton alone of her +supposed lovers made a full confession, and it is possible that +his statement was drawn from him by threats of torture or hopes +of pardon. Norris, according to one account,<a name="fa9c" id="fa9c" href="#ft9c"><span class="sp">9</span></a> also confessed, +but subsequently declared that he had been betrayed into making +his statement. The others were all said to have “confessed in +a manner” on the scaffold, but much weight cannot be placed +on these general confessions, which were, according to the +custom of the time, a declaration of submission to the king’s will +and of general repentance rather than acknowledgment of the +special crime. “I pray God save the king,” Anne herself is +reported to have said on the scaffold, “and send him long to +reign over you, for a gentler nor a more merciful prince was +there never; and to me he was ever a good, a gentle and sovereign +lord.” A principal witness for the charge of incest was Rochford’s +own wife, a woman of infamous character, afterwards +executed for complicity in the intrigues of Catherine Howard. +The discovery of Anne’s misdeeds coincided in an extraordinary +manner with Henry’s disappointment in not obtaining by her +a male heir, while the king’s despotic power and the universal +unpopularity of Anne both tended to hinder the administration +of pure justice. Nevertheless, though unproved, Anne’s guilt +is more than probable. It is almost incredible that two grand +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page161" id="page161"></a>161</span> +juries, a petty jury, and a tribunal consisting of nearly all the +lay peers of England, with the evidence before them which we +do not now possess, should have all unanimously passed a sentence +of guilt contrary to the facts and their convictions, and that +such a sentence should have been supported by Anne’s own +father and uncle. Every year since her marriage Anne had given +birth to a child, and Henry had no reason to despair of more; +while, if Henry’s state of health was such as was reported, the +desire for children, which Anne shared with him, may be urged +as an argument for her guilt. Sir Francis Weston in a letter +to his family almost acknowledges his guilt in praying for pardon, +especially for offences against his wife;<a name="fa10c" id="fa10c" href="#ft10c"><span class="sp">10</span></a> Anne’s own conduct +and character almost prepare us for some catastrophe. Whether +innocent or guilty, however, her fate caused no regrets and her +misfortunes did not raise a single champion or defender. The +sordid incidents of her rise, and the insolence with which she +used her triumph, had alienated all hearts from the unhappy +woman. Among the people she had always been intensely disliked; +the love of justice, and the fear of trade losses imminent +upon a breach with Charles V., combined to render her unpopular. +She appealed to the king’s less refined instincts, and Henry’s +deterioration of character may be dated from his connexion with +her. She is described as “not one of the handsomest women +in the world; she is of a middling stature, swarthy complexion, +long neck, wide mouth, bosom not much raised, and in fact +has nothing but the English king’s great appetite, and her eyes +which are black and beautiful, and take great effect.”<a name="fa11c" id="fa11c" href="#ft11c"><span class="sp">11</span></a> Cranmer +admired her—“sitting in her hair” (<i>i.e.</i> with her hair falling +over her shoulders, which seems to have been her custom on +great occasions), “upon a horse litter, richly apparelled,” at +her coronation.<a name="fa12c" id="fa12c" href="#ft12c"><span class="sp">12</span></a></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Art. in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biography</i>and authorities +cited; +<i>Henry VIII.</i> by A.F. Pollard (1905); +<i>Anne Boleyn</i>, by P. Friedman (1884); +<i>The Early Life of Anne Boleyn</i>, by J.H. Round (1886); +<i>The Divorce of Catherine of Aragon</i>, by J.A. Froude (1891); +“Der Ursprung der Ehescheidung König Heinrichs VIII.” and +“Der Sturz des Cardinals Wolsey,” by W. Busch (<i>Historisches +Taschenbuch</i>, vi. Folge viii. 273 and ix. 41, 1889 and 1890); +<i>Lives</i>, by Miss E.O. Benger (1821); and Miss A. Strickland, +<i>Lives of the Queens of England</i> (1851), vol. ii.; +<i>Notices of Historic Persons Buried in the Tower of London</i>, +by D.C. Bell (1877); +<i>The Wives of Henry VIII.</i> by M.A.S. Hume (1905); +<i>Excerpta Historica</i>, by N.H. Nicolas (1831), p. 260; +<i>Spanish Chronicle of Henry VIII.</i> tr. by M.A.S. Hume (1889); +<i>Records of the Reformation</i>, by N. Pocock (1870); +<i>Harleian Miscellany</i> (1808), iii. 47 (the love letters); +<i>Archaeologia</i>, xxiii. 64 (memorial of G. Constantyne); +<i>Eng. Hist. Rev.</i> v. 544, viii. 53, 299, x. 104; +<i>State Trials</i>, i. 410; +<i>History of Henry VIII.</i> by Lord Herbert of Cherbury; +E. Hall’s <i>Chronicle: Original Letters</i>, ed. by Sir H. Ellis, +i. ser., ii. 37, 53 et seq., ii. ser., ii. 10; +<i>Extracts from the Life of Queen Anne Boleigne</i>, by G. Wyat (1817); +<i>The Negotiations of Thomas Wolsey</i>, by Sir W. Cavendish (1641, +rep. Harleian Misc. 1810 v.); +C. Wriothesley’s <i>Chronicle</i> (Camden Soc., 1875-1877); +<i>Notes and Queries</i>, 8 ser., viii. 141, 189, 313, 350; +<i>Il Successo de la Morte de la Regina de Inghilterra</i> (1536); +<i>The Maner of the Tryumphe of Caleys and Bullen</i>, and the +<i>Noble Tryumphaunt Coronacyon of Queen Anne</i> (1533, rep. 1884); +<i>State Papers Henry VIII.</i>; <i>Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.</i>, +by Brewer and Gardiner, esp. the prefaces; +<i>Cal. of State Pap. England and Spain, Venetian and +Foreign</i> (1558-1559), p. 525 (an account full of obvious errors); +<i>Colton MSS.</i> (Brit. Mus.), Otho C. 10; +“Baga de secretis” in Rep. iii., App. ii. of Dep. Keeper +of Public Records, p. 242; +“Römische Dokumente,” v., M.S. Ehses (<i>Gorres-gesellschaft</i>, +Bd. ii., 1893). +See also articles on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Catherine of Aragon</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Henry VIII</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See <i>Anne Boleyn</i>, by P. Friedman; +<i>The Early Life of Anne Boleyn</i>, by J.H. Round; and +J. Gairdner in <i>Eng. Hist. Review</i>, viii. 53, 299, and x. 104.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> According to the <i>Chronicle of King Henry VIII.</i>, +tr. by M.A.S. Hume, p. 68, she was his mistress.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Of this there is no direct proof, but the statement rests upon +contemporary belief and chiefly upon the extraordinary terms of the +dispensation granted to Henry to marry Anne Boleyn, which included +the suspension of all canons relating to impediments created by +“affinity rising <i>ex illicito coitu</i> in any degree even in the first.” +Froude rejects the whole story, <i>Divorce of Catherine of Aragon</i>, p. 54; +and see Friedman’s <i>Anne Boleyn</i>, ii. 323.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Cat. of St. Pap. England and Spain</i>, iii. pt. ii. p. 327.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5c" id="ft5c" href="#fa5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> According to Cranmer, <i>Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.</i> vi. +p. 300, the only authority; and Cranmer himself only knew of it +a fortnight after. The marriage was commonly antedated to the +14th of November 1532.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6c" id="ft6c" href="#fa6c"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Cat. of St. Pap. England and Spain</i>, v. 198.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7c" id="ft7c" href="#fa7c"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.</i>, x. pp. 374, 381, 385.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8c" id="ft8c" href="#fa8c"><span class="fn">8</span></a> According to the most trustworthy accounts, but see <i>Letters and +Papers</i>, x. p. 382. The well-known letter to Henry VIII. +attributed to her is now recognized as an Elizabethan forgery.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9c" id="ft9c" href="#fa9c"><span class="fn">9</span></a> <i>Archaeologia</i>, xxiii. 64.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10c" id="ft10c" href="#fa10c"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Letters and Papers</i>, x. 358.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11c" id="ft11c" href="#fa11c"><span class="fn">11</span></a> “Sanuto Diaries,” October 31, 1532, in <i>Cal. of St. Pap. +Venetian</i>, iv. p. 365.</p> + +<p><a name="ft12c" id="ft12c" href="#fa12c"><span class="fn">12</span></a> <i>Original Letters</i>, ed. by +Sir H. Ellis, 1 ser. ii. 37, and <i>Cal. of St. Pap. Venetian</i>, +iv. 351, 418.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLGARI,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bolgary</span>, a ruined town of Russia, in the government +of Kazan, 4 m. from the left bank of the Volga, in 55°N. +lat. It is generally considered to have been the capital of the +Bulgarians when they were established in that part of Europe +(5th to 15th century). Ruins of the old walls and towers still +survive, as well as numerous <i>kurgans</i> or burial-mounds, with +inscriptions, some in Arabic (1222-1341), others in Armenian +(years 557, 984 and 986), and yet others in Turkic. Upon being +opened these tombs were found to contain weapons, implements, +utensils, and silver and copper coins, bearing inscriptions, +some in ordinary Arabic, others in Kufic (a kind of epigraphic +Arabic). These and other antiquities collected here (1722) are +preserved in museums at Kazan, Moscow and St Petersburg. +The ruins, which were practically discovered in the reign of +Peter the Great, were visited and described by Pallas, Humboldt +and others. The city of Bolgari was destroyed by the Mongols +in 1238, and again by Tamerlane early in the following century, +after which it served as the capital of the Khans (sovereign +princes) of the Golden Horde of Mongols, and finally, in the second +half of the 15th century it became a part of the principality +of Kazan, and so eventually of Russia. The Arab geographer +Ibn Haukal states that in his time, near the end of the 10th +century, it was a place of 10,000 inhabitants.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Ibn Fadhlan, <i>Nachrichten über die Wolga Bulgaren</i> +(Ger. trans. by Frähn, St Petersburg, 1832).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLI,<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> the chief town of a sanjak of the Kastamuni vilayet +in Asia Minor, altitude 2500 ft., situated in a rich plain watered +by the Boli Su, a tributary of the Filiyas Chai (<i>Billaeus</i>). +Pop. (1894) 10,796 (Moslems, 9642; Greeks, 758; Armenians, 396). +Cotton and leather are manufactured; the country around is +fertile, and in the neighbourhood are large forests of oak, beech, +elm, chestnut and pine, the timber of which is partly used locally +and partly exported to Constantinople. Three miles east of Boli, +at Eskihissar, are the ruins of <i>Bithynium</i>, the birthplace +of Antinous, also called <i>Antinoopolis</i>, and in Byzantine times +<i>Claudiopolis</i>. In and around Boli are numerous marbles with +Greek inscriptions, chiefly sepulchral, and architectural fragments. +At Ilija, south of the town, are warm springs much prized +for their medicinal properties.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLINGBROKE, HENRY ST JOHN,<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> <span class="sc">Viscount</span> (1678-1751), +English statesman and writer, son of Sir Henry St John, Bart. +(afterwards 1st Viscount St John, a member of a younger branch +of the family of the earls of Bolingbroke and barons St John of +Bletso), and of Lady Mary Rich, daughter of the 2nd earl of +Warwick, was baptized on the 10th of October 1678, and was +educated at Eton. He travelled abroad during 1698 and 1699 +and acquired an exceptional knowledge of French. The dissipation +and extravagance of his youth exceeded all limits and +surprised his contemporaries. He spent weeks in riotous orgies +and outdrank the most experienced drunkards. An informant +of Goldsmith saw him once “run naked through the park in a +state of intoxication.” Throughout his career he desired, +says Swift, his intimate friend, to be thought the Alcibiades +or Petronius of his age, and to mix licentious orgies with the +highest political responsibilities.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In 1700 he married +Frances, daughter of Sir Henry Winchcombe, Bart., of Bucklebury, +Berkshire, but matrimony while improving his fortune did not +redeem his morals.</p> + +<p>He was returned to parliament in 1701 for the family borough +of Wootton Bassett in Wiltshire. He declared himself a Tory, +attached himself to Harley (afterwards Lord Oxford), then +speaker, whom he now addressed as “dear master,” and distinguished +himself by his eloquence in debate, eclipsing his schoolfellow, +Walpole, and gaining an extraordinary ascendancy over the House +of Commons. In May he had charge of the bill for securing +the Protestant succession; he took part in the impeachment +of the Whig lords for their conduct concerning the Partition +treaties, and opposed the oath abjuring the Pretender. In March +1702 he was chosen commissioner for taking the public accounts. +After Anne’s accession he supported the bills in 1702 and 1704 +against occasional conformity, and took a leading part in the +disputes which arose between the two Houses. In 1704 St John +took office with Harley as secretary at war, thus being brought +into intimate relations with Marlborough, by whom he was +treated with paternal partiality. In 1708 he quitted office with +Harley on the failure of the latter’s intrigue, and retired to the +country till 1710, when he became a privy councillor and secretary +of state in Harley’s new ministry, representing Berkshire in +parliament. He supported the bill for requiring a real property +qualification for a seat in parliament. In 1711 he founded the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page162" id="page162"></a>162</span> +Brothers’ Club, a society of Tory politicians and men of letters, +and the same year witnessed the failure of the two expeditions +to the West Indies and to Canada promoted by him. In 1712 +he was the author of the bill taxing newspapers. But the great +business of the new government was the making of the peace +with France. The refusal of the Whigs to grant terms in 1706, +and again in 1709 when Louis XIV. offered to yield every point +for which the allies professed to be fighting, showed that the +war was not being continued for English national interests, and +the ministry were supported by the queen, the parliament and +the people in their design to terminate hostilities. But various +obstacles arose from the diversity of aims among the allies; and +St John was induced, contrary to the most solemn obligations, to +enter into separate and secret negotiations with France for the +security of English interests. In May 1712 St John ordered the +duke of Ormonde, who had succeeded Marlborough in the command, +to refrain from any further engagement. These instructions +were communicated to the French, though not to the allies, +Louis putting Dunkirk as security into possession of England, +and the shameful spectacle was witnessed of the desertion by +the English troops of their allies almost on the battlefield. +Subsequently St John received the congratulations of the French +minister, Torcy, on the occasion of the French victory over +Prince Eugene at Denain.</p> + +<p>In August St John, who had on the 7th of July been created +Viscount Bolingbroke and Baron St John of Lydiard Tregoze, +went to France to conduct negotiations, and signed an armistice +between England and France for four months on the 19th. Finally +the treaty of Utrecht was signed on the 31st of March 1713 by all +the allies except the emperor. The first production of Addison’s +<i>Cato</i> was made by the Whigs the occasion of a great +demonstration of indignation against the peace, and by Bolingbroke +for presenting the actor Booth with a purse of fifty guineas for +“defending the cause of liberty against a perpetual dictator” +(Marlborough). In the terms granted to England there was +perhaps little to criticize. But the manner of the peacemaking, +which had been carried on by a series of underhand conspiracies +with the enemy instead of by open conferences with the allies, +and was characterized throughout by a violation of the most +solemn international assurances, left a deep and lasting stain +upon the national honour and credit; and not less dishonourable +was the abandonment of the Catalans by the treaty. For all +this Bolingbroke must be held primarily responsible. In June +his commercial treaty with France, establishing free trade with +that country, was rejected. Meanwhile the friendship between +Bolingbroke and Harley, which formed the basis of the whole +Tory administration, had been gradually dissolved. In March +1711, by Guiscard’s attempt on his life, Harley got the wound +which had been intended for St John, with all the credit. In +May Harley obtained the earldom of Oxford and was made lord +treasurer, while in July St John was greatly disappointed +at receiving only his viscountcy instead of the earldom lately +extinct in his family, and at being passed over for the Garter. +In September 1713 Swift came to London, and made a last but +vain attempt to reconcile his two friends. But now a further +cause of difference had arisen. The queen’s health was visibly +breaking, and the Tory ministers could only look forward to +their own downfall on the accession of the elector of Hanover. +Both Oxford<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and Bolingbroke had maintained for some time +secret communications with James, and promised their help in +restoring him at the queen’s death. The aims of the former, +prudent, procrastinating and vacillating by nature, never +extended probably beyond the propitiation of his Tory followers; +and it is difficult to imagine that Bolingbroke could have really +advocated the Pretender’s recall, whose divine right he repudiated +and whose religion and principles he despised. Nevertheless, +whatever his chief motive may have been, whether to displace +Oxford as leader of the party, to strengthen his position +and that of the faction in order to dictate terms to the future +king, or to reinstate James, Bolingbroke, yielding to his more +impetuous and adventurous disposition, went much further +than Oxford. It is possible to suppose a connexion between +his zeal for making peace with France and a desire to forward +the Pretender’s interests or win support from the Jacobites.<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> +During his diplomatic mission to France he had incurred blame +for remaining at the opera while the Pretender was present,<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> +and according to the Mackintosh transcripts he had several +secret interviews with him. Regular communications were kept +up subsequently. In March 1714 Herville, the French envoy +in London, sent to Torcy, the French foreign minister in Paris, +the substance of two long conversations with Bolingbroke in which +the latter advised patience till after the accession of George, +when a great reaction was to be expected in favour of the Pretender. +At the same time he spoke of the treachery of Marlborough and +Berwick, and of one other, presumably Oxford, whom he refused +to name, all of whom were in communication with Hanover.<a name="fa5d" id="fa5d" href="#ft5d"><span class="sp">5</span></a> +Both Oxford and Bolingbroke warned James +that he could have little chance of success unless he changed +his religion, but the latter’s refusal (March 13) does not appear +to have stopped the communications. Bolingbroke gradually +superseded Oxford in the leadership. Lady Masham, the queen’s +favourite, quarrelled with Oxford and identified herself with +Bolingbroke’s interests. The harsh treatment of the Hanoverian +demands was inspired by him, and won favour with the queen, +while Oxford’s influence declined; and by his support of the +Schism Bill in May 1714, a violent Tory measure forbidding all +education by dissenters by making an episcopal licence obligatory +for schoolmasters, he probably intended to compel Oxford to give +up the game. Finally, a charge of corruption brought by Oxford +in July against Bolingbroke and Lady Masham, in connexion +with the commercial treaty with Spain, failed, and the lord +treasurer was dismissed or retired on the 27th of July.</p> + +<p>Bolingbroke was now supreme, and everything appeared +tending inevitably to a Jacobite restoration. The Jacobite Sir +William Windham had been made chancellor of the exchequer, +important military posts were placed in the hands of the faction, +and a new ministry of Jacobites was projected. But now the +queen’s sudden death on the 1st of August, and the appointment +of Shrewsbury to the lord treasurership, instantly changed the +whole scene and ruined Bolingbroke. “The earl of Oxford was +removed on Tuesday,” he wrote to Swift on the 3rd of August, +“the queen died on Sunday! What a world is this and how +does fortune banter us!” According to Herville, the French +envoy, Bolingbroke declared to him that in six weeks he could +have secured everything. Nevertheless the exact nature of +his projects remains obscure. It is probable that his statement +in his letter to Windham that “none of us had any very settled +resolution” is true, though his declaration in the <i>Patriot +King</i> that “there were no designs on foot ... to place the +crown on the head of the Pretender” is a palpable falsehood. His +great object was doubtless to gain supreme power and to keep +it by any means, and by any betrayal that the circumstances +demanded; and it is not without significance perhaps that on +the very day of Oxford’s dismissal he gave a dinner to the Whig +leaders, and on the day preceding the queen’s death ordered +overtures to be made to the elector.<a name="fa6d" id="fa6d" href="#ft6d"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p> + +<p>On the accession of George I. the illuminations and bonfire at +Lord Bolingbroke’s house in Golden Square were “particularly +fine and remarkable,”<a name="fa7d" id="fa7d" href="#ft7d"><span class="sp">7</span></a> but he was immediately dismissed from office. +He retired to Bucklebury and is said to have now +written the answer to the <i>Secret History of the White Staff</i> +accusing him of Jacobitism. In March 1715 he in vain attempted +to defend the late ministry in the new parliament; and on the +announcement of Walpole’s intended attack upon the authors +of the treaty of Utrecht he fled in disguise (March 28, 1715) +to Paris, where he was well received, after having addressed +a letter to Lord Lansdowne from Dover protesting his innocence +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page163" id="page163"></a>163</span> +and challenging “the most inveterate of his enemies to produce +any instance of his criminal correspondence.” Bolingbroke +in July entirely identified himself with the interests of the +Pretender, whose secretary he became, and on the 10th of +September he was attainted. But his counsel was neglected +for that of ignorant refugees and Irish priests. The expedition of +1715 was resolved upon against his advice. He drew up James’s +declaration, but the assurances he had inserted concerning the +security of the Church of England were cancelled by the priests. +He remained at Paris, and endeavoured to establish relations +with the regent. On the return of James, as the result of petty +intrigues and jealousies, Bolingbroke was dismissed from his +office. He now renounced all further efforts on the Pretender’s +behalf.<a name="fa8d" id="fa8d" href="#ft8d"><span class="sp">8</span></a> Replying to Mary of Modena, who had sent a message +deprecating his ill-will, he wished his arm might rot off if he ever +used pen or sword in their service again!<a name="fa9d" id="fa9d" href="#ft9d"><span class="sp">9</span></a></p> + +<p>He now turned to the English government in hopes of pardon. +In March 1716 he declared his final abandonment of the Pretender +and promised to use his influence to secure the withdrawal of +his friends; but he refused to betray any secrets or any individuals. +He wrote his <i>Reflexions upon Exile</i>, and in 1717 his +letter to Sir W. Windham in explanation of his position, generally +considered one of his finest compositions, but not published +till 1753 after his death. The same year he formed a liaison +with Marie Claire Deschamps de Marcilly, widow of the marquis +de Villette, whom he married in 1720 after the death in 1718 +of Lady Bolingbroke, whom he had treated with cruel neglect. +He bought and resided at the estate of La Source near Orleans, +studied philosophy, criticized the chronology of the Bible, and +was visited amongst others by Voltaire, who expressed unbounded +admiration for his learning and politeness. In 1723, +through the medium of the king’s mistress, the duchess of Kendal, +he at last received his pardon, returned to London in June or +July, and placed his services at the disposal of Walpole, by whom, +however, his offers to procure the accession of several Tories to +the administration were received very coldly. During the +following winter he made himself useful in France in gaining +information for the government. In 1725 an act was passed +enabling him to hold real estate but without power of alienating +it.<a name="fa10d" id="fa10d" href="#ft10d"><span class="sp">10</span></a> But this had been effected in consequence of a peremptory +order of the king, against Walpole’s wishes, who succeeded in +maintaining his exclusion from the House of Lords. He now +bought an estate at Dawley, near Uxbridge, where he renewed his +intimacy with Pope, Swift and Voltaire, took part in Pope’s +literary squabbles, and wrote the philosophy for the <i>Essay on +Man</i>. On the first occasion which offered itself, that of Pulteney’s +rupture with Walpole in 1726, he endeavoured to organize an +opposition in conjunction with the former and Windham; and +in 1727 began his celebrated series of letters to the <i>Craftsman</i>, +attacking the Walpoles, signed an “Occasional Writer.” He +gained over the duchess of Kendal with a bribe of £11,000 from +his wife’s estates, and with Walpole’s approval obtained an +audience with George. His success was imminent, and it was +thought his appointment as chief minister was assured. In +Walpole’s own words, “as St John had the duchess entirely +on his side I need not add what must or might in time have been +the consequence,” and he prepared for his dismissal. But once +more Bolingbroke’s “fortune turned rotten at the very moment +it grew ripe,”<a name="fa11d" id="fa11d" href="#ft11d"><span class="sp">11</span></a> and his projects and hopes were ruined by the +king’s death in June.<a name="fa12d" id="fa12d" href="#ft12d"><span class="sp">12</span></a> Further papers from his pen signed +“John Trot” appeared in the <i>Craftsman</i> in 1728, and in 1730 +followed <i>Remarks on the History of England by Humphrey Oldcastle</i>, +attacking the Walpoles’ policy. The assault on the government +prompted by Bolingbroke was continued in the House of +Commons by Windham, and great efforts were made to establish +the alliance between the Tories and the Opposition Whigs. +The Excise Bill in 1733 and the Septennial Bill in the following +year offered opportunities for further attacks on the government, +which Bolingbroke supported by a new series of papers in the +<i>Craftsman</i> styled “A Dissertation on Parties”; but the whole +movement collapsed after the new elections, which returned +Walpole to power in 1735 with a large majority.</p> + +<p>Bolingbroke retired baffled and disappointed from the fray +to France in June, residing principally at the château of Argeville +near Fontainebleau. He now wrote his <i>Letters on the Study of +History</i> (printed privately before his death and published in +1752), and the <i>True Use of Retirement</i>. In 1738 he visited +England, became one of the leading friends and advisers of +Frederick, prince of Wales, who now headed the opposition, +and wrote for the occasion <i>The Patriot King</i>, which together with +a previous essay, <i>The Spirit of Patriotism</i>, and <i>The State of +Parties at the Accession of George I.</i>, were entrusted to Pope and +not published. Having failed, however, to obtain any share +in politics, he returned to France in 1739, and subsequently sold +Dawley. In 1742 and 1743 he again visited England and +quarrelled with Warburton. In 1744 he settled finally at Battersea +with his friend Hugh Hume, 3rd earl of Marchmont, +and was present at Pope’s death in May. The discovery that +the poet had printed secretly 1500 copies of <i>The Patriot King</i> +caused him to publish a correct version in 1749, and stirred up +a further altercation with Warburton, who defended his friend +against Bolingbroke’s bitter aspersions, the latter, whose conduct +was generally reprehended, publishing a <i>Familiar Epistle +to the most Impudent Man Living</i>. In 1744 he had been very +busy assisting in the negotiations for the establishment of the +new “broad bottom” administration, and showed no sympathy +for the Jacobite expedition in 1745. He recommended the tutor +for Prince George, afterwards George III. About 1749 he wrote +the <i>Present State of the Nation</i>, an unfinished pamphlet. Lord +Chesterfield records the last words heard from him: “God who +placed me here will do what He pleases with me hereafter and +He knows best what to do.” He died on the 12th of December +1751, his wife having predeceased him in 1750. They were both +buried in the parish church at Battersea, where a monument +with medallions and inscriptions composed by Bolingbroke was +erected to their memory.</p> + +<p>The writings and career of Bolingbroke make a far weaker +impression upon posterity than they made on contemporaries. +His genius and character were superficial; his abilities were +exercised upon ephemeral objects, and not inspired by lasting +or universal ideas. Bute and George III. indeed derived their +political ideas from <i>The Patriot King</i>, but the influence which he +is said to have exercised upon Voltaire, Gibbon and Burke is +very problematical. Burke wrote his <i>Vindication of Natural +Society</i> in imitation of Bolingbroke’s style, but in refutation of +his principles; and in the <i>Reflections on the French Revolution</i> +he exclaims, “Who now reads Bolingbroke, who ever read him +through?” Burke denies that Bolingbroke’s words left “any +permanent impression on his mind.” Bolingbroke’s conversation, +described by Lord Chesterfield as “such a flowing happiness +of expression that even his most familiar conversations if taken +down in writing would have borne the press without the least +correction,” his delightful companionship, his wit, good looks, +and social qualities which charmed during his lifetime and made +firm friendships with men of the most opposite character, can +now only be faintly imagined. His most brilliant gift was his +eloquence, which according to Swift was acknowledged by men +of all factions to be unrivalled. None of his great orations has +survived, a loss regretted by Pitt more than that of the missing +books of Livy and Tacitus, and no art perishes more completely +with its possessor than that of oratory. His political works, in +which the expression is often splendidly eloquent, spirited and +dignified, are for the most part exceedingly rhetorical in style, +while his philosophical essays were undertaken with the chief +object of displaying his eloquence, and no characteristic renders +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page164" id="page164"></a>164</span> +writings less readable for posterity. They are both deficient in +solidity and in permanent interest. The first deals with mere +party questions without sincerity and without depth; and the +second, composed as an amusement in retirement without any +serious preparation, in their attacks on metaphysics and theology +and in their feeble deism present no originality and carry no +conviction. Both kinds reflect in their Voltairian superficiality +Bolingbroke’s manner of life, which was throughout uninspired +by any great ideas or principles and thoroughly false and superficial. +Though a libertine and a free-thinker, he had championed +the most bigoted and tyrannical high-church measures. His diplomacy +had been subordinated to party necessities. He had +supported by turns and simultaneously Jacobite and Hanoverian +interests. He had only conceived the idea of <i>The Patriot King</i> +in the person of the worthless Frederick in order to stir up +sedition, while his eulogies on retirement and study were pronounced +from an enforced exile. He only attacked party +government because he was excluded from it, and only railed +at corruption because it was the corruption of his antagonists +and not his own. His public life presents none of those acts of +devotion and self-sacrifice which often redeem a career characterized +by errors, follies and even crimes.</p> + +<p>One may deplore his unfortunate history and wasted genius, +but it is impossible to regret his exclusion from the government +of England. He was succeeded in the title as 2nd Viscount +Bolingbroke, according to the special remainder, by his nephew +Frederick, 3rd Viscount St John (a title granted to Bolingbroke’s +father in 1716), from whom the title has descended.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Bibliography</span>.—Bolingbroke’s collected works, including his chief +political writings already mentioned and his philosophical essays +<i>Concerning the Nature, Extent and Reality of Human Knowledge</i>, <i>On +the Folly and Presumption of Philosophers</i>, <i>On the Rise and Progress of +Monotheism</i>, and <i>On Authority in Matters of Religion</i>, were first published +in Mallet’s faulty edition in 1754,—according to Johnson’s well-known +denunciation, “the blunderbuss charged against religion and +morality,”—and subsequently in 1778, 1809 and 1841. <i>A Collection +of Political Tracts</i> by Bolingbroke was published in 1748. His +<i>Letters</i> were published by G. Parke in 1798, and by Grimoard, +<i>Lettres historiques, politiques, philosophiques, &c.</i>, in 1808; for others +see Pope’s and Swift’s <i>Correspondence</i>; W. Coxe’s <i>Walpole</i>; Phillimore’s +<i>Life of Lyttelton</i>; <i>Hardwick State Papers</i>, vol. ii.; <i>Marchmont +Papers</i>, ed. by Sir G.H. Rose (1831); Letters to Lord Chancellor +Hardwicke in <i>Add. MSS. Brit. Museum</i> (see Index, 1894-1899), +mostly transcribed by W. Sichel; <i>Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of +Marquis of Bath, Duke of Portland at Welbeck</i>; while a further +collection of his letters relating to the treaty of Utrecht is in the +British Museum. For his attempts at verse see Walpole’s <i>Royal and +Noble Authors</i> (1806), iv. 209 et seq. See also bibliography of his +works in Sichel, ii. 456, 249.</p> + +<p>A life of Bolingbroke appeared in his lifetime about 1740, entitled +<i>Authentic Memoirs</i> (in the Grenville Library, Brit. Mus.), which +recounted his escapades; other contemporary accounts were published +in 1752 and 1754, and a life by Goldsmith in 1770. Of the more +modern biographies may be noted that in the <i>Dict. of Nat. Biog.</i> by +Sir Leslie Stephen, 1897; by C. de Remusat in <i>L’Angleterre au 18me +siècle</i> (1856), vol. i.; by T. Macknight (1863); by J. Churton +Collins (1886); by A. Hassall (1889); and by Walter Sichel (1901-1902), +elaborate and brilliant, but unduly eulogistic.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. C. Y.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Swift’s <i>Inquiry into the Behaviour of the Queen’s Last Ministry</i>; +Mrs Delaney’s <i>Correspondence</i>, 2 ser., iii. 168.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> <i>Berwick’s Mem.</i> (Petitot), vol. lxvi. 219.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm., Portland MSS.</i> v. 235.</p> + +<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> <i>Stuart MSS.</i> (Roxburghe Club), ii. 383.</p> + +<p><a name="ft5d" id="ft5d" href="#fa5d"><span class="fn">5</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of H.M. the King, Stuart Papers</i>, i. p. xlviii.</p> + +<p><a name="ft6d" id="ft6d" href="#fa6d"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Sichel’s <i>Bolingbroke</i>, i. 340; +<i>Lockhart Papers</i>, i. 460; Macpherson, ii. 529.</p> + +<p><a name="ft7d" id="ft7d" href="#fa7d"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Wentworth Papers</i>, 408.</p> + +<p><a name="ft8d" id="ft8d" href="#fa8d"><span class="fn">8</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm., Stuart Papers</i>, i. 500; +Berwick’s <i>Mem</i>. (Petitot), vol. lxvi. 262.</p> + +<p><a name="ft9d" id="ft9d" href="#fa9d"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Coxe’s <i>Walpole</i>, i. 200; <i>Stuart Papers</i>, +ii. 511, and also 446, 460.</p> + +<p><a name="ft10d" id="ft10d" href="#fa10d"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Hist. MSS. Comm., Onslow MSS.</i> 515.</p> + +<p><a name="ft11d" id="ft11d" href="#fa11d"><span class="fn">11</span></a> Bolingbroke to Swift, June 24th, 1727. He adds, “to hanker +after a court is below either you or me.”</p> + +<p><a name="ft12d" id="ft12d" href="#fa12d"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Sichel’s <i>Bolingbroke</i>, ii. 267; <i>Stanhope</i>, ii. 163; <i>Hist. MSS. +Comm., Onslow MSS.</i> 516, 8th Rep. Pt. III. App. p. 3. This +remarkable incident is discredited by H. Walpole in <i>Letters</i> (ed. +1903), iii. 269; but he was not always well informed concerning his +father’s career.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLIVAR, SIMON<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> (1783-1830), the hero of South American +independence, was born in the city of Caracas, Venezuela, on +the 24th of July 1783. His father was Juan Vicente Bolivar y +Ponte, and his mother Maria Concepcion Palacios y Sojo, both +descended from noble families in Venezuela. Bolivar was sent +to Europe to prosecute his studies, and resided at Madrid for +several years. Having completed his education, he spent some +time in travelling, chiefly in the south of Europe, and visited +Paris, where he was an eye-witness of some of the last scenes of +the Revolution. Returning to Madrid, he married, in 1801, the +daughter of Don N. Toro, uncle of the marquis of Toro in Caracas, +and embarked with her for Venezuela, intending, it is said, to +devote himself to the improvement of his large estate. But the +premature death of his young wife, who fell a victim to yellow +fever, drove him again to Europe. Returning home in 1809 +he passed through the United States, where, for the first time, +he had an opportunity of observing the working of free institutions; +and soon after his arrival in Venezuela he appears to have +identified himself with the cause of independence which had +already agitated the Spanish colonies for some years. Being one +of the promoters of the insurrection at Caracas in April 1810, +he received a colonel’s commission from the revolutionary junta, +and was associated with Louis Lopez Mendez in a mission to the +court of Great Britain. Venezuela declared its independence on +the 5th of July 1811, and in the following year the war commenced +in earnest by the advance of Monteverde with the Spanish +troops. Bolivar was entrusted with the command of the important +post of Puerto Cabello, but not being supported he had to +evacuate the place; and owing to the inaction of Miranda the +Spaniards recovered their hold over the country.</p> + +<p>Like others of the revolutionists Bolivar took to flight, and +succeeded in reaching Curaçao in safety. He did not, however, +remain long in retirement, but in September 1812, hearing of +important movements in New Granada, repaired to Cartagena, +where he received a commission to operate against the Spanish +troops on the Magdalena river. In this expedition he proved +eminently successful, driving the Spaniards from post to post, +until arriving at the confines of Venezuela he boldly determined +to enter that province and try conclusions with General Monteverde +himself. His troops did not number more than 500 men; +but, in spite of many discouragements, he forced his way to +Merida and Truxillo, towns of some importance in the west of +Venezuela, and succeeded in raising the population to his +support. Forming his increased forces into two divisions, he +committed the charge of one to his colleague Rivas, and pushing +on for Caracas the capital, issued his decree of “war to the +death.” A decisive battle ensued at Lastoguanes, where the +Spanish troops under Monteverde sustained a crushing defeat. +Caracas was entered in triumph on the 4th of August 1813, +and Monteverde took refuge in Puerto Cabello. General Mariño +effected the liberation of the eastern district of Venezuela, and +the patriots obtained entire possession of the country in January +1814. This success was, however, of very brief duration. The +royalists, effectually roused by the reverses they had sustained, +concentrated all their means, and a number of sanguinary +encounters ensued. Bolivar was eventually defeated by Boves +near Cura, in the plains of La Puerta, and compelled to embark +for Cumana with the shattered remains of his forces. Caracas was +retaken by the Spaniards in July; and before the end of the year +1814 the royalists were again the undisputed masters of Venezuela. +From Cumana Bolivar repaired to Cartagena, and thence to +Tunja, where the revolutionary congress of New Granada was +sitting. Here, notwithstanding his misfortunes and the efforts +of his personal enemies, he was received and treated with great +consideration. The congress appointed him to conduct an expedition +against Santa Fé de Bogota, where Don Cundinamarca +had refused to acknowledge the new coalition of the provinces. +In December 1814 he appeared before Bogota with a force of +2000 men, and obliged the recalcitrant leaders to capitulate,—a +service for which he received the thanks of congress. In +the meanwhile Santa Martha had fallen into the hands of the +royalists, and Bolivar was ordered to the relief of the place. In +this, however, he was not successful, General Morillo having +landed an overwhelming Spanish force. Hopeless of the attempt +he resigned his commission and embarked for Kingston, Jamaica, +in May 1814. While residing there an attempt was made upon +his life by a hired assassin, who, in mistake, murdered his +secretary.</p> + +<p>From Kingston Bolivar went to Aux Cayes in Haiti, where he +was furnished with a small force by President Petion. An +expedition was organized, and landed on the mainland in May +1816, but proved a failure. Nothing daunted, however, he obtained +reinforcements at Aux Cayes, and in December landed +first in Margarita, and then at Barcelona. Here a provisional +government was formed, and troops were assembled to resist +Morillo, who was then advancing at the head of a strong division. +The hostile forces encountered each other on the 16th of February +1817, when a desperate conflict ensued, which lasted during that +and the two following days, and ended in the defeat of the royalists. +Morillo retired in disorder, and being met on his retreat by J.A. +Paez with his <i>llaneros</i>, suffered an additional and more complete +overthrow. Being now recognized as commander-in-chief, Bolivar +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page165" id="page165"></a>165</span> +proceeded in his career of victory, and before the close of the +year had fixed his headquarters at Angostura on the Orinoco. +At the opening of the congress which assembled in that city +on the 15th February 1819 he submitted an elaborate exposition +of his views on government, and concluded by surrendering his +authority into the hands of congress. Being, however, required +to resume his power, and retain it until the independence of the +country had been completely established, he reorganized his +troops, and set out from Angostura, in order to cross the +Cordilleras, effect a junction with General Santander, who commanded +the republican force in New Granada, and bring their +united forces into action against the common enemy. This bold +and original design was crowned with complete success. In +July 1819 he entered Tunja, after a sharp action on the adjoining +heights; and on the 7th of August he gained the victory of +Boyaca, which gave him immediate possession of Bogota and all +New Granada.</p> + +<p>His return to Angostura was a sort of national festival. He +was hailed as the deliverer and father of his country, and all +manner of distinctions and congratulations were heaped upon +him. Availing himself of the favourable moment, he obtained +the enactment of the fundamental law of the 17th of December +1819, by which the republics of Venezuela and New Granada +were henceforth to be united in a single state, under his presidency, +by the title of the Republic of Colombia. The seat of +government was also transferred provisionally to Rosario de +Cucuta, on the frontier of the two provinces, and Bolivar again +took the field. Being now at the head of the most numerous +and best appointed army the republicans had yet assembled, +he gained important advantages over the Spaniards under +Morillo, and on the 25th of November 1820 concluded at Truxillo +an armistice of six months, probably in the hope that the Spaniards +would come to terms, and that the further effusion of blood +might be spared. If such were his views, however, they were +disappointed. Morillo was recalled, and General Torre assumed +the command. The armistice was allowed to expire, and a +renewal of the contest became inevitable. Bolivar therefore +resolved, if possible, to strike a decisive blow; and this accordingly +he did at Carabobo, where, encountering Torre, he so +completely routed the Spaniards that the shattered remains of +their army were forced to take refuge in Puerto Cabello, where +two years after they surrendered to Paez. The battle of Carabobo +may be considered as having put an end to the war in Venezuela. +On the 29th of June 1821 Bolivar entered Caracas, and by the +close of the year the Spaniards were driven from every part of +the province except Puerto Cabello. The next step was to +secure, by permanent political institutions, the independence +which had been so dearly purchased; and, accordingly, on the +30th of August 1821 the constitution of Colombia was adopted +with general approbation, Bolivar himself being president, and +Santander vice-president.</p> + +<p>There was, however, more work for him to do. The Spaniards, +though expelled from Colombia, still held possession of the neighbouring +provinces of Ecuador and Peru; and Bolivar determined +to complete the liberation of the whole country. Placing himself +at the head of the army, he marched on Quito in Ecuador. +A severe battle was fought at Pichincha, where, by the prowess +of his colleague Sucre, the Spaniards were routed, and Quito +was entered by the republicans in June 1822. Bolivar then +marched upon Lima, which the royalists evacuated at his +approach; and entering the capital in triumph, he was invested +with absolute power as dictator, and authorized to call into +action all the resources of the country. Owing, however, to the +intrigues of the republican factions in Peru he was forced to +withdraw to Truxillo, leaving the capital to the mercy of the +Spaniards under Canterac, by whom it was immediately occupied. +But this misfortune proved only temporary. By June +1824 the liberating army was completely organized; and taking +the field soon after, it routed the vanguard of the enemy. Improving +his advantage, Bolivar pressed forward, and on the 6th +of August defeated Canterac on the plains of Junin, after which +he returned to Lima, leaving Sucre to follow the royalists in +their retreat to Upper Peru—an exploit which the latter executed +with equal ability and success, gaining a decisive victory at +Ayacucho, and thus completing the dispersion of the Spanish +force. The possessions of the Spaniards in Peru were now +confined to the castles of Callao, which Rodil maintained for +upwards of a year, in spite of all the means that could be employed +for their reduction. In June 1825 Bolivar visited Upper +Peru, which, having detached itself from the government of +Buenos Aires, was formed into a separate state, called Bolivia, +in honour of the liberator. The first congress of the new +republic assembled in August 1825, when Bolivar was declared +perpetual protector, and requested to prepare for it a constitution +of government.</p> + +<p>His care was now directed to the administration of the affairs +of the freed provinces. His endeavours to satisfy his countrymen +in this respect did not always meet with encouragement, and +sometimes exposed him to slander. In December 1824 Bolivar +convoked a constituent congress for the February following; +but this body, taking into consideration the unsettled state of the +country, thought it proper to invest him with dictatorial power +for another year. His project of a constitution for Bolivia was +presented to the congress of that state on the 25th of May 1826, +accompanied with an address, in which he embodied his opinions +respecting the form of government which he conceived most +expedient for the newly established republics. This code, however, +did not give satisfaction. Its most extraordinary feature +consisted in the provision for lodging the executive authority +in the hands of a president for life, without responsibility and +with power to nominate his successor, a proposal which alarmed +the friends of liberty, and excited lively apprehensions amongst +the republicans of Buenos Aires and Chile; whilst in Peru, +Bolivar was accused of a design to unite into one state Colombia, +Peru and Bolivia, and to render himself perpetual dictator of the +confederacy.</p> + +<p>In the meanwhile the affairs of Colombia had taken a turn +which demanded the presence of Bolivar in his own country. +During his absence Santander had administered the government +of the state ably and uprightly, and its independence had been +recognized by other countries. But Paez, who commanded in +Venezuela, having been accused of arbitrary conduct in the enrolment +of the citizens of Caracas in the militia, refused obedience +to the summons of the senate, and placed himself in a state of +open rebellion against the government, being encouraged by a +disaffected party in the northern departments who desired +separation from the rest of the republic.</p> + +<p>Accordingly, having entrusted the government to a council +nominated by himself, with Santa Cruz at its head, Bolivar set +out from Lima in September 1826, and hastening to Bogota, +arrived there on the 14th of November. He immediately +assumed the extraordinary powers which by the constitution +the president was authorized to exercise in case of rebellion. +After a short stay in the capital he pressed forward to stop the +effusion of blood in Venezuela, where matters had gone much +farther than he could have contemplated. On the 31st of +December he reached Puerto Cabello, and the following day he +issued a decree offering a general amnesty. He had then a +friendly meeting with Paez and soon after entered Caracas, where +he fixed his headquarters, in order to check the northern departments, +which had been the principal theatre of the disturbances. +In the meanwhile Bolivar and Santander were re-elected to the +respective offices of president and vice-president, and by law they +should have qualified as such in January 1827. In February, however, +Bolivar formally resigned the presidency of the republic, at the +same time expressing a determination to refute the imputations +of ambition which had been so freely cast upon him, by retiring +into private life, and spending the remainder of his days on his +patrimonial estate. Santander combated this proposal, urging +him to resume his station as constitutional president, and declaring +his own conviction that the troubles and agitations of the +country could only be appeased by the authority and personal +influence of the liberator himself. This view being confirmed +by a resolution of congress, although it was not a unanimous +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page166" id="page166"></a>166</span> +one, Bolivar decided to resume his functions, and he repaired to +Bogota to take the oaths. Before his arrival, however, he issued +simultaneously three separate decrees—one granting a general +amnesty, another convoking a national convention at Ocaña, +and a third for establishing constitutional order throughout +Colombia. His arrival was accelerated by the occurrence of +events in Peru and the southern departments which struck at the +very foundation of his power. Not long after his departure from +Lima, the Bolivian code had been adopted as the constitution +of Peru, and Bolivar had been declared president for life on the +9th of December 1826, the anniversary of the battle of Ayacucho. +At this time the Colombian auxiliary army was cantoned in Peru, +and the third division, stationed at Lima, consisting of veteran +troops under Lara and Sands, became distrustful of Bolivar’s +designs on the freedom of the republic. Accordingly, in about +six weeks after the adoption of Bolivar’s new constitution, a +counter-revolution in the government of Peru was effected by +this body of dissatisfied veterans, and the Peruvians, availing +themselves of the opportunity, abjured the Bolivian code, deposed +the council appointed by the liberator, and proceeded +to organize a provisional government for themselves. After this +bloodless revolution the third division embarked at Callao on the +17th of March 1827, and landed in the southern department of +Colombia in the following month. Intelligence of these events +reached Bolivar while in the north of Colombia, and he lost no +time in preparing to march against the refractory troops, who +formerly had placed such implicit confidence in him. But he +was spared the necessity of coming to blows, for the leaders, +finding the government in the hands of the national executive, +had peaceably submitted to General Ovando. In the meanwhile +Bolivar had accepted the presidency, and resumed the functions +belonging to his official position. But although Colombia was, +to all external appearance, restored to tranquillity, the nation +was divided into two parties. Bolivar had, no doubt, regained +the personal confidence of the officers and soldiers of the third +division; but the republican party, with Santander at their +head, continued to regard with undisguised apprehension his +ascendancy over the army, suspecting him of a desire to imitate +the career of Napoleon. In the meanwhile all parties looked +anxiously to the convention of Ocaña, which was to assemble in +March 1828, for a decided expression of the national will. The +republicans hoped that the issue of its deliberations would be +favourable to their views; whilst the military, on the other hand, +did not conceal their conviction that a stronger and more permanent +form of government was essential to the public welfare. +The latter view seems to have prevailed. In virtue of a decree, +dated Bogota, the 27th of August 1828, Bolivar assumed the +supreme power in Colombia, and continued to exercise it until +his death, which took place at San Pedro, near Santa Marta, on +the 17th of December 1830.</p> + +<p>Bolivar spent nine-tenths of a splendid patrimony in the +service of his country; and although he had for a considerable +period unlimited control over the revenues of three countries—Colombia, +Peru and Bolivia—he died without a shilling of public +money in his possession. He achieved the independence of three +states, and called forth a new spirit in the southern portion of +the New World. He purified the administration of justice; he +encouraged the arts and sciences; he fostered national interests, +and he induced other countries to recognize that independence +which was in a great measure the fruit of his own exertions. +His remains were removed in 1842 to Caracas, where a monument +was erected to his memory; a statue was put up in Bogota +in 1846; in 1858 the Peruvians followed the example by erecting +an equestrian statue of the liberator in Lima; and in 1884 a +statue was erected in Central Park, New York.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Twenty-two volumes of official documents bearing on Bolivar’s +career were officially published at Caracas in 1826-1833. There are +lives by Larrazabal (New York, 1866); Rojas (Madrid, 1883); and +Ducoudray-Holstein (Paris, 1831). Two volumes of his correspondence +were published in New York in 1866.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLÍVAR,<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> till 1908 a department of Colombia, bounded +N. and W. by the Caribbean Sea, E. by the departments of +Magdalena and Santander, S. by Antioquia and S.W. by Cauca. +It has an area of 27,028 sq. m., composed in great part of low, +alluvial plains, densely wooded, but slightly cultivated and +unsuited for north European labour. The population, estimated +at 323,097 in 1899, is composed largely of mixed races; in some +localities the inhabitants of mixed race are estimated to constitute +four-fifths of the population. The capital, Cartagena on the +Caribbean coast, was once the principal commercial entrepôt of +Colombia. Other important towns are Barranquilla and +Mompox (8000), on the Magdalena river, and Corozal (9000) +and Lorica (10,596 in 1902), near the western coast.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLÍVAR,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> an inland state of Venezuela, lying S. of the +Orinoco and Apure, with the Yuruari territory on the E., the +Caroni river forming the boundary, and the Amazonas territory +and Brazil on the S. Frequent political changes in Venezuela +have led to various modifications in the size and outlines of this +state, which comprises large areas of uninhabited territory. It +is a country of extensive plains (<i>llanos</i>) covered in the rainy +season with nutritious grass which disappears completely in the +dry season, and of great forests and numerous rivers. Its +population was given in 1894 as 135,232, but its area has been +largely reduced since then. The capital is Ciudad Bolívar, +formerly called Angostura, which is situated on the right bank +of the Orinoco about 240 m. above its mouth; pop. 11,686. +Vessels of light draught easily ascend the Orinoco to this point, +and a considerable trade is carried on, the exports being cocoa, +sugar, cotton, hides, jerked beef and various forest products.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLIVIA,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> an inland republic of South America, once a part +of the Spanish vice-royalty of Peru and known as the province +of Charcas, or Upper Peru. It is the third largest political +division of the continent, and extends, approximately, from +9° 44′ to 22° 50′ S. lat., and from 58° to 70° W. long. It is +bounded N. and E. by Brazil, S. by Paraguay and Argentina, +and W. by Chile and Peru. Estimates of area vary widely and +have been considerably confused by repeated losses of territory +in boundary disputes with neighbouring states, and no figures +can be given which may not be changed to some extent by +further revisions. Official estimates are 640,226 and 703,633 +sq. m., but Supan (<i>Die Bevolkerung der Erde</i>, 1904) places it at +515,156 sq. m.</p> + +<p><i>Boundaries.</i>—The boundary line between Bolivia and Brazil +has its origin in the limits between the Spanish and Portuguese +colonies determined by the treaties of Madrid and San Ildefonso +(1750 and 1777), which were modified by the treaties of 1867 +and 1903. Beginning at the outlet of Bahia Negra into the +Paraguay river, lat. 28° 08′ 35″ S., the line ascends the latter +to a point on the west bank 9 kilometres below Fort Coimbra, +thence inland 4 kilometres to a point in lat. 19° 45′ 36″ S. and +long. 58° 04′ 12.7″ W., whence it follows an irregular course N. +and E. of N. to Lakes Mandioré, Gaiba or Gahiba, and Uberaba, +then up the San Matias river and N. along the Sierra Ricardo +Franco to the headwaters of the Rio Verde, a tributary of the +Guaporé. This part of the boundary was turned inland from +the Paraguay to include, within Brazilian jurisdiction, Fort +Coimbra, Corumbá and other settlements on the west bank, and +was modified in 1903 by the recession of about 1158 sq. m. to +Bolivia to provide better commercial facilities on the Paraguay. +The line follows the Verde, Guaporé, Mamoré and Madeira +rivers down to the mouth of the Abuna, in about lat. 9° 44′ S., +as determined by the treaty of 1903. This is a part of the +original colonial frontier, which extended down the Madeira to a +point midway between the Beni and the Amazon, and then ran +due W. to the Javary. The treaty of 1867 changed this starting-point +to the mouth of the Beni, in lat. 10° 20′ S., and designated a +straight line to the source of the Javary as the frontier, which +gave to Brazil a large area of territory; but when the valuable rubber +forests of the upper Purús became known the Brazilians invaded +them and demanded another modification of the boundary line. +This was finally settled in 1903 by the treaty of Petropolis, +which provided that the line should ascend the Abuna river to +lat. 10° 20′ S., thence along that parallel W. to the Rapirran river +which is followed to its principal source, thence due W. to the +Ituxy river which is followed W. to its source, thence to the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page167" id="page167"></a>167</span> +source of Bahia Creek which is followed to the Acré or Aquiry +river, thence up the latter to its source, whence if east of the +69th meridian it runs direct to the 11th parallel which will form +the boundary line to the Peruvian frontier. This frontier gave +about 60,000 sq. m. of territory to Brazil, for which the latter +gave an indemnity of £2,000,000 and about 1158 sq. m. of +territory on the Matto Grosso frontier. The boundary with +Paraguay is unsettled, but an unratified treaty of the 23rd of +November 1894 provides that the line shall start from a point on +the Paraguay river 3 m. north of Fort Olimpo and run south-west +in a straight line to an intersection with the Pilcomayo in long. +61° 28′ W., where it unites with the Argentine boundary. The +boundary with Chile was greatly modified by the results of the +war of 1879-83, as determined by the treaties of 1884, 1886 and +1895, Bolivia losing her department of the littoral on the Pacific +and all access to the coast except by the grace of the conqueror. +Provisions were made in 1895 for the cession of the port of +Mejillones del Norte and a right of way across the province of +Tarapacá, but Peru protested, and negotiations followed for the +cession of Cobija, in the province of Antofagasta. These negotiations +proved fruitless, and in 1904 Bolivia accepted a pecuniary +indemnity in lieu of territory. The new boundary line starts +from the summit of the Sapaleri (or Zapalegui), where the +Argentine, Bolivian and Chilean boundaries converge, and runs +west to Licancaur, thence north to the most southern source of +Lake Ascotán which it follows to and across this lake in the +direction of the Oyahua volcano, and thence in a straight line +to the Tua volcano, on the frontier of the province of Tarapacá. +From this point the line follows the summits of the Cordillera +Silillica north to the Cerro Paquiza, on the Tacna frontier, and +to the Nevado Pomarape, near the frontier of Peru. Thence it +continues north to an intersection with the Desaguadero, in about +16° 45′ S. lat., follows that river to the Winamarca lagoon and +Lake Titicaca, and crosses the latter diagonally to Huaicho on +the north shore. From this point the line crosses the Cordillera +Real through the valley of the San Juan del Oro to Suches Lake, +follows the Cololo and Apolobamba ranges to the headwaters of +the Sina river, and thence down that stream to the Inambari. +Thence the line either follows the latter to its confluence with the +Madre de Dios, or the water-parting between that river and the +Tambopata or Pando, to the valley of the Madre de Dios, from +which point it runs due north to 12° 40′ S. lat., and north-west to +the new Brazilian frontier. The N.W. angle on the map represents +the Bolivian claim until the settlement of 1909, which gave +the territory to Peru.</p> + +<div class="ptb1"><img style="width:844px; height:773px" src="images/img167.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p><i>Physiography.</i>—Roughly calculated, two-fifths of the total area +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page168" id="page168"></a>168</span> +of Bolivia is comprised within the Andean cordilleras which cross +its south-west corner and project east toward the Brazilian highlands +in the form of a great obtuse angle. The Cordilleras, divided +into two great parallel chains, with flanking ranges and spurs to +the east, reach their greatest breadth at this point and form +the <i>massif</i> of the Andean system. It is made up of a number +of parallel ranges enclosing great elevated plateaus broken by +transverse ranges and deep ravines. North-east of Lake Titicaca +there is a confused mass or knot (the Nudo de Apolobamba) +of lofty intersecting ridges which include some of the highest +peaks in South America. Below this mountainous area the +ranges open out and enclose extensive plateaus. The western +range, the Cordillera Occidental, a part of the boundary between +Bolivia and the northern provinces of Chile, closely follows the +coast outline and forms the western rampart of the great Bolivian +tableland or <i>alta-planicie</i>, which extends from the Vilcanota +knot in Peru, south to the Serrania de Lipez on the Argentine +frontier, is 500 m. long, and about 80 m. broad, and contains +about 40,000 sq. m. The northern part of this plateau is commonly +called the <i>puna</i>; the southern part, the “desert of +Lipez,” in character and appearance is part of the great Puna +de Atacama. This plateau has an average elevation of about +12,650 ft. near Lake Titicaca, but descends about 1000 ft. toward +its southern extremity. It is a great lacustrine basin where once +existed an inland sea having an outlet to the east through the +La Paz gorge. The plateau is bleak and inhospitable in the +north, barren and arid toward the south, containing great saline +depressions covered with water in the rainy season, and broken +by ridges and peaks, the highest being the Cerro de Tahua, +17,454 ft. Overlooking the plateau from the west are the snow-clad +peaks of Pomarape (20,505 ft.), Parinacota (20,918 ft.), +Sajama (21,047), Huallatiri (21,654), Lirima (19,128), and the +three volcanic peaks, Oyahua (19,226), San Pedro y Pablo +(19,423) and Licancaur (19,685). The eastern rampart of this +great plateau is formed by the Cordillera Oriental, which extends +north-west into Peru under the name of Carabaya, and +south to the frontier in broken ranges, one of which trends south-east +in the vicinity of Sucré. The main part of this great range, +known as the Cordillera Real, and one of the most imposing +mountain masses of the world, extends from the Peruvian border +south-east to the 18th parallel and exhibits a series of snow-crowned +peaks, notably the triple-crested Illampu or Sorata +(21,490 ft.), Illimani (Conway, 21,204), Cacaaca (20,571) and +Chachacomani (21,434). Of the ranges extending south from +the Cordillera Real and branching out between the 18th and 19th +parallels, the more prominent are the Frailes which forms the +eastern rampart of the great central plateau and which is celebrated +for its mineral deposits, the Chichas which runs south from +the vicinity of Potosi to the Argentine frontier, and the Livichuco +which turns south-east and forms the watershed between the +Cachimayo and Pilcomayo. The more prominent peaks in and +between these ranges are the Asanaque (16,857), Michaga +(17,389), Cuzco (17,930), Potosi (15,381), Chorolque (18,480) +and Tuluma (15,584). At the southern extremity of the great +plateau is the transverse Serrania de Lipez, the culminating +crest of which stands 16,404 ft. above sea-level. The eastern +rampart of the Bolivian highlands comprises two distinct +chains—the Sierra de Cochabamba on the north-east and the +Sierra de Misiones on the east. Between these and the Cordillera +Oriental is an apparently confused mass of broken, intersecting +ranges, which on closer examination are found to conform more +or less closely to the two outside ranges. These have been +deeply cut by rivers, especially on the north-east, where the rainfall +is heavier. The region enclosed by these ranges is extremely +rugged in character, but it is esteemed highly for its fertile +valleys and its fine climate, and is called the “Bolivian Switzerland.” +Lying wholly within the tropics, these mountain masses +form one of the most interesting as well as one of the most +imposing and difficult regions of the world. At their feet and in +their lower valleys the heat is intense and the vegetation is +tropical. Above these are cool, temperate slopes and valleys, +and high above these, bleak, wind-swept passes and snow-clad +peaks. West of the Cordillera Oriental, where special conditions +prevail, a great desert plateau stretches entirely across one corner +of the republic. Apart from the Andean system there is a group +of low, broken, gneiss ranges stretching along the east side of +Bolivia among the upper affluents of the Mamoré and Guaporé, +which appear to belong to the older Brazilian orographic system, +from which they have been separated by the erosive action of +water. They are known as the Sierras de Chiquitos, and are +geologically interesting because of their proximity to the eastern +projection of the Andes. Their culminating point is Cerro +Cochii, 3894 ft. above sea-level, but for the most part they are +but little more than ranges of low wooded hills, having in general +a north-west and south-east direction between the 15th and 19th +parallels.</p> + +<p>The popular conception of Bolivia is that of an extremely +rugged mountainous country, although fully three-fifths of it, +including the Chiquitos region, is composed of low alluvial +plains, great swamps and flooded bottomlands, and gently +undulating forest regions. In the extreme south are the Bolivian +Chaco and the llanos (open grassy plains) of Manzo, while above +these in eastern Chuquisaca and southern Santa Cruz are extensive +swamps and low-lying plains, subject to periodical inundations +and of little value for agricultural and pastoral purposes. There +are considerable areas in this part of Bolivia, however, which +lie above the floods and afford rich grazing lands. The great +drawback to this region is defective drainage; the streams have +too sluggish a current to carry off the water in the rainy season. +Between the Chiquitos sierras and the Andes are the Llanos de +Chiquitos, which have a higher general elevation and a more +diversified surface. North of this elevation, which formed the +southern shore of the ancient Mojos Lake, are the llanos of +Guarayos and Mojos, occupying an extensive region traversed +by the Guaporé, San Miguel, Guapay, Mamoré, Yacuma, Beni +and Madre de Dios rivers and their numerous tributaries. It +was once covered by the great Mojos Lake, and still contains +large undrained areas, like that of Lake Rojoagua (or Roguaguado). +It contains rich agricultural districts and extensive open plains +where cattle-raising has been successfully followed since the +days of the Jesuit missions in that region. The lower slopes of +the Andes, especially toward the north-west, where the country +is traversed by the Beni and Madre de Dios, are covered with +heavy forests. This is one of the richest districts of Bolivia and +is capable of sustaining a large population.</p> + +<p>The river-systems of Bolivia fall naturally into three distinct +regions—the Amazon, La Plata and Central Plateau. The first +includes the rivers flowing directly and indirectly into the +Madeira, one of the great tributaries of the Amazon, together +with some small tributaries of the Acré and Purús in the north, +all of which form a drainage basin covering more than one-half +of the republic. The two principal rivers of this system are the +Mamoré and Beni, which unite in lat. 10° 20′ S. to form the +Madeira. The Mamoré, the upper part of which is called the +Chimoré, rises on the north-east slopes of the Sierra de Cochabamba +a little south of the 17th parallel, and follows a northerly +serpentine course to its confluence with the Beni, the greater +part of which course is between the 65th and 66th meridians. +The river has a length of about 600 m., fully three-fourths of +which, from Chimoré (925 ft. above sea level) to the rapids near +its mouth, passes across a level plain and is navigable. The +principal Bolivian tributary of the Mamoré, the Guapay or Grande, +which is larger and longer than the former above their confluence +and should be considered the main stream, rises in the Cordillera +Oriental east of Lake Pampa Aullaguas, and flows east to the +north extremity of the Sierra de Misiones, where it emerges upon +the Bolivian lowlands. Turning to the north in a magnificent +curve, it passes around the south-east extremity of the Sierra de +Cochabamba, skirts the Llanos de Chiquitos, and, turning to the +north-west, unites with the Mamoré at Junta de los Rios in about +15° 20′ S. lat. and 64° 40′ W. long. It has a tortuous course +of over 700 m., which is described as not navigable. The +principal tributaries of the Guapay are the Mizque, Piray or +Sará and Yapacani, the last rising on the east slopes of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page169" id="page169"></a>169</span> +Cordillera Real, flowing east by Cochabamba to the sierras of +that name where it breaks through with a great bend to the north. +The other large Bolivian tributaries of the Mamoré, all rising on +the north-east flanks of the Andes, are the Chaparé, Sécure, +Manique or Aperé and Yacuma, the last draining a region of +lakes and swamps north of the Sierra Chamaya. The Beni and +its great affluent, the Madre de Dios, though of smaller volume +and extent than the Mamoré, are of much greater economic +importance, owing to their navigability, the fertility of the +region they drain, and the great forests along their banks. +North of the Beni, the Abuna flows into the Madeira. Several +of its south tributaries belong to Bolivia. The Guaporé, or +Itenez, an affluent of the Mamoré, is the third large river of +this Bolivian drainage basin, but it rises in Brazil, on the +south slopes of the Sierra dos Parecis, where it flows in a great +bend to the south and then west of north to the Bolivian +frontier in 14° S. lat. From this point to its junction with the +Mamoré, a little north of the 12th parallel, it flows in a northwesterly +direction and forms the boundary line between the two +republics. Its Brazilian tributaries are comparatively unimportant, +but from Bolivia it receives the Baures and the San Miguel, +both rising in the Sierras de Chiquitos and flowing north-west +across the llanos to the Guaporé. The Baures has one large +tributary, the Blanco, and the Itonama (San Miguel) has its +origin in Lake Conception, lying among the west ranges of the +Chiquitos mountains 952 ft. above sea-level.</p> + +<p>The south-east drainage basin, which is smaller and economically +less important than that of the Madeira, discharges into the +Paraguay and extends from the Sierras de Chiquitos south to +the Argentine frontier, and from the Cordillera Oriental east +to the Paraguay. It possesses only one large river in Bolivia, +the Pilcomayo, which rises on the east slopes of the Cordillera +Oriental opposite the south end of Lake Pampa Aullaguas and +flows east and south-east through the sierra region to the Bolivian +Chaco. It flows through a nearly level country with so sluggish +a current that its channels are greatly obstructed. Nothing +definite is known of its tributaries in the Chaco, but in the sierra +region it possesses a number of small tributaries, the largest of +which are the Cachimayo, Mataca and Pílaya or Camblaya, the +latter formed by the Cotagaita and San Juan. The Bermejo, +which is an Argentine river, receives one large tributary from +the Bolivian uplands, the Tarija or Rio Grande, which drains +a small district south-east of the Santa Victoria sierra. The +Bolivian tributaries of the upper Paraguay are small and unimportant. +The Otuquis, the most southern of the group, is +formed by the San Rafael and Tucabaca, which drain both +slopes of the Cerro Cochii range; but is lost in some great +marshes 50 m. from the Paraguay. Another considerable stream +of this region, which is lost in the great marshy districts of the +Bolivian plain, is the Parapiti, which rises on the eastern slopes +of the Sierra de Misiones and flows north-east through a low +plain for about 150 m. until lost.</p> + +<p>The third drainage basin is that of the great central plateau, +or <i>alta-planicie</i>. This is one of the most elevated lacustrine +basins in the world, and though it once drained eastward, now +has no surface outlet. Lake Titicaca receives the waters of +several short streams from the neighbouring heights and discharges +through the Desaguadero, a sluggish river flowing south +for 184 m. with a gradually diminishing depth to Lake Pampa +Aullaguas or Poopo. The Desaguadero is navigable for small +craft, and has two or three small tributaries from the west. Two +small streams empty into Lake Pampa Aullaguas, which has a +small outlet in the Lacahahuira flowing west for 60 m. to the +Cienegas de (salt-swamps of) Coipasa. The drainage of this +extensive district seems to be wholly absorbed by the dry soil +of the desert and by evaporation. In the extreme south the Rio +Grande de Lipez is absorbed in the same way.</p> + +<p>Few of the Bolivian lakes are at all well known. The great +lacustrine basin between the Beni and the Mamoré contains +several lakes and lagoons, two of them of large size. These are +Lake Rogagua whose waters find their way into the Beni through +Rio Negro, and the Roguaguado lagoon and marshes which +cover a large area of territory near the Mamoré. The latter has +an elevation little, if any, above the level of the Mamoré, which +apparently drains this region, and its area has been estimated +at about 580 sq. m. Lake Conceptión, in the Chiquitos mountains, +belongs to this same hydrographic area. In the south-east +there are several large shallow lakes whose character and size +change with the season. They fill slight depressions and are +caused by defective drainage. Near the Paraguay there are +several of these lakes, partly caused by obstructed outlets, such +as Bahia Negra, Cáceres, Mandioré, Gaiba and Uberaba, some +of them of sufficient depth to be navigable by small craft. Above +the latter are the great Xarayes swamps, sometimes described +as a lake. This region, like that of the north, is subject to +periodical inundations in the summer months (November-March +or even May), when extensive areas of level country are flooded +and traffic is possible only by the use of boats. The two principal +lakes of the plateau region are Titicaca and Pampa Aullaguas or +Poopo. The former lies near the north end of the great Bolivian +<i>alta-planicie</i>, 12,644 ft. above sea-level, being one of the most +elevated lakes of the world. It is indented with numerous bays +and coves; its greatest length is 138 m., and its greatest breadth +69 m. According to a survey made by Dr M. Neveau-Lemaire +(<i>La Geographie</i>, ix. p. 409, Paris, 1904), its water surface, excluding +islands and peninsulas, is 1969 sq. m., and its greatest depth +is 892 ft. The level of the lake rises about 5 in. in summer; the +loss in winter is even greater. The lake belongs to both Bolivia +and Peru, and is navigated by steamers running between Bolivian +ports and the Peruvian railway port of Puno. The outlet of the +lake is through the Desaguadero river. It has several islands, +the largest of which bears the same name and contains highly +interesting archaeological monuments of a prehistoric civilization +usually attributed to the Incas. Lake Pampa Aullaguas or +Poopo is about 180 m. south-east of Titicaca, and is fed principally +by its outflow. It lies 505 ft. below the level of Titicaca, +which gives an average fall for the Desaguadero of very nearly +2¾ ft. per mile. The Pampa Aullaguas has an estimated area of +386 sq. m., and has one large inhabited island. The lake is +shallow and the district about it is sparsely populated. Its +outlet is through the Lacahahuira river into the Coipasa swamp, +and it is estimated that the outflow is much less than the inflow, +showing a considerable loss by evaporation and earth absorption.</p> + +<p>Having no sea-coast, Bolivia has no seaport except what may +be granted in usufruct by Chile.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Geology</i>.—The eastern ranges of ihe Bolivian Andes are formed of +Palaeozoic rocks with granitic and other intrusions; the Western +Cordillera consists chiefly of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds, together +with the lavas and ashes of the great volcanoes; while the intervening +plateau is covered by freshwater and terrestrial deposits +through which rise ridges of Palaeozoic rock and of a series of red +sandstones and gypsiferous marls of somewhat uncertain age (probably, +in part at least, Cretaceous). The Palaeozoic beds have yielded +fossils of Cambrian, Ordovician, Devonian and Carboniferous age. +In southern Bolivia Cambrian and Ordovician beds form the greater +part of the eastern Andes, but farther north the Devonian and +Carboniferous are extensively developed, especially in the north-eastern +ranges. The hills, known as the Chiquitos, which rise from +the plains of eastern Bolivia, are composed of ancient sedimentary +rocks of unknown age. The Palaeozoic beds are directly overlaid +by a series of red sandstones and gypsiferous marls, similar to the +<i>formacion petrolifera</i> of Argentina and Brazil. At the base there is +frequently a conglomerate or tuff of porphyritic rocks. Marine +fossils found by Gustav Steinmann in the middle of the series are +said to indicate an age not earlier than the Jurassic, and Steinmann +refers them to the Lower Cretaceous. It is, however, not improbable +that the series may represent more than one geological system. No +later marine deposits have been found either in the eastern Andes +or in the plains of Bolivia, but freshwater beds of Tertiary and later +date occupy a wide area. The recent deposits, which cover so large +a part of the depression between the Eastern and the Western +Cordillera, appear to be partly of torrential origin, like the talus-fans +at the foot of mountain ranges in other dry regions; but Lakes +Titicaca and Pampa Aullaguas (Poopo) were undoubtedly at one +time rather more extensive than they are to-day. The volcanoes of +Bolivia lie almost entirely in the Western Cordillera—the great +summits of the eastern range, such as Illimani and Sorata, being +formed of Palaeozoic rocks with granitic and other intrusions. +The gold, silver and tin of Bolivia occur chiefly in the Palaeozoic +rocks of the eastern ranges. The copper belongs mostly to the red +sandstone series.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page170" id="page170"></a>170</span></p> + +<p><i>Climate</i>.—Bolivia lies wholly within the torrid zone, and +variations in temperature are therefore due to elevation, mountain +barriers and prevailing winds. The country possesses +every gradation of temperature, from that of the tropical lowlands +to the Arctic cold of the snow-capped peaks directly above. +This vertical arrangement of climatic zones is modified to some +extent (less than in Argentina) by varying rainfall conditions, +which are governed by the high mountain ranges crossing one +corner of the republic, and also by the prevailing winds. The +trade winds give to S. Bolivia a wet and dry season similar to +that of N. Argentina. Farther north, and east of the Cordillera +Oriental, rains fall throughout the year, though the summer +months (November-March) are usually described as the rainy +season. On the west side of the Cordillera, which extracts the +moisture from the prevailing easterly winds, the elevated plateaus +have a limited rainfall in the north, which diminishes toward the +south until the surface becomes absolutely barren. Brief and +furious rain-storms sometimes sweep the northern plateau, but +these are not frequent and occur during a short season only. +Electrical wind storms are frequent in these high altitudes.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Bolivia has a wide range of temperature between places of the +same latitude. The natives designate the Bolivian climatic zones as +<i>yungas, valle</i> or <i>medio yungas, cabezera de valle, puna</i> and <i>puna brava</i>. +The <i>yungas</i> comprises all the lowlands and the mountain valleys +up to an elevation of 5000 ft. The temperature is tropical, winter +is unknown and the atmosphere is exceedingly humid. The mean +temperature, according to official estimates, is 70° F., but this probably +represents the average between the higher elevations and the +low country. The <i>valle</i> zone includes the deep valleys from 5000 to +9500 ft., has a warm climate with moderate variations in temperature +and no cold weather, is sub-tropical in character and productions, +and is sometimes described as a region of perpetual summer. The +<i>cabezera de valle</i>, as the name indicates, includes the heads of the +deep valleys above the <i>valle</i> zone, with elevations ranging from +9500 to 11,000 ft.; its climate is temperate, is divided into regular +seasons, and is favourable to the production of cereals and vegetables. +The <i>puna</i>, which lies between 11,000 and 12,500 ft., includes the +great central plateau of Bolivia. It has but two seasons, a cold +summer or autumn and winter. The air is cold and dry, and the +warmer season is too short for the production of anything but +potatoes and barley. The mean temperature is officially estimated +as 54° F. The <i>puna brava</i> extends from 12,500 ft. up to the snow +limit (about 17,500 ft.), and covers a bleak, inhospitable territory, +inhabited only by shepherds and miners. Above this is the region +of eternal snow, an Arctic zone within the tropics. In general, the +sub-tropical (<i>valle</i>) and temperate (<i>cabezera de valle</i>) regions of +Bolivia are healthy and agreeable, have a plentiful rainfall, moderate +temperature in the shade, and varied and abundant products. +There is a high rate of mortality among the natives, due to unsanitary +habits and diet, and not to the climate. In the tropical +<i>yungas</i> the ground is covered with decaying vegetation, and malaria +and fevers are common. There are localities in the open country +and on exposed elevations where healthy conditions prevail, but the +greater part of this region is considered unhealthy. The prevailing +winds are easterly, bringing moisture across Brazil from the Atlantic, +but eastern Bolivia is also exposed to hot, oppressive winds from the +north, and to violent cold winds (<i>surazos</i>) from the Argentine plains, +which have been known to cause a fall of temperature of 36° within +a few hours. According to the <i>Sinópsis Estadistica y Geográfica de +la República de Bolivia</i> (La Paz, 1903), the average mean temperature +and the annual rainfall in eastern Bolivia are as follows: 10° S. lat., +90.8° F. and 31.5 in. rainfall; 15° S. lat., 86° F. and 30.7 in. rainfall; +20° S. lat., 81° F. and 30 in. rainfall; and 25° S. lat., 76.8° F. and +29.3 in. rainfall.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Fauna.</i>—The indigenous fauna of Bolivia corresponds closely +to that of the neighbouring districts of Argentina, Brazil and +Peru. Numerous species of monkeys inhabit the forests of the +tropical region, together with the puma, jaguar, wildcat, coati, +tapir or <i>anta</i>, sloth, ant-bear, paca (<i>Coelogenys paca</i>) and capybara. +A rare species of bear, the <i>Ursus ornatus</i> (spectacled bear) +is found among the wooded Andean foothills. The chinchilla +(<i>C. laniger</i>), also found in northern Argentina and Chile, inhabits +the colder plateau regions and is prized for its fur. The plateau +species of the viscacha (<i>Lagidium cuvieri</i>) and the widely +distributed South American otter (<i>Lutra paranensis</i>) are also +hunted for their skins. The peccary, which prefers a partially open +country, ranges from the Chaco to the densely wooded districts +of the north. There are two or three species of deer, the most +common being the large marsh deer of the Chaco; but the deer +are not numerous. The armadillo, opossum, ferret and skunk +are widely distributed. The amphibia are well represented +throughout the lower tropical districts. Alligators are found in +the tributaries of the Paraguay and their lagoons, lizards and +turtles are numerous, and the batrachians are represented by +several species. Snakes are also numerous, including rattlesnakes +and the great boa-constrictors of the Amazon region.</p> + +<p>The most interesting of all the Bolivian animals, however, are +the guanaco (<i>Auchenia huanaco</i>) and its congeners, the llama +(<i>A. llama</i>), alpaca (<i>A. pacos</i>) and vicuña (<i>A. vicugna</i>), belonging +to the Camelidae, with the structure and habits of the African +camel, but smaller, having no hump, and inhabiting a mountainous +and not a level sandy region. They are able to go without +food and drink for long periods, and inhabit the arid and semi-arid +plateaus of the Andes and the steppes of Patagonia. The +guanaco is supposed to be the original type, is the largest of the +four, and has the greatest range from Peru to Tierra del Fuego. +The llama and alpaca were domesticated long before the discovery +of America, but the guanaco and vicuña are found in a +wild state only. The llama is used as a pack animal in Bolivia +and Peru, and its coarse wool is used in the making of garments +for the natives. The alpaca is highly prized for its fine wool, +which is a staple export from Bolivia, but the animal is reared +with difficulty and the product cannot be largely increased. +The vicuña also is celebrated for its wool, which the natives +weave into beautiful and costly <i>ponchos</i> (blanket cloaks) and +other wearing apparel. The guanaco is hunted for its skin, +which, when dressed, makes an attractive rug or robe. The +slaughter of the guanaco and vicuña is rapidly diminishing +their number. The rearing of llamas and alpacas is a recognized +industry in the Bolivian highlands and is wholly in the hands of +the Indians, who alone seem to understand the habits and +peculiarities of these interesting animals.</p> + +<p>Of birds and insects the genera and species are very numerous +and interesting. The high sierras are frequented by condors +and eagles of the largest size, and the whole country by the +common vulture, while the American ostrich (<i>Rhea americanus</i>) +and a species of large stork (the <i>bata</i> or <i>jaburú</i>, <i>Mycteria americana</i>; +maximum height, 8 ft.; spread of wings, 8 ft. 6 in.) inhabit +the tropical plains and valleys. Waterfowl are numerous and +the forests of the warm valleys are filled with song-birds and +birds of beautiful plumage. Many species of humming-birds +are found even far up in the mountains, and great numbers of +parrots, araras and toucans, beautiful of feather but harsh of +voice, enliven the forests of the lowlands.</p> + +<p>Like other South American states, Bolivia benefited greatly +from the introduction of European animals. Horses, cattle, +sheep, goats, swine and poultry were introduced, and are now +sources of food and wealth to a large part of the population. +Mules are used to a large extent as pack animals, but they are +imported from Argentina. Silkworms have been bred with +success in some departments, and the cochineal insect is found +wherever the conditions are favourable for the cactus.</p> + +<p><i>Flora</i>.—Owing to the diversities in altitude the flora of Bolivia +represents every climatic zone, from the scanty Arctic vegetation +of the lofty Cordilleras to the luxuriant tropical forests of the +Amazon basin. Between these extremes the diversity in vegetable +life is as great as that of climate and soil. The flora of +Bolivia has been studied less than the flora of the neighbouring +republics, however, because of the inaccessibility of these inland +regions. Among the more important productions, the potato, +oca (<i>Oxalis tuberosa</i>), quinoa (<i>Chenopodium quinoa</i>) and some +coarse grasses characterize the puna region, while barley, an +exotic, is widely grown for fodder. Indian corn was cultivated +in the temperate and warm regions long before the advent of +Europeans, who introduced wheat, rye, oats, beans, pease and +the fruits and vegetables of the Old World, for each of which a +favourable soil and climate was easily found. In the sub-tropical +and tropical zones the indigenous plants are the sweet potato, +cassava (<i>Manihot utilissima</i> and <i>M. aipi</i>), peanuts, pineapple, +guava, chirimoya (<i>Anona cherimolia</i>), pawpaw (<i>Carica +papaya</i>), <i>ipecacuanha</i> (<i>Cephaelis</i>), sarsaparilla, vanilla, false +jalap (<i>Mirabilis jalapa</i>), copaiba, tolu (<i>Myroxylon toluiferum</i>), +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page171" id="page171"></a>171</span> +rubber-producing trees, dyewoods, cotton and a great number of +beautiful hardwoods, such as jacarandá, mahogany, rosewood, +quebracho, colo, cedar, walnut, &c. Among the fruits many of the +most common are exotics, as the orange, lemon, lime, fig, date, +grape, &c., while others, as the banana, cajū or cashew (<i>Anacardium +occidentale</i>) and aguacate avocado or alligator pear, have +a disputed origin. Coca, one of the most important plants of +the country, is cultivated on the eastern slopes of the Andes +at an altitude of 5000 to 6000 ft., where the temperature is +uniform and frosts are unknown. Quina or calisaya is a natural +product of the eastern Andes, and is found at an altitude of 3000 +to 9000 ft. above sea-level. The calisaya trees of Bolivia rank +among the best, and their bark forms an important item in her +foreign trade. The destructive methods of collecting the bark +are steadily diminishing the natural sources of supply, and +experiments in cinchona cultivation were undertaken during the +last quarter of the 19th century, with fair prospects of success. +The most important of the indigenous forest products, however, +is rubber, derived principally from the <i>Hevea guayanensis</i> (var. +<i>brasiliensis</i>), growing along the river courses in the <i>yungas</i> +regions of the north, though Maniçoba rubber is also obtained +from <i>Manihot Glaziovii</i> on the drier uplands. Among the +exotics, sugar-cane, rice and tobacco are cultivated in the warm +districts.</p> + +<p><i>Population</i>.—The population of Bolivia is composed of Indians, +Caucasians of European origin, and a mixture of the two races, +generally described as <i>mestizos</i>. There is also a very small +percentage of Africans, descendants of the negro slaves introduced +in colonial times. A roughly-taken census of 1900 gives the +total population as 1,816,271, including the Litoral department, +now belonging to Chile (49,820), and estimates the number of wild +Indians of the forest regions at 91,000. Of this total, 50.7% +were classed as Indians, 12.8% as whites, 26.8% as <i>mestizos</i>, +0.3% as negroes, and 9.4% as unknown. In 1904 an official estimate +made the population 2,181,415, also including +the Litoral (59,784), but of course all census returns +and estimates in such a country are subject to +many allowances. The Indian population (920,860) +is largely composed of the so-called civilized tribes +of the Andes, which once formed part of the +nationality ruled by the Incas, and of those of the +Mojos and Chiquitos regions, which were organized +into industrial communities by the Jesuits in the +l7th century. The former, which are chiefly +Aymarás south of the latitude of Lake Titicaca, +attained a considerable degree of civilization +before the discovery of America and have been in +closer contact with Europeans than the other tribes +of Bolivia. It is doubtful, however, whether +their condition has been improved under these influences. +The Mojos and Chiquitos tribes, also, have been less prosperous +since the expulsion of the Jesuits, but they have +remained together in organized communities, and have +followed the industries and preserved the religion taught them +as well as circumstances permitted. Both these groups of +Indians are peaceable and industrious, and form an important +labouring element. They are addicted to the excessive use +of <i>chica</i> (a native beer made from Indian corn), and have +little or no ambition to improve their condition, but this +may be attributed in part to their profound ignorance and to +the state of peonage in which they are held. Inhabiting the +southern part of the Bolivian plain are the Chiriguanos, a +detached tribe of the Guarani race which drifted westward to +the vicinity of the Andes long ago. They are of a superior +physical and mental type, and have made noteworthy progress +toward civilization. They are agriculturists and stock-raisers +and have the reputation of being peaceable and industrious. +The remaining native tribes under the supervision of the state +have made little progress, and their number is said to be decreasing +(notwithstanding the favourable climatic conditions under which +most of them live) because of unsanitary and intemperate habits, +and for other causes not well understood, one being the custom +noticed by early travellers among some of the tribes of the La +Plata region of avoiding the rearing of children. (See Southey’s +<i>History of Brazil</i>, iii. pp. 402, 673.) Of the wild Indians very +little is known in regard to either numbers or customs.</p> + +<p>The white population (231,088) is descended in great part +from the early Spanish adventurers who entered the country in +search of mineral wealth. To these have been added a small +number of Spanish Americans from neighbouring republics and +some Portuguese Americans from Brazil. There has been no +direct immigration from Europe, though Europeans of various +nationalities have found their way into the country and settled +there as miners or traders. The percentage of whites therefore +does not increase as in Argentina and Brazil, and cannot until +means are found to promote European immigration.</p> + +<p>The <i>mestizos</i> (486,018) are less numerous than the Indians, but +outnumber the whites by more than two to one. It has been said +of the <i>mestizos</i> elsewhere that they inherit the vices of both races +and the virtues of neither. Yet, with a decreasing Indian +population, and with a white population wanting in energy, +barely able to hold its own and comprising only one-eighth of +the total, the future of Bolivia mainly depends on them. As a +rule they are ignorant, unprogressive and apathetic, intensely +superstitious, cruel and intemperate, though individual strong +characters have been produced. It may be that education and +experience will develop the <i>mestizos</i> into a vigorous progressive +nationality, but the first century of self-government can hardly +be said to have given much promise of such a result.</p> + +<p><i>Divisions and Towns</i>.—The republic is divided into eight +departments and one territory, and these are subdivided into +54 provinces, 415 cantons, 232 vice-cantons, 18 missions and +one colony. The names, areas and populations of the departments, +with their capitals, according to the census of 1900, to +which corrections must be made on account of the loss of territory +to Brazil in 1903, are as follows:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tccm allb">Department.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Area sq. m.<br />from Official<br />Sources.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population<br />1900.*</td> <td class="tccm allb">Capitals.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Population<br />1900.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">La Paz</td> <td class="tcr rb">53,777</td> <td class="tcr rb">445,616</td> <td class="tcl rb">La Paz</td> <td class="tcr rb">54,713</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">El Beni</td> <td class="tcr rb">102,111</td> <td class="tcr rb">32,180</td> <td class="tcl rb">Trinidad</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,556</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Oruro</td> <td class="tcr rb">19,127</td> <td class="tcr rb">86,081</td> <td class="tcl rb">Oruro</td> <td class="tcr rb">13,575</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Cochabamba</td> <td class="tcr rb">23,328</td> <td class="tcr rb">328,163</td> <td class="tcl rb">Cochabamba</td> <td class="tcr rb">21,886</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Santa Cruz</td> <td class="tcr rb">141,368</td> <td class="tcr rb">209,592</td> <td class="tcl rb">Santa Cruz de la Sierra</td> <td class="tcr rb">15,874</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Potosi</td> <td class="tcr rb">48,801</td> <td class="tcr rb">325,615</td> <td class="tcl rb">Potosi</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,910</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Chuquisaca</td> <td class="tcr rb">26,418</td> <td class="tcr rb">204,434</td> <td class="tcl rb">Sucré</td> <td class="tcr rb">20,967</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Tarija</td> <td class="tcr rb">33,036</td> <td class="tcr rb">102,887</td> <td class="tcl rb">Tarija</td> <td class="tcr rb">6,980</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nat. Territory</td> <td class="tcr rb">192,260</td> <td class="tcr rb">31,883</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl allb"> </td> <td class="tcr allb">640,226</td> <td class="tcr allb">1,766,451</td> <td class="tcl allb"> </td> <td class="tcl allb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl f80" colspan="5">* The figures for population include a 5% addition for omissions,<br />  +sundry corrections and the estimated number of wild Indians.</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The total area according to Gotha computations, with corrections +for loss of territory to Brazil in 1903, is 515,156 sq. m.</p> + +<p>There are no populous towns other than the provincial capitals +above enumerated. Four of these capitals—Sucré or Chuquisaca, +La Paz, Cochabamba and Oruro—have served as the national +capital, and Sucré was chosen, but after the revolution of 1898 +the capital was at La Paz, which is the commercial metropolis +and is more accessible than Sucré. Among the smaller towns +prominent because of an industry or commercial position, may +be mentioned the Huanchaca mining centre of Pulacayo (pop. +6512), where 3200 men are employed in the mines and surface +works of this great silver mining company; Uyuni (pop. 1587), +the junction of the Pulacayo branch with the Antofagasta and +Oruro railway, and also the converging point for several important +highways and projected railways; and Tupiza (pop. 1644), a +commercial and mining centre near the Argentine frontier, and +the terminus of the Argentine railway extension into Bolivia. +All these towns are in the department of Potosi. Viacha (pop. +1670), a small station on the railway from Guaqui to Alto de La +Paz, 14 m. from the latter, is the starting point of an important +projected railway to Oruro. In the department of Cochabamba, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page172" id="page172"></a>172</span> +Tarata (4681) and Totora (3501) are two important trading +centres, and in the department of Santa Cruz, Ascensión (pop. +4784) is a large mission station in the Chiquitos hills.</p> + +<p><i>Communications</i>.—Under a treaty with Brazil in 1903 and with +Chile in 1904 (ratified 1905) provisions were made for railway +construction in Bolivia to bring this isolated region into more +effective communication with the outside world. Brazil agreed +to construct a railway around the falls of the Madeira (about +180 m. long) to give north-eastern Bolivia access to the Amazon, +and paid down £2,000,000 in cash which Bolivia was to expend +on railway construction within her own territory. Chile also +agreed to construct a railway from Arica to La Paz, 295 m. (the +Bolivian section becoming the property of Bolivia fifteen years +after completion), and to pay the interest (not over 5%) which +Bolivia might guarantee on the capital invested in certain interior +railways if constructed within thirty years, providing these +interest payments should not exceed £100,000 a year, nor exceed +£1,600,000 in the aggregate. Argentina had already undertaken +to extend her northern railway from Jujuy to the Bolivian +frontier town of Tupiza, and the Peruvian Corporation had +constructed for the Bolivian government a short line (54 m. long) +from Guaqui, on Lake Titicaca, to Alto de La Paz, which is +connected with the city of La Paz, 1493 ft. below, by an electric +line 5 m. long. This line gives La Paz access to the Peruvian +port of Mollendo, 496 m. distant, and promises in time to give +it railway communication with Cuzco. Rivalry for the control +of her trade, therefore, promises to give Bolivia the railways +needed for the development of her resources. Up to 1903 the +only railways in Bolivia were the Antofagasta and Oruro line, +with a total length of 574 m., of which 350 m. are within Bolivian +territory, a private branch of that line (26 m. long) running to +the Pulacayo mines, and the line (54 m. long) from Guaqui to +Alto de La Paz—a total of only 430 m. As a result of her war +with Chile in 1878-81, the railways (282 m. long) of her Litoral +department passed under Chilean control. Lines were in 1907 +projected from La Paz to the navigable waters of the Beni, from +La Paz to Cochabamba, from Viacha to Oruro, from Uyuni to +Potosi and Sucré, from Uyuni to Tupiza, and from Arica to La +Paz via Corocoro. The central northern line of the Argentine +government was completed to the Bolivian frontier in 1908, and +this line was designed to extend to Tupiza. The undertaking +of the Arica-La Paz line by the Chilean government, also, was +an important step towards the improvement of the economic +situation in Bolivia. Both these lines offer the country new +outlets for its products.</p> + +<p>Public highways have been constructed between the large +cities and to some points on the frontiers, and subsidized stage +coaches are run on some of them. The roads are rough and at +times almost impassable, however, and the river crossings +difficult and dangerous. The large cities are connected with one +another by telegraph lines and are in communication with the +outside world through Argentina, Chile and Peru. Telegraph service +dates from 1880, and in 1904 there were 3115 m. in operation, +of which 1936 belonged to the state and 1179 to private corporations. +The latter includes the lines belonging to the Antofagasta +and Oruro railway, which are partly within Chilean territory. +Bolivia is a member of the International Postal Union, and has +parcel and money order conventions with some foreign countries. +Special agreements have been made, also, with Argentina, Chile +and Peru for the transmission of the Bolivian foreign mails.</p> + +<p>The loss of her maritime department has left Bolivia with no +other ports than those of Lake Titicaca (especially Guaqui, or +Huaqui, which trades with the Peruvian port of Puno), and those +of the Madeira and Paraguay rivers and their affluents. As +none of these can be reached without transhipment in foreign +territory, the cost of transport is increased, and her neighbours +are enabled to exclude Bolivia from direct commercial intercourse +with other nations. An exception formerly existed at Puerto +Acré, on the Acré river, to which ocean-going steamers could +ascend from Pará, but Brazil first closed the Purús and Acré +rivers to foreign vessels seeking this port, and then under a +treaty of 1903 acquired possession of the port and adjacent +territory. Since then Bolivia’s outlet to the Amazon is restricted +to the Madeira river, the navigation of which is interrupted by a +series of falls before Bolivian territory is reached. The Bolivian +port of entry for this trade, Villa Bella, is situated above the +falls of the Madeira at the confluence of the Beni and Mamoré, +and is reached from the lower river by a long and costly portage. +It is also shut off from the navigable rivers above by the falls +of the Beni and Mamoré. The railway to be built by Brazil +will remedy this unfavourable situation, will afford a better +outlet for north-eastern Bolivia, and should promote a more +rapid development of that region, which is covered with an +admirable system of navigable rivers above the falls of the Beni +and Mamoré. Connected with the upper Paraguay are Puerto +Pacheco on Bahia Negra, Puerto Suarez (about 1600 m. from +Buenos Aires by river), on Lake Cáceres, through which passes +the bulk of Bolivian trade in that direction, and Puerto Quijarro, +on Lake Gaiba, a projected port said to be more accessible than +any other in this region. Whenever the trade of southern Bolivia +becomes important enough to warrant the expense of opening a +navigable channel in the Pilcomayo, direct river communication +with Buenos Aires and Montevideo will be possible.</p> + +<p><i>Industries</i>.—Stock-raising was one of the earliest industries +of the country after that of mining. Horses, formerly successfully +raised in certain parts of the north, have not flourished +there since the introduction of a <i>peste</i> from Brazil, but some are +now raised in La Paz and other departments of the temperate +region. The Jesuit founders of the Mojos missions took cattle +with them when they entered that region to labour among the +Indians, with the result that the Mojos and Chiquitos llanos +were soon well stocked, and have since afforded an unfailing +supply of beef for the neighbouring inland markets. Their +inaccessibility and the costs of transportation have prevented +a development of the industry and a consequent improvement +in stock, but the persistency of the industry under conditions +so unfavourable is evidence that the soil and climate are suited +to its requirements. Farther south the llanos of Chuquisaca +and Tarija also sustain large herds of cattle on the more elevated +districts, and on the well-watered plains of the Chaco. There are +small districts in La Paz, Potosi and Cochabamba, also, where +cattle are raised. Apart from the cattle driven into the mining +districts for consumption, a number of <i>saladeros</i> are employed +in preparing (usually salting and sun-drying) beef for the home +markets. The hides are exported. Goats are raised in the warm +and temperate regions, and sheep for their wool in the latter. +On the higher and colder plateaus much attention is given to +the breeding of llamas and alpacas. Another industry of a +different character is that of breeding the fur-bearing chinchilla +(<i>C. laniger</i>), which is a native of the higher plateaus. The +Bolivian government has prohibited the exportation of the live +animals and is encouraging their production.</p> + +<p>The agricultural resources of the republic are varied and of +great value, but their development has been slow and hesitating. +The cultivation of cereals, fruits and vegetables in the temperate +and warm valleys of the Andes followed closely the mining +settlements. Sugar-cane also was introduced at an early date, +but as the demand for sugar was limited the product was devoted +chiefly to the manufacture of rum, which is the principal object +of cane cultivation in Bolivia to-day. The climatic conditions +are highly favourable for this product in eastern Bolivia, but +it is heavily taxed and is restricted to a small home market. +Rice is another exotic grown in the tropical districts of eastern +Bolivia, but the quantity produced is far from sufficient to meet +local requirements. Tobacco of a fair quality is produced in +the warm regions of the east, including the <i>yungas</i> valleys of +La Paz and Cochabamba; cacáo of a superior grade is grown +in the department of Beni, where large orchards were planted +at the missions, and also in the warm Andean valleys of La Paz +and Cochabamba; and coffee of the best flavour is grown in +some of the warmer districts of the eastern Andes. The two +indigenous products which receive most attention, perhaps, are +those of quinoa and coca. Quinoa is grown in large quantities, +and is a staple article of food among the natives. Coca is highly +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page173" id="page173"></a>173</span> +esteemed by the natives, who masticate the leaf, and is also an +article of export for medicinal purposes. It is extensively cultivated +in the departments of Cochabamba and La Paz, especially +in the province of Yungas.</p> + +<p>In the exploitation of her forest products, however, are to be +found the industries that yield the greatest immediate profit to +Bolivia. The most prominent and profitable of these is that of +rubber-collecting, which was begun in Bolivia between 1880 and +1890, and which reached a registered annual output of nearly +3500 metric tons just before Bolivia’s best rubber forests were +transferred to Brazil in 1903. There still remain extensive areas +of forest on the Beni and Madre de Dios in which the rubber-producing +<i>Hevea</i> is to be found. Although representing less +value in the aggregate, the collecting of cinchona bark is one of +the oldest forest industries of Bolivia, which is said still to have +large areas of virgin forest to draw upon. The Bolivian product +is of the best because of the high percentage of quinine +sulphate which it yields. The industry is destructive in method, +and the area of cinchona forests is steadily diminishing. Many +other Bolivian plants are commercially valuable, and organized +industry and trade in them will certainly be profitable.</p> + +<p>The industrial activities of the Bolivian people are still of a +very primitive character. An act was passed in 1894 authorizing +the government to offer premiums and grant advantageous +concessions for the development of manufacturing industries, +especially in sugar production, but conditions have not been +favourable and the results have been disappointing. Spinning +and weaving are carried on among the people as a household +occupation, and fabrics are made of an exceptionally substantial +character. It is not uncommon to see the natives busily twirling +their rude spindles as they follow their troops of pack animals +over rough mountain roads, and the yarn produced is woven +into cloth in their own houses on rough Spanish looms of colonial +patterns. Not only is coarse cloth for their own garments made +in this manner from the fleece of the llama, but cotton and +woollen goods of a serviceable character are manufactured, and +still finer fabrics are woven from the wool of the alpaca and +vicuña, sometimes mixed with silk or lamb’s wool. The Indian +women are expert weavers, and their handiwork often commands +high prices. In the Mojos and Chiquitos districts the natives +were taught by the Jesuit missionaries to weave an excellent +cotton cloth, and the industry still exists. Cashmere, baize, +waterproof <i>ponchos</i> of fine wool and silk, and many other fabrics +are made by the Indians of the Andean departments. They are +skilled in the use of dyes, and the Indian women pride themselves +on a large number of finely-woven, brilliantly-coloured petticoats. +Tanning and saddlery are carried on by the natives with primitive +methods, but with excellent results. They are skilful in the +preparation of lap robes and rugs from the skins of the alpaca +and vicuña. The home markets are supplied, by native industry, +with cigars and cigarettes, soap, candles, hats, gloves, starch, +cheese and pottery. Sugar is still made in the old way, and there +is a small production of wine and silk in certain districts. No +country is better supplied with water power, and electric lighting +and electric power plants have been established at La Paz.</p> + +<p><i>Commerce</i>.—The foreign trade of Bolivia is comparatively +unimportant, but the statistical returns are incomplete and unsatisfactory; +the imports of 1904 aggregated only £1,734,551 +in value, and the exports only £1,851,758. The imports consisted +of cottons, woollens, live-stock, provisions, hardware and +machinery, wines, spirits and clothing. The principal exports +were (in 1903) silver and its ores (£636,743), tin and its ores +(£1,039,298), copper ores (£157,609), bismuth (£16,354), other +minerals (£20,948), rubber (£260,559), coca (£28,907), and cinchona +(£9197)—total exports, £2,453,638. These figures, however, +do not correctly represent the aggregates of Bolivian trade, as +her imports and exports passing through Antofagasta, Arica +and Mollendo are to a large extent credited to Chile and Peru. +The import trade of Bolivia is restricted by the poverty of the +people. The geographical position limits the exports to mineral, +forest and some pastoral products, owing to cost of transportation +and the tariffs of neighbouring countries.</p> + +<p><i>Government</i>.—The government of Bolivia is a “unitarian” or +centralized republic, representative in form, but autocratic in +some important particulars. The constitution in force (1908) +was adopted on the 28th of October 1880, and is a model in form +and profession. The executive branch of the government is +presided over by a president and two vice-presidents, who are +elected by direct popular vote for a period of four years, and are +not eligible for re-election for the next succeeding term. The +president is assisted by a cabinet of five ministers of state, viz.: +foreign relations and worship; finance and industry; interior +and fomento; justice and public instruction; war and colonization. +Every executive act must be countersigned by a minister +of state, who is held responsible for its character and enforcement, +and may be prosecuted before the supreme court for its illegality +and effects. The legislative branch is represented by a national +congress of two houses—a Senate and Chamber of Deputies. +The Senate is composed of 16 members, two from each department, +who are elected by direct popular vote for a period of six +years, one-third retiring every two years. The Chamber of +Deputies is composed of 72 members, who are elected for a period +of four years, one-half retiring every two years. In impeachment +trials the Chamber prosecutes and the Senate sits as a court, as +in the United States. One of the duties of the Chamber is to +elect the justices of the supreme court. Congress meets annually +and its sessions are for sixty days, which may be extended to +ninety days. The chambers have separate and concurrent powers +defined by the constitution. The right of suffrage is exercised by +all male citizens, twenty-one years of age, or over, if single, and +eighteen years, or over, if married, who can read and write, and +own real estate or have an income of 200 bolivianos a year, +said income not to be compensation for services as a servant. +The electoral body is therefore small, and is under the control of a +political oligarchy which practically rules the country, no matter +which party is in power.</p> + +<p>The Bolivian judiciary consists of a national supreme court, +eight superior district courts, lower district courts, and <i>juzgados +de instrucción</i> for the investigation and preparation of cases. +The <i>corregidores</i> and <i>alcaldes</i> also exercise the functions of a +justice of the peace in the cantons and rural districts. The +supreme court is composed of seven justices elected by the +Chamber of Deputies from lists of three names for each seat sent +in by the Senate. A justice can be removed only by impeachment +proceedings before the Senate.</p> + +<p>The supreme administration in each department is vested in a +prefect appointed by and responsible solely to the president. +As the prefect has the appointment of subordinate department +officials, including the <i>alcaldes</i>, the authority of the national +executive reaches every hamlet in the republic, and may easily +become autocratic. There are no legislative assemblies in the +departments, and their government rests with the national +executive and congress. Subordinate to the prefects are the sub-prefects +in the provinces, the <i>corregidores</i> in the cantons and +the <i>alcaldes</i> in the rural districts—all appointed officials. The +national territory adjacent to Brazil and Peru is governed by two +<i>delegados nacionales</i>, appointees of the president. The department +capitals are provided with municipal councils which have +jurisdiction over certain local affairs, and over the construction +and maintenance of some of the highways.</p> + +<p><i>Army</i>.—The military forces of the republic in 1905 included +2890 regulars and an enrolled force of 80,000 men, divided into a +first reserve of 30,000, a second reserve of 40,000, and 10,000 +territorial guards. The enrolled force is, however, both unorganized +and unarmed. The strength of the army is fixed in +each year’s budget. That for 1903 consisted of 2933 officers and +men, of which 275 were commissioned and 558 non-commissioned +officers, 181 musicians, and only 1906 rank and file. A conscription +law of 1894 provides for a compulsory military service +between the ages of twenty-one and fifty years, with two +years’ actual service in the regulars for those between twenty-one +and twenty-five, but the law is practically a dead letter. +There is a military school with 60 cadets, and an arsenal at +La Paz.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page174" id="page174"></a>174</span></p> + +<p><i>Education</i>.—Although Bolivia has a free and compulsory +school system, education and the provision for education have +made little progress. Only a small percentage of the people +can read and write. Although Spanish is the language of +the dominant minority, Quichua, Aymará and Guarani are the +languages of the natives, who form a majority of the population. +A considerable percentage of the Indians do not understand +Spanish at all, and they even resist every effort to force it upon +them. Even the <i>cholos</i> (mestizos) are more familiar with the +native idioms than with Spanish, as is the case in some parts of +Argentina and Paraguay. According to official estimates for +1901, the total number of primary schools in the republic was 733, +with 938 teachers and 41,587 pupils—the total cost of their +maintenance being estimated at 585,365 bolivianos, or only 14.07 +bolivianos per pupil (about £1 : 4 : 6). The school enrolment +was only one in 43.7 of population, compared with one in 10 for +Argentina. The schools are largely under the control of the +municipalities, though nearly half of them are maintained by the +national government, by the Church and by private means. +There were in the same year 13 institutions of secondary and +14 of superior instruction. The latter include so-called universities +at Sucré (Chuquisaca), La Paz, Cochabamba, Tarija, +Potosi, Santa Cruz and Oruro—all of which give instruction in +law, the first three in medicine and the first four in theology. +The university at Sucré, which dates from colonial times, and +that at La Paz, are the only ones on the list sufficiently well +equipped to merit the title. Secondary instruction is under the +control of the universities, and public instruction in general is +under the direction of a cabinet minister. All educational +matters, however, are practically under the supervision of the +Church. The total appropriation for educational purposes in +1901 was 756,943 bolivianos, or £66,232 : 6s. There are a military +academy at La Paz, an agricultural school at Umala in the department +of La Paz, a mining and civil engineering school at Oruro, +commercial schools at Sucré and Trinidad, and several mission +schools under the direction of religious orders.</p> + +<p><i>Religion</i>.—The constitution of Bolivia, art. 2, defines the +attitude of the republic toward the Church in the following +words:—“The state recognizes and supports the Roman +Apostolic Catholic religion, the public exercise of any other +worship being prohibited, except in the colonies where it is +tolerated.” This toleration is tacitly extended to resident +foreigners belonging to other religious sects. The census of 1900 +enumerated the Roman Catholic population at 1,609,365, and +that of other creeds at 24,245, which gives the former 985 and the +latter 15 in every thousand. The domesticated Indians profess +the Roman Catholic faith, but it is tinged with the superstitions of +their ancestors. They hold the clergy in great fear and reverence, +however, and are deeply influenced by the forms and ceremonies +of the church, which have changed little since the first Spanish +settlements. Bolivia is divided into an archbishopric and three +bishoprics. The first includes the departments of Chuquisaca, +Oruro, Potosi, Tarija and the Chilean province of Antofagasta, +with its seat at Sucré, and is known as the archbishopric of La +Plata. The sees of the three bishoprics are La Paz, Cochabamba +and Santa Cruz. Mission work among the Indians is entrusted to +the <i>Propaganda Fide</i>, which has five colleges and a large number +of missions, and receives a small subvention from the state. It is +estimated that these missions have charge of fully 20,000 Indians. +The annual appropriation for the Church is about £17,150. The +religious orders, which have never been suppressed in Bolivia, +maintain several convents.</p> + +<p><i>Finance</i>.—No itemized returns of receipts and expenditures +are ever published, and the estimates presented to congress by +the cabinet ministers furnish the only source from which information +can be drawn. The expenditures are not large, and +taxation is not considered heavy. The estimated revenues and +expenditures for 1904 and 1905 at 21 pence per boliviano, +were as follows: 1904, revenue £632,773 : 15s., expenditure +£748,571 : 10s.; 1905, revenue £693,763 : 17 : 6, expenditure +£828,937 : 19 : 9. The revenues are derived principally from +duties and fees on imports, excise taxes on spirits, wines, tobacco +and sugar, general, mining taxes and export duties on minerals +(except silver), export duties on rubber and coca, taxes on the +profits of stock companies, fees for licences and patents, stamp +taxes, and postal and telegraph revenues. Nominally, the +import duties are moderate, so much so that Bolivia is sometimes +called a “free-trade country,” but this is a misnomer, for in +addition to the schedule rates of 10 to 40% <i>ad valorem</i> on imports, +there are a consular fee of 1½% for the registration of +invoices exceeding 200 bolivianos, a consumption tax of 10 +centavos per quintal (46 kilogrammes), fees for viséing certificates +to accompany merchandise in transit, special “octroi” +taxes on certain kinds of merchandise controlled by monopolies +(spirits, tobacco, &c.), and the import and consumption taxes +levied by the departments and municipalities. The expenditures +are chiefly for official salaries, subsidies, public works, church +and mission support, justice, public instruction, military expenses, +and interest on the public debt. The appropriations for +1905 were as follows: war, 2,081,119 bolivianos; finance and +industry, 1,462,259; government and fomento, 2,021,428; +justice and public instruction, 1,878,941.</p> + +<p>The acknowledged public debt of the country is comparatively +small. At the close of the war with Chile there was an indemnity +debt due to citizens of that republic of 6,550,830 +bolivianos, which had been nearly liquidated in 1904 when Chile +took over the unpaid balance. This was Bolivia’s only foreign +debt. In 1905 her internal debt, including 1,998,500 bolivianos +of treasury bills, amounted to 6,243,270 bolivianos (£546,286). +The government in 1903 authorized the issue of treasury notes +for the department of Beni and the National Territory to the +amount of one million bolivianos (£87,500), for the redemption +of which 10% of the customs receipts of the two districts is set +apart. The paper currency of the republic consists of bank-notes +issued by four private banks, and is therefore no part of the +public debt. The amount in circulation on the 30th of June +1903 was officially estimated at 9,144,254 bolivianos (£800,122), +issued on a par with silver. The coinage of the country is of +silver, nickel and copper. The silver coins are of the denominations +of 1 boliviano, or 100 centavos, 50, 20, 10 and 5 centavos, +and the issue of these coins from the Potosi mint is said to be +about 1,500,000 bolivianos a year. The silver mining companies +are required by law to send to the mint 20% of their +product. The silver boliviano, however, is rarely seen in circulation +because of the cheaper paper currency. To check the +exportation of silver coin, the fractional denominations have +been slightly debased. The nickel coins are of 5 and 10 centavos, +and the copper 1 and 2 centavos.</p> + +<p>The departmental revenues, which are derived from excise and +land taxes, mining grants, tithes, inheritance taxes, tolls, stamp +taxes, subsidies from the national treasury and other small +taxes, were estimated at 2,296,172 bolivianos in 1903, and the +expenditures at 2,295,791 bolivianos. The expenditures were +chiefly for justice, police, public works, public instruction and +the Church. The municipal revenues aggregated 2,317,670 +bolivianos in 1902, and the expenditures 61,510 bolivianos in +excess of that sum. These revenues are derived from a lighting +tax, leases and ground rents, cemetery fees, consumption and +market taxes, licences, tolls, taxes on hides and skins, personal +and various minor taxes. There is a multiplication of taxes +in trade which recalls the old colonial <i>alcabala</i> tax, and it serves +to restrict commerce and augment the cost of goods in much the +same way, if not to the same degree.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—M.V. Ballivián, <i>Apuntes sobre la industria de +goma elastica, &c.</i> (La Paz, 1896); <i>Noticia Politica, Geográfica, +Industrial, y Estadistica de Bolivia</i> (La Paz, 1900); <i>Breves Indicaciones +para el Inmigrante y el Viajero à Bolivia</i> (La Paz, 1898); +<i>Monografias de la Industria Minera en Bolivia</i>, three parts (La Paz, +1899-1900); <i>Relaciones Geográficas de Bolivia existentes en el Archivo +de la Oficina Nacional de Inmigración, &c.</i> (La Paz, 1898); M.V. +Ballivián and Eduardo Idiaquez, <i>Diccionario Geográfico de la República +de Bolivia</i> (La Paz, 1900); André Bresson, <i>Sept années +d’explorations, de voyages et de séjours dans l’Amérique australe</i> +(Paris, 1886); Enrique Bolland, <i>Exploraciones practicadas en el +Alto Paraguay y en la Laguna Gaiba</i> (Buenos Aires, 1901); G.E. +Church <i>The Route to Bolivia via the River Amazon</i> (London, 1877); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page175" id="page175"></a>175</span> +G.E. Church, “Bolivia by the Rio de la Plata Route,” <i>Geogr. Jour.</i> +xix. pp. 64-73 (London, 1902); C.B. Cisneros and R.E. Garcia, +<i>Geografia Comercial de la America del Sur</i> (Lima, 1898); Sir W.M. +Conway, <i>Climbing and Exploration in the Bolivian Andes</i> (London, +1903); M. Dalence, <i>Bosquejo estadistico de Bolivia</i> (Chuquisaca, +1878); J.L. Moreno, <i>Nociones de geografia de Bolivia</i> (Sucré, 1889); +Edward D. Mathews, <i>Up the Amazon and Madeira Rivers, through +Bolivia and Peru</i> (London, 1879); Carlos Matzenauer, <i>Bolivia in +historischer, geographischer und cultureller Hinsicht</i> (Vienna, 1897); +M.F. Soldan, <i>Narracion de Guerra de Chile contra Peru y Bolivia</i> +(La Paz, 1884); C.M. Pepper, <i>Panama to Patagonia</i> (Chicago, 1906); +A. Petrocokino, <i>Along the Andes, in Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador</i> +(London, 1903); Comte C. d’Ursel, <i>Sud Amérique: Séjours et +voyages au Brésil, en Bolivie, &c.</i> (Paris, 1879); Charles Wiener, +<i>Pérou et Bolivie</i> (Paris, 1880); <i>Bolivia, Geographical Sketch, Natural +Resources, &c.</i>, Intern. Bur. of the American Republics (Washington, +1904); <i>Boletin de la Oficina Nacional de Inmigración, Estadistica y +Propaganda Geográfica</i> (La Paz); <i>Sinopsis estadistica y geográfica de +la Republica de Bolivia</i> (3 vols., La Paz, 1902-1904); G. de Crequi-Montfort, +“Exploration en Bolivie,” in <i>La Géographie</i>, ix. pp. 79-86 +(Paris, 1904); M. Neveau-Lemaire, “Le Titicaca et le Poopo,” &c., +in <i>La Géographie</i>, ix. pp. 409-430 (Paris, 1904); <i>British Foreign +Office Diplomatic and Consular Reports</i> (London); <i>United States +Consular Reports</i>; Stanford’s <i>Compendium of Geography and Travel</i>, +vol. i., <i>South and Central America</i> (London, 1904). For Geology +see A. d’Orbigny, <i>Voyage dans l’Amérique méridionale</i>, vol. iii. pt. +iii. (Paris, 1842); D. Forbes, “On the Geology of Bolivia and Peru,” +<i>Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.</i> vol. xvii. (London, 1861), pp. 7-62, pls. +i.-iii.; A. Ulrich, “Palaeozoische Versteinerungen aus Bolivien,” +<i>Neues Jahrb. f. Min.</i> Band viii. (1893), pp. 5-116, pls. i.-v.; G. +Steinmann, &c., “Geologie des südostlichen Boliviens,” <i>Centralb. f. +Min., Jahrg.</i> (1904), pp. 1-4.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. J. L.)</div> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">History</p> + +<p>The country now forming the republic of Bolivia, named after +the great liberator Simon Bolivar (<i>q.v.</i>), was in early days simply +a portion of the empire of the Incas of Peru (<i>q.v.</i>). After the +conquest of Peru by the Spaniards in the 16th century the natives +were subjected to much tyranny and oppression, though it must +in fairness be said that much of it was carried out in defiance +of the efforts and the wishes of the Spanish home government, +whose legislative efforts to protect the Indians from serfdom and +ill-usage met with scant respect at the hands of the distant +settlers and mine-owners, who bid defiance to the humane and +protective regulations of the council of the Indies, and treated +the unhappy natives little better than beasts of burden. The +statement, moreover, that some eight millions of Indians perished +through forced labour in the mines is a gross exaggeration. The +annual diminution in the number of the Indian population was +undoubtedly very great, but it was due far more to the result of +European epidemics and to indulgence in alcohol than to hard +work. The abortive insurrection of 1780-82, led by the Inca +Tupac Amarú, was never a general rising, and was directed rather +against Creole tyranny than against Spanish rule. The heavy +losses sustained by the Indians during that outbreak, and their +dislike and distrust of the colonial Spaniard, account for the +comparative indifference with which they viewed the rise and +progress of the 1814 colonial revolt against Spain, which gave +the South American states their independence.</p> + +<p>We are only concerned here with the War of Independence so +far as it affected Upper Peru, the Bolivia of later days. When +the patriots of Buenos Aires had succeeded in liberating +from the dominion of Spain the interior provinces of +<span class="sidenote">War of Independence.</span> +the Rio de la Plata, they turned their arms against +their enemies who held Upper Peru. An almost uninterrupted +warfare followed, from July 1809 till August 1825, +with alternate successes on the side of the Spanish or royalist +and the South American or patriot forces,—the scene of action +lying chiefly between the Argentine provinces of Salta and Jujuy +and the shores of Lake Titicaca. The first movement of the +war was the successful invasion of Upper Peru by the army of +Buenos Aires, under General Balcarce, which, after twice defeating +the Spanish troops, was able to celebrate the first anniversary +of independence near Lake Titicaca, in May 1811. Soon, +however, the patriot army, owing to the dissolute conduct and +negligence of its leaders, became disorganized, and was attacked +and defeated, in June 1811, by the Spanish army under Gey fol +Goyeneche, and driven back into Jujuy. Four years of warfare, +in which victory was alternately with the Spaniards and the +patriots, was terminated in 1815 by the total rout of the latter +in a battle which took place between Potosi and Oruro. To this +succeeded a revolt of the Indians of the southern provinces of +Peru, and the object being the independence of the whole +country, it was joined by numerous Creoles. This insurrection +was, however, speedily put down by the royalists. In 1816 the +Spanish general Laserna, having been appointed commander-in-chief +of Upper Peru, made an attempt to invade the Argentine +provinces, intending to march on Buenos Aires, but he was +completely foiled in this by the activity of the irregular <i>gaucho</i> +troops of Salta and Jujuy, and was forced to retire. During this +time and in the six succeeding years a guerrilla warfare was +maintained by the patriots of Upper Peru, who had taken refuge +in the mountains, chiefly of the province of Yungas, and who +frequently harassed the royalist troops. In June 1823 the +expedition of General Santa Cruz, prepared with great zeal and +activity at Lima, marched in two divisions upon Upper Peru, and +in the following months of July and August the whole country +between La Paz and Oruro was occupied by his forces; but +later, the indecision and want of judgment displayed by Santa +Cruz allowed a retreat to be made before a smaller royalist army, +and a severe storm converted their retreat into a precipitate +flight, only a remnant of the expedition again reaching Lima. +In 1824, after the great battle of Ayacucho in Lower Peru, +General Sucre, whose valour had contributed so much to the +patriot success of that day, marched with a part of the victorious +army into Upper Peru. On the news of the victory a universal +rising of the patriots took place, and before Sucre had reached +Oruro and Puno, in February 1825, La Paz was already in their +possession, and the royalist garrisons of several towns had gone +over to their side. The Spanish general Olañeta, with a diminished +army of 2000 men, was confined to the province of Potosi, where +he held out till March 1825, when he was mortally wounded in +an action with some of his own revolted troops.</p> + +<p>General Sucre was now invested with the supreme command +in Upper Peru, until the requisite measures could be taken to +establish in that country a regular and constitutional government. +Deputies from the various provinces to the number of fifty-four +were assembled at Chuquisaca, the capital, to decide upon the +question proposed to them on the part of the government of +the Argentine provinces, whether they would or would not remain +separate from that country. In August 1825 they decided this +<span class="sidenote">Bolivia a nation.</span> +question, declaring it to be the national will that Upper +Peru should in future constitute a distinct and independent +nation. This assembly continued their session, +although the primary object of their meeting had thus been +accomplished, and afterwards gave the name of Bolivia to the +country,—issuing at the same time a formal declaration of +independence.</p> + +<p>The first general assembly of deputies of Bolivia dissolved +itself on the 6th of October 1825, and a new congress was summoned +and formally installed at Chuquisaca on the 25th of May +1826, to take into consideration the constitution prepared by +Bolivar for the new republic. A favourable report was made +to that body by a committee appointed to examine it, on which +it was approved by the congress, and declared to be the constitution +of the republic; and as such, it was sworn to by the people. +General Sucre was chosen president for life, according to the +constitution, but only accepted the appointment for the space +of two years, and on the express condition that 2000 Colombian +troops should be permitted to remain with him.</p> + +<p>The independence of the country, so dearly bought, did not, +however, secure for it a peaceful future. Repeated risings +occurred, till in the end of 1827 General Sucre and his Colombian +troops were driven from La Paz. A new congress was formed +at Chuquisaca in April 1828, which modified the constitution +given by Bolivar, and chose Marshal Santa Cruz for president; but +only a year later a revolution, led by General Blanco, threw the +country into disorder and for a time overturned the government. +Quiet being again restored in 1831, Santa Cruz promulgated +the code of laws which bore his name, and brought the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page176" id="page176"></a>176</span> +financial affairs of the country into some order; he also concluded +a treaty of commerce with Peru, and for several years +Bolivia remained in peace. In 1835, when a struggle for the +chief power had made two factions in the neighbouring republic +of Peru, Santa Cruz was induced to take a part in the contest; +he marched into that country, and after defeating General +Gamarra, the leader of one of the opposing parties, completed +the pacification of Peru in the spring of 1836, named himself +its protector, and had in view a confederation of the two countries. +At this juncture the government of Chile interfered actively, +and espousing the cause of Gamarra, sent troops into Peru. +Three years of fighting ensued till in a battle at Jungay in June +1839 Santa Cruz was defeated and exiled, Gamarra became +president of Peru, and General Velasco provisional chief in Bolivia. +The Santa Cruz party, however, remained strong in Bolivia, +and soon revolted successfully against the new head of the +government, ultimately installing General Ballivian in the +chief power. Taking advantage of the disturbed condition of +Bolivia, Gamarra made an attempt to annex the rich province +of La Paz, invading it in August 1841 and besieging the capital; +but in a battle with Ballivian his army was totally routed, and +Gamarra himself was killed. The Bolivian general was now in +turn to invade Peru, when Chile again interfered to prevent him. +Ballivian remained in the presidency till 1848, when he retired +to Valparaiso, and in the end of that year General Belzu, after +leading a successful military revolution, took the chief power, +and during his presidency endeavoured to promote agriculture, +industry and trade. General Jorge Cordova succeeded him, +but had not been long in office when a new revolt in September +1857, originating with the garrison of Oruro, spread over the +land, and compelled him to quit the country. His place was +taken by Dr José Maria Linares, the originator of the revolution, +who, taking into his own hands all the powers of government, +and acting with the greatest severity, caused himself to be +proclaimed dictator in March 1858. Fresh disturbances led +to the deposition of Linares in 1861, when Dr Maria de Acha was +chosen president. In 1862 a treaty of peace and commerce with +the United States was ratified, and in the following year a +similar treaty was concluded with Belgium; but new causes of +disagreement with Chile had arisen in the discovery of rich beds +of guano on the eastern coast-land of the desert of Atacama, +which threatened warfare, and were only set at rest by the +treaty of August 1866, in which the 24th parallel of latitude +was adopted as the boundary between the two republics. A new +military revolution, led by Maria Melgarejo, broke out in 1865, +and in February of that year the troops of President Acha were +defeated in a battle near Potosi, when Melgarejo took the +dominion of the country. After defeating two revolutions, in +1865 and 1866, the new president declared a political amnesty, +and in 1869, after imposing a revised constitution on the country, +he became its dictator.</p> + +<p>In January 1871 President Melgarejo was in his turn deposed +and driven from the country by a revolution headed by Colonel +Augustin Morales. The latter, becoming president, +was himself murdered in November 1872 and was +<span class="sidenote">Recent history.</span> +succeeded by Colonel Adolfo Ballivian, who died in +1874. Under this president Bolivia entered upon a secret agreement +with Peru which was destined to have grave consequences +for both countries. To understand the reasons that urged +Bolivia to take this step it is necessary to go back to the above-mentioned +treaty of 1866 between Chile and Bolivia. By this +instrument Bolivia, besides conceding the 24th parallel as the +boundary of Chilean territory, agreed that Chile should have a +half share of the customs and full facilities for trading on the +coast that lay between the 23rd and 24th parallels, Chile at that +time being largely interested in the trade of that region. It was +also agreed that Chile should be allowed to mine and export the +products of this district without tax or hindrance on the part of +Bolivia. In 1870, in further consideration of the sum of $10,000, +Bolivia granted to an Anglo-Chilean company the right of working +certain nitrate deposits north of the 24th parallel. The great +wealth which was passing into Chilean hands owing to these +compacts created no little discontent in Bolivia, nor was Peru +any better pleased with the hold that Chilean capital was establishing +in the rich district of Tarapacá. On 6th February 1873 +Bolivia entered upon a secret agreement with Peru, the ostensible +object of which was the preservation of their territorial integrity +and their mutual defence against exterior aggression. There can +be no doubt that the aggression contemplated as possible by +both countries was a further encroachment on the part of Chile.</p> + +<p>Upon the death of Adolfo Ballivian, immediately after the +conclusion of this treaty with Peru, Dr Tomas Frias succeeded +to the presidency. He signed yet another treaty with Chile, by +which the latter agreed to withdraw her claim to half the duties +levied in Bolivian ports on condition that all Chilean industries +established in Bolivian territory should be free from duty for +twenty-five years. This treaty was never ratified, and four years +later General Hilarion Daza, who had succeeded Dr Frias as +president in 1876, demanded as the price of Bolivia’s consent +that a tax of 10 cents per quintal should be paid on all nitrates +exported from the country, further declaring that, unless this +levy was paid, nitrates in the hands of the exporters would be +seized by the Bolivian government. As an answer to these demands, +and in order to protect the property of Chilean subjects, +the Chilean fleet was sent to blockade the ports of Antofagasta, +Cobija and Tocapilla. On the 14th February 1879 the Chilean +colonel Sotomayor occupied Antofagasta, and on 1st March, +a fortnight later, the Bolivian government declared war.</p> + +<p>An offer on the part of Peru to act as mediator met with no +favour from Chile. The existence of the secret treaty, well +known to the Chilean government, rendered the intervention of +Peru more than questionable, and the law passed by the latter +in 1875, which practically created a monopoly of the Tarapacá +nitrate beds to the serious prejudice of Chilean enterprise, offered +no guarantee of her good faith. Chile replied by curtly demanding +the annulment of the secret treaty and an assurance of Peruvian +neutrality. Both demands being refused, she declared war upon +Peru.</p> + +<p>The superiority of the Chileans at sea, though checked for +some time by the heroic gallantry of the Peruvians, soon enabled +them to land a sufficient number of troops to meet the allied +forces which had concentrated at Arica and other points in the +south. The Bolivian ports were already in Chilean hands, and +a sea attack upon Pisagua surprised and routed the troops under +the Peruvian general Buendia and opened the way into the +southern territory of Peru. General Daza, who should have cooperated +with Buendia, turned back, on receiving news of the +Peruvian defeat, and led the Bolivian troops to Tacna in a hasty +and somewhat disorderly retreat. The fall of San Francisco +followed, and Iquique, which was evacuated by the allies without +a struggle, was occupied. Severe fighting took place before +Tarapacá surrendered, but the end of 1879 saw the Chileans in +complete possession of the province.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile a double revolution took place in Peru and Bolivia. +In the former country General Prado was deposed and Colonel +Pierola proclaimed dictator. The Bolivians followed the example +of their allies. The troops at Tacna, indignant at the inglorious +part they had been condemned to play by the incompetence or +cowardice of their president, deprived him of their command and +elected Colonel Camacho to lead them. At the same time a +revolution in La Paz proclaimed General Narciso Campero president, +and he was elected to that post in the following June by +the ordinary procedure of the constitution. During 1880 the +war was chiefly maintained at sea between Chile and Peru, +Bolivia taking little or no part in the struggle. In January of +1881 were fought the battles of Chorillos and Miraflores, attended +by heavy slaughter and savage excesses on the part of the Chilean +troops. They were followed almost immediately by the surrender +of Lima and Callao, which left the Chileans practically masters +of Peru. In the interior, however, where the Peruvian admiral +Montero had formed a provisional government, the war still +lingered, and in September 1882 a conference took place between +the latter and President Campero, at which it was decided that +they should hold out for better terms. But the Peruvians +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page177" id="page177"></a>177</span> +wearied of the useless struggle. On the 20th of October 1883 +they concluded a treaty of peace with Chile; the troops at Arequipa, +under Admiral Montero, surrendered that town, and +Montero himself, coldly received in Bolivia, whither he had fled +for refuge, withdrew from the country to Europe. On the 9th +of November the Chilean army of occupation was concentrated +at Arequipa, while what remained of the Bolivian army lay at +Oruro. Negotiations were opened, and on 11th December a +peace was signed between Chile and Bolivia. By this treaty +Bolivia ceded to Chile the whole of its sea-coast, including the +port of Cobija.</p> + +<p>On the 18th of May 1895 a treaty was signed at Santiago +between Chile and Bolivia, “with a view to strengthening the +bonds of friendship which unite the two countries,” and, “in +accord with the higher necessity that the future development +and commercial prosperity of Bolivia require her free access to +the sea.” By this treaty Chile declared that if, in consequence +of the plebiscite (to take place under the treaty of Ancon with +Peru), or by virtue of direct arrangement, she should “acquire +dominion and permanent sovereignty over the territories of +Tacna and Arica, she undertakes to transfer them to Bolivia +in the same form and to the same extent as she may acquire +them”; the republic of Bolivia paying as an indemnity for that +transfer $5,000,000 silver. If this cession should be effected, +Chile should advance her own frontier north of Camerones to +Vitor, from the sea up to the frontier which actually separates +that district from Bolivia. Chile also pledged herself to use her +utmost endeavour, either separately or jointly with Bolivia, to +obtain possession of Tacna and Arica. If she failed, she bound +herself to cede to Bolivia the roadstead (<i>caleta</i>) of Vitor, or +another analogous one, and $5,000,000 silver. Supplementary +protocols to this treaty stipulated that the port to be ceded must +“fully satisfy the present and future requirements” of the +commerce of Bolivia.</p> + +<p>On the 23rd of May 1895 further treaties of peace and commerce +were signed with Chile, but the provisions with regard +to the cession of a seaport to Bolivia still remained unfulfilled. +During those ten years of recovery on the part of Bolivia from +the effects of the war, the presidency was held by Dr Pacheco, +who succeeded Campero, and held office for the full term; by +Dr Aniceto Arce, who held it until 1892, and by Dr Mariano +Baptista, his successor. In 1896 Dr Severe Alonso became +president, and during his tenure of office diplomatic relations +were resumed with Great Britain, Señor Aramayo being sent +to London as minister plenipotentiary in July 1897. As an +outcome of his mission an extradition treaty was concluded with +Great Britain in March 1898.</p> + +<p>In December an attempt was made to pass a law creating +Sucre the perpetual capital of the republic. Until this Sucre +had taken its turn with La Paz, Cochabamba and Oruro. La +Paz rose in open revolt. On the 17th of January of the following +year a battle was fought some 40 m. from La Paz between the +insurgents and the government forces, in which the latter were +defeated with the loss of a colonel and forty-three men. Colonel +Pando, the insurgent leader, having gained a strong following, +marched upon Oruro, and entered that town on 11th April 1899, +after completely defeating the government troops. Dr Severo +Alonso took refuge in Chilean territory; and Colonel Pando +formed a provisional government. He had no difficulty in +obtaining his election to the presidency without opposition. He +entered upon office on the 26th of October, and proved himself +to be a strong and capable chief magistrate. He had to deal +with two difficult settlements as to boundaries with Chile and +Brazil, and to take steps for improving the means of communication +in the country, by this means reviving its mining and other +industries. The dispute with Brazil over the rich Acré rubber-producing +territory was accentuated by the majority of those +engaged in the rubber industry being Brazilians, who resented +the attempts of Bolivian officials to exercise authority in the +district. This led to a declaration of independence on the part +of the state of Acré, and the despatch of a body of Bolivian +troops in 1900 to restore order. There was no desire, however, +on the part of President Pando to involve himself in hostilities +with Brazil, and in a spirit of concession the dispute was settled +amicably by diplomatic means, and a treaty signed in November +1903. A new boundary line was drawn, and a portion of the +Acré province ceded to Brazil in consideration of a cash indemnity +of $10,000,000.</p> + +<p>The long-standing dispute with Chile with regard to its occupation +of the former Bolivian provinces of Tacna and Arica under +the Parto de Tregna of the 4th of April 1884 was more difficult +to arrange satisfactorily. In 1895 there had been some prospect +of Chile conceding an outlet on the sea in exchange for a recognition +of the Chilean ownership of Tacna and Arica. The discovery, +however, of secret negotiations between Bolivia and Argentina +caused Chile to change its conciliatory attitude. Bolivia was +in no position to venture upon hostilities or to compel the +Chileans to make concessions, and the final settlement of the +boundary dispute between Argentina and Chile deprived the +Bolivians of the hope of obtaining the support of the Argentines. +President Pando and his successor, Ismail Montes, who became +president in 1904, saw that it was necessary to yield, and to make +the best terms they could. A treaty was accordingly ratified +in 1905, which was in many ways advantageous to Bolivia, +though the republic was compelled to cede to Chile the maritime +provinces occupied by the latter power since the war of 1881, +and to do without a seaport. The government of Chile undertook +to construct a railway at its own cost from Arica to the Bolivian +capital, La Paz, and to give the Bolivians free transit through +Chilean territory to certain towns on the coast. Chile further +agreed to pay Bolivia a cash indemnity and lend certain pecuniary +assistance to the construction of other railways necessary for +the opening out of the country.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Wiener, <i>Bolivie et Pérou</i> (Paris, 1880); E. Mossbach, +<i>Bolivia</i> (Leipzig, 1875); Theodore Child, <i>The South American +Republics</i> (New York, 1801); Vicente de Ballivian y Rizas, <i>Archive +Boliviano. Collecion de documentes relativos a la historia de Bolivia</i> +(Paris, 1872); Ramon Sotomayor Valdes, <i>Estudio historico de +Bolivia bajo la administracion del General don José Maria Achá con +una introducion que contiene el compendio de la Guerra de la independencia +i de los gobiernos de dicha Republica hasta 1861</i> (Santiago +de Chile, 1874).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. Hd.; G. E.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLKHOV,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> a town of Russia, in the government of Orel, and +35 m. N. of the city of Orel. Pop. (1897) 20,703. It is prettily +situated amongst orchards and possesses a cathedral. There +is a lively trade in hemp, hemp-seed oil, hemp goods and cattle, +and there are hemp-mills, soap-works and tanneries. The +much-venerated monastery, Optina Pustyn, is close by.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLL,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> a botanical term for a fruit-pod, particularly of the +cotton plant. The word is in O. Eng. <i>bolla</i>, which is also represented +in “bowl,” a round vessel for liquids, a variant due to +“bowl,” ball, which is from the Fr. <i>boule</i>. “Boll” is also used, +chiefly in Scotland and the north of England, as a measure of +weight for flour = 140 ℔, and of capacity for grain: 16 pecks += 1 boll.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLLANDISTS,<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> the Belgian Jesuits who publish the <i>Acta +Sanctorum</i>, the great collection of biographies and legends of the +saints, arranged by days, in the order of the calendar. The +original idea was conceived by a Jesuit father, Heribert Rosweyde +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Hagiology</a></span>), and was explained by him in a sort of prospectus, +which he issued in 1607 under the title of <i>Fasti sanctorum +quorum vitae in Belgicis Bibliothecis manuscriptae</i>. His intention +was to publish in eighteen volumes the lives of the saints compiled +from the MSS., at the same time adding sober notes. At +the time of his death (1629) he had collected a large amount of +material, but had not been able actually to begin the work. A +Jesuit father, John Bolland, was appointed to carry on the project, +and was sent to Antwerp. He continued to amass material, +and extended the scope of the work. In 1643 the two volumes +for January appeared. The three volumes for February appeared +in 1658, the three for March in 1668, the three for April in +1675, and so on. In 1635 Henschenius (Godfried Henschen) was +associated with Bolland, and collaborated in the work until 1681. +From 1659 to 1714 Papebroch (Daniel van Papenbroeck) collaborated. +This was the most brilliant period in the history of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page178" id="page178"></a>178</span> +<i>Acta Sanctorum</i>. The freedom of Papebroch’s criticism made +him many enemies, and he had often to defend himself against +their attacks. The work was continued—with some inequalities, +but always in the same spirit—until the suppression of the Society +of Jesus in 1773. The last volume published was vol. iii. of +October, which appeared in 1770.</p> + +<p>On the dispersion of the Jesuits the Bollandists were authorized +to continue their work, and remained at Antwerp until 1778, +when they were transferred to Brussels, to the monastery of +canons regular of Coudenberg. Here they published vol. iv. of +October in 1780, and vol. v. of October in 1786, when the +monastery of Coudenberg was suppressed. In 1788 the work +of the Bollandists ceased. The remains of their library were +acquired by the Premonstratensians of Tongerloo, who endeavoured +to continue the work, and in their abbey vol. vi. of +October appeared in 1794.</p> + +<p>After the re-establishment of the Society of Jesus in Belgium +the work was again taken up in 1837, at the suggestion of +the Académie Royale of Belgium and with the support of the +Belgian government, and the Bollandists were installed at the +college of St Michael in Brussels. In 1845 appeared vol. vii. of +October, the first of the new series, which reached vol. xiii. of +October in 1883. In this series the Jesuit fathers Joseph van der +Moere, Joseph van Hecke, Benjamin Bossue, Victor and Remi de +Buck, Ant. Tinnebroeck, Edu. Carpentier and Henr. Matagne +collaborated. Father John Martinov of Theazan was entrusted +with the editing of the <i>Annus Graeco-Slavicus</i>, which appeared in +the beginning of vol. xi. of October in 1864.</p> + +<p>In 1882 the activities of the Bollandists were exerted in a new +direction, with a view to bringing the work more into line with +the progress of historical methods. A quarterly review was +established under the title of <i>Analecta Bollandiana</i> by the Jesuit +fathers C. de Smedt, G. van Hooff and J. de Backer. This +reached its 25th volume in 1906, and was edited by the +Bollandists de Smedt, F. van Ontroy, H. Delehaye, A. Porcelet +and P. Peeters. This review contains studies in preparation for +the continuation and remoulding of the <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>, inedited +texts, dissertations, and, since 1892, a <i>Bulletin des publications +hagiographiques</i>, containing criticisms of recent works on hagiographic +questions. In addition to this review, the Bollandists +undertook the analysis of the hagiographic MSS. in the principal +libraries. Besides numerous library catalogues published in the +<i>Analecta</i> (<i>e.g.</i> those of Chartres, Namur, Ghent, Messina, Venice, +etc.), separate volumes were devoted to the Latin MSS. in the +Bibliothèque Royale at Brussels (2 vols., 1886-1889), to the Latin +and Greek MSS. in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris (5 vols., +1889-1896), to the Greek MSS. in the Vatican (1899), and to the +Latin MSS. in the libraries of Rome (1905 seq.). They also +prepared inventories of the hagiographic texts hitherto published, +and of these there have appeared the <i>Bibliotheca hagiographica +graeca</i> (1895), the <i>Bibliotheca hagiographica latina</i> (1899) and the +<i>Bibliotheca hagiographica Orientalis</i>. These indispensable works +delayed the publication of the principal collection, but tended to +give it a more solid basis and a strictly scientific stamp. In 1887 +appeared vol. i. for November; in 1894, vol. ii., preceded by the +<i>Martyrologium Hieronymianum</i> by J.B. de Rossi and the abbé +Louis Duchesne; in 1902, the <i>Propylaeum ad Acta Sanctorum +Novembris</i>, comprising the <i>Synaxarium ecclesiae Constantinopolitanae</i>.</p> + +<p>There are three editions of the <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>: the original +edition (Antwerp, Tongerloo and Brussels, 63 vols., 1643-1902); +the Venice edition, stopping at vol. v. of September (1734-1770); +and the Paris edition, stopping at vol. xiii. of October (61 vols., +1863-1883). In addition to these, there is a volume of tables, +edited by the abbé Rigollot.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Acta Sanctorum apologelicis libris ... vindicata</i> (Antwerp, +1755); L.P. Gachard, <i>Mémoire historique sur les Bollandistes</i> +(Brussels, 1835); van Hecke, “De ratione operis Bollandiani” +(<i>Acta Sanctorum Octobris</i>, vii.); and Cardinal J.B. Pitra, <i>Études sur +la collection des Actes des Saints</i> (Paris, 1880).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(H. De.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (1524-1608) [Ital. for his real name, +<span class="sc">Jean Bologne</span> or <span class="sc">Boullongne</span>], French sculptor, was born at +Douai in 1524. His early training as a sculptor was conducted at +Antwerp, but at the age of twenty-five he went to Italy and he +settled in 1553 in Florence, where his best works still remain. +His two most celebrated productions are the single bronze +figure of Mercury, poised on one foot, resting on the head of a +zephyr, as if in the act of springing into the air (in the Bargello +gallery), and the marble group known as the Rape of the Sabines, +which was executed for Francesco de’ Medici and received this +name, Lanzi informs us, after it was finished. It is now in the +Loggia de Lanzi of the ducal piazza. Giovanni was also employed +at Genoa, where he executed various excellent works, +chiefly in bronze. Most of his pieces are characterized by great +spirit and elegance. His great fountain at Bologna (1563-1567) +is remarkable for beauty of proportion. Noteworthy also are his +two fountains in the Boboli gardens, one completed in 1576 and +the other in 1585. He also cast the fine bronze equestrian statue +of Cosimo de’ Medici at Florence and the very richly decorated +west door of Pisa cathedral. One of Bologna’s best works, a group +of two nude figures fighting, is now lost. A fine copy in lead was +at one time in the front quadrangle of Brasenose College, Oxford. +In 1881 it was sold for old lead by the principal and fellows of the +college, and was melted down by the plumber who bought it.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>La Vie et l’œuvre de Jean Bologne, par Abel Desjardins, d’après +les manuscrits—recueillis par Foucques de Vagnonville</i> (1883, numerous +illustrations; list of works).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLOGNA,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> a city and archiepiscopal see of Emilia, Italy, the +capital of the province of Bologna, and headquarters of the VI. +army corps. It is situated at the edge of the plain of Emilia, +180 ft. above sea-level at the base of the Apennines, 82 m. due N. +of Florence by rail, 63 m. by road and 50 m. direct, and 134 m. +S.E. of Milan by rail. Pop. (1901) town, 102,122; commune, +153,501. The more or less rectangular Roman city, orientated +on the points of the compass, with its streets arranged at right +angles, can be easily distinguished from the outer city, which +received its fortifications in 1206 (see G. Gozzadini, <i>Studi +archeologico-topografici sulla citta di Bologna</i>, Bologna, 1868). +The streets leading to the gates of the latter radiate from the +outskirts, and not from the centre, of the former. Some of the +oldest churches, however, lie outside the limits of the Roman +city (of which no buildings remain above ground) such as +S. Stefano, S. Giovanni in Monte and SS. Vitale ed Agricola. +The first consists of a group of no less than seven different +buildings, of different dates; the earliest of which, the former +cathedral of SS. Pietro e Paolo, was constructed about the middle +of the 4th century, in part with the débris of Roman buildings; +while S. Sepolcro, a circular church with ornamentation in brick +and an imitation of <i>opus reticulatum</i>, should probably be +attributed to the 6th or 7th centuries. The present cathedral +(S. Pietro), erected in 910, is now almost entirely in the baroque +style. The largest church in the town, however, is that of +S. Petronio, the patron saint of Bologna, which was begun in +1390; only the nave and aisles as far as the transepts were, +however, completed, but even this is a fine fragment, in the +Gothic style, measuring 384 ft. long, and 157 wide, whereas the +projected length of the whole (a cruciform basilica) was over +700 ft., with a breadth across the transepts of 460 ft., and a dome +500 ft. high over the crossing (see F. Cavazza in <i>Rassegna d’ Arte</i>, +1905, 161). The church of S. Domenico, which contains the body +of the saint, who died here in 1221, is unfinished externally, +while the interior was remodelled in the 18th century. There are +many other churches of interest, among them S. Francesco, +perhaps the finest medieval building in Bologna, begun in 1246 +and finished in 1260; it has a fine brick campanile of the end +of the 14th century. It was restored to sacred uses in 1887, and +has been carefully liberated from later alterations (U. Berti in +<i>Rassegna d’ Arte</i>, 1901, 55). The church of Corpus Dominii has +fine 15th-century terra cottas on the façade (F. Malaguzzi Valeri +in <i>Archivio Storico dell’ Arte</i>, ser. ii. vol. ii. (Rome, 1896), 72). +The centre of the town is formed by the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele +(formerly Piazza Maggiore), and the Piazza del Nettuno, which +lie at right angles to one another. Here are the church of +S. Petronio, the massive Palazzo Comunale, dating from 1245, +the Palazzo del Podesta, completed in the same year, and the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page179" id="page179"></a>179</span> +fine bronze statue of Neptune by Giovanni da Bologna (Jean +Bologne of Douai).</p> + +<p>The famous university of Bologna was founded in the 11th +century (its foundation by Theodosius the Great in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 425 +is legendary), and acquired a European reputation as a school +of jurisprudence under Pepo, the first known teacher at Bologna +of Roman law (about 1076), and his successor Irnerius and their +followers the glossators. The students numbered between three +and five thousand in the 12th to the 15th century, and in 1262, +it is said, nearly ten thousand (among them were both Dante +and Petrarch). Anatomy was taught here in the 14th century. +But despite its fame, the university, though an autonomous +corporation, does not seem to have had any fixed residence: +the professors lectured in their own houses, or later in rooms +hired or lent by the civic authorities. It was only in 1520 that +the professors of law were given apartments in a building belonging +to the church of S. Petronio; and in 1562, by order of Pius IV., +the university itself was constructed close by, by Carlo Borromeo, +then cardinal legate. The reason of this measure was no doubt +partly disciplinary, Bologna itself having in 1506 passed under +the dominion of the papacy. Shortly after this, in 1564, Tasso +was a student there, and was tried for writing a satirical poem. +One of the most famous professors was Marcello Malpighi, a +great anatomist of the 17th century. The building has served +as the communal library since 1838. Its courtyard contains the +arms of those students who were elected as representatives of +their respective nations or faculties. The university has since +1803 been established in the (16th century) Palazzo Poggi. +Between 1815 and 1848 the number of students sank to +about a hundred in some years, chiefly owing to the political +persecutions of the government: in 1859 the number had risen +to 355. It now possesses four faculties and is attended by some +1700 students. Among its professors women have more than +once been numbered.</p> + +<p>The Museo Civico is one of the most important museums in +Italy, containing especially fine collections of antiquities from +Bologna and its neighbourhood. The picture gallery is equally +important in its way, affording a survey both of the earlier +Bolognese paintings and of the works of the Bolognese eclectics +of the 16th and 17th centuries, the Caracci, Guido Reni, Domenichino, +Guercino, &c. The primitive masters are not of great +excellence, but the works of the masters of the 15th century, +especially those of Francesco Francia (1450-1517) and Lorenzo +Costa of Ferrara (1460-1535), are of considerable merit. The +great treasure of the collection is, however, Raphael’s S. Cecilia, +painted for the church of S. Giovanni in Monte, about 1515.</p> + +<p>The two leaning towers, the Torre Asinelli and the Torre +Garisenda, dating from 1109 and 1110 respectively, are among +the most remarkable structures in Bologna: they are square +brick towers, the former being 320 ft. in height and 4 ft. out of +the perpendicular, the latter (unfinished) 163 ft. high and 10 ft. +out of the perpendicular. The town contains many fine private +palaces, dating from the 13th century onwards. The streets +are as a rule arcaded, and this characteristic has been preserved +in modern additions, which have on the whole been made with +considerable taste, as have also the numerous restorations of +medieval buildings. A fine view may be had from the Madonna +di S. Luca, on the south-west of the town (938 ft.).</p> + +<p>Among the specialities of Bologna may be noted the <i>salami</i> +or <i>mortadella</i> (Bologna sausage), <i>tortellini</i> (a kind of macaroni) +and liqueurs.</p> + +<p>Bologna is an important railway centre, just as the ancient +Bononia was a meeting-point of important roads. Here the +main line from Milan divides, one portion going on parallel to +the line of the ancient Via Aemilia (which it has followed from +Piacenza downwards) to Rimini, Ancona and Brindisi, and the +other through the Apennines to Florence and thence to Rome. +Another line runs to Ferrara and Padua, another (eventually +to be prolonged to Verona) to S. Felice sul Panaro, and a third +to Budrio and Portomaggiore (a station on the line from Ferrara +to Ravenna). Steam tramways run to Vignola, Pieve di Cento +and Malalbergo.</p> + +<p>Bologna was only for a short while subject to the Lombards, +remaining generally under the rule of the exarchate of Ravenna, +until this in 756 was given by Pippin to the papacy. It was +sacked by the Hungarians in 902, but otherwise its history is +little known, and it is uncertain when it acquired its freedom +and its motto <i>Libertas</i>. But the first “constitution” of the +commune of Bologna dates from about 1123, and at that time +we find it a free and independent city. From the 12th to the +14th century it was very frequently at war, and strongly supported +the Guelph cause against Frederick II. and against the +neighbouring cities of Romagna and Emilia; indeed, in 1249 +the Bolognese took Enzio, the emperor’s son, prisoner, and kept +him in confinement for the rest of his life. But the struggles +between Guelphs and Ghibellines in Bologna itself soon followed, +and the commune was so weakened that in 1337 Taddeo de’ Pepoli +made himself master of the town, and in 1350 his son +sold it to Giovanni Visconti of Milan. Ten years later it was +given to the papacy, but soon revolted and recovered its liberty. +In 1401 Giovanni Bentivoglio made himself lord of Bologna, +but was killed in a rebellion of 1402. It then returned to the +Visconti, and after various struggles with the papacy was again +secured in 1438 by the Bentivoglio, who held it till 1506, when +Pope Julius II. drove them out, and brought Bologna once more +under the papacy, under the sway of which it remained (except +in the Napoleonic period between 1796 and 1815 and during the +revolutions of 1821 and 1831) until in 1860 it became part of the +kingdom of Italy.</p> + +<p>Among the most illustrious natives of Bologna may be noted +Luigi Galvani (1737-1798), the discoverer of galvanism, and +Prospero Lambertini (Pope Benedict XIV.).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Ricci, <i>Guida di Bologna</i> (3rd ed., Bologna, 1900).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLSENA<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (anc. <i>Volsinii</i>),<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a town of the province of Rome, +Italy, 12 m. W.S.W. of Orvieto by road, situated on the north-east +bank of the lake of Bolsena. Pop. (1901) 3286. The town +is dominated by a picturesque medieval castle, and contains +the church of S. Christina (martyred by drowning in the lake, +according to the legend, in 278) which dates from the 11th +century and contains some frescoes, perhaps of the school of +Giotto. It has a fine Renaissance façade, constructed about +1500 by Cardinal Giovanni de’ Medici (afterwards Pope Leo X.), +and some good terra cottas by the Della Robbia. Beneath the +church are catacombs, with the tomb of the saint, discovered +in 1880 (E. Stevenson in <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, 1880, 262; G.B. de +Rossi in <i>Bullettino d’Archeologia Cristiana</i>, 1880, 109). At one +of the altars in this crypt occurred the miracle of Bolsena in 1263. +A Bohemian priest, sceptical of the doctrine of transubstantiation, +was convinced of its truth by the appearance of drops of +blood on the host he was consecrating. In commemoration of +this Pope Urban IV. instituted the festival of Corpus Christi, +and ordered the erection of the cathedral of Orvieto. The +miracle forms the subject of a celebrated fresco by Raphael in +the Vatican.</p> + +<p>The Lake of Bolsena (anc. <i>Lacus Volsiniensis</i>), 1000 ft. above +sea-level, 71 sq. m. in area, and 480 ft. deep, is almost circular, +and was the central point of a large volcanic district, though it is +probably not itself an extinct crater. Its sides show fine basaltic +formation in places. It abounds in fish, but its banks are +somewhat deserted and not free from malaria. It contains two +islands, Bisentina and Martana, the former containing a church +constructed by Vignola, the latter remains of the castle where +Amalasuntha, the daughter of Theodoric, was imprisoned and +strangled.</p> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> According to the theory now generally adopted, the Etruscan +Volsinii occupied the site of Orvieto, which was hence called <i>Urbs +vetus</i> in late classical and medieval times, while the Roman Volsinii +was transferred to Bolaena (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Volsinii</a></span>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLSOVER,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> an urban district in the north-eastern parliamentary +division of Derbyshire, England, 5½ m. E. of Chesterfield, +on branch lines of the Midland and the Great Central +railways. Pop. (1901) 6844. It lies at a considerable height +on a sharp slope above a stream tributary to the river +Rother. The castle round which the town grew up was founded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page180" id="page180"></a>180</span> +shortly after the Conquest by William Peveril, but the existing +building, a fine castellated residence, was erected on its site in +1613. The town itself was fortified, and traces of early works +remain. The church of St Mary is of Norman and later date; it +contains some interesting early stone-carving, and monuments +to the family of Cavendish, who acquired the castle in the 16th +century. Coal-mining and quarrying are carried on in the +neighbourhood of Bolsover.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLSWARD,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> a town in the province of Friesland, Holland, +6½ m. W.N.W. of Sneek. A steam-tramway connects it with +Sneek, Makkum, Harlingen and Franeker. Pop. (1900) 6517. +The Great church, or St Martin’s (1446-1466) is a large building +containing some good carving, a fine organ and the tombs of +many Frisian nobles. The so-called Small church, dating from +about 1280, also contains fine carving and tombstones; and +is the remnant of a Franciscan convent which once existed +here. Bolsward also possesses a beautiful renaissance town-hall +(1614-1618) and various educational and charitable institutions, +including a music and a drawing school. It has an active trade +in agricultural produce, and some spinning-mills and tile and +pottery works. The town is mentioned in 725, when it was +situated on the Middle Sea. When this receded, a canal was cut +to the Zuider Zee, and in 1422 it was made a Hansa town.</p> + +<p>The medieval constitution of Bolsward, though in its government +by eight <i>scabini</i>, with judicial, and four councillors with +administrative functions, it followed the ordinary type of Dutch +cities, was in some ways peculiar. The family of Jongema had +certain hereditary rights in the administration, which, though +not mentioned in the town charter of 1455, were defined in that +of 1464. According to this the head of the family sat for two +years with the <i>scabini</i> and the third year with the councillors, +and had the right to administer an oath to one of each body. +More singular was the influential position assigned, in civic +legislation and administration, to the clergy, to whom in conjunction +with the councillors, there was even, in certain cases, +an appeal from the judgment of the <i>scabini</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See C. Hegel, <i>Stadte u. Gilden der germanischen Völker im +Mittelalter</i> (Leipzig, 1891).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLT,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> an O. Eng. word (compare Ger. <i>Bolz</i>, an arrow), for a +“quarrel” or cross-bow shaft, or the pin which fastened a door. +From the swift flight of an arrow comes the verb “to bolt,” as +applied to a horse, &c., and such expressions as “bolt upright,” +meaning straight upright; also the American use of “bolt” for +refusing to support a candidate nominated by one’s own party. +In the sense of a straight pin for a fastening, the word has come +to mean various sorts of appliances. From the sense of “fastening +together” is derived the use of the word “bolt” as a definite +length (in a roll) of a fabric (40 ft. of canvas, &c.).</p> + +<p>From another “bolt” or “boult,” to sift (through O. Fr. +<i>buleter</i>, from the Med. Lat. <i>buretare</i> or <i>buletare</i>), come such +expressions as in Shakespeare’s <i>Winter’s Tale</i>, “The fann’d +snow, That’s bolted by the northern blasts twice o’er,” or such +a figurative use as in Burke’s “The report of the committee was +examined and sifted and bolted to the bran.” From this sense +comes that of to moot, or discuss, as in Milton’s <i>Comus</i>, “I hate +when vice can bolt her arguments.”</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLTON, DUKES OF.<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> The title of duke of Bolton was held in +the family of Powlett or Paulet from 1689 to 1794. Charles +Powlett, the 1st duke (<i>c.</i> 1625-1699), who became 6th marquess +of Winchester on his father’s death in 1675, had been member +of parliament for Winchester and then for Hampshire from 1660 +to 1675. Having supported the claim of William and Mary to +the English throne in 1688, he was restored to the privy council +and to the office of lord-lieutenant of Hampshire, and was +created duke of Bolton in April 1689. An eccentric man, hostile +to Halifax and afterwards to Marlborough, he is said to have +travelled during 1687 with four coaches and 100 horsemen, +sleeping during the day and giving entertainments at night. +He died in February 1699, and was succeeded by his elder son, +Charles, 2nd duke of Bolton (1661-1722), who had also been a +member of parliament for Hampshire and a supporter of William +of Orange. He was lord-lieutenant of Hampshire and of Dorset, +a commissioner to arrange the union of England and Scotland; +and was twice a lord justice of the kingdom. He was also lord +chamberlain of the royal household; governor of the Isle of +Wight; and for two short periods was lord-lieutenant of Ireland. +His third wife was Henrietta (d. 1730), a natural daughter of +James, duke of Monmouth. According to Swift this duke was +“a great booby.” His eldest son, Charles, 3rd duke of Bolton +(1685-1754), was a member of parliament from 1705 to 1717, +when he was made a peer as Baron Pawlet of Basing. He filled +many of the public offices which had been held by his father, +and also attained high rank in the British army. Having +displeased Sir Robert Walpole he was deprived of several of his +offices in 1733; but some of them were afterwards restored to +him, and he raised a regiment for service against the Jacobites +in 1745. He was a famous gallant, and married for his second +wife the singer, Lavinia Fenton (d. 1760), a lady who had +previously been his mistress. He died in August 1754, and was +succeeded as 4th duke by his brother Harry (<i>c.</i> 1690-1759), +who had been a member of parliament for forty years, and who +followed the late duke as lord-lieutenant of Hampshire. The +4th duke’s son, Charles (<i>c.</i> 1718-1765), who became 5th duke +in October 1759, committed suicide in London in July 1765, +and was succeeded by his brother Harry (<i>c.</i> 1719-1794), an +admiral in the navy, on whose death without sons, in December +1794, the dukedom became extinct. The other family titles +descended to a kinsman, George Paulet (1722-1800), who thus +became 12th marquess of Winchester. In 1778 Thomas Orde +(1746-1807) married Jean Mary (d. 1814), a natural daughter +of the 5th duke of Bolton, and this lady inherited Bolton Castle +and other properties on the death of the 6th duke. Having +taken the additional name of Powlett, Orde was created Baron +Bolton in 1797, and the barony has descended to his heirs.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLTON<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Boulton</span>), <span class="bold">EDMUND</span> (1575?-1633?), English +historian and poet, was born by his own account in 1575. He +was brought up a Roman Catholic, and was educated at Trinity +Hall, Cambridge, afterwards residing in London at the Inner +Temple. In 1600 he contributed to <i>England’s Helicon</i>. He was a +retainer of the duke of Buckingham, and through his influence he +secured a small place at the court of James I. Bolton formulated +a scheme for the establishment of an English academy, but the +project fell through after the death of the king, who had regarded +it favourably. He wrote a <i>Life of King Henry II.</i> for Speed’s +<i>Chronicle</i>, but his Catholic sympathies betrayed themselves in +his treatment of Thomas Becket, and a life by Dr John Barcham +was substituted (Wood, <i>Ath. Oxon.</i> ed. Bliss, iii. 36). The most +important of his numerous works are <i>Hypercritica</i> (1618?), a +short critical treatise valuable for its notices of contemporary +authors, reprinted in Joseph Haslewood’s <i>Ancient Critical Essays</i> +(vol. ii., 1815); <i>Nero Caesar, or Monarchic Depraved</i> (1624), +with special note of British affairs. Bolton was still living in +1633, but the date of his death is unknown.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLTON<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Bolton-le-Moors</span>), a municipal, county and parliamentary +borough of Lancashire, England, 196 m. N.W. by N. +from London and 11 m. N.W. from Manchester. Pop. (1891) +146,487; (1901) 168,215. Area, 15,279 acres. It has stations +on the London & North-Western and the Lancashire & Yorkshire +railways, with running powers for the Midland railway. It is +divided by the Croal, a small tributary of the Irwell, into Great +and Little Bolton, and as the full name implies, is surrounded +by high moorland. Although of early origin, its appearance, +like that of other great manufacturing towns of the vicinity, +is wholly modern. It owes not a little to the attractions of its +site. The only remnants of antiquity are two houses of the 16th +century in Little Bolton, of which one is a specially good example +of Tudor work. The site of the church of St Peter has long been +occupied by a parish church (there was one in the 12th century, +if not earlier), but the existing building dates only from 1870. +There may also be mentioned a large number of other places of +worship, a town hall with fine classical façade and tower, market +hall, museums of natural history and of art and industry, an +exchange, assembly rooms, and various benevolent institutions. +Several free libraries are maintained. Lever’s grammar school, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page181" id="page181"></a>181</span> +founded in 1641, had Robert Ainsworth, the Latin lexicographer, +and John Lemprière, author of the classical dictionary, among +its masters. There are municipal technical schools. A large +public park, opened in 1866, was laid out as a relief work for +unemployed operatives during the cotton famine of the earlier +part of the decade. On the moors to the north-west, and including +Rivington Pike (1192 ft.), is another public park, and there +are various smaller pleasure grounds. A large number of cotton +mills furnish the chief source of industry; printing, dyeing and +bleaching of cotton and calico, spinning and weaving machine +making, iron and steel works, and collieries in the neighbourhood, +are also important. The speciality, however, is fine spinning, a +process assisted by the damp climate. The parliamentary +borough, created in 1832 and returning two members, falls within +the Westhoughton division of the county. Before 1838, when +Bolton was incorporated, the town was governed by a borough-reeve +and two constables appointed at the annual court-leet. +The county borough was created in 1888. The corporation +consists of a mayor, 24 aldermen and 72 councillors.</p> + +<p>The earliest form of the name is Bodleton or Botheltun, and +the most important of the later forms are Bodeltown, Botheltun-le-Moors, +Bowelton, Boltune, Bolton-super-Moras, Bolton-in-ye-Moors, +Bolton-le-Moors. The manor was granted by William I. +to Roger de Poictou, and passed through the families of Ferrers +and Pilkington to the Harringtons of Hornby Castle, who lost +it with their other estates for their adherence to Richard III. +In 1485 Henry VII. granted it to the first earl of Derby. The +manor is now held by different lords, but the earls of Derby still +have a fourth part. The manor of Little Bolton seems to have +been, at least from Henry III.’s reign, distinct from that of Great +Bolton, and was held till the 17th century by the Botheltons or +Boltons.</p> + +<p>From early days Bolton was famous for its woollen manufactures. +In Richard I.’s reign an aulneger, whose duty it was +to measure and stamp all bundles of woollen goods, was +appointed, and it is clear, therefore, that the place was already +a centre of the woollen cloth trade. In 1337 the industry received +an impulse from the settlement of a party of Flemish clothiers, +and extended so greatly that when it was found necessary in 1566 +to appoint by act of parliament deputies to assist the aulnegers, +Bolton is named as one of the places where these deputies were +to be employed. Leland in his <i>Itinerary</i> (1558) recorded the +fact that Bolton made cottons, which were in reality woollen +goods. Real cotton goods were not made in Lancashire till 1641, +when Bolton is named as the chief seat of the manufacture of +fustians, vermilions and dimities. After the revocation of the +edict of Nantes the settlement of some French refugees further +stimulated this industry. It was here that velvets were first +made about 1756, by Jeremiah Clarke, and muslins and cotton +quiltings in 1763. The cotton trade received an astonishing +impetus from the inventions of Sir Richard Arkwright (1770), +and Samuel Crompton (1780), both of whom were born in the +parish. Soon after the introduction of machinery, spinning +factories were erected, and the first built in Bolton is said to have +been set up in 1780. The number rapidly increased, and in 1851 +there were 66 cotton mills with 860,000 throstle spindles at +work. The cognate industry of bleaching has been carried on +since early in the 18th century, and large ironworks grew up in +the latter half of the 19th century. In 1791 a canal was constructed +from Manchester to Bolton, and by an act of parliament +(1792) Bolton Moor was enclosed.</p> + +<p>During the Civil War Bolton sided with the parliament, and +in February 1643 and March 1644 the royalist forces assaulted +the town, but were on both occasions repulsed. On the 28th of +May 1644, however, it was attacked by Prince Rupert and Lord +Derby, and stormed with great slaughter. On the 15th of +October 1651 Lord Derby, who had been taken prisoner after the +battle of Worcester, was brought here and executed the same +day.</p> + +<p>Up to the beginning of the 19th century the market day was +Monday, but the customary Saturday market gradually superseded +this old chartered market. In 1251 William de Ferrers +obtained from the crown a charter for a weekly market and a +yearly fair, but gradually this annual fair was replaced by four +others chiefly for horses and cattle. The New Year and Whitsuntide +Show fairs only arose during the 19th century.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLTON ABBEY,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> a village in the West Riding of Yorkshire, +England, 22 m. N.W. from Leeds and 5½ from Ilkley by the +Midland railway. It takes its name, inaccurately, from the great +foundation of Bolton Priory, the ruins of which are among the +most exquisitely situated in England. They stand near the right +bank of the upper Wharfe, the valley of which is beautifully +wooded and closely enclosed by hills. The earliest part of the +church is of transitional Norman date; the nave, which is +perfect, is Early English and Decorated. The transepts and +choir are ruined, and the remains of domestic buildings are +slight. The manor of Bolton Abbey with the rest of the district +of Craven was granted by William the Conqueror to Robert de +Romili, who evidently held it in 1086, although there is no +mention made of it in the Domesday survey. William de +Meschines and Cicely de Romili, his wife, heiress of Robert, +founded and endowed a priory at Embsay or Emmesay, near +Skipton, in 1120, but it was moved here in 1151 by their daughter, +Alice de Romili, wife of William FitzDuncan, who gave the +manor to the monks in exchange for other lands. After the +dissolution of the monasteries the manor was sold in 1542 to +Henry Clifford, 2nd earl of Cumberland, whose descendants, +the dukes of Devonshire, now hold it.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.D. Whitaker, LL.D., F.S.A., <i>History of the District of +Craven</i> (ed. Morant, 1878); Dugdale’s <i>Monasticon Anglicanum</i>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOLZANO, BERNHARD<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> (1781-1848), Austrian priest and +philosopher, was born at Prague on the 5th of October 1781. +He distinguished himself at an early age, and on his ordination +to the priesthood (1805) was appointed professor of the +philosophy of religion in Prague University. His lectures, in +which he endeavoured to show that Catholic theology is in +complete harmony with reason, were received with eager interest +by the younger generation of thinkers. But his views met with +much opposition; and it was only through the protection of +the archbishop, Prince Salm-Salm, that he was enabled to +retain his chair. In 1820 he was accused of being connected with +some of the students’ revolutionary societies, and was compelled +to resign. Several doctrines extracted from his works were +condemned at Rome, and he was suspended from his priestly +functions, spending the rest of his life in literary work. He died +at Prague on the 18th of December 1848. The most important +of his numerous works are the <i>Wissenschaftslehre, oder Versuch +einer neuen Darstellung der Logik</i>, advocating a scientific method +in the study of logic (4 vols., Sulzbach, 1837); the <i>Lehrbuch der +Religionswissenschaft</i> (4 vols., Sulzbach, 1834), a philosophic +representation of all the dogmas of Roman Catholic theology; +and <i>Athanasia, oder Gründe für die Unsterblichkeit der Seele</i> +(2nd ed., Mainz, 1838). In philosophy he followed Reinhard +in ethics and the monadology of Leibnitz, though he was also +influenced by Kant.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Lebensbeschreibung des Dr Bolzano</i> (an autobiography, 1836); +Wisshaupt, <i>Skizzen aus dem Leben Dr Bolzanos</i> (1850); Palágy, +<i>Kant und Bolzano</i> (Halle, 1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOMA<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> (properly <i>Mboma</i>), a port on the north bank of the +river Congo about 60 m. from its mouth, the administrative +capital of Belgian Congo. Pop. about 5000. It was one of the +places at which the European traders on the west coast of Africa +established stations in the 16th and 17th centuries. It became +the entrepôt for the commerce of the lower Congo and a well-known +mart for slaves. The trade was chiefly in the hands of +Dutch merchants, but British, French and Portuguese firms +also had factories there. No European power exercised sovereignty, +though shadowy claims were from time to time put +forward by Portugal (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Africa</a></span>, § 5). In 1884 the natives +of Boma granted a protectorate of their country to the International +Association of the Congo.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H.M. Stanley, <i>The Congo and the Founding of its Free State</i> +(London, 1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOMB,<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> a term formerly used for an explosive shell (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ammunition</a></span>) +fired by artillery. The word is derived from the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page182" id="page182"></a>182</span> +Gr. <span class="grk" title="bombos">βόμβος</span>, a hammering, buzzing noise, cf. “bombard” (<i>q.v.</i>). +At the present day it is most frequently used of a shattering or +incendiary grenade, or of an explosive vessel actuated by clockwork +or trip mechanism, employed to destroy life or property. +In naval warfare, before the introduction of the shell gun, explosive +projectiles were carried principally by special vessels +known as bomb-vessels, bombards or, colloquially, bombs.</p> + +<p>In geology, the name “bomb” is given to certain masses of +lava which have been hurled forth from a volcanic vent by +explosive action. In shape they are spheroidal, ellipsoidal or +discoidal; in structure they may be solid, hollow or more or +less cavernous; whilst in size they vary from that of a walnut +to masses weighing several tons. It is generally held that the +form is partly due to rotation of the mass during its aerial flight, +and in some cases the bomb becomes twisted by a gyratory +movement. According, however, to Dr H.J. Johnston-Lavis, +many of the so-called bombs of Vesuvius are not projectiles, but +merely globular masses formed in a stream of lava; and in like +manner Professor J.D. Dana showed that what were regarded as +bombs in Hawaii are in many cases merely lava-balls that have +not been hurled through the air. Certain masses of pumice +ejected from Vulcano have been called by Johnston-Lavis +“bread-crust bombs,” since they present a coating of obsidian +which has been bent and cracked in a way suggestive of the +crust of a roll. It is probable that here the acid <span class="correction" title="amended from magna">magma</span> was +expelled in a very viscous condition, and the crust which formed +on cooling was burst by the steam from the occluded water. +Some of the bombs thrown out during recent eruptions of Etna +consist of white granular quartz, encased in a black scoriaceous +crust, the quartz representing an altered sandstone. The +bombs of granular olivine, found in some of the tuffs in +the Eifel, are represented in most geological collections (see +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Volcano</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOMBARD<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> (derived through Med. Lat. and Fr. forms from +Gr. <span class="grk" title="bombein">βομβεῖν</span>, to make a humming noise), a term applied in +the middle ages to a sort of cannon, used chiefly in sieges, and +throwing heavy stone balls; hence the later use as a verb (see +BOMBARDMENT). The name, in various forms, was also given +to a medieval musical instrument (“bombard,” “bumhart,” +“pumhart,” “pommer”), the forerunner of the bass oboe +or schalmey. At the present day a small primitive oboe called +<i>bombarde</i>, with eight holes but no keys, is used among the Breton +peasants.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOMBARDIER,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> originally an artilleryman in charge of a +bombard; now a non-commissioned officer in the artillery of +the British army, ranking below a corporal.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOMBARDMENT,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> an attack by artillery fire directed against +fortifications, troops in position or towns and buildings. In its +strict sense the term is only applied to the bombardment of +defenceless or undefended objects, houses, public buildings, &c., +the object of the assailant being to dishearten his opponent, and +specially to force the civil population and authorities of a +besieged place to persuade the military commandant to capitulate +before the actual defences of the place have been reduced to +impotence. It is, therefore, obvious that mere bombardment +can only achieve its object when the amount of suffering inflicted +upon non-combatants is sufficient to break down their resolution, +and when the commandant permits himself to be influenced +or coerced by the sufferers. A threat of bombardment will +sometimes induce a place to surrender, but instances of its +fulfilment being followed by success are rare; and, in general, +with a determined commandant, bombardments fail of their +object. Further, an intentionally terrific fire at a large target, +unlike the slow, steady and minutely accurate “artillery +attacks “directed upon the fortifications, requires the expenditure +of large quantities of ammunition, and wears out the guns +of the attack. Bombardments are, however, frequently resorted +to in order to test the temper of the garrison and the civil population, +a notable instance being that of Strassburg in 1870. +The term is often loosely employed to describe artillery attacks +upon forts or fortified positions in preparation for assaults by +infantry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOMBARDON,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bass Tuba</span>, the name given to the bass and +contrabass of the brass wind in military bands, called in the +orchestra bass tuba.</p> + +<p>The name of bombardon is unquestionably derived from <i>bombardone</i>, +the Italian for contrabass pommer (bombard), which, +before the invention of the fagotto, formed the bass of medieval +orchestras; it is also used for a bass reed stop of 16 ft. tone on the +organ. The bombardon was the very first bass wind instrument +fitted with valves, and it was at first known as the <i>corno basso</i>, +<i>clavicor</i> or <i>bass horn</i> (not to be confounded with the bass horn +with keys, which on being perfected became the ophicleide). +The name was attached more to the position of the wind instruments +as bass than to the individual instrument. The original +corno basso was a brass instrument of narrow bore with the +pistons set horizontally. The valve-ophicleide in F of German +make had a wider bore and three vertical pistons, but it was +only a “half instrument,” measuring about 12 ft. A. Kalkbrenner, +in his life of W. Wieprecht (1882), states that in the +Jäger military bands of Prussia the corno basso (keyed bass +horn) was introduced as bass in 1829, and the bombardon (or +valve-ophicleide) in 1831; in the Guards these instruments were +superseded in 1835 by the bass tuba invented by Wieprecht and +J.G. Moritz.</p> + +<p>The modern bombardon is made in two forms: the upright +model, used in stationary band music; and the circular model, +known as the helicon, worn round the body with the large bell +resting on the left shoulder, after the style of the Roman <i>cornu</i> +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horn</a></span>), which is a more convenient way of carrying this +heavy instrument when marching. The bombardon, and the +euphonium, of which it is the bass, are the outcome of the +application of valves to the bugle family whereby the saxhorns +were also produced. The radical difference between the saxhorns +and the tubas (including the bombardon) is that the latter have +a sufficiently wide conical bore to allow of the production of +fundamental sounds in a rich, full quality of immense power. +This difference, first recognized in Germany and Austria, has +given rise in those countries to the classification of the brass +wind as “half” and “whole” instruments (<i>Halbe</i> and <i>Ganze +Instrumente</i>). When the brass wind instruments with conical +bore and cup-shaped mouthpiece first came into use, it was a +well-understood principle that the tube of each instrument must +theoretically be made twice as long as an organ pipe giving the +same note; for example, the French horn sounding the 8 ft. C +of an 8 ft. organ pipe, must have a tube 16 ft. long; C then +becomes the second harmonic of the series for the 16 ft. tube, +the first or fundamental being unobtainable. After the introduction +of pistons, instrument-makers experimenting with the +bugle, which has a conical bore of very wide diameter in proportion +to the length, found that baritone and bass instruments +constructed on the same principle gave out the fundamental +full and clear. A new era in the construction of brass wind +instruments was thus inaugurated, and now that the proportions +of the bugle have been adopted, the tubes of the tubas are made +just half the length of those of the older instruments, corresponding +to the length of the organ pipe of the same pitch, so that a +euphonium sounding 8 ft. C no longer needs to be 16 ft. long +but only 8 ft. The older instruments, such as the saxhorns, +with narrow bore, have therefore been denominated “half +instruments,” because only half the length of the instrument is +of practical utility, while the tubas with wide bore are styled +“whole instruments.” <a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Bombardons are made in E flat and +F of the 16 ft. octave, corresponding to the orchestral bass tuba, +double bass in strings, and pedal clarinet and contrafagotto +in the wood wind. The bombardon in B flat or C, an octave +lower than the euphonium, corresponds to the contrabass tuba +in the orchestra.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page183" id="page183"></a>183</span></p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The bombardons possess a chromatic compass of 3½ to 4 octaves. +The harmonic series consists of the harmonics from the 1st to the 8th.</p> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">Bombardon in E Flat.</p> +<div class="center"><img style="width:520px; height:101px" src="images/img183a.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p class="pt1 center sc">Harmonic Series of the Contrabass Bombardon in C.*</p> +<div class="center"><img style="width:520px; height:94px" src="images/img183b.jpg" alt="" /></div> + +<p>The lowest notes produced by the valves are very difficult to +obtain, for the lips seldom have sufficient power to set in vibration +a column of air of such immense length, at a rate of vibration slow +enough to synchronize with that of notes of such deep pitch.<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Even +when they are played, the lowest valve notes can hardly be heard +unless doubled an octave higher by another bombardon.</p> + +<p>Bombardons are generally treated as non-transposing instruments, +the music being written as sounded, except in France and Belgium, +where transposition is usual. The intervening notes are obtained +by means of pistons or valves, which, on being depressed, either +admit the wind into additional lengths of tubing to lower the pitch, +or cut off a length in order to raise it. Bombardons usually have +three or four pistons lowering the pitch of the instrument respectively +1, ½, 1½ and 2½ tones (in Belgium, 1, ½, 2 and 3 tones). The valve +system, disposal of the tubing and shape and position of the bell +differ considerably in the various models of well-known makers. +In Germany and Austria<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> what is known as the cylinder action is +largely used; for the piston or pump is substituted a four-way +brass cock operated by means of a key and a series of cranks.</p> + +<p>In order to obtain a complete chromatic scale throughout the +compass, there must be, as on the slide-trombone, seven different +positions or lengths of tubing available, each having its harmonic +series. These different lengths are obtained on the bombardon by +means of a combination of pistons: the simultaneous use of Nos. 2 +and 3 lowers the pitch two tones; of Nos. 1, 2 and 3, three tones; +of Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, five and a half tones, &c. A combination of +pistons, however, fails to give the interval with an absolutely correct +intonation, since the length of tubing thrown open is not of the +theoretical length required to produce it. Many ingenious contrivances +have been invented from time to time to remedy this +inherent defect of the valve system, such as the six-valve independent +system of Adolphe Sax; the Besson <i>Registre</i>, giving eight independent +positions; the Besson compensating system <i>Transpositeur</i>; +the Boosey automatic compensating piston invented by D.J. +Blaikley, and V. Mahillon’s automatic regulating pistons. More +recently the Besson enharmonic valve system, with six independent +tuning slides and three pistons, and Rudall, Carte & Company’s new +(Klussmann’s patent) bore, conical throughout the open tube and +additional lengths, have produced instruments which leave nothing +to be desired as to intonation. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Valves</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Tuba</a></span>.)</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(K. S.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See Dr E. Schafhäutl’s article on Musical Instruments, +section 4 of <i>Bericht der Beurtheilungscommission bei der Allg. +deutschen Industrie-Ausstellung</i>, 1854 (Munich, 1855), pp. 169-170; +also Friedr. Zamminer, <i>Die Musik und die Musikinstrumente +in ihrer Beziehung zu den Gesetzen der Akustik</i> (Giessen, 1855), +p. 313.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> V.C. Mahillon, <i>Eléments d’acoustique musicale et instrumentale</i> +(Bruxelles, 1874), p. 153.</p> + +<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The bombardon is used in the military bands of Austria, but +in those of Germany it has been superseded by a bass tuba differing +slightly in form and construction from the bombardons and bass +tubas used in England, France, Belgium and Austria.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOMBAY CITY,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> the capital of Bombay Presidency, and +the chief seaport of western India, situated in 18° 55′ N. and +72° 54′ E. The city stands on an island of the same name, +which forms one of a group now connected by causeways with +the mainland. The area is 22 sq. m.; and the population of the +town and island (1901) 776,006 (estimate in 1906, 977,822). +Bombay is the second most populous city in the Indian empire, +having fallen behind Calcutta at the census of 1901. Its position +on the side of India nearest to Europe, its advantages as a +port and a railway centre, and its monopoly of the cotton +industry, are counteracted by the fact that the region which it +serves cannot vie with the valley of the Ganges in point of +fertility and has no great waterway like the Ganges or Brahmaputra. +Nevertheless Bombay pushes Calcutta hard for supremacy +in point of population and commercial prosperity.</p> + +<p>The Bombay Island, or, as it ought to be more correctly +called, the Bombay Peninsula, stands out from a coast ennobled +by lofty hills, and its harbour is studded by rocky islands and +precipices, whose peaks rise to a great height. The approach +from the sea discloses one of the finest panoramas in the world,—the +only European analogy being the Bay of Naples. The +island consists of a plain about 11 m. long by 3 broad, flanked +by two parallel lines of low hills. A neck of land stretching +towards the south-west forms the harbour on its eastern side, +sheltering it from the force of the open sea, and enclosing an +expanse of water from 5 to 7 m. wide. At the south-west of +the island, Back Bay, a shallow basin rather more than 2 m. +in breadth, runs inland for about 3 m. between the extreme +points of the two ranges of hills. On a slightly raised strip of +land between the head of Back Bay and the harbour is situated +the fort, the nucleus of the city of Bombay. From this point +the land slopes westward towards the central plain, a low-lying +tract, which before the construction of the embankment known +as the Hornby Vellard, used at high tide to be submerged by the +sea. The town itself consists of well-built and unusually handsome +native bazaars, and of spacious streets devoted to European +commerce. In the native bazaar the houses rise three or four +storeys in height, with elaborately carved pillars and front work. +Some of the European hotels and commercial buildings are on +the American scale, and have no rival in any other city of India. +The Taj Mahal hotel, which was built by the Tata family in +1904, is the most palatial and modern hotel in India. The +private houses of the European residents lie apart alike from +the native and from the mercantile quarters of the town. As a +rule, each is built in a large garden or compound; and although +the style of architecture is less imposing than that of the stately +residences in Calcutta, it is well suited to the climate, and has a +beauty and comfort of its own. The favourite suburb is Malabar +hill, a high ridge running out into the sea, and terraced to the +top by handsome houses, which command one of the finest +views, of its kind, in the world. Of recent years wealthy natives +have been competing with Europeans for the possession of this +desirable quarter. To the right of this ridge, looking towards +the sea, runs another suburb known as Breach Candy, built +close upon the beach and within the refreshing sound of the +waves. To the left of Malabar hill lies Back Bay, with a promontory +on its farther shore, which marks the site of the old +Bombay Fort; its walls are demolished, and the area is chiefly +devoted to mercantile buildings. Farther round the island, +beyond the fort, is Mazagon Bay, commanding the harbour, +and the centre of maritime activity. The defences of the port, +remodelled and armed with the latest guns, consist of batteries +on the islands in the harbour, in addition to which there are +three large batteries on the mainland. There is also a torpedo-boat +detachment stationed in the harbour.</p> + +<p>No city in the world has a finer water-front than Bombay. +The great line of public offices along the esplanade and facing +Back Bay, which are in the Gothic style mixed with Saracenic, +are not individually distinguished for architectural merit, but +they have a cumulative effect of great dignity. The other +most notable buildings in the city are the Victoria terminus of +the Great Indian Peninsula railway and the Taj Mahal hotel. +Towards the northern end of Malabar hill lie the Parsee Towers +of Silence, where the Parsees expose their dead till the flesh is +devoured by vultures, and then cast the bones into a well where +they crumble into dust. The foundation-stone of a museum +was laid by the prince of Wales in 1905.</p> + +<p><i>Local Government</i>.—The port of Bombay (including docks +and warehouses) is managed by a port trust, the members of +which are nominated by the government from among the commercial +community. The municipal government of the city +was framed by an act of the Bombay legislative council passed +in 1888. The governing body consists of a municipal corporation +and a town council. The corporation is composed of 72 members, +of whom 16 are nominated by the government. Of the remainder, +36 are elected by the ratepayers, 16 by the justices of the peace, +2 by the senate of the university, and 2 by the chamber of +commerce. The council, which forms the standing committee +of the corporation, consists of 12 members, of whom 4 are +nominated by the government and the rest elected by the corporation. +The members of the corporation include Europeans, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page184" id="page184"></a>184</span> +Hindus, Mahommedans and Parsees. The Bombay University +was constituted in 1857 as an examining body, on the model of +the university of London. The chief educational institutions +in Bombay City are the government Elphinstone College, two +missionary colleges (Wilson and St Xavier), the Grant medical +college, the government law school, the Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy +school of art, and the Victoria Jubilee technical institute.</p> + +<p><i>Docks</i>.—The dockyard, originally built in 1736, has a sea-face +of nearly 700 yds. and an area of about 200 acres. There are +five graving docks, three of which together make one large dock +648 ft. long, while the other two make a single dock 582 ft. long. +There are also four building slips opposite the Apollo Bandar +(landing-place) on the south-east side of the enclosure. The dockyard +is lighted by electricity, so that work can be carried on by +night as well as day. Bombay is the only important place near +the sea in India where the rise of the tide is sufficient to permit +docks on the largest scale. The highest spring tides here reach +17 ft., but the average is 14 ft. Prince’s dock, of which the +foundation-stone was laid by the prince of Wales in 1875, was +opened in 1879, and is 1460 ft. long by 1000 ft. broad, with a +water area of 30 acres; while the Victoria dock, which was +completed and opened in 1887-1888, has a water area of 25 acres. +South of the Victoria dock, the foundation-stone of the Alexandra +dock, the largest in India, was laid by the prince of Wales in 1905.</p> + +<p><i>Cotton Mills</i>.—The milling industry is, next to the docks, +the chief feature of Bombay’s commercial success. The staple +manufacture is cotton-spinning, but in addition to this there are +flour mills and workshops to supply local needs. The number +of factories increased from fifty-three in 1881 to eighty-three in +1890, and that decade saw the influx of a great industrial population +from the surrounding districts; but the decade 1891-1901 +witnessed at least a temporary set-back owing to the ravages +caused by plague and the effects of over-production. In addition +to the actual mortality it inflicted, the plague caused an exodus +of the population from the island, disorganized the labour at the +docks and in the mills, and swallowed up large sums which were +spent by the municipality on plague operations and sanitary +improvements. After 1901, however, both population and trade +began to revive again. In 1901 there were 131,796 persons +employed in the cotton industry.</p> + +<p><i>Population</i>.—Owing to its central position between East and +West and to the diversity of races in India, no city in the world +can show a greater variety of type than Bombay. The Mahratta +race is the dominant element next to the European rulers, but +in addition to them are a great and influential section of Parsee +merchants, Arab traders from the Gulf, Afghans and Sikhs +from northern India, Bengalis, Rajputs, Chinese, Japanese, +Malays, negroes, Tibetans, Sinhalese and Siamese. Bombay +is the great port and meeting-place of the Eastern world. Out of +the large sections of its population, Hindu, Mahommedan, Parsee, +Jain and Christian, the Parsees are one of the smallest and yet +the most influential. They number only some 46,000 all told, +but most of the great business houses are owned by Parsee +millionaires and most of the large charities are founded by them.</p> + +<p><i>History</i>.—The name of the island and city of Bombay is derived +from Mumba (a form of Parvati), the goddess of the Kolis, +a race of husbandmen and fishermen who were the earliest +known inhabitants, having occupied the island probably about +the beginning of the Christian era. Bombay originally consisted +of seven islands (the <i>Heptanesia</i> of Ptolemy) and formed an +outlying portion of the dominions of successive dynasties dominant +in western India: Satavahanas, Mauryas, Chalukyas and +Rashtrakutas. In the Maurya and Chalukya period (450-750) +the city of Puri on Elephanta Island was the principal place in +Bombay harbour. The first town built on Bombay Island was +Mahikavati (Mahim), founded by King Bhima, probably a member +of the house of the Yadavas of Deogiri, as a result of Ala-ud-din +Khilji’s raid into the Deccan in 1294. It remained under Hindu +rule until 1348, when it was captured by a Mahommedan force +from Gujarat; and the islands remained part of the province +(later kingdom) of Gujarat till 1534, when they were ceded by +Sultan Bahadur to the Portuguese.</p> + +<p>The island did not prosper under Portuguese rule. By the +system known as <i>aforamento</i> the lands were gradually parcelled +out into a number of fiefs granted, under the crown of Portugal, +to individuals or to religious corporations in return for military +service or equivalent quit-rents. The northern districts were +divided among the Franciscans and Jesuits, who built a number +of churches, some of which still survive. The intolerance of their +rule did not favour the growth of the settlement, which in 1661, +when it was transferred to the British, had a population of only +10,000. The English had, however, long recognized its value +as a naval base, and it was for this reason that they fought the +battle of Swally (1614-1615), attempted to capture the place in +1626, and that the Surat Council urged the purchase of Bombay +from the Portuguese. In 1654 the directors of the Company drew +Cromwell’s attention to this suggestion, laying stress on the +excellence of its harbour and its safety from attack by land. +It finally became the property of the British in 1661 as part of +the dowry of the infanta Catherine of Portugal on her marriage +to Charles II., but was not actually occupied by the British until +1665, when they experienced much difficulty in overcoming +the opposition of the Portuguese, and especially of the religious +orders, to the cession. In 1668 it was transferred by the crown +to the East India Company, who placed it under the factory of Surat.</p> + +<p>The real foundation of the modern city dates from this time, +and was the work of Gerald Aungier (or Angier), brother of +Francis Aungier, 3rd Lord Aungier of Longford and 1st earl of +Longford in Ireland (d. 1700), who succeeded Sir George Oxenden +as president of Surat in 1669 and died in 1677. At this time Bombay +was threatened by the Mahrattas from inland, by the Malabar +pirates and the Dutch from the sea, and was cut off from the +mainland by the Portuguese, who still occupied the island of +Salsette and had established a customs-barrier in the channel +between Bombay and the shore. In spite of the niggardly +policy of the court of directors, who refused to incur the expense +of employing skilled engineers, Aungier succeeded in fortifying +the town and shore; he also raised a force of militia and regulars, +the latter mainly Germans (as more trustworthy than the riffraff +collected in London by the Company’s crimps). In 1672 +Aungier transferred his headquarters to Bombay, and after +frightening off an imposing Dutch fleet, which in 1670 attempted +to surprise the island, set to work to organize the settlement +anew. To this task he brought a mind singularly enlightened and +a sincere belief in the best traditions of English liberty. In +its fiscal policy, in its religious intolerance, and in its cruel +and contemptuous treatment of the natives, Portuguese rule had +been alike oppressive. Aungier altered all this. With the consent +of “a general assembly of the chief representatives of the +people” he commuted the burdensome land tax for a fixed +money payment; he protected all castes in the celebration of +their religious ceremonies; and he forbade any compulsion of +natives to carry burdens against their will. The result was that +the population of Bombay increased rapidly; a special quarter +was set apart for the banya, or capitalist, class of Hindus; while +Parsees and Armenians flocked to a city where they were secure +of freedom alike for their trade and their religion. Within +eight years the population had grown from 10,000 to 60,000. +The immediate result of this concentration of people in a spot +so unwholesome was the prevalence of disease, produced by +the appalling sanitary conditions. This, too, Aungier set himself +to remedy. In 1675 he initiated the works for draining the foul +tidal swamps; and, failing the consent of the Company to the +erection of a regular hospital, he turned the law court into an +infirmary. He also set up three courts of justice: a tribunal +for petty causes under a factor with native assessors, a court of +appeal under the deputy governor and members of council, and +a court-martial. A regular police force was also established and +a gaol built in the Bazaar.<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<p>During this period, however, the position of Bombay was +sufficiently precarious. The Malabar pirates, though the city +itself was too strong for them, were a constant menace to its +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page185" id="page185"></a>185</span> +trade; and it required all the genius of Aungier to maintain the +settlement, isolated as it was between the rival powers of the +Mahrattas and the Mogul empire. After his death, on the 30th +of June 1677, its situation became even more precarious. Even +under Aungier the Siddi admirals of the Moguls had asserted +their right to use Bombay harbour as winter quarters for their +fleet, though they had failed to secure it as a base against the +Mahrattas. Under his weak successor (Rolt, 1677-1682), the +English waters, the value of which had now been proved, became +the battle-ground between the rival navies, and for some years +Bombay lay at the mercy of both. The Company’s rule, moreover, +was exposed to another danger. The niggardly policy of the +board of directors, more intent on peaceful dividends than on +warlike rule, could not but be galling to soldiers of fortune. +A mutiny at Bombay in 1674 had only been suppressed by the +execution of the ringleader; and in 1683 a more formidable +movement took place under Richard Keigwin, a naval officer +who had been appointed governor of St Helena in reward for the +part played by him in the capture of the island from the Dutch +in 1673. Keigwin, elected governor of Bombay by popular vote, +issued a proclamation in the king’s name, citing the “intolerable +extortions, oppressions and exactions” of the Company, and +declaring his government under the immediate authority of the +crown. He ruled with moderation, reformed the system of +taxation, obtained notable concessions from the Mahrattas, and +increased the trade of the port by the admission of “interlopers.” +But he failed to extend the rebellion beyond Bombay; and when +a letter arrived, under the royal sign manual, ordering him to +surrender the fort to Sir John Child, appointed admiral and +captain-general of the Company’s forces, he obeyed.<a name="fa2g" id="fa2g" href="#ft2g"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p> + +<p>Meanwhile the Company had decided to consider Bombay as +“an independent settlement, and the seat of the power and trade +of the English in the East Indies.” But a variety of causes set +back the development of the city, notably the prevalence of +plague and cholera due to the silting up of the creeks that +divided its component islands; and it was not till after the +amalgamation of the old and new companies in 1708 that the +governor’s seat was transferred from Surat to Bombay. In 1718 +the city wall was completed; settlers began to stream in, especially +from distracted Gujarat; and a series of wise administrative +reforms increased this tendency until in 1744 the population, +which in 1718 had sunk to 16,000, had risen to 70,000. Meanwhile +the Mahratta conquest of Bassein and Salsette (1737-1739) +had put a stop to the hostility of the Portuguese, and a +treaty of alliance with the Siddis (1733) had secured a base of +supplies on the mainland. The French wars of 1744-1748 and +1756-1763 led to a further strengthening of the fortifications; +and the influx of settlers from the mainland made the questions +of supplies and of the protection of trade from piracy more +pressing. The former was in part settled by the acquisition of +Bankot (1755) as a result of an alliance with the peshwa, the +latter by the successful expedition under Watson and Clive +against Vijayadrug (1756). During this period, too, the +importance of Bombay as a naval base, long since recognized, was +increased by the building of a dock (1750), a second being added +in 1762. The year 1770 saw the beginning of the cotton trade +with China, the result of a famine in that country, the Chinese +government having issued an edict commanding more land to be +used for growing grain. This, too, was a period of searching +reforms in the administration and the planning and building of +the city; the result being a further immense growth of its +population, which in 1780 was 113,000. This was still further +increased by the famine of 1803, which drove large numbers of +people from Konkan and the Deccan to seek employment in +Bombay. A great fire broke out in the fort in the same year and +caused enormous loss; but it enabled the government to open +wider thoroughfares in the more congested parts, and greatly +stimulated the tendency of the natives to build their houses and +shops outside the walls of the fort in what are now some of the +busiest parts of the city.</p> + +<p>The British victory over the Mahrattas and the annexation +of the Deccan opened a new period of unrestricted development +for Bombay. At this time, too (1819), its fortunes were vigorously +fostered by Mountstuart Elphinstone, and in 1838 the population +had risen to 236,000. But in the next fifty years it more than +doubled itself, the figures for 1891 being 821,000. This great +leap was due to the influence of railways, of which the first line +was completed in 1853, the opening of the Suez Canal, and the +foundation of cotton factories. In 1866-1867 the tide of prosperity +was interrupted by a financial crisis, due to the fall in +the price of cotton on the termination of the American war. +Bombay, however, soon recovered herself, and in 1891 was more +prosperous than ever before; but during the ensuing decade +great havoc was played by plague (<i>q.v.</i>) with both her population +and her trade. In addition to a decline of 6% in the population, +the exports also declined by 7%, whereas Calcutta’s exports +rose during the same period by 38%.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See S.M. Edwardes, <i>The Rise of Bombay</i> (1902); +James Douglas, <i>Bombay and Western India</i> (1893); +G.W. Forrest, <i>Cities of India</i> (1903); +Sir William Hunter, <i>History of British India</i> (London, 1900); +<i>Imp. Gazetteer of India</i> (Oxford, 1908), <i>s.v.</i> “Bombay City.”</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Hunter, <i>Hist. of British India</i>, ii. pp. 212, &c.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2g" id="ft2g" href="#fa2g"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See Hunter, op. cit. ii. 205, &c. He received a full pardon, was +appointed later to the command of a frigate in the royal navy, and +fell while leading the assault on St Christopher’s (June 21, 1690).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOMBAY FURNITURE.<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> “Bombay blackwood furniture” is a term +applied to a rather extensive class of articles manufactured +in the city of Bombay and in the towns of Surat and +Ahmedabad in India. The wood used is Shisham or blackwood +(<i>Dalbergia</i>), a hard-grained dark-coloured timber which with +proper treatment assumes a beautiful natural polish. Much of +the so-called Bombay furniture is clumsy and inelegant in form, +defects which it is suggested by experts, like Sir George Birdwood, +it owes to the circumstance that the original models were Dutch. +Some of the smaller articles, such as flower stands, small tables, +and ornamental stands, are, however, of exceedingly graceful +contour, and good examples are highly prized by collectors. The +carving at its best is lace-like in character, and apart from its +inherent beauty is attractive on account of the ingenuity shown +by the worker in adapting his design in detail to the purpose of +the article he is fashioning. The workmen who manufacture the +most artistic Bombay furniture are a special class with inherited +traditions. Often a man knows only one design, which has been +transmitted to him by his father, who in his turn had had it +from his father before him. In recent years under European +auspices efforts have been made with a certain measure of success +to modernize the industry by introducing portions of the native +work into furniture of Western design. In the main, however, +the conventional patterns are still adhered to. “Bombay boxes” +are inlaid in geometrical patterns on wood. The inlaying +materials consist of the wire, sandal wood, sapan wood, +ebony, ivory and stags’ horns, and the effect produced by the +combination of minute pieces of these various substances is +altogether peculiar and distinctive.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOMBAY PRESIDENCY,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> a province or presidency of British India, +consisting partly of British districts, and partly of native +states under the administration of a governor. This territory +extends from 13° 53′ to 28° 45′ N., and from 66° 40′ to 76° 30′ E., +and is bounded on the N. by Baluchistan, the Punjab and +Rajputana; on the E. by Indore, the Central Provinces and +Hyderabad; on the S. by Madras and Mysore; and on the W. +by the Arabian Sea. Within these limits lie the Portuguese +settlements of Diu, Damaun and Goa, and the native state of +Baroda which has direct relations with the government of India; +while politically Bombay includes the settlement of Aden. +The total area, including Sind but excluding Aden, is 188,745 +sq. m., of which 122,984 sq. m. are under British and 65,761 +under native rule. The total population (1901) is 25,468,209, of +which 18,515,587 are resident in British territory and 6,908,648 +in native states. The province is divided into four +commissionerships and twenty-six districts. The four divisions +are the northern or Gujarat, the central or Deccan, the southern +or Carnatic, and Sind. The twenty-six districts are: Bombay +City, Ahmedabad, Broach, Kaira, Panch Mahals, Surat, Thana, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page186" id="page186"></a>186</span> +Ahmednagar, Khandesh (partitioned into two districts in 1906), +Nasik, Poona, Satara, Sholapur, Belgaum, Bijapur, Dharwar, +Kanara, Kolaba, Ratnagiri, Karachi, Hyderabad, Shikarpur, +Thar and Parkar, and Upper Sind Frontier. The native states +comprise in all 353 separate units, which are administered +either by political agents or by the collectors of the districts in +which the smaller states are situated. The chief groups of states +are North Gujarat, comprising Cutch, Kathiawar agency, +Palanpur agency, Mahi Kantha agency, Rewa Kantha agency +and Cambay; South Gujarat, comprising Dharampur, Bansda +and Sachin; North Konkan, Nasik and Khandesh, comprising +Khandesh political agency, Surgana and Jawhar; South Konkan +and Dharwar, comprising Janjira, Sawantwari and Savanur; +the Deccan Satara Jagirs, comprising Akalkot, Bhor, Aundh, +Phaltan, Jath and Daphlapur; the southern Mahratta states, +comprising Kolhapur and other states, and Khairpur in Sind. +The native states under the supervision of the government of +Bombay are divided, historically and geographically, into two +main groups. The northern or Gujarat group includes the +territories of the gaekwar of Baroda, with the smaller states +which form the administrative divisions of Cutch, Palanpur, +Rewa Kantha, and Mahi Kantha. These territories, with the +exception of Cutch, have an historical connexion, as being the +allies or tributaries of the gaekwar in 1805, when final engagements +were included between that prince and the British +government. The southern or Mahratta group includes Kolhapur, +Akalkot, Sawantwari, and the Satara and southern Mahratta +Jagirs, and has an historical bond of union in the friendship +they showed to the British in their final struggle with the power +of the peshwa in 1818. The remaining territories may conveniently +be divided into a small cluster of independent zamin-daris, +situated in the wild and hilly tracts at the northern +extremity of the Sahyadri range, and certain principalities +which, from their history or geographical position, are to some +extent isolated from the rest of the presidency.</p> + +<p><i>Physical Aspects</i>.—The Bombay Presidency consists of a long +strip of land along the Indian Ocean from the south of the Punjab +to the north of Mysore. The coast is rock-bound and difficult +of access; and though it contains several bays forming fairweather +ports for vessels engaged in the coasting trade, Bombay, +Karachi-in-Sind, Marmagoa and Karwar alone have harbours +sufficiently land-locked to protect shipping during the prevalence +of the south-west monsoon. The coast-line is regular and little +broken, save by the Gulfs of Cambay and Cutch, between which +lies the peninsula of Kathiawar.</p> + +<p>Speaking generally, a range of hills, known as the Western +Ghats, runs down the coast, at places rising in splendid bluffs +and precipices from the water’s edge, at others retreating +inland, and leaving a flat fertile strip of 5 to 50 m. +<span class="sidenote">Mountains.</span> +between their base and the sea. In the north of the +presidency on the right bank of the Indus, the Hala mountains, +a continuation of the great Suleiman range, separate British +India from the dominions of the khan of Kalat. Leaving +Sind, and passing by the ridges of low sandhills,—the leading +feature of the desert east of the Indus,—and the isolated hills +of Cutch and Kathiawar, which form geologically the western +extremity of the Aravalli range, the first extensive mountain +range is that separating Gujarat from the states of central India. +The rugged and mountainous country south of the Tapti forms +the northern extremity of the Sahyadri or Western Ghats. This +great range of hills, sometimes overhanging the ocean, and +generally running parallel to it at a distance nowhere exceeding +50 m., with an average elevation of about 1800 ft., contains +individual peaks rising to more than double that height. They +stretch southwards for upwards of 500 m., with a breadth of +10 to 20 m. The western declivity is abrupt, the land at the base +of the hills being but slightly raised above the level of the sea. As +is usually the case with the trap formation, they descend to the +plains in terraces with abrupt fronts. The landward slope is in +many places very gentle, the crest of the range being sometimes +but slightly raised above the level of the plateau of the Deccan. +Their best-known elevation is Mahabaleshwar, 4500 ft. high, a +fine plateau, 37 m. from Poona, covered with rich vegetation, and +used by the Bombay government as its summer retreat and +sanitarium. In the neighbourhood of the Sahyadri hills, particularly +towards the northern extremity of the range, the +country is rugged and broken, containing isolated peaks, masses +of rock and spurs, which, running eastward, form watersheds for +the great rivers of the Deccan. The Satpura hills separate the +valley of the Tapti from the valley of the Nerbudda, and the +district of Khandesh from the territories of Indore. The +Satmala or Ajanta hills, which are rather the northern slope of +the plateau than a distinct range of hills, separate Khandesh +from the Nizam’s Dominions.</p> + +<p>The more level parts of Bombay consist of five well-demarcated +tracts—Sind, Gujarat, the Konkan, the Deccan, and the Carnatic. +Sind, or the lower valley of the Indus, is very flat, with +but scanty vegetation, and depending for productiveness +<span class="sidenote">Plains.</span> +entirely on irrigation. Gujarat, except on its northern +parts, consists of rich, highly cultivated alluvial plains, watered +by the Tapti and Nerbudda, but not much subject to inundation. +The Konkan lies between the Western Ghats and the sea. It is +a rugged and difficult country, intersected by creeks, and abounding +in isolated peaks and detached ranges of hills. The plains +of the Deccan and Khandesh are watered by large rivers, but as +the rainfall is uncertain, they are generally, during the greater +part of the year, bleak and devoid of vegetation. The Carnatic +plain, or the country south of the river Kistna, consists of +extensive tracts of black or cotton soil in a high state of +cultivation.</p> + +<p>The chief river of western India is the Indus, which enters +the presidency from the north of Sind and flowing south in a +tortuous course, falls into the Arabian Sea by several +mouths, such as the Ghizri creek, Khudi creek, Pitiani +<span class="sidenote">Rivers.</span> +creek, Sisa creek, Hajamro creek, Vatho creek, Mall creek, Wari +creek, Bhitiara creek, Sir creek and Khori creek. In the dry +season the bed varies at different places from 480 to 1600 yds. +The flood season begins in March and continues till September, +the average depth of the river rising from 9 to 24 ft., and the +velocity of the current increasing from 3 to 7 m. an hour. Next +to the Indus comes the Nerbudda. Rising in the Central Provinces, +and traversing the dominions of Holkar, the Nerbudda +enters the presidency at the north-western extremity of the +Khandesh district, flows eastward, and after a course of 700 m. +from its source, falls into the Gulf of Cambay, forming near its +mouth the alluvial plain of Broach, one of the richest districts +of Bombay. For about 100 m. from the sea the Nerbudda is at +all seasons navigable by small boats, and during the rains by +vessels of from 30 to 50 tons burden. The Tapti enters the +presidency a few miles south of the town of Burhanpur, a station +on the Great Indian Peninsula railway, flows eastward through +the district of Khandesh, the native state of Rewa Kantha and +the district of Surat, and falls into the Gulf of Cambay, a few +miles west of the town of Surat. The Tapti drains about 250 m. +of country, and is, in a commercial point of view, the most useful +of the Gujarat rivers. Besides these there are many minor +streams. The Banas and the Saraswati take their rise in the +Aravalli hills, and flowing eastward through the native state of +Palanpur, fall into the Runn of Cutch. The Sabarmati and the +Mahi rise in the Mahi Kantha hills, and flowing southwards, +drain the districts of Northern Gujarat, and fall into the sea near +the head of the Gulf of Cambay. The streams which, rising in +the Sahyadri range, or Western Ghats, flow westward into the +Arabian Sea, are of little importance. During the rains they are +formidable torrents, but with the return of the fair weather they +dwindle away, and during the hot season, with a few exceptions, +they almost dry up. Clear and rapid as they descend the hills, +on reaching the lowlands of the Konkan they become muddy +and brackish creeks. The Kanarese rivers have a larger body of +water and a more regular flow than the streams of the Konkan. +One of them, the Sharawati, forcing its way through the western +ridge of the Ghats, plunges from the high to the low country by +a succession of falls, the principal of which is 800 ft. in height. +The Sahyadri, or Western Ghats, also throw off to the eastward +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page187" id="page187"></a>187</span> +the two principal rivers of the Madras Presidency, the Godavari +and the Kistna. These rivers collect countless tributary streams, +some of them of considerable size, and drain the entire plain +of the Deccan as they pass eastward towards the Bay of +Bengal.</p> + +<p>The Manchar Lake is situated on the right bank of the Indus. +During inundations it attains a length of 20 m., and a breadth +of 10, covering a total area estimated at 180 sq. m. +But the most peculiar lacustrine feature of the presidency +<span class="sidenote">Lakes.</span> +is the Runn or Lake of Cutch, which, according to the +season of the year, is a salt marsh, an inland lake, or an arm of +the sea with an area of 8000 sq. m. It forms the western boundary +of the province of Gujarat, and when flooded during the rains +unites the Gulfs of Cutch and Cambay, and converts the territory +of Cutch into an island.</p> + +<p><i>Geology</i>.—South of Gujarat nearly the whole of Bombay is +covered by the horizontal lava flows of the Deccan Trap series, +and these flows spread over the greater part of the Kathiawar +peninsula and extend into Cutch. In Cutch and Kathiawar +they are underlaid by Jurassic and Neocomian beds. The +Jurassic beds are marine and contain numerous Ammonites, +but the beds which are referred to the Neocomian include a +series of sandstones and shales with remains of plants. Several +of the plants are identical with forms which occur in the upper +portion of the Gondwana system. Tertiary limestones, sandstones +and shales overlie the Deccan Trap in Cutch, but the +greatest development of deposits of this age is to be met with +on the western side of the Indus (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sind</a></span>). The plain of Sind +and of eastern Gujarat is covered by alluvium and wind-blown +sand.</p> + +<p><i>Climate</i>.—Great varieties of climate are met with in the +presidency. In its extreme dryness and heat, combined with the +aridity of a sandy soil, Upper Sind resembles the sultry deserts +of Africa. The mean maximum temperature at Hyderabad, in +Lower Sind, during the six hottest months of the year, is 98° F. +in the shade, and the water of the Indus reaches blood heat; +in Upper Sind it is even hotter, and the thermometer has been +known to register 130° in the shade. In Cutch and in Gujarat +the heat, though less, is still very great. The Konkan is hot and +moist, the fall of rain during the monsoon sometimes approaching +300 in. The table-land of the Deccan above the Ghats, on the +contrary, has an agreeable climate except in the hot months, +as has also the southern Mahratta country; and in the hills of +Mahabaleshwar, Singarh, and other detached heights, Europeans +may go out at all hours with impunity. Bombay Island itself, +though in general cooled by the sea breeze, is oppressively hot +during May and October. The south-west monsoon generally +sets in about the first week in June, and pours down volumes +of rain along the coast. From June to October travelling is +difficult and unpleasant, except in Sind, where the monsoon +rains exert little influence.</p> + +<p><i>Forests</i>.—Bombay Presidency possesses two great classes +of forests—those of the hills and those of the alluvial plains. +The hill forests are scattered over a wide area, extending from +23° to 14° N. lat. Most of them lie among the Sahyadri hills or +Western Ghats. The alluvial forests lie in Sind, on or close to +the banks of the Indus, and extend over an area of 550 sq. m. +The principal timber trees in the forests are—teak; blackwood +of two varieties (<i>Dalbergia Sisu</i> and <i>Dalbergia latifolia</i>), <i>Dalbergia +ujainensis, Pterocarpus Marsupium, Terminalia glabra, Acacia +arabica, Acacia Catechu, Nauclea cordifolia, Nauclea parvifolia, +Bidelia spinosa, Hardwickia binata, Juga xylocarpa, Populus +euphratica</i>, and <i>Tamarindus indica</i>. The forests contain many +trees which, on account of their fruits, nuts or berries, are +valuable, irrespective of the quality of their timber. Among +these are the mango (<i>Mangifera indica</i>); the jack (<i>Artocarpus +integrifolia</i>), <i>Zizypkus Jujuba, Aegle Marmelos, Terminalia +Chebula, Calophyllum Inophyllum, Bassia latifolia</i> and <i>Pongamia +glabra</i>. The jungle tribes collect gum from several varieties of +trees, and in Sind the Forest Department derives a small revenue +from lac. The palms of the presidency consist of cocoa-nut, +date, palmyra and areca catechu.</p> + +<p><i>Population</i>.—The census of 1901 gave a total of 25,468,209, +out of which the chief religions furnished the following +numbers:—</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="width: 40%;" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcl">Hindu</td> <td class="tcr">19,916,438</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Mahommedan</td> <td class="tcr">4,567,295</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Jain</td> <td class="tcr">535,950</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Zoroastrian</td> <td class="tcr">78,552</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Christian</td> <td class="tcr">216,118</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In Sind Islam has been the predominant religion from the +earliest Arab conquest in the 8th century. In Gujarat the +predominant religion is Hinduism, though petty Mahommedan +kingdoms have left their influence in many parts of the province. +The Deccan is the home of the Mahrattas, who constitute 30% +of the population. The Konkan is notable for various Christian +castes, owing their origin to Portuguese rule; while in the +Carnatic, Lingayatism, a Hindu reformation movement of the +12th century, has been embraced by 45% of the population. +The Mahrattas are the dominating race next to the Europeans and +number (1901) 3,650,000, composed of 1,900,000 Kunbis, 350,000 +Konkanis, and 1,400,000 Mahrattas not otherwise specified.</p> + +<p><i>Languages</i>.—The chief languages of the presidency are Sindhi +in Sind, Cutchi in Cutch, Gujarati and Hindustani in Gujarat, +Mahratti in Thana and the central division, Gujarati and +Mahratti in Khandesh, and Mahratti and Kanarese in the +southern division. There are also Bhil (120,000) and Gipsy +(30,000) dialects.</p> + +<p><i>Agriculture</i>.—The staple crops are as follows:—Joar (<i>Sorghum +vulgare</i>) and bajra (<i>Holcus spicatus</i>) are the staple food grains +in the Deccan and Khandesh. Rice is the chief product of the +Konkan. Wheat, generally grown in the northern part of the +Presidency, but specially in Sind and Gujarat, is exported to +Europe in large quantities from Karachi, and on a smaller scale +from Bombay. Barley is principally grown in the northern +parts of the presidency. Nachani (<i>Eleusine coracana</i>) and kodra +(<i>Paspalum serobiculatum</i>), inferior grains grown on the hill-sides, +furnish food to the Kolis, Bhils, Waralis, and other aboriginal +tribes. Of the pulses the most important are gram (<i>Cicer arietinum</i>), tur +(<i>Cajanus indicus</i>), kulti (<i>Dolichos biflorus</i>), and mug +(<i>Phaseolus Mungo</i>). Principal oil-seeds: til (<i>Sesamum orientale</i>), +mustard, castor-oil, safflower and linseed. Of fibres the +most important are cotton, Deccan hemp (<i>Hibiscus cannabinus</i>), +and sunn or tag (<i>Crotalaria juncea</i>). Much has been done to +improve the cotton of the presidency. American varieties have +been introduced with much advantage in the Dharwar collectorate +and other parts of the southern Mahratta country. +In Khandesh the indigenous plant from which one of the lowest +classes of cotton in the Bombay market takes its name has been +almost entirely superseded by the superior Hinganghat variety. +Miscellaneous crops: sugar-cane, requiring a rich soil and a +perennial water-supply, and only grown in favoured localities, +red pepper, potatoes, turmeric and tobacco.</p> + +<p><i>Manufactures</i>.—The chief feature of the modern industrial +life of Bombay is the great development in the growth and +manufacture of cotton. Large steam mills have rapidly sprung +up in Bombay City, Ahmedabad and Khandesh. In 1905 there +were 432 factories in the presidency, of which by far the greater +number were engaged in the preparation and manufacture of +cotton. The industry is centred in Bombay City and Island, +which contains nearly two-thirds of the mills. During the decade +1891-1901 the mill industry passed through a period of depression +due to widespread plague and famine, but on the whole there has +been a marked expansion of the trade as well as a great improvement +in the class of goods produced. In addition to the +mills there are (1901) 178,000 hand-loom weavers in the province, +who still have a position of their own in the manipulation of +designs woven into the cloth. Silk goods are manufactured in +Ahmedabad, Surat, Yeola, Nasik, Thana and Bombay, the +material being often decorated with printed or woven designs; +but owing to the competition of European goods most branches +of the industry are declining. The custom of investing savings +in gold and silver ornaments gives employment to many +goldsmiths; the metal is usually supplied by the customer, and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page188" id="page188"></a>188</span> +the goldsmith charges for his labour. Ahmedabad and Surat +are famous for their carved wood-work. Many of the houses in +Ahmedabad are covered with elaborate wood-carving, and excellent +examples exist in Broach, Baroda, Surat, Nasik and +Yeola. Salt is made in large quantities in the government works +at Kharaghoda and Udu in Ahmedabad, whence it is exported +by rail to Gujarat and central India. There is one brewery at +Dapuri near Poona.</p> + +<p><i>Railways and Irrigation</i>.—The province is well supplied with +railways, all of which, with one exception, concentrate at +Bombay City. The exception is the North-Western line, which +enters Sind from the Punjab and finds its natural terminus at +Karachi. The other chief lines are the Great Indian Peninsula, +Indian Midland, Bombay, Baroda & Central India, Rajputana-Malwa +& Southern Mahratta systems. In 1905 the total +length of railway under the Bombay government open for traffic +was 7980 m. These figures do not include the railway system +in Sind. With the exception of Sind, the water-supply of the +Bombay Presidency does not lend itself to the construction of +large irrigation works.</p> + +<p><i>Army.</i>—Under Lord Kitchener’s re-arrangement of the +Indian army in 1904 the old Bombay command was abolished +and its place was taken by the Western army corps under a +lieutenant-general. The army corps was divided into three +divisions under major-generals. The 4th division, with headquarters +at Quetta, comprises the troops in the Quetta and +Sind districts. The 5th division, with headquarters at Mhow, +consists of three brigades, located at Nasirabad, Jubbulpore and +Jhansi, and includes the previous Mhow, Deesa, Nagpur, Nerbudda +and Bundelkhand districts, with the Bombay district +north of the Tapti. The 6th division, with headquarters at +Poona, consists of three brigades, located at Bombay, Ahmednagar +and Aden. It comprises the previous Poona district, +Bombay district south of the Tapti, Belgaum district north +of the Tungabhadra, and Dharwar and Aurungabad districts.</p> + +<p><i>Education</i>.—The university of Bombay, established in 1857, +is a body corporate, consisting of a chancellor, vice-chancellor +and fellows. The governor of Bombay is <i>ex officio</i> chancellor. +The education department is under a director of public instruction, +who is responsible for the administration of the department +in accordance with the general educational policy of the state. +The native states have generally adopted the government +system. Baroda and the Kathiawar states employ their own +inspectors. In 1905 the total number of educational institutions +was 10,194 with 593,431 pupils. There are ten art colleges, +of which two are managed by government, three by native +states, and five are under private management. According to +the census of 1901, out of a population of 25½ millions nearly +24 millions were illiterate.</p> + +<p><i>Administration</i>.—The government of Bombay is administered +by a governor in council consisting of the governor as president +and two ordinary members. The governor is appointed from +England; the council is appointed by the crown, and selected +from the Indian civil service. These are the executive members +of government. For making laws there is a legislative council, +consisting of the governor and his executive council, with certain +other persons, not fewer than eight or more than twenty, at +least half of them being non-officials. Each of the members of +the executive council has in his charge one or two departments +of the government; and each department has a secretary, +an under-secretary, and an assistant secretary, with a +numerous staff of clerks. The political administration of the +native states is under the superintendence of British agents +placed at the principal native courts; their position varies in +different states according to the relations in which the principalities +stand with the paramount power. The administration +of justice throughout the presidency is conducted by a high +court at Bombay, consisting of a chief justice and seven puisne +judges, along with district and assistant judges throughout the +districts of the presidency. The administration of the districts +is carried on by collectors, assistant collectors, and a varying +number of supernumerary assistants.</p> + +<p><i>History.</i>—In the earliest times of which any record remains +the greater part of the west coast of India was occupied by +Dravidian tribes, living under their kings in fortified villages, +carrying on the simpler arts of life, and holding a faith in which +the propitiation of spirits and demons played the chief part. +There is evidence, however, that so early as 1000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> an export +trade existed to the Red Sea by way of East Africa, and before +750 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a similar trade had sprung up with Babylon by way of +the Persian Gulf. It was by this latter route that the traders +brought back to India the Brahmi alphabet, the art of brick-making +and the legend of the Flood. Later still the settlement +of Brahmans along the west coast had already Aryanized the +country in religion, and to some extent in language, before the +Persian conquest of the Indus valley at the close of the 6th +century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> The Persian dominion did not long survive; and +the march of Alexander the Great down the Indus paved the +way for Chandragupta and the Maurya empire. Under this +empire Ujjain was the seat of a viceroy, a prince of the imperial +house, who ruled over Kathiawar, Malwa and Gujarat. On the +death of Asoka in 231 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the empire of the Mauryas broke up, +and their heritage in the west fell to the Andhra dynasty of +the Satavahanas of Paithan on the Godavari, a Dravidian family +whose dominion by 200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> stretched across the peninsula from +the deltas of the Godavari and Kistna to Nasik and the Western +Ghats. About <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 210, however, their power in the west seems +to have died out, and their place was taken by the foreign dynasty +of the Kshaharatas, the Saka satraps of Surashtra (Kathiawar), +who in 120 had mastered Ujjain and Gujarat and had built up +a rival kingdom to the north. Since about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 40 the coast +cities had been much enriched by trade with the Roman empire, +which both the Satavahanas and the satraps did much to +encourage; but after the fall of Palmyra (273) and the extinction +of the main Kshaharata dynasty (<i>c</i>. 300) this commerce fell +into decay. The history of the century and a half that follows +is very obscure; short-lived Saka dynasties succeeded one another +until, about 388, the country was conquered by the Guptas of +Magadha, who kept a precarious tenure of it till about 470, +when their empire was destroyed by the White Huns, or Ephthalites +(<i>q.v</i>.), who, after breaking the power of Persia and assailing +the Kushan kingdom of Kabul, poured into India, conquered +Sind, and established their dominion as far south as the Nerbudda.</p> + +<p>Under the Hun tyranny, which lasted till the overthrow of +the White Huns on the Oxus by the Turks (<i>c</i>. 565), native +dynasties had survived, or new ones had established themselves. +In Kathiawar a chief named Bhatarka, probably of foreign +origin, had established himself at Valabhi (Wala) on the ruins +of the Gupta power (<i>c</i>. 500), and founded a dynasty which +lasted until it was overthrown by Arab invaders from Sind in +770.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The northern Konkan was held by the Mauryas of Puri +near Bombay, the southerly coast by the Kadambas of Vanavasi, +while in the southern Deccan Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas +struggled for the mastery. A new power, too, appeared from +the north: the Gurjaras (ancestors, it is supposed, of the Gujar +caste), who had probably entered India with the White Huns, +established their power over Gujarat and (<i>c</i>. 600) overran north-eastern +Kathiawar, made the raja of Valabhi their tributary, and +established a branch at Broach (585-740). During the short-lived +empire of Harsha (d. 647 or 648), Malwa, Gujarat and +Kathiawar were subject to his sway; but the southern boundary +of his kingdom was the Nerbudda, south of which the Chalukyas +in the 7th century, having overcome the Rashtrakutas and other +rivals, had absorbed the smaller kingdoms into their empire. +In 710-711 (92 <span class="scs">A.H.</span>) the Arabs invaded India, and in 712 conquered +and established themselves in Sind; they did not, +however, attempt any serious attack on the Gurjara and Chalukya +empires, confining themselves to more or less serious raids. In +770 they destroyed the city of Valabhi and, as already mentioned, +brought its dynasty to an end. Meanwhile the Chalukyas, +after successfully struggling with the Pallavas (whose capital +was taken by Vikramaditya II., <i>c</i>. 740), had in their turn succumbed +to their ancient rivals the Rashtrakutas, who succeeded +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page189" id="page189"></a>189</span> +to the bulk of their dominions, including Gujarat, where they had +set up a branch line. For some two centuries (<i>c.</i> 750-950) +there was a balance of power between the Gurjaras and Rashtrakutas, +neither kingdom being strong enough to encroach on +the other to any extent. The Rashtrakutas were, moreover, +debarred from large schemes of conquest by dissensions with +the branch dynasty which they had set up in Gujarat and by +the constant threat of attack by the Chalukyas from Mysore. +Nevertheless their power and magnificence (they were notable +builders and patrons of literature) greatly impressed the Arabs, +by whom the king was known as Balhara (<i>i.e. Vallhaba</i>, “well-beloved”), +a title borrowed from the preceding dynasty. Under +them the Konkan and the coast farther south were governed +by chiefs of the Silahara family, whose rule is mainly notable for +the revival of trade with the Persian Gulf and, doubtless as a +result of this, the arrival in 775 on the west coast of a number of +Parsee refugees, who found, in a country where three religions +were already equally honoured, the toleration denied to them in +Mussulman Persia. But in the 10th century the Rashtrakuta +power began to break up; in 961 Mularaja Solanki (Chalukya) +conquered the kingdom of Anhilvada (Anhilvara) in Gujarat, +where his dynasty reigned till 1242; and twelve years later the +Chalukyas once more overthrew the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan, +establishing their capital at Kalyani, while a branch line was set +up in southern Gujarat. Farther south the Silaharas, however, +continued to rule the coast, and succeeded in maintaining their +independence until after the final fall of the Chalukyas in 1192. +The cause of the downfall of the dynasty, splendid and enlightened +as any of its predecessors, was the system of governing by means +of great feudatories, which also proved fatal to the Solanki +rajas of Anhilvada. From 1143 onward the power of the latter +had been overshadowed by that of the Vaghela chiefs of Dholka, +and during the same period the Deccan had been rapidly +lapsing into absolute anarchy, amid which rival chiefs struggled +for the supreme power. In the end the Yadavas of Devagiri +(Daulatabad) prevailed, and in 1192 established a short-lived +empire to which the Dholka princes were ultimately forced to +become tributary.</p> + +<p>But meanwhile a new power had appeared, which was destined +to establish the Mussulman domination in western and southern +India. In 1023 Mahmud of Ghazni had already invaded Gujarat +with a large army, destroyed the national Hindu idol of Somnath, +and carried away an immense booty. Mahommed Ghori also +invaded Gujarat, and left a garrison in its capital. But it was +not till after the Mussulman power was firmly established in +northern India that the Mahommedan sovereigns of Delhi +attempted the conquest of the south. In 1294 the emperor +Ala-ud-din first invaded the Deccan, and in 1297 he conquered +Gujarat. In 1312 the Mahommedan arms were triumphant +through the Mahratta country; and seven years later the whole +of Malabar fell a prey to the invaders. In the middle of the 14th +century the weakness of the Delhi sovereigns tempted the +governors of provinces to revolt against their distant master, +and to form independent kingdoms. In this way the Bahmani +kingdom was established in the Deccan, and embraced a part +of the Bombay presidency. Ahmednagar and Gujarat also +became the seats of a new kingdom. In 1573 Akbar conquered +Gujarat and reannexed it to the empire; in 1599 he effected the +reconquest of Khandesh, and in 1600 that of Ahmednagar. +From this time the country was never tranquil, and Ahmednagar +became the focus of constant rebellions. During the latter part +of the 17th century the Mahrattas rose into power, and almost +every part of the country now comprising the presidency of +Bombay fell under their sway. In 1498 the Portuguese came +first to Calicut, their earliest possession in the presidency being +the island of Anjidiv. After their victory at Diu over the Egyptian +fleet their mastery of the Indian Ocean was undisputed, +and they proceeded to establish themselves on the coast. They +captured Goa in 1510, Malacca in 1511, and Ormuz in 1515. +They next took advantage of the decay of the kingdom of Gujarat +to occupy Chaul (1531), Bassein with its dependencies, including +Bombay (1534), Diu (1535) and Daman (1559). But the inherent +vices of their intolerant system undermined their power, even +before their Dutch and English rivals appeared on the scene.</p> + +<p>The first English settlement in the Bombay presidency was in +1618, when the East India Company established a factory at Surat, +protected by a charter obtained from the emperor Jahangir. +In 1626 the Dutch and English made an unsuccessful attempt +to gain possession of the island of Bombay, and in 1653 proposals +were suggested for its purchase from the Portuguese. In 1661 +it was ceded to the English crown, as part of the dower of the +infanta Catherine of Portugal on her marriage with Charles II. +So lightly was the acquisition esteemed in England, and so +unsuccessful was the administration of the crown officers, that +in 1668 Bombay was transferred to the East India Company +for an annual payment of £10. At the time of the transfer, +powers for its defence and for the administration of justice were +also conferred; a European regiment Vas enrolled; and the +fortifications erected proved sufficient to deter the Dutch from +their intended attack in 1673 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bombay City</a></span>: History). +In 1687 Bombay was placed at the head of all the Company’s +possessions in India; but in 1753 the government of Bombay +became subordinate to that of Calcutta. The first collision of +the English with the Mahratta power was in 1774 and resulted +in 1782 in the treaty of Salbai, by which Salsette was ceded to +the British, while Broach was handed over to Sindhia. More +important were the results of the second Mahratta war, which +ended in 1803. Surat had already been annexed in 1800; the +East India Company now received the districts of Broach, +Kaira, &c.</p> + +<p>In 1803 the Bombay presidency included only Salsette, the +islands of the harbour (since 1774), Surat and Bankot (since +1756); but between this date and 1827 the framework of the +presidency took its present shape. The Gujarat districts were +taken over by the Bombay government in 1805 and enlarged +in 1818; and the first measures for the settlement of Kathiawar +and Mahi Kantha were taken between 1807 and 1820. Baji +Rao, the last of the peshwas, who had attempted to shake off +the British yoke, was defeated, captured and pensioned (1817-1818), +and large portions of his dominions (Poona, Ahmednagar, +Nasik, Sholapur, Belgaum, Kaladgi, Dharwar, &c.) were included +in the presidency, the settlement of which was completed by +Mountstuart Elphinstone, governor from 1819 to 1827. His +policy was to rule as far as possible on native lines, avoiding +all changes for which the population was not yet ripe; but the +grosser abuses of the old régime were stopped, the country was +pacified, the laws were codified, and courts and schools were +established. The period that followed is notable mainly for the +enlargement of the presidency through the lapse of certain +native states, by the addition of Aden (1839) and Sind (1843), +and the lease of the Panch Mahals from Sindhia (1853). The +establishment of an orderly administration, one outcome of +which was a general fall of prices that made the unwonted +regularity of the collection of taxes doubly unwelcome, naturally +excited a certain amount of misgiving and resentment; but +on the whole the population was prosperous and contented, +and under Lord Elphinstone (1853-1860) the presidency passed +through the crisis of the Mutiny without any general rising. +Outbreaks among the troops at Karachi, Ahmedabad and +Kolhapur were quickly put down, two regiments being disbanded, +and the rebellions in Gujarat, among the Bhils, and in the +southern Mahratta country were local and isolated. Under +Sir Bartle Frere (1862-1867) agricultural prosperity reached its +highest point, as a result of the American Civil War and the +consequent enormous demand for Indian cotton in Europe. +The money thus poured into the country produced an epidemic +of speculation known as the “Share Mania” (1864-1865), +which ended in a commercial crisis and the failure of the bank +of Bombay (1866). But the peasantry gained on the whole +more than they lost, and the trade of Bombay was not permanently +injured. Sir Bartle Frere encouraged the completion +of the great trunk lines of railways, and with the funds obtained +by the demolition of the town walls (1862) he began the magnificent +series of public buildings that now adorn Bombay.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page190" id="page190"></a>190</span></p> + +<p>During recent times the entire history of Bombay has been +sadly affected by plague and famine. Bubonic plague, of a +fatal and contagious nature, first broke out in Bombay City in +September 1896, and, despite all the efforts of the government, +quickly spread to the surrounding country. Down to the end +of October 1902 over 531,000 deaths had taken place due to +plague. In 1903-1904 there were 426,387 cases with 316,523 +deaths, and 1904-1905 there were 285,897 cases with 212,948 +deaths. The great cities of Bombay, Karachi and Poona +suffered most severely. A few districts in Gujarat almost +entirely escaped; but the mortality was very heavy in Satara, +Thana, Surat, Poona, Kolaba, and in the native states of Cutch, +Baroda, Kolhapur and Palanpur. The only sanitary measure +that can be said to have been successful was complete migration, +which could only be adopted in villages and smaller towns. +Inoculation was extensively tried in some cases. Segregation +was the one general method of fighting the disease; but, unfortunately, +it was misunderstood by the people and led to some +deplorable outbreaks. In Poona, during 1897, two European +officials were assassinated; the editor of a prominent native +paper was sentenced to imprisonment for sedition; and two +leaders of the Brahman community were placed in confinement. +At Bombay, in March 1898, a riot begun by Mahommedan +weavers was not suppressed until several Europeans had been +fatally injured. In Nasik district, in January 1898, the native +chairman of the plague committee was brutally murdered by a +mob. But on the whole the people submitted with characteristic +docility to the sanitary regulations of the government. Bombay, +like the Central Provinces, suffered from famine twice within +three years. The failure of the monsoon of 1896 caused widespread +distress throughout the Deccan, over an area of 46,000 +sq. m., with a population of 7 millions. The largest number of +persons on relief was 301,056 in September 1897; and the total +expenditure on famine relief was Rs. 1,28,000,000. The measures +adopted were signally successful, both in saving life and in +mitigating distress. In 1899 the monsoon again failed in +Gujarat, where famine hitherto had been almost unknown; +and the winter rains failed in the Deccan, so that distress +gradually spread over almost the entire presidency. The worst +feature was a virulent outbreak of cholera in Gujarat, especially +in the native states. In April 1900 the total number of persons +in receipt of relief was 1,281,159 in British districts, 566,671 +in native states, and 71,734 in Baroda. For 1900-1901 the +total expenditure on famine relief was nearly 3 crores (say, +£2,000,000 sterling); and a continuance of drought necessitated +an estimate of 1 crore in the budget of the following year. The +Bombay government exhausted its balances in 1897, and was +subsequently dependent on grants from the government of +India.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Sir James Campbell, <i>Gazetteer of Bombay</i> (26 vols., 1896); +S.M. Edwardes, <i>The Rise of Bombay</i> (1902); James Douglas, +<i>Bombay and Western India</i> (1893); and Sir William Lee-Warner, +<i>The Presidency of Bombay</i> (Society of Arts, 1904); <i>The Imperial +Gazetteer of India</i> (Oxford, 1908); and for the early history, V.A. +Smith, <i>The Early History of India</i> (2nd ed., Oxford, 1908).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> V.A. Smith, <i>Early History of India</i>, p. 295.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOMBAZINE,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Bombasine</span>, a stuff originally made of silk +or silk and wool, and now also made of cotton and wool or of wool +alone. Good bombazine is made with a silk warp and a worsted +weft. It is twilled or corded and used for dress-material. Black +bombazine has been used largely for mourning, but the material +has gone out of fashion. The word is derived from the obsolete +French <i>bombasin</i>, applied originally to silk but afterwards to +“tree-silk” or cotton. Bombazine is said to have been made +in England in Queen Elizabeth’s reign, and early in the 19th +century it was largely made at Norwich.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOMBELLES, MARC MARIE,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> (1744-1822), +French diplomatist and ecclesiastic, was the son of the comte de +Bombelles, tutor and guardian of the duke of Orleans. He was +born at Bitsch in Lorraine, and served in the army through the +Seven Years’ War. In 1765 he entered the diplomatic service, +and after several diplomatic missions became ambassador of +France to Portugal in 1786, being charged to win over that +country to the Family Compact; but the madness of the queen +and then the death of the king prevented his success. He was +transferred to Vienna early in 1789, but the Revolution cut short +his diplomatic career, and he was deprived of his post in +September 1790. He remained attached to Louis XVI., and +was employed on secret missions to other sovereigns, to gain +their aid for Louis. In 1792 he emigrated, and after Valmy +lived in retirement in Switzerland. In 1804, after the death of +his wife, he withdrew to the monastery of Brünn in Austria, and +became bishop of Oberglogau in Prussia. In 1815 he returned +to France, and became bishop of Amiens (1819). He died in +Paris in 1822.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Louis Philippe</span>, comte de Bombelles (1780-1843), +born at Regensburg, passed his life in the diplomatic service of +Austria. In 1814 he became Austrian ambassador to Denmark, +and in 1816 filled a similar position at Dresden.</p> +<div class="author">(E. Es.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOMBERG, DANIEL,<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> a famous Christian printer of Hebrew +books. His chief activity was in Venice between 1516 and 1549 +(the year of his death). Bomberg introduced a new era in Hebrew +typography. Among other great enterprises, he published the +<i>editio princeps</i> (1516-1517) of the rabbinical Bible (Hebrew text +with rabbinical commentaries, &c.). He also produced the first +complete edition of the Talmud (1520-1523).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONA, JOHN<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (1609-1674), Italian cardinal and author, was +born at Mondovi in Piedmont, on the 10th of October 1609. In +1624 he joined the Congregation of Feuillants and was successively +elected prior of Asti, abbot of Mondovi and general of +his order. He was created cardinal in 1669 by Clement IX., and +during the conclave, which followed that pope’s death, was +regarded as a possible candidate for the papacy. He died on the +27th of October 1674. Bona’s writings are mainly concerned +with liturgical and devotional subjects. Of the numerous +editions of his works, the best are those of Paris (1677), Turin +(1747) and Antwerp (1777). Stores of interesting rubrical +information, interspersed with verses and prayers, are to be +found in the <i>De Libris Liturgicis</i> and the <i>Divina Psalmodia</i>; +recent advances in liturgical studies, however, have somewhat +lessened their value. The <i>De Discretione Spirituum</i> treats of +certain higher phases of mysticism; the <i>Via Compendii ad Deum</i> +was well translated in 1876 by Henry Collins, O. Cist., under the +title of <i>An Easy Way to God</i>. Sir Roger L’Estrange’s translation +(<i>The Guide to Heaven</i>, 1680) of the <i>Manuductio ad Coelum</i> was +reprinted in 1898, and a new edition of the <i>Principia Vitae +Christianae</i>, ed. by D. O’Connor, appeared in 1906. The devotional +treatise <i>De Sacrificio Missae</i> is the classical work in its +field (new edition by Ildephonsus Cummins, 1903).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief source for the life of Bona is the biography by the +Cistercian abbot Bertolotti (Asti, 1677); the best modern study is +by A. Ighina (Mondovi, 1874).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONA<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Bône</span>), a seaport of Algeria, in 36° 53′ N., 7° 46′ E., on +a bay of the Mediterranean, chief town of an arrondissement +in the department of Constantine, 220 m. by rail W. of Tunis, +and 136 m. N.E. of Constantine. The town, which is situated at +the foot of the wooded heights of Edugh, is surrounded with a +modern rampart erected outside the old Arab wall, the compass +of which was found too small for its growth. Much of the old +town has been demolished, and its general character now is that +of a flourishing French city. The streets are wide and well laid +out, but some are very steep. Through the centre of the town +runs a broad tree-lined promenade, the Cours Jérôme-Bertagna, +formerly the Cours National, in which are the principal buildings +—theatre, banks, hotels. At its southern end, by the quay, is a +bronze statue of Thiers, and at the northern end, the cathedral +of St Augustine, a large church built in quasi-Byzantine style. +In it is preserved a relic supposed to be the right arm of St +Augustine, brought from Pavia in 1842. The Grand Mosque, +built out of ruins of the ancient Hippo, occupies one side of +the chief square, the Place d’Armes. There are barracks with +accommodation for 3000 men, and civil and military hospitals. +The Kasbah (citadel) stands on a hill at the north-east of the +town. The inner harbour, covering 25 acres, is surrounded by +fine quays at which vessels drawing 22 ft. can be moored. Beyond +is a spacious outer harbour, built 1857-1868 and enlarged in +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page191" id="page191"></a>191</span> +1905-1907. Bona is in direct steamship communication with +Marseilles, and is the centre of a large commerce, ranking after +Algiers and Oran alone in Algeria. It imports general merchandise +and manufactures, and exports phosphates, iron, zinc, +barley, sheep, wool, cork, esparto, &c. There are manufactories +of native garments, tapestry and leather. The marshes at the +mouths of the Seybuse and Bujema rivers, which enter the sea +to the south of Bona, have been drained by a system of canals, +to the improvement of the sanitary condition of the town, which +has the further advantage of an abundant water supply obtained +from the Edugh hills. There are cork woods and marble quarries +in the vicinity, and the valley of the Seybuse and the neighbouring +plains are rich in agricultural produce. The population of +the town of Bona in 1906 was 36,004, of the commune 42,934, +of the arrondissement, which includes La Calle (<i>q.v.</i>) and 11 +other communes, 77,803.</p> + +<p>Bona is identified with the ancient <i>Aphrodisium</i>, the seaport +of <i>Hippo Regius</i> or <i>Ubbo</i>, but it derives its name from the latter +city, the ruins of which, consisting of large cisterns, now restored, +and fragments of walls, are about a mile to the south of the town. +In the first three centuries of the Christian era Hippo was one +of the richest cities in Roman Africa; but its chief title to fame +is derived from its connexion with St Augustine, who lived here +as priest and bishop for thirty-five years. Hippo was captured +by the Vandals under Genseric in 431, after a siege of fourteen +months, during which Augustine died. Only the cathedral, +together with Augustine’s library and MSS., escaped the general +destruction. The town Avas partially restored by Belisarius, +and again sacked by the Arabs in the 7th century. On the top +of the hill on which Hippo stood, a large basilica, with chancel +towards the west, dedicated to St Augustine, was opened in 1900. +An altar surmounted by a bronze statue of the saint has also +been erected among the ruins. The place was named Hippo +Regius (Royal) by the Romans because it was a favourite residence +of the Numidian kings. Bona (Arabic <i>annaba</i>, “the city of +jujube trees”), which has passed through many vicissitudes, was +built by the Arabs, and was for centuries a possession of the +rulers of Tunis, who built the Kasbah in 1300. From the beginning +of the 14th to the middle of the 15th century it was frequented +by Italians and Spaniards, and in the 16th it was held for some +time by Charles V., who strengthened its citadel. Thereafter +it was held in turn by Genoese, Tunisians and Algerines. From +the time of Louis XIV. to the Revolution, the French <i>Compagnie +d’Afrique</i> maintained a very active trade with the port. The +town was occupied by the French for a few months in 1830 and +reoccupied in 1832, when Captains Armandy and Yusuf with a +small force of marines seized the Kasbah and held it for some +months until help arrived. From that time the history of Bona +is one of industrial development, greatly stimulated since 1883 +by the discovery of the phosphate beds at Tebessa.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONA DEA,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> the “good goddess,” an old Roman deity of +fruitfulness, both in the earth and in women. She was identified +with Fauna, and by later syncretism also with Ops and Maia—the +latter no doubt because the dedication-day of her temple +on the Aventine was 1st May (Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, v. 149 foll.). This +temple was cared for, and the cult attended, by women only, +and the same was the case at a second celebration at the beginning +of December in the house of a magistrate with <i>imperium</i>, +which became famous owing to the profanation of these mysteries +by P. Clodius in 62 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and the political consequences of his +act. Wine and myrtle were tabooed in the cult of this deity, +and myths grew up to explain these features of the cult, of which +an account may be read in W.W. Fowler’s <i>Roman Festivals</i>, +pp. 103 foll. Herbs with healing properties were kept in her +temple, and also snakes, the usual symbol of the medicinal art. +Her victim was a porca, as in the cults of other deities of fertility, +and was called <i>damium</i>, and we are told that the goddess herself +was known as Damia and her priestess as <i>damiatrix</i>. These +names are almost certainly Greek; Damia is found worshipped +at several places in Greece, and also at Tarentum, where there +was a festival called <i>Dameia</i>. It is thus highly probable that on +the cult of the original Roman goddess was engrafted the Greek +one of Damia, perhaps after the conquest of Tarentum (272 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). +It is no longer possible to distinguish clearly the Greek and +Roman elements in this curious cult, though it is itself quite +intelligible as that of an Earth-goddess with mysteries attached.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See also Pauly-Wissowa, <i>Realencyclopadie</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. W. F.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONA FIDE<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (Lat. “in good faith”), in law, a term implying +the absence of all fraud or unfair dealing or acting. It is usually +employed in conjunction with a noun, <i>e.g.</i> “bona fide purchaser,” +one who has purchased property from its legal owner, to whom +he has paid the consideration, and from whom he has taken a +legal conveyance, without having any notice of any trust affecting +the property; “bona fide holder” of a bill of exchange, +one who has taken a bill complete and regular on the face of +it, before it was overdue, and in good faith and for value, and +without notice of any defect in the title of the person who +negotiated it to him; “bona fide traveller” under the licensing +acts, one whose lodging-place during the preceding night is at +least 3 m. distant from the place where he demands to be +supplied with liquor, such distance being calculated by the +nearest public thoroughfare.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONALD, LOUIS GABRIEL AMBROISE,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> <span class="sc">Vicomte de</span> (1754-1840), +French philosopher and politician, was born at Le Monna, +near Millau in Aveyron, on the 2nd of October 1754. Disliking +the principles of the Revolution, he emigrated in 1791, joined +the army of the prince of Condé, and soon afterwards settled +at Heidelberg. There he wrote his first important work, the +highly conservative <i>Théorie du pouvoir politique et religieux</i> +(3 vols., 1796; new ed., Paris, 1854, 2 vols.), which was condemned +by the Directory. Returning to France he found himself +an object of suspicion, and was obliged to live in retirement. +In 1806 he was associated with Chateaubriand and Fiévée in +the conduct of the <i>Mercure de France</i>, and two years later was +appointed councillor of the Imperial University which he had +often attacked. After the restoration he was a member of the +council of public instruction, and from 1815 to 1822 sat in the +chamber as deputy. His speeches were on the extreme conservative +side; he even advocated a literary censorship. In +1822 he was made minister of state, and presided over the censorship +commission. In the following year he was made a peer, +a dignity which he lost through refusing to take the oath +in 1830. From 1816 he had been a member of the Academy. +He took no part in public affairs after 1830, but retired to his +seat at Le Monna, where he died on the 23rd of November 1840.</p> + +<p>Bonald was one of the leading writers of the theocratic or +traditionalist school, which included de Maistre, Lamennais, +Ballanche and d’Eckstein. His writings are mainly on social +and political philosophy, and are based ultimately on one +great principle, the divine origin of language. In his own +words, “L’homme pense sa parole avant de parler sa +pensée”; the first language contained the essence of all truth. +From this he deduces the existence of God, the divine origin +and consequent supreme authority of the Holy Scriptures, and +the infallibility of the church. While this thought lies at the +root of all his speculations there is a formula of constant application. +All relations may be stated as the triad of cause, +means and effect, which he sees repeated throughout nature. +Thus, in the universe, he finds the first cause as mover, movement +as the means, and bodies as the result; in the state, power +as the cause, ministers as the means, and subjects as the effects; +in the family, the same relation is exemplified by father, mother +and children. These three terms bear specific relations to one +another; the first is to the second as the second to the third. +Thus, in the great triad of the religious world—God, the Mediator, +and Man-God is to the God-Man as the God-Man is to Man. +On this basis he constructed a system of political absolutism +which lacks two things only:—well-grounded premisses instead +of baseless hypotheses, and the acquiescence of those who were +to be subjected to it.</p> + +<p>Bonald’s style is remarkably fine; ornate, but pure and +vigorous. Many fruitful thoughts are scattered among his +works, but his system scarcely deserves the name of a philosophy. +In abstract thought he was a mere dilettante, and his strength +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page192" id="page192"></a>192</span> +lay in the vigour and sincerity of his statements rather than in +cogency of reasoning.</p> + +<p>He had four sons. Of these, <span class="sc">Victor de Bonald</span> (1780-1871) +followed his father in his exile, was rector of the academy of +Montpellier after the restoration, but lost his post during the +Hundred Days. Regaining it at the second restoration, he +resigned finally in 1830. He wrote <i>Des vrais principes opposés +aux erreurs du XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1833), <i>Moïse et les géologues +modernes</i> (1835), and a life of his father. <span class="sc">Louis Jacques +Maurice</span> (1787-1870), cardinal (1841), was condemned by the +council of state for a pastoral letter attacking Dupin the elder’s +<i>Manuel de droit ecclésiastique</i>. In 1848 he held a memorial +service “for those who fell gloriously in defence of civil and +religious liberty.” In 1851 he nevertheless advocated in the +senate the maintenance of the temporal power of Rome by force +of arms. <span class="sc">Henri</span> (d. 1846) was a contributor to legitimist +journals; and <span class="sc">René</span> was interim prefect of Aveyron in 1817.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides the <i>Théorie</i> above mentioned, the vicomte de Bonald +published <i>Essai analytique sur les lois naturelles de l’ordre social</i> +(1800); <i>Législation primitive</i> (1802); <i>Du divorce considéré au XIXe +siècle</i> (1801); <i>Recherches philosophiques sur les premiers objets de +connaissances morales</i> (2 vols., 1818); <i>Mélanges littéraires et politiques, +démonstration philosophique du principe constitutif de la société</i> +(1819, 1852). The first collected edition appeared in 12 vols., 1817-1819; +the latest is that of the Abbé Migne (3 vols., 1859).</p> + +<p>See <i>Notice sur M. le Vicomte de Bonald</i> (1841, ed. Avignon, 1853), +(by his son Victor); Damiron, <i>Phil. en France au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>; +Windelband, <i>History of Philosophy</i> (trans. J.H. Tufts, 1893); +E. Faguet in <i>Rev. des deux mondes</i> (April 15, 1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONAPARTE, <a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span>the name of a family made famous by +Napoleon I. (<i>q.v.</i>), emperor of the French. The French form +Bonaparte was not commonly used, even by Napoleon, until +after the spring of 1796. The original name was Buonaparte, +which was borne in the early middle ages by several distinct +families in Italy. One of these, which settled at Florence before +the year 1100, divided in the 13th century into the two branches +of San Miniato and Sarzana. A member of this latter, Francesco +Buonaparte, emigrated in the middle of the 16th century to +Corsica, where his descendants continued to occupy themselves +with the affairs of law and the magistracy.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Carlo Buonaparte</span> [Charles Marie de Bonaparte] (1746-1785), +the father of Napoleon I., took his degree in law at the +university of Pisa, and after the conquest of Corsica +by the French became assessor to the royal court of +<span class="sidenote">Napoleon’s father and mother.</span> +Ajaccio and the neighbouring districts. His restless +and dissatisfied nature led him to press or intrigue +for other posts, and to embark in risky business enterprises +which compromised the fortune of his family for many years +to come. In 1764 he married Letizia Ramolino, a beautiful and +high-spirited girl, aged fourteen, descended from a well-connected +family domiciled in Corsica since the middle of the 15th +century. The first two children, born in 1765 and 1767, died +in infancy; Joseph (see below), the first son who survived, was +born in 1768, and Napoleon in 1769. The latter was born in +the midst of the troubles consequent on the French conquest, +Letizia having recently accompanied her husband in several +journeys and escapes. Her firm and courageous disposition +showed itself at that trying time and throughout the whole +of her singularly varied career. Simple and frugal in her tastes, +and devout in thought and manner of life, she helped to bind +her children to the life of Corsica, while her husband, a schemer +by nature and a Voltairian by conviction, pointed the way to +careers in France, the opening up of which moulded the fortunes +of the family and the destinies of Europe. He died of cancer +in the stomach at Montpellier in 1785.</p> + +<p>Letizia lived to witness the glory and the downfall of her great +son, surviving Napoleon I. by sixteen years. She never +accommodated herself to the part she was called on to play +during the Empire, and, though endowed with immense wealth and +distinguished by the title of <i>Madame Mère</i>, lived mainly in +retirement, and in the exercise of a strict domestic economy +which her early privations had made a second nature to her, but +which rendered her very unpopular in France and was displeasing +to Napoleon. After the events of 1814 she joined the +emperor in the island of Elba and was privy to his plans of escape, +returning to Paris during the Hundred Days. After the final +downfall of Waterloo, she took up her residence at Rome, where +Pope Pius VII. treated her with great kindness and consideration, +and protected her from the suspicious attentions of the powers +of the Grand Alliance. In 1818 she addressed a pathetic letter +to the powers assembled at the congress of Aix, petitioning for +Napoleon’s release, on the ground that his mortal illness had +removed any possibility of his ever again becoming a menace +to the world’s peace. The letter remained unanswered, the +powers having reason to believe that it was a mere political +move, and that its terms had been previously concerted with +Napoleon. Henceforth, saddened by the death of Napoleon, +of her daughters Pauline and Elisa, and of several grandchildren, +she lived a life of mournful seclusion. In 1829 she was crippled +by a serious fall, and was all but blind before her death in 1836.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the Bonaparte family in general, and Carlo and Letizia, see +<i>Storia genealogica della famiglia Bonaparte, della sua origine fina +all’ estinzione del ramo già esisente nella città di S. Miniato, scritta da un +Samminiatese</i> (D. Morali) (Florence, 1846); F. de Stefani, +<i>Le antichità dei Bonaparte; precede per una introduzione</i> +(L. Beretta) (Venice, 1857); +L. Ambrosini and A. Huard, <i>La Famille impériale. Hist. de la famille +Bonaparte depuis son origine jusqu’en 1860</i> (Paris, 1860); +C. Leynadier, <i>Histoire de la famille Bonaparte de l’an 1050 à l’an 1848</i> +(<i>continuée jusqu’en 1866 par de la Brugère</i>) (Paris, 1866); +A. Kleinschmidt, <i>Die Eltern und Geschwister Napoleons I.</i> (Berlin, 1876); +D.A. Bingham, <i>The Marriages of the Bonapartes</i> (2 vols., London, 1881); +F. Masson, <i>Napoléon et sa famille</i> (4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900); +A. Chuquet, <i>La Jeunesse de Napoléon</i> (3 vols., Paris, 1897-1899); +T. Nasica, <i>Mémoires sur l’enfance et la jeunesse de Napoléon jusqu’à +la âge vingt-trois ans; précédes d’une notice historique sur son père</i>; +Baron H. Larrey, <i>Madame Mère</i> (2 vols., Paris, 1892); Clara Tschudi, +<i>Napoleons Mutter: aus dem Norwegischen übersetzt von H. von Lenk</i> +(Leipzig, 1901).</p> +</div> + +<p>The brothers and sisters of Napoleon I., taken in order of age, +are the following:—</p> + +<p><span class="sc">I. Joseph</span> (1768-1844), was born at Corte in Corsica, on the +7th of January 1768. He was educated at the college at Autun +in France, returned to Corsica in 1784, shortly after +the death of his father, and thereafter studied law at +<span class="sidenote">Napoleon’s brothers and sisters: 1. Joseph Bonaparte.</span> +the university of Pisa. He became a barrister at +Bastia in June 1788, and was soon elected a councillor +of the municipality of Ajaccio. Like his brothers, +Napoleon and Lucien, he embraced the French or +democratic side, and on the victory of the Paolist party +fled with his family from Corsica and sought refuge in France. +After spending a short time in Paris, where he was disgusted +with the excesses of the Jacobins, he settled at Marseilles and +married Mlle Julie Clary, daughter of a merchant of that town. +The Bonapartes moved from place to place, mainly with the view +of concerting measures for the recovery of Corsica. Joseph +took part in these efforts and went on a mission to Genoa in +1795. In 1796 he accompanied his brother Napoleon in the +early part of the Italian campaign, and had some part in the +negotiations with Sardinia which led to the armistice of Cherasco +(April 28), the news of which he bore to the French government. +Later he proceeded to Leghorn, took part in the French +expedition for the recovery of Corsica, and, along with the +commissioner of the French Republic, Miot de Melito, helped +in the reorganization of that island. In March 1797 he was +appointed by the Directory, minister to the court of Parma, and +early in the summer he proceeded to Rome in the same capacity. +Discords arose between the Vatican and the French Republic, +and it is clear that Napoleon and the French Directory ordered +Joseph to encourage revolutionary movements in Rome. On +the 28th of December 1797 a disturbance took place opposite +the French embassy, which led to the death of the French +general, Léonard Duphot. Joseph at once left Rome, which +soon became a republic. Repairing to Paris, he entered on +parliamentary life, becoming one of the members for Corsica +in the Council of Five Hundred. He made no mark in the +chamber and retired in 1799.</p> + +<p>Before the <i>coup d’état</i> of Brumaire he helped Napoleon in +making overtures to Sieyès and Moreau, but otherwise did little. +Thereafter he refused to enter the ministry, but became a member +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page193" id="page193"></a>193</span> +of the council of state and of the <i>Corps Législatif</i>, where his +advice on the state of public opinion was frequently useful. He +had a hand in the negotiations for the Concordat, but, according +to Lucien Bonaparte, looked on that measure as “ill-advised +and retrograde.” His services in the diplomatic sphere were +more important. At Mortfontaine, his country-house, he concluded +with the envoy of the United States a convention which +bears that name (1800). He also presided over the negotiations +which led to the treaty of Lunéville with Austria (February 9, +1801); and he and Maret represented France in the lengthy +discussions with the British envoy, Lord Cornwallis, which +resulted in the signature of the treaty of Amiens (March 25, +1802). This diplomatic triumph in its turn led to the +consolidation of Napoleon’s power as First Consul for life (August +1, 1802) with the chief voice in the selection of his successor. +On this question the brothers disagreed. As neither Joseph +nor Napoleon had a male heir, the eldest brother, whose ideas +of primogeniture were very strict, claimed to be recognized as +heir, while Napoleon wished to recognize the son of Louis +Bonaparte. On the proclamation of the French empire (May +1804) the friction became acute. Napoleon offered to make +Joseph king of Lombardy if he would waive all claim of +succession to the French throne, but met with a firm refusal.</p> + +<p>Meanwhile Joseph had striven earnestly, but in vain, to +avert a rupture with England, which came about in May 1803. +In 1805 he acted as chief of the French government while +Napoleon was campaigning in Germany. Early in 1806 he +proceeded to Naples with a French force in order to expel the +Bourbon dynasty from southern Italy, Napoleon adding the +promise that the Neapolitan crown would be for Joseph if he +chose to accept it. The conquest of the mainland was speedily +effected, though Gaëta, Reggio and the rock of Scylla held out +for some months. The Bourbon court retired to Sicily, where +it had the protection of a British force. By the decree of the +30th of March 1806 Napoleon proclaimed Joseph king of Naples, +but allowed him to keep intact his claims to the throne of France. +In several letters he enjoined his brother to greater firmness in +his administration: “These peoples in Italy, and in general all +nations, if they do not find their masters, are disposed to +rebellion and mutiny.” The memoirs of Count Miot de Melito, +whom Joseph appointed minister of war, show how great were +the difficulties with which the new monarch had to contend—an +almost bankrupt treasury, a fickle and degraded populace, +Bourbon intrigues and plots, and frequent attacks by the British +from Sicily. General Stuart’s victory at Maida (July 3) +shook Joseph’s throne to its base; but the surrender of Gaëta +soon enabled Massena to march southwards and subdue Calabria. +During his brief reign at Naples, Joseph effected many +improvements; he abolished the relics of feudalism, reformed the +monastic orders, reorganized the judicial, financial and educational +systems, and initiated several public works. In everything +he showed his desire to carry out the aims which he expressed +to his consort in April 1806: “Justice demands that I should +make this people as happy as the scourge of war will permit.”</p> + +<p>From these well-meant, but not always successful, efforts he +was suddenly called away by Napoleon to take the crown of +Spain (May 1808). There his difficulties were far greater. +Despite the benevolent intentions announced to the Spaniards +in his proclamation dated Bayonne, 23rd of June 1808, all +reconciliation between them and the French was impossible after +Napoleon’s treatment of their <i>de facto</i> king, Ferdinand VII. +For the varying fortunes of King Joseph in Spain and in the +eventful years of the Peninsular War, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Spain</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Peninsular +War</a></span>. His sovereignty was little more than titular. Compelled +to leave Madrid hastily in August 1808, owing to the Spanish +success at Baylen, he was reinstated by Napoleon at the close +of the year; and he was thereafter kept in a subordinate position +which led him on four occasions to offer to abdicate. The +emperor took no notice of these offers, and ordered him to govern +with more energy. Between February and May 1810 the emperor +placed the northern and north-eastern provinces under the +command of French generals as military districts, virtually +independent of Joseph’s authority. Again the king protested, +but in vain. As his trusted adviser, Miot de Melito, observed in +his memoirs, Joseph tried to be constitutional king of Spain, +whereas after the experience of the years 1808-1809 he could +only succeed in the Peninsula by becoming “the mere instrument +of a military power.” “Bearing a title which was only an +oppressive burden, the king had in reality ceased to exist as a +monarch, and barely retained some semblance of authority over +a small part of the French army as a general. Reduced by the +exhausted state of his treasury to the last extremity he at length +seriously thought of departure.” Joseph took this step in April +1811, and proceeded to Paris in order to extort better terms, or +offer his abdication; but he had to return with a monthly subsidy +of 500,000 francs and the promise that the army of the centre +(the smallest of the five French armies) should be under his +control. Late in that year Napoleon united Catalonia to France. +Wellington’s victory at Salamanca (July 22, 1812) compelled +Joseph to leave his capital; and despite the retirement of the +British in the autumn of that year, Joseph’s authority never fully +recovered from that blow. The end of his nominal rule came in +the next year, when Wellington utterly overthrew the chief +French army, commanded by King Joseph and Marshal Jourdan, +at Vittoria (June 21, 1813). The king fled from Spain, was +disgraced by Napoleon, and received the order to retire incognito +to Mortfontaine. The emperor wrote to the minister of war +(July 11, 1813):—“His [Joseph’s] behaviour has never ceased +bringing misfortune upon my army; it is time to make an +end of it.”</p> + +<p>Napoleon was equally dissatisfied with his brother’s conduct +as lieutenant-general of France, while he himself was conducting +the campaign of 1814 in the east of France. On the 30th of +March, Joseph empowered Marmont to make a truce with the +assailants of Paris if they should be in overpowering strength. +On the surrender of the capital Joseph at once retired. The part +which he played during the Hundred Days (1815) was also +insignificant. It is strange that, four days after Waterloo, +Napoleon should have urged him to inspirit the Chamber of +Deputies with a view to a national resistance (<i>Lettres nouvelles +de Napoléon</i>). In point of fact Joseph did little beyond seeking +to further the emperor’s plans of escape to America. After the +surrender of his brother to the captain of H.M.S. “Bellerophon” +at Rochefort, Joseph went to the United States. Settling in +Bordentown, New Jersey, he adopted the title of comte de +Survilliers, and sought to promote plans for the rescue of his +brother from St Helena. In 1830 he pleaded, but unsuccessfully, +for the recognition of the claims of the duke of Reichstadt (king +of Rome) to the French throne. He afterwards visited England, +and for a time resided at Genoa and Florence. In the latter city, +the cradle of his race, he died on the 28th of July 1844. In +person he somewhat resembled Napoleon, but utterly lacked his +strength and energy. He was fitted for an embassy or judgeship, +but was too mild, supine and luxurious for the tasks thrust upon +him by his brother. Yet his correspondence and memoirs prove +that he retained for Napoleon warm feelings of affection.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Of the many works dealing with Joseph Bonaparte we may cite +Baron A. du Casse, <i>Mémoires et correspondance politique et militaire +du roi Joseph</i> (10 vols., Paris, 1854), and <i>Les Rois frères de Napoléon</i> +(1883); J.S.C. Abbott, <i>History of Joseph Bonaparte</i> (New York, +1869); G. Bertin, <i>Joseph Bonaparte in America</i>; <i>Joseph Bonaparte +jugé par ses contemporains</i> (anon.); the <i>Memoirs of Count Miot de +Melito</i> (translation, edited by General Fleischmann, 2 vols., 1881); +R.M. Johnston, <i>The Napoleonic Empire in Southern Italy</i> (2 vols., +with an excellent bibliography, London, 1904); <i>Correspondence of +Napoleon with Joseph Bonaparte</i> (2 vols., New York, 1856); Baron +A. du Casse, <i>Histoire des ... traités de Mortfontaine, de Lunéville +et d’Amiens</i>, &c. (1855-1857); F. Masson, <i>Napoléon et sa famille</i> +(4 vols., Paris, 1889-1900).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">II. Lucien</span> (1775-1840), prince of Canino, was born at Ajaccio +on the 21st of May 1775. He followed his elder brothers +to the schools of Autun and Brienne. At that time he +wished to enter the French army, but, being debarred +<span class="sidenote">2. Lucien Bonaparte</span> +by defective sight, was destined for the church, and +with this aim in view went to the seminary at Aix in Provence +(1786). His excitable and volatile disposition agreed ill with the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page194" id="page194"></a>194</span> +discipline of the place, and on the outbreak of the Revolution in +1789 he eagerly espoused the democratic and anti-clerical movement +then sweeping over France. On returning to Corsica he +became the leading speaker in the Jacobin club at Ajaccio. +Pushing even Napoleon to more decided action, Lucien urged +his brothers to break with Paoli, the leader of the more conservative +party, which sought to ally itself with England as +against the regicide republic of France. He headed a Corsican +deputation which went to France in order to denounce Paoli +and to solicit aid for the democrats; but, on the Paolists gaining +the upper hand, the Bonapartes left the island and joined Lucien +at Toulon. In the south of France he worked hard for the +Jacobinical cause, and figured as “Brutus” in the Jacobin club +of the small town of St Maximin (then renamed Marathon). +There on the 4th of May 1794 he married Mlle Catherine +Boyer, though he was a minor and had not the consent of his +family—an act which brought him into a state almost approaching +disgrace and penury. The <i>coup d’état</i> of Thermidor (July +28, 1794) compelled the young disciple of Robespierre hurriedly +to leave St Maximin, and to accept a small post at St Chamans. +There he was arrested and imprisoned for a time until Napoleon’s +influence procured his release, and further gained for him a post +as commissioner in the French army campaigning in Germany. +Lucien soon conceived a dislike for a duty which opened up no +vista for his powers of oratory and political intrigue, and repaired +to Corsica. In the hope of being elected a deputy of the island, +he refused an appointment offered by Napoleon in the army of +Egypt in 1798. His hopes were fulfilled, and in 1798 he entered +the Council of Five Hundred at Paris. There his vivacious +eloquence brought him into prominence, and he was president +of that body on the eventful day of the 19th of Brumaire +(November 10) 1799, when Napoleon overthrew the national +councils of France at the palace of St Cloud. The refusal of +Lucien to put the vote of outlawry, for which the majority of +the council clamoured, his opportune closing of the sitting, and +his appeal to the soldiers outside to disperse <i>les représentants +du poignard</i>, turned the scale in favour of his brother.</p> + +<p>By a strange irony this event, the chief event of Lucien’s life, +was fatal to the cause of democracy of which he had been the +most eager exponent. In one of his earlier letters to his brother +Joseph, Lucien stated that he had detected in Napoleon “an +ambition not altogether egotistic but which surpassed his love +for the general weal; ... in case of a counter-revolution he +would try to ride on the crest of events.” Napoleon having by +his help triumphed over parliamentary institutions in France, +Lucien’s suspicion of his brother became a dominant feeling; +and the relations between them became strained during the +period of the consulate (1799-1804). He accepted office as +minister of the interior, but was soon deprived of it owing to +political and personal differences with the First Consul. In +order to soften the blow, Napoleon appointed him ambassador +to the court of Madrid (November 1800). There again Lucien +displeased his brother. France and Spain were then about to +partition Portugal, and the Spanish forces were beginning to +invade that land, when the court of Lisbon succeeded, owing +(it is said) to the free use of bribes, in inducing Godoy, the +Spanish minister, and Lucien Bonaparte to sign the preliminaries +of peace on the 6th of June 1801 at Badajoz. The First Consul, +finding his plans of seizing Lisbon frustrated, remonstrated with +his brother, who thereupon resigned his post, and returned to +Paris, there taking part in the opposition which the Tribunate +offered to some of Napoleon’s schemes. Lucien’s next proceeding +completed the breach between the two brothers. His wife had +died in 1800; he became enamoured of a Mme Jouberthou in +the early summer of 1802, made her his mistress, and finally, +despite the express prohibition of the First Consul, secretly +married her at his residence of Plessis (on October 23, 1803). +At that time Napoleon was pressing Lucien for important +reasons of state to marry the widow of the king of Etruria, and +on hearing of his brother’s action he ordered him to leave French +territory. Lucien departed for Italy with his wife and infant +son, after annoying Napoleon by bestowing on her publicly the +name of Bonaparte. He also charged Joseph never to try to +reconcile Napoleon to him.</p> + +<p>For some years he lived in Italy, chiefly at Rome, showing +marked hostility to the emperor. In December 1807 the latter +sought to come to an arrangement by which Lucien would take +his place as a French prince, provided that he would annul his +marriage. This step Lucien refused to take; and after residing +for some time at his estate of Canino, from which he took the +papal title of prince of Canino, he left for America. Captured +by a British ship, he was taken to Malta and thence to England, +where he resided under some measure of surveillance up to the +peace of 1814. Returning to Rome, he offered Napoleon his +help during the Hundred Days (1815), stood by his side at the +“Champ de Mai” at Paris, and was the last to defend his prerogatives +at the time of his second abdication. He spent the +rest of his life in Italy, and died at Rome on the 29th of June +1840. His family comprised four sons and six daughters. He +wrote an epic, <i>Charlemagne, ou l’Église délivreé</i> (2 vols., 1814), +also <i>La Vérité sur les Cent Jours</i> and <i>Memoirs</i>, which were not +completed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For sources see T. Jung, <i>Lucien Bonaparte et ses mémoires</i> (3 vols., +Paris, 1882-1883); an anonymous work, <i>Le Prince Lucien Bonaparte +et sa famille</i> (Paris, 1888); F. Masson, <i>Napoléon et sa famille</i> +(4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900), and H. Houssaye, <i>”1815”</i> (3 vols., +Paris, 1899-1905).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">III. Marianne Elisa</span> (1777-1820) was born at Ajaccio on +the 3rd of January 1777. Owing to the efforts of her brothers +she entered the establishment of St Cyr near Paris +as a “king’s scholar.” On its disruption by the +<span class="sidenote">3. Elisa.</span> +revolutionists in 1792 Napoleon took charge of her and +brought her back to Ajaccio. She shared the fortunes of the +family in the south of France, and on the 5th of May 1797 +married Felix Bacciochi, a well-connected Corsican. In 1805, +after the foundation of the French empire, Napoleon bestowed +upon her the principality of Piombino and shortly afterwards +Lucca; in 1808 her importunities gained for her the grand +duchy of Tuscany. Bacciochi being almost a nullity, her pride +and ability had a great influence on the administration and on +Italian affairs in general. Her relations with Napoleon were +frequently strained; and in 1813-1814 she abetted Murat in his +enterprises (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Murat</a></span>). After her brother’s fall she retired, +with the title of countess of Compignano, first to Bologna and +afterwards to Santo Andrea near Trieste, where she died on the +6th of August 1820.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Turquan, <i>Les Sœurs de Napoléon</i> (Paris, 1896); P. Marmothan, +<i>Élisa Bonaparte</i> (Paris, 1898); E. Rodocanachi, <i>Élisa +Bonaparte en Italie</i> (Paris, 1900); F. Masson, <i>Napoléon et sa famille</i> +(4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900).</p> +</div> + +<p>IV. Louis (1778-1846) was born at Ajaccio on the 2nd of +September 1778. His elder brother Napoleon supervised +his education with much care, gaining for him scholarships +to the royal military schools of France, and during +<span class="sidenote">4. Louis Bonaparte.</span> +the time when the elder brother was a lieutenant in +garrison at Auxonne Louis shared his scanty fare. In 1795 +Napoleon procured for him admission to the military school at +Châlons, and wrote thus of the boy:—“I am very pleased with +Louis; he fulfils my hopes; intelligence, warmth, good health, +talent, good address, kindness—he possesses all these qualities.” +Louis went through the Italian campaign of 1796-97 with +Napoleon and acted as his aide-de-camp in Egypt in 1798-99. +In 1802 the First Consul married him to Hortense Beauharnais, +a forced union which led to most deplorable results. In 1804 +Louis was raised to the rank of general, and entered the council +of state in order to perfect his knowledge of administrative +affairs. In the next year he became governor of Paris and undertook +various military and administrative duties.</p> + +<p>After the victory of Austerlitz (December 2, 1805) Napoleon +began to plan the formation of a ring of states surrounding, and +in close alliance with, the French empire. He destined Louis for +the throne of Holland, and proclaimed him king of that country +on the 6th of June 1806. From the first the emperor reproached +him with being too easy with his subjects and with courting +popularity too much. The increasing rigour of the continental +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page195" id="page195"></a>195</span> +system brought the two brothers to an open rupture. Their +relations were embittered by a violent jealousy which Louis +conceived against his wife. In 1808 the emperor offered Louis +the throne of Spain then vacant; but on Louis refusing to +accept it the honour went to Joseph. The dispute between +Louis and the emperor continued. In the latter part of 1809 +Napoleon virtually resolved to annex Holland, in order to stop +the trade which the Dutch secretly carried on with England. +At the close of the year Louis went to Paris, partly in order to +procure a divorce from Hortense and partly to gain better +terms for Holland. He failed in both respects. In January +1810 Napoleon annexed the island of Walcheren, alleging that +Louis had not done his share in defending the interests of France +at the time of the British Walcheren expedition (1809). The +French troops also occupied Breda and Bergen-op-Zoom. Louis +gave way on all the points in dispute; but his acquiescence only +postponed the crisis. After the collapse of negotiations with +Great Britain in the spring of 1810, the emperor again pressed +Louis hard, and finally sent French troops against the Dutch +capital. Thereupon Louis, despairing of offering resistance, +fled from his kingdom and finally settled at Töplitz in Bohemia. +On the 9th of July 1810 Napoleon annexed Holland to the +French empire. Louis spent the rest of his life separated from +his wife, and in 1815 gained the custody of his elder son. He +lived chiefly at Rome, concerning himself with literary and +philosophic studies and with the fortunes of his sons. Their +devotion to the national and democratic cause in Italy in 1830-1831 +gave him much pleasure, which was overclouded by the +death of the elder, Napoleon Louis, in the spring campaign of +1831 in the Romagna. The failure of his other son, Charles +Louis Napoleon (afterwards Napoleon III.), to wrest the French +crown from Louis Philippe by the attempts at Strassburg and +Boulogne also caused him much disappointment. He died on +the 25th of July 1846 and was buried at St Leu. Under more +favourable conditions Louis would have gained a name for +kindness and philanthropy, proofs of which did indeed appear +during his reign in Holland and gained him the esteem of his +subjects; but his morbid sensitiveness served to embitter his +relations both of a domestic and of a political nature and to sour +his own disposition. His literary works are unimportant. His +sons were Napoleon Charles (1802-1807), Napoleon Louis (1804-1831), +and Charles Louis Napoleon (1808-1873), afterwards +emperor of the French as <span class="sc">Napoleon III</span>. (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief works on the life and reign of Louis are le comte de +Saint-Leu, <i>Documents historiques et reflexions sur le gouvernement de +Hollande</i> 3 vols., 2nd ed., Paris, 1820); F. Rocquain, <i>Napoleon I<span class="sp">er</span> +et le Roi Louis, d’après les documents conservés aux archives nationales</i> +(Paris, 1875); Baron A. du Casse, <i>Les Rois frères de Napoléon</i> +(Paris, 1883); A Garnier, <i>La Cour de Hollande sous le règne de Louis +Bonaparte, par un auditeur</i> (Paris and Amsterdam, 1823); T. +Jorissen, <i>Napoléon 1′er et le roi de Hollande (1806-1813) d’après des +documents authentiques et inedits</i> (Paris and The Hague, 1868); +V. Loosjes, <i>Louis Bonaparte, Koning van Holland</i> (Amsterdam, +1888); L. Wichers, <i>De Regeering van Koning Lodewijk Napoleon</i> +(1806-1810) (Utrecht, 1892); F. Masson, <i>Napoléon et sa famille</i> +(4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">V. Marie Pauline</span> (1780-1825), the gayest and most +beautiful member of the family, was born at Ajaccio on the +20th October 1780. At seventeen years of age she +married General Leclerc, a staff officer of Napoleon, and +<span class="sidenote">5. Pauline.</span> +accompanied him to St Domingo, where he died of yellow fever in +1802. Returning to Paris she espoused Prince Camillo Borghese +(August 23, 1803) and went to reside with him in Rome. She +soon tired of him, returned to Paris and gratified her whims in +ways that caused some scandal. In 1806 she received the title of +duchess of Guastalla. Her offhand treatment of the new empress, +Marie Louise, in 1810 led to her removal from court. Nevertheless +in 1814 she repaired with “Madame Mère” to Elba, and is said +to have expressed a wish to share Napoleon’s exile in St Helena. +She died in 1825 of cancer. Canova’s statue of her as Venus +reclining on a couch is well known.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Turquan, <i>Les Sœurs de Napoléon: les princesses Élisa, +Pauline et Caroline</i> (Paris, 1896); F. Masson, <i>Napoléon et sa famille</i> +(4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">VI. Maria Annunciata Caroline</span> (1782-1839) was born +at Ajaccio on the 25th of March 1782. Early in 1800 she +married Joachim Murat, whose interests she afterwards +advanced with all the power of her ambitious and +<span class="sidenote">6. Caroline Murat.</span> +intriguing nature. He became governor of Paris, +marshal of France (1804), grand duke of Berg and of Cleves +(1806), lieutenant of the emperor in Spain (1808), and early in +the summer of that year king of Naples. The distance of +this capital from Paris displeased Caroline; her relations with +Napoleon became strained, and she associated herself with the +equivocal movements of her husband in 1814-1815. Before +his tragic end at Pizzo on the 13th of October 1815, she had +retired to Austrian territory and was placed under some measure +of restraint. Finally she lived at Trieste with her sister Elisa. +She died on the 18th of May 1839.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J. Turquan, <i>Caroline Murat, reine de Naples</i> (Paris, 1899); +F. Masson, <i>Napoléon et sa famille</i> (4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900). See +also under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Murat, Joachim</a></span>.</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="sc">VII. Jerome</span> (1784-1860) was born at Ajaccio on the +15th of November 1784; he shared the fortunes of the family in +the early years of the French Revolution, was then +educated at Juilly and was called to the side of his +<span class="sidenote">7. Jerome Bonaparte.</span> +brother, then First Consul of France, in 1800. Many +stories are told illustrating his impetuous but affectionate +nature. While in the Consular Guard he fought a duel with +the younger brother of General Davout and was wounded. Soon +afterwards he was transferred to the navy and cruised in the +West Indies, until, when blockaded by a British cruiser, he left +his ship and travelled through the United States. At Baltimore +he fell in love with Miss Elizabeth Patterson, and, though a minor, +married her. This disregard of discipline and of the laws of +France greatly annoyed Napoleon; and when in 1805 Jerome +brought his wife to Europe, the emperor ordered her to be +excluded from his states. Jerome vainly sought to bend his +brother’s will in an interview at Alexandria. In May 1805 he +received command of a small squadron in the Mediterranean, +while his wife proceeded to Camberwell, where she gave birth to a +son. In November Jerome sailed in a squadron commanded by +Admiral Willaumez, which was to ravage the West Indies; but it +was scattered by a storm. After damaging British commerce in +the North Atlantic, Jerome reached France with his ship in +safety in August 1806. Napoleon made him a prince of France, +and gave him command of a division of South Germans in the +campaign of 1806. After Jena, Jerome received the surrender of +several Prussian towns. An imperial decree having annulled the +Patterson marriage, the emperor united Jerome to the princess +Catherine of Württemberg; and in pursuance of the terms of +the treaty of Tilsit (July 7, 1807) raised him to the throne of the +new kingdom of Westphalia. There Jerome, though frequently +rebuked by the emperor, displayed his fondness for luxury, +indulged in numerous <i>amours</i> and ran deeply into debt. In +some respects his kingdom benefited by the connexion with +France. Feudalism was abolished; the <i>Code Napoléon</i> was +introduced; the Jews were freed from repressive laws; and +education received some impulse in its higher departments. +But the unpopularity of Jerome’s rule was shown by the part +taken by the peasants in the abortive rising headed by Baron +Wilhelm von Dörnberg and other Westphalian officers in April +1809. Despite heavy taxation, the state debt increased greatly; +and the sending of a contingent to Russia in 1812 brought the +state to the verge of bankruptcy. In the early part of that +campaign Jerome was entrusted with an important movement +which might have brought the southern Russian army into grave +danger; on his failure (which was probably due to his lack of +energy) the emperor promptly subjected him to the control of +Marshal Davout, and Jerome returned to Cassel. In 1813, on the +fall of the Napoleonic régime in Germany, Jerome retired to +France, and in 1814 spent some time in Switzerland and at +Trieste. Returning to France in 1815, he commanded a division +on the French left wing at Waterloo and attacked Hougomont +with great pertinacity. On Napoleon’s second abdication +Jerome proceeded to Württemberg, was threatened with arrest +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page196" id="page196"></a>196</span> +unless he gave up his wife and child, and was kept under +surveillance at Goppingen; finally he was allowed to proceed to +Augsburg, and thereafter resided at Trieste, or in Italy or +Switzerland. His consort died in 1835. He returned to France in 1847, +and after the rise of Louis Napoleon to power, became successively +governor of the Invalides, marshal of France and president +of the senate. He died on the 24th of June 1860. His children +were Jerome Napoleon (see XIV.), Mathilde (see XII.) and +Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul (born in 1822); the last was +afterwards known as Prince Napoleon (see XI. below) and finally +became the heir to the fortunes of the Napoleonic dynasty.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief works relating to Jerome Bonaparte are: +Baron Albert du Casse, <i>Mémoires et correspondance du roi Jérôme et de la reine +Cathérine</i> (7 vols., Paris, 1861-1866) and <i>Les Rois frères de Napoléon</i> (1883); +M.M. Kaisenberg, <i>Konig Jerome Napoleon</i>; +W.T.R. Saffell, <i>The Bonaparte-Patterson Marriage</i>; +August von Schlossberger, <i>Briefwechsel der Konigin Katharina und des Konigs Jerome +von Westfalen mit Konig Friedrich von Württemberg</i> (Stuttgart, 1886-1887), +supplemented by du Casse in +<i>Corresp. inédite de la reine Cathérine de Westphalie</i> (Paris, 1888-1893); +A. Martinet, <i>Jérôme Napoléon, roi de Westfalie</i> (Paris, 1902); +P.W. Sergeant, <i>The Burlesque Napoleon</i> (1905); +F. Masson, <i>Napoléon et sa famille</i> (4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div> + +<p>The fortunes of the Bonaparte family may be further followed +under the later biographies of its leading members, mainly +descendants of Lucien (II. above) and Jerome (VII. above).</p> + +<p><span class="sc">VIII. Charles Lucien Jules Laurent</span> (1803-1857), prince +of Canino, son of Lucien Bonaparte, was a scientist rather than a +politician. He married his cousin, Zénaïde Bonaparte, +daughter of Joseph, in 1822. At the age of twenty-two +<span class="sidenote">Descendants of Lucien: 8. Charles.</span> +he began the publication of an <i>American Ornithology</i> +(4 vols., Philadelphia, 1825-1833), which established +his scientific reputation. A series of other works in zoology +followed: <i>Iconographia della fauna Italica</i> (3 vols., Rome, 1832-1841), +<i>Catalogo metodico degli uccelli europei</i> (1 vol., Bologna, 1842), +<i>Catalogo metodico dei pesci europei</i> (1 vol., Naples, 1845, 4to), +<i>Catalogo metodico dei mammiferi europei</i> (1 vol., Milan, 1845), +<i>Telachorum tabula analytica</i> (Neufchatel, 1838). He was +elected honorary member of the academy of Upsala in 1833, of +that of Berlin in 1843, and correspondent of the Institute of +France in 1844. Towards 1847 he took part in the political +agitation in Italy, and presided over scientific congresses, +notably at Venice, where he declared himself in favour of the +independence of Italy and the expulsion of the Austrians. He +entered the Junto of Rome in 1848 and was elected deputy by +Viterbo to the national assembly. The failure of the revolution +forced him to leave Italy in July 1849. He gained Holland, then +France, where he turned again to science. His principal works were, +<i>Conspectus systematis ornithologiae, mastozologiae, erpetologiae +et amphibologiae, Ichthyologiae</i> (Leiden, 1850), <i>Tableau des +oiseaux-mouches</i> (Paris, 1854), <i>Ornithologie fossile</i> (Paris, 1858). +Eight children survived him: Joseph Lucien Charles Napoleon, +prince of Canino (1824-1865), who died without heirs; Lucien +Louis Joseph Napoleon, born in 1828, who took holy orders in +1853 and became a cardinal in 1868; Julie Charlotte Zénaïde +Pauline Laetitia Désirée Bartholomée, who married the marquis +of Roccagiovine; Charlotte Honorine Josephine, who married +Count Primoli; Marie Désirée Eugénie Josephine Philomène, +who married the count Campello; Auguste Amélie Maximilienne +Jacqueline, who married Count Gabrielli; Napoleon Charles +Grégoire Jacques Philippe, born in 1839, who married the +princess Ruspoli, by whom he had two daughters; and Bathilde +Aloyse Léonie, who married the comte de Cambacérès. The +branch is now extinct.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">IX. Louis Lucien</span> (1813-1891), son of Lucien Bonaparte, +was born at Thorngrove, Worcestershire, England, on the +4th of January 1813. He passed his youth in England, not +going to France until 1848, when, after the revolution, +<span class="sidenote">9. Louis Lucien.</span> +he was elected deputy for Corsica on the 28th of +November 1848; his election having been invalidated, he was +returned as deputy for the Seine in June 1849. He sat in the right +of the Legislative Assembly, but had no direct part in the <i>coup +d’état</i> of his cousin on the 2nd of December 1851. Napoleon III. +named him senator and prince, but he took hardly any part in +politics during the Second Empire, and after the proclamation of +the Third Republic in 1870 he withdrew to England. There he +busied himself with philology, and published notably some works +on the Basque language: <i>Grammaire basque, Remarques sur +plusieurs assertions concernant la langue basque</i> (1876), +<i>Observations sur le basque Fontarabie</i> (1878). He died +on the 3rd of November 1891, leaving no children.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">X. Pierre Napoleon</span> (1815-1881), son of Lucien Bonaparte, +was born at Rome on the 12th of September 1815. He +began his life of adventure at the age of fifteen, joining +the insurrectionary bands in the Romagna (1830-1831); +<span class="sidenote">10. Pierre.</span> +was then in the United States, where he went to join +his uncle Joseph, and in Colombia with General Santander +(1832). Returning to Rome he was taken prisoner by order +of the pope (1835-1836). He finally took refuge in England. +At the revolution of 1848 he returned to France and was elected +deputy for Corsica to the Constituent Assembly. He declared +himself an out-and-out republican and voted even with the +socialists. He pronounced himself in favour of the national +workshops and against the <i>loi Falloux</i>. His attitude +contributed greatly to give popular confidence to his cousin Louis +Napoleon (Napoleon III.), of whose <i>coup d’état</i> on the 2nd +of December 1851 he disapproved; but he was soon reconciled to the +emperor, and accepted the title of prince. The republicans at +once abandoned him. From that time on he led a debauched life, +and lost all political importance. He turned to literature and +published some mediocre poems. In January 1870 a violent +incident brought him again into prominence. As the result +of a controversy with Paschal Grousset, the latter sent him two +journalists to provoke him to a duel. Pierre Bonaparte took +them personally to account, and during a violent discussion +he drew his revolver and killed one of them, Victor Noir. This +crime greatly excited the republican press, which demanded his +trial. The High Court acquitted him, and criticism then fell +upon the government. Pierre Bonaparte died in obscurity +at Versailles on the 7th of April 1881. He had married the +daughter of a Paris working-man, Justine Eleanore Ruffin, by +whom he had, before his marriage, two children: (1) Roland +Napoleon, born on the 19th of May 1858, who entered the army, +was excluded from it in 1886, and then devoted himself to +geography and scientific explorations; (2) Jeanne, wife of the +marquis de Vence.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">XI. Napoleon Joseph Charles Paul</span>, commonly known +as Prince Napoleon, or by the sobriquet of “Plon-Plon,”<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> +(1822-1891), was the second son of Jerome Bonaparte, +king of Westphalia, by his wife Catherine, princess +<span class="sidenote">Descendants of Jerome: 11. Prince Napoleon (Plon-Plon).</span> +of Württemberg, and was born at Trieste on the +9th of September 1822. He soon rendered himself +popular by his advanced democratic ideas, which +he expressed on all possible occasions. After the +French revolution of 1848 he was elected to the +National Assembly as a representative of Corsica, and (his elder +brother, Jerome Napoleon Charles, dying in 1847) assumed the +name of Jerome. Notwithstanding his ostensible opposition +to the <i>coup d’état</i> of 1851, he was designated, upon the +establishment of the Empire, as successor to the throne if +Napoleon III. should die childless, and received a liberal +dotation, but was allowed no share in public affairs. Privately he +professed himself the representative of the Napoleonic tradition +in its democratic aspect, and associated mainly with men of +advanced political opinions. At court he represented the Liberal +party against the empress Eugénie. In 1854 he took part in the +Crimean campaign as general of division. His conduct at the +battle of the Alma occasioned imputations upon his personal +courage, but they seem to have been entirely groundless. Returning +to France he undertook the chief direction of the National +Exhibition of 1855, in which he manifested great capacity. +In 1858 he was appointed minister for the Colonies and Algeria, +and his administration aroused great hopes, but his activity +was diverted into a different channel by his sudden marriage +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page197" id="page197"></a>197</span> +in January 1859 with the princess Marie Clotilde of Savoy, +daughter of Victor Emmanuel, a prelude to the war for the +liberation of Italy. In this war Prince Napoleon commanded +the French corps that occupied Tuscany, and it was expected +that he would become ruler of the principality, but he refused +to exert any pressure upon the inhabitants, who preferred union +with the Italian kingdom. The next few years were chiefly +distinguished by remarkable speeches which displayed the prince +in the unexpected character of a great orator. Unfortunately +his indiscretion equalled his eloquence: one speech (1861) sent +him to America to avoid a duel with the duke d’Aumale; another +(1865), in which he justly but intemperately protested against +the Mexican expedition, cost him all his official dignities. +Nevertheless he was influential in effecting the reform by which in +1869 it was sought to reconcile the Empire with Liberal principles. +The fatal war of 1870 was resolved upon during his absence +in Norway, and was strongly condemned by him. After the +first disasters he undertook an ineffectual mission to Italy to +implore the aid of his father-in-law; and after the fall of the +Empire lived in comparative retirement until in 1879 the death +of Napoleon III.’s son, the Prince Imperial (see XIII. below), +made him direct heir to the Napoleonic succession. His part as +imperial pretender was unfortunate and inglorious: his democratic +opinions were unacceptable to the imperial party, and +before his death he was virtually deposed in favour of his son +Prince Napoleon Victor, who, supported by Paul de Cassagnac +and others, openly declared himself a candidate for the throne +in 1884. He died at Rome on the 17th of March 1891. In the +character of his intellect, as in personal appearance, he bore +an extraordinary resemblance to the first Napoleon, possessing +the same marvellous lucidity of insight, and the same gift of +infallibly distinguishing the essential from the non-essential. +He was a warm friend of literature and art, and in a private +station would have achieved high distinction as a man of letters.</p> + +<p>His eldest son, Prince Napoleon Victor Jérome Frédéric (b. 1862), +became at his death the recognized head of the French +Bonapartist party. The second son, Prince Louis Napoleon, an +officer in the Russian army, showed a steadier disposition, and +was more favoured in some monarchist quarters; in 1906 he +was made governor of the Caucasus.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">XII. Mathilde Letitia Wilhelmine</span> (1820-1904), daughter +of Jerome, and sister of Prince Napoleon (XI.), was born at +Trieste on the 20th of May 1820; after being almost +betrothed to her cousin Louis Napoleon, in 1840 she +<span class="sidenote">12. Mathilde.</span> +was married to Prince Anatole Demidov. His conduct, +however, led to a separation within five years, and the tsar +Nicholas compelled him to make Princess Mathilde a handsome +allowance. After the election of Louis Napoleon to the presidency +of the republic she took up her residence in Paris, and +did the honours of the Élysée till his marriage. She continued +to live in Paris, having great influence as a friend and patron of +men of art and letters, till her death on the 2nd of January 1904.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">XIII. Napoleon Eugene Louis Jean Joseph</span> (1856-1879), +Prince Imperial, only son of the emperor Napoleon III. +and the empress Eugénie, was born at Paris on the 16th +of March 1856. He was a delicate boy, but when the +<span class="sidenote">13. Prince Imperial: son of Napoleon III.</span> +war of 1870 broke out his mother sent him to the army, +to win popularity for him, and the government journals +vaunted his bravery. After the first defeats he had +to flee from France with the empress, and settled in England +at Chislehurst, completing his military education at Woolwich. +On the death of his father on the 9th of January 1873 the +Imperialists proclaimed him Napoleon IV., and he became +the official Pretender. He was naturally inactive, but he was +influenced by his mother on the one hand, and by the Bonapartist +leaders in France on the other. They thought that he should +win his crown by military prestige, and he was persuaded to +attach himself as a volunteer to the English expedition to +Zululand in February 1879. It was a blunder to have allowed him +to go, and the blunder ended in a tragedy, for while out on a +reconnaissance with a few troopers they were surprised by Zulus, +and the Prince Imperial was killed (June 1, 1879). His body +was brought back to England, and buried at Chislehurst.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">XIV. The Bonapartes of Baltimore</span> are a branch of the +family settled in America, descended from Jerome Bonaparte +(VII.) by his union with Elizabeth (b. 1785), daughter of William +Patterson, a Baltimore merchant, probably descended from the +Robert Paterson who was the original of Sir Walter Scott’s “Old +Mortality.” The marriage took place at Baltimore on the 24th of +December 1803, but it was greatly disliked by Napoleon, who +refused to recognize its legality. However, it was valid according +to American law, and Pope Pius VII. refused to declare it void. +Nevertheless Jerome was forced by his brother to separate +himself from his wife, whom he had brought to Europe, and +after a stay in England Madame Patterson, or Madame Bonaparte, +as she was usually called, returned to Baltimore. She died +in 1879. Jerome’s only child by this marriage was Jerome +Napoleon Bonaparte (1805-1870), who was born in England, +but resided chiefly in Baltimore, and is said to have shown +a marked resemblance to his uncle, the great emperor. He was +on good terms with Jerome, who for some time made him a large +allowance, and father and son occasionally met. His elder son, +also called Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte (1832-1893), entered the +French army, with which he served in the Crimea and in Italy.</p> + +<p>Charles Joseph Bonaparte (b. 1851), younger son of the first +Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte, and a grandson of Jerome, king +of Westphalia, attained a distinguished place in American +politics. Born at Baltimore on the 9th of June 1851 and +educated at Harvard University, he became a lawyer in 1874 and +has been president of the National Municipal League and has +filled other public positions. He was secretary of the navy in +President Roosevelt’s cabinet from July 1905 to December 1906, +and then attorney-general of the United States until March 1909.</p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Derived, it is supposed, from the nickname “Plomb-plomb,” +or “Craint-plomb” (fear-lead), given him by his soldiers +in the Crimea.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONAR, HORATIUS<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> (1808-1889), Scottish Presbyterian +divine, was born in Edinburgh on the 19th of December 1808, +and educated at the high school and university of his native city. +After a term of mission work at Leith, he was appointed parish +minister of Kelso in 1837, and at the Disruption of 1843 became +minister of the newly formed Free Church, where he remained +till 1866, when he went to the Chalmers memorial church, +Edinburgh. He had in 1853 received the D.D. degree from Aberdeen +University, and in 1883 he was moderator of the general assembly +of his church. He died on the 31st of July 1889. Bonar was a +prolific writer of religious literature, and edited several journals, +including the <i>Christian Treasury</i>, the <i>Presbyterian Review</i> +and the <i>Quarterly Journal of Prophecy</i>; but his best work was +done in hymnology, and he published three series of <i>Hymns of Faith +and Hope</i> between 1857 and 1866 (new ed., 1886). Nearly every +modern hymnal contains perhaps a score of his hymns, including +“Go, labour on,” “I heard the voice of Jesus say,” “Here, O my +Lord, I see Thee face to face,” “When the weary, seeking rest.”</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Horatius Bonar, D.D., a Memorial</i> (1889).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONAVENTURA, SAINT<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (<span class="sc">John of Fidanza</span>), Franciscan theologian, +was born in 1221 at Bagnarea in Tuscany. He was destined +by his mother for the church, and is said to have received +his cognomen of Bonaventura from St Francis of Assisi, who +performed on him a miraculous cure. He entered the Franciscan +order in 1243, and studied at Paris possibly under Alexander +of Hales, and certainly under Alexander’s successor, John of +Rochelle, to whose chair he succeeded in 1253. Three years +earlier his fame had gained for him permission to read upon the +<i>Sentences</i>, and in 1255 he received the degree of doctor. So +high was his reputation that in the following year he was elected +general of his order. It was by his orders that Roger Bacon was +interdicted from lecturing at Oxford, and compelled to put +himself under the surveillance of the order at Paris. He was +instrumental in procuring the election of Gregory X., who +rewarded him with the titles of cardinal and bishop of Albano, +and insisted on his presence at the great council of Lyons in +the year 1274. At this meeting he died.</p> + +<p>Bonaventura’s character seems not unworthy of the eulogistic +title, “Doctor Seraphicus,” bestowed on him by his +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page198" id="page198"></a>198</span> +contemporaries, and of the place assigned to him by Dante in his +<i>Paradiso</i>. He was formally canonized in 1482 by Sixtus IV., +and ranked as sixth among the great doctors of the church by +Sixtus V. in 1587. His works, as arranged in the Lyons edition +(7 vols., folio), consist of expositions and sermons, filling the +first three volumes; of a commentary on the <i>Sentences</i> of +Lombardus, in two volumes, celebrated among medieval theologians +as incomparably the best exposition of the third part; +and of minor treatises filling the remaining two volumes, and +including a life of St Francis. The smaller works are the most +important, and of them the best are the famous <i>Itinerarium +Mentis ad Deum, Breviloquium, De Reductione Artium ad Theologiam, +Soliloquium</i>, and <i>De septem itineribus aeternitatis</i>, in which +most of what is individual in his teaching is contained.</p> + +<p>In philosophy Bonaventura presents a marked contrast to +his great contemporaries, Thomas Aquinas and Roger Bacon. +While these may be taken as representing respectively physical +science yet in its infancy, and Aristotelian scholasticism in its +most perfect form, he brings before us the mystical and Platonizing +mode of speculation which had already to some extent found +expression in Hugo and Richard of St Victor, and in Bernard +of Clairvaux. To him the purely intellectual element, though +never absent, is of inferior interest when compared with the +living power of the affections or the heart. He rejects the +authority of Aristotle, to whose influence he ascribes much of the +heretical tendency of the age, and some of whose cardinal +doctrines—such as the eternity of the world—he combats +vigorously. But the Platonism he received was Plato as understood +by St Augustine, and as he had been handed down by the +Alexandrian school and the author of the mystical works passing +under the name of Dionysius the Areopagite. Bonaventura +accepts as Platonic the theory that ideas do not exist <i>in rerum +natura</i>, but as thoughts of the divine mind, according to which +actual things were formed; and this conception has no slight +influence upon his philosophy. Like all the great scholastic +doctors he starts with the discussion of the relations between +reason and faith. All the sciences are but the handmaids of +theology; reason can discover some of the moral truths which +form the groundwork of the Christian system, but others it can +only receive and apprehend through divine illumination. In +order to obtain this illumination the soul must employ the +proper means, which are prayer, the exercise of the virtues, +whereby it is rendered fit to accept the divine light, and meditation +which may rise even to ecstatic union with God. The +supreme end of life is such union, union in contemplation or +intellect and in intense absorbing love; but it cannot be entirely +reached in this life, and remains as a hope for futurity. The +mind in contemplating God has three distinct aspects, stages or +grades—the senses, giving empirical knowledge of what is +without and discerning the traces (<i>vestigia</i>) of the divine in the +world; the reason, which examines the soul itself, the image +of the divine Being; and lastly, pure intellect (<i>intelligentia</i>), +which, in a transcendent act, grasps the Being of the divine cause. +To these three correspond the three kinds of theology—<i>theologia +symbolica, theologia propria</i> and <i>theologia mystica</i>. Each stage +is subdivided, for in contemplating the outer world we may use +the senses or the imagination; we may rise to a knowledge of +God <i>per vestigia</i> or <i>in vestigiis</i>. In the first case the three great +properties of physical bodies—weight, number, measure,—in +the second the division of created things into the classes of +those that have merely physical existence, those that have life, +and those that have thought, irresistibly lead us to conclude the +power, wisdom and goodness of the Triune God. So in the +second stage we may ascend to the knowledge of God, <i>per +imaginem</i>, by reason, or <i>in imagine</i>, by the pure understanding +(<i>intellectus</i>); in the one case the triple division—memory, +understanding and will,—in the other the Christian virtues—faith, +hope and charity,—leading again to the conception of a +Trinity of divine qualities—eternity, truth and goodness. In +the last stage we have first <i>intelligentia</i>, pure intellect, contemplating +the essential being of God, and finding itself compelled +by necessity of thought to hold absolute being as the first notion, +for non-being cannot be conceived apart from being, of which it +is but the privation. To this notion of absolute being, which is +perfect and the greatest of all, objective existence must be +ascribed. In its last and highest form of activity the mind rests +in the contemplation of the infinite goodness of God, which is +apprehended by means of the highest faculty, the <i>apex mentis</i> or +<i>synderesis</i>. This spark of the divine illumination is common to +all forms of mysticism, but Bonaventura adds to it peculiarly +Christian elements. The complete yielding up of mind and heart +to God is unattainable without divine grace, and nothing renders +us so fit to receive this gift as the meditative and ascetic life of +the cloister. The monastic life is the best means of grace.</p> + +<p>Bonaventura, however, is not merely a meditative thinker, +whose works may form good manuals of devotion; he is a +dogmatic theologian of high rank, and on all the disputed +questions of scholastic thought, such as universals, matter, +the principle of individualism, or the <i>intellectus agens</i>, he gives +weighty and well-reasoned decisions. He agrees with Albertus +Magnus in regarding theology as a practical science; its truths, +according to his view, are peculiarly adapted to influence the +affections. He discusses very carefully the nature and meaning +of the divine attributes; considers universals to be the ideal +forms pre-existing in the divine mind according to which things +were shaped; holds matter to be pure potentiality which +receives individual being and determinateness from the formative +power of God, acting according to the ideas; and finally maintains +that the <i>intellectus agens</i> has no separate existence. On these +and on many other points of scholastic philosophy the Seraphic +Doctor exhibits a combination of subtilty and moderation which +makes his works peculiarly valuable.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Editions</span>.—7 vols., Rome, 1588-1596; 7 vols., Lyons, 1668; +13 vols., Venice, 1751 ff.; by A.C. Peltier, 15 vols., Paris, 1863 ff.; +10 vols., Rome, 1882-1892. K.J. Hefele edited the <i>Breviloquium</i> +and the <i>Itin. Mentis</i> (3rd ed., Tübingen, 1862); +two volumes of selections were issued by Alix in 1853-1856.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.—W.A. Hollenberg, <i>Studien zu Bonaventura</i> (1862); +F. Nitzsch, art. in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencyk. für prot. Theol.</i>, +where a list of monographs is given, to which add one by De Chévancé +(1899).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(R. Ad.; X.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONCHAMPS, CHARLES MELCHIOR ARTUS,<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis de</span> +(<i>c.</i> 1760-1793), Vendéan leader, was born at Jouverteil, Anjou. +He gained his first military experience in the American War of +Independence, and on his return to France was made a captain +of grenadiers in the French army. He was a staunch upholder +of the monarchy, and at the outbreak of the French Revolution +resigned his command and retired to his château at St Florent. +In the spring of 1793 he was chosen leader by the insurgents of +the Vendée, and to his counsels may be attributed in great +measure the success of the peasants’ arms. He was present at +the taking of Bressuire, Thouars and Fontenay, at which last +place he was wounded; but dissensions among their leaders +weakened the insurgents, and at the bloody battle of Cholet +(October 1793) the Vendéans sustained a severe defeat and +Bonchamps was mortally wounded. He died the next day. It +is said that his last act was the pardoning of five thousand +republican prisoners, whom his troops had sworn to kill in +revenge for his death. A statue of him by David d’Angers +stands in the church of St Florent.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (1815-1898), English librarian, +was born at Hanwell on the 31st of December 1815, +the son of a schoolmaster. He was educated at Merchant Taylors’ +school, and in 1832 obtained a post in the public record +office. In 1838 he became an assistant in the manuscript +department of the British Museum, where he attracted the +notice of his chief, Sir Frederick Madden, the most eminent +palaeographer of his day, and in 1852 he was made Egerton +librarian. In 1856 he became assistant keeper of MSS., and in +1867 was promoted to the post of keeper. His work in +reorganizing the manuscript department was of lasting value, +and to him is due the classified catalogue of MSS., and the +improved efficiency and punctuality of publication of the +department. In 1878 he was appointed principal librarian. +Under his supervision were erected the new buildings of the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page199" id="page199"></a>199</span> +“White Wing,” which provide accommodation for prints, +drawings, manuscripts and newspapers, and the purchase of +the Stowe MSS. was concluded while he remained in office. +He founded, in conjunction with Sir E. Maunde Thompson, the +Palaeographical Society, and first made classical palaeography +an exact science. He was made LL.D. of Cambridge in 1879, +created C.B. in 1885, and K.C.B. the day before his death on +the 2nd of January 1898. He was the editor of four volumes +of facsimiles of Anglo-Saxon charters from 679 to the Conquest, +<i>The Speeches in the Trial of Warren Hastings</i> (1859-1861), and +a number of other interesting historic documents.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOND,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span><a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> in English law, an obligation by deed. Its design is +to secure that the obligor, <i>i.e</i>. the person giving the bond, will +either pay a sum of money, or do or refrain from doing some act; +and for this purpose the obligor binds himself in a penalty to the +obligee, with a condition added that, if the obligor pays the sum +secured—which is usually half the penalty—or does or refrains +from doing the specified act, the bond shall be void: otherwise +it shall remain in full force. This condition is known as the +defeasance because it defeats or undoes the bond. The form +of a common money bond runs as follows:—</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Know All Men by these presents that I, A.B. (name, address and +description of obligor), am bound to C.D. (name, address and description +of obligee) in the sum of £[2000] to be paid to the said (obligee), +his executors, administrators or assigns or to his or their attorney +or attorneys, for which payment I bind myself by these presents. +Sealed with my seal. Dated this    day of    19  .</p> + +<p>The condition of the above-written bond is such that if the above +A.B., his heirs, executors or administrators, shall on the +day of    pay to the above-named C.D., his heirs, executors, +administrators or assigns the sum of £[1000], with interest for the +same from the date of the above-written bond at the rate of +per cent per annum without any deduction, then the above-written +bond shall be void: otherwise the bond shall remain in full force.</p> + +<p>Signed, sealed and delivered<br /> +   by the above-named A.B.<br /> +   in the presence of (witness)</p> +</div> + +<p>Recitals are frequently added to explain the circumstances +under which the bond is given.</p> + +<p>If the condition is not performed, <i>i.e</i>. if the obligor does not +pay the money by the day stipulated, or do or refrain from +doing the act provided for, the bond becomes forfeit or absolute +at law, and charges the obligor and his estate (see Conveyancing +Act 1881, s. 59). In old days, when a bond was forfeit, the whole +penalty was recoverable at law and payment <i>post diem</i> could not +be pleaded to an action on it, but the court of chancery early +interposed to prevent oppression. It held the penalty of a bond +to be the form, not the substance of it, a pledge merely to secure +repayment of the sum bona fide advanced, and would not permit +a man to take more than in conscience he ought, <i>i.e</i>. in case of +a common money bond, his principal, interest and expenses. +This equitable relief received statutory recognition by an act of +1705, which provided that, in case of a common money bond, +payment of the lesser sum with interest and costs shall be taken +in full satisfaction of the bond. An obligee of a common money +bond can, since the date of the Judicature Act, obtain summary +judgment under O. xiv. (R.S.C. 1883) by specially endorsing +his writ under O. iii. R. 6.</p> + +<p>Bonds were, however, and still are given to secure performance +of a variety of matters other than the payment of a sum of money +at a fixed date. They may be given and are given, for instance, +to guarantee the fidelity of a clerk, of a rent collector, or of a +person in an office of public trust, or to secure that an intended +husband will settle a sum on his wife in the event of her surviving +him, or that a building contract shall be carried out, or that a +rival business shall not be carried on by the obligor except +within certain limits of time and space. The same object can +often be attained—and more conveniently attained—by a +covenant than by bond, and covenants have in the practice of +conveyancers largely superseded bonds, but there are cases +where security by bond is still preferable to security by covenant. +Thus under a bond to secure an annuity, if the obligor makes +default, judgment may be entered for the penalty and stand as +security for the future payments without the necessity of +bringing a fresh action for each payment. In cases of bonds +with special conditions, such as those instanced above, the +remedy of the obligee for breach of the condition is prescribed +by an act of 1696, the procedure under which is preserved by the +Judicature Act (O. xxii. R. 1, O. xiii. R. 14). The obligee +assigns the particular breaches of which he complains, damages +in respect of such breaches are assessed, and, on payment into +court by the obligor of the amount of such damages, the court +enters a stay of execution. A difficulty which has much exercised +and still exercises the courts is to determine, in these cases of +special conditions, whether the sum for which the bond is given +is a true penalty or only liquidated damages. There is nothing +to prevent the parties to a bond from agreeing the damages for +a breach, and if they have done so, the court will not interfere, +as it will in the case of a penalty. The leading case on the +subject is <i>Kemble</i> v. <i>Farren</i> (1829; 6 Bing. 148).</p> + +<p>Bonds given to secure the doing of anything which is contrary +to the policy of the law are void. Such, for instance, is a bond +given to a woman for future cohabitation (as distinguished from +past cohabitation), or a marriage brocage bond, that is, a bond +given to procure a marriage between parties. (See the matrimonial +agency case, <i>Hermann</i> v. <i>Charlesworth</i>, 1905, 2 K.B. 123). +It was not without design that Shakespeare laid the scene of +Shylock’s suit on Antonio’s bond in a Venetian court; the bond +would have had short shrift in an English court.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Post Obit Bonds</i>.—A post obit bond is one given by an expectant +heir or legatee, payable on or after the death of the person from +whom the obligor has expectations. Such a bond, if the obligee has +exacted unconscionable terms, may be set aside.</p> + +<p><i>Bottomry Bonds</i>.—A bottomry bond is a contract of hypothecation +by which the owner of a ship, or the master as his agent, borrows +money for the use of the ship to meet some emergency, <i>e.g.</i> necessary +repairs, and pledges the ship (or keel or bottom of the ship, <i>partem +pro toto</i>) as security for repayment. If the ship safely accomplishes +her voyage, the obligee gets his money back with the agreed interest: +if the ship is totally lost, he loses it altogether.</p> + +<p><i>Lloyd’s Bonds</i>.—Lloyd’s bonds are instruments under the seal of a +railway company, admitting the indebtedness of the company to +the obligee to a specified amount for work done or goods supplied, +with a covenant to pay him such amount with interest on a future +day. They are a device by which railway companies were enabled +to increase their indebtedness without technically violating their +charter. The name is derived from the counsel who settled the form +of the bond.</p> + +<p><i>Debenture Bonds</i>.—Debenture bonds are bonds secured only by +the covenant of the company without any floating or fixed charge on +the assets. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Debentures and Debenture Stock</a></span>.)</p> + +<p><i>Recognizance</i>.—A recognizance differs from a bond in being +entered into before a court of record and thereby becoming an +obligation of record.</p> + +<p><i>Heritable bond</i> is a Scots law term, meaning a bond for money, +joined with a conveyance of land, and held by a creditor as security +for his debt.</p> + +<p>For goods “in bond” see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bonded Warehouse</a></span>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Ma.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This word, meaning “that which binds,” is a phonetic variant +of “band,” and is derived from the Teutonic root seen in <i>bindan</i>, +to bind; it must be distinguished from the obsolete “bond,” +meaning originally a householder. In the laws of Canute this word +is used as equal to the Old English <i>ceorl</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Churl</a></span>), and thus, as +the churl’s position became less free after the Norman Conquest, the +“bond” approximated to the “villein,” and still later to the “serf.” +The word is in Old English <i>bonda</i>, and appears in “husband” (<i>q.v</i>.), +and is derived from the root of the verb <i>búa</i>, to dwell, to have a +house, the Latin <i>colere</i>, and thus in origin is cognate with German +<i>Bauer</i> and English “boor.” The transition in meaning to the idea +of serfdom, and hence to slavery, is due to an early confusion with +“bond,” from “bind.” The same wrong connexion appears in the +transition of meaning in “bondage,” properly “tenure in villeinage,” +but now used as synonymous with “slavery.” A trace of the +early meaning still survives in “bondager” (<i>q.v.</i>).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONDAGER,<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> a word meaning generally a servant, but specially +used in the south of Scotland and Northumberland as the +term for a female outworker whom a married farm-labourer, living +in a cottage attached to the farm, undertakes as a condition of +his tenancy to supply for field-labour, sometimes also to board +and lodge. The origin of the system was a dearth of field-labour.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONDE, GUSTAF,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1620-1667), Swedish statesman. +He is remarkable for being the persistent advocate of a pacific +policy at a time when war on the slightest provocation was the +watchword of every Swedish politician. Even the popular +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page200" id="page200"></a>200</span> +Polish adventure of Charles X. was strenuously opposed by +Bonde, though when once it was decided upon he materially +assisted the king to find the means for carrying it on. He was +also in favour of strict economy coupled with the recovery of the +royal domains which had fallen into the hands of the nobles, +though his natural partiality for his fellow-peers came out clearly +enough when in 1655 he was appointed a member of Charles X.’s +land-recovery commission. In 1659 he succeeded Herman +Fleming as lord high treasurer, and was one of the council of +regency appointed to govern Sweden during the minority of +Charles XI. In 1661 he presented to the senate a plan which +aimed at rendering Sweden altogether independent of foreign +subsidies, by a policy of peace, economy and trade-development, +and by further recovery of alienated estates. His budget in +the following year, framed on the same principles, subsequently +served as an invaluable guide to Charles XI. Bonde’s extraordinary +tenacity of purpose enabled him for some years to carry +out his programme, despite the opposition of the majority of +the senate and his co-regents, who preferred the more adventurous +methods of the chancellor Magnus de la Gardie, ultimately +so ruinous to Sweden. But the ambition of the oligarchs, and +the fear and jealousy of innumerable monopolists who rose in +arms against his policy of economy, proved at last too strong +for Bonde, while the costly and useless expedition against +Bremen in 1665, undertaken contrary to his advice, completed +the ruin of the finances. In his later years Bonde’s powers of +resistance were weakened by sickness and mortification at the +triumph of reckless extravagance, and he practically retired +from the government some time before his death.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Martin Veibull, <i>Sveriges Storhetstid</i> (Stockholm, 1881).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONDED WAREHOUSE,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a warehouse established by the +state, or by private enterprise, in which goods liable to duty +are lodged until the duty upon them has been paid. Previous +to the establishment of bonded warehouses in England the payment +of duties on imported goods had to be made at the time +of importation, or a bond with security for future payment +given to the revenue authorities. The inconveniences of this +system were many; it was not always possible for the importer +to find sureties, and he had often to make an immediate sale of +the goods, in order to raise the duty, frequently selling when +the market was depressed and prices low; the duty, having to +be paid in a lump sum, raised the price of the goods by the +amount of the interest on the capital required to pay the duty; +competition was stifled from the fact that large capital was +required for the importation of the more heavily taxed articles; +there was also the difficulty of granting an exact equivalent +drawback to the exporter, on goods which had already paid +duty. To obviate these difficulties and to put a check upon +frauds on the revenue, Sir Robert Walpole proposed in his +“excise scheme” of 1733, the system of warehousing, so far as +concerned tobacco and wine. The proposal, however, was very +unpopular, and it was not till 1803 that the system was actually +adopted. By an act of that year imported goods were to be +placed in warehouses approved by the customs authorities, and +importers were to give “bonds” for payment of duties when +the goods were removed. It was from this that the warehouses +received the name of “bonded” or “bonding.” The Customs +Consolidation Act 1853 dispensed with the giving of bonds, and +laid down various provisions for securing the payment of customs +duties on goods warehoused. These provisions are contained in +the Customs Consolidation Act 1876, and the amending statutes, +the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1880, and the Revenue +Act 1883. The warehouses are known as “king’s warehouses,” +and by s. 284 of the act of 1876 are defined as “any place provided +by the crown or approved by the commissioners of +customs, for the deposit of goods for security thereof, and the +duties due thereon.” By s. 12 of the same act the treasury may +appoint warehousing ports or places, and the commissioners +of customs may from time to time approve and appoint warehouses +in such ports or places where goods may be warehoused +or kept, and fix the amount of rent payable in respect of the +goods. The proprietor or occupier of every warehouse so approved +(except existing warehouses of special security in respect +of which security by bond has hitherto been dispensed with), +or some one on his behalf, must, before any goods be warehoused +therein, give security by bond, or such other security as the +commissioners may approve of, for the payment of the full +duties chargeable on any goods warehoused therein, or for the +due exportation thereof (s. 13). All goods deposited in a +warehouse, without payment of duty on the first importation, upon +being entered for home consumption, are chargeable with +existing duties on like goods under any customs acts in force +at the time of passing such entry (s. 19). The act also prescribes +various rules for the unshipping, landing, examination, +warehousing and custody of goods, and the penalties on breach. +The system of warehousing has proved of great advantage both +to importers and purchasers, as the payment of duty is deferred +until the goods are required, while the title-deeds, or warrants, +are transferable by endorsement.</p> + +<p>While the goods are in the warehouse (“in bond”) the owner +may subject them to various processes necessary to fit them +for the market, such as the repacking and mixing of tea, the +racking, vatting, mixing and bottling of wines and spirits, the +roasting of coffee, the manufacture of certain kinds of tobacco, +&c., and certain specific allowances are made in respect of waste +arising from such processes or from leakage, evaporation and +the like.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONDU,<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> a French protectorate in West Africa, dependent on +the colony of Senegal. Bondu lies between the Faleme river +and the upper course of the Gambia, that is between 13° and +15° N., and 12° and 13° W. The country is an elevated plateau, +with hills in the southern and central parts. These are generally +unproductive, and covered with stunted wood; but the lower +country is fertile, and finely clothed with the baobab, the +tamarind and various valuable fruit-trees. Bondu is traversed +by torrents, which flow rapidly during the rains but are empty +in the dry season, such streams being known in this part of West +Africa as <i>marigots</i>. The inhabitants are mostly Fula, though +the trade is largely in the hands of Mandingos. The religion and +laws of the country are Mahommedan, though the precepts of +that faith are not very rigorously observed. Mungo Park, the +first European traveller to visit the country, passed through +Bondu in 1795, and had to submit to many exactions from the +reigning prince. The royal residence was then at Fatteconda; +but when Major W. Gray, a British officer who attempted to +solve the Niger problem, visited Bondu in 1818 it had been +removed to Bulibani, a small town, with about 3000 population, +surrounded by a strong clay wall. In August 1845 the king of +Bondu signed a treaty recognizing French sovereignty over his +country. The treaty was disregarded by the natives, but in +1858 Bondu came definitely under French control. The country +has since enjoyed considerable prosperity (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senegal</a></span>).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. Rançon, <i>Le Bondou: étude de géographie et d’histoire +soudaniennes de 1681 à nos jours</i> (Bordeaux, 1894).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONE, HENRY<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> (1755-1834), English enamel painter, was born +at Truro. He was much employed by London jewellers for small +designs in enamel, before his merits as an artist were well known +to the public. In 1800 the beauty of his pieces attracted the +notice of the Royal Academy, of which he was then admitted +as an associate; in 1811 he was made an academician. Up to +1831 he executed many beautiful miniature pieces of much +larger size than had been attempted before in England; among +these his eighty-five portraits of the time of Queen Elizabeth, +of different sizes, from 5 by 4 to 13 by 8 in. are most admired. +They were disposed of by public sale after his death. His +Bacchus and Ariadne, after Titian, painted on a plate, brought +the great price of 2200 guineas.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONE<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, +in many of which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the +German <i>Bein</i>), the hard tissue constituting the framework of +the animal skeleton. For anatomy see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Skeleton</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Connective +Tissues</a></span>.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Bone Diseases and Injuries</span>.—The more specific diseases +affecting the bones of the human body are treated under separate +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page201" id="page201"></a>201</span> +headings; in this article <i>inflammation of bone</i> and <i>fractures</i> are +dealt with.</p> + +<p><i>Ostitis</i> (<span class="grk" title="osteon">ὀστέον</span>, bone), or inflammation of bone, may be acute +or chronic. <i>Acute ostitis</i> is one of the most serious diseases which +can be met with in young people. It is due to the +cultivation of virulent germs in the delicate growing +<span class="sidenote">Ostitis.</span> +tissue of the bone and in the marrow. Another name for it is +<i>septic osteomyelitis</i>, which has the advantage of expressing the +cause as well as the exact seat (<span class="grk" title="myelos">μυελός</span>, marrow) of the inflammation. +The name of the micro-organism causing the inflammation +is <i>Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus</i>, which means that the +germs collect in clusters like grapes, that they are of the virulent +pus-producing kind, and that they have a yellow tinge. As a +rule, the germs find their way to the bone by the blood-stream, +which they have entered through the membrane lining the +mouth or gullet, or some other part of the alimentary canal. In +the pre-antiseptic days they often entered the sawn bone during +the amputation of a limb, and were not infrequently the cause +of blood-poisoning and death. When the individual is well and +strong, and there has been no hurt, strain or accident to lower +the power of resistance of the bone, the staphylococci may +circulate harmlessly in the blood, until they are gradually eaten +up by the white corpuscles; but if a bone has been injured it +offers a likely and attractive focus to the wandering germs.</p> + +<p>The disease is infective. That is to say, the micro-organisms +having begun to germinate in the damaged bone find their way +by the blood-stream into other tissues, and developing after their +kind, are apt to cause blood-poisoning. Should a surgeon prick +his finger whilst operating on a case of septic osteomyelitis his +blood also might be poisoned, and he would run the risk of losing +his finger, his hand, or even his life. The starting-point of the +disease is the delicate growing tissue recently deposited between +the main part of the shaft of the bone (diaphysis) and the cartilaginous +end. And it often happens that the earliest complaint +of pain is just above or below the knee; just above the ankle, +the elbow or the wrist. <span class="correction" title="amended from It">If</span> the surgeon is prompt in operating +he may find the disease limited to that spot. In the case of +infants, the germs are very apt to make their way into the +neighbouring joint, giving rise to the very serious disease known +as <i>acute arthritis of infants</i>.</p> + +<p>Probably the first sign of there being anything amiss with the +limb will be a complaint of aches or pains near a joint; and +these pains are apt to be miscalled rheumatic. Perhaps they +occur during convalescence from scarlet or typhoid fever, or after +exposure to injury, or to wet or cold, or after unusual fatigue. +The part becomes swollen, hot, red and excessively tender; the +tenderness, however, is not in the skin but in the bone, and in +the engorged membrane around it, the periosteum. The temperature +may run up to 104°, and may be associated with convulsions +or shiverings. The patient’s nights are disturbed, and +very likely he has violent delirium. If the case is allowed +to drift on, abscess forms, and death may ensue from septic +pneumonia, or pericarditis, or from some other form of blood-poisoning.</p> + +<p>As soon as the disease is recognized an incision should be made +down to the bone, and the affected area should be scraped out, and +disinfected with a solution of corrosive sublimate. A considerable +area of the bone may be found stripped bare by sub-periosteal +abscess, and necrosis is likely to ensue. Perhaps the shaft of +the bone will have to be opened up in the chief part of its length +in order that it may be cleared of germs and pus. The surgeon is +more apt to err on the side of doing too little in these serious +cases than too much. It may be that the whole of that piece of +bone (diaphysis) which lies between the joint-ends is found loose +in a large abscess cavity, and in some cases immediate amputation +of the limb may be found necessary in order to save life; in +other cases, amputation may be called for later because of long-continued +suppuration and grave constitutional disturbance. +Several bones may be affected at the same time, and large pieces +of them may be killed outright (<i>multiple necrosis</i>) by inflammatory +engorgement and devastating abscess.</p> + +<p>Septic ostitis may be confounded with erysipelas and rheumatism, +but the central thickening and tenderness should suffice to +distinguish it.</p> + +<p><i>Chronic ostitis</i> and <i>periostitis</i> denote long-continued and +increased vascular supply. This may be due to injury, syphilis or +rheumatism. The disease is found chiefly in the shafts of the +bones. There is a dull pain in the bone, which is worse at night, +and the inflamed piece of bone is thickened and tender. The +lump thus formed is called a <i>hard node</i>, and its outline shows +clearly by X-rays. The affected limb should be rested and kept +elevated. Leeches and fomentations may ease the pain, and +iodide of potassium is the most useful medicine.</p> + +<p><i>Chronic inflammation of tuberculous origin</i> affects the soft, +cancellated tissue of such bones as the vertebrae, and the bones +of the hands and feet, as well as the spongy ends of the long bones. +In tuberculous ostitis the presence of the bacilli in the spongy +tissue causes an escape of colourless corpuscles from the blood, +which, collecting around the bacilli, form a small greyish white +heap, a <i>tubercle</i>. These tubercles may be present in large numbers +at the expense of the living tissue, and a <i>rarefying ostitis</i> is thus +produced. Later the tubercles break down and form tuberculous +abscesses, which slowly, and almost painlessly, find escape upon +the surface. They should not be allowed to open spontaneously, +however, as the wounds are then likely to become infected with +pus-producing germs, and fuel being added to the fire, as it were, +destruction advances with increased rapidity. The treatment +for these tuberculous foci is to place the limb or the part at +absolute rest upon a splint, to give plenty of fresh air to the +patient, and to prescribe cod-liver oil and iron. And when it is +seen that in spite of the adoption of these measures the tuberculous +abscess is advancing towards the surface, the surgeon should +cut down upon the part, scrape out the foci, and disinfect with +some strong antiseptic lotion. Consideration should also be +given to the treatment by injection of tuberculin.</p> + +<p><i>Caries</i> (rottenness, decay) is the name given to tuberculous +disease of bone when the tubercles are running together and are +breaking down the cancellous tissue. In short, caries generally +means tuberculous ostitis, though syphilitic ulceration of bone +has also received the same name.</p> + +<p><i>Fractures</i>.—A bone may be broken at the part where it is +struck (fracture from direct violence), or it may break in consequence +of a strain applied to it (fracture from indirect +violence), or the fracture may be due to muscular action +<span class="sidenote">Fracture.</span> +as when a violent cough causes a rib to break. In the first case +the fracture is generally transverse and in the second more or less +oblique. The fully developed bone is broken fairly across; the +soft bones of young people may simply be bent—<i>green stick</i> or +<i>willow fracture</i>. Fractures are either <i>simple</i> or <i>compound</i>. A +simple fracture is analogous to the subcutaneous laceration in the +soft parts, and a compound one to an open wound in the soft +parts. The wound of the soft parts in the compound fracture may +be due either to the force which caused the fracture, as in the case +of a cart-wheel going over a limb, first wounding the soft parts and +then fracturing the bone, or to the sharp point of the fractured +bone coming out through the skin. In either case there is a communication +between the external air and injured bone, and the +probability arises of the germs of suppuration finding their way +to the seat of fracture. This greatly increases the risks of the +case, for septic inflammation and suppuration may lead to delayed +union, to death of large pieces of the bone (necrosis), and to osteomyelitis +and to blood-poisoning. In the treatment of a fracture, +every care should be taken to prevent any sharp fragment coming +near the skin. Careless handling has often been the means of a +simple fracture being converted into a compound one.</p> + +<p>In most cases of fracture <i>crepitus</i> can be made out; this is the +feeling elicited when two rough osseous surfaces are rubbed +together. When a bone is merely bent there is, of course, no +crepitus. It is also absent in fractures in which the broken +extremities are driven into one another (impacted fracture). +In order to get firm bony union it is necessary to secure accurate +apposition of the fragments. Putting the broken ends together +is termed “setting the fracture,” and the needful amount of rest +is obtained by the use of splints. As a rule, it is also advisable to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page202" id="page202"></a>202</span> +fix with the splint the joint above or below the fracture. In +cases in which a splintering of the bone into a joint has taken +place, more especially in those cases in which tendons have been +injured, there may be a good deal of effusion into the joint and +the tendon sheaths, and this may be organized into fibrous +tissue leading to permanent stiffness. This is particularly apt to +occur in old people. Care must be taken in such instances by +gentle exercises, and by passive movement during the process of +cure, to keep the joint and tendons free. To take a common +example,—in fracture close to the wrist joint, it is necessary to +arrange the splint so that the patient can move his fingers and +thumb, and the splint must be taken off every day, in order +that the wrist and fingers may be gently bent, straightened and +exercised.</p> + +<p>The treatment of fractures has undergone considerable improvement +of late years. Simple fractures are not kept so long +at rest in splints, but are constantly “taken down” in order +that massage and movements of the limb may be resorted to. +This, of course, is done with the utmost gentleness, and with the +result that swelling, pain and other evidences of the serious +injury quickly disappear, whilst a more rapid and complete +recovery is ensured. Stiff hands and feet after fracture are much +less frequently met with. By the aid of the X-rays it is now easy +for the surgeon to assure himself that fractured surfaces have been +well adjusted and are in close apposition. But if they are not in +a satisfactory position, and it be found impracticable to assure +their close adjustment by ordinary methods, the surgeon now, +without undue loss of time, cuts down upon the broken ends and +fixes them together by a strong wire suture, which remains +permanently in the tissues. If the fracture be associated with an +open wound of the part (compound fracture), and the broken +ends are found incapable of easy adjustment, immediate wiring +together of the fragments is now considered to be a necessary +part of the primary treatment. The French surgeon, Just +Lucas-Championnière, has done more than any one else to show +the advantage of discreet movements, of massage and of exercises +in the treatment of fractures.</p> + +<p><i>Special Fracture in Young People</i>.—The long bones of children +and growing persons consist of a shaft with cartilaginous ends +in which bone is developed. As the result of injury, the end of +the bone may become detached, a variety of fracture known as +<i>diastasis</i>. Such a fracture—however well treated—may be +followed by arrest of growth of the bone or by stiffness of the +neighbouring joint.</p> + +<p><i>Delayed union</i> means that consolidation is taking place very +slowly, if at all. This may be due to local or constitutional +causes, but provided the bones are in good position, nothing +further than patience, with massage, and with due attention +to general health-measures, is necessary.</p> + +<p>An <i>ununited fracture</i> is one in which after many weeks or +months no attempt has been made by nature to consolidate the +parts. This may be due to the ends not having been brought +close enough together; to the seat of fracture having been +constantly disturbed; to muscle or tendon being interposed +between the broken ends, or to the existence of some constitutional +defect in the patient. Except in the last-named +condition, the treatment consists in cutting down to the broken +ends; freshening them up by sawing off a thin slice, and by +adjusting and fixing them by a wire or screw. Ununited +fracture of the leg-bones in children is a most unsatisfactory +and rebellious condition to deal with.</p> + +<p>There is still a difference of opinion as to the best way of +treating a recent <i>fracture of the patella</i> (knee-cap). Many surgeons +are still content to follow the old plan of fixing the limb on a +back-splint, or in plaster of Paris splints, and awaiting the result. +It is beyond question that a large percentage of these cases +recover with a perfectly useful limb—especially if the fibrous +bond of union between the pieces of the broken knee-cap is +adequately protected against being stretched by bending the +leg at too early a date. But in some cases the fragments have +been eventually found wide apart, the patient being left with +an enfeebled limb. Still, at any rate, this line of treatment was +unassociated with risk. But after Lister showed (1883) that +with due care and cleanliness the knee-joint could be opened, +and the fragments of the broken patella secured in close +apposition by a stout wire suture, the treatment of the injury +underwent a remarkable change. The great advantage of Lister’s +treatment was that the fragments, being fixed close together +by the wire stitch, became solidly united by bone, and the joint +became as sound as it was before. Some surgeons, however, +objected to the operation—in spite of the excellence of the +results obtainable by it—because of the undoubted risk which +it entailed of the joint becoming invaded by septic micro-organisms. +As a sort of compromise, Professor A.E.J. Barker +introduced the method, which he deemed to be less hazardous, +of holding the fragments close together by means of a strong +silver wire passed round them vertically by a large needle without +actually laying open the joint. But experience has shown that +in the hands of careful and skilful surgeons Lister’s operation +of openly wiring the fragments gives a perfect result with a +comparatively small risk. Other surgeons secure the fragments +in close contact for bony union by passing a silk or metal suture +around them circumferentially. Many years ago Lister remarked +that the careful selection of one’s patients is an antiseptic +measure—by which he meant that if a surgeon intended to get +the most perfect results for his operative work, he must carefully +consider whether any individual patient is physically adapted +for the performance upon him of any particular operation. This +aphorism implies that not every patient with a broken knee-cap +is suited for the opening of his knee-joint, or even for the subcutaneous +adjustment of the broken fragments. An operative +procedure which is admirably suited for one patient might +result in disaster when adopted for another, and it is an important +part of the surgeon’s business to know what to advise in each +individual case.</p> +<div class="author">(E. O.*)</div> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Industrial Applications of Bones</i>.—By the increasing inventiveness +of man, the industrial utilization of animal bone has been so developed +that not one of the constituents fails to reappear in commerce. +Composed of mineral matter—phosphates, &c.—fat and gelatinous +substances, the phosphates are used as artificial manures, the fat is +worked up by the soap-maker and chandler, and the gelatinous +matter forms the basis of the gelatin and glue of commerce; while +by the dry distillation of bones from which the gelatin has been but +partially removed, there are obtained a carbonaceous residue—animal +charcoal—and a tarry distillate, from which “bone oil” +and bone pitch are obtained. To these by-products there must be +added the direct uses of bone—for making buttons, knife-handles, +&c.—when an estimate is desired of the commercial importance of +these components of the animal frame.</p> + +<p>While most of the world’s supply of bones goes to the glue and +gelatin works, the leg and thigh bones, termed “marrows” and +“knuckles,” are used for the manufacture of bone articles. The +treatment which they receive is very different from that practised +in the glue-works. The ends are removed by a saw, and the bones +are steeped in a 1% brine solution for three to four days, in order +to separate the fibrous matter. The bones are now heated with +water, and allowed to simmer for about six hours. This removes a +part of the fat and gelatinous matter; the former rises as a scum, +the latter passes into solution, and the bones remain sufficiently +firm to be worked up by the lathe, &c. The fat is skimmed off, and, +after bleaching, reappears as a component of fine soaps, or, if unbleached, +the oil is expressed and is used as an adulterant of other +oils, while the stearine or solid matter goes to the candle-maker; +the gelatinous water is used (after filtration) for making size for +cardboard boxes; while the bones are scrubbed, dried, and then +transferred to the bone-worker.</p> + +<p>The glue-worker first removes the fat, which is supplied to the +soap and candle trades; the bones are now treated for glue (<i>q.v.</i>); +and the residue is worked up for manures, &c. These residues are +ground to a fine or coarse meal, and supplied either directly as a +fertilizer or treated with sulphuric acid to form the more soluble +superphosphates, which are more readily assimilated by growing +plants. In some places, especially South America, the residues are +burned in a retort to a white ash, the “bone-ash” of commerce, +which contains some 70-80% of tricalcium phosphate, and is much +used as a manure, and in the manufacture of high-grade superphosphates. +In the gelatin industry (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gelatin</a></span>) the mineral +matter has to be recovered from its solution in hydrochloric acid. +To effect this, the liquors are freed from suspended matter by +filtration, and then run into vats where they are mixed with milk of +lime, or some similar neutralizer. The slightly soluble bicalcium +phosphate, CaHPO<span class="su">4</span>, is first precipitated, which, with more lime, +gives ordinary tricalcium phosphate, Ca<span class="su">3</span>(PO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">2</span>. The contents of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page203" id="page203"></a>203</span> +the vats are filter-pressed, and the cakes dried on plates supported +on racks in heated chambers. This product is a very valuable +manure, and is also used in the manufacture of phosphorus.</p> + +<p>Instead of extracting all the gelatinous matter from degreased +bones, the practice of extracting about one half and carbonizing +the residue is frequently adopted. The bones are heated in horizontal +cast-iron retorts, holding about 5 cwt., and the operation +occupies about twelve to thirteen hours. The residue in the retorts +is removed while still red-hot to air-tight vessels in which it is allowed +to cool. It is then passed through grinding mills, and is subsequently +riddled by revolving cylindrical sieves. The yield is from 55 to +60% of the bones carbonized, and the product contains about 10% +of carbon and about 75% of calcium phosphate, the remainder +being various inorganic salts and moisture (6-7%). Animal charcoal +has a deep black colour, and is much used as a filtering and +clarifying material. The vapours evolved during carbonization are +condensed in vertical air condensers. The liquid separates into two +layers: the upper tarry layer is floated off and redistilled; the +distillate is termed “bone oil,”<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> and mainly consists of many fatty +amines and pyridine derivatives, characterized by a most disgusting +odour; the residue is “bone pitch,” and finds application in the +manufacture of black varnishes and like compositions. The lower +layer is ammoniacal liquor; it is transferred to stills, distilled with +steam, and the ammonia received in sulphuric acid; the ammonium +sulphate, which separates, is removed, drained and dried, and is +principally used as a manure. Both during the carbonization of the +bones and the distillation of the tar inflammable gases are evolved; +these are generally used, after purification, for motive or illuminating +purposes.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. E.*)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Bone oil, also known as Dippel’s oil, was originally produced by the +distillation of stags’ horns; it is of interest in the history of chemistry, +since from it were isolated in 1846 by T. Anderson pyridine and some of +its homologues.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONE BED,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> a term loosely used by geologists when speaking +generally of any stratum or deposit which contains bones of +whatever kind. It is also applied to those brecciated and stalagmitic +deposits on the floor of caves, which frequently contain +osseous remains. In a more restricted sense it is used to connote +certain thin layers of bony fragments, which occur upon well-defined +geological horizons. One of the best-known of these is +the Ludlow Bone Bed, which is found at the base of the Downton +Sandstone in the Upper Ludlow series. At Ludlow itself, two +such beds are actually known, separated by about 14 ft. of strata. +Although quite thin, the Ludlow Bone Bed can be followed from +that town into Gloucestershire for a distance of 45 m. It is +almost made up of fragments of spines, teeth and scales of +ganoid fish. Another well-known bed, formerly known as the +“Bristol” or “Lias” Bone Bed, exists in the form of several +thin layers of micaceous sandstone, with the remains of fish +and saurians, which occur in the Rhaetic Black Paper Shales +that lie above the Keuper marls in the south-west of England. +It is noteworthy that a similar bone bed has been traced on the +same geological horizon in Brunswick, Hanover and Franconia. +A bone bed has also been observed at the base of the Carboniferous +limestone series in certain parts of the south-west of +England.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONE-LACE,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> a kind of lace made upon a cushion from linen +thread; the pattern is marked out with pins, round which are +twisted the different threads, each wound on its own bobbin. +The lace was so called from the fact that bobbins were formerly +made of bone.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONER<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Bonerius</span>), <span class="bold">ULRICH</span> (fl. 14th century), German-Swiss +writer of fables, was born in Bern. He was descended of +an old Bernese family, and, as far as can be ascertained, took +clerical orders and became a monk; yet as it appears that +he subsequently married, it is certain that he received the +“tonsure” only, and was thus entitled to the benefit of the +<i>clerici uxoriati</i>, who, on divesting themselves of the clerical garb, +could return to secular life. He is mentioned in records between +1324 and 1349, but neither before nor after these dates. He +wrote, in Middle High German, a collection of fables entitled +<i>Der Edelstein</i> (<i>c</i>. 1349), one hundred in number, which were +based principally on those of Avianus (4th century) and the +<i>Anonymus</i> (edited by I. Nevelet, 1610). This work he dedicated +to the Bernese patrician and poet, Johann von Rinkenberg, +advocatus (<i>Vogt</i>) of Brienz (d. <i>c</i>. 1350). It was printed in 1461 +at Bamberg; and it is claimed for it that it was the first book +printed in the German language. Boner treats his sources with +considerable freedom and originality; he writes a clear and +simple style, and the necessarily didactic tone of the collection +is relieved by touches of humour.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Der Edelstein</i> has been edited by G.F. Benecke (Berlin, 1816) and +Franz Pfeiffer (Leipzig, 1844); a translation into modern German +by K. Pannier will be found, in Reclam’s <i>Universal-Bibliothek</i> +(Leipzig, 1895). See also G.E. Lessing in <i>Zur Geschichte und +Literatur</i> (<i>Werke</i>, ix.); C. Waas, <i>Die Quellen der Beispiele Boners</i> +(Giessen, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BO’NESS,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Borrowstounness</span>, a municipal and police burgh +and seaport of Linlithgowshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891) 6295; (1901) +9306. It lies on the southern shore of the Firth of Forth, 17 m. +W. by N. of Edinburgh, and 24 m. by rail, being the terminus +of the North British railway’s branch line from Manuel. In +the 18th century it ranked next to Leith as a port, but the growth +of Grangemouth, higher up the firth, seriously affected its shipping +trade, which is, however, yet considerable, coal and pig-iron +forming the principal exports, and pit props from the Baltic the +leading import. It has an extensive harbour (the area of the +dock being 7¾ acres). The great industries are coal-mining—some +of the pits extending for a long distance beneath the firth—iron-founding +(with several blast furnaces) and engineering, but +it has also important manufactures of salt, soap, vitriol and other +chemicals. Shipbuilding and whaling are extinct. Traces of +the wall of Antoninus which ran through the parish may still be +made out, especially near Inveravon. Blackness, on the coast +farther east, was the seaport of Linlithgow till the rise of Bo’ness, +but its small export trade now mainly consists of coal, bricks, +tiles and lime. Its castle, standing on a promontory, is of +unknown age. James III. of Scotland is stated to have consigned +certain of the insurgent nobles to its cells; and later it was used +as a prison in which many of the Covenanters were immured. +It was one of the four castles that had to be maintained by the +Articles of Union, but when its uselessness for defensive purposes +became apparent, it was converted into an ammunition depot. +Kinneil House, 1 m. south of Bo’ness, a seat of the duke of +Hamilton, formerly a keep, was fortified by the regent Arran, +plundered by the rebels in Queen Mary’s reign, and reconstructed +in the time of Charles II. Dr John Roebuck (1718-1794), +founder of the Carron Iron Works, occupied it for several years +from 1764. It was here that, on his invitation, James Watt +constructed a model of his steam-engine, which was tested in a +now disused colliery. Though Roebuck lost all his money in the +coal-mines and salt works which he established at Bo’ness, the +development of the mineral resources of the district may be +regarded as due to him.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONFIGLI, BENEDETTO,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> 15th century Italian painter, was +born at Perugia. Until near the middle of the 15th century the +Umbrian school was far behind those of Florence and the North, +but in the person of Perugino and some of his followers it suddenly +advanced into the very first rank. Among the latter none holds +a more distinguished place than Benedetto Bonfigli. The most +important of his extant works are a series, in fresco, of the life +of St Louis of Toulouse, in the communal palace of Perugia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONFIRE<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (in Early English “bone-fire,” Scottish “bane-fire”), +originally a fire of bones, now any large fire lit in the open air on +an occasion of rejoicing. Though the spelling “bonfire” was +used in the 16th century, the earlier “bone-fire” was common +till 1760. The earliest known instance of the derivation of the +word occurred as <i>ban fyre ignis ossium</i> in the <i>Catholicon Anglicum</i>, +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1483. Other derivations, now rejected, have been sought +for the word. Thus some have thought it <i>Baal-fire</i>, passing +through <i>Bael</i>, <i>Baen</i> to <i>Bane</i>. Others have declared it to be <i>boon</i>-fire +by analogy with <i>boen-harow</i>, <i>i.e.</i> “harrowing by gift,” the +suggestion being that these fires were “contribution” fires, +every one in the neighbourhood contributing a portion of the +material, just as in Northumberland the “contributed Ploughing +Days” are known as <i>Bone-daags</i>.</p> + +<p>Whatever the origin of the word, it has long had several +meanings-(<i>a</i>) a fire of bones, (<i>b</i>) a fire for corpses, a funeral pile, +(<i>c</i>) a fire for immolation, such as that in which heretics and +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page204" id="page204"></a>204</span> +proscribed books were burnt, (<i>d</i>) a large fire lit in the open air, +on occasions of national rejoicing, or as a signal of alarm such +as the bonfires which warned England of the approach of the +Armada. Throughout Europe the peasants from time immemorial +have lighted bonfires on certain days of the year, and +danced around or leapt over them. This custom can be traced +back to the middle ages, and certain usages in antiquity so nearly +resemble it as to suggest that the bonfire has its origin in the +early days of heathen Europe. Indeed the earliest proof of the +observance of these bonfire ceremonies in Europe is afforded by +the attempts made by Christian synods in the 7th and 8th +centuries to suppress them as pagan. Thus the third council of +Constantinople (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 680), by its 65th canon, orders: “Those fires +that are kindled by certaine people on new moones before their +shops and houses, over which also they use ridiculously and +foolishly to leape, by a certaine antient custome, we command +them from henceforth to cease.” And the Synodus Francica +under Pope Zachary, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 742, forbids “those sacrilegious fires +which they call <i>Nedfri</i> (or bonefires), and all other observations +of the Pagans whatsoever.” Leaping over the fires is mentioned +among the superstitious rites used at the Palilia (the feast of +Pales, the shepherds’ goddess) in Ovid’s <i>Fasti</i>, when the shepherds +lit heaps of straw and jumped over them as they burned. +The lighting of the bonfires in Christian festivals was significant +of the compromise made with the heathen by the early Church. +In Cornwall bonfires are lighted on the eve of St John the Baptist +and St Peter’s day, and midsummer is thence called in Cornish +<i>Goluan</i>, which means both “light” and “festivity.” Sometimes +effigies are burned in these fires, or a pretence is made of +burning a living person in them, and there are grounds for believing +that anciently human sacrifices were actually made in the +bonfires. Spring and midsummer are the usual times at which +these bonfires are lighted, but in some countries they are made at +Hallowe’en (October 31) and at Christmas. In spring the 1st +Sunday in Lent, Easter eve and the 1st of May are the commonest +dates.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.G. Frazer, <i>Golden Bough</i>, vol. iii., for a very full account of +the bonfire customs of Europe, &c.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONGARS, JACQUES<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1554-1612), French scholar and diplomatist, +was born at Orleans, and was brought up in the reformed +faith. He obtained his early education at Marburg and Jena, +and returning to France continued his studies at Orleans and +Bourges. After spending some time in Rome he visited eastern +Europe, and subsequently made the acquaintance of Ségur +Pardaillan, a representative of Henry, king of Navarre, afterwards +Henry IV. of France. He entered the service of Pardaillan, +and in 1587 was sent on a mission to many of the princes of +northern Europe, after which he visited England to obtain help +from Queen Elizabeth for Henry of Navarre. He continued +to serve Henry as a diplomatist, and in 1593 became the representative +of the French king at the courts of the imperial princes. +Vigorously seconding the efforts of Henry to curtail the power +of the house of Habsburg, he spent health and money ungrudgingly +in this service, and continued his labours until the king’s +murder in 1610. He then returned to France, and died at +Paris on the 29th of July 1612. Bongars wrote an abridgment +of Justin’s abridgment of the history of Trogus Pompeius under +the title <i>Justinus, Trogi Pompeii Historiarum Philippicarum +epitoma de manuscriptis codicibus emendatior et prologis auctior</i> +(Paris, 1581). He collected the works of several French writers +who as contemporaries described the crusades, and published +them under the title <i>Gesta Dei per Francos</i> (Hanover, 1611). +Another collection made by Bongars is the <i>Rerum Hungaricarum +scriptores varii</i> (Frankfort, 1600). His <i>Epistolae</i> were published +at Leiden in 1647, and a French translation at Paris in 1668-1670. +Many of his papers are preserved in the library at Bern, +to which they were presented in 1632, and a list of them was +made in 1634. Other papers and copies of instructions are now +in several libraries in Paris; and copies of other instructions +are in the British Museum.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See H. Hagen, <i>Jacobus Bongarsius</i> (Bern, 1874); L. Anquez, +<i>Henri IV et l’Allemagne</i> (Paris, 1887).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONGHI, RUGGERO<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1828-1895), Italian scholar, writer +and politician, was born at Naples on the 20th of March 1828. +Exiled from Naples in consequence of the movement of 1848, he +took refuge in Tuscany, whence he was compelled to flee to +Turin on account of a pungent article against the Bourbons. +At Turin he resumed his philosophic studies and his translation +of Plato, but in 1858 refused a professorship of Greek at Pavia, +under the Austrian government, only to accept it in 1859 from +the Italian government after the liberation of Lombardy. In +1860, with the Cavour party, he opposed the work of Garibaldi, +Crispi and Bertani at Naples, and became secretary of Luigi +Carlo Farini during the latter’s lieutenancy, but in 1865 assumed +contemporaneously the editorship of the <i>Perseveranza</i> of Milan +and the chair of Latin literature at Florence. Elected deputy +in 1860 he became celebrated by the biting wit of his speeches, +while, as journalist, the acrimony of his polemical writings made +him a redoubtable adversary. Though an ardent supporter of +the historic Right, and, as such, entrusted by the Lanza cabinet +with the defence of the law of guarantees in 1870, he was no +respecter of persons, his caustic tongue sparing neither friend nor +foe. Appointed minister for public instruction in 1873, he, +with feverish activity, reformed the Italian educational system, +suppressed the privileges of the university of Naples, founded +the Vittorio Emanuele library in Rome, and prevented the +establishment of a Catholic university in the capital. Upon the +fall of the Right from power in 1876 he joined the opposition, +and, with characteristic vivacity, protracted during two months +the debate on Baccelli’s University Reform Bill, securing, +single-handed, its rejection. A bitter critic of King Humbert, +both in the <i>Perseveranza</i> and in the <i>Nuova Antologia</i>, he was, in +1893, excluded from court, only securing readmission shortly +before his death on the 22nd of October 1895. In foreign +policy a Francophil, he combated the Triple Alliance, and took +considerable part in the organization of the inter-parliamentary +peace conference.</p> +<div class="author">(H. W. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONGO<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Dor</span> or <span class="sc">Deran</span>), a tribe of Nilotic negroes, probably +related to the Zandeh tribes of the Welle district, inhabiting +the south-west portion of the Bahr-el-Ghazal province, Anglo-Egyptian +Sudan. G.A. Schweinfurth, who lived two years +among them, declares that before the advent of the slave-raiders, +<i>c</i>. 1850, they numbered at least 300,000. Slave-raiders, and +later the dervishes, greatly reduced their numbers, and it was +not until the establishment of effective control by the Sudan +government (1904-1906) that recuperation was possible. The +Bongo formerly lived in countless little independent and peaceful +communities, and under the Sudan government they again +manage their own affairs. Their huts are well built, and sometimes +24 ft. high. The Bongo are a race of medium height, +inclined to be thick-set, with a red-brown complexion—“like +the soil upon which they reside”—and black hair. Schweinfurth +declares their heads to be nearly round, no other African race, +to his knowledge, possessing a higher cephalic index. The +women incline to steatopygia in later life, and this deposit of fat, +together with the tail of bast which they wore, gave them, as +they walked, Schweinfurth says, the appearance of “dancing +baboons.” The Bongo men formerly wore only a loin-cloth, +and many dozen iron rings on the arms (arranged to form a sort +of armour), while the women had simply a girdle, to which was +attached a tuft of grass. Both sexes now largely use cotton +cloths as dresses. The tribal ornaments consist of nails or plugs +which are passed through the lower lip. The women often wear +a disk several inches in diameter in this fashion, together with +a ring or a bit of straw in the upper lip, straws in the <i>alae</i> of the +nostrils, and a ring in the <i>septum</i>. The Bongo, unlike other of +the upper Nile Negroes, are not great cattle-breeders, but +employ their time in agriculture. The crops mostly cultivated +are sorghum, tobacco, sesame and durra. The Bongo eat the +fruits, tubers and fungi in which the country is rich. They also +eat almost every creature—bird, beast, insect and reptile, +with the exception of the dog. They despise no flesh, fresh or +putrid. They drive the vulture from carrion, and eat with +relish the intestinal worms of the ox. Earth-eating, too, is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page205" id="page205"></a>205</span> +common among them. They are particularly skilled in the +smelting and working of iron. Iron forms the currency of the +country, and is extensively employed for all kinds of useful and +ornamental purposes. Bongo spears, knives, rings, and other +articles are frequently fashioned with great artistic elaboration. +They have a variety of musical instruments—drums, stringed +instruments, and horns—in the practice of which they take +great delight; and they indulge in a vocal recitative which +seems intended to imitate a succession of natural sounds. +Schweinfurth says that Bongo music is like the raging of the +elements. Marriage is by purchase; and a man is allowed to +acquire three wives, but not more. Tattooing is partially +practised. As regards burial, the corpse is bound in a crouching +position with the knees drawn up to the chin; men are placed +in the grave with the face to the north, and women with the +face to the south. The form of the grave is peculiar, consisting +of a niche in a vertical shaft, recalling the mastaba graves of +the ancient Egyptians. The tombs are frequently ornamented +with rough wooden figures intended to represent the deceased. +Of the immortality of the soul they have no defined notion; +and their only approach to a knowledge of a beneficent deity consists +in a vague idea of luck. They have, however, a most intense +belief in a great variety of petty goblins and witches, which are +essentially malignant. Arrows, spears and clubs form their +weapons, the first two distinguished by a multiplicity of barbs. +Euphorbia juice is used as a poison for the arrows. Shields are +rare. Their language is musical, and abounds in the vowels +<i>o</i> and <i>a</i>; its vocabulary of concrete terms is very rich, but the +same word has often a great variety of meanings. The grammatical +structure is simple. As a race the Bongo are gentle and +industrious, and exhibit strong family affection.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See G.A. Schweinfurth, <i>The Heart of Africa</i> (London, 1873); +W. Junker, <i>Travels in Africa</i> (Eng. edit., London, 1890-1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONGO<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (<i>Boöcercus eurycerus</i>), a West African bushbuck, the +largest of the group. The male is deep chestnut, marked on the +body with narrow white stripes, on the chest with a white +crescent, and on the face by two white spots below the eye. +In the East African bongo (<i>B. e. Isaaei</i>) the body hue is stronger +and richer. There is, as yet, no evidence as to whether the +females of the true bongo bear horns, though it is probable they +do; but as the horns are present in both sexes of the East +African form, Mr Oldfield Thomas has made that the type of the +genus.<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist.</i> vol. x. (seventh series), p. 309.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONHAM,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> a town and the county-seat of Fannin county, +Texas, U.S.A., about 14 m. S. of the Red river, in the north-east +part of the state, and 70 m. N. of Dallas. Pop. (1890) 3361; +(1900) 5042 (1223 being negroes); (1910), 4844. It is served by the +Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Texas & Pacific railways. +Bonham is the seat of Carlton College (Christian), a woman’s +college founded in 1867; and its high school is one of the best +in the state. It is a trading and shipping centre of an extensive +farming territory devoted to the raising of live-stock and to the +growing of cotton, Indian corn, fruit, &c. It has large cotton +gins and compresses, a large cotton mill, flour mills, canning +and ice factories, railway repair shops, planing mills and carriage +works. The town was named in honour of J.B. Bonham, a native +of South Carolina, who was killed in the Alamo. The first settlement +here was made in 1836. The town was incorporated in +1850, and was re-incorporated in 1886.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONHEUR<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Marie Rosalie</span>], <span class="bold">ROSA</span> (1822-1899), French +painter, was born at Bordeaux on the 22nd of March 1822. +She was of Jewish origin. Jacques Wiener, the Belgian medallist, +a native of Venloo, says that he and Raymond Bonheur, Rosa’s +father, used to attend synagogue in that town; while another +authority asserts that Rosa used to be known in common parlance +by the name of Rosa Mazeltov (a Hebrew term for “good luck,” +<i>Gallicé</i> Bonheur). She was the eldest of four children, all of +whom were artists—Auguste (1824-1884) painted animals and +landscape; Juliette (1830-1891) was “honourably mentioned” +at the exhibition of 1855; Isidore, born in 1827, was a sculptor +of animals. Rosa at an early age was taught to draw by her +father (who died in 1849), and he, perceiving her very remarkable +talent, permitted her to abandon the business of dressmaking, +to which, much against her will, she had been put, in order to +devote herself wholly to art. From 1840 to 1845 she exhibited +at the salon, and five times received a prize; in 1848 a medal +was awarded to her. Her fame dates more especially from the +exhibition of 1855; from that time Rosa Bonheur’s works were +much sought after in England, where collectors and public +galleries competed eagerly for them. What is chiefly remarkable +and admirable in her work is that, like her contemporary, +Jacques Raymond Brascassat (1804-1867), she represents +animals as they really are, as she saw them in the country. +Her gift of accurate observation was, however, allied to a certain +dryness of style in painting; she often failed to give a perfect +sense of atmosphere. On the other hand, the anatomy of her +animals is always faultlessly true. There is nothing feminine +in her handling; her treatment is always manly and firm. +Of her many works we may note the following:—“Ploughing +in the Nivernais” (1848), in the Luxembourg gallery; “The +Horse Fair” (1853), one of the two replicas of which is in the +National Gallery, London, the original being in the United +States; and “Hay Harvest in Auvergne” (1835). She was +decorated with the Legion of Honour by the empress Eugénie, +and was subsequently promoted to the rank of “officer” of the +order. After 1867 Rosa Bonheur exhibited but once in the salon, +in 1899, a few weeks before her death. She lived quietly at her +country house at By, near Fontainebleau, where for some years +she had held gratuitous classes for drawing. She left at her +death a considerable number of pictures, studies, drawings and +etchings, which were sold by auction in Paris in the spring of +1900.</p> +<div class="author">(H. Fr.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONHEUR DU JOUR,<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> the name for a lady’s writing-desk, +so called because, when it was introduced in France about 1760, +it speedily became intensely fashionable. The bonheur du jour +is always very light and graceful; its special characteristic +is a raised back, which may form a little cabinet or a nest of +drawers, or may simply be fitted with a mirror. The top, often +surrounded with a chased and gilded bronze gallery, serves for +placing small ornaments. Beneath the writing surface there is +usually a single drawer. The details vary greatly, but the +general characteristics are always traceable. The bonheur +du jour has never been so delicate, so charming, so coquettish +as in the quarter of a century which followed its introduction. +The choicer examples of the time are inlaid with marqueterie, +edged with exotic woods, set in gilded bronze, or enriched with +panels of Oriental lacquer.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONI<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (<i>Boné</i>), a vassal state of the government of Celebes, +Dutch East Indies, in the south-west peninsula of Celebes, on +the Gulf of Boni. Area, 2600 sq. m. It produces rice, tobacco, +coffee, cotton and sugar-cane, none of them important as exports. +The breeds of buffaloes and horses in this state are highly +esteemed. The chief town, Boni, lies 80 m. N.E. of Macassar, +and 2½ m. from the east coast of the peninsula. The native race +of Bugis (<i>q.v.</i>), whose number within this area is about 70,000, +is one of the most interesting in the whole archipelago.</p> + +<p>Boni was once the most powerful state of Celebes, all the +other princes being regarded as vassals of its ruler, but its history +is not known in detail. In 1666 the rajah Palakkah, whose +father and grandfather had been murdered by the family of +Hassan, the tyrant of Sumatra, made common cause with the +Dutch against that despot. From that date till the beginning +of the 19th century Dutch influence in the state remained undisputed. +In 1814, however, Boni fell into the hands of the +British, who retained it for two years; but by the European +treaties concluded on the downfall of Napoleon it reverted to +its original colonizers. Their influence, however, was resisted +more than once by the natives. An expedition in 1825, under +General van Geen, was not fully successful in enforcing it; +and in 1858 and the following year two expeditions were +necessary to oppose an attempt by the princess regent towards +independence. In 1860 a new prince, owning allegiance to the +Dutch, was set up. As in other native states in Celebes, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page206" id="page206"></a>206</span> +succession to the throne in the female line has precedence over +the male line.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>For the wars in Boni, see Perelaer, <i>De Bonische expeditiën, 1859-1860</i> +(Leiden, 1872); and Meyers, in the <i>Militaire Spectator</i> (1880).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONIFACE, SAINT<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (680-754), the apostle of Germany, whose +real name was Wynfrith, was born of a good Saxon family at +Crediton or Kirton in Devonshire. While still young he became +a monk, and studied grammar and theology first at Exeter, then +at Nutcell near Winchester, under the abbot Winberht. He +soon distinguished himself both as scholar and preacher, and had +every inducement to remain in his monastery, but in 716 he +followed the example of other Saxon monks and set out as +missionary to Frisia. He was soon obliged to return, however, +probably owing to the hostility of Radbod, king of the Frisians, +then at war with Charles Martel. At the end of 717 he went to +Rome, where in 719 Pope Gregory II. commissioned him to +evangelize Germany and to counteract the influence of the Irish +monks there. Crossing the Alps, Boniface visited Bavaria and +Thuringia, but upon hearing of the death of Radbod he hurried +again to Frisia, where, under the direction of his countryman +Willibrord (d. 738), the first bishop of Utrecht, he preached +successfully for three years. About 722 he visited Hesse and +Thuringia, won over some chieftains, and converted and baptized +great numbers of the heathen. Having sent special word to +Gregory of his success, he was summoned to Rome and consecrated +bishop on the 30th of November 722, after taking an oath +of obedience to the pope. Then his mission was enlarged. He returned +with letters of recommendation to Charles Martel, charged +not only to convert the heathen but to suppress heresy as well.</p> + +<p>Charles’s protection, as he himself confessed, made possible +his great career. Armed with it he passed safely into heathen +Germany and began a systematic crusade, baptizing, overturning +idols, founding churches and monasteries, and calling from +England a band of missionary helpers, monks and nuns, some of +whom have become famous: St Lull, his successor in the see at +Mainz; St Burchard, bishop of Würzburg; St Gregory, abbot at +Utrecht; Willibald, his biographer; St Lioba, St Walburge, St +Thecla. In 732 Boniface was created archbishop. In 738 for +the third time he went to Rome. On his return he organized the +church in Bavaria into the four bishoprics of Regensburg, Freising, +Salzburg and Passau. Then his power was extended still further. +In 741 Pope Zacharias made him legate, and charged him with the +reformation of the whole Frankish church. With the support of +Carloman and Pippin, who had just succeeded Charles Martel as +mayors of the palace, Boniface set to work. As he had done +in Bavaria, he organized the east Frankish church into four +bishoprics, Erfurt, Würzburg, Buraburg and Eichstädt, and set +over them his own monks. In 742 he presided at what is generally +counted as the first German council. At the same period he +founded the abbey of Fulda, as a centre for German monastic +culture, placing it under the Bavarian Sturm, whose biography +gives us so many picturesque glimpses of the time, and making +its rule stricter than the Benedictine. Then came a theological +and disciplinary controversy with Virgil, the Irish bishop of +Salzburg, who held, among other heresies, that there were other +worlds than ours. Virgil must have been a most remarkable +man; in spite of his leanings toward science he held his own +against Boniface, and was canonized after his death. Boniface +was more successful in France. There a certain Adalbert or +Aldebert, a Frankish bishop of Neustria, had caused great +disturbance. He had been performing miracles, and claimed to +have received his relics, not from Rome like those of Boniface, +but directly from the angels. Planting crosses in the open fields +he drew the people to desert the churches, and had won a great +following throughout all Neustria. Opinions are divided as to +whether he was a Culdee, a representative of a national Frankish +movement, or simply the charlatan that Boniface paints him. +At the instance of Pippin, Boniface secured Adalbert’s condemnation +at the synod of Soissons in 744; but he, and Clement, a +Scottish missionary and a heretic on predestination, continued to +find followers in spite of legate, council and pope, for three or +four years more.</p> + +<p>Between 746 and 748 Boniface was made bishop of Mainz, and +became metropolitan over the Rhine bishoprics and Utrecht, as +well as over those he had established in Germany—thus founding +the pre-eminence of the see of Mainz. In 747 a synod of the +Frankish bishops sent to Rome a formal statement of their +submission to the papal authority. The significance of this act +can only be realized when one recalls the tendencies toward the +formation of national churches, which had been so powerful +under the Merovingians. Boniface does not seem to have taken +part in the anointing of Pippin as king of the Franks in 752. In +754 he resigned his archbishopric in favour of Lull, and took up +again his earliest plan of a mission to Frisia; but on the 5th of +June 754 he and his companions were massacred by the heathen +near Dockum. His remains were afterwards taken to Fulda.</p> + +<p>St Boniface has well been called the proconsul of the papacy. +His organizing genius, even more than his missionary zeal, left its +mark upon the German church throughout all the middle ages. +The missionary movement which until his day had been almost +independent of control, largely carried on by schismatic Irish +monks, was brought under the direction of Rome. But in so +welding together the scattered centres and binding them to the +papacy, Boniface seems to have been actuated by simple zeal for +unity of the faith, and not by a conscious political motive.</p> + +<p>Though pre-eminently a man of action, Boniface has left several +literary remains. We have above all his Letters (<i>Epistolae</i>), +difficult to date, but extremely important from the standpoint of +history, dogma, or literature; see Dümmler’s edition in the +<i>Monumenta Germaniae historica</i>, 1892. Besides these there are +a grammar (<i>De octo partibus orationibus</i>, ed. Mai, in <i>Classici +Auctores</i>, t. vii.), some sermons of contested authenticity, some +poems (<i>Aenigmata</i>, ed. Dümmler, <i>Poetae latini aevi Carolini</i>, i. +1881), a penitential, and some <i>Dicta Bonifacii</i> (ed. Nürnberger +in <i>Theologische Quartalschrift</i>, Tübingen, vol. 70, 1888), the +authenticity of which it is hard to prove or to refute. Migne +in his <i>Patrologia Latina</i> (vol. 89) has reproduced the edition of +Boniface’s works by Giles (London, 1844).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>There are very many monographs on Boniface and on different +phases of his life (see Potthast, <i>Bibliotheca medii aevi</i>, and Ulysse +Chevalier’s <i>Bibliographie</i>, 2nd ed. for indications), but none that is +completely satisfactory. Among recent studies are those of B. +Kuhlmann, <i>Der heilige Bonifatius, Apostel der Deutschen</i> (Paderborn, +1895), and of G. Kurth, <i>Saint Boniface</i> (2nd ed., 1902). W. Levison +has edited the <i>Vitae sancti Bonifatii</i> (Hanover, 1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. T. S.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONIFACE<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> (<i>Bonifacius</i>), the name of nine of the popes.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Boniface I.</span>, bishop of Rome from 418 to 422. At the death +of Pope Zosimus, the Roman clergy were divided into two +factions, one of which elected the deacon Eulalius, and the +other the priest Boniface. The imperial government, in the +interests of public order, commanded the two competitors to +leave the town, reserving the decision of the case to a council. +Eulalius having broken his ban, the emperor Honorius decided +to recognize Boniface, and the council was countermanded. +But the faction of Eulalius long continued to foment disorders, +and the secular authority was compelled to intervene.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Boniface II.</span>, pope from 530 to 532, was by birth a Goth, +and owed his election to the nomination of his predecessor, +Felix IV., and to the influence of the Gothic king. The Roman +electors had opposed to him a priest of Alexandria called +Dioscorus, who died a month after his election, and thus left +the position open for him. Boniface endeavoured to nominate +his own successor, thus transforming into law, or at least into +custom, the proceeding by which he had benefited; but the +clergy and the senate of Rome forced him to cancel this +arrangement.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Boniface III.</span> was pope from the 15th of February to the +12th of November 606. He obtained from Phocas recognition +of the “headship of the church at Rome,” which signifies, no +doubt, that Phocas compelled the patriarch of Constantinople +to abandon (momentarily) his claim to the title of oecumenical +patriarch.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Boniface IV.</span> was pope from 608 to 615. He received from +the emperor Phocas the Pantheon at Rome, which was converted +into a Christian church.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page207" id="page207"></a>207</span></p> + +<p><span class="sc">Boniface V.</span>, pope from 619 to 625, did much for the christianizing +of England. Bede mentions (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i>) that he wrote +encouraging letters to Mellitus, archbishop of Canterbury, and +Justus, bishop of Rochester, and quotes three letters—to Justus, +to Eadwin, king of Northumbria, and to his wife Æthelberga. +William of Malmesbury gives a letter to Justus of the year 625, +in which Canterbury is constituted the metropolitan see of +Britain for ever.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Boniface VI.</span> was elected pope in April 896, and died fifteen +days afterwards.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Boniface VII.</span> was pope from August 984 to July 985. His +family name was Franco. In 974 he was substituted by Crescentius +and the Roman barons for Benedict VI., who had been +assassinated. He was ejected by Count Sicco, the representative +of the emperor Otto II., and fled to Constantinople. On the +death of Otto (983) he returned, seized Pope John XIV., threw +him into prison, and installed himself in his place.</p> +<div class="author">(L. D.*)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Boniface VIII.</span> (Benedetto Gaetano), pope from 1294 to +1303, was born of noble family at Anagni, studied canon and +civil law in Italy and possibly at Paris. After being appointed +to canonicates at Todi (June 1260) and in France, he became +an advocate and then a notary at the papal court. With +Cardinal Ottoboni, who was to aid the English king, Henry III., +against the bishops of the baronial party, he was besieged in the +Tower of London by the rebellious earl of Gloucester, but was +rescued by the future Edward I., on the 27th of April 1267. +Created cardinal deacon in 1281, and in 1291 cardinal priest +(SS. Sylvestri et Martini), he was entrusted with many diplomatic +missions and became very influential in the Sacred College. +He helped the ineffective Celestine V. to abdicate, and was himself +chosen pope at Naples on the 24th of December 1294. +Contrary to custom, the election was not made unanimous, +probably because of the hostility of certain French cardinals. +Celestine attempted to rule in extreme monastic poverty and +humility; not so Boniface, who ardently asserted the lordship +of the papacy over all the kingdoms of the world. He was +crowned at Rome in January 1295 with great pomp. He +planned to pacify the West and then recover the Holy Land +from the infidel; but during his nine years’ reign, so far from +being a peacemaker, he involved the papacy itself in a series +of controversies with leading European powers. Avarice, lofty +claims and frequent exhibitions of arrogance made him many +foes. The policy of supporting the interests of the house of +Anjou in Sicily proved a grand failure. The attempt to build +up great estates for his family made most of the Colonna his +enemies. Until 1303 he refused to recognize Albert of Austria +as the rightful German king. Assuming that he was overlord +of Hungary, he declared that its crown should fall to the house +of Anjou. He humbled Eric VI. of Denmark, but was unsuccessful +in the attempt to try Edward I., the conqueror of Scotland, +on the charge of interfering with a papal fief; for parliament +declared in 1301 that Scotland had never been a fief of Rome. +The most noted conflict of Boniface was that with Philip IV. +of France. In 1296, by the bull <i>Clericis laicos</i>, the pope forbade +the levying of taxes, however disguised, on the clergy without +his consent. Forced to recede from this position, Boniface +canonized Louis IX. (1297). The hostilities were later renewed; +in 1302 Boniface himself drafted and published the indubitably +genuine bull <i>Unam sanctam</i>, one of the strongest official statements +of the papal prerogative ever made. The weight of +opinion now tends to deny that any part of this much-discussed +document save the last sentence bears the marks of an infallible +utterance. The French vice-chancellor Guillaume de Nogaret +was sent to arrest the pope, against whom grave charges had +been brought, and bring him to France to be deposed by an +oecumenical council. The accusation of heresy has usually +been dismissed as a slander; but recent investigations make +it probable, though not quite certain, that Boniface privately +held certain Averroistic tenets, such as the denial of the immortality +of the soul. With Sciarra Colonna, Nogaret surprised +Boniface at Anagni, on the 7th of September 1303, as the latter +was about to pronounce the sentence of excommunication +against the king. After a nine-hours’ truce the palace was +stormed, and Boniface was found lying in his bed, a cross +clasped to his breast; that he was sitting in full regalia on the +papal throne is a legend. Nogaret claimed that he saved the +pope’s life from the vengeful Colonna. Threatened, but not +maltreated, the pope had remained three days under arrest +when the citizens of Anagni freed him. He was conducted to +Rome, only to be confined in the Vatican by the Orsini. He +died on the 11th or 12th of October 1303, not eighty-six years +old, as has commonly been believed, but perhaps under seventy, +at all events not over seventy-five. “He shall come in like a +fox, reign like a lion, die like a dog,” is a gibe wrongly held to be +a prophecy of his unfortunate predecessor. Dante, who had +become embittered against Boniface while on a political mission +in Rome, calls him the “Prince of the new Pharisees” (<i>Inferno</i>, +27, 85), but laments that “in his Vicar Christ was made a captive,” +and was “mocked a second time” (<i>Purgatory</i>, 20, 87 f.).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Digard, Faucon and Thomas, <i>Les Registres de +Boniface VIII</i> (Paris, 1884 ff.); Wetzer and Welte, <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>, +vol. ii. (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1883), 1037-1062; Herzog-Hauck, +<i>Realencyklopadie</i>, vol. iii. (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1897), 291-300, contains +an elaborate bibliography; J. Loserth, <i>Geschichte des spateren +Mittelalters</i> (Munich, 1903), 206-232; H. Finke, <i>Aus den Tagen +Bonifaz VIII.</i> (Münster, 1902) is dreary but epoch-making; <i>Göttingische +gelehrte Anzeigen</i>, Jahrgang 166, 857-869 (Berlin, 1904); +R. Scholz, <i>Die Publizistik zur Zeit Philipps des Schönen und Bonifaz +VIII.</i> (Stuttgart, 1903); K. Wenck, “War Bonifaz VIII. ein +Ketzer?” in von Sybel’s <i>Historische Zeitschrift</i>, vol. xciv. (Munich, +1905), 1-66. Special literature on <i>Unam Sanctum</i>: C. Mirbt, +<i>Quellen zur Geschichte des Papsttums</i> (2nd ed., Tübingen, 1901), +148 f.; <i>Kirchenlexikon</i>, xii. (1901), 229-240, an exhaustive discussion; +H. Finke, 146-190; J.H. Robinson, <i>Readings in European +History</i>, vol. i. (Boston, 1904), 346 ff. On <i>Clericis laicos</i>: Gee and +Hardy, <i>Documents Illustrative of English Church History</i> (London, +1896), 87 ff.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div> + +<p><span class="sc">Boniface IX.</span> (Piero Tomacelli), pope from 1389 to 1404, +was born at Naples of a poor but ancient family. Created +cardinal by Urban VI., he was elected successor to the latter +on the 2nd of November 1389. In 1391 he canonized Birgitta +of Sweden. He was able to restore Roman authority in the +major part of the papal states, and in 1398 put an end to the +republican liberties of the city itself. Boniface won Naples, +which had owed spiritual allegiance to the antipopes Clement VII. +and Benedict XIII. of Avignon, to the Roman obedience. In +1403 he ventured at last to confirm the deposition of the emperor +Wenceslaus and the election of Rupert. Negotiations for the +healing of the Great Schism were without result. In spite of +his inferior education, the contemporaries of Boniface trusted +his prudence and moral character; yet when in financial straits +he sold offices, and in 1399 transformed the annates into a permanent +tax. In 1390 he celebrated the regular jubilee, but a +rather informal one held in 1400 proved more profitable. +Though probably not personally avaricious, he was justly +accused of nepotism. He died on the 1st of October 1404, being +still under sixty years of age.</p> +<div class="author">(W. W. R.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONIFACE OF SAVOY<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> (d. 1270), archbishop of Canterbury, +became primate in 1243, through the favour of Henry III., of +whose queen, Eleanor of Provence, he was an uncle. Boniface, +though a man of violent temper and too often absent from his +see, showed some sympathy with the reforming party in the +English church. Though in 1250 he provoked the English +bishops by claiming the right of visitation in their dioceses, he +took the lead at the council of Merton (1258) in vindicating the +privileges of his order. In the barons’ war he took the royalist +side, but did not distinguish himself by great activity.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Matthew Paris, <i>Chronica Majora</i>; François Mugnier, <i>Les +Savoyards en Angleterre</i> (Chambéry, 1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONIFACIO,<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> a maritime town at the southern extremity of +Corsica, in the arrondissement of Sartène, 87 m. S.S.E. of Ajaccio +by road. Pop. (1906) 2940. Bonifacio, which overlooks the +straits of that name separating Corsica from Sardinia, occupies +a remarkable situation on the summit of a peninsula of white +calcareous rock, extending parallel to the coast and enclosing +a narrow and secure harbour. Below the town and in the cliffs +facing it the rock is hollowed into caverns accessible only by boat. +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page208" id="page208"></a>208</span> +St Dominic, a church built in the 13th century by the Templars, +and the cathedral of Santa Maria Maggiore which belongs mainly +to the 12th century, are the chief buildings. The fortifications +and citadel date from the 16th and 17th centuries. A massive +medieval tower serves as a powder-magazine. The trade of Bonifacio, +which is carried on chiefly with Sardinia, is in cereals, wine, +cork and olive-oil of fine quality. Cork-cutting, tobacco-manufacture +and coral-fishing are carried on. The olive is largely cultivated +in the neighbourhood and there are oil-works in the town.</p> + +<p>Bonifacio was founded about 828 by the Tuscan marquis +whose name it bears, as a defence against the Saracen pirates. +At the end of the 11th century it became subject to Pisa, and +at the end of the 12th was taken and colonized by the Genoese, +whose influence may be traced in the character of the population. +In 1420 it heroically withstood a protracted siege by Alphonso V. +of Aragon. In 1554 it fell into the hands of the Franco-Turkish +army.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONIFACIUS<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> (d. 432), the Roman governor of the province +of Africa who is generally believed to have invited the Vandals +into that province in revenge for the hostile action of Placidia, +ruling in behalf of her son the emperor Valentinian III. (428-429). +That action is by Procopius attributed to his rival Aëtius, but +the earliest authorities speak of a certain Felix, chief minister +of Placidia, as the calumniator of Bonifacius. Whether he really +invited the Vandals or not, there is no doubt that he soon turned +against them and bravely defended the city of Hippo from their +attacks. In 432 he returned to Italy, was received into favour +by Placidia, and appointed master of the soldiery. Aëtius, however, +resented his promotion, the two rivals met, perhaps in +single combat, and Bonifacius, though victorious, received a +wound from the effects of which he died three months later.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The authorities for the extremely obscure and difficult history of +these transactions are well discussed by E.A. Freeman in an article +in the <i>English Historical Review</i>, July 1887, to which the reader is +referred. But compare also Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall of the Roman +Empire</i>, vol. iii. pp. 505-506, edited by J.B. Bury (London, 1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONIN ISLANDS,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> called by the Japanese <span class="sc">Ogasawara-Jima</span>, +a chain of small islands belonging to Japan, stretching nearly +due north and south, a little east of 142 E., and from 26° 35′ +to 27° 45′ N., about 500 m. from the mainland of Japan. They +number twenty, according to Japanese investigations, and have +a coast-line of 174.65 m. and a superficies of 28.82 sq. m. Only +ten of them have any appreciable size, and these are named—commencing +from the north—Muko-shima (Bridegroom Island), +Nakadachi-shima (Go-between Island<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a>), Yome-shima (Bride +Island), Ototo-jima (Younger-brother Island), Ani-shima (Elder-brother +Island), Chichi-jima (Father Island), Haha-jima (Mother +Island), Mei-jima (Niece Island), Ani-jima (Elder-sister Island) +and Imoto-jima (Younger-sister Island). European geographers +have been accustomed to divide the islands into three groups for +purposes of nomenclature, calling the northern group the Parry +Islands, the central the Beechey Islands and the southern the +Coffin or Bailey Islands. The second largest of all, Chichi-jima, +in Japanese cartography was called Peel Island in 1827 by +Captain Beechey, and the same officer gave the name of Stapleton +Island to the Ototo-jima of the Japanese, and that of Buckland +Island to their Ani-jima. To complete this account of Captain +Beechey’s nomenclature, it may be added that he called a large +bay on the south of Peel Island Fitton Bay, and a bay on the +south-west of Buckland Island Walker Bay.<a name="fa2m" id="fa2m" href="#ft2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a> Port Lloyd, the +chief anchorage (situated on Peel Island), is considered by +Commodore Perry—who visited the islands in 1853 and strongly +urged the establishment of a United States coaling station there—to +have been formerly the crater of a volcano from which the +surrounding hills were thrown up, the entrance to the harbour +being a fissure through which lava used to pour into the sea. +The islands are, indeed, plainly volcanic in their nature.</p> + +<p><i>History</i>.—The diversity of nomenclature indicated above +suggests that the ownership of the islands was for some time +doubtful. According to Japanese annals they were discovered +towards the close of the 16th century, and added to the fief of +a Daimyo, Ogasawa Sadayori, whence the name Ogasawara-jima. +They were also called <i>Bunin-jima</i> (corrupted by foreigners +into Bonin) because of their being without (<i>bu</i>) inhabitants (<i>nin</i>). +Effective occupation did not take place, however, and communications +with the islands ceased altogether in 1635, as was a +natural consequence of the Japanese government’s veto against +the construction of sea-going vessels. In 1728 fitful communication +was restored by the then representative of the Ogasawara +family, only to be again interrupted until 1861, when an unsuccessful +attempt was made to establish a Japanese colony at Port +Lloyd. Meanwhile, Captain Beechey visited the islands in the +“Blossom,” assigned names to some of them, and published a +description of their features. Next a small party consisting of +two British subjects, two American citizens, and a Dane, sailed +from the Sandwich Islands for Port Lloyd in 1830, taking with +them some Hawaiian natives. These colonists hoisted the +British flag on Peel Island (Chichi-jima), and settled there. +When Commodore Perry arrived in 1853, there were on Peel +Island thirty-one inhabitants, four being English, four American, +one Portuguese and the rest natives of the Sandwich Islands, the +Ladrones, &c.; and when Mr Russell Robertson visited the place +in 1875, the colony had grown to sixty-nine, of whom only five +were pure whites. Mr Robertson found them without education, +without religion, without laws and without any system of government, +but living comfortably on clearings of cultivated land. +English was the language of the settlers, and they regarded +themselves as a British colony. But in 1861 the British government +renounced all claim to the islands in recognition of Japan’s +right of possession. There is now regular steam communication; +the affairs of the islands are duly administered, and the population +has grown to about 4500. There are no mountains of any +considerable height in the Ogasawara Islands, but the scenery +is hilly with occasional bold crags. The vegetation is almost +tropically luxuriant—palms, wild pineapples, and ferns growing +profusely, and the valleys being filled with wild beans and patches +of taro. Mr Robertson catalogues a number of valuable timbers +that are obtained there, among them being Tremana, cedar, +rose-wood, iron-wood (red and white), box-wood, sandal and +white oak. The kekop tree, the orange, the laurel, the juniper, +the wild cactus, the curry plant, wild sage and celery flourish. +No minerals have been discovered. The shores are covered +with coral; earthquakes and tidal waves are frequent, the latter +not taking the form of bores, but of a sudden steady rise and +equally sudden fall in the level of the sea; the climate is rather +tropical than temperate, but sickness is almost unknown among +the residents.</p> +<div class="author">(F. By.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Referring to the Japanese custom of employing a go-between to +arrange a marriage.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> These details are taken from <i>The Bonin Islands</i> by Russell +Robertson, formerly H.B.M. consul in Yokohama, who visited the +islands in 1875.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONITZ, HERMANN<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1814-1888), German scholar, was born +at Langensalza in Saxony on the 29th of July 1814. Having +studied at Leipzig under G. Hermann and at Berlin under +Böckh and Lachmann, he became successively teacher at the +Blochmann institute in Dresden (1836), Oberlehrer at the +Friedrich-Wilhelms gymnasium (1838) and the Graues Kloster +(1840) in Berlin, professor at the gymnasium at Stettin (1842), +professor at the university of Vienna (1849), member of the +imperial academy (1854), member of the council of education +(1864), and director of the Graues Kloster gymnasium (1867). +He retired in 1888, and died on the 25th of July in that year at +Berlin. He took great interest in higher education, and was +chiefly responsible for the system of teaching and examination +in use in the high schools of Prussia after 1882. But it is as a +commentator on Plato and Aristotle that he is best known +outside Germany. His most important works in this connexion +are: <i>Disputationes Platonicae Duae</i> (1837); <i>Platonische Studien</i> +(3rd ed., 1886); <i>Observations Criticae in Aristotelis Libros +Metaphysicos</i> (1842); <i>Observationes Criticae in Aristotelis quae +feruntur Magna Moralia et Ethica Eudemia</i> (1844); <i>Alexandri +Aphrodisiensis Commentarius in Libras Metaphysicos Aristotelis</i> +(1847); <i>Aristotelis Metaphysica</i> (1848-1849); <i>Über die Kategorien +des A.</i> (1853); <i>Aristotelische Studien</i> (1862-1867); +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page209" id="page209"></a>209</span> +<i>Index Aristotelicus</i> (1870). Other works: <i>Über den Ursprung der +homerischen Gedichte</i> (5th ed., 1881); <i>Beiträge zur Erklärung des +Thukydides</i> (1854), <i>des Sophokles</i> (1856-1857). He also wrote +largely on classical and educational subjects, mainly for the +<i>Zeitschrift für die österreichischen Gymnasien</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>A full list of his writings is given in the obituary notice by T. +Gompertz in the <i>Biographisches Jahrbuch für Altertumskunde</i> (1890).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONIVARD, FRANÇOIS<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (1493-1570), the hero of Byron’s +poem, <i>The Prisoner of Chillon</i>, was born at Seyssel of an old +Savoyard family. Bonivard has been described as “a man of +the Renaissance who had strayed into the age of the Reformation.” +His real character and history are, however, widely +different from the legendary account which was popularized by +Byron. In 1510 he succeeded his uncle, who had educated him, +as prior of the Cluniac priory of St Victor, close to Geneva. +He naturally, therefore, opposed the attempts of the duke of +Savoy, aided by his relative, the bishop of the city, to maintain +his rights as lord of Geneva. He was imprisoned by the duke +at Gex from 1519 to 1521, lost his priory, and became more and +more anti-Savoyard. In 1530 he was again seized by the duke +and imprisoned for four years underground, in the castle of +Chillon, till he was released in 1536 by the Bernese, who then +wrested Vaud from the duke. He had been imprisoned for +political reasons, for he did not become a Protestant till after +his release, and then found that his priory had been destroyed +in 1534. He obtained a pension from Geneva, and was four +times married, but owing to his extravagances was always in +debt. He was officially entrusted in 1542 with the task of +compiling a history of Geneva from the earliest times. In 1551 +his MS. of the <i>Chroniques de Genève</i> (ending in 1530) was submitted +to Calvin for correction, but it was not published till +1831. The best edition is that of 1867. The work is uncritical +and partial, but is his best title to fame.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONN,<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, +on the left bank of the Rhine, 15 m. S. by E. from Cologne, on +the main line of railway to Mainz, and at the junction of the +lines to the Eifel and (by ferry) to the right bank of the Rhine. +Pop. (1885) 35,989; (1905) 81,997. The river is here crossed +by a fine bridge (1896-1898), 1417 ft. in length, flanked by +an embankment 2 m. long, above and parallel with which is +the Coblenzer-strasse, with beautiful villas and pretty gardens +reaching down to the Rhine. The central part of the town is +composed of narrow streets, but the outskirts contain numerous +fine buildings, and the appearance of the town from the river +is attractive. There are six Roman Catholic and two Protestant +churches, the most important of which is the Münster (minster), +an imposing edifice of grey stone, in the Romanesque and +Transition styles, surmounted by five towers, of which the +central, rising to a height of 315 ft., is a landmark in the Rhine +valley. The church dates from the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries, +was restored in 1875 and following years and in 1890-1894 was +adorned with paintings. Among other churches are the Stiftskirche +(monasterial church), rebuilt 1879-1884; the Jesuitenkirche +(1693); the Minoritenkirche (1278-1318), the Herz +Jesu-kirche (1862) and the Marienkirche (1892). There is also +a synagogue, and the university chapel serves as an English +church. The town also possesses a town hall situate on the +market square and dating from 1737, a fine block of law-court +buildings, several high-grade schools and a theatre.</p> + +<p>By far the finest of the buildings, however, is the famous +university, which occupies the larger part of the southern +frontage of the town. The present establishment only dates +from 1818, and owes its existence to King Frederick William III. +of Prussia; but as early as 1786 the academy which had been +founded about nine years before was raised by Archbishop +Maximilian Frederick of Cologne to the rank of a university, +and continued to exercise its functions till 1794, when it was +dissolved by the last elector. The building now occupied by the +university was originally the electoral palace, constructed about +1717 out of the materials of the old fortifications. It was +remodelled after the town came into Prussian possession. There +are five faculties in the university—a legal, a medical, and a +philosophic, and one of Roman Catholic and another Protestant +theology. The library numbers upwards of 230,000 volumes; +and the antiquarian museum contains a valuable collection of +Roman relics discovered in the neighbourhood. Connected with +the university are also physiological, pathological and chemical +institutes, five clinical departments and a laboratory. An +academy of agriculture, with a natural history museum and +botanic garden attached, is established in the palace of Clemensruhe +at Poppelsdorf, which is reached by a fine avenue about a +mile long, bordered on both sides by a double row of chestnut +trees. A splendid observatory, long under the charge of Friedrich +Wilhelm Argelander, stands on the south side of the road. The +Roman Catholic archiepiscopal theological college, beautifully +situated on an eminence overlooking the Rhine, dates from 1892.</p> + +<p>Beethoven was born in Bonn, and a statue was erected to him +in the Münster-platz in 1845. B.G. Niebuhr is buried in the +cemetery outside of the Sterntor, where a monument was placed +to his memory by Frederick William IV. Here are also the +tombs of A.W. von Schlegel, the diplomatist Christian Karl +von Bunsen, Robert Schumann, Karl Simrock, E.M. Arndt +and Schiller’s wife. The town is adorned with a marble monument +commemorating the war of 1870-71, a handsome fountain, +and a statue of the Old Catholic bishop Reinkens. In 1889 a +museum of Beethoven relics was opened in the house in which +the composer was born. There are further a municipal museum, +arranged in a private house since 1882, an academic art museum +(1884), with some classic originals, a creation of F.G. Welcker, +and the provincial museum, standing near the railway station, +which contains a collection of medieval stone monuments and +works of art, besides a small picture gallery.</p> + +<p>One of the most conspicuous features of Bonn, viewed from +the river, is the pilgrimage (monastic) church of Kreuzberg +(1627), behind and above Poppelsdorf; it has a flight of 28 +steps, which pilgrims used to ascend on their knees. “Der alte +Zoll,” commanding a magnificent view of the Siebengebirge, is +the only remaining bulwark of the old fortifications, the Sterntor +having been removed in order to open up better communication +with the rapidly increasing western suburbs and the terminus +of the light railway to Cologne.</p> + +<p>But for its university Bonn would be a place of comparatively +little importance, its trade and commerce being of moderate +dimensions. Its principal industries are jute spinning and +weaving, and the manufacture of porcelain, flags, machinery +and beer, and it has some trade in wine. There are considerable +numbers of foreign residents, notably English, attracted by the +natural beauty of the place and by the educational facilities it +affords.</p> + +<p>Bonn (<i>Bonna</i> or <i>Castra Bonnensia</i>), originally a town of the +Ubii, became at an early period the site of a Roman military +settlement, and as such is frequently mentioned by Tacitus. +It was the scene, in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 70, of a battle in which the Romans +were defeated by Claudius Civilis, the valiant leader of the +Batavians. Greatly reduced by successive barbarian inroads, it +was restored about 359 by the emperor Julian. In the centuries +that followed the break-up of the Roman empire it again suffered +much from barbarian attacks, and was finally devastated in +889 by bands of Norse raiders who had sailed up the Rhine. +It was again fortified by Konrad von Hochstaden, archbishop +of Cologne (1238-1261), whose successor, Engelbert von Falkenburg +(d. 1274), driven out of his cathedral city by the townspeople, +established himself here (1265); from which time until +1794 it remained the residence of the electors of Cologne. During +the various wars that devastated Germany in the 16th, 17th and +18th centuries, the town was frequently besieged and occupied by +the several belligerents, but continued to belong to the electors +till 1794, when the French took possession of it. At the peace of +Lunéville they were formally recognized in their occupation; +but in 1815 the town was made over by the congress of Vienna +to Prussia. The fortifications had been dismantled in 1717.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See F. Ritter, <i>Entstehung der drei ältesten Städte am Rhein: Köln, +Bonn und Mainz</i> (Bonn, 1851); H. von Sybel, <i>Die Gründung der +Universität Bonn</i> (1868); and <i>Führer von Hesse</i> (10th ed., 1901).</p> +</div> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page210" id="page210"></a>210</span></p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONNAT, LÉON JOSEPH FLORENTIN<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1833-   ), French +painter, was born at Bayonne on the 20th of June 1833. He was +educated in Spain, under Madrazo at Madrid, and his long series +of portraits shows the influence of Velasquez and the Spanish +realists. In 1869 he won a medal of honour at Paris, where he +became one of the leading artists of his day, and in 1888 he +became professor of painting at the École des Beaux Arts. In +May 1905 he succeeded Paul Dubois as director. His vivid +portrait-painting is his most characteristic work, but his subject +pictures, such as the “Martyrdom of St Denis” in the Panthéon, +are also famous.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONNE-CARRÈRE, GUILLAUME DE<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1754-1825), French +diplomatist, was born at Muret in Languedoc on the 13th of +February 1754. He began his career in the army, but soon +entered the diplomatic service under Vergennes. A friend of +Mirabeau and of Dumouriez, he became very active at the Revolution, +and Dumouriez re-established for him the title of director-general +of the department of foreign affairs (March 1792). He +remained at the ministry, preserving the habits of the diplomacy +of the old régime, until December 1792, when he was sent to +Belgium as agent of the republic, but he was involved in the +treason of Dumouriez and was arrested on the 2nd of April 1793. +To justify himself, he published an account of his conduct from +the beginning of the Revolution. He was freed from prison in +July 1794. Napoleon did not trust him, and gave him only +some unimportant missions. After 1815 Bonne-Carrère retired +into private life, directing a profitable business in public carriages +between Paris and Versailles.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONNER, EDMUND<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (1500?-1569), bishop of London, was +perhaps the natural son of George Savage, rector of Davenham, +Cheshire, by Elizabeth Frodsham, who was afterwards married +to Edmund Bonner, a sawyer of Hanley in Worcestershire. +This account, which was printed with many circumstantial +details by Strype (<i>Eccles. Mem.</i> III. i. 172-173), was disputed by +Strype’s contemporary, Sir Edmund Lechmere, who asserted on +not very satisfactory evidence (<i>ib. Annals</i>, I. ii. 300)that Bonner +was of legitimate birth. He was educated at Broadgates Hall, +now Pembroke College, Oxford, graduating bachelor of civil +and canon law in June 1519. He was ordained about the same +time, and admitted D.C.L. in 1525. In 1529 he was Wolsey’s +chaplain, and he was with the cardinal at Cawood at the time of +his arrest. Subsequently he was transferred, perhaps through +Cromwell’s influence, to the service of the king, and in January +1532 he was sent to Rome to obstruct the judicial proceedings +against Henry in the papal curia. In October 1533 he was entrusted +with the unmannerly task of intimating to Clement VII., +while he was the guest of Francis I. at Marseilles, Henry’s appeal +from the pope to a general council; but there seems to be no +good authority for Burnet’s story that Clement threatened to +have him burnt alive. For these and other services Bonner +had been rewarded by the grant of several livings, and in 1535 +he was made archdeacon of Leicester.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of that year he was sent to further what he +called “the cause of the Gospel” (<i>Letters and Papers</i>, 1536, +No. 469) in North Germany; and in 1536 he wrote a preface to +Gardiner’s <i>De vera Obedientia</i>, which asserted the royal, denied +the papal, supremacy, and was received with delight by the +Lutherans. After a brief embassy to the emperor in the spring of +1538, Bonner superseded Gardiner at Paris, and began his mission +by sending Cromwell a long list of accusations against his predecessor +(<i>ib</i>. 1538, ii. 144). He was almost as bitter against +Wyatt and Mason, whom he denounced as a “papist,” and the +violence of his conduct led Francis I. to threaten him with a +hundred strokes of the halberd. He seems, however, to have +pleased his patron, Cromwell, and perhaps Henry, by his energy +in seeing the king’s “Great” Bible in English through the press +in Paris. He was already king’s chaplain; his appointment +at Paris had been accompanied by promotion to the see of +Hereford, and before he returned to take possession he was translated +to the bishopric of London (October 1539).</p> + +<p>Hitherto Bonner had been known as a somewhat coarse and +unscrupulous tool of Cromwell, a sort of ecclesiastical Wriothesley, +He is not known to have protested against any of the changes +effected by his masters; he professed to be no theologian, and +was wont, when asked theological questions, to refer his interrogators +to the divines. He had graduated in law, and not in +theology. There was nothing in the Reformation to appeal +to him, except the repudiation of papal control; and he was +one of those numerous Englishmen whose views were faithfully +reflected in the Six Articles. He became a staunch Conservative, +and, apart from his embassy to the emperor in 1524-1543, was +mainly occupied during the last years of Henry’s reign in +brandishing the “whip with six strings.”</p> + +<p>The accession of Edward VI opened a fresh and more creditable +chapter in Bonner’s career. Like Gardiner, he could +hardly repudiate that royal supremacy, in the establishment +of which he had been so active an agent; but he began to doubt +that supremacy when he saw to what uses it could be put by +a Protestant council, and either he or Gardiner evolved the +theory that the royal supremacy was in abeyance during a royal +minority. The ground was skilfully chosen, but it was not +legally nor constitutionally tenable. Both he and Gardiner +had in fact sought fresh licences to exercise their ecclesiastical +jurisdiction from the young king; and, if he was supreme enough +to confer jurisdiction, he was supreme enough to issue the injunctions +and order the visitation to which Bonner objected. Moreover, +if a minority involved an abeyance of the royal supremacy in +the ecclesiastical sphere, it must do the same in the temporal +sphere, and there could be nothing but anarchy. It was on this +question that Bonner came into conflict with Edward’s government. +He resisted the visitation of August 1547, and was +committed to the Fleet; but he withdrew his opposition, and +was released in time to take an active part against the government +in the parliament of November 1547. In the next session, +November 1548-March 1549, he was a leading opponent of the +first Act of Uniformity and Book of Common Prayer. When +these became law, he neglected to enforce them, and on the +1st of September 1549 he was required by the council to maintain +at St Paul’s Cross that the royal authority was as great +as if the king were forty years of age. He failed to comply, +and after a seven days’ trial he was deprived of his bishopric +by an ecclesiastical court over which Cranmer presided, and +was sent to the Marshalsea. The fall of Somerset in the following +month raised Bonner’s hopes, and he appealed from Cranmer +to the council. After a struggle the Protestant faction gained +the upper hand, and on the 7th of February 1550 Bonner’s +deprivation was confirmed by the council sitting in the Star +Chamber, and he was further condemned to perpetual +imprisonment.</p> + +<p>He was released by Mary’s accession, and was at once restored +to his see, his deprivation being regarded as invalid and Ridley +as an intruder. He vigorously restored Roman Catholicism in +his diocese, made no difficulty about submitting to the papal +jurisdiction which he had forsworn, and in 1555 began the +persecution to which he owes his fame. His apologists explain +that his action was merely “official,” but Bonner was one of those +who brought it to pass that the condemnation of heretics to the +fire should be part of his ordinary official duties. The enforcement +of the first Book of Common Prayer had also been part of +his official duties; and the fact that Bonner made no such +protest against the burning of heretics as he had done in the +former case shows that he found it the more congenial duty. +Tunstal was as good a Catholic as Bonner; he left a different +repute behind him, a clear enough indication of a difference in +their deeds.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, Bonner did not go out of his way to persecute; +many of his victims were forced upon him by the council, +which sometimes thought that he had not been severe enough +(see <i>Acts of the P.C. 1554-1556</i>, pp. 115, 139; <i>1556-1558</i>, +pp. 18, 19, 216, 276). So completely had the state dominated +the church that religious persecutions had become state persecutions, +and Bonner was acting as an ecclesiastical sheriff in +the most refractory district of the realm. Even Foxe records +instances in which Bonner failed to persecute. But he had +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page211" id="page211"></a>211</span> +no mercy for a fallen foe; and he is seen at his worst in his +brutal jeers at Cranmer, when he was entrusted with the duty +of degrading his former chief. It is a more remarkable fact that, +in spite of his prominence, neither Henry VIII. nor Mary should +ever have admitted him to the privy council. He seems to +have been regarded by his own party as a useful instrument, +especially in disagreeable work, rather than as a desirable +colleague.</p> + +<p>On her accession Elizabeth refused to allow him to kiss her +hand; but he sat and voted in the parliament and convocation +of 1559. In May he refused to take the oath of supremacy, +acquiring like his colleagues consistency with old age. He was +sent to the Marshalsea, and a few years later was indicted on +a charge of praemunire on refusing the oath when tendered +him by his diocesan, Bishop Horne of Winchester. He challenged +the legality of Horne’s consecration, and a special act of parliament +was passed to meet the point, while the charge against +Bonner was withdrawn. He died in the Marshalsea on the 5th +of September 1569, and was buried in St George’s, Southwark, at +midnight to avoid the risk of a hostile demonstration.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Letters and Papers of Henry VIII.</i> vols. iv.-xx.; <i>Acts of the +Privy Council</i> (1542-1569); <i>Lords’ Journals</i>, vol. i.; Wilkins’ +<i>Concilia</i>; Foxe’s <i>Acts and Monuments</i>, ed. Townsend; Burnet, ed. +Pocock; Strype’s Works; Gough’s <i>Index to Parker Soc. Publ.</i>; +S.R. Maitland’s <i>Essays on the Ref.</i>; Froude’s and R.W. Dixon’s +<i>Histories</i>; Pollard’s <i>Cranmer</i> and <i>England under Somerset</i>; other +authorities cited in <i>Dict. Nat. Biogr</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(A. F. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONNET, CHARLES<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> (1720-1793), Swiss naturalist and +philosophical writer, was born at Geneva on the 13th of March +1720, of a French family driven into Switzerland by the religious +persecution in the 16th century. He made law his +profession, but his favourite pursuit was the study of natural +science. The account of the ant-lion in N.A. Pluche’s <i>Spectacle +de la nature</i>, which he read in his sixteenth year, turned his +attention to insect life. He procured R.A.F. de Réaumur’s +work on insects, and with the help of live specimens succeeded +in adding many observations to those of Réaumur and Pluche. +In 1740 Bonnet communicated to the academy of sciences a paper +containing a series of experiments establishing what is now +termed parthenogenesis in <i>aphides</i> or tree-lice, which obtained +for him the honour of being admitted a corresponding member +of the academy. In 1741 he began to study reproduction by +fusion and the regeneration of lost parts in the freshwater hydra +and other animals; and in the following year he discovered +that the respiration of caterpillars and butterflies is performed +by pores, to which the name of <i>stigmata</i> has since been given. +In 1743 he was admitted a fellow of the Royal Society; and in +the same year he became a doctor of laws—his last act in +connexion with a profession which had ever been distasteful +to him.</p> + +<p>His first published work appeared in 1745, entitled <i>Traité +d’insectologie</i>, in which were collected his various discoveries +regarding insects, along with a preface on the development of +germs and the scale of organized beings. Botany, particularly +the leaves of plants, next attracted his attention; and after +several years of diligent study, rendered irksome by the increasing +weakness of his eyesight, he published in 1754 one of the +most original and interesting of his works, <i>Recherches sur l’usage +des feuilles dans les plantes</i>; in which among other things he +advances many considerations tending to show (as has quite +recently been done by Francis Darwin) that plants are endowed +with powers of sensation and discernment. But Bonnet’s eyesight, +which threatened to fail altogether, caused him to turn +to philosophy. In 1754 his <i>Essai de psychologie</i> was published +anonymously in London. This was followed by the <i>Essai +analytique sur les facultés de l’âme</i> (Copenhagen, 1760), in which +he develops his views regarding the physiological conditions of +mental activity. He returned to physical science, but to the +speculative side of it, in his <i>Considérations sur les corps organisés</i> +(Amsterdam, 1762), designed to refute the theory of epigenesis, +and to explain and defend the doctrine of pre-existent germs. +In his <i>Contemplation de la nature</i> (Amsterdam, 1764-1765; +translated into Italian, German, English and Dutch), one of his +most popular and delightful works, he sets forth, in eloquent +language, the theory that all the beings in nature form a gradual +scale rising from lowest to highest, without any break in its +continuity. His last important work was the <i>Palingénésie +philosophique</i> (Geneva, 1769-1770); in it he treats of the past +and future of living beings, and supports the idea of the survival +of all animals, and the perfecting of their faculties in a future +state.</p> + +<p>Bonnet’s life was uneventful. He seems never to have left +Switzerland, nor does he appear to have taken any part in public +affairs except for the period between 1752 and 1768, during which +he was a member of the council of the republic. The last twenty +five years of his life he spent quietly in the country, at Genthod, +near Geneva, where he died after a long and painful illness on +the 20th of May 1793. His wife was a lady of the family of +De la Rive.</p> + +<p>They had no children, but Madame Bonnet’s nephew, the +celebrated H.B. de Saussure, was brought up as their son.</p> + +<p>Bonnet’s philosophical system may be outlined as follows. +Man is a compound of two distinct substances, mind and body, +the one immaterial and the other material. All knowledge +originates in sensations; sensations follow (whether as physical +effects or merely as sequents Bonnet will not say) vibrations in +the nerves appropriate to each; and lastly, the nerves are made +to vibrate by external physical stimulus. A nerve once set in +motion by a particular object tends to reproduce that motion; +so that when it a second time receives an impression from the +same object it vibrates with less resistance. The sensation +accompanying this increased flexibility in the nerve is, according +to Bonnet, the condition of memory. When reflection—that is, +the active element in mind—is applied to the acquisition and +combination of sensations, those abstract ideas are formed +which, though generally distinguished from, are thus merely +sensations in combination only. That which puts the mind +into activity is pleasure or pain; happiness is the end of human +existence. Bonnet’s metaphysical theory is based on two +principles borrowed from Leibnitz—first, that there are not +successive acts of creation, but that the universe is completed +by the single original act of the divine will, and thereafter moves +on by its own inherent force; and secondly, that there is no +break in the continuity of existence. The divine Being originally +created a multitude of germs in a graduated scale, each +with an inherent power of self-development. At every successive +step in the progress of the universe, these germs, as +progressively modified, advance nearer to perfection; if some +advanced and others did not there would be a gap in the continuity +of the chain. Thus not man only but all other forms of +existence are immortal. Nor is man’s mind alone immortal; +his body also will pass into the higher stage, not, indeed, the +body he now possesses, but a finer one of which the germ at +present exists within him. It is impossible, however, to reach +absolute perfection, because the distance is infinite. In this +final proposition Bonnet violates his own principle of continuity, +by postulating an interval between the highest created being +and the Divine. It is also difficult to understand whether the +constant advance to perfection is performed by each individual, +or only by each race of beings as a whole. There seems, in fact, +to be an oscillation between two distinct but analogous doctrines—that +of the constantly increasing advancement of the individual +in future stages of existence, and that of the constantly increasing +advancement of the race as a whole according to the successive +evolutions of the globe.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Bonnet’s complete works appeared at Neuchâtel in 1779-1783, +partly revised by himself. An English translation of certain portions +of the <i>Palingénésie philosophique</i> was published in 1787, under the +title, <i>Philosophical and Critical Inquiries concerning Christianity</i>. +See also A. Lemoine, <i>Charles Bonnet</i> (Paris, 1850); the duc de +Caraman, <i>Charles Bonnet, philosophe et naturaliste</i> (Paris, 1859); +Max Offner, <i>Die Psychologie C. B.</i> (Leipzig, 1893); Joh. Speck, in +<i>Arch. f. Gesch. d. Philos.</i> x. (1897), xi. (1897), pp. 58 foll., xi. (1898) +pp. 1-211; J. Trembley, <i>Vie privée et littéraire de C. B.</i> (Bern, 1794).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONNET<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>bonetum</i>, a kind of stuff, then the cap +made of this stuff), originally a soft cap or covering for the head, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page212" id="page212"></a>212</span> +the common term in English till the end of the 17th century; +this sense survives in Scotland, especially as applied to the cap +known as a “glengarry.” The “bonnet” of a ship’s sail now +means an additional piece laced on to the bottom, but it seems +to have formerly meant a piece laced to the top, the term “to +vail the bonnet” being found at the beginning of the 16th +century to mean “strike sail” (from the Fr. <i>avaler</i>), to let +down. In modern times “bonnet” has come to be used of a type of +head-covering for women, differentiated from “hat” by fitting +closely to the head and often having no brim, but varying +considerably in shape according to the period and fashion. +The term, by a natural extension, is also applied to certain +protective devices, as in a steam-engine or safety-lamp, or in +slang use to a gambler’s accomplice, a decoy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONNEVAL, CLAUDE ALÉXANDRE,<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> <span class="sc">Comte de</span> (1675-1747), +French adventurer, known also as <span class="sc">Ahmed Pasha</span>, was the +descendant of an old family of Limousin. He was born on the +14th of July 1675, and at the age of thirteen joined the Royal +Marine Corps. After three years he entered the army, in which +he rose to the command of a regiment. He served in the Italian +campaigns under Catinat, Villeroi and Vendôme, and in the +Netherlands under Luxemburg, giving proofs of indomitable +courage and great military ability. His insolent bearing towards +the minister of war was made matter for a court-martial (1704). +He was condemned to death, but saved himself by flight to +Germany. Through the influence of Prince Eugene he obtained +a general’s command in the Austrian army, and fought with +great bravery and distinction against France, and afterwards +against Turkey. He was present at Malplaquet, and was severely +wounded at Peterwardein. The proceedings against him in +France were then allowed to drop, and he visited Paris, and +married a daughter of Marshal de Biron. He returned, however, +after a short time to the Austrian army, and fought with +distinction at Belgrade. He might now have risen to the highest +rank, had he not made himself disagreeable to Prince Eugene, +who sent him as master of the ordnance to the Low Countries. +There his ungovernable temper led him into a quarrel with the +marquis de Prié, Eugene’s deputy governor in the Netherlands, +who answered his challenge by placing him in confinement. +A court-martial was again held upon him, and he was +condemned to death; but the emperor commuted the sentence +to one year’s imprisonment and banishment. Bonneval, soon +after his release, offered his services to the Turkish government, +professed the Mahommedan faith, and took the name of Ahmed. +He was made a pasha, and appointed to organize and command +the artillery. He rendered valuable services to the sultan in +his war with Russia, and with the famous Nadir Shah. As a +reward he received the governorship of Chios, but he soon fell +under the suspicion of the Porte, and was banished for a time +to the shores of the Black Sea. He was meditating a return to +Europe and Christianity when he died at Constantinople on the +23rd of March 1747.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The <i>Memoirs</i> published under his name are spurious. See Prince +de Ligne, <i>Mémoire sur le comte de Bonneval</i> (Paris, 1817); +and A. Vandal, <i>Le Pacha Bonneval</i> (Paris, 1885).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONNEVILLE, BENJAMIN L. E.<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1795-1878), American +military engineer and explorer, was born in France about 1795. +He emigrated to the United States in early youth, and graduated +at the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1815. +He was engaged in the construction of military roads in the +south-west, and became a captain of infantry in 1825. In +1831-1836, having obtained leave of absence from the army, +he conducted, largely on his own responsibility, an exploring +expedition to the Rocky Mountains, proceeding up the Platte +river through parts of the later states of Colorado and Wyoming +into the Great Salt Lake basin and thence into California. After +being absolutely cut off from civilization for several years, and +having his name struck from the army list, he returned with an +interesting and valuable account of his adventures, which was +edited and amplified by Washington Irving and published under +the title <i>The Rocky Mountains: or Scenes, Incidents, and +Adventures in the Far West; from the Journal of Captain Benjamin +L.E. Bonneville of the Army of the United States</i> (2 vols., 1837), +subsequent editions bearing the title <i>The Adventures of Captain +Bonneville, U.S.A., in the Rocky Mountains and the Far West.</i> +Bonneville became a major in 1845, and was breveted lieutenant-colonel +for gallantry in the battles of Contreras and Churubusco +during the Mexican War. He became a colonel in 1855, commanded +the Gila river expedition against the Apaches in 1857, +and from 1858 to 1861 commanded the department of New +Mexico. He was retired in 1861, but served during the Civil +War as recruiting officer and commandant of barracks at +St Louis, Missouri, receiving the brevet rank of brigadier-general +in 1865. He died at Fort Smith, Arkansas, on the 12th +of June 1878. The extinct glacial lake which once covered +what is now north-western Utah has been named in his honour.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONNEY, THOMAS GEORGE<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span> (1833-  ), English geologist, +eldest son of the Rev. Thomas Bonney, master of the grammar +school at Rugeley, was born in that town on the 27th of July +1833. Educated at Uppingham and St John’s College, Cambridge, +he graduated as 12th wrangler in 1856, and was ordained +in the following year. From 1856 to 1861 he was mathematical +master at Westminster school, and geology was pursued by him +only as a recreation, mainly in Alpine regions. In 1868 he was +appointed tutor at St John’s College and lecturer in geology. +His attention was specially directed to the study of the igneous +and metamorphic rocks in Alpine regions and in various parts of +England, in the Lizard, at Salcombe, in Charnwood Forest, in +Wales and the Scottish Highlands. In 1877 he was chosen +professor of geology in University College, London. He became +secretary and afterwards president of the Geological Society +(1884-1886), secretary of the British Association (1881-1885), +president of the Mineralogical Society and of the Alpine Club. +He was also in 1887 appointed honorary canon of Manchester. +His purely scientific works are: <i>Cambridgeshire Geology</i> (1875); +<i>The Story of our Planet</i> (1893); <i>Charles Lyell and Modern Geology</i> +(1895); <i>Ice Work, Past and Present</i> (1896); <i>Volcanoes</i> (1899). +In addition to many papers published in the <i>Quarterly Journal +of the Geological Society</i> and <i>Geological Magazine</i>, he wrote +several popular works on Alpine Regions, on English and Welsh +scenery, as well as on theological subjects.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Geological Magazine</i> for September 1901 (with bibliography).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONNIER, ANGE ELISABETH LOUIS ANTOINE<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1749-1799), +French diplomatist, was a member of the Legislative +Assembly and of the Convention, where he voted with the +majority. During the Directory he was charged with diplomatic +missions, first to Lille and then to the congress of Rastadt +(October 1797), where the negotiations dragged wearily along +and were finally broken. On the 28th of April 1799 the +plenipotentiaries on leaving Rastadt were assailed at the gates of +the town by Hungarian hussars, probably charged to secure their +papers. Bonnier and one of his colleagues, Claude Roberjot, +were killed. The other, Jean Debry, was wounded.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Huefer, <i>Der Rastadtergesandtenmord</i> (Bonn, 1896).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONNIVET, GUILLAUME GOUFFIER,<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> <span class="sc">Seigneur de</span> (<i>c.</i> 1488-1525), +French soldier, was the younger brother of Artus +Gouffier, seigneur de Boisy, tutor of Francis I. of France. +Bonnivet was brought up with Francis, and after the young +king’s accession he became one of the most powerful of the +royal favourites. In 1515 he was made admiral of France. In +the imperial election of 1519 he superintended the candidature +of Francis, and spent vast sums of money in his efforts to secure +the votes of the electors, but without success. He was the +implacable enemy of the constable de Bourbon and contributed +to his downfall. In command of the army of Navarre in 1521, +he occupied Fuenterrabia and was probably responsible for its +non-restoration and for the consequent renewal of hostilities. +He succeeded Marshal Lautrec in 1523 in the command of the +army of Italy and entered the Milanese, but was defeated and +forced to effect a disastrous retreat, in which the chevalier +Bayard perished. He was one of the principal commanders of +the army which Francis led into Italy at the end of 1524, and +died at the battle of Pavia on the 24th of February 1525. Brantôme +says that it was at Bonnivet’s suggestion that the battle +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page213" id="page213"></a>213</span> +of Pavia was fought, and that, seeing the disaster he had caused, +he courted and found death heroically in the fight. In spite of +his failures as a general and diplomatist, his handsome face +and brilliant wit enabled him to retain throughout his life the +intimacy and confidence of his king. He was a man of licentious +life. According to Brantôme he was the successful rival of the +king for the favours of Madame de Châteaubriand, and if we +may believe him to have been—as is very probable—the hero +of the fourth story of the <i>Heptameron</i>, Marguerite d’Angoulême +had occasion to resist his importunities.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Bonnivet’s correspondence in the Bibliothèque +Nationale, Paris; memoirs of the time; complete works of Brantôme, +vol. iii., published by Ludovic Lalanne for the Société de l’Histoire +de France (1864 seq.). See also Ernest Lavisse, <i>Histoire de France</i>, +vol. v., by H. Lemonnier (1903-1904).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONOMI, GIUSEPPI<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (1739-1808), English architect, was +born at Rome on the 19th of January 1739. After attaining +a considerable reputation in Italy, he came in 1767 to England, +and finally settled in practice there. He was the innocent cause +of the retirement of Sir Joshua Reynolds from the presidency +of the Royal Academy. Sir Joshua wished him to become a +full Academician, regarding him as a fitting occupant of the then +vacant chair of perspective. But the majority of the Academicians +were opposed to this suggestion, and Bonomi was elected +an associate only, and that merely by the president’s casting +vote. Bonomi was largely responsible for the revival of classical +architecture in England. His most famous work was the Italian +villa at Roseneath, Dumbartonshire, designed for the duke of +Argyll. In 1804 he was appointed honorary architect to St Peter’s +at Rome. He died in London on the 9th of March 1808.</p> + +<p>His son, <span class="sc">Giuseppi Bonomi</span> (1796-1878), studied art in London +at the Royal Academy, and became a sculptor, but is best known +as an illustrator of the leading Egyptological publications of his +day. From 1824 to 1832 he was in Egypt, making drawings +of the monuments in the company of Burton, Lane and Wilkinson. +In 1833 he visited the mosque of Omar, returning with +detailed drawings, and from 1842 to 1844 was again in Egypt, +attached to the Prussian government exploration expedition +under Lepsius. He assisted in the arrangement of the Egyptian +court at the Crystal Palace in 1853, and in 1861 was appointed +curator of the Soane Museum. He died on the 3rd of March +1878.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONONCINI<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Buononcini</span>), <span class="bold">GIOVANNI BATTISTA</span> (1672?-1750?), +Italian musical composer, was the son of the composer +Giovanni Maria Bononcini, best known as the author of a treatise +entitled <i>Il Musico Prattico</i> (Bologna, 1673), and brother of the +composer Marc’ Antonio Bononcini, with whom he has often +been confused. He is said to have been born at Modena in +1672, but the date of his birth must probably be placed some +ten years earlier. He was a pupil of his father and of Colonna, +and produced his first operas, <i>Tullo Ostilio</i> and <i>Serse</i>, at Rome +in 1694. In 1696 he was at the court of Berlin, and between +1700 and 1720 divided his time between Vienna and Italy. +In 1720 he was summoned to London by the Royal Academy +of Music, and produced several operas, enjoying the protection +of the Marlborough family. About 1731 it was discovered +that he had a few years previously palmed off a madrigal by +Lotti as his own work, and after a long correspondence he was +obliged to leave the country. He remained for several years in +France, and in 1748 was summoned to Vienna to compose music +in honour of the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. He then went to +Venice as a composer of operas, and nothing more is known of +his life.</p> + +<p>Bononcini’s rivalry with Handel will always ensure him +immortality, but he was in himself a musician of considerable +merit, and seems to have influenced the style, not only of Handel +but even of Alessandro Scarlatti. Either he or his brother (our +knowledge of the two composers’ lives is at present not sufficient +to distinguish their works clearly) was the inventor of that +sharply rhythmical style conspicuous in <i>Il Trionfo di Camilla</i> +(1697), the success of which at Naples probably induced Scarlatti +to adopt a similar type of melody. It is noticeable in the +once popular air of Bononcini, <i>L’esperto nocchiero</i>, and in the air +<i>Vado ben spesso</i>, long attributed to Salvator Rosa, but really +by Bononcini.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONONIA<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (mod. <i>Bologna</i>), the chief town of ancient Aemilia +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aemilia, Via</a></span>), in Italy. It was said by classical writers +to be of Etruscan origin, and to have been founded, under the +name Felsina, from Perusia by Aucnus or Ocnus. Excavations +of recent years have, however, led to the discovery of some +600 ancient Italic (Ligurian?) huts, and of cemeteries of the +same and the succeeding (Umbrian) periods (800-600? <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), +of which the latter immediately preceded the Etruscan civilization +(<i>c</i>. 600-400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). An extensive Etruscan necropolis, +too, was discovered on the site of the modern cemetery (A. +Zannoni, <i>Scavi della Certosa</i>, Bologna, 1876), and others in the +public garden and on the Arnoaldi Veli property (<i>Notizie degli +Scavi, indice</i> 1876-1900, <i>s.v.</i> “Bologna”). In 196 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when +the town first appears in history, it was already in the possession +of the Boii, and had probably by this time changed its name, +and in 189 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it became a Roman colony. After the conquest +of the mountain tribes, its importance was assured by its position +on the Via Aemilia, by which it was connected in 187 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> with +Ariminum and Placentia, and on the road, constructed in the +same year, to Arretium; while another road was made, perhaps +in 175 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, to Aquilelia. It thus became the centre of the road +system of north Italy. In 90 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it acquired Roman citizenship. +In 43 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> it was used as his base of operations against Decius +Brutus by Mark Antony, who settled colonists here; Augustus +added others later, constructing a new aqueduct from the Letta, +a tributary of the Rhenus, which was restored to use in 1881 +(G. Gozzadini in <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i>, 1881, 162). After a fire in +<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 53 the emperor Claudius made a subvention of 10 million +sesterces (£1,087,500). Bononia seems, in fact, to have been +one of the most important cities of ancient Italy, as Bologna is +of modern Italy. It was able to resist Alaric in 410 and to +preserve its existence during the general ruin. It afterwards +belonged to the Greek exarchate of Ravenna. Of remains of +the Roman period, however, there are none above ground, +though various discoveries have been made from time to time +within the city walls, the modern streets corresponding more or +less, as it seems, with the ancient lines. Remains of the bridge +of the Via Aemilia over the Rhenus have also been found— +consisting of parts of the parapets on each side, in brick-faced +concrete which belong to a restoration, the original construction +(probably by Augustus in 2 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) having been in blocks of +Veronese red marble—and also of a massive protecting wall +slightly above it, of late date, in the construction of which a large +number of Roman tombstones were used. The bed of the river +was found to have risen at least 20 ft. since the collapse of this +bridge (about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1000), the total length of which must have +been about 650 ft. and the width between the parapets 38½ ft.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E. Brizio in <i>Notizie degli Scavi</i> (1896), 125, 450; (1897) 330; +(1898) 465; (1902) 532.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(T. As.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONPLAND, AIMÉ JACQUES ALEXANDRE<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> (1773-1858), +French traveller and botanist, whose real name was <span class="sc">Goujand</span>, +was born at La Rochelle on the 22nd of August 1773. After +serving as a surgeon in the French army and studying under J.N. +Corvisart at Paris, he accompanied A. von Humboldt during +five years of travel in Mexico, Colombia and the districts bordering +on the Orinoco and Amazon. In these explorations he +collected and classified about 6000 plants till then mostly unknown +in Europe, which he afterwards described in <i>Plantes +équinoxiales</i>, &c. (Paris, 1808-1816). On returning to Paris he +received a pension and the superintendence of the gardens at +Malmaison, and published <i>Monographie des Mélastomées</i> (1806), +and <i>Description des plantes rares de Navarre</i> (1813). In 1816 +he set out, taking with him various European plants, for Buenos +Aires, where he was elected professor of natural history, an office +which he soon quitted in order to explore central South America. +While journeying to Bolivia he was arrested in 1821, by command +of Dr Francia, the dictator of Paraguay, who detained him until +1831. On regaining liberty he resided at San Borga in the province +of Corrientes, until his removal in 1853 to Santa Anna, +where he died on the 4th of May 1858.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page214" id="page214"></a>214</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BONSTETTEN, CHARLES VICTOR DE<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1745-1832), Swiss +writer, an excellent type of a liberal patrician, more French than +Swiss, and a good representative of the Gallicized Bern of the +18th century. By birth a member of one of the great patrician +families of Bern, he was educated in his native town, at Yverdon, +and (1763-1766) at Geneva, where he came under the influence of +Rousseau and of Charles Bonnet, and imbibed liberal sentiments. +Recalled to Bern by his father, he was soon sent to Leiden, +and then visited (1769) England, where he became a friend of +the poet Gray. After his father’s death (1770) he made a long +journey in Italy, and on his return to Bern (1774) entered political +life, for which he was unfitted by reason of his liberal ideas, +which led him to patronize and encourage Johannes Müller, the +future Swiss historian. In 1779 he was named the Bernese +bailiff of Saanen or Gessenay (here he wrote his <i>Lettres pastorales +sur une contrée de la Suisse</i>, published in German in 1781), and in +1787 was transferred in a similar capacity to Nyon, from which +post he had to retire after taking part (1791) in a festival to +celebrate the destruction of the Bastille. From 1795 to 1797 he +governed (for the Swiss Confederation) the Italian-speaking +districts of Lugano, Locarno, Mendrisio and Val Maggia, of which +he published (1797) a pleasing description, and into which he +is said to have introduced the cultivation of the potato. The +French revolution of 1798 in Switzerland drove him again into +private life. He spent the years 1798 to 1801 in Denmark, with +his friend Fredirika Brun, and then settled down in 1803 in +Geneva for the rest of his life. There he enjoyed the society of +many distinguished persons, among whom was (1809-1817) +Madame de Staël. It was during this period that he published +his most celebrated work, <i>L’Homme du midi et l’homme du nord</i> +(1824), a study of the influence of climate on different nations, +the north being exalted at the expense of the south. Among +his other works are the <i>Recherches sur la nature et les lois de +l’imagination</i> (1807), and the <i>Études de l’homme, ou Recherches +sur les facultés de penser et de sentir</i> (1821), but he was better as +an observer than as a philosopher.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Lives by A. Steinlen (Lausanne, 1860), by C. Morell (Winterthur, +1861), and by R. Willy (Bern, 1898). See also vol. xiv. of Sainte-Beuve’s +<i>Causeries du Lundi</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONUS<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (a jocular application of the Lat. <i>bonus</i>, for <i>bonum</i>, +“a good thing”), a sum paid to shareholders in a joint-stock +company, as an addition to the ordinary dividend, and generally +given out of accumulated profits, or out of profits gained from +exceptional transactions. As used by insurance companies, the +word denotes the addition made to the amount of a policy by +a distribution <i>pro rata</i> of accumulated profits or surplus. In +a more general sense, bonus is any payment or remuneration over +and above what is due and promised.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BONZE<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (from Japanese <i>bonzo</i>, probably a mispronunciation +of Chinese <i>fan sung</i>, “religious person”), the European name +for the members of the Buddhist religious orders of Japan and +China. The word is loosely used of all the Buddhist priests in +those and the neighbouring countries.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOK,<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> the common name for any literary production of some +bulk, now applied particularly to a printed composition forming +a volume, or, if in more than one volume, a single organic +literary work. The word is also used descriptively for the +internal divisions or sections of a comprehensive work.</p> + +<p>The word “book” is found with variations of form and gender +in all the Teutonic languages, the original form postulated for +it being a strong feminine <i>Bôks</i>, which must have been used in +the sense of a writing-tablet. The most obvious connexion of this +is with the old English <i>bóc</i>, a beech tree, and though this is not +free from philological difficulties, no probable alternative has +been suggested.</p> + +<p>As early as 2400 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, in Babylonia, legal decisions, revenue +accounts, &c. were inscribed in cuneiform characters on clay +tablets and placed in jars, arranged on shelves and labelled by +clay tablets attached by straws. In the 7th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> a +library of literary works written on such tablets existed at +Nineveh, founded by Sargan (721-705 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). As in the case of +the “Creation” series at the British Museum the narrative was +sometimes continued from one tablet to another, and some of +the tablets are inscribed with entries forming a catalogue of the +library. These clay tablets are perhaps entitled to be called +books, but they are out of the direct ancestry of the modern +printed book with which we are here chiefly concerned. One +of the earliest direct ancestors of this extant is a roll of eighteen +columns in Egyptian hieratic writing of about the 25th century +<span class="scs">B.C.</span> in the Musée de Louvre at Paris, preserving the maxims +of Ptah-hetep. Papyrus, the material on which the manuscript +(known as the Papyrus Prisse) is written, was made from the pith +of a reed chiefly found in Egypt, and is believed to have been in +use as a writing material as early as about 4000 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It continued +to be the usual vehicle of writing until the early centuries of the +Christian era, was used for pontifical bulls until <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1022, and +occasionally even later; while in Coptic manuscripts, for which +its use had been revived in the 7th century, it was employed as +late as about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1250. It was from the name by which they +called the papyrus, <span class="grk" title="bublos">βύβλος</span> or <span class="grk" title="biblos">βίβλος</span>, that the Greeks formed +<span class="grk" title="biblion">βιβλίον</span>, their word for a book, the plural of which (mistaken +for a feminine singular) has given us our own word Bible. +In the 2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Eumenes II., king of Pergamus, +finding papyrus hard to procure, introduced improvements into +the preparations of the skins of sheep and calves for writing +purposes, and was rewarded by the name of his kingdom being +preserved in the word <i>pergamentum</i>, whence our “parchment,” +by which the dressed material is known. In the 10th century the +supremacy which parchment had gradually established was +attacked by the introduction from the East of a new writing +material made from a pulp of linen rags, and the name of the +vanquished papyrus was transferred to this new rival. Paper-mills +were set up in Europe in the 12th century, and the use of +paper gained ground, though not very rapidly, until on the +invention of printing, the demand for a cheap material for books, +and the ease with which paper could be worked on a press, gave +it a practical monopoly. This it preserved until nearly the end +of the 19th century, when substances mainly composed of wood-pulp, +esparto grass and clay largely took its place, while continuing, +as in the transition from papyrus to linen-pulp, to pass under +the same name (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paper</a></span>).</p> + +<p>So long as the use of papyrus was predominant the usual form +of a book was that of the <i>volumen</i> or roll, wound round a stick, +or sticks. The modern form of book, called by the Latins <i>codex</i> +(a word originally used for the stump of a tree, or block of wood, +and thence for the three-leaved tablets into which the block was +sawn) was coming into fashion in Martial’s time at Rome, and +gained ground in proportion as parchment superseded papyrus. +The <i>volumen</i> as it was unrolled revealed a series of narrow +columns of writing, and the influence of this arrangement is +seen in the number of columns in the earliest codices. Thus in +the Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus of the Bible, both of +the 4th century, there are respectively four and three columns +to a page; in the Codex Alexandrinus (5th century) only two; +in the Codex Bezae (6th century) only one, and from this date +to the invention of printing, while there were great changes +in handwriting, the arrangement of books changed very little, +single or double columns being used as was found convenient. +In the external form of books there was much the same conservatism. +In the Codex Amiatinus written in England in the 8th +century one of the miniatures shows a book in a red leather cover, +and the arrangement of the pattern on this curiously resembles +that of the 15th-century red leather bindings predominant +in the Biblioteca Laurenziana at Florence, in which the codex +itself is preserved. In the same way some of the small stamps +used in Oxford bindings in the 15th century are nearly indistinguishable +from those used in England three centuries earlier. +Much fuller details as to the history of written books in these as +well as other respects will be found in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manuscript</a></span>, +to which the following account of the fortunes of books after the +invention of printing must be regarded as supplementary.</p> + +<p>Between a manuscript written in a formal book-hand and an +early printed copy of the same work, printed in the same district +as the manuscript had been written, the difference in general +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page215" id="page215"></a>215</span> +appearance was very slight. The printer’s type (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Typography</a></span>) +would as a rule be based on a handwriting considered by the +scribes appropriate to works of the same class; the chapter +headings, headlines, initial-letters, paragraph marks, and in some +cases illustrations, would be added by hand in a style which might +closely resemble the like decorations in the manuscript from which +the text was being printed; there would be no title-page, and +very probably no statement of any kind that the book was +printed, or as to where, when or by whom it was produced. +Information as to these points, if given at all, was reserved for +a paragraph at the end of the book, called by bibliographers +a colophon (<i>q.v.</i>), to which the printer often attached a device +consisting of his arms, or those of the town in which he worked, +or a fanciful design. These devices are sometimes beautiful and +often take the place of a statement of the printer’s name. Many +facsimiles or copies of them have been published.<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The first +dated title-page known<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> is a nine-line paragraph on an otherwise +blank page giving the title of the book, <i>Sermo ad populum +predicabilis in festo presentacionis Beatissime Marie Semper +Virginis</i>, with some words in its praise, the date 1470 in roman +numerals, and a reference to further information on the next +page. The book in which this title-page occurs was printed by +Arnold ther Hoernen at Cologne. Six years later Erhard Ratdolt +and his partners at Venice printed their names and the date, +together with some verses describing the book, on the title-page +of a Latin calendar, and surrounded the whole with a border +in four pieces. For another twenty years, however, when title-pages +were used at all, they usually consisted merely of the short +title of the book, with sometimes a woodcut or the printer’s +(subsequently the publisher’s) device beneath it, decoration being +more often bestowed on the first page of text, which was sometimes +surrounded by an ornamental border. Title-pages completed +by the addition of the name and address of printer or publisher, +and also by the date, did not become common till about 1520.</p> + +<p>While the development of the title-page was thus slow the +completion of the book, independently of handwork, in other +respects was fairly rapid. Printed illustrations appear first in the +form of rude woodcuts in some small books produced at Bamberg +by Albrecht Pfister about 1461. Pagination and headlines +were first used by ther Hoernen at Cologne in 1470 and 1471; +printed signatures to guide binders in arranging the quires correctly +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bibliography and Bibliology</a></span>) by Johann Koelhoff, +also at Cologne in 1472. Illustrations abound in the books +printed at Augsburg in the early ’seventies, and in the ’eighties +are common in Germany, France and the Low Countries, while +in Italy their full development dated from about 1490. Experiments +were made in both Italy and France with illustrations +engraved on copper, but in the 15th century these met with no +success.</p> + +<p>Bound with wooden boards covered with stamped leather, +or with half of the boards left uncovered, many of the earliest +printed books are immensely large and heavy, especially the great +choir-books, the Bibles and the Biblical and legal commentaries, +in which a great mass of notes surrounds the text. The paper +on which these large books were printed was also extraordinarily +thick and strong. For more popular books small folio was at +first a favourite size, but towards the end of the century small +thin quartos were much in vogue. Psalters, books of hours, +and other prayer-books were practically the only very small +books in use. Owing to changes, not only in the value of money +but in the coinage, the cost of books in the 15th century is extremely +difficult to ascertain. A vellum copy of the first printed +Bible (Mainz, c. 1455) in two large folio volumes, when rubricated +and illuminated, is said to have been worth 100 florins. In 1467 +the bishop of Aleria writing to Pope Paul II. speaks of the +introduction of printing having reduced prices to one-fifth of +what they had previously been. Fifteen “Legends” bequeathed +by Caxton to St Margaret’s, Westminster, were sold at prices +varying from 6s. 8d. to 5s. This would be cheap for a large work +like the <i>Golden Legend</i>, but the bequest was more probably of +copies of the Sarum <i>Legenda</i>, or Lectionary, a much smaller book.</p> + +<p><i>16th Century</i>.—The popularization of the small octavo by Aldus +at Venice in 1501 and the introduction in these handy books of +a new type, the italic, had far-reaching consequences. Italics +grew steadily in favour during the greater part of the century, and +about 1570 had almost become the standard vernacular type of +Italy. In France also they were very popular, the attempt to +introduce a rival French cursive type (<i>lettres de civilité</i>) attaining +no success. In England they gained only slight popularity, +but roman type, which had not been used at all in the 15th +century, made steady progress in its contest with black letter, +which by the end of the century was little used save for Bibles +and proclamations. The modern practice in the use of i and +j, u and v dates from about 1580, though not firmly established +till the reign of Charles I.</p> + +<p>In the second quarter of the 16th century the French printers +at Paris and Lyons halved the size of the Aldine octavos in their +small sextodecimos, which found a ready market, though not +a lasting one, the printers of Antwerp and Leiden ousting them +with still smaller books in 24mo or small twelves. These little +books were printed on paper much thinner than had previously +been used. The size and weight of books was also reduced by +the substitution of pasteboards for wooden sides. Gold tooling +came into use on bindings, and in the second half of the century +very elaborate decoration was in vogue in France until checked +by a sumptuary law. On the other hand a steady decline in the +quality of paper combined with the abandonment of the old +simple outline woodcuts for much more ambitious designs made +it increasingly difficult for printers to do justice to the artists’ +work, and woodcuts, at first in the Low Countries and afterwards +in England and elsewhere, were gradually superseded by copper-plates +printed separately from the text. At the beginning of this +century in England a ballad or Christmas carol sold for a halfpenny +and thin quarto chapbooks for 4d. (a price which lasted through +the century), the Great Bible of 1541 was priced at 10s. in sheets +and 12s. bound, Edward VI.’s prayer-book (1549) at 2s. 2d. +unbound, and 3s. 8d. in paste or boards; Sidney’s <i>Arcadia</i> and +other works in 1598 sold for 9s.</p> + +<p><i>17th Century</i>.—Although the miniature editions issued by the +Elzevirs at Leiden, especially those published about 1635, have +attracted collectors, printing in the 17th century was at its worst, +reaching its lowest depths in England in the second quarter. +After this there was a steady improvement, partly due to +slight modifications of the old printing presses, adopted first in +Holland and copied by the English printers. In the first half +of the century many English books, although poorly printed, +were ornamented with attractive frontispieces, or portraits, +engraved on copper. During the same period, English prayer-books +and small Bibles and New Testaments were frequently +covered with gay embroideries in coloured silks and gold or silver +thread. In the second half of the century the leather bindings +of Samuel Mearne, to some extent imitated from those of the +great French binder Le Gascon, were the daintiest England had +yet produced. For trade bindings rough calf and sheepskin +were most used, and the practice of lettering books on the back, +instead of on the sides or fore-edges or not at all, came gradually +into favour. Owing to the increase of money, and in some cases +to the action of monopolists, in others to the increased payments +made to authors, book-prices rather rose than fell. Thus church +Bibles, which had been sold at 10s. in 1541, rose successively to +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page216" id="page216"></a>216</span> +25s., 30s. and (in 1641) to 40s. Single plays in quarto cost +6d. each in Shakespeare’s time, 1s. after the Restoration. The +Shakespeare folio of 1623 is said to have been published at £1. +Bishop Walton’s polyglot Bible in six large volumes was sold +for £10 to subscribers, but resulted in a heavy loss. Izaak +Walton’s <i>Compleat Angler</i> was priced at 1s. 6d. in sheepskin, +<i>Paradise Lost</i> at 3s., <i>The Pilgrim’s Progress</i> at 1s. 6d.; Dryden’s +<i>Virgil</i> was published by subscription at £5:5s. It was a handsome +book, ornamented with plates; but in the case of this and +other subscription books a desire to honour or befriend the author +was mainly responsible for the high price.</p> + +<p><i>18th Century</i>.—During this century there was a notable improvement +alike in paper, type and presswork in both France +and England, and towards the end of the century in Germany +and Italy also. Books became generally neat and sometimes +elegant. Book-illustration revived with the French <i>livres-à-vignettes</i>, +and English books were illustrated by Gravelot and other +French artists. In the last quarter of the century the work of +Bewick heralded a great revival in woodcut illustrations, or as +the use of the graver now entitled them to be called, wood +engravings. The best 18th-century binders, until the advent of +Roger Payne, were inferior to those of the 17th century, but the +technique of the average work was better. In trade bindings +the use of sheepskin and calf became much less common, and +books were mostly cased in paper boards. The practice of publishing +poetry by subscription at a very high price, which Dryden +had found lucrative, was followed by Prior and Pope. Single +poems by Pope, however, were sold at 1s. and 1s. 6d. Novels +were mostly in several volumes. The price at the beginning of the +century was mostly 1s. 6d. each. It then remained fairly steady +for many years, and at the close of the century rose again. Thus +Miss Burney’s <i>Evelina</i> (3 vols., 1778) sold for 7s. 5d., her <i>Cecilia</i> +(5 vols., 1782) for 12s. 6d., and her <i>Camilla</i> (5 vols., 1796) for £1:1s. +Johnson’s <i>Dictionary</i> (2 vols. folio, 1755) cost £4 : 4s. in sheets, +£4 : 15s. in boards.</p> + +<p><i>19th Century</i>.—great change in the appearance of books was +caused by the use first of glazed calico (about 1820), afterwards +(about 1830) of cloth for the cases of books as issued by their +publishers. At first the lettering was printed on paper labels, +but soon it was stamped in gilt on the cloth, and in the last quarter +of the century many very beautiful covers were designed for +English and American books. The designs for leather bindings +were for many years chiefly imitated from older work, but towards +the end of the ’eighties much greater originality began +to be shown. Book illustrations passed through many phases. +As subsidiary methods colour-prints, line engravings, lithographs +and etchings were all used during the first half of the century, +but the main reliance was on wood-engraving, in which extraordinary +technical skill was developed. In the ’sixties and the +years which immediately preceded and followed them many +of the chief English artists supplied the engravers with drawings. +In the last decade of the century wood-engraving was practically +killed by the perfection attained by photographic methods of +reproduction (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Process</a></span>), the most popular of these methods +entailing the use of paper heavily coated with china clay. During +the century trade-printing, both in England and America, steadily +improved, and the work done by William Morris at his Kelmscott +Press (1891-1896), and by other amateur printers who imitated +him, set a new standard of beauty of type and ornament, and +of richness of general effect. On the other hand the demand +for cheap reprints of famous works induced by the immense +extension of the reading public was supplied by scores of pretty +if flimsy editions at 1s. 6d. and 1s. and even less. The problem +of how to produce books at moderate prices on good paper and +well sewn, was left for the 20th century to settle. About 1894 +the number of such medium-priced books was greatly increased +in England by the substitution of single-volume novels at 6s. +each (subject to discount) for the three-volume editions at 31s. 6d. +The preposterous price of 10s. 6d. a volume had been adopted +during the first popularity of the <i>Waverly Novels</i>, and despite the +example of France, where the standard price was 3 fr. 50, had +continued in force for the greater part of the century. Even after +novels were sold at reasonable rates artificial prices were maintained +for books of travel and biographies, so that the circulating +libraries were practically the only customers for the first +editions. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Publishing</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bookselling</a></span>).</p> +<div class="author">(A. W. Po.)</div> + +<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note"> + +<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Works especially devoted to these facsimiles are:—Berjeau’s +<i>Early Dutch, German and English Printers’ Marks</i> (London, 1866); +W. Roberts’s <i>Printers’ Marks</i> (London, 1893); Silvestre’s <i>Marques +typographiques</i> (French; Paris, 1853-1867); <i>Die Büchermarken +oder Buchdrucker und Verlegerzeichen</i> (Strassburg, 1892-1898), the +successive parts containing the devices used in Alsace, Italy, Basel, +Frankfort, Mainz and Cologne; and <i>Marques typographiques des +imprimeurs et libraires qui ont exercé dans les Pays-Bas</i> (Gand, 1894). +Numerous devices are also reproduced in histories of printing and +in volumes of facsimiles of early types.</p> + +<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> An edition of a bull of Pope Pius II. in the John Rylands library, +Manchester, in types used by Fust and Schoeffer at Mainz, bears +printed on the top of the first page the words “Dis ist die bul zu +dutsch die unser allerheiligster vatter der bapst Pius herusgesant +hait widder die snoden ungleubigen turcken.” This is attributed +to the year 1463, and is claimed as the first book with a printed +title-page.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOKBINDING.<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> Bindings or covers to protect written or +printed matter have always followed the shapes of the material +on which the writing or printing was done. Very early inscriptions +on rocks or wood needed no coverings, and the earliest +<span class="sidenote">Origins.</span> +instances of protective covers are to be found among the smaller +Assyrian tablets of about the 8th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> These tablets, +with cuneiform inscriptions recording sales of slaves, loans of +money and small matters generally, are often enclosed in an +outer shell of the same shape and impressed with a short title. +Egyptian papyrus rolls were generally kept in roll form, bound +round with papyrus tape and often sealed with seals +of Nile mud; and the rolls in turn were often preserved +in rectangular hollows cut in wood. The next earliest material +to papyrus used for writing upon was tree bark. Bark books, +still commonly used by uncultured nations, often consisting of +collections of magical formulae or medical receipts, are generally +rolls, folded backwards and forwards upon themselves like the +sides of a concertina. At Pompeii in 1875 several diptychs were +found, the wooden leaves hollowed on the inner sides, filled with +blackened wax, and hinged together at the back with leather +thongs. Writings were found scratched on the wax, one of them +being a record of a payment to Umbricia Januaria in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 55. +This is the earliest known Latin manuscript. The diptychs are +the prototypes of the modern book. From about the 1st to +the 6th century, ornamental diptychs were made of carved ivory, +and presented to great personages by the Roman consuls.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:226px; height:317px" src="images/img216a.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:223px; height:315px" src="images/img216b.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:214px; height:318px" src="images/img216c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 1.—WINCHESTER DOMESDAY +BOOK OF THE 12TH +CENTURY. +<br /><span class="f80">Dark brown morocco, blind +stamped.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.—ST. CUTHBERT’S GOSPELS. +<br /><span class="f80">Red leather with repoussé design, probably +the work of the 7th or 8th century. +The fine lines are impressed by hand, and +painted blue and yellow.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 4.—BINDING MADE FOR +JAMES I. +<br /><span class="f80">Dark blue morocco, gold tooled. +The red in the coat-of-arms inlaid +with red morocco.</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:467px; height:322px" src="images/img216d.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:321px; height:321px" src="images/img216e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 3.—BINDING MADE FOR JEAN GROLIER. +<br /><span class="f80">Pale brown morocco, gold tooled.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 5.—COMMON PRAYER (LONDON, 1678). +<br /><span class="f80">Smooth red morocco, gold tooled with black fillets. +Bound by Samuel Mearne.</span></td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:236px; height:322px" src="images/img216f.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:226px; height:323px" src="images/img216g.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:235px; height:319px" src="images/img216h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—LE LIVRE DES STATUTS +ET ORDONNANCES +DE L’ORDRE DU BENVIST +SAINCT ESPRIT (PARIS, 1578). +<br /><span class="f80">Brown morocco, gold tooled, arms +of Henry III., King of France. Bound +by Nicholas Eve.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 7.—CATALOGUE OF THE +PICTURES AT HAGLEY +HALL. +<br /><span class="f80">Red niger morocco, gold tooled. +Bound by Douglas Cockerell.</span></td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 8.-WALTON’S COMPLEAT +ANGLER (1772). +<br /><span class="f80">Golden brown morocco, gold tooled. +Bound by Miss E.M. MacColl.</span></td></tr></table> + +<p>Rolls of papyrus, vellum or paper were written upon in three +ways, (1) In short lines, at right angles to the length of the roll. +(2) In long lines each the entire length of the roll. (3) In short +lines parallel to the length of the roll, each column or page of +writing having a space left on each side of it. Rolls written in the +first of these ways were simply rolled up and kept in cylinders +of like shape, sometimes several together, with a title tag at +the end of each, in a box called a scrinium. In the case of the +second form, the most obvious instances of which are to be found +in the Buddhist prayer-wheels, the rolls were and are kept in +circular boxes with handles through the centres so that they can +revolve easily. In the third manner of arranging the manuscript +the page forms show very clearly, and it is still used in the scrolls +of the law in Jewish synagogues, kept on two rollers, one at each +end. But this form of writing also developed a new method +for its own more convenient preservation. A roll of this kind can +be folded up, backwards and forwards, the bend coming in the +vacant spaces between the columns of writing. When this is done +it at once becomes a book, and takes the Chinese and Japanese +form known as <i>orihon</i>—all the writing on one side of the roll +or strip of paper and all the other side blank. Some books of this +kind are simply guarded by two boards, but generally they are +fastened together along one of the sides, which then becomes +the back of the book. The earliest fastening of such books +consists of a lacing with some cord or fibre run through holes +stabbed right through the substance of the roll, near the edge. +Now the <i>orihon</i> is complete, and it is the link between the roll +and the book. This “stabbed” form of binding is the earliest +method of keeping the leaves of a book together; it occurs in +the case of a Coptic papyrus of about the 8th century found at +Thebes, but it is rarely used in the case of papyrus, as the material +is too brittle to retain the threads properly.</p> + +<p>The method of folding vellum into pages seems to have been +first followed about the 5th century. The sheets were folded +once, and gatherings of four or more folded sheets were made, +so that stitches through the fold at the back would hold all the +sheets together and each leaf could be conveniently turned over. +Very soon an obvious plan of fixing several of these gatherings, +or quires, together was followed by the simple expedient of +fastening the threads at the back round a strong strip of leather +or vellum held at right angles to the line of the backs. This early +plan of “sewing” books is to-day used in the case of valuable +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page217" id="page217"></a>217</span> +books; it is known as “flexible” work, and has never been +improved upon.</p> + +<p>As soon as the method of sewing quires together in this way +became well understood, it was found that the projecting bands +at the back needed protection, so that when all the quires were +joined together and, so far, finished, strips of leather were fastened +all over the back. But it was also found that vellum leaves were +apt to curl strongly, and to counteract this tendency strong +wooden boards were put on each side. The loose ends of the +bands were fastened to the boards, which hinged upon them, +and the protecting strip of leather at the back was drawn over +the boards far enough to cover the hinge. So we get the medieval +“half-binding” which shows the strip of leather over the back +of the book, projecting for a short way over the boards, the rest of +which is left uncovered. The boards were usually kept closed by +means of clasps in front.</p> + +<p>The leather strip soon developed, and covered the whole of +the boards, “whole” binding as it is called, and it was quickly +found that these fine flat pieces of leather offered a splendid field +for artistic decoration.</p> + +<p>The first ornamentation on leather bindings was probably +made by means of impressions from small metal points or lines, +pressed upon the leather. This in time led to the +purposeful cutting of small decorative stamps to be +<span class="sidenote">Progress of artistic binding.</span> +used in the same way. It is considered that English +binders excelled in this art of “blind” stamping, that +is, without the use of gold leaf. Most of the stamps were cut +intaglio, so that their impressions are in cameo form. Such +bindings were made to perfection during the 12th and 13th +centuries at Durham, Oxford, Cambridge, London and other +places. One of the most charming examples left is the binding +of the Winchester Domesday Book of the 12th century (Plate, +fig. 1), now belonging to the Society of Antiquaries of London.</p> + +<p>From about the 7th to the 16th century illuminated manuscripts +were held in the greatest esteem. Among them can be found not +only exquisite calligraphy but exquisite miniature painting. +Moreover, the gorgeousness of the illuminations inside suggested +gorgeousness of the outside coverings, so we find splendid work +in metals with jewels, enamels and carved ivory, dating from the +7th-century <i>Gospels of Theodolinda</i> at Monza, the Irish cumdach +of the <i>Stowe Missal</i>, the <i>Lindau Gospels</i> now in America, and the +<i>Gospels of Charlemagne</i> in the Victoria and Albert Museum at +South Kensington, to the magnificent bindings of 14th-century +Limoges enamel in the British Museum. Such English bindings +of this kind—intrinsically precious—as may have existed have +all disappeared,—most likely they were melted up by Henry +VIII. or Edward VI.; but at Stonyhurst there is a book known +as <i>St Cuthbert’s Gospels</i>, which is bound in red leather with a +repoussé design upon it, and is probably the work of the 7th or +8th century (Plate, fig. 2).</p> + +<p>When printing was introduced into Europe about the middle +of the 15th century, there was very soon a reaction against the +large, beautiful and valuable illuminated MSS. and their equally +precious covers. Printing brought small books, cheap books, +ugly books, generally bound in calf, goatskin or sheepskin, +and ornamented with large panel stamps in blind. But a new +art came into birth very shortly, namely the art of gold tooling +on leather, which in capable hands is almost a great art, and +specimens of the work of the few great masters that have practised +it are now much sought after and likely to increase in +estimation and value. All this, as usual, brings a school of skilled +<i>faussaires</i> into the field, and already the collector of fine bindings +must be wary, or he may easily give thousands of pounds for +forged or made-up objects that are worth but little.</p> + +<p>In the matter of leather bindings with gold tooling, an art +which was probably brought to Venice from the East, the finest +examples are to be found in late 15th-century Italian work. The +art quickly spread, and Thomas Berthelet, Royal Binder to +Henry VIII., seems to have been the first binder who practised +it in England. Berthelet’s work is strongly Italian in feeling, +especially at first, and it is likely that he was taught the new +art by an Italian master; he worked until about 1558.</p> + +<p>During the late 15th and the 16th century in England, numbers +of fine printed books were bound in velvet and satin, sometimes +set with enamels, sometimes embroidered. These books, having +strong threads of metal freely used upon them, have lasted +much better than would be expected, and instances of such +work made for Henry VIII. are still in excellent condition, +and most decorative.</p> + +<p>The fashion of ornamenting English royal books with heraldic +designs, which is considered to have begun in the reign of Edward +IV., has continued without break. The same fashion in books +belonging to private owners was first followed during the later +Tudor period, and then numbers were made, and have been, more +or less, ever since.</p> + +<p>During the whole Tudor period several small bindings of gold +ornamented with enamels were made. Some of these still exist, +and they are charming little jewels. They were always provided +with a ring at the top, no doubt for attaching to the girdle.</p> + +<p>Aldus Manutius, the great Venetian printer, had several of +his books charmingly bound in dark morocco with “Aldine” +knot leaves and small dolphins both in blind and gold tooling; +and Giunta, a Florentine printer, had his books bound in a +similar way but without the dolphins. Many early Venetian +bindings have recessed panels, made by the use of double boards, +the upper of which is pierced, finished in true oriental fashion.</p> + +<p>Jean Grolier, viscount d’Aguisy, treasurer of France in 1545, +was a great collector of fine books, most of which were bound for +himself, and bear upon them his legend, <i>Portio mea domine sit +in terra viventium</i>, and also his name, Io Grolierii et Amicorum +(Plate, fig. 3). Tommaso Maioli, an Italian collector of about the +same time, used the same form of legend. Books bound for him +are curiously marked with atoms of gold remaining in the irregularities +of the leather.</p> + +<p>Demetrio Canevari, physician to Pope Urban VIII., had his +books bound in dark green or deep red morocco, and upon them +is a fine cameo stamp with a design of Apollo driving a chariot +with one white horse and one black horse towards a mountain +on which is a silver Pegasus. The stamp was coloured, but in +most cases the colour has now worn off. Round the stamp is +the legend <span class="grk" title="ORTHOS KAI MAE LOXIOS">ΟΡΘΩΣ ΚΑΙ ΜΗ ΛΟΞΙΩΣ</span>.</p> + +<p>The Italian bindings which were made for popes and cardinals +are always of much interest and often of high merit, but as a +rule later Italian bindings are disappointing.</p> + +<p>Geoffrey Tory, printer and engraver to Francis I. of France, +designed some fine bindings, some for himself and quite possibly +some for Jean Grolier.</p> + +<p>For Henry II. of France much highly decorative work in binding +was done, richly gilded and coloured. These bindings have +upon them the king’s initials, the initials of his queen, Catherine +de’ Medici, and the emblems of crescents and bows. Henry’s +device was a crescent with the legend, <i>Donec impleat totum orbem</i>. +Bindings of similar style were made for Diane de Poitiers, duchesse +de Valentinois, with her initials and the same devices of crescents +and bows. They are always fine work.</p> + +<p>German bindings are mostly in pigskin, finely stamped in +blind. Several are, however, in calf. Gilding, when it exists, +is generally bad.</p> + +<p>In England during the 17th century much fine work was done +in binding, most of it in morocco, but Henry, prince of Wales, +always had his books bound in calf. The Jacobean style is +heraldic, with semis of small stamps and heavy corners, but +James I. has left some very fine bindings in another style +(Plate, fig. 4), very possibly done for him by John Gibson, who +bound the royal books while James was king of Scotland only. +During the reign of Charles I. Nicholas Ferrar founded his curious +establishment at Little Gidding, and there his niece Mary Collet +and her sisters set up a bindery. They made large scrap-books, +harmonies of the Gospels and other parts of the Bible, with +illustrations, and bound them magnificently in velvet stamped +in gold and silver. They were taught by a binder who worked +for John and Thomas Buck, printers to the university of Cambridge, +and the Little Gidding stamps are often identical with +Buck’s.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page218" id="page218"></a>218</span></p> + +<p>Samuel Mearne (d. 1683) was royal binder to Charles II., and +invented the cottage style of decoration, a style which has lasted +till the present day; the Bible on which Edward VII. took the +coronation oath was ornamented in that way. An inner rectangle +is run parallel to the edges of the book, and the upper and lower +lines are broken outwards into the outline of a gable roof. +Mearne’s work as a binder (Plate, fig. 5) is of the highest merit. +Many of his books have their fore-edge painted in such a way that +the work is invisible when the book is shut, and only shows when +the edges are fanned out.</p> + +<p>In France 16th- and 17th-century binding is distinguished by +the work of such masters as Nicholas Eve, who bound the beautiful +<i>Livre des Statuts et Ordonnances de l’ordre du Benvist Sainct +Esprit</i> for Henry III. (Plate, fig. 6); Clovis Eve, who is credited +with the invention of the style known as “fanfare,” a delicate +tracery over the boards of a book, filled out with spirals of leafy +stems; and Le Gascon, who invented the dotted work which has +been used more or less ever since. Le Gascon caused his small +gilding tools—curves and arabesques—to be scored across, so +that when impressions were made from them a dotted line +showed instead of a right line. Florimond Badier worked in a +style very similar to that of Le Gascon and sometimes signed his +work, which Le Gascon never did. Le Gascon had many imitators, +the best and closest being Poncyn and Magnus, Dutch +binders who worked at Amsterdam in the 17th century, and his +style has been continuously followed to the present day.</p> + +<p>The bindings of Padeloup le Jeune often have small tickets +with his name upon them; they usually have borders of lace-like +gold tooling known as “dentelle” and are often inlaid. +He belonged to a family of binders, all of whom were excellent +workmen, and lived in the 17th and 18th centuries.</p> + +<p>The Deromes were another of the great French families of +binders; the most celebrated was Nicholas Denis, called “Le +Jeune,” born in 1731. He used dentelle borders resembling +those of Padeloup, but with little birds interspersed among the +arabesques—“dentelles à l’oiseau.”</p> + +<p>Among the many French binders of the 18th century who used +delicate inlays of coloured leathers, Jean Charles le Monnier was +perhaps the most skilled. He often signed his bindings in small +capitals impressed in gold somewhere about the inlaid part.</p> + +<p>Eliot and Chapman bound the library of Robert Harley, +earl of Oxford, about the middle of the 18th century. The bindings +are in morocco, with broad, richly gold-tooled borders, and +usually a diamond-shaped centre-piece. This is known as the +Harleian style.</p> + +<p>Thomas Hollis had his books bound in fine red morocco, +ornamented with small, well-cut stamps engraved by Thomas +Pingo, the medallist. These stamps comprise a cap of liberty, +a figure of liberty, a figure of Britannia and several smaller ones.</p> + +<p>Towards the end of the 18th century, when binding in England +was decoratively at a low level, Roger Payne, a native of Windsor, +came to London and set up as a bookbinder. He was a splendid +workman, and introduced richly gold-tooled corner-pieces, +ornamental “doublures” or inside linings, and also invented the +graining of morocco, graining it, however, in one direction only, +known as the “straight grain.” It is said that Payne cut his own +binding tools of iron; they certainly are exquisitely made, and +in many of his bindings he has put a written description of +loving work he has done upon them. Payne was, unfortunately, +a drunkard, but he has in spite of this rendered an immortal +service to the art of bookbinding in England.</p> + +<p>In 1785 John Edwards of Halifax patented a method of making +vellum transparent, and using it as a covering over delicate +paintings. He also painted pictures on the fore-edges of many +of his books in the same manner as that followed by Samuel +Mearne in the 17th century, so that they did not show until the +book was opened. John Whitaker used calf for his bindings, +but ornamented the calf in a curious way with strong acids and +with prints from engraved metal plates. Both Edwards and +Whitaker liked classical borders and ornaments, and their +bindings are in consequence often known as “Etruscan.”</p> + +<p>The main styles used in England at the beginning of the 19th +century were nothing more than distant imitations of Roger +Payne. Kalthoeber, Staggemeier, Walther and Hering were all +disciples of this master, but Charles Lewis worked on original +lines. He developed arabesques and paid particular attention +to richly gold-tooled doublures. He also used gold end papers, +and the bands at the back of his bindings are often double +and always broad, flat and gold-tooled. His workmanship is +excellent; he worked largely for Thomas Grenville and other great +collectors.</p> + +<p>French binding of the 19th century is remarkable for wonderful +technical excellence in every part. Among the most skilled of +these admirable workmen and artists may be particularly mentioned +Thouvenin, Bauzonnet, Lortic, Niedrée, Capé and Duru, +and fortunately they generally sign their work in small gold +lettering either on the back of their bindings or inside along the +lower edge.</p> + +<p>Recent years have witnessed a marked revival of interest in +the art of bookbinding, but modern binders have two serious +difficulties to contend with. One of these is the prevalence +of bad paper, overladen with clay and with +<span class="sidenote">Modern methods.</span> +wood pulp, and also the fact that many of the modern +leathers are badly prepared and dangerously treated with +sulphuric acid, which in time inevitably rots the fibre. The +Society of Arts has appointed committees of experts to report +upon both of these evils, and the published accounts of both +inquiries are of much value, and it is to be hoped that the results +may be beneficial. Concurrently with the revival of the artistic +side of the subject, there has also arisen a remarkable development +in the technical processes, owing to the invention of ingenious +and delicate machinery which is capable of executing the work +which had hitherto been always laboriously done by hand. The +processes of folding the printed sheets, and sewing them together +on bands, rounding the backs when sewn, and of making the +outer cases, covering them with cloth or leather and stamping +designs upon them, can now all be efficiently executed by means +of machines. The saving in time and labour thus effected is very +great, although it must be said that the old methods of carrying +out the process of sewing and rounding the backs of books by +hand labour were safer and stronger, as well as being much less +liable to bruise and injure the paper. These processes unfortunately +are not only slow but also necessitate highly skilled labour. +Already the larger trade binders utilize machines extensively +and advantageously, but exclusively high-class trade binders +do not as yet materially depart from the older methods. Private +binders have naturally no reason to use machines at all. Fine +and delicate examples of large metal blocks or dies have been +very successfully used for the decoration of covers measuring +about 11½ by 8 in.</p> + +<p>Besides the large trade binders working mainly by the help +of machinery, and producing a great quantity of bound work +which is not expected to last long, there also exists in London, +Paris, New York and other large cities, a small class of art +binders who work throughout upon the principles which have +been continuously in use for first-class work ever since about +the 5th century. The initial impetus to this school can be +traced to William Morris, who himself made some beautiful +designs for bookbindings, to be executed both in gold and in +blind. Although he probably did not fully appreciate either the +peculiar limitations or the possibilities of the art of gold-tooling +on leather, nevertheless his genius guided him truly as to the +spirit in which the designs should be conceived. The revived art +soon reached its first stage of development under the guidance +of Mr T.J. Cobden-Sanderson, who may fairly be considered +as the founder of the modern school of design for gold-tooling +on book-covers, the pre-eminence and individuality of his work +in this direction being proved by the number of his imitators. +Among the most successful of his pupils is Mr Douglas Cockerell, +whose work (Plate, fig. 7) is distinguished by a marked originality +of treatment, while it shows a scholarly appreciation of ancient +methods. Mr Alfred de Sauty has succeeded in developing a +new and admirable style in inlaid leathers, combined with delicate +pointille work. A number of women artists, both in England +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page219" id="page219"></a>219</span> +and in America, have already discovered in bookbinding a fitting +and lucrative field for their energies. One, Miss Sarah Prideaux, +is not only skilled and original in her own work, but she has also +given us much valuable literature on her subject. Miss E.M. +MacColl may claim to be the inventor of the small curved gold +line produced by means of a tiny wheel, for though the possibility +of producing such a line in blind was known for a long time, +it was rarely used. The graceful curves and lines found on Miss +MacColl’s work have been designed for her by her brother, +Mr D.S. MacColl (Plate, fig. 8). Miss Joanna Birkenruth +recalls the highly decorative medieval binding by her use of +jewels cut <i>en cabochon</i>, but set in morocco instead of gold or +silver, and there are many others who are working well and +earnestly at art binding with delicate skill and taste. Outside +the inner circle of professional bookbinders there has grown +up a new profession, that of the designer for pictorial book-covers, +especially those intended to be shown in colour on cloth +or paper. Among notable designers may be mentioned Lewis +F. Day, A.A. Turbayne, Walter Crane and Charles Ricketts.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:762px; height:638px" src="images/img219.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 9.—Book-sewing Machine.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><i>Machine-binding</i>.—The principal types of machine for commercial +binding are described below. They are almost all due to American +or German ingenuity. It may be noted that, while books sewn by +hand on bands have the loose ends of the bands actually drawn +through the boards and strongly fastened to them through their +substance, no machines for covering sewn books will do this so +effectively. All they will do as a rule is to paste down to the inner +surfaces of the boards the loose ends of the tapes on which the +sewing is done. So that, although it may last a long time if not +much used, a “cased” book is likely to slip out of its cover as soon +as the paste fixing it perishes. Modern bookbinding machines of all +kinds are usually driven by power, and in consequence of the necessary +setting of most of them accurately to some particular size of +book, they are not suitable for binding books of different sizes; the +full advantage of them can only be taken where there is a large +edition of one book.</p> + +<p>Book-sewing machines (fig. 9) are of two kinds one sews the books +on bands, either flat or round, and the other supplies the place of +bands by a kind of chain stitch. The band-working +machines bring the return thread back by pulling it +<span class="sidenote">Sewing.</span> +through the upper and lower edges of the back of each section, thereby +to some extent weakening each section, but at the same time +this weakening can be to some extent neutralized by careful head-banding. +The other system, where the band is replaced by a chain +stitch, brings back the return thread inside each section; the objection +to this is that there is a flattening out of the back of the book, +which becomes a difficulty when the subsequent operation of covering +the book begins. The sections are sewn continuously in a long +line, and are afterwards cut apart. The threads catch into hooked +needles and are drawn through holes made by piercers set to a certain +distance; a shuttle like that used in an ordinary sewing-machine +sews the inner thread backwards and forwards. Each section is +placed upon a sort of metal saddle by the hand of the operator, one +after the other, the machine working continuously unless the action +is cut off or controlled by a foot-lever or pedal. This machine is +much quieter to work, and although the inner threads are too bulky +to be quite satisfactory, this is not a serious matter like the cutting +of the upper and lower edges of the back already described, and, +moreover, is probably capable of being either improved away or so +minimized that it will become of small importance.</p> + +<p>The Martini book-sewing machine, which sews books on tape +without cutting up head or tail—a most important improvement— +and also forms complete Kettle stitches, will sew books of any size +up to 18 in. The needles are straight, and the necessary adjustments +for various sizes of books are very simple.</p> + +<p>The machine for rounding and backing sewn books requires a +rather elaborate and very careful setting of several parts to the +exact requirement of each size to be worked. The sewn +book with the back glued is caught in a clip and forced between +<span class="sidenote">Rounding and backing.</span> +two tight rollers, the result being that the hitherto +flat back is automatically turned into a rounded shape +(figs. 10 and 11). The book is then drawn forward, by a continuance +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page220" id="page220"></a>220</span> +of the onward movement, until it reaches the rounding plate, which +is a block of steel with a polished groove a little larger than the size +required. This rounding plate moves within a small arc by means +of heavy counter-weights, and on the back of the book being strongly +pressed against it, it receives the permanent form of the groove cut +in it, at the same time a strong grip on each side of the book causes +the ledge to rise up along each outer edge of the back. This ledge it +is which enables the boards to be subsequently fixed in such a way +as to hinge on a line outside the actual and natural boundary of the +book. Before the discovery of the possibility of producing this ledge, +the boards of books hinged upon a line coincident with the inner +edges of the back, the result of which was that when the book was +opened there was an invariable tendency to open and pull away the +few outer sections of the paper or vellum itself—a destructive and +disagreeable peculiarity. These machines are capable, after they +are properly set, of rounding and backing about 750 volumes of the +same size within an hour.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:486px; height:218px" src="images/img220a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" style="width: 50%;"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 10.—Section of back of book sewn on bands.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 11.—Section of same book after it has passed through +the machine for rounding and backing.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:762px; height:429px" src="images/img220b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 12.—Case-making Machine.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The machine for making cases, or “case” covers (fig. 12), for books +is large and complicated, but beautifully effective. It contains altogether +over fifty springs, some of which are very small, like watch +fittings, while others are large and powerful. The machine is fed +with pieces of cardboard cut exactly to the sizes of the required +boards, other pieces cut to the size of the back, and a long roll of the +cloth with which the cases are to be covered, and when set working +the roll of cloth is gradually unwound and glued by contact with a +roller, which is drawn along until it reaches a point where the two +boards are ingeniously dropped upon it one by one, then on again +to where a long arm swings backwards and forwards, at each movement +picking up a piece of cardboard for the back and placing it +gently exactly upon the glued bed left for it between the two boards +already fixed. Next, as the cloth passes along, it comes under the +sharp influence of two rectangular gouges which cut out the corners, +the remaining side pieces being gradually but irresistibly turned up +by hollow raisers and flattened down by small rollers, a very delicate +piece of machinery finishing the corners in a masterly way. Then, +lastly, an arrangement of raisers and rollers acting at right angles +to the last mentioned turn over and press out the remaining pieces +of cloth. Of course each piece of cloth is cut across at the proper +point before the turning up begins. This machine is capable of +producing 1200 cases in an hour of any size that the machine will +take.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:366px; height:517px" src="images/img220c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 13.—Smyth Casing-in Machine.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="padding-left: 9em; width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>A. Cases.</p> +<p>B. Side of Case Hopper.</p> +<p>C. Paste box.</p> +<p>D. Head Clamp Rod.</p> +<p>E. Head Clamp.</p></td> +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>1. 1st position.</p> +<p>2. 2nd position.</p> +<p>3. 3rd position and finished book. + When in 2nd position the book + drops to level of paste box.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The Smyth casing-in machine (fig. 13) pastes the sides of a book +as required and then attaches the cover over all. Cleverly arranged +rollers catch the book, and by a carefully regulated pressure fix the +cover in the proper position. There is a “jointing-in” device which +at a critical moment forces the joints in the cover into the joints +in the book. It will work books from 4 to 22 in. in length and from +¼ to 3 in. in thickness, and can cover from 10 to 15 books per minute.</p> + +<p>Here may also be mentioned the Sheridan wrappering machine, +which covers magazines and pamphlets ranging from 5 to 12 in. +in length at the rate of 40 a minute.</p> + +<p>Wiring is a cheap method of keeping together thin parts of periodicals +or tracts. The machine that executes it is simple in construction +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page221" id="page221"></a>221</span> +and use. It drives a short wire pin, bent at right angles at each end, +<span class="sidenote">Wiring.</span> +through the folds of the sections of a book or through the entire +thickness, sideways, after the manner of stabbing. The +projecting ends, when through the substance of the paper, +are bent over and flattened so as to grip firmly. The metal used for +these pins was at first very liable to rust, and consequently did +much damage to the paper near it, but this defect has now been +largely remedied. At the same time the principle of using hard +metal wire instead of flexible hempen thread is essentially vicious, +and should only be used as a temporary expedient for publications +of little value.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:442px; height:481px" src="images/img221.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 14.—Blocking Machine.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The machines (fig. 14) now used for blocking designs upon book-covers +are practically the same as have been employed for many +years. Several small improvements have been introduced +as to better inking of the rollers for colour work, and +<span class="sidenote">Blocking.</span> +better heating of the blocks used for gold work. A blocking press +is now, in consequence of the size of many of the blocks, a large +and cumbersome machine. The block itself is fixed firmly in a +strong metal bed, and a movable table in front of it is fitted with +gauges which keep the cover exactly in its right place. For gold +work the block is kept at the proper temperature by means of gas +jets, and the cover being properly overlaid with gold leaf is passed, +on its table, directly under the block and then pressed steadily +upwards against it, lowered, drawn out, and the superfluous gold +rubbed off. The same process is followed in the case of colour +blocks, only now the block need not be heated, but is inked by +means of a roller for each impression. A separate printing is necessary +for each colour. These printings always require great care on +the part of the operator, who has to watch the working of each pull +very carefully, and if any readjustment is wanted, to make it at +once, so that it is difficult to estimate at what rate they can be +made. In the matter of gold blocking there must be great care +exercised in the matter of the heat of the block, for if it is too hot +the gold will adhere where it is not wanted, and if too cool it will +not adhere where it is required. Great nicety is also necessary as +to the exact pressure required as well as the precise number of +moments during which the block should be in contact with the gold, +which is fastened to the cloth or leather by means of the solidification +by heat of egg albumen. Blocking presses are mainly of German +make, but Scottish and English presses are also largely used.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—See the <i>Anglo-Saxon Review</i> (1899-1901); C.J. +Davenport, <i>Royal English Bookbindings</i> (1896), <i>Cantor Lectures on +Bookbinding</i> (1898), <i>English Embroidered Bookbindings</i> (1899), +<i>Life of Thomas Berthelet</i> (1901), <i>Life of Samuel Mearne</i> (1906); +W.Y. Fletcher, <i>English Bookbindings in the British Museum</i> (1895), +<i>Foreign Bookbindings in the British Museum</i> (1896); L. Gruel, +<i>Manuel de l’amateur de relieures</i> (1887); H.P. Horne, <i>The Binding +of Books</i> (1894); S.T. Prideaux, <i>Historical Sketch of Bookbinding</i> +(1893); E. Thoinan, <i>Les Relieurs français</i> (1893); O. Uzanne, <i>La +Relieure moderne</i> (1887); H.B. Wheatley, <i>Remarkable Bindings in +the British Museum</i> (1889); J.W. Zaehnsdorf, <i>The Art of Bookbinding</i> +(1880).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(C. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOKCASE,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> an article of furniture, forming a shelved receptacle, +usually perpendicular or horizontal, for the storage of +books. When books, being written by hand, were excessively +scarce, they were kept in small coffers which the great carried about +with them on their journeys. As manuscript volumes accumulated +in the religious houses or in regal palaces, they were stored upon +shelves or in cupboards, and it is from these cupboards that the +bookcase of to-day directly descends. At a somewhat later date +the doors were, for convenience’ sake, discarded, and the evolution +of the bookcase made one step forward. Even then, however, +the volumes were not arranged in the modern fashion. They +were either placed in piles upon their sides, or if upright, were +ranged with their backs to the wall and their edges outwards. +The band of leather, vellum or parchment which closed the +book was often used for the inscription of the title, which was +thus on the fore-edge instead of on the back. It was not until the +invention of printing had greatly cheapened books that it became +the practice to write the title on the back and place the edges +inwards. Early bookcases were usually of oak, which is still +deemed to be the most appropriate wood for a stately library. +The oldest bookcases in England are those in the Bodleian library +at Oxford, which were placed in position in the last year or two +of the 16th century; in that library are the earliest extant +examples of shelved galleries over the flat wall-cases. Long +ranges of book-shelves are necessarily somewhat severe in +appearance, and many attempts have been made by means +of carved cornices and pilasters to give them a more <i>riant</i> +appearance—attempts which were never so successful as in the +hands of the great English cabinet-makers of the second half of +the 18th century.</p> + +<p>Both Chippendale and Sheraton made or designed great +numbers of bookcases, mostly glazed with little lozenges encased +in fret-work frames often of great charm and elegance. The +alluring grace of some of Sheraton’s satinwood bookcases +has very rarely indeed been equalled. The French cabinet-makers +of the same period were also highly successful with small +ornamental cases. Mahogany, rosewood, satinwood and even +choicer exotic timbers were used; they were often inlaid with +marqueterie and mounted with chased and gilded bronze. +Dwarf bookcases were frequently finished with a slab of choice +marble at the top. In the great public libraries of the 20th +century the bookcases are often of iron, as in the British Museum +where the shelves are covered with cowhide, of steel, as in the +library of Congress at Washington, or of slate, as in the Fitzwilliam +library at Cambridge. There are three systems of +arranging bookcases—flat against the wall; in “stacks” or +ranges parallel to each other with merely enough space between +to allow of the passage of a librarian; or in bays or alcoves where +cases jut out into the room at right angles to the wall-cases. +The stack system is suitable only for public libraries where +economy of space is essential; the bay system is not only handsome +but utilizes the space to great advantage. The library of +the city of London at the Guildhall is a peculiarly effective +example of the bay arrangement.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The whole question of the construction and arrangement of bookcases +was learnedly discussed in the light of experience by W.E. +Gladstone in the Nineteenth Century for March 1890.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. P.-B.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOK-COLLECTING,<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> the bringing together of books which +in their contents, their form or the history of the individual +copy possess some element of permanent interest, and either +actually or prospectively are rare, in the sense of being difficult +to procure. This qualification of rarity, which figures much too +largely in the popular view of book-collecting, is entirely subordinate +to that of interest, for the rarity of a book devoid of +interest is a matter of no concern. On the other hand so long as +a book (or anything else) is and appears likely to continue to be +easily procurable at any moment, no one has any reason for collecting +it. The anticipation that it will always be easily procurable is +often unfounded; but so long as the anticipation exists it restrains +collecting, with the result that Horn-books are much rarer than +First Folio Shakespeares. It has even been laid down that +the ultimate rarity of books varies in the inverse ratio of the +number of copies originally printed, and though the generalization +is a little sweeping, it is not far from the truth. To triumph +over small difficulties being the chief element in games of skill, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page222" id="page222"></a>222</span> +different varieties of book-collecting, which offer almost as many +varieties of grades of difficulty, make excellent hobbies. But +in its essence the pastime of a book-collector is identical with the +official work of the curator of a museum, and thus also with one +branch of the duties of the librarian of any library of respectable +age. In its inception every library is a literary workshop, with +more or less of a garden or recreation ground attached according +as its managers are influenced by the humanities or by a narrow +conception of utility. As the library grows, the books and +editions which have been the tools of one generation pass out of +use; and it becomes largely a depository or storehouse of a stock +much of which is dead. But from out of this seemingly dead +stock preserved at haphazard, critics and antiquaries gradually +pick out books which they find to be still alive. Of some of +these the interest cannot be reproduced in its entirety by any mere +reprint, and it is this salvage which forms the literary museum. +Book-collectors are privileged to leap at once to this stage in +their relations with books, using the dealers’ shops and catalogues +as depositories from which to pick the books which will best fit +with the aim or central idea of their collection. For in the +modern private collection, as in the modern museum, the need for +a central idea must be fully recognized. Neither the collector nor +the curator can be content to keep a mere curiosity-shop. It is +the collector’s business to illustrate his central idea by his +choice of examples, by the care with which he describes them and +the skill with which they are arranged. In all these matters many +amateurs rival, if they do not outstrip, the professional curators +and librarians, and not seldom their collections are made with a +view to their ultimate transference to public ownership. In any +case it is by the zeal of collectors that books which otherwise +would have perished from neglect are discovered, cared for and +preserved, and those who achieve these results certainly deserve +well of the community.</p> + +<p>Whenever a high degree of civilization has been attained +book-lovers have multiplied, and to the student with his modest +desire to read his favourite author in a well-written or +well-printed copy there has been added a class of +<span class="sidenote">History.</span> +owners suspected of caring more for the externals of books than +for the enjoyment to be obtained by reading them. But although +adumbrations of it existed under the Roman empire and towards +the end of the middle ages, book-collecting, as it is now understood, +is essentially of modern growth. A glance through what +must be regarded as the medieval text-book on the love of books, +the <i>Philobiblon</i>, attributed to Richard de Bury (written in 1345), +shows that it deals almost exclusively with the delights of literature, +and Sebastian Brant’s attack on the book-fool, written a +century and a half later, demonstrates nothing more than that +the possession of books is a poor substitute for learning. This +is so obviously true that before book-collecting in the modern +sense can begin it is essential that there should be no lack of +books to read, just as until cups and saucers became plentiful +there was no room for the collector of old china. Even when +the invention of printing had reduced the cost of books by some +80%, book-collectors did not immediately appear. There is +a natural temptation to imagine that the early book-owners, +whose libraries have enriched modern collectors with some of +their best-known treasures, must necessarily have been collectors +themselves. This is far from being the case. Hardly a book +of all that Jean Grolier (1479-1565) caused to be bound so tastefully +for himself and his friends reveals any antiquarian instincts +in its liberal owner, who bought partly to encourage the best +printers of his day, partly to provide his friends with the most +recent fruits of Renaissance scholarship. In England Archbishop +Cranmer, Lords Arundel and Lumley, and Henry, prince +of Wales (1594-1612), in France the famous historian Jacques +Auguste de Thou (1553-1617), brought together the best books +of their day in all departments of learned literature, put them +into handsome leather jackets, and enriched them with their +coats of arms, heraldic badges or other marks of possession. +But they brought their books together for use and study, to be +read by themselves and by the scholars who frequented their +houses, and no evidence has been produced that they appreciated +what a collector might now call the points of a book other than +its fine condition and literary or informational merits. Again, +not a few other more or less famous men have been dubbed collectors +on the score of a scanty shelf-full of volumes known to +have been stamped with their arms. Collecting, as distinct both +from the formation of working libraries and from casual ownership +of this latter kind, may perhaps be said to have begun in England +at the time of the antiquarian reaction produced by the book-massacres +when the monasteries were dissolved by Henry VIII., +and the university and college libraries and the parish service +books were plundered and stript by the commissioners of Edward +VI. To rescue good books from perishing is one of the main +objects of book-collecting, and when Archbishop Parker and Sir +Robert Cotton set to work to gather what they could of the +scattered records of English statecraft and literature, and of the +decorative art bestowed so lavishly on the books of public and +private devotion, they were book-collectors in a sense and on a +scale to which few of their modern imitators can pretend. Men +of more slender purses, and armed with none of Archbishop +Parker’s special powers, worked according to their ability on +similar lines. Humphrey Dyson, an Elizabethan notary, who +collected contemporary proclamations and books from the early +English presses, and George Thomason (d. 1666), the bookseller +who bought, stored and catalogued all the pamphlet literature +of the Civil War, were mindful of the future historians of the days +in which they lived. By the end of the 17th century book-collecting +was in full swing all over Europe, and much of its apparatus +had come into existence. In 1676 book auctions were introduced +into England from Holland, and soon we can trace in priced catalogues +the beginning of a taste for Caxtons, and the books prized +by collectors slowly fought their way up from amid the heavy +volumes of theology by which they were at first overwhelmed.</p> + +<p>While book-collecting thus came into existence it was rather +as an added grace in the formation of a fine library than as a +separate pursuit. Almost all the large book-buyers of the 16th, +17th and 18th centuries bought with a public object, or were +rewarded for their zeal by their treasures being thought worthy +of a public resting-place. Sir Thomas Smith (d. 1577) bequeathed +his books to Queens’ College, Cambridge; Archbishop Parker’s +were left under severe restrictions to Corpus Christi College in +the same university; Sir Thomas Bodley refounded during his +lifetime the university library at Oxford, to which also Laud +gave liberally and Selden bequeathed his books. The library +of Archbishop Williams went to St John’s College, Cambridge; +that of Archbishop Usher was bought for Trinity College, Dublin. +The mathematical and scientific books of Thomas Howard, earl +of Norfolk (d. 1646), were given by his grandson to the Royal +Society; the heraldic collections of Ralph Sheldon (d. 1684) to +Heralds’ College; the library in which Pepys took so much +pleasure to Magdalene College, Cambridge. Bishop Moore’s books, +including a little volume of Caxton quartos, almost all unique, +were bought by George I. and presented to the university library +at Cambridge. Archbishop Marsh, who had previously bought +Stillingfleet’s printed books (his manuscripts went to Oxford), +founded a library at Dublin. The immense accumulations of +Thomas Rawlinson (d. 1725) provided materials for a series of +auctions, and Harley’s printed books were sold to Osbourne the +bookseller. But the trend was all towards public ownership. +While Richard Rawlinson (d. 1755) allowed his brother’s books to +be sold, the best of his own were bequeathed to Oxford, and the +Harleian MSS. were offered to the nation at a sum far below +their value. A similar offer of the great collections formed by +Sir Hans Sloane, including some 50,000 printed books, together +with the need for taking better care of what remained of the +Cotton manuscripts, vested in trustees for public use in 1702 and +partially destroyed by fire in 1731, led to the foundation of the +British Museum in 1753, and this on its opening in 1757 was +almost immediately enriched by George II.’s gift of the old +royal library, formed by the kings and queens of England from +Henry VII. to Charles II., and by Henry, prince of Wales, son +of James I., who had bought the books belonging to Archbishop +Cranmer and Lords Arundel and Lumley. A few notable book-buyers +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page223" id="page223"></a>223</span> +could not afford to bequeath their treasures to libraries, +<i>e.g.</i> Richard Smith, the secondary of the Poultry Compter +(d. 1675), at whose book-sale (1682) a dozen Caxtons sold for +from 2 S. to 18 S. apiece, Dr Francis Bernard (d. 1698), Narcissus +Luttrell(d. 1732) and Dr Richard Mead (d. 1754). At the opposite +end of the scale, in the earls of Sunderland (d. 1722) and Pembroke +(d. 1733), we have early examples of the attempts, seldom +successful, of book-loving peers to make their libraries into +permanent heirlooms. But as has been said, the drift up to +1760 was all towards public ownership, and the libraries were for +the most part general in character, though the interest in typographical +antiquities was already well marked.</p> + +<p>When George III. came to the throne he found himself bookless, +and the magnificent library of over 80,000 books and pamphlets +and 440 manuscripts which he accumulated shows on a large +scale the catholic and literary spirit of the book-lovers of his day. +As befitted the library of an English king it was rich in English +classics as well as in those of Greece and Rome, and the typographical +first-fruits of Mainz, Rome and Venice were balanced +by numerous works from the first presses of Westminster, London +and Oxford. This noble library passed in 1823 to the British +Museum, which had already received the much smaller but carefully +chosen collection of the Rev. C.M. Cracherode (d. 1799), and +in 1846 was further enriched by the wonderful library formed by +Thomas Grenville, the last of its great book-loving benefactors, who +died in that year, aged ninety-one. A few less wealthy men had +kept up the old public-spirited tradition during George III.’s reign, +Garrick bequeathing his fine collection of English plays and Sir +Joseph Banks his natural history books to the British Museum, +while Capell’s Shakespearian treasures enriched Trinity College, +Cambridge, and those of Malone went to the Bodleian library at +Oxford, the formation of these special collections, in place of the +large general library with a sprinkling of rarities, being in itself +worth noting. But the noble book-buyers celebrated by the Rev. +Thomas Frognall Dibdin in his numerous bibliographical works +kept mainly on the old lines, though with aims less patriotic than +their predecessors. The duke of Roxburghe’s books were sold +in 1812, and the excitement produced by the auction, more +especially by the competition between Lord Spencer and the +duke of Marlborough (at that time marquess of Blandford) for an +edition of Boccaccio printed by Valdarfer at Venice in 1471, led +to the formation of the Roxburghe Club at a commemorative +dinner. In 1819 the duke of Marlborough’s books were sold, and +the Boccaccio for which he had paid £2260 went to Earl Spencer +(d. 1834) for £750, to pass with the rest of his rare books to Mrs +Rylands in 1892, and by her gift to the John Rylands library +at Manchester in 1899. The books of Sir M.M. Sykes were sold +in 1824, those of J.B. Inglis in 1826 (after which he collected again) +and those of George Hibbert in 1829. The 150,000 volumes brought +together by Richard Heber at an expense of about £100,000 were +disposed of by successive sales during the years 1834-1837 and +realized not much more than half their cost. The wonderful library +of William Beckford (d. 1844), especially rich in fine bindings, bequeathed +to his daughter, the duchess of Hamilton, was sold in 1882, +with the Hamilton manuscripts, for the most part to the German +government. Their dispersal was preceded in 1881 by that +of the Sunderland collection, already mentioned. The +library of Brian Fairfax (d. 1749), which had passed to the earls +of Jersey, was sold in 1885, that of Sir John Thorold (d. 1815) +in 1884, his “Gutenberg” Bible fetching £3900 and his Mainz +Psalter £4950. The great collection of manuscripts formed by Sir +Thomas Phillipps (d. 1872) has furnished materials for numerous +sales. The printed books of the earl of Ashburnham (d. 1878) +kept the auctioneers busy in 1897 and 1898; his manuscripts +were sold, some to the British government (the Stowe collection +shared between the British Museum and Dublin), the German +government (part of the Libri and Barrois collection, all, +save one MS. of 13th century German ballads, resold to France), +the Italian government (the rest of the Libri collection) +Mr Yates Thompson (the MSS. known as the Appendix) and +Mr J. Pierpont Morgan (the Lindau Gospels). The collections +formed by Mr W.H. Miller (d. 1848, mainly English poetry), the +duke of Devonshire (d. 1858) and Mr Henry Huth (d. 1878), +are still intact.</p> + +<p>Among the book-buyers of the reign of George III., John +Ratcliffe, an ex-coal-merchant, and James West had devoted +themselves specially to Caxtons (of which the former possessed +48 and the latter 34) and the products of other early English +presses. The collections of Capell and Garrick were also small +and homogeneous. Each section, moreover, of some of the great +libraries that have just been enumerated might fairly be considered +a collection in itself, the union of several collections in the +same library being made possible by the wealth of their purchaser +and the small prices fetched by most classes of books in comparison +with those which are now paid. But perhaps the modern +cabinet theory of book-collecting was first carried out with +conspicuous skill by Henry Perkins (d. 1855), whose 865 fine +manuscripts and specimens of early printing, when sold in 1870, +realized nearly £26,000. If surrounded by a sufficient quantity +of general literature the collection might not have seemed +noticeably different from some of those already mentioned, but +the growing cost of books, together with difficulties as to house-room, +combined to discourage miscellaneous buying on a large +scale, and what has been called the “cabinet” theory of collecting, +so well carried out by Henry Perkins, became increasingly +popular among book buyers, alike in France, England and the +United States of America. Henri Béraldi, in his catalogue of his +own collection (printed 1892), has described how in France a little +band of book-loving amateurs grew up who laughed at the +<i>bibliophile de la vieille roche</i> as they disrespectfully called their +predecessors, and prided themselves on the unity and compactness +of their own treasures. In place of the miscellaneous +library in which every class of book claimed to be represented, +and which needed a special room or gallery to house it, they aimed +at small collections which should epitomize the owner’s tastes and +require nothing bulkier than a neat bookcase or cabinet to hold +them. The French bibliophiles whom M. Béraldi celebrated +applied this theory with great success to collecting the dainty +French illustrated books of the 18th century which were their +especial favourites. In England Richard Fisher treated his +fine examples of early book-illustration as part of his collection +of engravings, etchings and woodcuts (illustrated catalogue printed +1879), and Frederick Locker (Locker-Lampson) formed in two +small bookcases such a gathering of first editions of English imaginative +literature that the mere catalogue of it (printed in 1886) +produced the effect of a stately and picturesque procession. Some +of the book-hoards of previous generations could have spared the +equivalent of the Locker collection without seeming noticeably +the poorer, but the compactness and unity of this small collection, +in which every book appears to have been bought for a special +reason and to form an integral part of the whole, gave it an artistic +individuality which was a pleasant triumph for its owner, and +excited so much interest among American admirers of Mr +Locker’s poetry that it may be said to have set a fashion. As +another example of the value of a small collection, both for +delight and for historical and artistic study, mention may be +made of the little roomful of manuscripts and incunabula which +William Morris brought together to illustrate the history of the +bookish arts in the middle ages before the Renaissance introduced +new ideals. Many living collectors are working in a similar spirit, +and as this spirit spreads the monotony of the old libraries, in +which the same editions of the same books recurred with wearisome +frequency, should be replaced by much greater individuality +and variety. Moreover, if they can be grouped round some +central idea cheap books may yield just as good sport to the +collector as expensive ones, and the collector of quite modern +works may render admirable service to posterity. The only +limitation is against books specially manufactured to attract him, +or artificially made rare. A quite wholesome interest in contemporary +first editions was brought to nought about 1889 by the +booksellers beginning to hoard copies of Browning’s <i>Asolando</i> +and Mr Lang’s <i>Blue Fairy Book</i> on the day of publication, while +a graceful but quite minor poet was made ridiculous by £100 +being asked for a set of his privately printed <i>opuscula</i>. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page224" id="page224"></a>224</span> +petty gambling in books printed at the Kelmscott and Doves’ +presses, and in the fine paper copies of a certain <i>Life of Queen +Victoria</i>, for which a premium of 250% was asked before publication, +is another proof that until the manufacturing stage is +over collecting cannot safely begin. But with this exception +the field is open, and the 19th century offers as good a hunting +ground as any of its predecessors.</p> + +<p>While book-collecting may thus take an endless variety of +forms the heads under which these may be grouped are few and +fairly easily defined. They may be here briefly indicated +together with some notes as to the literature +<span class="sidenote">Objects and methods.</span> +which has grown up round them. The development +which bibliographical literature has taken is indeed +very significant of the changed ideals of collectors. Brunet’s +<i>Manuel du libraire</i>, first published in 1810, attained its fifth +edition in 1860-1864, and has never since been re-edited (supplement, +1878-1880). The <i>Bibliographer’s Manual of English +Literature</i> by W.T. Lowndes, first published in 1834, was revised +by H.G. Bohn in 1857-1864, and of this also no further edition +has been printed. These two works between them gave all the +information the old-fashioned collectors required, the <i>Trésor de +livres rares et précieux</i> by J.G.T. Graesse (Dresden, 1859-1867, +supplementary volume in 1869) adding little to the information +given by Brunet. The day of the omnivorous collector being +past, the place of these general manuals has been taken by +more detailed bibliographies and handbooks on special books, +and though new editions of both Lowndes and Brunet would +be useful to librarians and booksellers no publisher has had the +courage to produce them.</p> + +<p>To attract a collector a book must appeal to his eye, his mind +or his imagination, and many famous books appeal to all three. +A book may be beautiful by virtue of its binding, its illustrations +or the simple perfection and harmony of its print and paper. +The attraction of a fine binding has always been felt in France, +the high prices quoted for Elzevirs and French first editions being +often due much more to their 17th and 18th century jackets than +to the books themselves. The appreciation of old bindings has +greatly increased in England since the exhibition of them at the +Burlington Fine Arts Club in 1891 (illustrated catalogue printed +the same year), English blind stamped bindings, embroidered +bindings, and bindings attributable to Samuel Mearne (<i>temp.</i> +Charles II.) being much more sought after than formerly. +(See <span class="sc"><a href="#ar131">Bookbinding</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>Illustrated books of certain periods are also much in request, +and with the exception of a few which early celebrity has prevented +becoming rare have increased inordinately in price. +The primitive woodcuts in incunabula are now almost too highly +appreciated, and while the <i>Nuremburg Chronicle</i> (1493) seldom +fetches more than £30 or the <i>Hypnerotomachia Poliphili</i> (Venice, +1499) more than £120, rarer books are priced in hundreds. The +best books on the subject are: for Italy, Lippmann’s <i>Wood Engraving +in Italy in the 15th Century</i> (1888), Kristeller’s <i>Early Florentine +Woodcuts</i> (1897), the duc de Rivoli’s (Prince d’Essling’s) +<i>Bibliographie des livres à figures vénitiens 1469-1525</i> (1892, +new edition 1906); for Germany, Muther’s <i>Die deutsche +Bücherillustration der Gothik und Frührenaissance</i> (1884); for +Holland and Belgium, Sir W.M. Conway’s <i>The Woodcutters +of the Netherlands in the 15th Century</i> (1884); for France the +material will all be found in Claudin’s <i>Histoire de l’imprimerie +en France</i> (1900, &c.). Some information on the illustrated books +of the early 16th century is given in Butsch’s <i>Die Bücherornamentik +der Renaissance</i> (1878), but the pretty French books of +the middle of the century and the later Dutch and English copper-engraved +book illustrations (for the latter see Colvin’s <i>Early +Engraving and Engravers in England</i>, 1905) have been imperfectly +appreciated. This cannot be said of the French books of the 18th +century chronicled by H. Cohen, <i>Guide de l’amateur de livre +à gravures du XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (5th ed., 1886), much of the same +information, with a little more about English books, being +given in Lewine’s <i>Bibliography of Eighteenth Century Art and +Illustrated Books</i> (1898). English books with coloured illustrations, +for which there has arisen a sudden fashion, are well +described in Martin Hardie’s <i>English Colour Books</i> (1906). +Bewick’s work has been described by Mr Austin Dobson.</p> + +<p>Appreciation of finely printed books has seldom extended much +beyond the 15th century. In addition to the works mentioned +in the article on incunabula(<i>q.v.</i>), note may be made of Humphrey’s +<i>Masterpieces of the Early Printers and Engravers</i> (1870), while +Lippmann’s <i>Druckschriften des XV. bis XVIII Jahrhunderts</i> +(1884-1887) covers, though not very fully, the later period.</p> + +<p>Among books which make an intellectual appeal to the collectors +may be classed all works of historical value which have +not been reprinted, or of which the original editions are more +authentic, or convincing, than modern reprints. It is evident that +these cover a vast field, and that the collector in taking possession +of any corner of it is at once the servant and rival of historical +students. Lord Crawford’s vast collections of English, Scottish +and Irish proclamations and of papal bulls may be cited as +capital instances of the work which a collector may do for the +promotion of historical research, and the philological library +brought together by Prince Lucien Bonaparte (<i>An Attempt +at a Catalogue</i> by V. Collins, published 1894) and the Foxwell +collection of early books on political economy (presented to the +university of London by the Goldsmiths’ Company) are two +other instances of recent date. Much collecting of this kind is +now being carried on by the libraries of institutes and societies +connected with special professions and studies, but there is ample +room also for private collectors to work on these lines.</p> + +<p>Of books which appeal to a collector’s imagination the most +obvious examples are those which can be associated with some +famous person or event. A book which has belonged to a king +or queen (more especially one who, like Mary queen of Scots, +has appealed to popular sympathies), or to a great statesman, +soldier or poet, which bears any mark of having been valued by +him, or of being connected with any striking incident in his life, +has an interest which defies analysis. Collectors themselves +have a natural tenderness for their predecessors, and a copy of +a famous work is all the more regarded if its pedigree can be +traced through a long series of book-loving owners. Hence the +production of such works as <i>Great Book-Collectors</i> by Charles +and Mary Elton (1893), <i>English Book-Collectors</i> by W.Y. Fletcher +(1902) and Guigard’s <i>Nouvel armorial du bibliophile</i> (1890). +Books condemned to be burnt, or which have caused the persecution +of their authors, have an imaginative interest of another +kind, though one which seems to have appealed more to writers +of books than to collectors. As has already been noted, most of +the books specially valued by collectors make a double or triple +appeal to the collecting instinct, and the desire to possess first +editions may be accounted for partly by their positive superiority +over reprints for purposes of study, partly by the associations +which they can be proved to possess or which imagination creates +for them. The value set on them is at least to some extent +fanciful. It would be difficult, for instance, to justify the high +prices paid by collectors of the days of George III. for the first +printed editions of the Greek and Latin classics. With few +exceptions these are of no value as texts, and there are no possible +associations by which they can be linked with the personality +of their authors. It may be doubted whether any one now +collects them save as specimens of printing, though no class of +books which has once been prized ever sinks back into absolute +obscurity. On the other hand the prestige of the first editions +of English and French literary masterpieces has immensely +increased. A first folio Shakespeare (1623) was in 1906 sold +separately for £3000, and the MacGeorge copies of the first four +folios (1623, 1632, 1663-1664 and 1685) fetched collectively the +high price of £10,000. The quarto editions of Shakespeare plays +have appreciated even more, several of these little books, once +sold at 6d. apiece, having fetched over £1000, while the unknown +and unique copy of the 1594 edition of <i>Titus Andronicus</i>, +discovered in Sweden, speedily passed to an American collector +for £2000. Information as to early editions of famous English +books will be found in Lowndes’ <i>Bibliographer’s Manual</i>, in +Hazlitt’s <i>Handbook to the Popular Poetical and Dramatic Literature +of Great Britain from the Invention of Printing to the Restoration</i> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page225" id="page225"></a>225</span> +(1867) and his subsequent <i>Collections and Notes</i> (1876-1903), +and as to more recent books in Slater’s <i>Early Editions, a +bibliographical survey of the works of some popular modern authors</i> +(1894), while French classics have found an excellent chronicler +in Jules Le Petit (<i>Bibliographie des principales éditions originales +d’ècrivains français du XV<span class="sp">e</span> au XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, 1888).</p> + +<p>In most cases there is a marked falling off in the interest with +which early editions other than the first are regarded, and consequently +in the prices paid for them, though important changes +in the text give to the edition in which they first occur some +shadow of the prestige attaching to an original issue. One of +the recognized byways of book-collecting, however, used to be +the collection of as many editions as possible of the same work. +When this result in the acquisition of numerous late editions of +no value for the text its only usefulness would appear to be the +index it may offer to the author’s popularity. But in translations +of the Bible, in liturgical works, and in editions published during the +author’s life the aid offered to the study of the development of the +final text by a long row of intermediate editions may be very great.</p> + +<p>Another instance in which imagination reinforces the more positive +interest a book may possess is in the case of editions which +can be connected with the origin, diffusion or development of +printing. Piety suggests that book-lovers should take a special +interest in the history of the art which has done so much for their +happiness, and in this respect they have mostly shown themselves +religious. The first book printed in any town is reasonably +coveted by local antiquaries, and the desire to measure the +amount and quality of the work of every early printer has caused +the preservation of thousands of books which would otherwise +have perished. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Incunabula</a></span>.)</p> + +<p>The financial side of book-collecting may be studied in Slater’s +<i>Book-Prices Current</i>, published annually since 1887, and in +Livingston’s <i>American Book Prices Current</i>, and in the same +author’s <i>Auction Prices of Books</i> (1905). While largely influenced +by fashion the prices given for books are never wholly unreasonable. +They are determined, firstly by the positive or associative +interest which can be found in the book itself, secondly by the +infrequency with which copies come into the market compared +with the number and wealth of their would-be possessors, and +thirdly, except in the case of books of the greatest interest and +rarity, by the condition of the copy offered in respect to completeness, +size, freshness and absence of stains.</p> +<div class="author">(A. W. Po.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOK-KEEPING,<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> a systematic record of business transactions, +in a form conveniently available for reference, made by individuals +or corporations engaged in commercial or financial operations +with a view to enabling them with the minimum amount +of trouble and of dislocation to the business itself to ascertain at +any time (1) the detailed particulars of the transactions undertaken, +and (2) the cumulative effect upon the business and its +financial relations to others. Book-keeping, sometimes described +as a science and sometimes as an art, partakes of the nature of +both. It is not so much a discovery as a growth, the crude +methods of former days having been gradually improved to +meet the changing requirements of business, and this process +of evolution is still going on. The ideal of any system of +book-keeping is the maximum of record combined with the minimum +of labour, but as dishonesty has to be guarded against, no system +of book-keeping can be regarded as adequate which does not +enable the record to be readily verified as a true and complete +statement of the transactions involved. Such a verification is +called an audit, and in the case of public and other large concerns +is ordinarily undertaken by professional accountants (<i>q.v.</i>). +Where the book-keeping staff is large it is usually organized so +that its members, to some extent at least, check each other’s +work, and to that extent an audit, known as a “staff audit” +or “internal check,” is frequently performed by the book-keeping +staff itself.</p> + +<p>Formerly, when credit was a considerably less important +factor than now in commercial transactions, book-keeping was +frequently limited to an account of receipts and payments of +money; and in early times, before money was in use, to an account +of the receipt and issue of goods of different kinds. Even now +what may be called the “cash system” of accounts is almost +exclusively used by governments, local authorities, and charitable +and other institutions; but in business it is equally necessary +to record movements of credit, as a mere statement of receipts +and payments of money would show only a part of the total +number of transactions undertaken. As for practical purposes +some limit must be placed upon the daily record of transactions, +certain classes show only a record of cash receipts +and payments, which must, when it is desired to ascertain the +actual position of affairs, be adjusted by bringing into account +those transactions which have not yet been completed by the +receipt or payment of money. For instance, it is usual to charge +customers with goods sold to them at the date when the sale +takes place, and to give them credit for the amount received in +payment upon the date of receipt (thus completely recording +every phase of the transaction as and when it occurs); but in +connexion (say) with wages it is not usual to give each workman +credit for the services rendered by him from day to day, but +merely to charge up the amounts, when paid, to a wages account, +which thus at any date only shows the amounts which have +actually been paid, and takes no cognisance of the sums accruing +due. When, therefore, it is desired to ascertain the actual +expenditure upon wages for any given period, it is necessary to +allow for the payments made during that period in respect of +work previously performed, and to add the value of work +performed during the current period which remains unpaid. +In the majority of businesses those accounts which deal with +various forms of standing expenses are thus dealt with, and in +consequence the record, as it appears from day to day, is <i>pro +tanto</i> incomplete. Another very important series of transactions +which is not included in the ordinary day-to-day record is that +representing the loss gradually accruing by reason of waste, +or depreciation, of assets or general equipment of the business; +proper allowance for these losses must of course be made whenever +it is desired to ascertain the true position of affairs.</p> + +<p>The origin of book-keeping is lost in obscurity, but recent +researches would appear to show that some method of keeping +accounts has existed from the remotest times. Babylonian +records have been found dating back as far as +<span class="sidenote">History.</span> +2600 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, written with a stylus on small slabs of clay, and it is +of interest to note (<i>Records of the Past</i>, xi. 89) that these slabs +or tablets “usually contain impressions from cylinder seals, +and nail marks, which were considered to be a man’s natural +seal,” thus showing that the modern method of identifying +criminals by finger prints had its counterpart in Babylonia some +4500 years ago. Egyptian records were commonly written on +papyrus, and contemporary pictures show a scribe keeping +account of the quantities of grain brought into and removed from +the government store-houses. It will thus be seen that some +form of book-keeping existed long before bound books were +known, and therefore the more general term <i>accounting</i> would +seem to be preferable—the more so as the most modern developments +are in the direction of again abandoning the bound book +in favour of loose or easily detached sheets of paper or card, thus +capable of being rearranged as circumstances or convenience +may dictate. Most of the earlier accounting records are in the +nature of a mere narrative of events, which—however complete +in itself—failed to fulfil the second requirement of an adequate +system of book-keeping already referred to. Prior to the use +of money nothing in this direction could of course well be attempted; +but for a long time after its employment became +general money values were recorded in Roman figures, which +naturally did not lend themselves to ready calculation.</p> + +<p>At the present-time it may be generally stated that all book-keeping +records are kept in three distinct columns, dealing +respectively with the date of the transaction, its nature, and its +money value. The earliest extant example of accounts so kept +is probably a ledger in the Advocates’ library at Edinburgh, +dated 1697, which, it is of interest to note, is ruled by hand. +Prior to that time, however, double-entry book-keeping had been +in general use. The exact date of its introduction is unknown; +but it was certainly not, as has been frequently stated, the +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page226" id="page226"></a>226</span> +invention of Lucas de Bergo, in or about 1494. This, however, +is the date of the first issue (at Venice) of a printed book entitled +<i>Everything about Arithmetic, Geometry and Proportion</i>, by Luca +Paciolo, which contains <i>inter alia</i> an explanation of book-keeping +by double-entry as then understood; but in all probability, +the system had then been in use for something like 200 years. +It is perhaps unfortunate that from 1494 until comparatively +recent times the literature of accounting has been provided by +theorists and students, rather than by practical business men, and +it may well be doubted, therefore, whether it accurately describes +contemporary procedure. Another illusion which it is necessary +to expose in the interests of truth is the value attached to +<i>Jones’s English System of Book-keeping by Single or Double +Entry</i>, published at Bristol in 1796. Before publishing this +book, E.T. Jones issued a prospectus, stating that he had +patented an entirely new and greatly improved system, and that +subscribers (at a guinea a copy) would be entitled to a special +licence empowering them to put the new invention into practice +in their own book-keeping. With this bait he secured thousands +of subscribers, but so far as can be gathered his system was +entirely without merit, and it is chiefly of interest as indicating +the value, even then, of advertising.</p> + +<p>It is impossible here to describe fully all the improvements +that have been made in methods of accounting during recent +years, but it is proposed to deal with the more important +<span class="sidenote">Modern methods.</span> +of these improvements, after the general +principles upon which all systems of book-keeping +are based have been briefly described.</p> + +<p>The centre of all book-keeping systems is the +<i>ledger</i>, and it may be said that all other books are +only kept as a matter of practical convenience— +hence the name “subsidiary books” that is +frequently applied thereto. Inasmuch, however, as +the transactions are first recorded in these subsidiary +books, and afterwards classified therefrom +into the ledger, the names <i>books of entry</i> or <i>books +of first entry</i> are often employed. Subsidiary books +which do not form the basis of subsequent entries +into the ledger, but are merely used for statistical +purposes, are known as <i>statistical</i> or <i>auxiliary books</i>. +In the early days of book-keeping the ledger comprised +merely those accounts which it was thought +desirable to keep accessible, and was not a complete +record of all transactions. Thus in many instances +records were only kept of transactions with other +business houses, known as <i>personal accounts</i>. In the earliest +examples transactions tending to reduce indebtedness were +recorded in order of date, as they occurred underneath +transactions recording the creation of the indebtedness; and +the amount of the reduction was subtracted from the sum +of the indebtedness up to that date. This method was found +to be inconvenient, and the next step was to keep one +account of the transactions recording the creation of indebtedness +and another account (called the <i>contra account</i>) of those +transactions reducing or extinguishing it. For convenience +these two accounts were kept on opposite sides of the ledger, +and thus was evolved the <i>Dr</i>. and <i>Cr</i>. account as at present +in general use:—</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="tcc"><i>Dr</i>.</td> <td class="tcc">A.B.</td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcc">Contra.</td> <td class="tcc"><i>Cr</i>.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc allb">Date.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Narrative.</td> <td class="tcc lb tb bb rb2">Amount.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Date.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Narrative.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Amount.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb2">£ <i>s. d.</i></td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">£ <i>s. d.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb2"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb2"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb2"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<p>In this form of account all transactions creating indebtedness +due from the person named therein to the business—that is to +say, all benefits received by that person from the buisness—are +recorded upon the left-hand, or <i>Dr</i>. side, and <i>per contra</i> all +transactions representing benefits imparted by him, giving +rise to a liability on the part of the business, are recorded +upon the <i>Cr</i>. side. The account may run on indefinitely, +but as a matter of convenience is usually ruled off each time +all indebtedness is extinguished, and also at certain periodical +intervals, so that the state of the account may then be readily +apparent.</p> + +<p>A mere collection of <i>personal accounts</i> is, however, obviously a +very incomplete record of the transactions of any business, +and does not suffice to enable a statement of its financial +position to be prepared. So at an early date other +<span class="sidenote">Single-entry accounts.</span> +accounts were added to the ledger, recording the +acquisition of and disposal of different classes of +property, such accounts being generally known as <i>real accounts</i>. +These accounts are kept upon the same principle as personal +accounts, in that all expenditure upon the part of the business +is recorded upon the <i>Dr</i>. side, and all receipts upon the <i>Cr</i>. side; +the excess of the debit entries over the credit entries thus showing +the value placed upon those assets that still remain the property +of the business. With the aid of personal and real accounts +properly written up to date, it is possible at any time to +prepare a statement of assets and liabilities showing the financial +position of a business, and the following is an example of such a +statement, which shows also how the profit made by the business +may be thus ascertained, assuming that the financial position +at the commencement of the current financial period, and the +movements of capital into and out of the business during the +period, are capable of being ascertained.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">State of Affairs as at 31st December 1906</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr><td class="lb rb tb">   </td> <td class="tcc rb tb"><i>Liabilities.</i></td> <td class="tcr tb"> </td> <td class="tcr tb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb2 tb"> </td> <td class="tcc rb tb"><i>Assets.</i></td> <td class="tcr tb"> </td> <td class="tcr tb"> </td> <td class="tcr tb"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Trade Creditors</td> <td class="tcr">£4,961</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Fixtures, Furniture, &c.</td> <td class="tcr">£1,269</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Bills Payable</td> <td class="tcr">2,620</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb2">4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Stock on hand</td> <td class="tcr">5,751</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Balance, being excess of</td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr rb2"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Trade Debtors</td> <td class="tcr">3,842</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> assets over liabilities</td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr rb2"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Bills Recievable</td> <td class="tcr">7,468</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> (or “Capital”) at this</td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr rb2"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Cash at Bank</td> <td class="tcr">4,169</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> date carried down</td> <td class="tcr">14,918</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb2">4</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr tb bb">£22,500</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb2 tb bb">6</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr tb bb">£22,500</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">15</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">6</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Amount of Capital</td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr rb2"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Balance brought down</td> <td class="tcr">£14,918</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> on 1st Jan. 1906</td> <td class="tcr">£15,010</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb2">7</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Balance, being net</td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr rb2"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Amount drawn out of</td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> profit for the year</td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr rb2"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> business during year</td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td> <td class="tcr"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="lb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> ended this date</td> <td class="tcr">1,408</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">7</td> <td class="tcl rb"> ended this date</td> <td class="tcr">1,500</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="lb rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr tb bb">£16,418</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">7</td> <td class="tcr tb rb2 bb">2</td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr tb bb">£16,418</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">7</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">2</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>The method of accounting hitherto described represents +<i>single-entry</i>, which—albeit manifestly incomplete—is still very +generally used by small business houses, and particularly by +retail traders. Its essential weakness is that it provides no automatic +check upon the clerical accuracy of the record, and, +should any mistake be made in the keeping of the books, or in +the extraction therefrom of the lists of assets and liabilities, +the statement of assets and liabilities and the profit or loss of the +current financial period, will be incorrect to an equal extent. +It was to avoid this obvious weakness of single-entry that the +system of double-entry was evolved.</p> + +<p>The essential principle of double-entry is that it constitutes +a complete record of <i>every</i> business transaction, and as these +transactions are invariably cross-dealings—involving +simultaneously the receipt of a benefit by some one +<span class="sidenote">Double-entry.</span> +and the imparting of a benefit by some one—a complete +record of transactions from both points of view necessitates an +entry of equal amount upon debit and credit sides of the ledger. +Hence it follows that, if the clerical work be correctly performed, +the aggregate amount entered up upon the debit side of the ledger +must at all times equal the aggregate amount entered up upon +the credit side; and thus a complete list of all ledger balances +will show an agreement of the total debit balances with the total +credit balances. Such a list is called a <i>trial balance</i>, an example +of which is given below. It should be observed, however, that +the test supplied by the <i>trial balance</i> is a purely mechanical +one, and does not prove the absolute accuracy of the ledger as +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page227" id="page227"></a>227</span> +a record of transactions. Thus transactions which have +actually taken place may have been omitted from the books +altogether, or they may have been recorded to the wrong +accounts, or the money values attached to them may be +incorrect; or, yet again, fictitious records may be entered +in the ledger of transactions which have never taken place. +A <i>trial balance</i> is thus no very adequate safeguard against fraud, +nor does it bring to light mistakes in the monetary value attaching +to the various transactions recorded. This last point is of +especial importance, in that the monetary value of transactions +may have been correctly recorded in the first instance, but owing +to altered circumstances may have become inaccurate at a later +date. This of course means that the altered circumstances +constitute an additional “transaction” which has been omitted.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Trial Balance, 31st December 1906</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tcr rb tb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb tb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb tb" colspan="3"><i>Dr.</i></td> <td class="tcl tb" colspan="3"><i>Cr.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Capital account</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">£15,010</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Drawings</td> <td class="tcr">1,500</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcl rb">Trade creditors</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">4,961</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">24</td> <td class="tcl rb">Fixtures, furniture, &c.</td> <td class="tcr">1,269</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">27</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bills payable</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">2,620</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">40</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bad debts</td> <td class="tcr">71</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">44</td> <td class="tcl rb">Stock 1st Jan. 1906 </td> <td class="tcr">4,078</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="tcl rb">Discounts allowed</td> <td class="tcr">975</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">53</td> <td class="tcl rb">Trade debtors</td> <td class="tcr">3,842</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">60</td> <td class="tcl rb">Discounts received</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">1,117</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">65</td> <td class="tcl rb">Wages and salaries</td> <td class="tcr">1,865</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">75</td> <td class="tcl rb">Depreciation</td> <td class="tcr">141</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="tcl rb">Rent, rates and taxes</td> <td class="tcr">1,242</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="tcl rb">General expenses</td> <td class="tcr">1,087</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">90</td> <td class="tcl rb">Bills receivable</td> <td class="tcr">7,468</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="tcl rb">Purchases</td> <td class="tcr">44,731</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcl rb">Sales</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">48,732</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcr rb">C56</td> <td class="tcl rb">Cash at bank</td> <td class="tcr">4,169</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcr rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr tb bb">£72,442</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">12</td> <td class="tcr rb tb bb">4</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">£72,442</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">12</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">4</td></tr> +</table> + +<p>It will be observed, therefore, that in order to complete the +record of the transactions by double-entry, it has become +necessary to introduce into the ledger a third class of accounts, +known as <i>impersonal</i> or <i>nominal accounts</i>. These accounts record +the transferences of money, or of money’s worth, which, so far +from representing a mere reshuffling of assets and liabilities, +involve an increase in or a reduction of the amount invested in +the business, <i>i.e.</i> a profit or a loss. Transactions representing +profits are recorded upon the <i>Cr.</i> side of nominal accounts, and +those representing losses (including expenses) upon the <i>Dr.</i> side. +This is consistent with the rules already laid down in connexion +with real and nominal accounts, inasmuch as expenditure which +does not result in the acquisition of an asset is a loss, whereas +receipts which do not involve the creation of liabilities represent +profits. All debit balances therefore that are not assets are +losses, and <i>per contra</i> all credit balances that are not liabilities +are profits. So that, inasmuch as double-entry provides <i>inter +alia</i> a complete statement under suitable headings of all profits +and all losses, it is possible by aggregating these results to +deduce therefrom the net profit or loss of carrying on the business—and +that by a method entirely distinct from that previously +described in connexion with single-entry, thus constituting a +valuable additional check. Taking the trial balance shown above, +the following represent the <i>trading account</i>, <i>profit and loss account</i>, +<span class="sidenote">Balance sheet.</span> +and <i>balance sheet</i> compiled therefrom. The trading +account may be variously regarded as the account +recording the movements of goods which represent the +stock-in-trade, and as a preliminary to (or a subdivision of) the +profit and loss account. The balance sheet is a statement of +the assets and liabilities; but—inasmuch as, by transferring the +balance of the profit and loss account to the capital account, it is +possible to bring the latter account up to date and to show the +credit balance representing the surplus of assets over liabilities +to date—the balance sheet, instead of showing a difference, or a +“balance,” representing what is <i>assumed to be</i> the amount of the +capital to date, shows an absolute agreement of assets upon the +one hand and of liabilities <i>plus</i> capital upon the other. The two +sides of the account thus balance—hence the name.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr class="cl"><td class="tcc bb"><i>Dr.</i></td> <td class="tcc bb" colspan="6"><span class="sc">Trading Account</span> for the Year ended 31st December 1906</td> <td class="tcc bb" colspan="3"><i>Cr.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">To Stock on hand, 1st Jan. 1906</td> <td class="tcr">£4,078</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb2">4</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">By Sales</td> <td class="tcr">£48,732</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> ”  Purchases</td> <td class="tcr">44,731</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb2">10</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> ”  Stock on hand 31st Dec.</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> ”  Gross Profit, transferred</td> <td class="rb2" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">  1906</td> <td class="tcr">5,751</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">   to Profit and Loss account</td> <td class="tcr">5,673</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb2">5</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr tb">£54,483</td> <td class="tcr tb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb2 tb">7</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr tb bb">£54,483</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">8</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">7</td></tr> + +<tr class="cl"><td class="tcc tb bb"><i>Dr.</i></td> <td class="tcc tb bb" colspan="6"><span class="sc">Profit and Loss Account</span> for the Year ended 31st December 1906</td> <td class="tcc tb bb" colspan="3"><i>Cr.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">To Rent, rates and taxes £1,242 13  8</td> <td class="rb2" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">By Gross Profit as per</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> ”  Salaries and wages   1,865 12 0</td> <td class="rb2" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">   Trading Account</td> <td class="tcr">£5,673</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr">5</td></tr> +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> ”  General expenses   <span class="un">1,087 8 0</span></td> <td class="rb2" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> ”  Discount received</td> <td class="tcr">1,117</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr">£4,195</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb2">8</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> ”  Discounts allowed</td> <td class="tcr">975</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb2">3</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> ”  Bad debts</td> <td class="tcr">71</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb2">2</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> ”  Deprecation</td> <td class="tcr">141</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">5</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> ”  Net Profit for the year trans-</td> <td class="rb2" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">   ferred to Capital account</td> <td class="tcr">1,408</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb2">7</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr tb">£6,791</td> <td class="tcr tb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb2 tb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr tb bb">£6,791</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">7</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">1</td></tr> + + +<tr class="cl"><td class="tcc tb bb"><i>Dr.</i></td> <td class="tcc tb bb" colspan="6"><span class="sc">Balance Sheet</span> as at 31st December 1906</td> <td class="tcc tb bb" colspan="3"><i>Cr.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">To A.B., Capital account</td> <td class="tcr">£14,918</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb2">2</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">By Fixtures, furniture, &c.</td> <td class="tcr">£1,269</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> ”  Trade creditors</td> <td class="tcr">4,961</td> <td class="tcr">10</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> ”  Stock on hand</td> <td class="tcr">5,751</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">10</td></tr> +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> ”  Bills payable</td> <td class="tcr">2,620</td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr rb2">4</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> ”  Trade debtors</td> <td class="tcr">3,842</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr">9</td></tr> +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="rb2" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> ”  Bills receivable</td> <td class="tcr">7,468</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="rb2" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> ”  Cash at bank</td> <td class="tcr">4,169</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">5</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr tb">£22,500</td> <td class="tcr tb">15</td> <td class="tcr rb2 tb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr tb bb">£22,500</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">15</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">6</td></tr> + + +<tr class="cl"><td class="tcc tb bb"><i>Dr.</i></td> <td class="tcc tb bb" colspan="6"><span class="sc">A.B., Capital Account</span></td> <td class="tcc tb bb" colspan="3"><i>Cr.</i></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="rb2" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">1906.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">1906.</td> <td class="tcl rb">To Drawings account</td> <td class="tcr">£1,500</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb2">0</td> <td class="tcc rb">Jan. 1</td> <td class="tcl rb">By balance from last account</td> <td class="tcr">£15,010</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr">7</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">Dec 31</td> <td class="tcl rb"> ”  Balance carried down</td> <td class="tcr">14,918</td> <td class="tcr">7</td> <td class="tcr rb2">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">Dec. 31</td> <td class="tcl rb"> ”  Profit and Loss account,</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="rb2" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">   being net profit for the</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="rb2" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">  year ended this date</td> <td class="tcr">1,408</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">7</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr tb bb">£16,418</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">7</td> <td class="tcr rb2 tb bb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcr tb bb">£16,418</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">7</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">2</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="rb2" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcc rb">1907.</td> <td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> <td class="rb2 bb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcc rb bb">Jan. 1</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">By Balance brought down</td> <td class="tcr bb">£14,918</td> <td class="tcr bb">7</td> <td class="tcr bb">2</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page228" id="page228"></a>228</span></p> + +<p>In the foregoing example the customary method has been +followed of deducting withdrawals of capital from the capital +account and of adding profits thereto. Sometimes, however, the +balance of the capital account remains constant, and the drawings +and net profits are transferred to a separate account called +<i>current account</i>. This plan is but rarely observed in the case +of undertakings owned by individuals, or private firms, but is +invariably adopted in connexion with joint-stock companies, +although in such cases the name <i>appropriation of profit account</i> is +generally employed.</p> + +<p>Although it is now usual to employ several books of first-entry, +in the case of comparatively small businesses one such book is +sufficient for all purposes, in that it is practicable for +one person to record all the transactions that take +<span class="sidenote">Journal.</span> +place as and when they occur. A book of this description is +called the <i>journal</i>, and for many years represented the only book +of first-entry employed in book-keeping. An example of the +journal is given below. The entries appearing therein are such +as would be necessary to prepare the trading and profit and loss +accounts from the trial balance shown above, and to bring the +capital account up to date.</p> + +<p>In modern times, however, with the growth of business, it +was soon found impracticable to keep one book of first-entry for +all transactions, and accordingly it became necessary either to +treat the journal as an intermediate book, in which the transactions +might be brought together and focused as a preliminary +to being recorded in the ledger, or else to split up the journal +into numerous books of first-entry, each of which might in that +case be employed for the record of a particular class of transaction. +The first method has been generally adopted in the continental +countries of Europe, as will be shown later on, whereas in Great +Britain and in North America the latter method more generally +obtains; that is, instead of having one journal in which all classes +of transactions are recorded in the first instance, it is usual to +employ several journals, as follows:—a <i>sales journal, sales book</i> +or <i>day book</i>, to record particulars of goods sold; a <i>bought journal, +invoice book</i> or <i>purchases book</i>, to record particulars of goods purchased; +a <i>returns inwards book</i>, to record particulars of goods sold +but subsequently returned by customers; a <i>returns outwards book</i>, +to record the like particulars with regard to goods purchased and +subsequently returned; a <i>bills receivable book</i>, to record particulars +of bills of exchange received from debtors; and a <i>bills payable +book</i>, to record particulars of bills of exchange given to creditors.</p> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Journal 1906</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tb rb"> </td> <td class="tb rb"> </td> <td class="tb rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb tb" colspan="3"><i>Dr.</i></td> <td class="tcl rb tb" colspan="3"><i>Cr.</i></td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb">Dec. 31</td> <td class="tcl rb">Trading account</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr">£48,809</td> <td class="tcr">19</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> To Stock account</td> <td class="tcr rb">44</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">£4,078</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr rb">4</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb">  ” Purchases account</td> <td class="tcr rb">97</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">44,731</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcl rb">Sales account</td> <td class="tcr rb">100</td> <td class="tcr">48,732</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">9</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">Stock account</td> <td class="tcr rb">44</td> <td class="tcr">5,751</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">10</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> To Trading account</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">54,483</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcl rb">Trading account</td> <td class="tcr rb">110</td> <td class="tcr">5,673</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb">To Profit and Loss account</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">5,673</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcl rb">Profit and Loss account</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr">5,383</td> <td class="tcr">1</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> To Rent, rates and taxes</td> <td class="tcr rb">78</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">1,242</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">  ” Salaries and wages</td> <td class="tcr rb">65</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">1,865</td> <td class="tcr">12</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">  ” General expenses</td> <td class="tcr rb">82</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">1,087</td> <td class="tcr">8</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">  ” Discounts allowed</td> <td class="tcr rb">50</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">975</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr rb">3</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">  ” Bad debts</td> <td class="tcr rb">40</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">71</td> <td class="tcr">4</td> <td class="tcr rb">2</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb">  ” Depreciation</td> <td class="tcr rb">75</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">141</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcl rb">Discounts received</td> <td class="tcr rb">60</td> <td class="tcr">1,117</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> To Profit and Lossaccount</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">1,117</td> <td class="tcr">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">8</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc rb">”</td> <td class="tcl rb">Profit and Loss account</td> <td class="tcr rb">120</td> <td class="tcr">1,408</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> To A.B., Capital account</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">1,408</td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr rb">7</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb">A.B., Captial account</td> <td class="tcr rb">1</td> <td class="tcr">1,500</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc rb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb"> To Drawings account</td> <td class="tcr rb">5</td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">1,500</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcc rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcr tb bb">£118,376</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb tb bb">11</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">£118,376</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">1</td> <td class="tcr rb tb bb">11</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p class="pt2 center sc">Day Book 1906</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> + +<tr><td class="tccm rb tb" style="font-size: 130%;" rowspan="6">471</td> <td class="tcc tb">Forward</td> <td class="tcr rb tb"> </td> <td class="rb tb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr tb">£3761</td> <td class="tcr tb">7</td> <td class="tcr tb">8</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcc cl">27th December.</td> <td class="tcr rb cl"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">A. Brown,</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 492 New Street, Walworth—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">2 doz. V.C. port</td> <td class="tcr rb">31/-</td> <td class="tcr">£3</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1 ” A.C. pale brandy</td> <td class="tcr rb">49/-</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">9</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm rb tb" style="font-size: 130%;" rowspan="6">216</td> <td class="tcc tb cl">28th December.</td> <td class="tcr rb tb cl"> </td> <td class="rb tb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">5</td> <td class="tcr">11</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Fredk. Newton,</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> Farleigh House, Epsom—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1 gall. E. Pale sherry</td> <td class="tcr rb">13/6</td> <td class="tcr">£0</td> <td class="tcr">13</td> <td class="tcr rb">6</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">2 doz. O.B. Heidsieck 1892</td> <td class="tcr rb">160/-</td> <td class="tcr">16</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">2 gall. P. Scotch</td> <td class="tcr rb">21/-</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr">2</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tccm rb tb" style="font-size: 130%;" rowspan="6">408</td> <td class="tcc tb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb tb"> </td> <td class="rb tb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">18</td> <td class="tcr">15</td> <td class="tcr">6</td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">Robert French,</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl"> 214 High Road, Sutton—</td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">6 doz. F.D. Pommard, 1899</td> <td class="tcr rb">30/-</td> <td class="tcr">£9</td> <td class="tcr">0</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">1 ” M.F. Margaux, 1893</td> <td class="tcr rb">66/-</td> <td class="tcr">3</td> <td class="tcr">6</td> <td class="tcr rb">0</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> +<tr><td class="tcl">2 ” A. Niersteiner</td> <td class="tcr rb">24/-</td> <td class="tcr bb">2</td> <td class="tcr bb">8</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0</td> <td colspan="3"> </td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr">14</td> <td class="tcr">0</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl rb"> </td> <td class="tcc"> </td> <td class="tcr rb"> </td> <td class="rb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcr tb bb">£3800</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">8</td> <td class="tcr tb bb">2</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="tcl rb bb"> </td> <td class="tcc bb"> </td> <td class="tcr rb bb"> </td> <td class="rb bb" colspan="3"> </td> <td class="tcc bb" style="font-size: 130%;" colspan="3">100</td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>With a view still further to split up the work, thus enabling a +large staff to be simultaneously engaged, the ledger itself is +now generally kept in sections. Thus the cash account and the +bank account are frequently bound together in one separate +book called the <i>cash book</i>, showing in parallel columns the movements +of office cash and of cash at the bank, and by the addition +of a third column for discounts the necessity of keeping an +additional book of first entry as a <i>discount journal</i> may also be +avoided. Of late years, however, most businesses pay all moneys +received into their bankers without deduction, and pay all +accounts by cheque; the necessity of an account for office cash +thus no longer exists, save in connexion with petty payments, +which are recorded in a separate book called the <i>petty cash book</i>. +With regard to the remaining ledger +accounts, personal accounts—which are the +most numerous—are frequently separated +from the real and nominal accounts, and +are further subdivided so that customers’ +accounts are kept separate from the +accounts of trade creditors. The customers’ +accounts are kept in a ledger (or, if need be, +in several ledgers) called <i>sales ledgers</i>, or +<i>sold ledgers</i>; while the accounts of trade +creditors are similarly kept in <i>purchases +ledgers</i> or <i>bought ledgers</i>. The nominal and +real accounts, if together, are kept in what +is called the <i>general ledger</i>; but this may +be further subdivided into a <i>nominal +ledger</i> and a <i>private ledger</i>. This last subdivision +is, however, rarely made upon a +scientific basis, for such accounts as the +profit and loss account and trading account +are generally kept in the private ledger +although strictly speaking nominal accounts; +while the bills receivable account and the +bills payable account are generally kept in +the nominal ledger, so as to reduce to a +minimum the amount of clerical work in +connexion with the private ledger, which +is kept either by the principal himself or +by his confidential employee. By the employment of <i>adjustment +accounts</i>, which complete the double-entry record in each +ledger, these various ledgers may readily be made self-balancing, +thus enabling clerical errors to be localized and responsibility +enforced.</p> + +<p>Of recent years considerable attention has been devoted to +further modifications of book-keeping methods with a view to +reducing clerical work, increasing the speed with which results +are available, and enabling them to be handled more quickly +<span class="sidenote">Tabular book-keeping.</span> +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page229" id="page229"></a>229</span> +and with greater certainty. <i>Tabular book-keeping</i> is a device to +achieve one or more of these ends by the substitution of books +ruled with numerous columns for the more usual +form. The system may be applied either to books of +first entry or to ledgers. As applied to books of first-entry +it enables the same book to deal conveniently +with more than one class of transaction; thus if the trading +of a business is divided into several departments, by +providing a separate column for the sales of each department +it is possible readily to arrive at separate totals for +the aggregate sales of each, thus simplifying the preparation +of departmental trading accounts. As applied to ledgers, the +application of the system may be best described by the aid +of the above example (the proceedings of the columns being +given only), which shows how a very large number of personal +accounts may be recorded upon a single opening of a ledger +provided the number of entries to be made against each +individual be few.</p> + +<table class="ws" summary="Contents"> +<tr class="f80"><td class="tccm rb">Reference<br />No.</td> <td class="tccm rb">Name of<br />Debtor.</td> +<td class="tccm rb">Amount<br />due on<br />1st Oct.<br />1906</td> <td class="tccm rb">Charges<br />for<br />Current<br />Quarter.</td> +<td class="tccm rb2">Total<br />Debit.</td> <td class="tccm rb">Date<br />received.</td> +<td class="tccm rb">Amount<br />Received.</td> <td class="tccm rb">Discounts.</td> +<td class="tccm rb">Allowances.</td> <td class="tccm rb">Bad<br />Debts.</td> +<td class="tccm rb">Amount<br />due on<br />31st Dec.<br />1906</td> <td class="tccm">Remarks.</td></tr> + + +<tr><td class="tccm rb tb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb tb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb tb">£ <i>s. d.</i></td> <td class="tccm rb tb">£ <i>s. d.</i></td> <td class="tccm rb2 tb">£ <i>s. d.</i></td> <td class="tccm rb tb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb tb">£ <i>s. d.</i></td> <td class="tccm rb tb">£ <i>s. d.</i></td> <td class="tccm rb tb">£ <i>s. d.</i></td> <td class="tccm rb tb">£ <i>s. d.</i></td> <td class="tccm rb tb">£ <i>s. d.</i></td> <td class="tccm tb"> </td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb2"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm"> </td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb2"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm"> </td></tr> +<tr> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb2"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm rb"> </td> <td class="tccm"> </td></tr> +</table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:479px; height:473px" src="images/img229a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Card-Ledger Tray (Librry Bureau System).</td></tr></table> + +<p>Another important application of modern methods consists +of what may be described as the <i>slip system</i>, which is in many +respects a reversion to the method of keeping records +upon movable slabs or tablets, as in the Babylonian accounts +<span class="sidenote">Slip system.</span> +referred to at the beginning of this article. This +system may be applied to books of first-entry, or to ledgers, or to +both. As applied to books of first-entry it aims at so modifying +the original record of the transaction—whether it represents an +invoice for goods sold or an acknowledgment given for money +received—that a facsimile duplicate may be taken of the original +entry by the aid of a carbon sheet, which instead of being +immovably bound up in a book is capable of being handled +separately and placed in any desired order or position, and thus +more readily recorded in the ledger. Postings are thus made +direct from the original slips, which have been first sorted out +into an order convenient for that purpose, and afterwards resorted +so that the total sales of each department may be readily +computed; after which they are filed away in a form convenient +for reference. Sometimes the process is carried a step further, +and the original slips, filed away with suitable guide-cards +indicating the nature of the account, themselves constitute the +ledger record—which in such cases is to be found scattered over a +number of sheets, one for each transaction, instead of, as in the +case of the ordinary book ledger, a considerable number of transactions +being recorded upon a single page. This adaptation of the +slip system is impracticable except in cases where the transactions +with each individual are few in number, and is not worth adoption +unless the exceedingly large number of personal accounts makes it +important as far as possible to avoid all duplication of clerical +work. The more usual adaptation of the slip system to ledgers +is to be found in the employment of <i>card ledgers</i> or <i>loose-leaf +ledgers</i>. With card ledgers (fig. 1) each ledger account is upon +an independent sheet of cardboard suitably arranged in drawers +or cabinets. The system is advantageous as allowing all dead +matter to be eliminated from the record continuously in use, and +as permitting the order in which the accounts stand to be varied +from time to time as convenience dictates, thus (if necessary) +enabling the accounts to be always kept in alphabetical order +in spite of the addition of new accounts and the dropping out +of old ones. An especial convenience of the card system is that +in times of pressure any desired number of book-keepers may be +simultaneously employed, whereas the maximum number that +can be usefully employed upon any bound book is two. The +loose-leaf ledger (fig. 2) may be described as midway between +card and bound ledgers. It consists of a number of sheets in +book form, so bound as to be capable of being readily separated +when desired. The loose-leaf ledger thus embraces most of the +advantages of the card ledger, while remaining sufficiently like +the more old-fashioned book ledger as to enable it to be readily +handled by those whose previous experience has been confined +to the latter. Both the card and loose-leaf systems will be +frequently found of value for records in connexion with cost +and stores accounts, quite irrespective of their advantages in +connexion with the book-keeping records pure and simple of +certain businesses.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:517px; height:209px" src="images/img229b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Loose-Leaf Ledger (Library Bureau System.)</td></tr></table> + +<p>All book-keeping methods rest upon the same fundamental +principles, but their development in practice in different countries +is to some extent influenced by the manner in which +business is there conducted, and by the legislative +<span class="sidenote">Legislative Requirements.</span> +requirements imposed by the several states. In France +traders are required by the Code of Commerce to keep +three books—a journal, an inventory and a letter book, somewhat +elaborate provisions being made to identify these books, +and to prevent substitution. The compulsory journal makes +the employment of numerous books of first-entry impossible +without an undesirable amount of duplication, and wherever +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page230" id="page230"></a>230</span> +this provision obtains the book-keeping methods are in an +accordingly comparatively backward state. The inventory book +comprises periodical lists of ledger balances and the balance +sheet, records which are invariably kept under every adequate +system, although not always in a book specially set aside for that +purpose. In Germany the statutory requirements are similar +to those in France, save that the journal is not compulsory; +but there is an additional provision that the accounts are to +be kept in <i>bound</i> books with the pages numbered consecutively—a +requirement which makes the introduction of card or loose-leaf +ledgers of doubtful legality. A balance sheet must be drawn +up every year; but where a stock-in-trade is from its nature +or its size difficult to take, it is sufficient for an inventory to +be taken every two years. In Belgium the law requires every +merchant to keep a journal recording his transactions from +day to day, which (with the balance book) must be initialled by +a prescribed officer. All letters and telegrams received, and +copies of all such sent, must be preserved for ten years. The +Commercial Code of Spain requires an inventory, journal, ledger, +letter book and invoice book to be kept; while that of Portugal +prescribes the use of a balance book, journal, ledger and +copy-letter book. The law of Holland requires business men to keep +books in which are correctly recorded their commercial transactions, +letters received and copies of letters sent. It also provides +for the preparation of an annual balance sheet. The law of +Rumania makes the employment of journal, inventory book and +ledger compulsory, a small tax per page being charged on the +two first named. There are no special provisions as to book-keeping +contained in the Russian law, nor in the United States +law, but in Russia public companies have to supply the government +with copies of their annual accounts, which are published +in a state newspaper, and in the United States certain classes of +companies have to submit their accounts to an official audit. +In general terms it may be stated that at the present time the +employment of card and loose-leaf ledger systems is more general +in the United States than in Great Britain.</p> + +<p>Apart from the organizations of professional accountants, +there is none of note devoted to the scientific study of +book-keeping other than purely educational institutions. +Among the universities those in the United States were +<span class="sidenote">Education.</span> +the first to include accounting as part of their curriculum; +while in Great Britain the London School of Economics (university +of London), the university of Birmingham, and the +Victoria University of Manchester have, so far, alone treated +the subject seriously and upon adequate lines. Quite recently +Japan has been making a movement in the same direction, and +other countries will doubtless follow suit. In England there have +for a number of years past been various bodies—such for instance +as the Society of Arts, the London Chamber of Commerce +and Owens College, Manchester—which hold examinations in +book-keeping and grant diplomas to successful candidates, +while most of the polytechnics and technical schools give +instruction in book-keeping; these latter, however, for the most +part regard it as a “craft” merely.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—Those interested in the bibliography of book-keeping +are referred to the catalogue of the library of the Institute +of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales, which probably +contains the most complete collection in existence of ancient and +modern works on accounting, both British and foreign. The following +short list comprises those most likely to be found of general interest: +G. van de Linde, <i>Book-keeping</i> (1898); L.R. Dicksee, <i>Book-keeping</i> +(5th ed., 1906) and <i>Advanced Accounting</i> (2nd ed., 1905); <i>Encyclopaedia +of Accounting</i>, ed. by G. Lisle (1903); <i>Accountants’ Library</i>, +ed. by the editor of <i>The Accountant</i> (1901); J.W. Heaps, <i>The +Antiquity of Book-keeping</i> (1898); <i>History of Accounting and Accountants</i>, +ed. by R. Brown (1905).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. R. D.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOK-PLATES.<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> The book-plate, or <i>ex-libris</i>, a printed label +intended to indicate ownership in individual volumes, is nearly +as old as the printed book itself. It bears very much the same +relation to the hand-painted armorial or otherwise symbolical +personal device found in medieval manuscripts that the printed +page does to the scribe’s work. The earliest known examples +of book-plates are German. According to Friedrich Warnecke, +of Berlin (one of the best authorities on the subject), the oldest +movable <i>ex-libris</i> are certain woodcuts representing a shield of +arms supported by an angel (fig. 1), which were pasted in books +presented to the Carthusian monastery of Buxheim by Brother +Hildebrand Brandenburg of Biberach, about the year 1480—the +date being fixed by that of the recorded gift. The woodcut, +in imitation of similar devices in old MSS., is hand-painted. In +France the most ancient <i>ex-libris</i> as yet discovered is that of one +Jean Bertaud de la Tour-Blanche, the date of which is 1529; +and in England that of Sir Nicholas Bacon, a gift-plate for the +books he presented to the university of Cambridge (fig. 2). +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page231" id="page231"></a>231</span> +Holland comes next with the plate of a certain Anna van der Aa, +in 1597; then Italy with one attributed to the year 1622. +The earliest known American example is the plain printed label +of one John Williams, 1679.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:368px; height:404px" src="images/img230a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Gift-plate of Hildebrand Brandenburg of Biberach +to the Monastery of Buxheim (<i>c</i>. 1480).</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:448px; height:742px" src="images/img230b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Book-plate of Sir Nicholas Bacon (slightly reduced).</td></tr></table> + +<p>A sketch of the history of the book-plate, either as a minor +work of symbolical and decorative art, or as an accessory to the +binding of books, must obviously begin in Germany, not only +because the earliest examples known are German, but also +because they are found in great numbers long before the fashion +spread to other countries, and are often of the highest artistic +interest. Albrecht Dürer is known to have actually engraved at +least six plates (some of very important size) between 1503 and +1516 (fig. 3), and to have supplied designs for many others. +Several notable plates are ascribed to Lucas Cranach and to +Hans Holbein, and to that bevy of so-called Little Masters, the +Behams, Virgil Solis, Matthias Zundt, Jost Amman, Saldörfer, +Georg Hüpschmann and others. The influence of these draughtsmen +over the decorative styles of Germany has been felt through +subsequent centuries down to the present day, notwithstanding +the invasion of successive Italian and French fashions during the +17th and 18th centuries, and the marked effort at originality of +composition observable among modern designers. The heavy, +over-elaborated German style never seems to have affected +neighbouring countries; but since it was undoubtedly from +Germany that was spread the fashion of ornamental book-plates +as marks of possession, the history of German <i>ex-libris</i> remains on +that account one of high interest to all those who are curious in +the matter.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:455px; height:661px" src="images/img231.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Book-plate of Lazarus Spengler, by Albrecht Dürer, +1515 (reduced).</td></tr></table> + +<p>It was not before the 17th century that the <i>movable ex-libris</i> +became tolerably common in France. Up to that time the more +luxurious habit of stamping the cover with a personal device +had been in such general favour with book-owners as to render +the use of labels superfluous. From the middle of the century, +however, the <i>ex-libris</i> proper became quite naturalized; examples +of that period are very numerous, and, as a rule, are very handsome. +It may be here pointed out that the expression <i>ex-libris</i>, +used as a substantive, which is now the recognized term for +book-plate everywhere on the continent, found its origin in +France. The words only occur in the personal tokens of other +nationalities long after they had become a recognized inscription +on French labels.</p> + +<p>In many ways the consideration of the English book-plate, +in its numerous styles, from the late Elizabethan to the late +Victorian period, is peculiarly interesting. In all its varieties it +reflects with great fidelity the prevailing taste in decorative art +at different epochs. Of English examples, none thus far seems +to have been discovered of older date than the gift-plate of +Sir Nicholas Bacon; for the celebrated, gorgeous, hand-painted +armorial device attached to a folio that once belonged to Henry +VIII., and now reposes in the King’s library, British Museum, +does not come under the head of book-plate in its modern sense. +The next is that of Sir Thomas Tresham, dated 1585. Until the +last quarter of the 17th century the number of authentic English +plates is very limited. Their composition is always remarkably +simple, and displays nothing of the German elaborateness. They +are as a rule very plainly armorial, and the decoration is usually +limited to a symmetrical arrangement of mantling, with an occasional +display of palms or wreaths. Soon after the Restoration, +however, a book-plate seems to have suddenly become an established +accessory to most well-ordered libraries. Book-plates of +that period offer very distinctive characteristics. In the simplicity +of their heraldic arrangements they recall those of the +previous age; but their physiognomy is totally different. In the +first place, they invariably display the tincture lines and dots, +after the method originally devised in the middle of the century +by Petra Sancta, the author of <i>Tesserae Gentilitiae</i>, which by this +time had become adopted throughout Europe. In the second, +the mantling assumes a much more elaborate appearance—one +that irresistibly recalls that of the periwig of the period—surrounding +the face of the shield. This style was undoubtedly +imported from France, but it assumed a character of its own in +England. As a matter of fact, thenceforth until the dawn of +the French Revolution, English modes of decoration in book-plates, +as in most other chattels, follow at some years’ distance +the ruling French taste. The main characteristics of the style +which prevailed during the Queen Anne and early Georgian +periods are:—ornamental frames suggestive of carved oak, a +frequent use of fish-scales, trellis or diapered patterns, for the +decoration of plain surfaces; and, in the armorial display, a +marked reduction in the importance of the mantling. The introduction +of the scallop-shell as an almost constant element of +ornamentation gives already a foretaste of the <i>Rocaille-Coquille</i>, +the so-called Chippendale fashions of the next reign. As a matter +of fact, during the middle third of the century this rococo style +(of which the Convers plate [fig. 4] gives a tolerably typical +sample) affects the book-plate as universally as all other decorative +objects. Its chief element is a fanciful arrangement of +scroll and shell work with curveting acanthus-like sprays—an +arrangement which in the examples of the best period is generally +made asymmetrical in order to give freer scope for a variety of +countercurves. Straight or concentric lines and all appearances +of flat surface are studiously avoided; the helmet and its +symmetrical mantling tends to disappear, and is replaced by the +plain crest on a fillet. The earlier examples of this manner are +tolerably ponderous and simple. Later, however, the composition +becomes exceedingly light and complicated; every +conceivable and often incongruous element of decoration is +introduced, from cupids to dragons, from flowerets to Chinese +pagodas. During the early part of George III.’s reign there is +a return to greater sobriety of ornamentation, and a style more +truly national, which may be called <i>the urn style</i>, makes its +appearance. Book-plates of this period have invariably a +physiognomy which at once recalls the decorative manner made +popular by architects and designers such as Chambers, the +Adams, Josiah Wedgwood, Hepplewhite and Sheraton. The +shield shows a plain spade-like outline, manifestly based upon +that of the pseudo-classic urn then so much to the fore. The +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page232" id="page232"></a>232</span> +ornamental accessories are symmetrical palms and sprays, +wreaths and ribands. The architectural boss is also an important +factor. In many plates, indeed, the shield of arms takes +quite a subsidiary position by the side of the predominantly +architectural urn. From the beginning of the 19th century, until +comparatively recent days, no special style of decoration seems +to have established itself. The immense majority of examples +display a plain shield of arms with motto on a scroll below, and +crest on a fillet above. Of late years, however, a rapid impetus +appears to have been given to the designing of <i>ex-libris</i>; a new +era, in fact, has begun for the book-plate, one of great interest.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:357px; height:521px" src="images/img232a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 4.—Book-plate of P.A. Convers, 1762.</td></tr></table> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:438px; height:485px" src="images/img232b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 5.—Book-plate of Francis Gwyn of Lansanor, 1698.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The main styles of decoration (and these, other data being +absent, must always in the case of old examples remain the +criteria of date) have already been noticed. It is, however, +necessary to point out that certain styles of composition were +also prevalent at certain periods. Many of the older plates (like +the majority of the most modern ones) were essentially pictorial. +Of this kind the best-defined English genus may be recalled: +<i>the library interior</i>—a term which explains itself—and <i>book-piles</i>, +exemplified by the <i>ex-libris</i> (fig. 6) of W. Hewer, Samuel +Pepys’s secretary. We have also many <i>portrait-plates</i>, of which, +perhaps, the most notable are those of Samuel Pepys himself +and of John Gibbs, the architect; <i>allegories</i>, such as were engraved +by Hogarth, Bartolozzi, John Pine and George Vertue; +<i>landscape-plates</i>, by wood engravers of the Bewick school (see +Plate), &c. In most of these the armorial element plays but a +secondary part.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:441px; height:497px" src="images/img232c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 6.—Book-plate of William Hewer, 1699.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The value attached to book-plates, otherwise than as an object +of purely personal interest, is comparatively modern. The study +of and the taste for collecting these private tokens of book-ownership +hardly date farther back than the year 1875. The +first real impetus was given by the appearance of the <i>Guide to +the Study of Book-Plates</i>, by Lord de Tabley (then the Hon. +Leicester Warren) in 1880. This work, highly interesting from +many points of view, established what is now accepted as the +general classification of styles: <i>early armorial</i> (<i>i.e</i>. previous to +Restoration, exemplified by the Nicholas Bacon plate); <i>Jacobean</i>, +a somewhat misleading term, but distinctly understood to include +the heavy decorative manner of the Restoration, Queen Anne +and early Georgian days (the Lansanor plate, fig. 5, is typically +Jacobean); <i>Chippendale</i> (the style above described as <i>rococo</i>, +tolerably well represented by the French plate of Convers); +<i>wreath and ribbon</i>, belonging to the period described as that of +the urn, &c. Since then the literature on the subject has grown +considerably. Societies of collectors have been founded, first +in England, then in Germany and France, and in the United +States, most of them issuing a journal or archives: +<i>The Journal of the Ex-libris Society</i> (London), the <i>Archives +de la société française de collectionneurs d’ex-libris</i> (Paris), +both of these monthlies; the <i>Ex-libris Zeitschrift</i> (Berlin), a +quarterly.</p> + +<p>Much has been written for and against book-plate collecting. +If, on the one hand, the more enthusiastic ex-librists (for +such a word has actually been coined) have made the somewhat +ridiculous claim of science for “ex-librisme,” the bitter +animadversion, on the other, of a certain class of intolerant +bibliophiles upon the vandalism of removing book-plates +from old books has at times been rather extravagant. Book-plates +are undoubtedly very often of high interest (and of a value +often far greater than the odd volume in which they are found +affixed), either as specimens of bygone decorative fashion or as +personal relics of well-known personages. There can be no +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page233" id="page233"></a>233</span> +question, for instance, that engravings or designs by artists +such as Holbein and Dürer and the Little Masters of Germany, +by Charles Eisen, Hubert François Bourguignon, <i>dit</i> Gravelot, +D.N. Chodowiecki or Simon Gribelin; by W. Marshall, W. +Faithorne, David Loggan, Sir Robert Strange, Francesco +Piranesi; by Hogarth, Cipriani, Bartolozzi, John Keyse Sherwin, +William Henshaw, Hewitt or Bewick and his imitators; or, +to come to modern times, that the occasional examples traced +to the handicraft of Thomas Stothard, Thackeray, Millais, +Maclise, Bell Scott, T.G. Jackson, Walter Crane, Caldecott, +Stacy Marks, Edwin Abbey, Kate Greenaway, Gordon Browne, +Herbert Railton, Aubrey Beardsley, Alfred Parsons, D.Y. +Cameron, Paul Avril—are worth collecting.</p> + +<p class="pt2 noind f90 sc">Plate.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:433px; height:255px" src="images/img232d.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:333px; height:446px" src="images/img232e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">BOOK-PLATE OF ROBERT PINKNEY. +<br /><span class="f80">By Thoma Bewick.</span></td> +<td class="caption">BOOK-PLATE OF FREIHERR V. LIPPERHEIDE. +<br /><span class="f80">By Karl Rickelt.</span></td></tr> + +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:450px; height:628px" src="images/img232f.jpg" alt="" /></td> +<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:377px; height:575px" src="images/img232g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption">BOOK-PLATE OF CHARLES DEXTER ALLEN. +<br /><span class="f80">By E.D. French.</span></td> +<td class="caption">BOOK-PLATE OF SIR ARTHUR VICARS. +<br /><span class="f80">By C.W. Sherborn.</span></td></tr> + +</table> + +<p>Until the advent of the new taste the devising of book-plates +was almost invariably left to the routine skill of the heraldic +stationer. Of late years the composition of personal book-tokens +has become recognized as a minor branch of a higher art, +and there has come into fashion an entirely new class of designs +which, for all their wonderful variety, bear as unmistakable a +character as that of the most definite styles of bygone days. +Broadly speaking, it may be said that the purely heraldic element +tends to become subsidiary and the allegorical or symbolic to +assert itself more strongly. Among modern English artists who +have more specially paid attention to the devising of book-plates, +and have produced admirable designs, may be mentioned C.W. +Sherborn, G.W. Eve, Robert Anning Bell, J.D. Batten, Erat +Harrison, J. Forbes Nixon, Charles Ricketts, John Vinycomb, +John Leighton and Warrington Hogg. The development in +various directions of process work, by facilitating and cheapening +the reproduction of beautiful and elaborate designs, has +no doubt helped much to popularize the book-plate—a thing +which in older days was almost invariably restricted to ancestral +libraries or to collections otherwise important. Thus the great +majority of modern plates are reproduced by process. There +are, however, a few artists left who devote to book-plates their +skill with the graver. Some of the work they produce challenges +comparison with the finest productions of bygone engravers. +Of these the best-known are C.W. Sherborn (see Plate) and G.W. +Eve in England, and in America J.W. Spenceley of Boston, +Mass., K.W.F. Hopson of New Haven, Conn., and E.D. French +of New York City (see Plate).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p><span class="sc">Authorities</span>.—The curious in the matter of book-plate composition +will find it treated in the various volumes of the Ex-libris +Series (London). See also A. Poulet-Malassis, <i>Les Ex-libris français</i> +(1875); Hon. J. Leicester Warren (Lord de Tabley), <i>A Guide to the +Study of Book-plates</i> (1880); Sir A.W. Franks, <i>Notes on Book-plates</i>, +1574-1800 (private, 1887); Friedrich Warnecke, <i>Die deutschen +Bücherzeichen</i> (1890); Henri Bouchot, <i>Les Ex-libris et les marques +de possession du livre</i> (1891); Egerton Castle, <i>English Book-plates</i> +(1892); Walter Hamilton, <i>French Book-plates</i> (1892), <i>Dated Book-plates</i> +(1895); H.W. Fincham, <i>Artists and Engravers of British and +American Book-plates</i> (1897); <i>German Book-plates</i>, by Count K.E. zu +Leiningen-Westerburg, translated by G.R. Denis (1901).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(E. Ca.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOK-SCORPION,<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> or <span class="sc">False Scorpion</span>, minute arachnids +superficially resembling tailless scorpions and belonging to the +order Pseudoscorpiones of the class Arachnida. Occurring in +all temperate and tropical countries, book-scorpions live for the +most part under stones, beneath the bark of trees or in vegetable +detritus. A few species, however, like the common British forms +<i>Chelifer cancroides</i> and <i>Chiridium museorum</i>, frequent human +dwellings and are found in books, old chests, furniture, &c; +others like <i>Ganypus littoralis</i> and allied species may be found +under stones or pieces of coral between tide-marks; while others, +which are for the most part blind, live permanently in dark caves. +Their food consists of minute insects or mites. It is possibly +for the purpose of feeding on parasitic mites that book-scorpions +lodge themselves beneath the wing-cases of large tropical beetles; +and the same explanation, in default of a better, may be extended +to their well-known and oft-recorded habit of seizing hold of the +legs of horse-flies or other two-winged insects. For safety +during hibernation and moulting, book-scorpions spin a small +spherical cocoon. They are oviparous; and the eggs after being +laid are carried about by the mother, attached to the lower +surface of her body, the young remaining with their parent until +they have acquired their definite form and are able to shift for +themselves.</p> +<div class="author">(R. I. P.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOKSELLING.<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> The trade in books is of a very ancient +date. The early poets and orators recited their effusions in +public to induce their hearers to possess written copies of their +poems or orations. Frequently they were taken down <i>viva voce</i>, +and transcripts sold to such as were wealthy enough to purchase. +In the book of Jeremiah the prophet is represented as dictating to +Baruch the scribe, who, when questioned, described the mode +in which his book was written. These scribes were, in fact, +the earliest booksellers, and supplied copies as they were demanded. +Aristotle, we are told, possessed a somewhat extensive +library; and Plato is recorded to have paid the large sum of +one hundred minae for three small treatises of Philolaus the +Pythagorean. When the Alexandrian library was founded about +300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, various expedients were resorted to for the purpose +of procuring books, and this appears to have stimulated the +energies of the Athenian booksellers, who were termed +<span class="grk" title="biblion kapaeloi">βιβλὶων κάπηλοι</span>. In Rome, towards the end of the republic, it became +the fashion to have a library as part of the household furniture; +and the booksellers, <i>librarii</i> (Cic. <i>D. Leg.</i> iii. 20) or <i>bibliopolae</i> +(Martial iv. 71, xiii. 3), carried on a flourishing trade. Their +shops (<i>taberna librarii</i>, Cicero, <i>Phil.</i> ii. 9) were chiefly in the +Argiletum, and in the Vicus Sandalarius. On the door, or on +the side posts, was a list of the books on sale; and Martial +(i. 118), who mentions this also, says that a copy of his First +Book of Epigrams might be purchased for five denarii. In the +time of Augustus the great booksellers were the Sosii. According +to Justinian (ii. I. 33), a law was passed securing to the scribes +the property in the materials used; and in this may, perhaps, +be traced the first germ of the modern law of copyright.</p> + +<p>The spread of Christianity naturally created a great demand +for copies of the Gospels and other sacred books, and later on +for missals and other devotional volumes for church and private +use. Benedict Biscop, the founder of the abbey at Wearmouth +in England, brought home with him from France (671) a whole +cargo of books, part of which he had “bought,” but from whom +is not mentioned. Passing by the intermediate ages we find that +previous to the Reformation, the text writers or stationers +(<i>stacyoneres</i>), who sold copies of the books then in use—the +ABC, the Paternoster, Creed, Ave Maria and other MS. copies +of prayers, in the neighbourhood of St Paul’s, London,—were, +in 1403, formed into a gild. Some of these “stacyoneres” had +stalls or stations built against the very walls of the cathedral +itself, in the same manner as they are still to be found in some +of the older continental cities. In Henry Anstey’s <i>Munimenta +Academica</i>, published under the direction of the master of the +rolls, we catch a glimpse of the “sworn” university bookseller +or stationer, John More of Oxford, who apparently first supplied +pupils with their books, and then acted the part of a pawnbroker. +Anstey says (p. 77), “The fact is that they (the students) mostly +could not afford to buy books, and had they been able, would +not have found the advantage so considerable as might be supposed, +the instruction given being almost wholly oral. The +chief source of supplying books was by purchase from the +university sworn stationers, who had to a great extent a monopoly. +Of such books there were plainly very large numbers +constantly changing hands.” Besides the sworn stationers +there were many booksellers in Oxford who were not sworn; for +one of the statutes, passed in the year 1373, expressly recites that, +in consequence of their presence, “books of great value are sold +and carried away from Oxford, the owners of them are cheated, +and the sworn stationers are deprived of their lawful business.” +It was, therefore, enacted that no bookseller except two sworn +stationers or their deputies, should sell any book being either +his own property or that of another, exceeding half a mark in +value, under a pain of imprisonment, or, if the offence was +repeated, of abjuring his trade within the university.</p> + +<p>“The trade in bookselling seems,” says Hallam, “to have been +established at Paris and Bologna in the 12th century; the +lawyers and universities called it into life. It is very improbable +that it existed in what we properly call the dark ages. Peter of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page234" id="page234"></a>234</span> +Blois mentions a book which he had bought of a public dealer +(<i>a quodam publico mangone librorum</i>); but we do not find many +distinct accounts of them till the next age. These dealers were +denominated <i>stationarii</i>, perhaps from the open stalls at which +they carried on their business, though <i>statio</i> is a general word +for a shop in low Latin. They appear, by the old statutes of +the university of Paris, and by those of Bologna, to have sold +books upon commission, and are sometimes, though not uniformly, +distinguished from the <i>librarii</i>, a word which, having originally +been confined to the copyists of books, was afterwards applied +to those who traded in them. They sold parchment and other +materials of writing, which have retained the name of stationery, +and they naturally exercised the kindred occupations of binding +and decorating. They probably employed transcribers; we +find at least that there was a profession of copyists in the +universities and in large cities.”</p> + +<p>The modern system of bookselling dates from soon after the +introduction of printing. The earliest printers were also editors +and booksellers; but being unable to sell every copy of the works +they printed, they had agents at most of the seats of learning. +Antony Koburger, who introduced the art of printing into +Nuremberg in 1470, although a printer, was more of a bookseller; +for, besides his own sixteen shops, we are informed by his biographers +that he had agents for the sale of his books in every +city of Christendom. Wynkyn de Worde, who succeeded to +Caxton’s press in Westminster, had a shop in Fleet Street.</p> + +<p>The religious dissensions of the continent, and the Reformation +in England under Henry VIII. and Edward VI., created a +great demand for books; but in England neither Tudor nor +Stuart could tolerate a free press, and various efforts were made +to curb it. The first patent for the office of king’s printer was +granted to Thomas Berthelet by Henry VIII. in 1529, but only +such books as were first licensed were to be printed. At that +time even the purchase or possession of an unlicensed book was +a punishable offence. In 1556 the Company of Stationers was +incorporated, and very extensive powers were granted in order +that obnoxious books might be repressed. In the following +reigns the Star Chamber exercised a pretty effectual censorship; +but, in spite of all precaution, such was the demand for books +of a polemical nature, that many were printed abroad and +surreptitiously introduced into England. Queen Elizabeth interfered +but little with books except when they emanated from +Roman Catholics, or touched upon her royal prerogatives; and +towards the end of her reign, and during that of her pedantic +successor, James, bookselling flourished. Archbishop Laud, who +was no friend to booksellers, introduced many arbitrary restrictions; +but they were all, or nearly all, removed during the time of +the Commonwealth. So much had bookselling increased during +the Protectorate that, in 1658, was published <i>A Catalogue of the +most Vendible Books in England, digested under the heads of Divinity, +History, Physic, &c., with School Books, Hebrew, Greek and Latin, +and an Introduction, for the use of Schools</i>, by W. London. A bad +time immediately followed. The Restoration also restored the +office of Licenser of the Press, which continued till 1694.</p> + +<p>In the first English Copyright Act (1709), which specially relates +to booksellers, it is enacted that, if any person shall think the +published price of a book unreasonably high, he may thereupon +make complaint to the archbishop of Canterbury, and to certain +other persons named, who shall thereupon examine into his +complaint, and if well founded reduce the price; and any +bookseller charging more than the price so fixed shall be fined +£5 for every copy sold. Apparently this enactment remained a +dead letter.</p> + +<p>For later times it is necessary to make a gradual distinction +between <i>booksellers</i>, whose trade consists in selling books, either +by retail or wholesale, and <i>publishers</i>, whose business involves +the production of the books from the author’s manuscripts, and +who are the intermediaries between author and bookseller, just +as the booksellers (in the restricted sense) are intermediaries +between the author and publisher and the public. The article +on <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Publishing</a></span> (<i>q.v.</i>) deals more particularly with this second +class, who, though originally booksellers, gradually took a higher +rank in the book-trade, and whose influence upon the history +of literature has often been very great. The convenience of this +distinction is not impaired by the fact either that a publisher +is also a wholesale bookseller, or that a still more recent development +in publishing (as in the instance of the direct sale in 1902, +by the London <i>Times</i>, of the supplementary volumes to the 9th +edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, which were also “published” +by <i>The Times</i>) started a reaction to some extent in the +way of amalgamating the two functions. The scheme of <i>The +Times</i> Book Club (started in 1905) was, again, a combination +of a subscription library with the business of bookselling (see +NEWSPAPERS); and it brought the organization of a newspaper, +with all its means of achieving publicity, into the work of pushing +the sale of books, in a way which practically introduced a new +factor into the bookselling business.</p> + +<p>During the 19th century it remains the fact that the distinction +between publisher and bookseller—literary promoter and shopkeeper—became +fundamental. The booksellers, as such, were +engaged either in wholesale bookselling, or in the retail, the old or +second-hand, and the periodical trades.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Coming between the publisher and the retail bookseller is the +important distributing agency of the <i>wholesale bookseller</i>. It is to +him that the retailer looks for his miscellaneous supplies, as it is +simply impossible for him to stock one-half of the books published. +In Paternoster Row, London, which has for over a hundred years +been the centre of this industry, may be seen the collectors from the +shops of the retail booksellers, busily engaged in obtaining the books +ordered by the book-buying public. It is also through these agencies +that the country bookseller obtains his miscellaneous supplies. At +the leading house in this department of bookselling almost any book +can be found, or information obtained concerning it. At one of these +establishments over 1,000,000 books are constantly kept in stock. +It is here that the publisher calls first on showing or “subscribing” +a new book, a critical process, for by the number thus subscribed +the fate of a book is sometimes determined.</p> + +<p>What may be termed the third partner in publishing and its +ramification is the <i>retail bookseller</i>; and to protect his interests there +was established in 1890 a London booksellers’ society, which had for +its object the restriction of discounts to 25%, and also to arrange +prices generally and control all details connected with the trade. +The society a few years afterwards widened its field of operations so +as to include the whole of the United Kingdom, and its designation +then became “The Associated Booksellers of Great Britain and +Ireland.”</p> + +<p>The trade in old or (as they are sometimes called) second-hand books +is in a sense, no doubt, a higher class of business, requiring a knowledge +of bibliography, while the transactions are with individual +books rather than with numbers of copies. Occasionally dealers in +this class of books replenish their stocks by purchasing remainders +of books, which, having ceased from one cause or another to sell with +the publisher, they offer to the public as bargains. The periodical +trade grew up during the 19th century, and was in its infancy when +the <i>Penny Magazine</i>, <i>Chambers’s Journal</i>, and similar publications +first appeared. The growth of this important part of the business +was greatly promoted by the abolition of the newspaper stamp and +of the duty upon paper, the introduction of attractive illustrations, +and the facilities offered for purchasing books by instalments.</p> +</div> + +<p>The history of bookselling in America has a special interest. +The Spanish settlements drew away from the old country much +of its enterprise and best talent, and the presses of Mexico +and other cities teemed with publications mostly of a religious +character, but many others, especially linguistic and historical, +were also published. Bookselling in the United States was of a +somewhat later growth, although printing was introduced into +Boston as early as 1676, Philadelphia in 1685, and New York +in 1693. Franklin had served to make the trade illustrious, +yet few persons were engaged in it at the commencement of +the 19th century. Books chiefly for scholars and libraries were +imported from Europe; but after the second war printing-presses +multiplied rapidly, and with the spread of newspapers +and education there also arose a demand for books, and publishers +set to work to secure the advantages offered by the wide field +of English literature, the whole of which they had the liberty of +reaping free of all cost beyond that of production. The works of +Scott, Byron, Moore, Southey, Wordsworth, and indeed of every +author of note, were reprinted without the smallest payment to +author or proprietor. Half the names of the authors in the so-called +“American” catalogue of books printed between 1820 +and 1852 are British. By this means the works of the best +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page235" id="page235"></a>235</span> +authors were brought to the doors of all classes in the cheapest +variety of forms. In consequence of the Civil War, the high +price of labour, and the restrictive duties laid on in order to +protect native industry, coupled with the frequent intercourse +with England, a great change took place, and American publishers +and booksellers, while there was still no international copyright, +made liberal offers for early sheets of new publications. Boston, +New York and Philadelphia still retained their old supremacy +as bookselling centres. Meanwhile, the distinct publishing business +also grew, till gradually the conditions of business became +assimilated to those of Europe.</p> + +<p>In the course of the 16th and 17th centuries the Low Countries +for a time became the chief centre of the bookselling world, and +many of the finest folios and quartos in our libraries bear the +names of Jansen, Blauw or Plantin, with the imprint of Amsterdam, +Utrecht, Leiden or Antwerp, while the Elzevirs besides +other works produced their charming little pocket classics. The +southern towns of Douai and St Omer at the same time furnished +polemical works in English.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Publishing</a></span> are noticed various further developments of +this subject. Much interesting information on the history of the +book trade will be found in Charles Knight’s <i>Biography of William +Caxton</i>, and in the same author’s <i>Shadows of the Old Booksellers</i> +(1865). See also Henry Curwen, <i>History of Booksellers</i> (1873); and +Heinrich Lempertz, <i>Bilder-Hefte zur Geschichte des Bücherhandels</i> +(Cologne, 1854).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOLE, GEORGE<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (1815-1864), English logician and mathematician, +was born in Lincoln on the 2nd of November 1815. +His father was a tradesman of limited means, but of studious +character and active mind. Being especially interested in +mathematical science, the father gave his son his first lessons; +but the extraordinary mathematical powers of George Boole +did not manifest themselves in early life. At first his favourite +subject was classics. Not until the age of seventeen did he attack +the higher mathematics, and his progress was much retarded by +the want of efficient help. When about sixteen years of age he +became assistant-master in a private school at Doncaster, and +he maintained himself to the end of his life in one grade or other +of the scholastic profession. Few distinguished men, indeed, +have had a less eventful life. Almost the only changes which +can be called events are his successful establishment of a school +at Lincoln, its removal to Waddington, his appointment in +1849 as professor of mathematics in the Queen’s College at +Cork, and his marriage in 1855 to Miss Mary Everest, who, as +Mrs Boole, afterwards wrote several useful educational works on +her husband’s principles.</p> + +<p>To the public Boole was known only as the author of numerous +abstruse papers on mathematical topics, and of three or four +distinct publications which have become standard works. His +earliest published paper was one upon the “Theory of Analytical +Transformations,” printed in the <i>Cambridge Mathematical +Journal</i> for 1839, and it led to a friendship between Boole and +D.F. Gregory, the editor of the journal, which lasted until the +premature death of the latter in 1844. A long list of Boole’s +memoirs and detached papers, both on logical and mathematical +topics, will be found in the <i>Catalogue of Scientific Memoirs</i> published +by the Royal Society, and in the supplementary volume +on <i>Differential Equations</i>, edited by Isaac Todhunter. To the +<i>Cambridge Mathematical Journal</i> and its successor, the <i>Cambridge +and Dublin Mathematical Journal</i>, Boole contributed in all +twenty-two articles. In the third and fourth series of the <i>Philosophical +Magazine</i> will be found sixteen papers. The Royal +Society printed six important memoirs in the <i>Philosophical +Transactions</i>, and a few other memoirs are to be found in the +<i>Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh</i> and of the <i>Royal +Irish Academy</i>, in the <i>Bulletin de l’Académie de St-Pétersbourg</i> +for 1862 (under the name G. Boldt, vol. iv. pp. 198-215), and +in <i>Crelle’s Journal</i>. To these lists should be added a paper on +the mathematical basis of logic, published in the <i>Mechanic’s +Magazine</i> for 1848. The works of Boole are thus contained in +about fifty scattered articles and a few separate publications.</p> + +<p>Only two systematic treatises on mathematical subjects were +completed by Boole during his lifetime. The well-known +<i>Treatise on Differential Equations</i> appeared in 1859, and was +followed, the next year, by a <i>Treatise on the Calculus of Finite +Differences</i>, designed to serve as a sequel to the former work. +These treatises are valuable contributions to the important +branches of mathematics in question, and Boole, in composing +them, seems to have combined elementary exposition with the +profound investigation of the philosophy of the subject in a +manner hardly admitting of improvement. To a certain extent +these works embody the more important discoveries of their +author. In the 16th and 17th chapters of the <i>Differential +Equations</i> we find, for instance, a lucid account of the general +symbolic method, the bold and skilful employment of which led +to Boole’s chief discoveries, and of a general method in analysis, +originally described in his famous memoir printed in the <i>Philosophical +Transactions</i> for 1844. Boole was one of the most eminent +of those who perceived that the symbols of operation could be +separated from those of quantity and treated as distinct objects +of calculation. His principal characteristic was perfect confidence +in any result obtained by the treatment of symbols in +accordance with their primary laws and conditions, and an +almost unrivalled skill and power in tracing out these results.</p> + +<p>During the last few years of his life Boole was constantly +engaged in extending his researches with the object of producing +a second edition of his <i>Differential Equations</i> much more complete +than the first edition; and part of his last vacation was spent in +the libraries of the Royal Society and the British Museum. +But this new edition was never completed. Even the manuscripts +left at his death were so incomplete that Todhunter, +into whose hands they were put, found it impossible to use them +in the publication of a second edition of the original treatise, +and wisely printed them, in 1865, in a supplementary volume.</p> + +<p>With the exception of Augustus de Morgan, Boole was probably +the first English mathematician since the time of John Wallis +who had also written upon logic. His novel views of logical +method were due to the same profound confidence in symbolic +reasoning to which he had successfully trusted in mathematical +investigation. Speculations concerning a calculus of reasoning +had at different times occupied Boole’s thoughts, but it was not +till the spring of 1847 that he put his ideas into the pamphlet +called <i>Mathematical Analysis of Logic</i>. Boole afterwards regarded +this as a hasty and imperfect exposition of his logical system, +and he desired that his much larger work, <i>An Investigation of the +Laws of Thought, on which are founded the Mathematical Theories +of Logic and Probabilities</i> (1854), should alone be considered as +containing a mature statement of his views. Nevertheless, +there is a charm of originality about his earlier logical work +which no competent reader can fail to appreciate. He did not +regard logic as a branch of mathematics, as the title of his earlier +pamphlet might be taken to imply, but he pointed out such a +deep analogy between the symbols of algebra and those which +can be made, in his opinion, to represent logical forms and +syllogisms, that we can hardly help saying that logic is mathematics +restricted to the two quantities, 0 and 1. By unity Boole +denoted the universe of thinkable objects; literal symbols, +such as <i>x, y, z, v, u</i>, &c., were used with the elective meaning +attaching to common adjectives and substantives. Thus, if +x = horned and y = sheep, then the successive acts of election +represented by x and y, if performed on unity, give the whole of +the class <i>horned sheep</i>. Boole showed that elective symbols of +this kind obey the same primary laws of combination as algebraical +symbols, whence it followed that they could be added, +subtracted, multiplied and even divided, almost exactly in +the same manner as numbers. Thus, 1 − x would represent the +operation of selecting all things in the world except <i>horned things</i>, +that is, <i>all not horned things</i>, and (1 − x)(1 − y) would give us <i>all +things neither horned nor sheep</i>. By the use of such symbols +propositions could be reduced to the form of equations, and +the syllogistic conclusion from two premises was obtained by +eliminating the middle term according to ordinary algebraic +rules.</p> + +<p>Still more original and remarkable, however, was that part +of his system, fully stated in his <i>Laws of Thought</i>, which formed +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page236" id="page236"></a>236</span> +a general symbolic method of logical inference. Given any +propositions involving any number of terms, Boole showed how, +by the purely symbolic treatment of the premises, to draw any +conclusion logically contained in those premises. The second +part of the <i>Laws of Thought</i> contained a corresponding attempt +to discover a general method in probabilities, which should +enable us from the given probabilities of any system of events to +determine the consequent probability of any other event logically +connected with the given events.</p> + +<p>Though Boole published little except his mathematical and +logical works, his acquaintance with general literature was wide +and deep. Dante was his favourite poet, and he preferred the +<i>Paradiso</i> to the <i>Inferno</i>. The metaphysics of Aristotle, the ethics +of Spinoza, the philosophical works of Cicero, and many kindred +works, were also frequent subjects of study. His reflections upon +scientific, philosophical and religious questions are contained in +four addresses upon <i>The Genius of Sir Isaac Newton</i>, <i>The Right +Use of Leisure</i>, <i>The Claims of Science</i> and <i>The Social Aspect of +Intellectual Culture</i>, which he delivered and printed at different +times.</p> + +<p>The personal character of Boole inspired all his friends with +the deepest esteem. He was marked by the modesty of true +genius, and his life was given to the single-minded pursuit of +truth. Though he received a medal from the Royal Society for +his memoir of 1844, and the honorary degree of LL.D. from the +university of Dublin, he neither sought nor received the ordinary +rewards to which his discoveries would entitle him. On the 8th +of December 1864, in the full vigour of his intellectual powers, he +died of an attack of fever, ending in suffusion on the lungs.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>An excellent sketch of his life and works, by the Rev. R. Harley, +F.R.S., is to be found in the <i>British Quarterly Review</i> for July 1866, +No. 87.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(W. S. J.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOM,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> a word of Teutonic origin (cf. the Ger. <i>Baum</i>, tree, +and the Eng. <i>beam</i>) for a pole, bar or barrier, used especially as a +nautical term, for a long spar, used to extend a sail at the foot +(main-boom, jib-boom, &c.). The “boom” of a cannon (note of +a bell, cry of the bittern) is distinct from this, being onomatopoeic. +In the sense of a barrier, a boom is generally formed of timber +lashed together, or of chains, built across the mouth of a river +or harbour as a means of defence. Possibly from the metaphor +of a breaking boom, and the accompanying rush and roar, or from +the rush of rising waters (mingled with the onomatopoeic use), +“boom” began in America to be used of a sudden “spurt” or +access of industrial activity, as in the phrase “a boom in cotton.” +Hence the verb “to boom,” meaning to advertise or push into +public favour.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOMERANG,<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> a missile weapon of the Australian aborigines +and other peoples. The word is taken from the native name +used by a single tribe in New South Wales, and was mentioned in +1827 by Captain King as “the Port Jackson term” (<i>Nav. Surv. +Coasts Austral.</i> i. 355) It has been erroneously connected with +the <i>womera</i> or spear-thrower, and equally erroneously regarded +as onomatopoeic—for it does not “boom” but whistles in the air. +Two main types may be distinguished: (<i>a</i>) the return boomerang; +(<i>b</i>) the non-return or war boomerang. Both types are found in +most parts of Australia; the return form was, according to +General Pitt-Rivers, used in ancient Egypt; and a weapon +which has a close resemblance to the boomerang survives to +the present day in North-East Africa, whence it has spread in +allied forms made of metal (throwing knives). Among the +Dravidians of South India is found a boomerang-shaped instrument +which can be made to return. It is, however, still uncertain +whether the so-called boomerangs of Egypt and India have any +real resemblance to the Australian return boomerang. The +Hopis (Moquis) of Arizona use a non-return form. The general +form of both weapons is the same. They are sickle-shaped, and +made of wood (in India of ivory or steel), so modelled that the +thickness is about <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">6</span>th of the breadth, which again is <span class="spp">1</span>⁄<span class="suu">12</span>th of +the length, the last varying from 6 in. to 3 or 4 ft. The return +boomerang, which may have two straight arms at an angle of +from 70° to 120°, but in Australia is always curved at an angle of +90° or more, is usually 2 to 3 ft. in length and weighs some 8 oz.; +the arms have a skew, being twisted 2° or 3° from the plane +running through the centre of the weapon, so that B and D (fig. 1) +are above it, A and E below it; the ends AB and DE are also +to some extent raised above the plane of the weapon at C; the +cross section is asymmetrical, the upper side in the figure being +convex, the lower flat or nearly so; +this must be thrown with the right +hand. The non-return boomerang +has a skew in the opposite direction +but is otherwise similar.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 270px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:218px; height:92px" src="images/img236a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The peculiarity of the boomerang’s +flight depends mainly on its +skew. The return boomerang is held vertically, the concave +side forward, and thrown in a plane parallel to the surface of +the ground, as much rotation as possible being imparted to it. +It travels straight for 30 yds. or more, with nearly vertical rotation; +then it inclines to the left, lying over on the flat side and +rising in the air; after describing a circle of 50 or more yards in +diameter it returns to the thrower. Some observers state that it +returns after striking the object; it is certainly possible to strike +the ground without affecting the return. Throws of 100 yds. or +more, before the leftward curve begins, can be accomplished by +Australian natives, the weapon rising as much as 150 ft. in the +air and circling five times before returning. The non-return type +may also be made to return in a nearly straight line by throwing +it at an angle of 45°, but normally it is thrown like the return +type, and will then travel an immense distance. No accurate +measurements of Australian throws are available, but an English +throw of 180 yds. has been recorded, compared with the same +thrower’s 70 yds. with the cricket ball.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:513px; height:223px" src="images/img236b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—Flight in Horizontal Plane.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—Flight in Vertical Plane.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The war boomerang in an expert’s hand is a deadly weapon, +and the lighter hunting boomerang is also effective. The +return boomerang is chiefly used as a plaything or for killing +birds, and is often as dangerous to the thrower as to the object +at which it is aimed.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Pitt-Rivers (Lane Fox) in <i>Anthropological and Archaeological +Fragments</i>, “Primitive Warfare”; also in <i>Journ. Royal United +Service Inst.</i> xii. No. 51; <i>British Ass. Report</i> (1872); <i>Catalogue of +Bethnal Green Collection</i>, p. 28; Buchner in <i>Globus</i>, lxxxviii. 39, 63; +G.T. Walker in <i>Phil. Trans.</i> cxc. 23; <i>Wide World Mag.</i> ii. 626; +<i>Nature</i>, xiv. 248, lxiv. 338; Brough Smyth, <i>Aborigines of Victoria</i>, +i. 310-329; Roth, <i>Ethnological Studies</i>.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(N. W. T.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOONE, DANIEL<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (1734-1820), American pioneer and backwoodsman, +of English descent, was born near the present city +of Reading, Pennsylvania, on the 2nd of November (N.S.) 1734. +About 1751 his father, Squire Boone, with his family settled in +the Yadkin Valley in what is now Davie county, North Carolina, +then on the frontier. Daniel worked on his father’s farm, and +spent much of his time hunting and trapping. In 1755 he served +as a wagoner and blacksmith in Braddock’s disastrous expedition +against the Indians. In 1765 he visited Florida, and in 1767 +he first visited the Kentucky region. With several companions, +including John Finley, who had been there as early as 1752, he +spent two years, 1769-1771, roaming about what is now Kentucky, +meeting with numberless adventures, coming in conflict with +roving bands of Indians, and collecting bear, beaver and deer +skins. He served in Lord Dunmore’s War (1774), and in 1775 +led to Kentucky the party of settlers who founded Boonesborough, +long an important settlement. On the 7th of February 1778 he, +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page237" id="page237"></a>237</span> +and the party he led, were captured by a band of Shawnees. +He was adopted into the Shawnee tribe, was taken to Detroit, +and on the return from that place escaped, reaching Boonesborough, +after a perilous journey of 160 m., within four days, in +time to give warning of a formidable attack by his captors. In +repelling this attack, which lasted from the 8th to the 17th of +September, he bore a conspicuous part. He also took part in +the sanguinary “Battle of Blue Licks” in 1782. For a time +he represented the settlers in the Virginia legislature (Kentucky +then being a part of Virginia), and he also served as deputy +surveyor, sheriff and county lieutenant of Fayette county, one +of the three counties into which Kentucky was then divided. +Having lost all his land through his carelessness in regard to +titles, he removed in 1788 to Point Pleasant, Virginia (now +W. Va.), whence about 1799 he removed to a place in what is +now Missouri, about 45 m. west of St Louis, in territory then +owned by Spain. He received a grant of 1000 arpents (about +845 acres) of land, and was appointed syndic of the district. +After the United States gained possession of “Louisiana” in +1803, Boone’s title was found to be defective, and he was again +dispossessed. He died on the 22nd of September 1820, and in +1845 his remains were removed to Frankfort, Kentucky, where +a monument has been erected to his memory. Boone was a +typical American pioneer and backwoodsman, a great hunter +and trapper, highly skilled in all the arts of woodcraft, familiar +with the Indians and their methods of warfare, a famous Indian +fighter, restless, resourceful and fearless. His services, however, +have been greatly over-estimated, and he was not, as is popularly +believed, either the first to explore or the first to settle the +Kentucky region.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The best biography is that by Reuben G. Thwaites, <i>Daniel Boone</i> +(New York, 1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOONE,<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Boone county, Iowa, +U.S.A., a short distance from the Des Moines river and near the +centre of the state. Pop. (1890) 6520; (1900) 8880; (1905, state +census) 9500 (1334 foreign-born); (1910) 10,347. It is served +by the Chicago & North-Western (which has construction and +repair shops here), the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul +railways, and by the Fort Dodge, Des Moines & Southern +(inter-urban) railway, which connects with Des Moines, Ames, +&c. Boone is an important coal centre; bricks and tiles are +manufactured from the clay obtained near by; there is a +packing plant for the manufacture of beef and pork products; +and from the rich farming section by which the city is surrounded +come large quantities of grain, some of which is milled here, +and live-stock. Boone was laid out in 1865, was incorporated as +a town in 1866, and was chartered as a city in 1868.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOONVILLE,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Cooper county, +Missouri, U.S.A., on the right bank of the Missouri river, about +210 m. W. by N. of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 4141; (1900) 4377, +including 1111 negroes; (1910) 4252. It is served by the Missouri +Pacific, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways. The city +lies along a bluff about 100 ft. above the river. It is the seat of +the Missouri training school for boys (1889), and of the Kemper +military school (1844). Among its manufactures are earthenware, +tobacco, vinegar, flour, farm-gates (iron), sash and doors, +marble and granite monuments, carriages and bricks. Iron, +zinc and lead are found in the vicinity, and some coal is mined. +Boonville, named in honour of Daniel Boone, was settled in +1810, was laid out in 1817, incorporated as a village in 1839, +and chartered as a city of the third class in 1896. Here on the +17th of June 1861, Captain (Major-General) Nathaniel Lyon, +commanding about 2000 Union troops, defeated a slightly +larger, but undisciplined Confederate force under Brigadier-General +John S. Marmaduke. David Barton (d. 1837), one of the +first two United States senators from Missouri, was buried here.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOORDE<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Borde</span>), <span class="bold">ANDREW</span> (1490?-1549), English +physician and author, was born at Boord’s Hill, Holms Dale, +Sussex. He was educated at Oxford, and was admitted a +member of the Carthusian order while under age. In 1521 he +was “dispensed from religion” in order that he might act as +suffragan bishop of Chichester, though he never actually filled +the office, and in 1529 he was freed from his monastic vows, not +being able to endure, as he said, the “rugorosite off your relygyon.” +He then went abroad to study medicine, and on his +return was summoned to attend the duke of Norfolk. He +subsequently visited the universities of Orleans, Poitiers, +Toulouse, Montpellier and Wittenberg, saw the practice of +surgery at Rome, and went on pilgrimage with others of his +nation to Compostella in Navarre. In 1534 Boorde was again +in London at the Charterhouse, and in 1536 wrote to Thomas +Cromwell, complaining that he was in “thraldom” there. +Cromwell set him at liberty, and after entertaining him at his +house at Bishops Waltham in Hampshire, seems to have entrusted +him with a mission to find out the state of public feeling abroad +with regard to the English king. He writes to Cromwell from +various places, and from Catalonia he sends him the seeds of +rhubarb, two hundred years before that plant was generally +cultivated in England. Two letters in 1535 and 1536 to the prior +of the Charterhouse anxiously argue for his complete release +from monastic vows. In 1536 he was studying medicine at +Glasgow and gathering his observations about the Scots and the +“devellyshe dysposicion of a Scottysh man, not to love nor +favour an Englishe man.” About 1538 Boorde set out on his +most extensive journey, visiting nearly all the countries of +Europe except Russia and Turkey, and making his way to +Jerusalem. Of these travels he wrote a full itinerary, lost unfortunately +by Cromwell, to whom it was sent. He finally +settled at Montpellier and before 1542 had completed his <i>Fyrst +Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge</i>, which ranks as the earliest +continental guide book, his <i>Dietary</i> and his <i>Brevyary</i>. He +probably returned to England in 1542, and lived at Winchester +and perhaps at Pevensey. John Ponet, bishop of Winchester, +in an <i>Apology</i> against Bishop Gardiner, relates as matter of +common knowledge that in 1547 Doctor Boord, a physician and +a holy man, who still kept the Carthusian rules of fasting and +wearing a hair shirt, was convicted in Winchester of keeping in +his house three loose women. For this offence, apparently, he +was imprisoned in the Fleet, where he made his will on the 9th of +April 1549. It was proved on the 25th of the same month. +Thomas Hearne (<i>Benedictus Abbas</i>, i, p. 52) says that he went +round like a quack doctor to country fairs, and therefore rashly +supposed him to have been the original merry-andrew.</p> + +<p>Andrew Boorde was no doubt a learned physician, and he has +left two amusing and often sensible works on domestic hygiene +and medicine, but his most entertaining book is <i>The Fyrst Boke +of the Introduction of Knowledge. The whyche dothe teache a man +to speake parte of all maner of languages, and to know the usage and +fashion of all maner of countreys. And for to know the moste parte +of all maner of coynes of money, the whych is currant in every +region. Made by Andrew Borde, of Physycke Doctor. Dedycated +to the right honourable, and gracious lady Mary daughter of our +soverayne Lorde Kyng Henry the eyght</i> (<i>c</i>. 1547). The Englishman +describes himself and his foibles—his fickleness, his fondness for +new fashions and his obstinacy—in lively verse. Then follows +a geographical description of the country, followed by a model +dialogue in the Cornish language. Each country in turn is dealt +with on similar lines. His other authentic works are: <i>Here +foloweth a Compendyous Regimente or Dyetary of health, made in +Mountpyllor</i> (Thomas Colwell, 1562), of which there are undated +and doubtless earlier editions; <i>The Brevyary of Health</i> (1547?); +<i>The Princyples of Astronamy</i> (1547?); “The Peregrination of +Doctor Board,” printed by Thomas Hearne in <i>Benedictus Abbas +Petroburgensis</i>, vol. ii. (1735); <i>A Pronostycacyon or an Almanacke +for the yere of our lorde MCCCCCXLV. made by Andrew Boorde</i>. +His <i>Itinerary of Europe</i> and <i>Treatyse upon Berdes</i> are lost. +Several jest-books are attributed to him without authority—<i>The +Merie Tales of the Mad Men of Gotam</i> (earliest extant edition, +1630), <i>Scogin’s Jests</i> (1626), <i>A mery jest of the Mylner of Abyngton, +with his wyfe, and his daughter, and of two poore scholers of Cambridge</i> +(printed by Wynkyn de Worde), and a Latin poem, <i>Nos +Vagabunduli</i>.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Dr F.J. Furnivall’s reprint of the <i>Introduction</i> and some other +selections for the Early English Text Society (new series, 1870).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page238" id="page238"></a>238</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BOOS, MARTIN<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (1762-1825), German Roman Catholic theologian, +was born at Huttenried in Bavaria on the 25th of +December 1762. Orphaned at the age of four, he was reared by +an uncle at Augsburg, who finally sent him to the university of +Dillingen. There he laid the foundation of the modest piety by +which his whole life was distinguished. After serving as priest in +several Bavarian towns, he made his way in 1799 to Linz in +Austria, where he was welcomed by Bishop Gall, and set to work +first at Leonding and then at Waldneukirchen, becoming in 1806 +pastor at Gallneukirchen. His pietistic movement won considerable +way among the Catholic laity, and even attracted some +fifty or sixty priests. The death of Gall and other powerful +friends, however, exposed him to bitter enmity and persecution +from about 1812, and he had to answer endless accusations in +the consistorial courts. His enemies followed him when he +returned to Bavaria, but in 1817 the Prussian government +appointed him to a professorship at Düsseldorf, and in 1819 +gave him the pastorate at Sayn near Neuwied. He died on the +29th of August 1825.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See <i>Life</i> by J. Gossner (1831).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOT,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> (1) (From the O. Eng. <i>bót</i>, a word common to Teutonic +languages, <i>e.g.</i> Goth, <i>bóta</i>, “good, advantage,” O.H.G. <i>Buoza</i>, +Mod. Ger. <i>Busse</i>, “penance, fine”; cf. “better,” the comparative +of “good”), profit or advantage. The word survives in +“bootless,” <i>i.e.</i> useless or unavailing, and in such expressions, +chiefly archaistic, as “what boots it?” “Bote,” an old form, +survives in some old compound legal words, such as “house-bote,” +“fire-bote,” “hedge-bote,” &c., for particular rights of +“estover,” the Norman French word corresponding to the Saxon +“bote” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Estovers</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Commons</a></span>). The same form survives +also in such expressions as “thief-bote” for the Old English +customary compensation paid for injuries.</p> + +<p>(2) (A word of uncertain origin, which came into English +through the O. Fr. <i>bote</i>, modern <i>botte</i>; Med. Lat. <i>botta</i> or <i>bota</i>), +a covering for the foot. Properly a boot covers the whole lower +part of the leg, sometimes reaching to or above the knee, but in +common usage it is applied to one which reaches only above the +ankle, and is thus distinguished from “shoe” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Costume</a></span> and +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Shoe</a></span>).</p> + +<p>The “boot” of a coach has the same derivation. It was +originally applied to the fixed outside step, the French <i>botte</i>, +then to the uncovered spaces on or beside the step on which the +attendants sat facing sideways. Both senses are now obsolete, +the term now being applied to the covered receptacles under +the seats of the guard and coachman.</p> + +<p><span class="sc">The Boot, Boots</span> or <span class="sc">Bootikin</span> was an instrument of torture +formerly in use to extort confessions from suspected persons, +or obtain evidence from unwilling witnesses. It originated in +Scotland, but the date of its first use is unknown. It was certainly +frequently employed there in the latter years of the 16th century. +In a case of forgery in 1579 two witnesses, a clergyman and an +attorney, were so tortured. In a letter dated 1583 at the Record +Office in London, Walsingham instructs the English ambassador +at Edinburgh to have Father Holt, an English Jesuit, “put to +the boots.” It seems to have fallen into disuse after 1630, but +was revived in 1666 on the occasion of the Covenanters’ rebellion, +and was employed during the reigns of Charles II. and James II. +Upon the accession of William III. the Scottish convention +denounced “the use of torture, without evidence and in ordinary +crimes, as contrary to law.” However, a year or so later, one +Neville Payne, an Englishman suspected of treasonable motives +for visiting Scotland, was put to the torture under the authority +of a warrant signed by the king. This is the last recorded case +of its use, torture being finally abolished in Scotland in 1709. +It was not used in England after 1640. The boot was made of +iron or wood and iron fastened on the leg, between which and +the boot wedges were driven by blows from a mallet. After each +blow a question was put to the victim, and the ordeal was continued +until he gave the information or fainted. The wedges +were usually placed against the calf of the leg, but Bishop Burnet +says that they were sometimes put against the shin-bone. A +similar instrument, called “Spanish boots,” was used in Germany. +There were also iron boots which were heated on the victim’s +foot. A less cruel form was a boot or buskin made wet and +drawn upon the legs and then dried with fire.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOÖTES<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="bootaes">βοώτης</span>, a ploughman, from <span class="grk" title="bous">βοῦς</span>, an ox), a constellation +of the northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus +(4th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) and Aratus (3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and perhaps +alluded to in the book of Job (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arcturus</a></span>), and by Homer +and Hesiod. The ancient Greeks symbolized it as a man walking, +with his right hand grasping a club, and his left extending upwards +and holding the leash of two dogs, which are apparently +barking at the Great Bear. Ptolemy catalogues twenty-three +stars, Tycho Brahe twenty-eight, Hevelius fifty-two. In addition +to Arcturus, the brightest in the group, the most interesting +stars of this constellation are: ε <i>Boötis</i>, a beautiful double +star composed of a yellow star of magnitude 3, and a blue star +of magnitude 6½; ξ <i>Boötis</i>, a double star composed of a yellow +star, magnitude 4½, and a purple star, magnitude 6½; and <i>W. +Boötis</i>, an irregularly variable star. This constellation has been +known by many other names—Arcas, Arctophylax, Arcturus +minor, Bubuleus, Bubulus, Canis latrans, Clamator, Icarus, +Lycaon, Philometus, Plaustri custos, Plorans, Thegnis, Vociferator; +the Arabs termed it Aramech or Archamech; Hesychius +named it Orion; Jules Schiller, St Sylvester; Schickard, +Nimrod; and Weigelius, the Three Swedish Crowns.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOTH, BARTON<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1681-1733), English actor, who came of a +good Lancashire family, was educated at Westminster school, +where his success in the Latin play <i>Andria</i> gave him an inclination +for the stage. He was intended for the church; but in 1698 he +ran away from Trinity College, Cambridge, and obtained employment +in a theatrical company in Dublin, where he made his +first appearance as Oroonoko. After two seasons in Ireland he +returned to London, where Betterton, who on an earlier application +had withheld his active aid, probably out of regard for +Booth’s family, now gave him all the assistance in his power. +At Lincoln’s Inn Fields (1700-1704) he first appeared as Maximus +in <i>Valentinian</i>, and his success was immediate. He was at the +Haymarket with Betterton from 1705 to 1708, and for the next +twenty years at Drury Lane. Booth died on the 10th of May +1733, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. His greatest parts, +after the title-part of Addison’s <i>Cato</i>, which established his +reputation as a tragedian, were probably Hotspur and Brutus. +His Lear was deemed worthy of comparison with Garrick’s. +As the ghost in <i>Hamlet</i> he is said never to have had a superior. +Among his other Shakespearian rôles were Mark Antony, Timon +of Athens and Othello. He also played to perfection the gay +Lothario in Rowe’s <i>Fair Penitent</i>. Booth was twice married; +his second wife, Hester Santlow, an actress of some merit, +survived him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Cibber, <i>Lives and Characters of the most eminent Actors and +Actresses</i> (1753); Victor, <i>Memoirs of the Life of Barton Booth</i> (1733).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOTH, CHARLES<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (1840-  ), English sociologist, was +born at Liverpool on the 30th of March 1840. In 1862 he became +a partner in Alfred Booth & Company, a Liverpool firm engaged +in the Brazil trade, and subsequently chairman of the Booth +Steamship Company. He devoted much time, and no inconsiderable +sums of money, to inquiries into the statistical aspects +of social questions. The results of these are chiefly embodied +in a work entitled <i>Life and Labour of the People in London</i> (1891-1903), +of which the earlier portion appeared under the title of +<i>Life and Labour</i> in 1889. The book is designed to show “the +numerical relation which poverty, misery and depravity bear +to regular earnings and comparative comfort, and to describe +the general conditions under which each class lives.” It contains +a most striking series of maps, in which the varying degrees of +poverty are represented street by street, by shades of colour. +The data for the work were derived in part from the detailed +records kept by school-board “visitors,” partly from systematic +inquiries directed by Mr Booth himself, supplemented by +information derived from relieving officers and the Charity +Organization Society. Mr Booth also paid much attention +to a kindred subject—the lot of the aged poor. In 1894 he +published a volume of statistics on the subject, and, in 1891 +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page239" id="page239"></a>239</span> +and 1899, works on Old-age pensions, his scheme for the latter +depending on a general provision of pensions of five shillings +a week to all aged persons, irrespective of the cost to the state. +He married, in 1871, the daughter of Charles Zachary Macaulay. +In 1904 he was made a privy councillor.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOTH, EDWIN [THOMAS]<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1833-1893), American actor, +was the second son of the actor Junius Brutus Booth, and was +born in Belair, Maryland, on the 13th of November 1833. His +father (1796-1852) was born in London on the 1st of May 1796, +and, after trying printing, law, painting and the sea, made his +first appearance on the stage in 1813, and appeared in London at +Covent Garden in 1815. He became almost at once a great +favourite, and a rival of Kean, whom he was thought to resemble. +To Kean’s Othello nevertheless he played Iago on several +occasions. Richard III., Hamlet, King Lear, Shylock and Sir +Giles Overreach were his best parts, and in America, whither +he removed in 1821, they brought him great popularity. His +eccentricities sometimes bordered on insanity, and his excited and +furious fencing as Richard III. and as Hamlet frequently compelled +the Richmond and Laertes to fight for their lives in deadly +earnest.</p> + +<p>Edwin Booth’s first regular appearance was at the Boston +Museum on the 10th of September 1849, as Tressel to his father’s +Richard, in Colley Cibber’s version of <i>Richard III.</i> He was +lithe and graceful in figure, buoyant in spirits; his dark hair +fell in waving curls across his brow, and his eyes were soft, +luminous and most expressive. His father watched him with +great interest, but with evident disappointment, and the members +of the theatrical profession, who held the acting of the elder +Booth in great reverence, seemed to agree that the genius of the +father had not descended to the son. Edwin Booth’s first appearance +in New York was in the character of Wilford in <i>The +Iron Chest</i>, which he played at the National theatre in Chatham +Street, on the 27th of September 1850. A year later, on the +illness of the father, the son took his place in the character of +Richard III. It was not until after his parent’s death that +the son conquered for himself an unassailable position on the +stage. Between 1852 and 1856 he played in California, Australia +and the Sandwich Islands, and those who had known him in the +east were surprised when the news came that he had captivated +his audiences with his brilliant acting. From this time forward +his dramatic triumphs were warmly acknowledged. His +Hamlet, Richard and Richelieu were pronounced to be superior +to the performances of Edwin Forrest; his success as Sir Giles +Overreach in <i>A New Way to Pay Old Debts</i> surpassed his father’s. +In 1862 he became manager of the Winter Garden theatre, New +York, where he gave a series of Shakespearian productions of +then unexampled magnificence (1864-1867), including <i>Hamlet</i>, +<i>Othello</i> and <i>The Merchant of Venice</i>. The splendour of this +period in his career was dashed for many months when in 1865 +his brother, John Wilkes Booth, assassinated President Lincoln +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lincoln, Abraham</a></span>). The three Booth brothers, Junius +Brutus (1821-1853), Edwin and John Wilkes (1839-1865), had +played together in <i>Julius Caesar</i> in the autumn of the previous +year—the performance being memorable both for its own +excellence, and for the tragic situation into which two of the +principal performers were subsequently hurled by the crime of +the third. Edwin Booth did not reappear on the stage until +the 3rd of January 1866, when he played Hamlet at the Winter +Garden theatre, the audience showing by unstinted applause +their conviction that the glory of the one brother would never +be imperilled by the infamy of the other.</p> + +<p>In 1868-1869 Edwin Booth built a theatre of his own—Booth’s +theatre, at the corner of 23rd Street and 6th Avenue, New York—and +organized an excellent stock company, which produced <i>Romeo +and Juliet</i>, <i>The Winter’s Tale</i>, <i>Julius Caesar</i>, <i>Macbeth</i>, <i>Much Ado +about Nothing</i>, <i>The Merchant of Venice</i> and other plays. In all cases +Booth used the true text of Shakespeare, thus antedating by many +years a similar reform in England. Almost invariably his ventures +were successful, but he was of a generous and confiding nature, and +his management was not economical. In 1874 the grand dramatic +structure he had raised was taken from him, and with it went his +entire fortune. By arduous toil, however, he again accumulated +wealth, in the use of which his generous nature was shown. He +converted his spacious residence in Gramercy Park, New York, +into a club—The Players’—for the elect of his profession, and +for such members of other professions as they might choose. +The house, with all his books and works of art, and many invaluable +mementos of the stage, became the property of the +club. A single apartment he kept for himself. In this he died on +the 7th of June 1893. Among his parts were Macbeth, Lear, +Othello, Iago, Shylock, Wolsey, Richard II., Richard III., +Benedick, Petruccio, Richelieu, Sir Giles Overreach, Brutus +(Payne’s), Bertuccio (in Tom Taylor’s <i>The Fool’s Revenge</i>), Ruy +Blas, Don Cesar de Bazan, and many more. His most famous +part was Hamlet, for which his extraordinary grace and beauty +and his eloquent sensibility peculiarly fitted him. He probably +played the part oftener than any other actor before or since. He +visited London in 1851, and again in 1880 and in 1882, playing at +the Haymarket theatre with brilliant success. In the last year he +also visited Germany, where his acting was received with the +highest enthusiasm. His last appearance was in Brooklyn as +Hamlet in 1891. Booth was twice married: in 1860 to Mary +Devlin (d. 1863), and in 1869 to Mary F. McVicker (d. 1881). He +left by his first wife one daughter, Edwina Booth Grossman, +who published <i>Edwin Booth: Recollections</i> (New York, 1894).</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Edwin Booth’s prompt-books were edited by William Winter +(1878). In a series of volumes, <i>Actors and Actresses of Great Britain +and America</i>, edited by Lawrence Hutton and Brander Matthews, +Edwin Booth contributed recollections of his father, which contain +much valuable autobiographic material. For the same series +Lawrence Barrett contributed an article on Edwin Booth. See also +William Winter, <i>Life and Art of Edwin Booth</i> (1893); Lawrence +Hutton, <i>Edwin Booth</i> (1893); Henry A. Clapp, <i>Reminiscences of a +Dramatic Critic</i> (Boston, 1902); A.B. Clarke. <i>The Elder and the +Younger Booth</i> (Boston, 1882).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(J. J.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOTH, WILLIAM<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1829-  ), founder and “general” of +the Salvation Army (<i>q.v.</i>), was born at Nottingham on the 10th +of April 1829. At the age of fifteen his mind took a strongly +religious turn, under the influence of the Wesleyan Methodists, +in which body he became a local preacher. In 1849 he came to +London, where, according to his own account, his passion for +open-air preaching caused his severance from the Wesleyans. +Joining the Methodist New Connexion, he was ordained a minister, +but, not being employed as he wished in active “travelling +evangelization,” left that body also in 1861. Meanwhile he had +(1855) married Miss Catherine Mumford, and had a family of +four children. Both he and his wife occupied themselves with +preaching, first in Cornwall and then in Cardiff and Walsall. +At the last-named place was first organized a “Hallelujah band” +of converted criminals and others, who testified in public of their +conversion. In 1864 Booth went to London and continued his +services in tents and in the open air, and founded a body which +was successively known as the East London Revival Society, +the East London Christian Mission, the Christian Mission and +(in 1878) the Salvation Army. The Army operates (1) by outdoor +meetings and processions; (2) by visiting public-houses, prisons, +private houses; (3) by holding meetings in theatres, factories +and other unusual buildings; (4) by using the most popular +song-tunes and the language of everyday life, &c.; (5) by making +every convert a daily witness for Christ, both in public and private. +The army is a quasi-military organization, and Booth modelled +its “Orders and Regulations” on those of the British army. +Its early “campaigns” excited violent opposition, a “Skeleton +Army” being organized to break up the meetings, and for +many years Booth’s followers were subjected to fine and imprisonment +as breakers of the peace. Since 1889, however, +these disorders have been little heard of. The operations of the +army were extended in 1880 to the United States, in 1881 to +Australia, and spread to the European continent, to India, +Ceylon and elsewhere, “General” Booth himself being an indefatigable +traveller, organizer and speaker. His wife (b. 1829) +died in 1890. By her preaching at Gateshead, where her husband +was circuit minister, in 1860, she began the women’s ministry +which is so prominent a feature of the army’s work. A biography +of her by Mr Booth Tucker appeared in 1892.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page240" id="page240"></a>240</span></p> + +<p>In 1890 “General” Booth attracted further public attention +by the publication of a work entitled <i>In Darkest England, and +the Way Out</i>, in which he proposed to remedy pauperism and vice +by a series of ten expedients: (1) the city colony; (2) the farm +colony; (3) the over-sea colony; (4) the household salvage +brigade; (5) the rescue homes for fallen women; (6) deliverance +for the drunkard; (7) the prison-gate brigade; (8) the poor +man’s bank; (9) the poor man’s lawyer; (10) Whitechapel-by-the-Sea. +Money was liberally subscribed and a large part of the +scheme was carried out. The opposition and ridicule with which +Booth’s work was for many years received gave way, towards +the end of the 19th century, to very widespread sympathy as his +genius and its results were more fully realized.</p> + +<p>The active encouragement of King Edward VII., at whose +instance in 1902 he was invited officially to be present at the +coronation ceremony, marked the completeness of the change; +and when, in 1905, the “general” went on a progress through +England, he was received in state by the mayors and corporations +of many towns. In the United States also, and elsewhere, +his work was cordially encouraged by the authorities.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See T.F. Coates, <i>The Life Story of General Booth</i> (2nd ed., London, +1906), and bibliography under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Salvation Army</a></span>.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOTH<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (connected with a Teutonic root meaning to dwell, +whence also “bower”), primarily a temporary dwelling of +boughs or other slight materials. Later the word gained the +special meaning of a market stall or any non-permanent erection, +such as a tent at a fair, where goods were on sale. Later still it +was applied to the temporary structure where votes were registered, +viz. polling-booth. Temporary booths erected for the +weekly markets naturally tended to become permanent shops. +Thus Stow states that the houses in Old Fish Street, London, +“were at first but movable boards set out on market days to +show their fish there to be sold; but procuring licence to set up +sheds, they grew to shops, and by little and little, to tall houses.” +As <i>bothy</i> or <i>bothie</i>, in Scotland, meaning generally a hut or +cottage, the word was specially applied to a barrack-like room +on large farms where the unmarried labourers were lodged. +This, known as the <i>Bothy system</i>, was formerly common in +Aberdeenshire and other parts of northern Scotland.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOTHIA<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (<i>Boothia Felix</i>), a peninsula of British North +America, belonging to Franklin district, and having an area of +13,100 sq. m., between 69° 30′ and 71° 50′ N. and 91° 30′ and +97° W. Its northernmost promontory, Murchison Point, is also +the northernmost point of the American mainland. It was discovered +by Captain (afterwards Sir James) Ross, during his +expedition of 1829-1833, and was named after Sir Felix Booth, +who had been chiefly instrumental in fitting out the expedition. +Boothia forms the western side of Boothia Gulf. From the main +mass of the continent the peninsula is almost separated by lakes +and inlets; and a narrow channel known as Bellot Strait intervenes +between it and North Somerset Island, which was discovered +by Sir E. Parry in 1819. The peninsula is not only +interesting for its connexion with the Franklin expedition and +the Franklin search, but is of scientific importance from the +north magnetic pole having been first distinctly localized here +by Ross, on the western side, in 70° 5′ N., 96° 47′ W.</p> + +<p>Boothia Gulf separates the north-western portion of Baffin +Land and Melville Peninsula from Boothia Peninsula. It is +connected with Barrow Strait and Lancaster Sound by Prince +Regent Inlet, with Franklin Strait by Bellot Strait, and with +Fox Channel by Fury and Hecla Strait. The principal bays are +Committee and Pelly in the southern portion, and Lord Mayor +in the western.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOTLE,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> a municipal and county borough in the Bootle +parliamentary division of Lancashire, England; at the mouth +of the Mersey, forming a northern suburb of Liverpool. Pop. +(1901) 58,566; an increase by nearly nine times in forty years. +The great docks on this, the east bank of the Mersey, extend +into the borough, but are considered as a whole under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liverpool</a></span> +(<i>q.v.</i>). Such features, moreover, as communications, water-supply, +&c., may be considered as part of the greater systems of +the same city. The chief buildings and institutions are a handsome +town hall, a museum, free libraries, technical schools, and +several public pleasure grounds. Bootle was incorporated in +1868 and was created a county borough in 1888; the corporation +consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen and 30 councillors. A proposal +to include it within the city of Liverpool was rejected in parliament +in July 1903. Area, 1576 acres.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOOTY<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (apparently influenced by “boot,” 0. Eng. <i>bot</i>, advantage +or profit, through an adaptation from an earlier form +cognate with Ger. <i>Beute</i> and Fr. <i>butin</i>), plunder or gain. The +phrase “to play booty,” dating from the 16th century, means to +play into a confederate’s hands, or to play intentionally badly at +first in order to deceive an opponent.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOPP, FRANZ<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> (1791-1867), German philologist, was born at +Mainz on the 14th of September 1791. In consequence of the +political troubles of that time, his parents removed to Aschaffenburg, +in Bavaria, where he received a liberal education at the +Lyceum. It was here that his attention was drawn to the +languages and literature of the East by the eloquent lectures of +Karl J. Windischmann, who, with G.F. Creuzer, J.J. Görres, +and the brothers Schlegel, was full of enthusiasm for Indian +wisdom and philosophy. And further, Fr. Schlegel’s book, +<i>Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier</i> (Heidelberg, 1808), +which was just then exerting a powerful influence on the minds +of German philosophers and historians, could not fail to stimulate +also Bopp’s interest in the sacred language of the Hindus. In +1812 he went to Paris at the expense of the Bavarian government, +with a view to devote himself vigorously to the study of Sanskrit. +There he enjoyed the society of such eminent men as A.L. +Chézy, S. de Sacy, L.M. Langlès, and, above all, of Alexander +Hamilton (1762-1824), who had acquired, when in India, an +acquaintance with Sanskrit, and had brought out, conjointly +with Langlès, a descriptive catalogue of the Sanskrit manuscripts +of the Imperial library. At that library Bopp had access not +only to the rich collection of Sanskrit manuscripts, most of +which had been brought from India by Father Pons early in the +18th century, but also to the Sanskrit books which had up to +that time issued from the Calcutta and Serampore presses. The +first fruit of his four years’ study in Paris appeared at Frankfort-On-Main +in 1816, under the title <i>Über das Conjugationssystem der +Sanskritsprache in Vergleichung mit jenem der griechischen, +lateinischen, persischen und germanischen Sprache</i>, and it was +accompanied with a preface from the pen of Windischmann. +In this first book Bopp entered at once on the path on which +the philological researches of his whole subsequent life were +concentrated. It was not that he wished to prove the common +parentage of Sanskrit with Persian, Greek, Latin and German, +for that had long been established; but his object was to trace +the common origin of their grammatical forms, of their inflections +from composition,—a task which had never been attempted. +By a historical analysis of those forms, as applied to the verb, he +furnished the first trustworthy materials for a history of the +languages compared.</p> + +<p>After a brief sojourn in Germany, Bopp came to London, +where he made the acquaintance of Sir Charles Wilkins and H.T. +Colebrooke, and became the friend of Wilhelm von Humboldt, +then Prussian ambassador at the court of St James’s, to whom +he gave instruction in Sanskrit. He brought out, in the <i>Annals +of Oriental Literature</i> (London, 1820), an essay entitled, “Analytical +Comparison of the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin and Teutonic +Languages,” in which he extended to all parts of the grammar +what he had done in his first book for the verb alone. He had +previously published a critical edition, with a Latin translation +and notes, of the story of <i>Nala and Damayantī</i> (London, 1819), +the most beautiful episode of the Mahābhārata. Other episodes of +the Mahābhārata—<i>Indralokāgamanam</i>, and three others (Berlin, +1824); <i>Diluvium</i>, and three others (Berlin, 1829); and a new edition +of <i>Nala</i> (Berlin, 1832)—followed in due course, all of which, +with A.W. Schlegel’s edition of the <i>Bhagavadgītā</i> (1823), proved +excellent aids in initiating the early student into the reading of +Sanskrit texts. On the publication, in Calcutta, of the whole Mahābhārata, +Bopp discontinued editing Sanskrit texts, and confined +himself thenceforth exclusively to grammatical investigations.</p> + +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page241" id="page241"></a>241</span></p> + +<p>After a short residence at Göttingen, Bopp was, on the recommendation +of Humboldt, appointed to the chair of Sanskrit and +comparative grammar at Berlin in 1821, and was elected member +of the Royal Prussian Academy in the following year. He +brought out, in 1827, his <i>Ausführliches Lehrgebäude der Sanskrita-Sprache</i>, +on which he had been engaged since 1821. A new +edition, in Latin, was commenced in the following year, and +completed in 1832; and a shorter grammar appeared in 1834. +At the same time he compiled a Sanskrit and Latin glossary +(1830) in which, more especially in the second and third editions +(1847 and 1867), account was also taken of the cognate languages. +His chief activity, however, centred on the elaboration of his +<i>Comparative Grammar</i>, which appeared in six parts at considerable +intervals (Berlin, 1833, 1835, 1842, 1847, 1849, 1852), under +the title <i>Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, Zend, Griechischen, +Lateinischen, Litthauischen, Altslavischen, Gothischen, und +Deutschen</i>. How carefully this work was matured may be +gathered from the series of monographs printed in the <i>Transactions +of the Berlin Academy</i> (1824 to 1831), by which it was +preceded. They bear the general title, <i>Vergleichende Zergliederung +des Sanskrits und der mit ihm verwandten Sprachen</i>. Two +other essays (on the “Numerals,” 1835) followed the publication +of the first part of the <i>Comparative Grammar</i>. The Old-Slavonian +began to take its stand among the languages compared from the +second part onwards. The work was translated into English by +E.B. Eastwick in 1845. A second German edition, thoroughly +revised (1856-1861), comprised also the Old-Armenian. From +this edition an excellent French translation was made by Professor +Michel Bréal in 1866. The task which Bopp endeavoured +to carry out in his <i>Comparative Grammar</i> was threefold,—to give +a description of the original grammatical structure of the +languages as deduced from their intercomparison, to trace their +phonetic laws, and to investigate the origin of their grammatical +forms. The first and second points were subservient to the third. +As Bopp’s researches were based on the best available sources, +and incorporated every new item of information that came to +light, so they continued to widen and deepen in their progress. +Witness his monographs on the vowel system in the Teutonic +languages (1836), on the Celtic languages (1839), on the Old-Prussian +(1853) and Albanian languages (1854), on the accent in +Sanskrit and Greek (1854), on the relationship of the Malayo-Polynesian +with the Indo-European languages (1840), and on the +Caucasian languages (1846). In the two last mentioned the +impetus of his genius led him on a wrong track. Bopp has been +charged with neglecting the study of the native Sanskrit +grammars, but in those early days of Sanskrit studies the requisite +materials were not accessible in the great libraries of Europe; +and if they had been, they would have absorbed his exclusive +attention for years, while such grammars as those of Wilkins +and Colebrooke, from which his grammatical knowledge was +derived, were all based on native grammars. The further charge +that Bopp, in his <i>Comparative Grammar</i>, gave undue prominence +to Sanskrit may be disproved by his own words; for, as early as +the year 1820, he gave it as his opinion that frequently the +cognate languages serve to elucidate grammatical forms lost in +Sanskrit (<i>Annals of Or. Lit.</i> i. 3),—an opinion which he further +developed in all his subsequent writings.</p> + +<p>Bopp’s researches, carried with wonderful penetration into +the most minute and almost microscopical details of linguistic +phenomena, have led to the opening up of a wide and distant +view into the original seats, the closer or more distant affinity, +and the tenets, practices and domestic usages of the ancient +Indo-European nations, and the science of comparative grammar +may truly be said to date from his earliest publication. In +grateful recognition of that fact, on the fiftieth anniversary (May +16, 1866) of the date of Windischmann’s preface to that work, +a fund called <i>Die Bopp-Stiftung</i>, for the promotion of the study +of Sanskrit and comparative grammar, was established at Berlin, +to which liberal contributions were made by his numerous pupils +and admirers in all parts of the globe. Bopp lived to see the +results of his labours everywhere accepted, and his name justly +celebrated. But he died, on the 23rd of October 1867, a poor +man,—though his genuine kindliness and unselfishness, his +devotion to his family and friends, and his rare modesty, endeared +him to all who knew him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See M. Bréal’s translation of Bopp’s <i>Vergl. Gramm.</i> (1866) introduction; +Th. Benfey, <i>Gesch. der Sprachwissenschaft</i> (1869); A. Kuhn in +<i>Unsere Zeit</i>, Neue Folge, iv. i (1868); Lefmann, <i>Franz Bopp</i> (Berlin, +1891-1897).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOPPARD,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, +on the left bank of the Rhine, 12 m. S. of Coblenz on the +mainline to Cologne. Pop. (1900) 5806. It is an old town still +partly surrounded by medieval walls, and its most noteworthy +buildings are the Roman Catholic parish church (12th and 13th +centuries); the Carmelite church (1318), the former castle, now +used for administrative offices; the Evangelical church (1851, +enlarged in 1887); and the former Benedictine motnastery of +the Marienberg, founded 1123 and since 1839 a hydropathic +establishment, crowning a hill 100 ft. above the Rhine. Boppard +is a favourite tourist centre, and being less pent in by hills than +many other places in this part of the picturesque gorge of the +Rhine, has in modern times become a residential town. It has +some comparatively insignificant industries, such as tanning and +tobacco manufacture; its direct trade is in wine and fruit.</p> + +<p>Boppard (<i>Baudobriga</i>) was founded by the Romans; under +the Merovingian dynasty it became a royal residence. During +the middle ages it was a considerable centre of commerce and +shipping, and under the Hohenstaufen emperors was raised to +the rank of a free imperial city. In 1312, however, the emperor +Henry VII. pledged the town to his brother Baldwin, archbishop-elector +of Trier, and it remained in the possession of the electors +until it was absorbed by France during the Revolutionary epoch. +It was assigned by the congress of Vienna in 1815 to Prussia.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORA,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> an Italian name for a violent cold northerly and northeasterly +wind, common in the Adriatic, especially on the Istrian +and Dalmatian coasts. There is always a northern tendency in +the winds on the north Mediterranean shores in winter owing to +the cold air of the mountains sliding down to the sea where the +pressure is less. When, therefore, a cyclone is formed over the +Mediterranean, the currents in its north-western area draw +the air from the cold northern regions, and during the passage +of the cyclone the bora prevails. The bora also occurs at +Novorossiysk on the Black Sea. It is precisely similar in +character to the mistral which prevails in Provence and along +the French Mediterranean littoral.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORACITE,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> a mineral of special interest on account of its +optical anomalies. Small crystals bounded on all sides by +sharply defined faces are found in considerable numbers embedded +in gypsum and anhydrite in the salt deposits at Lüneburg in +Hanover, where it was first observed in 1787. In external form +these crystals are cubic with inclined hemihedrism, the symmetry +being the same as in blende and tetrahedrite. Their habit varies +according to whether the tetrahedron (fig. 1), the cube (fig. 2). +or the rhombic dodecahedron (fig. 3) predominates. Penetration +twins with a tetrahedron face as twin-plane are sometimes +observed. The crystals vary from translucent to transparent, +are possessed of a vitreous lustre, and are colourless or white, +though often tinged with grey, yellow or green. The hardness is +as high as 7 on Mohs’ scale; specific gravity 3.0. As first observed +by R.J. Haüy in 1791, the crystals are markedly pyroelectric; +a cube when heated becomes positively electrified on four of its +corners and negatively on the four opposite corners. In a +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page242" id="page242"></a>242</span> +crystal such as represented in fig. 3, the smaller and dull tetrahedral +faces <i>s</i> are situated at the analogous poles (which become +positively electrified when the crystal is heated), and the larger +and bright tetrahedral faces <i>s’</i> at the antilogous poles.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="3"><img style="width:520px; height:171px" src="images/img241.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.</td> +<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.</td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="3">Crystals of Boracite.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The characters so far enumerated are strictly in accordance +with cubic symmetry, but when a crystal is examined in polarized +light, it will be seen to be doubly refracting, as was first observed +by Sir David Brewster in 1821. Thin sections show twin-lamellae, +and a division into definite areas which are optically +biaxial. By cutting sections in suitable directions, it may be +proved that a rhombic dodecahedral crystal is really built up of +twelve orthorhombic pyramids, the apices of which meet in the +centre and the bases coincide with the dodecahedral faces of the +compound (pseudo-cubic) crystal. Crystals of other forms show +other types of internal structure. When the crystals are heated +these optical characters change, and at a temperature of 265° +the crystals suddenly become optically isotropic; on cooling, +however, the complexity of internal structure reappears. Various +explanations have been offered to account for these “optical +anomalies” of boracite. Some observers have attributed them +to alteration, others to internal strains in the crystals, which +originally grew as truly cubic at a temperature above 265°. It +would, however, appear that there are really two crystalline +modifications of the boracite substance, a cubic modification +stable above 265° and an orthorhombic (or monoclinic) one stable +at a lower temperature. This is strictly analogous to the case of +silver iodide, of which cubic and rhombohedral modifications +exist at different temperatures; but whereas rhombohedral as +well as pseudo-cubic crystals of silver iodide (iodyrite) are +known in nature, only pseudo-cubic crystals of boracite have as +yet been met with.</p> + +<p>Chemically, boracite is a magnesium borate and chloride with +the formula Mg<span class="su">7</span>Cl<span class="su">2</span>B<span class="su">16</span>O<span class="su">30</span>—A small amount of iron is sometimes +present, and an iron-boracite with half the magnesium replaced +by ferrous iron has been called huyssenite. The mineral is insoluble +in water, but soluble in hydrochloric acid. On exposure +it is liable to slow alteration, owing to the absorption of water +by the magnesium chloride: an altered form is known as +parasite.</p> + +<p>In addition to embedded crystals, a massive variety, known as +stassfurtite, occurs as nodules in the salt deposits at Stassfurt in +Prussia: that from the carnallite layer is compact, resembling +fine-grained marble, and white or greenish in colour, whilst that +from the kainite layer is soft and earthy, and yellowish or reddish +in colour.</p> +<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORAGE<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> (pronounced like “courage”; possibly from Lat. +<i>borra</i>, rough hair), a herb (<i>Borago officinalis</i>) with bright blue +flowers and hairy leaves and stem, considered to have some +virtue as a cordial and a febrifuge; used as an ingredient in +salads or in making claret-cup, &c.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORAGINACEAE,<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> an order of plants belonging to the sympetalous +section of dicotyledons, and a member of the series +Tubiflorae. It is represented in Britain by bugloss (<i>Echium</i>) +(fig. 1), comfrey (<i>Symphytum</i>), <i>Myosotis</i>, hounds-tongue (<i>Cynoglossum</i>) +(fig. 2), and other genera, while borage (<i>Borago officinalis</i>) +(fig. 3) occurs as a garden escape in waste ground. +The plants are rough-haired annual or perennial herbs, more rarely +shrubby or arborescent, as in <i>Cordia</i> and <i>Ehretia</i>, which are +tropical or sub-tropical. The leaves, which are generally +alternate, are usually entire and narrow: the radical leaves in +some genera, as <i>Pulmonaria</i> (lungwort) and <i>Cynoglossum</i>, differ +in form from the stem-leaves, being generally broader and sometimes +heart-shaped. A characteristic feature is the one-sided +(<i>dorsiventral</i>) inflorescence, well illustrated in forget-me-not and +other species of <i>Myosotis</i>; the cyme is at first closely coiled, +becoming uncoiled as the flowers open. At the same time there +is often a change in colour in the flowers, which are red in bud, +becoming blue as they expand, as in <i>Myosotis, Echium, Symphytum</i> +and others. The flowers are generally regular; the +form of the corolla varies widely. Thus in borage it is rotate, +tubular in comfrey, funnel-shaped in hounds-tongue, and salver-shaped +in alkanet (<i>Anchusa</i>); the throat is often closed by +scale-like outgrowths from the corolla, forming the so-called +corona. A departure from the usual regular corolla occurs in +<i>Echium</i> and a few allied genera, where it is oblique; in <i>Lycopsis</i> +it is also bent.</p> + +<table class="pic" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:404px; height:633px" src="images/img242a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.—Viper’s Bugloss (<i>Echium vulgare</i>), about ¼ nat. size.</td></tr> + +<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>1. Single flower, about nat. size.</p> +<p>2. Corolla split open.</p> +<p>3. Calyx.</p> +<p>4. Pistil.</p> +<p>5. One stamen.</p></td> + +<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;"><p>6. Calyx surrounding nutlets.</p> +<p>7. Same part of calyx cut away.</p> +<p>8. Two nutlets.</p> +<p>9. Same enlarged.</p></td></tr></table> + +<p class="pt2">The five stamens alternate in position with the lobes of the +corolla. The ovary, of two carpels, is seated on a ring-like disk +which secretes honey. Each carpel becomes divided by a +median constriction in four portions, each containing one +ovule; the style springs from the centre of the group of four +divisions.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="float: right; width: 260px;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:214px; height:322px" src="images/img242b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.—(1) Inflorescence +of Forget-me-not; (2) ripe +fruits.</td></tr></table> + +<p>The flowers show well-marked adaptation to insect-visits. +Their colour and tendency to arrangement on one surface, with +the presence of honey, serve to +attract insects. The scales around +the throat of the corolla protect +the pollen and honey from wet or +undesirable visitors, and by their +difference in colour from the corolla-lobes, +as in the yellow eye of +forget-me-not, may serve to indicate +the position of the honey. In most +genera the fruit consists of one-seeded +nutlets, generally four, but +one or more may be undeveloped. +The shape of the nutlet and the +character of its coat are very varied. +Thus in <i>Lithospermum</i> the nutlets +are hard like a stone, in <i>Myosotis</i> +usually polished, in <i>Cynoglossum</i> +covered with bristles, &c.</p> + +<p>The order is widely spread in +temperate and tropical regions, and +contains 85 genera with about 1200 species. Its chief centre +is the Mediterranean region, whence it extends over central +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page243" id="page243"></a>243</span> +Europe and Asia, becoming less frequent northwards. A smaller +centre occurs on the Pacific side of North America. The order +is less developed in the south temperate zone.</p> + +<p>The order is of little economic value. Several genera, such as +borage and <i>Pulmonaria</i>, were formerly used in medicine, and +the roots yield purple or brown dyes, as in <i>Alkanna tinctoria</i> +(alkanet). Heliotrope or cherry-pie (<i>Heliotropium peruvianum</i>) +is a well-known garden plant.</p> + +<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration"> +<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:513px; height:167px" src="images/img243.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr> +<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.—(1) Flower of Borage; (2) same in vertical section enlarged; +(3) horizontal plan of flower; (4) flower of Comfrey after +removal of corolla, showing unripe fruit.</td></tr></table> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORÅS,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> a town of Sweden, in the district (<i>län</i>) of Elfsborg, +45 m. E. of Gothenburg by rail, on the river Viske. Pop. (1880) +4723; (1900) 15,837. It ranks among the first twelve towns +in Sweden both in population and in the value of its manufacturing +industries. These are principally textile, as there are +numerous cotton spinning and weaving mills, together with a +technical weaving school. The town was founded in 1632 by +King Gustavus Adolphus.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORAX<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> (sodium pyroborate or sodium biborate), Na<span class="su">2</span>B<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">7</span>, +a substance which appears in commerce under two forms, +namely “common” or prismatic borax, Na<span class="su">2</span>B<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">7</span>·10H<span class="su">2</span>O, and +“jewellers’” or octahedral borax, Na<span class="su">2</span>B<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">7</span>·5H<span class="su">2</span>O. It is to be +noted that the term “borax” was used by the alchemists in a +very vague manner, and is therefore not to be taken as meaning +the substance now specifically known by the name. Prismatic +borax is found widely distributed as a natural product (see below, +<i>Mineralogy</i>) in Tibet, and in Canada, Peru and Transylvania, +while the bed of Borax Lake, near Clear Lake in California, +is occupied by a large mass of crystallized borax, which is fit +for use by the assayer without undergoing any preliminary +purification. The supply of borax is, however, mainly derived +from the boric acid of Tuscany, which is fused in a reverberatory +furnace with half its weight of sodium carbonate, and the mass +after cooling is extracted with warm water. An alternative +method is to dissolve sodium carbonate in lead-lined steam-heated +pans, and add the boric acid gradually; the solution +then being concentrated until the borax crystallizes. Borax +is also prepared from the naturally occurring calcium borate, +which is mixed in a finely divided condition with the requisite +quantity of soda ash; the mixture is fused, extracted with water +and concentrated until the solution commences to crystallize.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>From a supersaturated aqueous solution of borax, the pentahydrate, +Na<span class="su">2</span>B<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">7</span>·5H<span class="su">2</span>O, is deposited when evaporation takes place +at somewhat high temperatures. The same hydrate can be prepared +by dissolving borax in water until the solution has a specific gravity +of 1.246 and then allowing the solution to cool. The pentahydrate +is deposited between 79° C. and 56° C.; below this temperature the +decahydrate or ordinary borax, Na<span class="su">2</span>B<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">7</span>·10H<span class="su">2</span>O, is deposited. Crystals +of ordinary borax swell up to a very great extent on heating, losing +their water of crystallization and melting to a clear white glass. +The crystals of octahedral borax fuse more easily than those of the +prismatic form and are less liable to split when heated, so that they +are preferable for soldering or fluxing. Fused borax dissolves many +metallic oxides, forming complex borates which in many cases show +characteristic colours. Its use in soldering depends on the fact that +solder only adheres to the surface of an untarnished metal, and consequently +a little borax is placed on the surface of the metal and heated +by the soldering iron in order to remove any superficial film of oxide. +It is also used for glazing pottery, in glass-making and the glazing +of linen.</p> + +<p>Boric acid (<i>q.v.</i>) being only a weak acid, its salts readily undergo +hydrolytic dissociation in aqueous solution, and this property can +be readily shown with a concentrated aqueous solution of borax, +for by adding litmus and then just sufficient acetic acid to turn the +litmus red, the addition of a large volume of water to the solution +changes the colour back to blue again. The boric acid being scarcely +ionized gives only a very small quantity of hydrogen ions, whilst +the base (sodium hydroxide) produced by the hydrolysis occasioned +by the dilution of the solution, being a “strong base,” is highly +ionized and gives a comparatively large amount of hydroxyl ions. +In the solution, therefore, there is now an excess of hydroxyl ions; +consequently it has an alkaline reaction and the litmus turns blue.</p> +</div> + +<p><i>Mineralogy.</i>—The Tibetan mineral deposits have been known +since very early times, and formerly the crude material was +exported to Europe, under the name of <i>tincal</i>, for the preparation +of pure borax and other boron salts. The most westerly of the +Tibetan deposits are in the lake-plain of Pugha on the Rulangchu, +a tributary of the Indus, at an elevation of 15,000 ft.: here the +impure borax (<i>sohaga</i>) occurs over an area of about 2 sq. m., +and is covered by a saline efflorescence; successive crops +are obtained by the action of rain and snow and subsequent +evaporation. Deposits of purer material (<i>chú tsalé</i> or water +borax) occur at the lakes of Rudok, situated to the east of the +Pugha district; also still farther to the east at the great lakes +Tengri Nor, north of Lhasa, and several other places. More +recently, the extensive deposits of borates (chiefly, however, +of calcium; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Colemanite</a></span>) in the Mohave desert on the +borders of California and Nevada, and in the Atacama desert +in South America, have been the chief commercial sources of +boron compounds. The boron contained in solution in the +salt lakes has very probably been supplied by hot springs and +solfataras of volcanic origin, such as those which at the present +day charge the waters of the lagoons in Tuscany with boric acid. +The deposits formed by evaporation from these lakes and marshes +or salines, are mixtures of borates, various alkaline salts (sodium +carbonate, sulphate, chloride), gypsum, &c. In the mud of the +lakes and in the surrounding marshy soil fine isolated crystals +of borax are frequently found. For example, crystals up to 7 in. +in length and weighing a pound each have been found in large +numbers at Borax Lake in Lake county, and at Borax Lake in +San Bernardino county, both in California.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Borax crystallizes with ten molecules of water, the composition +of the crystals being Na<span class="su">2</span>B<span class="su">4</span>O<span class="su">7</span> + 10H<span class="su">2</span>O. The crystals belong to the +monoclinic system, and it is a curious fact that in habit and angles +they closely resemble pyroxene (a silicate of calcium, magnesium +and iron). There is a perfect cleavage parallel to the orthopinacoid +and less perfect cleavages parallel to the faces of the prism. The +mineral is transparent to opaque and white, sometimes greyish, +bluish or greenish in colour. Hardness 2-2½; sp. gr. 1.69-1.72.</p> + +<p>The optical characters are interesting, because of the striking +crossed dispersion of the optic axes, of which phenomenon borax +affords the best example. The optic figure seen in convergent +polarized light through a section cut parallel to the plane of symmetry +of a borax crystal is symmetrical only with respect to the +central point. The plane of the optic axes for red light is inclined +at 2° to that for blue light, and the angle between the optic axes +themselves is 3° greater for red than for blue light.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORDA, JEAN CHARLES<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (1733-1799), French mathematician +and nautical astronomer, was born at Dax on the 4th of May 1733. +He studied at La Flèche, and at an early age obtained a commission +in the cavalry. In 1756 he presented a <i>Mémoire sur le +mouvement des projectiles</i> to the Academy of Sciences, who elected +him a member. He was present at the battle of Hastembeck, +and soon afterwards joined the naval service. He visited the +Azores and the Canary Islands, of which he constructed an +admirable map. In 1782 his frigate was taken by a British +squadron; he himself was carried to England, but was almost +immediately released on parole and returned to France. He +died at Paris on the 20th of February 1799. Borda contributed +a long series of valuable memoirs to the Academy of Sciences. +His researches in hydrodynamics were highly useful for marine +engineering, while the reflecting and repeating circles, as improved +by him, were of great service in nautical astronomy. +He was associated with J.B.J. Delambre and P.F.A. Méchain +in the attempt to determine an arc of the meridian, and the +greater number of the instruments employed in the task were +invented by him.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See J.B. Biot, “Notice sur Borda” in the <i>Mém. de l’Acad. des +Sciences</i>, iv.</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORDAGE.<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (i) A nautical term (from Fr. <i>bord</i>, side) for the +planking on a ship’s side. (2) A feudal term (from Lat. <i>borda</i>, +a cottage) for the tenure by which a certain class of villein held +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page244" id="page244"></a>244</span> +their cottages; also the services due from these villeins or +“bordars.” A “bordar” (Med. Lat. <i>bardarius</i>) was a villein +who obtained a cottage from his lord in return for menial services +(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Villenage</a></span>).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORDEAUX,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> a city of south-western France, capital of the +department of Gironde, 359 m. S.S.W. of Paris by a main line +of the Orléans railway and 159 m. N.W. of Toulouse on the main +line of the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 237,707. Bordeaux, +one of the finest and most extensive cities in France, is situated +on the left or west bank of the Garonne about 60 m. from the +sea, in a plain which comprises the wine-growing district of Médoc. +The Garonne at this point describes a semicircle, separating the +city proper on the left bank from the important suburb of La +Bastide on the right bank. The river is crossed by the Pont +de Bordeaux, a fine stone structure of the early 19th century, +measuring 1534 ft. in length, and by a railway bridge connecting +the station of the Orléans railway company in La Bastide +with that of the Southern company on the left bank. Looking +west from the Pont de Bordeaux, the view embraces a crescent +of wide and busy quays with a background of lofty warehouses, +factories and mansions, behind which rise towers and steeples. +Almost at the centre of the line of quays is the Place des Quinconces, +round which lie the narrow, winding streets in which the +life of the city is concentrated. Outside this quarter, which contains +most of the important buildings, the streets are narrow and +quiet and bordered by the low white houses which at Bordeaux +take the place of the high tenements characteristic of other large +French towns. The whole city is surrounded by a semicircle +of boulevards, beyond which lie the suburbs of Le Bouscat, +Caudéran, Mérignac, Talence and Bégles. The principal promenades +are situated close together near the centre of the city. +They comprise the beautiful public garden, the allées de Tourny +and the Place des Quinconces. The latter is planted with plane +trees, among which stand two huge statues of Montaigne and +Montesquieu, and terminates upon the quays with two rostral +columns which serve as lighthouses. On its west side there is +a monument to the Girondin deputies proscribed under the +convention in 1793. At its south-west corner the Place des +Quinconces opens into the Place de la Comédie, which contains +the Grand Théâtre (18th century), the masterpiece of the architect +Victor Louis. The Place de la Comédie, the centre of business +in Bordeaux, is traversed by a street which, under the names of +Cours du Chapeau-Rouge, rue de l’Intendance and rue Judaïque, +runs from the Place de la Bourse and the quai de la Douane on the +east to the outer boulevards on the west. Another important +thoroughfare, the rue Sainte Cathérine, runs at right angles to +the rue de l’Intendance and enters the Place de la Comédie +on the south. The Pont de Bordeaux is continued by the +Cours Victor Hugo, a curved street crossing the rue Sainte +Cathérine and leading to the cathedral of St André. This church, +dating from the 11th to the 14th centuries, is a building in the +Gothic style with certain Romanesque features, chief among +which are the arches in the nave. It consists of a large nave +without aisles, a transept at the extremities of which are the +main entrances, and a choir, flanked by double aisles and chapels +and containing many works of art. Both the north and south +façades are richly decorated with sculpture and statuary. Of +the four towers flanking the principal portals, only those to the +north are surmounted by spires. Near the choir stands an +isolated tower. It contains the great bell of the cathedral and +is known as the Clocher Pey-Berland, after the archbishop of +Bordeaux who erected it in the 15th century. Of the numerous +other churches of Bordeaux the most notable are St Seurin (11th +to the 15th centuries), with a finely sculptured southern portal; +Ste Croix (12th and 13th centuries), remarkable for its Romanesque +façade; and St Michel, a fine Gothic building of the 15th +and 16th centuries. The bell tower of St Michel, which has the +highest spire (354 ft.) in the south of France, dates from the +end of the 15th century, and, like that of the cathedral, stands +apart from its church. The palace of the Faculties of Science +and of Letters (1881-1886) contains the tomb of Michel de +Montaigne. The prefecture, the hôtel de ville, the bourse and the +custom-house belong to the 15th century. The law-courts and +the hospital of St André (the foundation of which dates from +1390) belong to the first half of the 19th century. Of greater +antiquarian interest is the Palais Gallien, situated near the +public garden, consisting of remains of lofty arcades, vaulting +and fragments of wall, which once formed part of a Roman +amphitheatre. Bordeaux lost its fortifications in the 18th century, +but four of the old gateways or triumphal arches belonging +to that period still remain. Still older are the Porte de Cailhau, +once the entrance to the Palais de l’Ombrière, which before its +destruction was the residence of the duke of Aquitaine, and the +Porte de l’Hôtel de Ville, the former of the 15th, the latter of the +13th and 16th centuries.</p> + +<p>Bordeaux is the seat of an archbishop, the headquarters of +the XVIII. army corps, the centre of an <i>académie</i> (educational +division) and the seat of a court of appeal. A court of assizes +is held there, and there are tribunals of first instance and of +commerce, a council of trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce +and a branch of the Bank of France. Its educational institutions +include faculties of law, of science, of letters and of medicine +and pharmacy, a faculty of Catholic theology, lycées, training +colleges, a higher school of commerce, a chair of agriculture, a +school of fine art and a naval school of medicine. There are +several museums, including one with a large collection of pictures +and sculptures, a library with over 200,000 volumes and numerous +learned societies.</p> + +<p>The trade of Bordeaux, the fourth port in France, is chiefly +carried on by sea. Its port, 5½ m. long and on the average 550 +yds. wide, is formed by the basin of the Garonne and is divided +into two portions by the Pont de Bordeaux. That to the south +is used only by small craft; that to the north is accessible to +vessels drawing from 21 to 26 ft. according to the state of the +tide. From 1000 to 1200 vessels can be accommodated in the +harbour, which is lined on both sides by quays and sloping +wharves served by railway lines. At the northen extremity +of the harbour, on the left bank, there is a floating basin of 25 +acres in extent, capable of receiving the largest vessels; it has +over 1900 yds. of quays and is furnished with a repairing dock +and with elaborate machinery for the loading and unloading of +goods. In 1907 the construction of new docks behind this basin +was begun. The city maintains commercial relations with nearly +all countries, but chiefly with Great Britain, Spain, Argentina, +Portugal and the United States. The most important line of +steamers using the port is the South American service of the +Messageries Maritimes. The total value of the exports and +imports of Bordeaux averages between 25 and 26 millions sterling +yearly. Of this amount exports make up 13½ millions, of which +the sales of wine bring in about one quarter. The city is the +centre of the trade in “Bordeaux” wines, and the wine-cellars +of the quays are one of its principal sights. Other principal +exports are brandy, hides and skins, sugar, rice, woollen and +cotton goods, salt-fish, chemicals, oil-cake, pitwood, fruit, +potatoes and other vegetables. The chief imports are wool, +fish, timber, rice, wine, rubber, coal, oil-grains, hardware, +agricultural and other machinery and chemicals. A large fleet +is annually despatched to the cod-fisheries of Newfoundland and +Iceland. The most important industry is ship-building and refitting. +Ironclads and torpedo-boats as well as merchant vessels +are constructed. Railway carriages are also built. The industries +subsidiary to the wine-trade, such as wine-mixing, cooperage and +the making of bottles, corks, capsules, straw envelopes and +wooden cases, occupy many hands. There are also flour-mills, +sugar-refineries, breweries, distilleries, oil-works, cod-drying +works, manufactories of canned and preserved fruits, vegetables +and meat, and of chocolate. Chemicals, leather, iron-ware, +machinery and pottery are manufactured, and a tobacco factory +employs 1500 hands.</p> + +<p>Bordeaux (<i>Burdigala</i>) was originally the chief town of the +Bituriges Vivisci. Under the Roman empire it became a +flourishing commercial city, and in the 4th century it was made +the capital of Aquitania Secunda. Ausonius, a writer of the 4th +century, who was a native of the place, describes it as four-square +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page245" id="page245"></a>245</span> +and surrounded with walls and lofty towers, and celebrates its +importance as one of the greatest educational centres of Gaul. +In the evils that resulted from the disintegration of the empire +Bordeaux had its full share, and did not recover its prosperity +till the beginning of the 10th century. Along with Guienne it +belonged to the English kings for nearly three hundred years +(1154-1453), and was for a time the seat of the brilliant court of +Edward the Black Prince, whose son Richard was born in the +city. An extensive commerce was gradually developed between +the Bordeaux merchants and their fellow-subjects in England,—London, +Hull, Exeter, Dartmouth, Bristol and Chester being the +principal ports with which they traded. The English administration +was favourable to the liberties as well as to the trade of the +city. In 1235 it received the right of electing its mayors, who +were assisted in the administration by a “jurade” or municipal +council. The influence of Bordeaux was still further increased +when several important towns of the region, among them St +Emilion and Libourne, united in a federation under its leadership. +The defeat of the English at the battle of Castillon in 1453 was +followed, after a siege of three months, by the submission of +Bordeaux to Charles VII. The privileges of the city were at once +curtailed, and were only partially restored under Louis XI., who +established there the parlement of Guienne. In 1548 the inhabitants +resisted the imposition of the salt-tax by force of arms, +a rebellion for which they were punished by the constable Anne +de Montmorency with merciless severity.</p> + +<p>The reformed religion found numerous adherents at Bordeaux, +and after the massacre of St Bartholomew nearly three hundred +of its inhabitants lost their lives. The 17th century was a period +of disturbance. The city was for a time the chief support of the +Fronde, and on two occasions, in 1653 and 1675, troops were sent +to repress insurrections against royal measures. In the middle +of the 18th century, a period of commercial and architectural +activity for Bordeaux, the marquis de Tourny, <i>intendant</i> of +Guienne, did much to improve the city by widening the streets +and laying out public squares. It was the headquarters of the +Girondists at the Revolution, and during the Reign of Terror +suffered almost as severely as Lyons and Marseilles. Its commerce +was greatly reduced under Napoleon I. In 1814 it declared +for the house of Bourbon; and Louis XVIII. afterwards gave +the title of duc de Bordeaux to his grand-nephew, better known +as the comte de Chambord. In 1870 the French government was +transferred to Bordeaux from Tours on the approach of the +Germans to the latter city.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Camille Jullian, <i>Hist. de Bordeaux, depuis les origines jusqu’en +1895</i> (Bordeaux, 1895); T. Malvezin, <i>Hist. du commerce de Bordeaux</i> +(Bordeaux, 1892); <i>Bordeaux, aperçu historique, sol, population, industrie, +commerce, administration</i> (Bordeaux, 1892).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORDEN, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1847-  ), Canadian +statesman, was born at Cornwallis, Nova Scotia, on the 14th of +May 1847. He was educated at King’s College, Windsor, and +at Harvard University, and for some years practised medicine +at Canning, Nova Scotia. In 1874 he was elected to the Canadian +parliament as Liberal member for King’s county. In 1896 he +became minister of militia and defence in the Liberal ministry.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORDEN, ROBERT LAIRD<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (1854-  ), Canadian statesman, +was born at Grand Pré, Nova Scotia, on the 26th of June 1854. +In 1878 he was called to the bar, and became a leading lawyer in +his native province. In 1896 he was elected to the Canadian +parliament for the city of Halifax, but later lost his seat there +and was elected for Carlton. In February 1901, on the resignation +of Sir Charles Tupper, he became leader of the Conservative +opposition. At the general election of 1908 he was returned +again for Halifax.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORDENTOWN,<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> a city of Burlington county, New Jersey, +U.S.A., on the E. bank of the Delaware river, 6 m. S. of Trenton +and 28 m. N.E. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 4232; (1900) +4110; (1905) 4073; (1910) 4250. It is served by the Pennsylvania +railway, the Camden & Trenton railway (an electric line, +forming part of the line between Philadelphia and New York) +and by freight and passenger steamboat lines on the Delaware. +Bordentown is attractively situated on a broad, level plain, 65 ft. +above the river, with wide, beautifully shaded streets. The city +is the seat of the Bordentown Military Institute (with the Woodward +memorial library), of the state manual training and +industrial school for coloured youth, of the St Joseph’s convent +and mother-house of the Sisters of Mercy, and of St Joseph’s +academy for girls. There are ship-yards, iron foundries and +forges, machine shops, shirt factories, a pottery for the manufacture +of sanitary earthenware, a woollen mill and canning +factories. The first settlers on the site of the city were several +Quaker families who came in the 18th century. Bordentown +was laid out by Joseph Borden, in whose honour it was named; +was incorporated as a borough in 1825; was re-incorporated in +1849, and was chartered as a city in 1867. It was the home for +some years of Francis Hopkinson and of his son Joseph Hopkinson +(whose residences are still standing), and from 1817 to 1832 +and in 1837-1839 was the home of Joseph Bonaparte, ex-king +of Spain, who lived on a handsome estate known as “Bonaparte’s +Park,” which he laid out with considerable magnificence. Here +he entertained many distinguished visitors, including Lafayette. +The legislature of New Jersey passed a special law, enabling him, +as an alien, to own real property, and it is said to have been in +reference to this that the state received its nickname “Spain.” +Prince Napoleon Lucien Charles Murat, the second son of +Joachim Murat, also lived here for many years; and the estate +known as “Ironsides” was long the home of Rear-Admiral +Charles Stewart. The Camden & Amboy railway, begun in 1831 +and completed from Bordentown to South Amboy (34 m.) in +1832, was one of the first railways in the United States; in +September 1831 the famous engine “Johnny Bull,” built in +England and imported for this railway, had its first trial at +Bordentown, and a monument now marks the site where the first +rails were laid.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See E.M. Woodward, <i>Bonaparte’s Park and the Murats</i> (Trenton, +1879).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORDERS, THE,<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> a name applied to the territory on both sides +of the boundary line between England and Scotland. The term +has also a literary and historical as well as a geographical sense, +and is most frequently employed of the Scottish side. The line +begins on the coast of Berwickshire at a spot 3 m. N. by W. of +Berwick, and, after running a short distance W. and S., reaches +the Tweed near the village of Paxton, whence it keeps to the +river to a point just beyond Carham. There it strikes off S.S.E. +to the Cheviot Hills, the watershed of which for 35 m. constitutes +the boundary, which is thereafter formed by a series of streams—Bells +Burn, the Kershope, Liddel and Esk. After following the +last named for 1 m. it cuts across country due west to the Sark, +which it follows to the river’s mouth at the head of the Solway +Firth. The length of the boundary thus described is 108 m., +but in a direct line from the Solway to the North Sea the distance +is only 70 m. At the extreme east end a small district of 8 sq. m., +consisting of the tract north of the Tweed which is not included +in Scotland, forms the “bounds” or “liberties” of Berwick, or +the country of the borough and town of Berwick-on-Tweed. At +the extreme west between the Sark and Esk as far up the latter +as its junction with the Liddel, there was a strip of country, a +“No man’s land,” for generations the haunt of outlaws and +brigands. This was called the Debatable Land, because the +possession of it was a constant source of contention between +England and Scotland until its boundaries were finally adjusted +in 1552. The English Border counties are Northumberland and +Cumberland, the Scottish Berwick, Roxburgh and Dumfries; +though historically, and still by usage, the Scottish shires of +Selkirk and Peebles have always been classed as Border shires. +On the English side the region is watered by the Till, Bowmont, +Coquet, Rede and North Tyne; on the Scottish by the Tweed, +Whiteadder, Leet, Kale, Jed, Kershope, Liddel, Esk and Sark. +Physically there is a marked difference between the country on +each side. On the southern it mostly consists of lofty, bleak +moorland, affording subsistence for sheep and cattle, and rugged +glens and ravines, while on the northern there are many stretches +of fertile soil, especially in the valleys and dales, and the landscape +is often romantic and beautiful. Railway communication is +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page246" id="page246"></a>246</span> +supplied by the east coast route to Berwick, the Waverley route +through Liddesdale, the London & North-Western by Carlisle, +the North British branch from Berwick to St Boswells, and +the North Eastern lines from Berwick to Kelso, Alnwick to +Coldstream, and Newcastle to Carlisle.</p> + +<p>At frequent intervals during a period of 1500 years the region +was the scene of strife and lawlessness. The Roman road of +Watling Street crossed the Cheviots at Brownhartlaw (1664 ft.), +close to the camp of <i>Ad Fines</i>, by means of which the warlike +Brigantes on the south and the Gadeni and Otadeni on the north +were held in check, while another Roman road, the Wheel +Causeway, passed into Scotland near the headwaters of the +North Tyne and Liddel. (For early history see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lothian</a></span>; +<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Northumbria</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Strathclyde</a></span>.) In the 12th century were +founded the abbeys of Hexham and Alnwick, the priory church +of Lindisfarne and the cathedral of Carlisle on the English side, +and on the Scottish the abbeys of Jedburgh, Kelso, Melrose and +Dryburgh. The deaths of Alexander III. (1286) and Margaret +the Maid of Norway (1290), whose right to the throne had been +acknowledged, plunged the country into the wars of the succession +and independence, and until the union of the crowns +in 1603 the borders were frequently disturbed. Berwick and +Carlisle were repeatedly assailed, and battles took place at +Halidon Hill (1333), Otterburn (1388), Nisbet (1402), Homildon +(1402), Piperden (1435), Hedgeley Moor (1464), Flodden (1513), +Solway Moss (1542), and Ancrum Moor (1544), in addition to +many fights arising out of family feuds and raids fomented by +the Armstrongs, Eliots, Grahams, Johnstones, Maxwells and +other families, of which the most serious were the encounters at +Arkenholme (Langholm) in 1455, the Raid of Reidswire (1575), +and the bloody combat at Dryfe Sands (1593). The English +expeditions of 1544 and 1545 were exceptionally disastrous, since +they involved the destruction of the four Scottish border abbeys, +the sack of many towns, and the obliteration of Roxburgh. +The only other important conflict belongs to the Covenanters’ +time, when the marquess of Montrose was defeated at Philiphaugh +in 1645. Partly for the defence of the kingdoms and +partly to overawe the freebooters and mosstroopers who were +a perpetual menace to the peace until they were suppressed in +the 17th century, castles were erected at various points on both +sides of the border.</p> + +<p>Even during the period when relations between England and +Scotland were strained, the sovereigns of both countries recognized +it to be their duty to protect property and regulate the +lawlessness of the borders. The frontier was divided into the +East, Middle and West Marches, each under the control of an +English and a Scots warden. The posts were generally filled by +eminent and capable men who had to keep the peace, enforce +punishment for breach of the law, and take care that neither +country encroached on the boundary of the other. The wardens +usually conferred once a year on matters of common interest, +and as a rule their meetings were conducted in a friendly spirit, +though in 1575 a display of temper led to the affair of the Raid +of Reidswire. The appointment was not only one of the most +important in this quarter of the kingdom, but lucrative as well, +part of the fines and forfeits falling to the warden, who was also +entitled to ration and forage for his retinue. On the occasion of +his first public progress to London, James I. of England attended +service in Berwick church (March 27, 1603) “to return thanks +for his peaceful entry into his new dominions.” Anxious to +blot out all memory of the bitter past, he forbade the use of +the word “Borders,” hoping that the designation “Middle +Shires” might take its place. Frontier fortresses were also to +be dismantled and their garrisons reduced to nominal strength. +In course of time this policy had the desired effect, though the +expression “Borders” proved too convenient geographically +to be dropped, the king’s proposed amendment being in point +of fact merely sentimental and, in the relative positions then and +now of England and Scotland, meaningless. Some English +strongholds, such as Alnwick, Chillingham, Ford and Naworth, +have been modernized; others, like Norham, Wark and Warkworth, +are picturesque ruins; but most of the Scottish fortresses +have been demolished and their sites built over, or are now +represented by grass-grown mounds. Another familiar feature +in the landscape is the chain of peel towers crossing the country +from coast to coast. Many were homes of marauding chiefs, and +nearly all were used as beacon-stations to give alarm of foray or +invasion. Early in the 18th century the Scottish gipsies found a +congenial home on the Roxburghshire side of the Cheviots; and +at a later period the Scottish border became notorious for a +hundred years as offering hospitality to runaway couples who +were clandestinely married at Gretna Green, Coldstream or +Lamberton. The toll-house of Lamberton displayed the following +intimation—“Ginger-beer sold here and marriages performed +on the most reasonable terms.”</p> + +<p>Border ballads occupy a distinctive place in English literature. +Many of them were rescued from oblivion by Sir Walter Scott, +who ransacked the district for materials for his <i>Minstrelsy of +the Scottish Border</i>, which appeared in 1802 and 1803. Border +traditions and folklore, and the picturesque, pathetic and stirring +incidents of which the country was so often the scene, appealed +strongly to James Hogg (“the Ettrick Shepherd”), John +Wilson (“Christopher North”), and John Mackay Wilson (1804-1835), +whose <i>Tales of the Borders</i>, published in 1835, long enjoyed +popular favour.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Besides the works just mentioned see Sir Herbert Maxwell, <i>History +of Dumfries and Galloway</i> (1896); George Ridpath, <i>Border History +of England and Scotland</i> (1776); Professor John Veitch, <i>History and +Poetry of the Scottish Border</i> (1877); Sir George Douglas, <i>History +of the Border Counties</i> (Scots), (1890): W.S. Crockett, <i>The Scott +Country</i> (1902).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORDIGHERA,<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> a town of Liguria, Italy, in the province of +Porto Maurizio, 91 m. S.W. of Genoa by rail, and 3 m. E.N.E. +of Ventimiglia. Pop. (1901) 4673. It is a favourite winter +resort, especially for visitors from England, and is situated in +beautiful coast scenery. It has fine gardens, and its flowers and +palms are especially famous: the former are largely exported, +while the latter serve for the supply of palm branches for St +Peter’s at Rome and other churches on Palm Sunday. The new +museum contains a unique collection of the flora of the Riviera. +From 1682 until the Napoleonic period, Bordighera was the capital +of a small republic of the villages of the neighbouring valleys.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORDONE, PARIS<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> (1495-1570), Venetian painter, was born +at Treviso, and entered the <i>bottega</i> of Titian in 1509. Vasari, +to whom we are indebted for nearly all the facts of Bordone’s +life—later research has not added much to our knowledge—holds +that he did not spend many years with Titian and set +himself to imitate the manner of Giorgione to the utmost of his +power. As a matter of fact, the Giorgionesque traits in Bordone’s +earlier works are derived entirely from Titian, whom he imitated +so closely that to this day some of his paintings pass under +Titian’s name. Crowe and Cavalcaselle and Dr Bode ascribe +to Bordone the “Baptism of Christ” in the Capitoline gallery, +but Morelli sees in it an early work of Titian. Paris Bordone +subsequently executed many important mural paintings in +Venice, Treviso and Vicenza, all of which have perished. In +1538 he was invited to France by Francis I., at whose court he +painted many portraits, though no trace of them is to be found +in French collections, the two portraits at the Louvre being later +acquisitions. On his return journey he undertook works of +great importance for the Fugger palace at Augsburg, which +again have been lost sight of. Bordone’s pictures are of very +unequal merit. They have a certain nobility of style, and that +golden harmony of colour which he derived from Titian, together +with the realistic conception of the human figure and the dignified +character of his portraiture. On the other hand, his nudes are a +little coarse in form, and the action of his figures is frequently +unnatural and affected. A true child of the Renaissance, he +also painted a number of religious pictures, numerous mythological +scenes, allegories, nymphs, cupids and subjects from +Ovid’s fables, but he excelled as a portraitist. His principal +surviving work is the “Fisherman and Doge” at the Venice +Academy. The National Gallery, London, has a “Daphnis and +Chloe” and a portrait of a lady, whilst a “Holy Family” from +his brush is at Bridgwater House. Other important works of +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page247" id="page247"></a>247</span> +his are the “Madonna” in the Tadini collection at Lovere, +the paintings in the Duomo of Treviso, two mythological pictures +at the Villa Borghese and the Doria palace in Rome, the “Chess +Players” in Berlin, a very little-known portrait of superb +quality in the possession of the landgrave of Hesse at Kronberg, +and a “Baptism of Christ” in Philadelphia. Besides these, +there are examples of his art in Bergamo, Milan, Genoa, Padua, +Siena, Venice, Florence, Munich, Dresden and Vienna.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Beyond some references in general works on Italian painting, +very little has been written on Paris Bordone since the days of +Vasari. In 1900 the committee of the fourth centenary of Paris +Bordone, Treviso, published L. Barlo and G. Biscaro’s <i>Della Vita +e delle Opere di Paris Bordone</i>; and the <i>Nuova Antologia</i> (November +16, 1900) contains a sixteen-page paper on Paris Bordone by P.G. +Molmenti.</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(P. G. K.)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORE,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> a high tidal wave rushing up a narrow estuary or +tidal river. The bore of the Severn is produced by a tide that +rises 18 ft. in an hour and a half. This body of water becomes +compressed in the narrowing funnel-shaped estuary, and heaped +up into an advancing wave extending from bank to bank. The +phenomenon is also particularly well illustrated in the Bay of +Fundy. The origin of this word is doubtful, but it is usually +referred to a Scandinavian word <i>bāra</i>, a wave, billow. The other +name by which the phenomenon is known, “eagre,” is also of +unknown origin. There is, of course, no connexion with “bore,” +to make a hole by piercing or drilling, which is a common Teutonic +word, cf. Ger. <i>bohren</i>, the Indo-European root being seen in Lat. +<i>forare</i>, to pierce, Gr. <span class="grk" title="pharos">φάρος</span>, plough. For the making of deep +holes for shafts, wells, &c., see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Boring</a></span>. The substantival use of +this word is generally confined to the circular cavity of objects +of tubular shape, particularly of a gun, hence the internal +diameter of a gun, its “calibre” (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gun</a></span>). A “bore” is also +a tiresome, wearying person, particularly one who persistently +harps on one subject, in or out of season, whatever interest his +audience may take in it. This has generally been taken to be +merely a metaphorical use of “bore,” to pierce. The earliest +sense, however, in which it is found in English (1766, in certain +letters printed in Jesse’s <i>Life of George Selwyn</i>) is that of <i>ennui</i>, +and a French origin is suggested. The <i>New English Dictionary</i> +conjectures a possible source in Fr. <i>bourrer</i>, to stuff, satiate.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOREAS,<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> in Greek mythology, a personification of the north +wind. He was described as the son of Astraeus and Eos, +brother of Hesperus, Notus and Zephyrus. His dwelling-place +was on Mount Haemus in Thrace, or at Salmydessus, near the +country of the Hyperboreans. He was said to have carried off +the beautiful Oreithyia, a daughter of Erechtheus, king of Athens, +when he found her leading the dance at a festival, or gathering +flowers on the banks of the Ilissus or some other spot in the +neighbourhood of Athens. He had before wooed her in vain, +and now carried her off to Mount Haemus, where they lived as +king and queen of the winds, and had two sons, Zetes and Calaïs, +and two daughters, Cleopatra and Chione (Apollodorus iii. 15; +Ovid, <i>Metam.</i> vi. 677). For the loss of Oreithyia the Athenians +in after times counted on Boreas’s friendliness, and were assured +of it when he sent storms which wrecked the Persian fleet at +Athos and at Sepias (Herodotus vii. 189). For this they erected +to him a sanctuary or altar near the Ilissus, and held a festival +(Boreasmos) in his honour. Thurii also, which was a colony +of Athens, offered sacrifice to him as Euergetes every year, +because he had destroyed the hostile fleet of Dionysius the elder +(Aelian, <i>Var. Hist.</i> xii. 61). In works of art Boreas was represented +as bearded, powerful, draped against cold, and winged. +On the Tower of the Winds at Athens he is figured holding a +shell, such as is blown by Tritons. Boreas carrying off Oreithyia +is the subject of a beautiful bronze relief in the British Museum, +found in the island of Calymna. The same subject occurs +frequently on painted Greek vases.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BOREL, PETRUS,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> whose full name was <span class="sc">Pierre Joseph +Borel d’Hauterive</span> (1809-1859), French writer, was born at +Lyons on the 26th of June 1809. His father had been ruined +by taking part in the resistance offered by the Lyonnese +royalists against the Convention, and Petrus Borel was educated +in Paris to be an architect. He soon abandoned his profession +to become one of the most violent partisans of the Romantic +movement. His extravagant sentiments were illustrated in +various volumes: <i>Rhapsodies</i> (1832), poems; <i>Champavert, +contes immoraux</i> (1833); <i>Madame Putiphar</i> (1839), &c. His +works did not rescue him from poverty, but through the kindness +of Théophile Gautier and Mme de Girardin he obtained a small +place in the civil service. He died at Mostaganem in Algeria on +the 14th of July 1859.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See Jules Clarétie, <i>Petrus Borel, le Lycanthrope</i> (1865); and Ch. +Asselineau, <i>Bibliographie romantique</i> (1872).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORELLI, GIOVANNI ALFONSO<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (1608-1679), Italian +physiologist and physicist, was born at Naples on the 28th of +January 1608. He was appointed professor of mathematics +at Messina in 1649 and at Pisa in 1656. In 1667 he returned to +Messina, but in 1674 was obliged to retire to Rome, where he lived +under the protection of Christina, queen of Sweden, and died on +the 31st of December 1679. His best-known work is <i>De motu +animalium</i> (Rome, 1680-1681), in which he sought to explain the +movements of the animal body on mechanical principles; he +thus ranks as the founder of the iatrophysical school. In a letter, +<i>Del movimento della cometa apparsa il mese di decembre 1664</i>, +published in 1665 under the pseudonym Pier Maria Mutoli, +he was the first to suggest the idea of a parabolic path; and +another of his astronomical works was <i>Theorica mediceorum +planetarum ex causis physicis deducta</i> (Florence, 1666), in which he +considered the influence of attraction on the satellites of Jupiter. +He also wrote: <i>Della Causa delle Febbri maligni</i> (Pisa, 1658); +<i>De Renum usu Judicium</i> (Strassburg, 1664); <i>Euclides Restitutus</i> +(Pisa, 1658); <i>Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum libri v., vi. et vii.</i> +(Florence, 1661); <i>De vi percussionis</i> (Bologna, 1667); +<i>Meteorologia Aetnea</i> (Reggio, 1669); and <i>De motionibus naturalibus +a gravitate pendentibus</i> (Bologna, 1670).</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORGÅ<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> (Finnish <i>Porvoo</i>), a seaport in the province of Nyland, +grand duchy of Finland, situated at the entrance of the river +Borgå into the Gulf of Finland, about 33 m. by rail N.W. of +Helsingfors. Pop. (1810) 1693; (1870) 3478; (1904) 5255. +It is the seat of a Lutheran bishopric which extends over the +provinces of Viborg and St Michel with portions of Tavastehus +and Nyland; it possesses a beautiful cathedral, and a high school +(where the well-known Finnish poet Runeberg lectured for many +years), and is the seat of a court of appeal. The weaving of +sail-cloth and the manufacture of tobacco are the principal +industries, and the chief articles of trade are wood, butter and +furs. Borgå was once a city of great dignity and importance, +but the rapid growth of Helsingfors has somewhat eclipsed it. +In 1809, when the estates of Finland were summoned to a special +diet to decide the future of the country, Borgå was the place of +meeting, and it was in the cathedral that the emperor Alexander +I. pledged himself as grand duke of Finland to maintain the +constitution and liberties of the grand duchy.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORGHESE,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> a noble Italian family of Sienese origin, first +mentioned in 1238, a member of which, Marcantonio Borghese, +settled in Rome and was the father of Camillo Borghese (1550-1620), +elected pope under the title of Paul V. (1605). Paul +created his nephew prince of Vivero on the 17th of November +1609, and Philip III. of Spain conferred the title of prince of +Sulmona on him in 1610. The family took its place among the +higher Roman nobility by the marriage of the prince’s son Paolo +with Olimpia, heiress of the Aldobrandini family, in 1614. In +1803 Camillo Filippo Ludovico, Prince Borghese (b. 1775), +married Pauline, sister of the emperor Napoleon, and widow of +General Leclerc. In 1806 he was made duke of Guastalla, and +for some years acted as governor of the Piedmontese and Genoese +provinces. After the fall of Napoleon he fixed his residence at +Florence, where he died in 1832. The Borghese palace at Rome +is one of the most magnificent buildings in the city, and contained +a splendid gallery of pictures, most of which have been transferred +to the Villa Borghese outside the Porto del Popolo, now Villa +Umberto I., the property of the Italian government.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>See A. von Reumont, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Rom</i>, iii. 605, 609 +617, &c.; <i>Almanach de Gotha</i> (Gotha, 1902); J.H. Douglas, <i>The +Principal Noble Families of Rome</i> (Rome, 1905).</p> +</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page248" id="page248"></a>248</span></p> +<p><span class="bold">BORGHESI, BARTOLOMMEO<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (1781-1860), Italian antiquarian, +was born at Savignano, near Rimini, on the 11th of +July 1781. He studied at Bologna and Rome. Having weakened +his eyesight by the study of documents of the middle ages, he +turned his attention to epigraphy and numismatics. At Rome +he arranged and catalogued several collections of coins, amongst +them those of the Vatican, a task which he undertook for Pius +VII. In consequence of the disturbances of 1821, Borghesi +retired to San Marino, where he died on the 16th of April 1860. +Although mainly an enthusiastic student, he was for some time +podestà of the little republic. His monumental work, <i>Nuovi +Frammenti dei Fasti Consolari Capitolini</i> (1818-1820), attracted +the attention of the learned world as furnishing positive bases +for the chronology of Roman history, while his contributions to +Italian archaeological journals established his reputation as a +numismatist and antiquarian. Before his death, Borghesi conceived +the design of publishing a collection of all the Latin +inscriptions of the Roman world. The work was taken up by +the Academy of Berlin under the auspices of Mommsen, and the +result was the <i>Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum</i>. Napoleon III. +ordered the publication of a complete edition of the works of +Borghesi. This edition, in ten volumes, of which the first +appeared in 1862, was not completed until 1897.</p> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORGIA, CESARE,<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> duke of Valentinois and Romagna (1476-1507) +was the son of Pope Alexander VI. by Vanozza dei +Cattanei. He was born at Rome while his father was cardinal, +and on the latter’s elevation to the papacy (1492) he was created +archbishop of Valencia, and a year later cardinal. Cesare was +Alexander’s favourite son, and it was for him that the pope’s +notorious nepotism was most extensively practised. In the early +years of his father’s pontificate he led a profligate life at the +Vatican. When Charles VIII. left Rome for the conquest of +Naples (January 25, 1495), Cesare accompanied him as a hostage +for the pope’s good behaviour, but he escaped at Velletri and +returned to Rome. He soon began to give proofs of the violence +for which he afterwards became notorious; when in 1497 his +brother Giovanni, duke of Gandia, was murdered, the deed was +attributed, in all probability with reason, to Cesare. It was +suggested that the motive of the murder was the brothers’ +rivalry in the affection of Donna Sancha, wife of Giuffrè, the +pope’s youngest son, while there were yet darker hints at incestuous +relations of Cesare and the duke with their sister +Lucrezia. But it is more probable that Cesare, who contemplated +exchanging his ecclesiastical dignities for a secular career, +regarded his brother’s splendid position with envy, and was +determined to enjoy the whole of his father’s favours.</p> + +<p>In July 1497 Cesare went to Naples as papal legate and +crowned Frederick of Aragon king. Now that the duke of +Gandia was dead, the pope needed Cesare to carry out his political +schemes, and tried to arrange a wealthy marriage for him. +Cesare wished to marry Carlotta, the daughter of the king of +Naples, but both she and her father resolutely refused an alliance +with “a priest, the bastard of a priest.” In August 1498, Cesare +in the consistory asked for the permission of the cardinals and +the pope to renounce the priesthood, and the latter granted it +“for the good of his soul.” On the 1st of October he set forth +for France with a magnificent retinue as papal legate to Louis +XII., to bring him the pope’s bull annulling his marriage with +Jeanne of France (Louis wished to marry Anne of Brittany). +In exchange he received the duchy of Valentinois, as well as +military assistance for his own enterprises. He found Carlotta +of Naples in France, and having again tried to win her over in +vain, he had to content himself with Charlotte d’Albret, sister +of the king of Navarre (May 1499). Alexander now contemplated +sending Cesare to Romagna to subdue the turbulent local despots, +and with the help of the French king carve a principality for +himself out of those territories owing nominal allegiance to the +pope. Cesare made Cesena his headquarters, and with an army +consisting of 300 French lances, 4000 Gascons and Swiss, besides +Italian troops, he attacked Imola, which surrendered at once, +and then besieged Forli, held by Caterina Sforza (<i>q.v.</i>), the +widow of Girolamo Riario. She held out gallantly, but was at +last forced to surrender on the 22nd of January 1500; Cesare +treated her with consideration, and she ended her days in a +convent. The Sforzas having expelled the French from Milan, +Cesare returned to Rome in February, his schemes checked for +the moment; his father rewarded him for his successes by +making him <i>gonfaloniere</i> of the church and conferring many +honours on him; he remained in Rome and took part in bull +fights and other carnival festivities. In July occurred the +murder of the duke of Bisceglie, Lucrezia Borgia’s third husband. +He was attacked by assassins on the steps of St Peter’s and +badly wounded; attendants carried him to a cardinal’s house, +and, fearing poison, he was nursed only by his wife and Sancha, +his sister-in-law. Again Cesare was suspected as the instigator +of the deed, and in fact he almost admitted it himself. Bisceglie +was related to the Neapolitan dynasty, with whose enemies the +pope was allied, and he had had a quarrel with Cesare. When it +appeared that he was recovering from his wounds, Cesare had +him murdered, but not apparently without provocation, for, +according to the Venetian ambassador Cappello, the duke had +tried to murder Cesare first.</p> + +<p>In October 1500 Cesare again set out for the Romagna, on the +strength of Venetian friendship, with an army of 10,000 men. +Pandolfo Malatesta of Rimini and Giovanni Sforza of Pesaro +fled, and those cities opened their gates to Cesare. Faenza held +out, for the people were devoted to their lord, Astorre Manfredi, +a handsome and virtuous youth of eighteen. Manfredi surrendered +in April 1501, on the promise that his life should be spared; +but Cesare broke his word, and sent him a prisoner to Rome, +where he was afterwards foully outraged and put to death. +After taking Castel Bolognese he returned to Rome in June, to +take part in the Franco-Spanish intrigues for the partition of +Naples. He was now lord of an extensive territory, and the +pope created him duke of Romagna. His cruelty, his utter want +of scruple, and his good fortune made him a terror to all Italy. +His avidity was insatiable and he could brook no opposition; +but, unlike his father, he was morose, silent and unsympathetic. +His next conquests were Camerino and Urbino, but his power +was now greatly shaken by the conspiracy of La Magione (a +castle near Perugia where the plotters met). Several of the +princes deposed by him, the Orsinis, and some of his own captains, +such as Vitellozzo Vitelli (<i>q.v.</i>), Oliverotto da Fermo, and G.P. +Baglioni, who had been given estates but feared to lose them, +joined forces to conspire against the Borgias. Risings broke out +at Urbino and in Romagna, and the papal troops were defeated; +Cesare could find no allies, and it seemed as though all Italy was +about to turn against the hated family, when the French king +promised help, and this was enough to frighten the confederates +into coming to terms. Most of them had shown very little +political or military skill, and several were ready to betray each +other. But Cesare, while trusting no one, proved a match for +them all. During his operations in northern Romagna, Vitelli, +Oliverotto, Paolo Orsini, and the duke of Gravina, to show their +repentance, seized Senigallia, which still held for the duke of +Urbino, in his name. Cesare arrived at that town, decoyed the +unsuspecting <i>condottieri</i> into his house, had them all arrested, and +two of them, Vitelli and Oliverotto, strangled (December 31, 1502).</p> + +<p>He was back in Rome early in 1503, and took part in reducing +the last rebel Orsinis. He was gathering troops for a new expedition +in central Italy in the summer, when both he and his +father were simultaneously seized with fever. The pope died on +the 18th of August, while Cesare was still incapacitated, and this +unfortunate coincidence proved his ruin; it was the one contingency +for which he had not provided. On all sides his enemies +rose up against him; in Romagna the deposed princes prepared +to regain their own, and the Orsinis raised their heads once more +in Rome. Cesare’s position was greatly shaken, and when he +tried to browbeat the cardinals by means of Don Michelotto +and his bravos, they refused to be intimidated; he had to leave +Rome in September, trusting that the Spanish cardinals would +elect a candidate friendly to his house. At the conclave Francesco +Todeschini-Piccolomini was elected as Pius III., and he showed +every disposition to be peaceful and respectable, but he was old +<span class="pagenum"><a name="page249" id="page249"></a>249</span> +and in bad health. Cesare’s dominion at once began to fall to +pieces; Guidobaldo, duke of Urbino, returned to his duchy +with Venetian help; and the lords of Piombino, Rimini and +Pesaro soon regained their own; Cesena, defended by a governor +faithful to Cesare, alone held out. Pius III. died on the 18th of +October 1503, and a new conclave was held. Cesare, who could +still count on the Spanish cardinals, wished to prevent the +election of Giuliano della Rovere, the enemy of his house, but the +latter’s chances were so greatly improved that it was necessary +to come to terms with him. On the 1st of November he was +elected, and assumed the name of Julius II. He showed no ill-will +towards Cesare, but declared that the latter’s territories +must be restored to the church, for “we desire the honour of +recovering what our predecessors have wrongfully alienated.” +Venice hoped to intervene in Romagna and establish her protectorate +over the principalities, but this Julius was determined +to prevent, and after trying in vain to use Cesare as a means +of keeping out the Venetians, he had him arrested. Borgia’s +power was now at an end, and he was obliged to surrender all his +castles in Romagna save Cesena, Forli and Bettinoro, whose +governors refused to accept an order of surrender from a master +who was a prisoner. Finally, it was agreed that if Cesare were +set at liberty he would surrender the castles; this having been +accomplished, he departed for Naples, where the Spaniards were +in possession. The Spanish governor, Gonzalo de Cordova, had +given him a safe-conduct, and he was meditating fresh plans, +when Gonzalo arrested him by the order of Ferdinand of Spain as +a disturber of the peace of Italy (May 1504). In August he was +sent to Spain, where he remained a prisoner for two years; in +November 1506 he made his escape, and fled to the court of his +brother-in-law, the king of Navarre, under whom he took service. +While besieging the castle of Viana, held by the rebellious count +of Lerin, he was killed (March 12, 1507).</p> + +<p>Cesare Borgia was a type of the adventurers with which the +Italy of the Renaissance swarmed, but he was cleverer and more +unscrupulous than his rivals. His methods of conquest were +ferocious and treacherous; but once the conquest was made he +governed his subjects with firmness and justice, so that his rule +was preferred to the anarchy of factions and local despots. But +he was certainly not a man of genius, as has long been imagined, +and his success was chiefly due to the support of the papacy; +once his father was dead his career was at an end, and he could no +longer play a prominent part in Italian affairs. His fall proved +on how unsound a basis his system had been built up.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>The chief authorities for the life of Cesare Borgia are the same +as those of Alexander VI., especially M. Creighton’s <i>History of the +Papacy</i>, vol. v. (London, 1897); F. Gregorovius’s <i>Geschichte der Stadt +Rom</i>, vol. vii. (Stuttgart, 1881); and P. Villari’s <i>Machiavelli</i> (London +1892); also C. Yriarte, <i>César Borgia</i> (Paris, 1889), an admirable +piece of writing; Schubert-Soldern, <i>Die Borgia und ihre Zeit</i> (Dresden, +1902), which contains the latest discoveries on the subject; and E. +Alvisi, <i>Cesare Borgia, Duca di Romagna</i> (Imola, 1878).</p> +</div> +<div class="author">(L. V.*)</div> + + +<hr class="art" /> +<p><span class="bold">BORGIA, FRANCIS<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (1510-1572), Roman Catholic saint, +duke of Gandia, and general of the order of Jesuits, was born at +Gandia (Valencia) on the 10th of October 1510, and from boyhood +was remarkable for his piety. Educated from his twelfth +year at Saragossa under the charge of his uncle the archbishop, +he had begun to show a strong inclination towards the monastic +life, when his father sent him in 1528 to the court of Charles V. +Here he distinguished himself, and on his marriage with Eleanor +de Castro, a Portuguese lady of high rank, he was created +marquis of Lombay, and was appointed master of the horse to +the empress. He accompanied Charles on his African expedition +in 1535, and also into Provence in 1536; and on the death of +the empress in 1539 he was deputed to convoy the body to the +burial-place in Granada. This sad duty confirmed his determination +to leave the court, and also, should he survive his consort, +to embrace the monastic life. On his return to Toledo, however, +new honours were thrust upon him, much against his will; he +was made viceroy of Catalonia and commander of the order of St +James. At Barcelona, the seat of his government, he lived a +life of great austerity, but discharged his official duties with +energy and efficiency until 1543, when, having succeeded his +father in the dukedom, he at length obtained permission to resign +his viceroyalty and to retire to a more congenial mode of life at +Gandia. Having already held some correspondence with Ignatius +Loyola, he now powerfully encouraged the recently founded +order of Jesus. One of his first cares at Gandia was to build +a Jesuit college; and on the death of Eleanor in 1546, he resolved +to become himself a member of the society. The difficulties +arising from political and family circumstances were removed by +a papal dispensation, which allowed him, in the interests of his +young children, to retain his dignities and worldly possessions +for four years after taking the vows. In 1550 he visited Rome, +where he was received with every mark of distinction, and where +he furnished the means for building the Collegium Romanum. +Returning to Spain in the following year, he formally resigned his +rank and estate in favour of his eldest son, assumed the Jesuit +habit, was ordained priest, and entered upon a life of penance and +prayer. At his own earnest request, seconded by Loyola, a +proposal that he should be created a cardinal by Julius III. +was departed from; and at the command of his superior he +employed himself in the work of itinerant preaching. In 1554 +he was appointed commissary-general of the order in Spain, +Portugal and the Indies, in which capacity he showed great +activity, and was successful in founding many new and thriving +colleges. In 1556, shortly after Charles V. retired, Borgia had +an interview with him, but would not yield to his inducements +to transfer his allegiance to the older order of Hieronymites. +Some time afterwards Borgia was employed by Charles to conduct +negotiations with reference to a project which was to secure for +Don Carlos of Spain the Portuguese succession in the event of +the death of his cousin Don Sebastian. On the death of Lainez +in 1565, Francis Borgia was chosen to succeed him as third general +of the Jesuits. In this capacity he showed great zeal and administrative +skill; and so great was the progress of the society +under his government that he has sometimes been called “its +second founder,” The peculiarities which are most characteristic +of the order were, however, derived from Loyola and Lainez, +rather than from Borgia, whose ideal was a simple monasticism +rather than a life of manifold and influential contact with the +world. He died at Rome on the 30th of September 1572. He +was beatified by Urban VIII. in 1624, and canonized by Clement +X. in 1671, his festival being afterwards (1683) fixed by Innocent +XI. for the 10th of October.</p> + +<div class="condensed"> +<p>Several works by St Francis Borgia have been published, the +principal of these being a series of <i>Exercises</i> similar to the <i>Exercitia +Spiritualia</i> of Loyola, and a treatise <i>Rhetorica Concionandi</i>. The +<i>Opera Omnia</i> were published at Brussels in 1675. His life was written +by his confessor Pedro de Ribadeneira. See also A. Butler’s <i>Lives +of the Saints</i>, and the <i>Breviarium Romanum</i> (second nocturn for +October 10).</p> +</div> + +<hr class="art" /> + + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 4, Slice 2, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 33614-h.htm or 33614-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/6/1/33614/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License (available with this file or online at +http://gutenberg.org/license). + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS' WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTIBILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need, are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation web page at http://www.pglaf.org. + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Its 501(c)(3) letter is posted at +http://pglaf.org/fundraising. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at +809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887, email +business@pglaf.org. Email contact links and up to date contact +information can be found at the Foundation's web site and official +page at http://pglaf.org + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit http://pglaf.org + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: http://pglaf.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart is the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For thirty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + http://www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. + + +</pre> + +</body> +</html> + diff --git a/33614-h/images/img135.jpg b/33614-h/images/img135.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..db0be97 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img135.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img141a.jpg b/33614-h/images/img141a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1b7f14b --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img141a.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img141b.jpg b/33614-h/images/img141b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..6d474f8 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img141b.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img142a.jpg b/33614-h/images/img142a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..68f986a --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img142a.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img142b.jpg b/33614-h/images/img142b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1af0245 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img142b.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img142c.jpg b/33614-h/images/img142c.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c22cf60 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img142c.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img143a.jpg b/33614-h/images/img143a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d22323e --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img143a.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img143b.jpg b/33614-h/images/img143b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..168078e --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img143b.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img143c.jpg b/33614-h/images/img143c.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ef49c18 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img143c.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img144a.jpg b/33614-h/images/img144a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..241ef9a --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img144a.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img144b.jpg b/33614-h/images/img144b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..b9aaf81 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img144b.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img144c.jpg b/33614-h/images/img144c.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5f1ad78 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img144c.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img145a.jpg b/33614-h/images/img145a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..686266d --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img145a.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img145b.jpg b/33614-h/images/img145b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f56b36c --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img145b.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img145c.jpg b/33614-h/images/img145c.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ea816ed --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img145c.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img146.jpg b/33614-h/images/img146.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..fa187b5 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img146.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img147.jpg b/33614-h/images/img147.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4570867 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img147.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img148.jpg b/33614-h/images/img148.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7493b6e --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img148.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img149a.jpg b/33614-h/images/img149a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..97ced36 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img149a.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img149b.jpg b/33614-h/images/img149b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3310e34 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img149b.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img149c.jpg b/33614-h/images/img149c.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5ea2458 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img149c.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img150.jpg b/33614-h/images/img150.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2c4a722 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img150.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img152.jpg b/33614-h/images/img152.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ca11a56 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img152.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img167.jpg b/33614-h/images/img167.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..098459c --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img167.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img183a.jpg b/33614-h/images/img183a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..16f9ac2 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img183a.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img183b.jpg b/33614-h/images/img183b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..01a5d4a --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img183b.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img216a.jpg b/33614-h/images/img216a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..65af0de --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img216a.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img216b.jpg b/33614-h/images/img216b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a0ad695 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img216b.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img216c.jpg b/33614-h/images/img216c.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..67c4db9 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img216c.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img216d.jpg b/33614-h/images/img216d.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..de3a6a4 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img216d.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img216e.jpg b/33614-h/images/img216e.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..abe9beb --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img216e.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img216f.jpg b/33614-h/images/img216f.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a1ed050 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img216f.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img216g.jpg b/33614-h/images/img216g.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..25f210b --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img216g.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img216h.jpg b/33614-h/images/img216h.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..1035612 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img216h.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img219.jpg b/33614-h/images/img219.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..59e6bc4 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img219.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img220a.jpg b/33614-h/images/img220a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a38e5d9 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img220a.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img220b.jpg b/33614-h/images/img220b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..cccc541 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img220b.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img220c.jpg b/33614-h/images/img220c.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7ad1a92 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img220c.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img221.jpg b/33614-h/images/img221.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..d20a058 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img221.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img229a.jpg b/33614-h/images/img229a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..80bad0f --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img229a.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img229b.jpg b/33614-h/images/img229b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5dc4b40 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img229b.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img230a.jpg b/33614-h/images/img230a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..7c8309c --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img230a.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img230b.jpg b/33614-h/images/img230b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..481136b --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img230b.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img231.jpg b/33614-h/images/img231.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c524528 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img231.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img232a.jpg b/33614-h/images/img232a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..58d09c1 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img232a.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img232b.jpg b/33614-h/images/img232b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a11bf7b --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img232b.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img232c.jpg b/33614-h/images/img232c.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..39236b9 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img232c.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img232d.jpg b/33614-h/images/img232d.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8b70658 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img232d.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img232e.jpg b/33614-h/images/img232e.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..79be2a5 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img232e.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img232f.jpg b/33614-h/images/img232f.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ec1664d --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img232f.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img232g.jpg b/33614-h/images/img232g.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..9fb5b1d --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img232g.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img236a.jpg b/33614-h/images/img236a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..228df8b --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img236a.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img236b.jpg b/33614-h/images/img236b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..940407d --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img236b.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img241.jpg b/33614-h/images/img241.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..67f7e57 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img241.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img242a.jpg b/33614-h/images/img242a.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..2d5977f --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img242a.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img242b.jpg b/33614-h/images/img242b.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..f9dfb14 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img242b.jpg diff --git a/33614-h/images/img243.jpg b/33614-h/images/img243.jpg Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..ee23f98 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614-h/images/img243.jpg |
