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diff --git a/33614.txt b/33614.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9da57c8 --- /dev/null +++ b/33614.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18062 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, +Volume 4, Slice 2, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 4, Slice 2 + "Bohemia" to "Borgia, Francis" + +Author: Various + +Release Date: September 3, 2010 [EBook #33614] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + + + + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + + + + +Transcriber's notes: + +(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally + printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an + underscore, like C_n. + +(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript. + +(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective + paragraphs. + +(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not + inserted. + +(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected: + + ARTICLE BOMB: "It is probable that here the acid magma was expelled + in a very viscous condition, and the crust which formed on cooling + was burst by the steam from the occluded water." 'magma' amended + from 'magna'. + + ARTICLE BONE: "If the surgeon is prompt in operating he may find + the disease limited to that spot." 'If' amended from 'It'. + + + + + ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA + + A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE + AND GENERAL INFORMATION + + ELEVENTH EDITION + + + VOLUME IV, SLICE II + + Bohemia to Borgia, Francis + + + + +ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE: + + + BOHEMIA BONER, ULRICH + BOHEMUND BO'NESS + BOHMER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH BONFIGLI, BENEDETTO + BOHN, HENRY GEORGE BONFIRE + BOHTLINGK, OTTO VON BONGARS, JACQUES + BOHUN BONGHI, RUGGERO + BOIARDO, MATTEO MARIA BONGO (tribe of Sudan) + BOIE, HEINRICH CHRISTIAN BONGO (West African bushbuck) + BOIELDIEU, FRANCOIS ADRIEN BONHAM + BOIGNE, BENOIT DE BONHEUR, ROSA + BOII BONHEUR DU JOUR + BOIL BONI + BOILEAU-DESPREAUX, NICOLAS BONIFACE, SAINT + BOILER BONIFACE + BOILING TO DEATH BONIFACE OF SAVOY + BOIS BRULES BONIFACIO + BOISE BONIFACIUS + BOISGOBEY, FORTUNE DU BONIN ISLANDS + BOISGUILBERT, PIERRE LE PESANT BONITZ, HERMANN + BOISROBERT, FRANCOIS DE BONIVARD, FRANCOIS + BOISSARD, JEAN JACQUES BONN + BOISSIER, MARIE LOUIS GASTON BONNAT, LEON JOSEPH FLORENTIN + BOISSONADE DE FONTARABIE BONNE-CARRERE, GUILLAUME DE + BOISSY D'ANGLAS, FRANCOIS DE BONNER, EDMUND + BOITO, ARRIGO BONNET, CHARLES + BOIVIN, FRANCOIS DE BONNET + BOKENAM, OSBERN BONNEVAL, CLAUDE ALEXANDRE + BOKHARA (state) BONNEVILLE, BENJAMIN L. E. + BOKHARA (capital of Bokhara) BONNEY, THOMAS GEORGE + BOKSBURG BONNIER, ANGE ELISABETH LOUIS ANTOINE + BOLAN PASS BONNIVET, GUILLAUME GOUFFIER + BOLAS BONOMI, GIUSEPPI + BOLBEC BONONCINI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA + BOLE BONONIA + BOLESLAUS I. BONPLAND, AIME JACQUES ALEXANDRE + BOLESLAUS II. BONSTETTEN, CHARLES VICTOR DE + BOLESLAUS III. BONUS + BOLETUS BONZE + BOLEYN, ANNE BOOK + BOLGARI BOOKBINDING + BOLI BOOKCASE + BOLINGBROKE, HENRY ST JOHN BOOK-COLLECTING + BOLIVAR, SIMON BOOK-KEEPING + BOLIVAR (Colombia) BOOK-PLATES + BOLIVAR (state of Venezuela) BOOK-SCORPION + BOLIVIA BOOKSELLING + BOLKHOV BOOLE, GEORGE + BOLL BOOM + BOLLANDISTS BOOMERANG + BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA BOONE, DANIEL + BOLOGNA BOONE + BOLSENA BOONVILLE + BOLSOVER BOORDE, ANDREW + BOLSWARD BOOS, MARTIN + BOLT BOOT + BOLTON, DUKES OF BOOTES + BOLTON, EDMUND BOOTH, BARTON + BOLTON (county of England) BOOTH, CHARLES + BOLTON ABBEY BOOTH, EDWIN [THOMAS] + BOLZANO, BERNHARD BOOTH, WILLIAM + BOMA BOOTH + BOMB BOOTHIA + BOMBARD BOOTLE + BOMBARDIER BOOTY + BOMBARDMENT BOPP, FRANZ + BOMBARDON BOPPARD + BOMBAY CITY BORA + BOMBAY FURNITURE BORACITE + BOMBAY PRESIDENCY BORAGE + BOMBAZINE BORAGINACEAE + BOMBELLES, MARC MARIE BORAS + BOMBERG, DANIEL BORAX + BONA, JOHN BORDA, JEAN CHARLES + BONA BORDAGE + BONA DEA BORDEAUX + BONA FIDE BORDEN, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM + BONALD, LOUIS GABRIEL AMBROISE BORDEN, ROBERT LAIRD + BONAPARTE BORDENTOWN + BONAR, HORATIUS BORDERS, THE + BONAVENTURA, SAINT BORDIGHERA + BONCHAMPS, CHARLES ARTUS BORDONE, PARIS + BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS BORE + BOND BOREAS + BONDAGER BOREL, PETRUS + BONDE, GUSTAF BORELLI, GIOVANNI ALFONSO + BONDED WAREHOUSE BORGA + BONDU BORGHESE + BONE, HENRY BORGHESI, BARTOLOMMEO + BONE BORGIA, CESARE + BONE BED BORGIA, FRANCIS + BONE-LACE + + + + +BOHEMIA[1] (Ger. _Bohmen_, Czech _Cechy_, Lat. _Bohemia_), a kingdom and +crownland of Austria, bounded N.E. by Prussian Silesia, S.E. by Moravia +and Lower Austria, S. by Upper Austria, S.W. by Bavaria and N.W. by +Saxony. It has an area of 20,060 sq. m., or about two-thirds the size of +Scotland, and forms the principal province of the Austrian empire. +Situated in the geographical centre of the European continent, at about +equal distance from all the European seas, enclosed by high mountains, +and nevertheless easily accessible through Moravia from the Danubian +plain and opened by the valley of the Elbe to the German plain, Bohemia +was bound to play a leading part in the cultural development of Europe. +It became early the scene of important historical events, the avenue and +junction of the migration of peoples; and it forms the borderland +between the German and Slavonic worlds. + +_Geography._--Bohemia has the form of an irregular rhomb, of which the +northernmost place, Buchberg, just above Hainspach, is at the same time +the farthest north in the whole Austro-Hungarian monarchy. From an +orographic point of view, Bohemia constitutes amongst the Austrian +provinces a separate massif, bordered on three sides by mountain ranges: +on the S.W. by the Bohmerwald or Bohemian Forest; on the N.W. by the +Erzgebirge or Ore Mountains; and on the N.E. by the Riesengebirge or +Giant Mountains and other ranges of the Sudetes. The Bohmerwald, which, +like its parallel range, the Sudetes, has a general direction from S.E. +to N.W., is divided by the pass of Neumark into two parts. The northern +part (Czech _Cesky Les_) attains in the massif of Czerkov an altitude of +3300 ft., but the southern part (Czech _Sumava_) is at the same time the +highest and the most picturesque part of the range, including on the +Bohemian side the Osser (4053 ft.) and the Plockenstein (4513 ft.), +although the highest peak, the Arber (4872), is in Bavaria. The beauty +of this range of mountains consists in its pure crystalline torrents, in +the numerous blue lakes of its valleys, and above all in the magnificent +forests of oak and pine with which its sides are covered. The pass of +Neumark, called also the pass of Neugedein, has always been the +principal approach to Bohemia from Germany. It stretches towards the +east, above the small town of Taus (Czech _Domazlice_, once called +_Tuhost_, i.e. the Fortress), and is the place where some of the +bloodiest battles in the history of Bohemia were fought. Here in the +first half of the 7th century Samo repulsed the invading hordes of the +Avars, which threatened the independence of the newly-settled Slavonic +inhabitants; here also Wratislas II. defeated the German emperor Henry +III. in a two-days' battle (August 22 and 23, 1040). It was in the same +place that the Hussites gained in 1431 one of their greatest victories +against a German army of crusaders, and another similar German army was +vanquished here by George of Podebrad. + +The Erzgebirge (Czech _Rudo Hori_), which form the north-west frontier, +have an average altitude of 2600 ft., and as their highest point, the +Keilberg (4080 ft.). The numerous mining villages, the great number of +cultivated areas and the easy passes, traversed by good roads, give +those mountains in many places the aspect of a hilly undulating plain. +Several of the villages are built very near the summit of the mountains, +and one of them, Gottesgab (pop. about 1500), lies at an altitude of +3345 ft., the highest place in Bohemia and central Germany. To the west +the Erzgebirge combine through the Elstergebirge with the +Fichtelgebirge, which in their turn are united with the Bohmerwald +through the plateau of Waldsassen. To the east the Erzgebirge are +separated from the Elbsandsteingebirge by the Nollendorf pass, traversed +by the ancient military route to Saxony; it was the route followed by +Napoleon I. after the battle of Dresden (1813). To the south stretches +the "Thermopylae of Bohemia," the scene of the battle of Kulm and +Arbesau. A little farther to the east the Elbe escapes into Saxony at +the lowest point in Bohemia (alt. 367 ft.). The north-east frontier is +formed by the Sudetes, which comprise the Lausitzergebirge (2500 ft.), +the Isergebirge (with the highest peak, the Tafelfichte, 3683 ft.), the +Jeschkengebirge (3322 ft.), and the Riesengebirge. The Riesengebirge +(Czech _Kroknose_) are, after the Alps, among the highest mountains of +central Europe, and attain in the Schneekoppe an altitude of 5264 ft. +The last groups of the Sudetes in Bohemia are the Heuscheuergebirge +(2532 ft.) and the Adlergebirge (3664 ft.). The fourth side of the rhomb +is formed by the so-called Bohemian-Moravian Hills, a plateau or broad +series of low hills, composed of primitive rocks, and attaining in some +places an altitude of 2500 ft. + +The interior of Bohemia has sometimes been compared to a deep basin; but +for the most part it is an undulating plateau, over 1000 ft. high, +formed by a succession of terraces, which gradually slope down from +south to north. Its lowest-lying points are not in the middle but in the +north, in the valley of the Elbe, and the country can be divided into +two parts by a line passing through Hohenmauth-Prague-Komotau. The part +lying to the south of this line can be designated as highland, and only +the part north of it as lowland. The mountain-ranges of the interior of +Bohemia are the Brdywald (2798 ft.) in the middle; the Tepler Gebirge +(2657 ft.), the Karsbader Gebirge (3057 ft.) and the Kaiserwald (3238 +ft.), in the north-west part; while the northern corner is occupied by +the Mittelgebirge (2739 ft.), a volcanic massif, stretching on both +sides of the Elbe. + +Bohemia belongs to the watershed of the Elbe, which rises within the +territory and receives on the right the Iser and the Polzen, and on the +left the Adler; the Eger with its affluent the Tepl; the Biela and the +Moldau. But the principal river of ~~ Bohemia, from every point of +view, is the Moldau (Czech _Vltava_), not the Elbe. A glance at the +hydrographic structure of Bohemia, which is of such a striking +regularity, shows us that the Moldau is the main stem, while the Elbe +and the other rivers are only lateral branches; moreover, the Elbe below +Melnik, the point of its confluence with the Moldau, follows the general +direction of the Moldau. Besides, the Moldau is the principal commercial +artery of the country, being navigable below Budweis, while the +Upper-Elbe is not navigable; its basin (11,890 sq. m.) is twice as great +as that of the Elbe, and its width and depth are also greater. It has a +length of 270 m., 47 m. longer than the Upper-Elbe, but it runs through +a deep and narrow valley, in which there is neither road nor railway, +extending from above Budweis to about 15 m. south of Prague. The Moldau +receives on the right the Luzniza and the Sazawa and on the left the +Wottawa and the Beraun. The Beraun is formed by the union of the Mies +with the Radbusa, Angel and Uslawa, and is the third most important +river of the country. There are only a few lakes, which are mostly found +at high altitudes. + +_Climate._--Bohemia has a continental, generally healthy climate, which +varies much in different parts of the country. It is mildest in the +centre, where, e.g. at Prague, the mean annual temperature is 48.5 deg. +F. The rainfall varies also according to the districts, the rainy season +being the summer. Thus the mean annual rainfall in the interior of +Bohemia is 18 in., in the Riesengebirge 40 in., while in the Bohmerwald +it reaches 60 to 70 in. + +_Agriculture._--Favoured with a suitable climate and inhabited by a +thriving rural population, Bohemia is very highly developed in the +matter of agriculture. Over 50% of the whole area is under cultivation +and the soil is in many parts very fertile, the best-known regions being +the "Golden Road" round Koniggratz, the "Paradise" round Teplitz, and +the "Garden of Bohemia" round Leitmeritz. The principal products are +oats, rye, barley and wheat, but since the competition of Hungarian +wheat large tracts of land have been converted to the cultivation of +beetroot. The potato crop, which forms the staple food of the people, is +great; the Saaz district is celebrated for hops, and the flax is also of +a good quality. Fruit, especially plums, is very abundant and +constitutes a great article of export. The forests cover 29.01% of the +total area; meadows, 10.05, pastures 5.05, and gardens 1.35%. +Cattle-rearing is not so well developed as agriculture, but great flocks +of geese are reared, especially in the south, and bee-cultivation +constitutes another important industry. Pisciculture has been for +centuries successfully pursued by the Bohemian peasants, and the +attempts recently made for the rearing of silkworms have met with fair +success. + +_Minerals_.--Except salt, which is entirely absent, almost every useful +metal and mineral is to be found. First in importance, both in quantity +and in value, come lignite and coal. Some of the richest lignite fields +in Europe are found in the north-east corner of Bohemia round Brux, Dux, +Falkenau, Ossegg and Teplitz. Coal is mined round Kladno, Buschtehrad, +Pilsen, Schlan, Rakonitz, Nurschan and Radnitz, the last-named place +containing the oldest coal mines of Bohemia (17th century). Iron ores +are found at Krusnahora and Nucic, and the principal foundries are round +Kladno and Konigshof. Owing to the improvements in refining, Bohemia has +become an important centre of the iron industry. Silver is extracted at +Pribram and Joachimsthal, but the silver mines near Kuttenberg, famous +in the middle ages, are now abandoned. Lead is extracted at Pribram, tin +at Graupen in the Erzgebirge, the only place in Austria where this metal +is found. Antimony is extracted at Milleschau near Tabor; uranium and +radium near Joachimsthal; graphite near Krumau and Budweis; +porcelain-earth near Carlsbad. Other minerals found in various places of +Bohemia are copper, sulphur, cobalt, alum, nickel, arsenic and various +sorts of precious stone, like the Bohemian garnet (pyrope), and building +stone. A large amount of peat is collected, especially in the south-west +of Bohemia, as well as a great quantity of asphalt. + +Bohemia possesses over two hundred mineral springs, but only a few are +used for medicinal purposes. Among them are some of the most celebrated +mineral springs in the world, such as Carlsbad, Marienbad, Franzensbad, +Teplitz-Schonau and Bilin. Other springs of importance are Pullna, +Sedlitz and Seidschitz near Brux; Giesshubl near Carlsbad; Liebwerda, +Konigswart, Sangerberg, Neudorf, Tetschen, Johannisbad, situated at the +foot of the Schneekoppe, &c. + +_Manufactures and Commerce._--From an industrial point of view, Bohemia +takes the first rank amongst the Austrian provinces, and at the same +time is one of the greatest manufacturing centres of Europe. Rich as the +country is in coal and iron, and in water supplies which can be +transformed into motive power, the inhabitants were not slow to utilize +these advantages, so that the industry of Bohemia made enormous strides +during the last half of the 19th century. The glass industry was +introduced from Venice in the 13th century and soon attained a vast +importance; the factories are in the neighbourhood of the mountains, +where minerals, and especially silica and fuel, are plentiful. The +finest product, the crystal-glass, is made round Haida and Steinschonau. +The very extensive porcelain industry is concentrated in and around +Carlsbad. The textile industry stands in the front rank and is mostly +concentrated in the north-east corner of Bohemia, round Reichenberg, and +in the valley of the Lower Elbe. The cloth manufacture is located at +Reichenberg; Rumburg and Trautenau are the centre of the linen industry; +woollen yarns are made at Aussig and Asch. Lace, which is pursued as a +home-industry in the Erzgebirge region, has its principal centre at +Weipert, while Strakonitz has the speciality of the manufacture of red +fezes (Turkish caps). The metallurgic industries, favoured by the +abundance of coal and iron, are concentrated round the mines. Industrial +and agricultural machinery are manufactured at Reichenberg, Pilsen and +Prague, and at the last-named place is also to be found a great +establishment for the production of railway rolling-stock. Sugar +refining is another industry, which, although of recent date, has had a +very great development, and the breweries produce a beer which is +appreciated all over the world. Other important branches of industry +are:--the manufacture of chemicals at Prague and Aussig; pencils at +Budweis; musical instruments at Graslitz and Schonbach; paper, leather, +dyeing and calico-printing. Hand-in-hand with the industrial activity of +the country goes its commercial development, which is stimulated by an +extensive railway system, good roads and navigable rivers. The centre of +the railway system, which had in 1898 a length of some 3500 m., or 30% +of the total length of the Austrian railways, is Prague; and through the +Elbe Bohemia has easy access to the sea for its export trade. + +_Population and Administration._--Bohemia had in 1900 a population of +6,318,280, which corresponds to 315 inhabitants per square mile. As +regards numbers, it occupies the second place amongst the Austrian +provinces, coming after Galicia, and as regards density of population it +stands third, Silesia and Lower Austria, which contains Vienna, standing +higher. In 1800 the population was a little over 3,000,000. According to +nationality, about 35% are Germans and 65% Czechs. The Czechs occupy the +middle of the country, as well as its south and south-east region, while +the Germans are concentrated near its borders, especially in the north +and west, and are also found all over the country in the large towns. +Besides, there are numerous German-speaking enclaves situated in purely +Czech districts; on the other hand, the Czechs have shown a tendency to +invade the purely German mining and manufacturing districts. +Notwithstanding its rich natural resources and its great industrial +development, Bohemia sends out a steady flow of emigrants, who either +settle in the other provinces of the monarchy, in Germany and in Russia, +or cross the Atlantic to America. To the Roman Catholic Church belong +96% of the total population; Bohemia is divided into the archbishopric +of Prague, and the three bishoprics of Budweis, Koniggratz and +Leitmeritz. + +Education is well advanced, and Bohemia has the lowest proportion of +illiterates amongst the Austrian provinces. At the head of the +educational establishments stand the two universities at Prague, one +German and the other Czech. + +Bohemia sends 130 deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna; the local diet, +to which belong _ex officio_ the archbishop, the three bishops, and the +two rectors of the universities, consists of 242 members. For +administrative purposes Bohemia is divided into ninety-four districts +and two autonomous municipalities, Prague (pop. 204,478), the capital, +and Reichenberg (34,204). Other important towns are Pilsen (68,292), +Budweis (39,360), Aussig (37,255), Schonau (24,110), Eger (23,665), +Warnsdorf (21,150), Brux (21,525), Gablonz (21,086), Asch (18,675), +Kladno (18,600), Pardubitz (17,029), Saaz (16,168), Komotau (15,925), +Kolin (15,025), Kuttenberg (14,799), Trautenau (14,777), Carlsbad +(14,640), Pribram (13,576), Jungbunzlau (13,479), Leitmeritz (13,075), +Chrudim (13,017), Dux (11,921), Bodenbach (10,782), Tabor (10,692), +Bohmisch-Leipa (10,674), Rumburg (10,382), Weipert (10,037). + + See F. Umlauft, _Die Lander Osterreich-Ungarns in Wort und Bild_, (15 + vols., Vienna, 1881-1889), vol. vii.; Mikowec, _Altertumer und + Denkwurdigkeiten Bohmen's_ (2 vols., Prague, 1859-1865); F. Rivnac, + _Reisehandbuch fur das Konigreich Bohmen_ (Prague, 1882), very useful + for its numerous and detailed historical notes. (O. Br.) + + +HISTORY + + Slav Conquest. + +The country derives its name from the Boii, a Celtic tribe which in the +earliest historical period inhabited part of the land. According to very +ancient traditions accepted by the modern historians of Bohemia, the +Boii, whose capital was called Boiohemum, were weakened by continual +warfare with neighbouring tribes, and finally subdued by the Teutonic +tribe of the Marcomanni (about 12 B.C.). The Marcomanni were afterwards +expelled by other Teutonic tribes, and eventually Bohemia was conquered +by Slavic tribes, of whom the Cechs (see CZECH) were the most important. +The date of the arrival of the Cechs in Bohemia is very uncertain, and +the scanty references to the country in classical and Byzantine writers +are rather misleading than otherwise. Recent archaeological research has +proved the existence of Slavic inhabitants in Bohemia as far back as the +beginning of the Christian era. The Cechs appear to have become the +masters of the country in the 5th century. The first of their rulers +mentioned in history is Samo, who is stated to have defeated the Avars, +a Turanian tribe which had for a time obtained the overlordship over +Bohemia. Samo also defeated the Franks in a great battle that took place +at Wogatisburg (630), probably near the site of the present town of +Eger. After the death of Samo the history of Bohemia again becomes +absolutely obscure for about 130 years. The next events that are +recorded by the oldest chroniclers, such as Cosmas, refer to the +foundation of a Bohemian principality by Krok (or Crocus) and his +daughter Libussa. The latter is said to have married Premysl, a peasant +who was found ploughing his field--a legend that is common in most +Slavic countries. Beginning with this semi-mythic ruler, the ancient +chroniclers have constructed a continuous list of Premyslide princes. +Neither the deeds attributed to these princes nor the dates of their +reigns can be considered as historical. + + + Christianity. + + Wenceslas + + Boleslav. + + Vladivoj. + + Bretislav I. + +From the time of the introduction of Christianity into Bohemia the +history of the country becomes less obscure. The first attempts to +introduce Christianity undoubtedly came from Germany. They met with +little success, as innate distrust of the Germans naturally rendered the +Bohemians unfavourable to a creed which reached them from the realm of +their western neighbours. Matters were different when Christianity +approached them from Moravia, where its doctrine had been taught by +Cyrillus and Methodius--Greek monks from Thessalonica. About the year +873 the Bohemian prince Borivoj was baptized by Methodius, and the +Bohemians now rapidly adopted the Christian faith. Of the rulers of +Bohemia the most famous at this period was Wenceslas, surnamed the Holy, +who in 935 was murdered by his brother Boleslav, and who was afterwards +canonized by the Church of Rome. As Wenceslas had been an ally of +Germany, his murder resulted in a war with that country, in which, as +far as we can judge by the scanty records of the time. Boleslav, the +brother and successor of Wenceslas, was on the whole successful. During +the reigns of Boleslav and his son, Boleslav II., Bohemia extended its +frontiers in several directions. Boleslav II. indeed established his +rule not only over Bohemia and Moravia, but also over a large part of +Silesia, and over that part of Poland which is now the Austrian province +of Galicia. Like most Slavic states at this and even a later period, the +great Bohemian empire of Boleslav II. did not endure long. Boleslav +III., son of Boleslav II., lost all his foreign possessions to Boleslav +the Great, king of Poland. During his reign Bohemia was involved in +constant civil war, caused by the dissensions between Boleslav III. and +his brothers Jaromir and Ulrick. Though the prince succeeded in +expelling his brothers from the country, his cruelty induced the +Bohemians to dethrone him and to choose as their ruler the Polish prince +Vladivoj. Vladivoj, brother of Boleslav the Great, and son of the +Bohemian princess Dubravka (Dobrawa). Vladivoj attempted to strengthen +his hold over Bohemia by securing the aid of Germany. He consented not +only to continue to pay the tribute which the Germans had already +obtained from several previous rulers of Bohemia, but also to become a +vassal of the German empire and to receive the German title of duke. +This state continued when after the death of Vladivoj the Premyslide +dynasty was restored. The Premyslide prince Bretislav I (1037-1055) +restored the former power of Bohemia, and again added Moravia, Silesia +and a considerable part of Poland to the Bohemian dominions. To obviate +the incessant struggles which had endangered the land at every vacancy +of the throne, Bretislav, with the consent of the nobles, decreed that +the oldest member of the house of Premysl should be the ruler of +Bohemia. Bretislav was therefore succeeded first by his eldest son +Spitihnev, and then by his second son Vratislav. + + + Vratislav becomes "king". + +In 1088 Vratislav obtained the title of king from the emperor Henry IV., +whom he had assisted in the struggle with the papal see which is known +as the contest about investitures. Though the title of king was only +conferred on Vratislav personally, the German king, Conrad III., +conferred on the Bohemian prince Sobeslav (1125-1140) the title of +hereditary cupbearer of the Empire, thus granting a certain influence on +the election of the emperors to Bohemia, which hitherto had only +obligations towards the Empire but no part in its government. In 1156 +the emperor Frederick I. Barbarossa ceded Upper Lusatia to the Bohemian +prince Vladislav II., and conferred on him the title of king on +condition of his taking part in Frederick's Italian campaigns. It was +intended that that title should henceforth be hereditary, but it again +fell into abeyance during the struggles between the Premyslide princes +which followed the abdication of Vladislav in 1173. + + + Ottakar II. + +The consequences of these constant internal struggles were twofold; the +German influence became stronger, and the power of the sovereign +declined, as the nobility on whose support the competitors for the crown +were obliged to rely constantly obtained new privileges. In 1197 Premysl +Ottakar became undisputed ruler of Bohemia, and he was crowned as king +in the following year. The royal title of the Bohemian sovereigns was +continued uninterruptedly from that date. Wenceslas I. (1230-1253) +succeeded his father as king of Bohemia without opposition. The last +years of his reign were troubled by internal discord. Wenceslas's son, +Premysl Ottakar II., who under the sovereignty of his father ruled +Moravia, became for a time the chief leader of the malcontents. A +reconciliation between son and father, however, took place before the +latter's death. Premysl Ottakar II. was one of the greatest of Bohemia's +kings. He had during the lifetime of his father obtained possession of +the archduchies of Austria, and, about the time of his accession to the +Bohemian throne, the nobility of Styria also recognized him as their +ruler. These extensions of his dominions involved Premysl Ottakar II. in +repeated wars with Hungary. In 1260 he decisively defeated Bela, king of +Hungary, in the great battle of Kressenbrunn. After this victory +Ottakar's power rose to its greatest height. He now obtained possession +of Carinthia, Istria and parts of northern Italy. His possessions +extended from the Giant Mountains in Bohemia to the Adriatic, and +included almost all the parts of the present Habsburg empire west of the +Leitha. His contemporaries called Ottakar "the man of gold" because of +his great wealth, or "the man of iron" because of his military power. +From political rather than racial causes Ottakar favoured the +immigration of Germans into his dominions. He hoped to find in the +German townsmen a counterpoise to the overwhelming power of the Bohemian +nobility. In 1273 Rudolph, count of Habsburg, was elected king of the +Romans. It is very probable that the German crown had previously been +offered to Ottakar, but that he had refused it. Several causes, among +others his Slavic nationality, which was likely to render him obnoxious +to the Germans, contributed to his decision. As Rudolph immediately +claimed as vacant fiefs of the Empire most of the lands held by Ottakar, +war was inevitable. Ottakar was deserted by many of his new subjects, +and even by part of the Bohemian nobility. He was therefore unable to +resist the German king, and was obliged to surrender to him all his +lands except Bohemia and Moravia, and to recognize Rudolph as his +overlord. New dissensions between the two sovereigns broke out almost +immediately. In 1278 Ottakar invaded the Austrian duchies, now under the +rule of Rudolph, but was defeated and killed at the battle of Durnkrut +on the Marchfeld. + + + Wenceslas II. + +Ottakar's son, Wenceslas II., was only seven years of age at the death +of his father, and Otto of Brandenburg, a nephew of Ottakar, for a time +governed Bohemia as guardian of the young sovereign. Otto's rule was +very unpopular, an insurrection broke out against him, and Bohemia was +for a time in a state of complete anarchy. The country was at last +pacified through the intervention of Rudolph of Habsburg, and at the age +of twelve Wenceslas became nominal ruler of the country. All power was, +however, in the hands of Zavis of Falkenstein, one of the great Bohemian +nobles, who had married the king's mother, Kunegunda. The power of Zavis +at last became invidious to the king, by whose order he was beheaded in +1290. Wenceslas, though only nineteen years of age, henceforth governed +Bohemia himself, and his short reign was a period of great happiness for +the country. Poland also accepted the rule of Wenceslas and the +Hungarian crown was offered to him. Towards the end of his reign +Wenceslas became involved in war with Albert, archduke of Austria, +afterwards king of the Romans. While preparing to invade Austria +Wenceslas died suddenly (1305). His son and successor, Wenceslas III., +was then only sixteen years of age, and he only ruled over Bohemia for +one year. While planning a warlike expedition against Poland, on which +country the Bohemian sovereigns now again maintained their claim, he was +murdered by unknown assassins (1306). With him ended the rule of the +Premyslide dynasty over Bohemia. + + + John of Luxemburg. + +Albert, king of the Romans, declared that Bohemia was a vacant fief of +the Empire, and, mainly by intimidation, induced the Bohemians to elect +his son Rudolph as their sovereign; but Rudolph died after a reign of +only one year. Though the Habsburg princes at this period already +claimed a hereditary right to the Bohemian throne, the Bohemians +determined to maintain their right of electing their sovereign, and they +chose Henry, duke of Carinthia, who had married a daughter of King +Wenceslas II. Henry soon became unpopular, as he was accused of unduly +favouring the German settlers in Bohemia. It was decided to depose him, +and the choice of the Bohemians now fell on John of Luxemburg, son of +Henry, king of the Romans. The Luxemburg dynasty henceforth ruled over +Bohemia up to the time of its extinction at the death of Sigismund +(1437). Though King John, by his marriage to the princess Elizabeth, a +daughter of Wenceslas II., became more closely connected with Bohemia, +he does not appear to have felt much interest in that country. Most of +his life was spent in other lands, his campaigns ranging from Italy in +the south to Lithuania in the north. It became proverbial "that nothing +could be done in the world without the help of God and of the king of +Bohemia." The policy of John was founded on a close alliance with +France, the country for which he felt most sympathy. Fighting as an ally +of France he fell at the battle of Crecy (1346). + + + King Charles. + +He was succeeded as king of Bohemia by his son Charles, whom the German +electors had previously elected as their sovereign at Rense (1346). +Charles proved one of the greatest rulers of Bohemia, where his memory +is still revered. Prague was his favourite residence, and by the +foundation of the nove mesto (new town) he greatly enlarged the city, +which now had three times its former extent, and soon also trebled its +population. He also added greatly to the importance of the city by +founding the famous university of Prague. Charles succeeded in +re-establishing order in Bohemia. The country had been in a very +disturbed state in consequence of feuds that were incessant during the +reign of John, who had almost always been absent from Bohemia. Charles +also attempted to codify the obscure and contradictory laws of Bohemia; +but this attempt failed through the resistance of the powerful nobility +of the country. During the reign of Charles, the first symptoms of that +movement in favour of church reform that afterwards acquired a +world-wide importance, appeared in Bohemia. As Charles has often been +accused of undue subserviency to the Church of Rome, it should be +mentioned that he granted his protection to several priests who favoured +the cause of church reform. In his foreign policy Charles differed from +his father. The relations with France gradually became colder, and at +the end of his reign Charles favoured an alliance with England; he died +in 1378 at the age of sixty-two, prematurely exhausted by arduous work. + + + Wenceslas IV. + +Charles was succeeded by his son Wenceslas, who was then seventeen years +of age. His reign marks the decline of the rule of the house of +Luxemburg over Bohemia. He was a weak and incapable sovereign, but the +very exaggerated accusations against him, which are found principally in +the works of older historians, are mainly due to the fact that the king +and to a larger extent his queen, Sophia, for a time furthered the cause +of church reform, thus incurring the displeasure of Romanist writers. +During the earlier part of the reign of Wenceslas a continual struggle +took place between the king and the powerful Bohemian nobles, who indeed +twice imprisoned their sovereign. Wenceslas also became involved in a +dispute with the archbishop, which resulted in the death of the famous +John of Nepomuk. + + + Huss and the Hussites + +The later part of the reign of Wenceslas is a record of incipient +religious conflict. The hold of the Church of Rome on Bohemia had +already been weakened during the reign of King Charles by attacks on the +immorality of the clergy, which proceeded from pious priests such as +Milic and Waldhauser. The church schism, during which the rival pontiffs +assailed each other with all the wild threats and objurgations of +medieval theological strife, necessarily alienated the Bohemians to a +yet greater extent. Almost the whole Bohemian nation therefore espoused +the cause of Huss (q.v.). Wenceslas on the occasion of these disputes +displayed the weakness and irresolution that always characterized him, +but Queen Sophia openly favoured the cause of Huss, who for some time +was her confessor. Huss was tried before the council of Constance +(q.v.), to which he had proceeded with a letter of safe conduct given +by Wenceslas's brother Sigismund, king of the Romans. He was declared a +heretic and burnt on the 6th of July 1415. The inevitable and immediate +result of this event was the outbreak of civil war in Bohemia, where +Huss was greatly revered by the large majority of the population. The +nobles of Bohemia and Moravia met at Prague on the 2nd of September +1415, and sent to the council the famed _Protestatio Bohemorum_, in +which they strongly protested against the execution of Huss, "a good, +just and catholic man who had for many years been favourably known in +the Kingdom by his life, conduct and fame, and who had been convicted of +no offence." They further declared that all who affirmed that heresy +existed in Bohemia were "liars, vile traitors and calumniators of +Bohemia and Moravia, the worst of all heretics, full of all evil, sons +of the devil." They finally stated "that they would defend the law of +our Lord Jesus Christ and its pious, humble and steadfast preachers at +the cost of their blood, scorning all fear and all human decrees that +might be contrary to them."[2] This protest was a declaration of war +against the Roman church, and marks the beginning of the Hussite wars. +The council, indeed, summoned the nobles before its tribunal, but they +refused to appear. A large number of the nobles and knights who had met +at Prague formed a confederacy and declared that they consented to +freedom of preaching the word of God on their estates, that they +declined to recognize the authority of the council of Constance, but +would obey the Bohemian bishops and a future pope lawfully elected. +Meanwhile they declared the university of Prague the supreme authority +in all matters of religion. The members of the confederacy attempted, +though unsuccessfully, to induce King Wenceslas to become their leader. +The Romanist nobles, who were not numerous, but some of whom owned vast +estates, now also formed a confederacy, pledging themselves to support +the pope and the council. After the closing of the council in 1418, +Sigismund, who--Wenceslas being childless--was heir to the Bohemian +throne, sent a letter to his brother, which was practically a manifesto +addressed to the Bohemian people. He threatened with the severest +penalties all who should continue to resist the authority of Rome. +Wenceslas maintained the vacillating attitude that was characteristic of +his whole reign, though Queen Sophia still extended her protection to +the reformers. By doing this, indeed, she incurred the wrath of the +Church to so great an extent that an act of accusation against her was +drawn up at the council of Constance. Intimidated by his brother, +Wenceslas now attempted to stem the current of religious enthusiasm. +Immediately after the death of Huss many priests who refused to +administer communion in the two kinds--now the principal tenet of the +adherents of Huss--had been expelled from their parishes. Wenceslas +decreed that they should be reinstated, and it was only after some +hesitation that he even permitted that religious services according to +the Utraquist doctrine should be held in three of the churches of +Prague. Some of the more advanced reformers left Prague and formed the +party known as the Taborites, from the town of Tabor which became their +centre. Troubles soon broke out at Prague. When on the 30th of July +1419, the Hussite priest, John of Zelivo, was leading a procession +through the streets of Prague, stones were thrown at him and his +followers from the town hall of the "new town." The Hussites, led by +John Zizka (q.v.), stormed the town-hall and threw the magistrates from +its windows. On receiving the news of these riots King Wenceslas was +immediately seized by an attack of apoplexy; a second fit on the 16th of +August ended his life. + + + Sigismund. + +The news of the death of the king caused renewed rioting in Prague and +many other Bohemian cities, from which many Germans, mostly adherents of +the Church of Rome, were expelled. Finally a temporary truce was +concluded, and, early in the following year, Sigismund, who now claimed +the Bohemian crown as successor of his brother, arrived at Kutna Hora +(Kuttenberg). Pope Martin V. on the 1st of March 1420 proclaimed a +crusade against Bohemia, and crusaders from all parts of Europe joined +Sigismund's army. "On the 30th day of June the Hungarian king, +Sigismund, with a large army consisting of men of various countries, as +well as of Bohemians, occupied the castle of Prague, determined to +conquer the city, which they considered a heretical community because +they used the sacred chalice and accepted other evangelical truths."[3] +But the attempt of the crusaders to conquer Prague failed, and after an +attack by them on the Vitkov (now Zizkov) hill had been repulsed by the +desperate bravery of the Taborites, led by Zizka, Sigismund determined +to abandon the siege of Prague. An attempt of Sigismund to relieve the +besieged garrison of the Vysehrad fortress on the outskirts of Prague +also failed, as he was again entirely defeated at the battle of the +Vysehrad (November 1, 1420). + + + Religious War. + +Royal authority now ceased in Bohemia. At a meeting of the diet at +Caslav (June 1, 1421) Sigismund was deposed. It was decided that a +Polish prince should be chosen as sovereign, and that meanwhile a +provisional government, composed of twenty men belonging to the various +parties, should be established. In 1422 Sigismund again invaded Bohemia, +but was decisively defeated by Zizka at Nemecky Brod (Deutschbrod). The +Polish prince, Sigismund Korybutovic, now arrived in Bohemia, and was +recognized as regent by the large majority of the inhabitants; but +through the influence of the papal see he was recalled by the rulers of +Poland after a stay of only a few months. After his departure, civil war +between the moderate Hussites (Calixtines or Utraquists) and the +advanced Taborite party broke out for the first time, though there had +previously been isolated disturbances between them. The return of Prince +Korybutovic and the menace of a German invasion soon reunited the +Bohemians, who gained a decisive victory over the Germans at Aussig in +1426. Shortly afterwards Korybutovic, who had taken part in this great +victory, incurred the dislike of the extreme Hussites, and was obliged +to leave Bohemia. All hope of establishing an independent Slav dynasty +in Bohemia thus came to an end. In 1427 several German princes undertook +a new crusade against the Hussites. With the German and other invaders +were 1000 English archers, bodyguard to Henry Beaufort, bishop of +Winchester, who took part in the crusade as papal legate. The crusaders +were seized by a sudden panic, both at Mies (Stribro) and at Tachau, as +soon as they approached the Hussites, and they fled hurriedly across the +mountains into Bavaria. Though internal disturbances again broke out, +the Bohemians after this success assumed the offensive, and repeatedly +invaded Hungary and the German states. + + + The "Compacts." + +The impossibility of conquering Bohemia had now become obvious, and it +was resolved that a council should meet at Basel (q.v.) to examine the +demands of the Hussites. The Germans, however, influenced by Sigismund, +determined to make a last attempt to subdue Bohemia by armed force. The +Bohemians, as usual united in the moment of peril, defeated the Germans +at Domazlice (Taus) on the 1st of August 1431, after a very short fight. +In the course of the same year negotiations began at Basel, the Hussites +being represented by a numerous embassy under the leadership of Prokop +the Great. The negotiations proceeded very slowly, and in 1433 the +Bohemians returned to their own country, accompanied, however, by envoys +of the council. Dissensions had meanwhile again broken out in Bohemia, +and they were now of a political rather than a religious nature. The +more aristocratic Hussites raised an armed force which was known as "the +army of the nobles." The Taborites also collected their men, who formed +"the army of the towns." The two armies met at Lipan, near Kolin, on the +30th of May 1434. The Taborites were defeated, and the two Prokops and +most of their other leaders perished on the battlefield. The victory of +the moderate party paved the way to a reconciliation with Sigismund and +the Church of Rome. The Bohemians recognized Sigismund as their +sovereign, but obtained considerable concessions with regard to +religious matters. These concessions, which were formulated in the +so-called Compacts, granted to the Bohemians the right of communion in +both kinds, and of preaching the gospel freely, and also to a certain +extent limited the power of the clergy to acquire worldly goods. + +After the Compacts had been formally recognized at Iglau in Moravia, +Sigismund proceeded to Prague and was accepted as king. He died in the +following year (1437) and was succeeded by his son-in-law, Albert of +Austria, whom the estates chose as their king. Albert died after he had +reigned over Bohemia less than two years. Though it was known that +Albert's widow Elizabeth would shortly give birth to a child, the +question as to the succession to the throne again arose; for it was +only in 1627 that the question whether the Bohemian crown was elective +or hereditary was decided for ever. The nobles formed two parties, one +of which, the national one, had George of Podebrad (q.v.) as its leader. +Ulrich of Rosenberg was the leader of the Roman or Austrian division of +the nobility. The two parties finally came to an agreement known as the +"Letter of Peace" (_list mirny_). Those who signed it pledged themselves +to recognise the Compacts, and to support as archbishop of Prague, John +of Rokycan, who had been chosen by the estates in accordance with an +agreement made simultaneously with the Compacts, but whom the Church of +Rome refused to recognize. On the other hand, the national party +abandoned the candidature to the throne of Prince Casimir of Poland, +thus paving the way to the eventual succession of Albert's heir. On the +22nd of February 1440 Queen Elizabeth gave birth to a son, who received +the name of Ladislas. The Bohemians formally acknowledged him as their +king, though only after their crown had been declined by Albert, duke of +Bavaria. Ladislas remained in Austria under the guardianship of his +uncle Frederick, duke of Styria, afterwards the emperor Frederick III., +and Bohemia, still without regular government, continued to be the scene +of constant conflicts between the rival parties of the nobility. In 1446 +a general meeting of the estates of Bohemia together with those of +Moravia, Silesia and Lusatia--and so-called "lands of the Bohemian +crown"--took place. This meeting has exceptional importance for the +constitutional history of Bohemia. It was decreed that at the meeting of +the estates their members should be divided into three bodies--known as +_curiae_--representing the nobles, the knights and the towns. These +_curiae_ were to deliberate separately and only to meet for a final +decision. An attempt made at this meeting to appoint a regent was +unsuccessful. The negotiations with the papal see continued meanwhile, +but led to no result, as the members of the Roman party used their +influence at the papal court for the purpose of dissuading it from +granting any concessions to their countrymen. Shortly after the +termination of the diet of 1446 George of Podebrad therefore determined +to appeal to the fortune of war. He assembled a considerable army at +Kutna Hora and marched on Prague (1448). He occupied the town almost +without resistance and assumed the regency over the kingdom. The diet in +1451 recognized his title, which was also sanctioned by the emperor +Frederick III., guardian of the young king. Podebrad was none the less +opposed, almost from the first, by the Romanists, who even concluded an +alliance against him with their extreme opponents, Kolda of Zampach and +the other remaining Taborites. In October 1453 Ladislas arrived in +Bohemia and was crowned king at Prague; but he died somewhat suddenly on +the 23rd of November 1457. George of Podebrad has from the first +frequently been accused of having poisoned him, but historical research +has proved that this accusation is entirely unfounded. The Bohemian +throne was now again vacant, for, when electing Ladislas the estates had +reaffirmed the elective character of the monarchy. Though there were +several foreign candidates, the estates unanimously elected George of +Podebrad, who had now for some time administered the country. Though the +Romanist lords, whom Podebrad had for a time won over, also voted for +him, the election was considered a great victory of the national party +and was welcomed with enthusiasm by the citizens of Prague. + +During the earlier and more prosperous part of his reign the policy of +King George was founded on a firm alliance with Matthias Corvinus, king +of Hungary, through whose influence he was crowned by the Romanist +bishop of Waitzen. The reign of King George, whose principal supporters +were the men of the smaller nobility and of the towns, was at first very +prosperous. After a certain time, however, some of the Romanist nobles +became hostile to the king, and, partly through their influence, he +became involved in a protracted struggle with the papal see. It was in +consequence of this struggle that some of George's far-reaching +plans--he endeavoured for a time to obtain the supremacy over +Germany--failed. After the negotiations with Rome had proved +unsuccessful George assembled the estates at Prague in 1452 and declared +that he would to his death remain true to the communion in both kinds, +and that he was ready to risk his life and his crown in the defence of +his faith. The Romanist party in Bohemia became yet more embittered +against the king, and at a meeting at Zelena Hora (Grunberg) in 1465 +many nobles of the Roman religion joined in a confederacy against him. +In the following year Pope Paul II. granted his moral support to the +confederates by pronouncing sentence of excommunication against George +of Podebrad and by releasing all Bohemians from their oath of allegiance +to him. It was also through papal influence that King Matthias of +Hungary, deserting his former ally, supported the lords of the league of +Zelena Hora. Desultory warfare broke out between the two parties, in +which George was at first successful; but fortune changed when the king +of Hungary invaded Moravia and obtained possession of Brunn, the capital +of the country. At a meeting of the Catholic nobles of Bohemia and +Moravia at Olmutz in Moravia, Matthias was proclaimed king of Bohemia +(May 3, 1469). In the following year George obtained some successes over +his rival, but his death in 1471 for a time put a stop to the war. +George of Podebrad, the only Hussite king of Bohemia, has always, with +Charles IV., been the ruler of Bohemia whose memory has most endeared +itself to his countrymen. + + + Vladislav of Poland. + +George of Podebrad had undoubtedly during the more prosperous part of +his reign intended to found a national dynasty. In later years, however, +hope of obtaining aid from Poland in his struggle against King Matthias +induced him to offer the succession to the Bohemian throne to Vladislav +(Wladislaus, Ladislaus), son of Casimir, king of Poland. No formal +agreement was made, and at the death of George many Bohemian nobles +supported the claim of Matthias of Hungary, who had already been +proclaimed king of Bohemia. Protracted negotiations ensued, but they +ended by the election of Prince Vladislav of Poland at Kutna Hora, the +27th of May 1471. This election was a victory of the national party, and +may be considered as evidence of the strong anti-clerical feeling which +then prevailed in Bohemia; for Matthias was an unconditional adherent of +Rome, while the Polish envoys who represented Vladislav promised that he +would maintain the Compacts. At the beginning of his reign the new king +was involved in a struggle with Matthias of Hungary, who maintained his +claim to the Bohemian throne. Prolonged desultory warfare continued up +to 1478, when a treaty concluded at Olmutz secured Bohemia to Vladislav; +Matthias was to retain the so-called "lands of the Bohemian +crown"--Moravia, Silesia and Lusatia--during his lifetime, and they were +to be restored to Bohemia after his death. Though Vladislav was faithful +to his promise of maintaining the Compacts, and did not attempt to +prevent the Bohemians from receiving the communion in both kinds, yet +his policy was on the whole a reactionary one, both as regards matters +of state and the religious controversies. The king appointed as +government officials at Prague men of that section of the Utraquist +party that was nearest to Rome, while a severe persecution of the +extreme Hussites known as the Bohemian Brethren took place (see +HUSSITES). Serious riots took place at Prague, and the more advanced +Hussites stormed the three town halls of the city. The nobles of the +same faith also formed a league to guard themselves against the menaced +reaction. A meeting of all the estates at Kutna Hora in 1485, however, +for a time restored peace. Both parties agreed to respect the religious +views of their opponents and to abstain from all violence, and the +Compacts were again confirmed. + +As regards matters of state the reign of Vladislav is marked by a +decrease of the royal prerogative, while the power of the nobility +attained an unprecedented height, at the expense, not only of the royal +power, but also of the rights of the townsmen and peasants. A decree of +1487 practically established serfdom in Bohemia, where it had hitherto +been almost unknown. It is impossible to exaggerate the importance of +this measure for the future of Bohemia. The rulers of the country were +henceforth unable to rely on that numerous sturdy and independent +peasantry of which the armies of Zizka and the Prokops had mainly +consisted. Various enactments belonging to this reign also curtailed the +rights of the Bohemian townsmen. A decree known as the "regulations of +King Vladislav" codified these changes. It enumerated all the rights of +the nobles and knights, but entirely ignored those of the towns. It was +tacitly assumed that the townsmen had no inherent rights, but only such +privileges as might be granted them by their sovereign with the consent +of the nobles and knights. Civil discord was the inevitable consequence +of these enactments. Several meeting? of the diet took place at which +the towns were not represented. The latter in 1513 formed a confederacy +to defend their rights, and chose Prince Bartholomew of Munsterberg--a +grandson of King George--as their leader. + + + Louis. + +Vladislav was elected king of Hungary in 1490 and many of the events of +his later life belong to the history of Hungary. He married in 1502 Anna +de Candale, who was connected with the royal family of France. He had +two children by her, Anna, who afterwards married the archduke Ferdinand +of Austria, and Louis. Vladislav died in Hungary in 1516. His successor +was his son Louis, who had already been crowned as king of Bohemia at +the age of three. According to the instructions of Vladislav, Sigismund, +king of Poland, and the emperor Maximilian I. were to act as guardians +of the young king. The Bohemian estates recognized this decision, but +they refused to allow the guardians any right of interference in the +affairs of Bohemia. The great Bohemian nobles, and in particular the +supreme burgrave, Zdenek Leo, lord of Rozmital, ruled the country almost +without control. The beginning of the nominal reign of King Louis is +marked by an event which had great importance for the constitutional +development of Bohemia. At a meeting of the estates in 1517 known as the +diet of St Wenceslas--as the members first assembled on the 28th of +September, the anniversary of that saint--they came to terms and settled +the questions which had been the causes of discord. The citizens +renounced certain privileges which they had hitherto claimed, while the +two other estates recognized their municipal autonomy and tacitly +sanctioned their presence at the meetings of the diet, to which they had +already been informally readmitted since 1508. At the first sitting of +this diet, on the 24th of October, it was declared that the three +estates had agreed henceforth "to live together in friendly intercourse, +as became men belonging to the same country and race." In 1522 Louis +arrived in Bohemia from Hungary, of which country he had also been +elected king. On his arrival at Prague he dismissed all the Bohemian +state officials, including the powerful Leo of Rozmital. He appointed +Charles of Munsterberg, a cousin of Prince Bartholomew and also a +grandson of King George, as regent of Bohemia during his absences, and +John of Wartenberg as burgrave. The new officials appear to have +supported the more advanced Hussite party, while Rozmital and the +members of the town council of Prague who had acted in concert with him +had been the allies of the Romanists and those Utraquists who were +nearest to the Church of Rome. The new officials thus incurred the +displeasure of King Louis, who was at that moment seeking the aid of the +pope in his warfare with Turkey. The king therefore reinstated Leo of +Rozmital in his offices in 1525. Shortly afterwards Rozmital became +involved in a feud with the lords of Rosenberg; the feud became a civil +war, in which most of the nobles and cities of Bohemia took sides. +Meanwhile Louis, who had returned to Hungary, opened his campaign +against the Turks. He requested aid from his Bohemian subjects, and this +was granted, by the Rosenberg faction, while Rozmital and his party +purposely delayed sending any forces to Hungary. There were, therefore, +but few Bohemian troops at the battle of Mohacs (August 29, 1526) at +which Louis was decisively defeated and perished. + + + Origin of the Habsburg dynasty. + + Ferdinand. + +The death of Louis found Bohemia in a state of great disorder, almost of +anarchy. The two last kings had mainly resided in Hungary, and in spite +of the temporary agreement obtained at the diet of St Wenceslas, the +Bohemians had not succeeded in establishing a strong indigenous +government which might have taken the place of the absentee monarchs. +Archduke Ferdinand of Austria--afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I.--laid +claim to the Bohemian throne as husband of Anna, daughter of King +Vladislav. King Sigismund of Poland, the dukes Louis and William of +Bavaria, several other German princes, as well as several Bohemian +noblemen, of whom Leo of Rozmital was the most important, were also +candidates. The diet resolved to entrust the election to twenty-four of +their members, chosen in equal number from the three estates. These +electors, on the 23rd of October (1526), chose Ferdinand of Habsburg as +their king. This date is memorable, as it marks the permanent accession +of the Habsburg dynasty to the Bohemian throne, though the Austrian +archdukes Rudolph and Albert had previously been rulers of Bohemia for +short periods. Though Ferdinand fully shared that devotion to Rome which +is traditional in the Habsburg dynasty, he showed great moderation in +religious matters, particularly at the beginning of his reign. His +principal object was to establish the hereditary right of his dynasty to +the Bohemian throne, and this object he pursued with characteristic +obstinacy. When a great fire broke out at Prague in 1541, which +destroyed all the state documents, Ferdinand obtained the consent of the +estates to the substitution of a charter stating that he had been +recognized as king in consequence of the hereditary rights of his wife +Anna, in the place of the former one, which had stated that he had +become king by election. This caused great dissatisfaction and was one +of the principal causes of the troubles that broke out shortly +afterwards. Ferdinand had in 1531, mainly through the influence of his +brother the emperor Charles V., been elected king of the Romans and heir +to the Empire. He henceforth took a large part in the politics of +Germany, particularly after he had in 1547 concluded a treaty of peace +with Turkey, which assured the safety of the eastern frontiers of his +dominions. Charles V. about the same time concluded his war with France, +and the brothers determined to adopt a firmer policy towards the +Protestants of Germany, whose power had recently greatly increased. The +latter had, about the time of the recognition of Ferdinand as king of +the Romans, and partly in consequence of that event, formed at +Schmalkalden a league, of which John Frederick, elector of Saxony, and +Philip, landgrave of Hesse, were the leaders. War broke out in Germany +in the summer of 1546, and Charles relied on the aid of his brother, +while the German Protestants on the other hand appealed to their +Bohemian co-religionists for aid. + + + Struggles in the war against German Protestantism. + +Since the beginning of the Reformation in Germany the views of the +Bohemian reformers had undergone a considerable change. Some of the more +advanced Utraquists differed but little from the German Lutherans, while +the Bohemian Brethren, who at this moment greatly increased in influence +through the accession of several powerful nobles, strongly sympathized +with the Protestants of Germany. Ferdinand's task of raising a Bohemian +army in support of his brother was therefore a difficult one. He again +employed his usual tortuous policy. He persuaded the estates to vote a +general levy of the forces of the country under the somewhat +disingenuous pretext that Bohemia was menaced by the Turks; for at that +period no armed force could be raised in Bohemia without the consent of +the estates of the realm. Ferdinand fixed the town of Kaaden on the +Saxon frontier as the spot where the troops were to meet, but on his +arrival there he found that many cities and nobles--particularly those +who belonged to the community of the Bohemian Brethren--had sent no men. +Of the soldiers who arrived many were Protestants who sympathized with +their German co-religionists. The Bohemian army refused to cross the +Saxon frontier, and towards the end of the year 1546 Ferdinand was +obliged to disband his Bohemian forces. Early in the following year he +again called on his Bohemian subjects to furnish an army in aid of his +brother. Only a few of the Romanists and more retrograde Utraquists +obeyed his order. The large majority of Bohemians, on the other hand, +considered the moment opportune for recovering the ancient liberties of +Bohemia, on which Ferdinand had encroached in various ways by claiming +hereditary right to the crown and by curtailing the old privileges of +the land. The estates met at Prague in March 1547, without awaiting a +royal summons,--undoubtedly an unconstitutional proceeding. The +assembly, in which the influence of the representatives of the town of +Prague and of the knights and nobles who belonged to the Bohemian +Brotherhood was predominant, had a very revolutionary character. This +became yet more marked when the news of the elector of Saxony's victory +at Rochlitz reached Prague. The estates demanded the re-establishment of +the elective character of the Bohemian kingdom, the recognition of +religious liberty for all, and various enactments limiting the royal +prerogative. It was decided to entrust the management of state affairs +to a committee of twelve members chosen in equal number from the three +estates. Of the members of the committee chosen by the knights and +nobles four belonged to the Bohemian Brotherhood. The committee decided +to equip an armed force, the command of which was conferred on Kaspar +Pflug of Rabenstein (d. 1576). According to his instructions he was +merely to march to the Saxon frontier, and there await further orders +from the estates; there seems, however, little doubt that he was +secretly instructed to afford aid to the German Protestants. Pflug +marched to Joachimsthal on the frontier, but refused to enter Saxon +territory without a special command of the estates. + +Meanwhile the great victory of the imperialists at Muhlberg had for a +time crushed German Protestantism. The Bohemians were in a very +difficult position. They had seriously offended their sovereign and yet +afforded no aid to the German Protestants. The army of Pflug hastily +dispersed, and the estates still assembled at Prague endeavoured to +propitiate Ferdinand. They sent envoys to the camp of the king who, with +his brother Charles, was then besieging Wittenberg. Ferdinand received +the envoys better than they had perhaps expected. He indeed always +maintained his plan of making Bohemia a hereditary kingdom under +Habsburg rule, and of curtailing as far as possible its ancient +constitution, but he did not wish to drive to despair a still warlike +people. Ferdinand demanded that the Bohemians should renounce all +alliances with the German Protestants, and declared that he would make +his will known after his arrival in Prague. He arrived there on the 20th +of July, with a large force of Spanish and Walloon mercenaries, and +occupied the city almost without resistance. Ferdinand treated the +nobles and knights with great forbearance, and contented himself with +the confiscation of the estates of some of those who had been most +compromised. On the other hand he dealt very severely with the +towns--Prague in particular. He declared that their ancient privileges +should be revised--a measure that practically signified a broad +confiscation of lands that belonged to the municipalities. Ferdinand +also forced the townsmen to accept the control of state officials who +were to be called town-judges and in Prague town-captains. These royal +representatives were given almost unlimited control over municipal +affairs. The Bohemian Brethren were also severely persecuted, and their +bishop Augusta was imprisoned for many years. + +Ferdinand's policy here was as able as it always was. The peasantry had +ceased to be dangerous since the establishment of serfdom; the power of +the cities was now thoroughly undermined. Ferdinand had only to deal +with the nobles and knights, and he hoped that the influence of his +court, and yet more that of the Jesuits, whom he established in Bohemia +about this time, would gradually render them amenable to the royal will. +If we consider the customs of his time Ferdinand cannot be considered as +having acted with cruelty in the moment of his success. Only four of the +principal leaders of the revolt--two knights, and two citizens of +Prague--were sentenced to death. They were decapitated on the square +outside the Hradcany palace where the estates met on that day (August +22). This diet therefore became known as the "Krvavy'sneem" (bloody +diet). In one of the last years of his life (1562) Ferdinand succeeded +in obtaining the coronation of his eldest son Maximilian as king of +Bohemia, thus ensuring to him the succession to the Bohemian throne. As +Ferdinand I. acceded to the Hungarian throne at the same time as to +that of Bohemia, and as he also became king of the Romans and after the +death of Charles V. emperor, many events of his life do not belong to +the history of Bohemia. He died in 1564. + + + Maximilian. + + Abolition of the "Compacts." + +Maximilian succeeded his father as king of Bohemia without any +opposition. Circumstances were greatly in his favour; he had in his +youth mainly been educated by Protestant tutors, and for a time openly +avowed strong sympathy for the party of church reform. This fact, which +became known in Bohemia, secured for him the support of the Bohemian +church reformers, while the Romanists and retrograde Utraquists were +traditionally on the side of the house of Habsburg. The reign of +Maximilian did not fulfil the hopes that met it. Though he published new +decrees against the Bohemian Brethren, he generally refused to sanction +any measures against the Protestants, in spite of the advice of the +Jesuits, who were gradually obtaining great influence in Bohemia. He did +nothing, however, to satisfy the expectations of the partisans of church +reform, and indeed after a time began again to assist at the functions +of the Roman church, from which he had long absented himself. +Indifference, perhaps founded on religious scepticism, characterized the +king during the many ecclesiastical disputes that played so large a part +in his reign. In 1567 Maximilian, who had also succeeded his father as +king of Hungary and emperor, visited the Bohemians for the first time +since his accession to the throne. Like most princes of the Habsburg +dynasty, he was constantly confronted at this period by the difficulty +of raising funds for warfare against the Turks. When he asked the +Bohemians to grant him supplies for this purpose, they immediately +retorted by bringing forward their demands with regard to matters of +religion. Their principal demand appears somewhat strange in the light +of the events of the past. The estates expressed the wish that the +celebrated Compacts should cease to form part of the laws of the +country. These enactments had indeed granted freedom of worship to the +most moderate Utraquists--men who, except that they claimed the right to +receive the communion in both kinds, hardly differed in their faith from +the Roman church. On the other hand Ferdinand I. had used the Compacts +as an instrument which justified him in oppressing the Bohemian +Brethren, and the advanced Utraquists, whose teaching now differed but +little from that of Luther. He had argued that all those who professed +doctrines differing from the Church of Rome more widely than did the +retrograde Utraquists, were outside the pale of religious toleration. +Maximilian, indifferent as usual to matters of religious controversy, +consented to the abolition of the Compacts, and these enactments, which +had once been sacred to the Bohemian people, perished unregretted by all +parties. The Romanists had always hated them, believing them not to be +in accord with the general custom of the papal church, while the +Lutherans and Bohemian Brethren considered their suppression a guarantee +of their own liberty of worship. + + + Confessio Bohemica. + +In 1575 Maximilian, who had long been absent from Bohemia, returned +there, as the estates refused to grant subsidies to an absentee monarch. +The sittings of the diet that met in 1575 were very prolonged. The king +maintained a vacillating attitude, influenced now by the threats of the +Bohemians, now by the advice of the papal nuncio, who had followed him +to Prague. The latter strongly represented to him how great would be the +difficulties that he would encounter in his other dominions, should he +make concessions to the Protestants of Bohemia. The principal demand of +the Bohemians was that the "Confession of Augsburg"--a summary of +Luther's teaching--should be recognized in Bohemia. They further renewed +the demand, which they had already expressed at the diet of 1567, that +the estates should have the right of appointing the members of the +consistory--the ecclesiastical body which ruled the Utraquist church; +for since the death of John of Rokycan that church had had no +archbishop. After long deliberations and the king's final refusal to +recognize the confession of Augsburg, the majority of the diet, +consisting of members of the Bohemian brotherhood and advanced +Utraquists, drew up a profession of faith that became known as the +_Confessio Bohemica_. It was in most points identical with the Augsburg +confession, but differed from it with regard to the doctrine of the +sacrament of the Lord's Supper. Here the Bohemian profession agreed with +the views of Calvin rather than with those of Luther. This is +undoubtedly due to the influence of the Bohemian Brethren. The +_Confessio Bohemica_ was presented to Maximilian, who verbally expressed +his approval, but would not consent to this being made public, and also +refused his consent to the inclusion of the _Confessio_ among the +charters of the kingdom. Maximilian rejected the demand of the Bohemian +estates, that they and not the king should in future appoint the members +of the consistory. He finally, however, consented to exempt the +Lutherans and advanced Utraquists from the jurisdiction of the +consistory, and allowed them to choose fifteen defenders--five of whom +were to belong to each of the estates--who were to have supreme control +over the Lutheran church. These defenders were to appoint for each +district a superintendent (moderator), who was to maintain order and +discipline among the clergy. As the Bohemian Brotherhood had never +recognized the consistory, that body now lost whatever influence it had +still possessed. It became, indeed, subservient to the Romanist +archbishopric of Prague, which had been re-established by Ferdinand I. +Its members henceforth were men who on almost all points agreed with +Rome, and sometimes even men who had joined the Roman church, but +continued by order of their superiors to remain members of the +consistory, where it was thought that their influence might be useful to +their new creed. + + + Rudolph. + +The results of the diet of 1575 were on the whole favourable to the +estates, and they seem to have taken this view, for almost immediately +afterwards they recognized Maximilian's eldest son Rudolph as his +successor and consented to his being crowned king of Bohemia. Maximilian +died in the following year, and Rudolph succeeded him without any +opposition. The events of the last years of the reign of Rudolph have +the greatest importance for Bohemian history, but the earlier part of +his reign requires little notice. As Rudolph had been educated in Spain +it was at first thought that he would treat the Bohemian church +reformers with great severity. The new sovereign, however, showed with +regard to the unceasing religious controversy the same apathy and +indifference with which he also met matters of state. He had been from +his early youth subject to fits of melancholia, and during several short +periods was actually insane. Rudolph was a great patron of the arts, and +he greatly contributed to the embellishment of Prague, which, as it was +his favourite residence, became the centre of the vast Habsburg +dominions. In 1600 the mental condition of Rudolph became so seriously +impaired that the princes of the house of Habsburg thought it necessary +to consider the future of the state, particularly as Rudolph had no +legitimate descendants. Matthias, the eldest of his brothers, came to +Prague and pointed out to Rudolph the necessity of appointing a +coadjutor, should he be incapacitated from fulfilling his royal duties, +and also of making arrangements concerning the succession to the throne. +These suggestions were indignantly repelled by Rudolph, whose anger was +greatly increased by a letter of Pope Clement VIII. The pope in a +forcible though formally courteous manner pointed out to him the evil +results which his neglect of his royal duties would entail on his +subjects, and called on him to appoint one of the Habsburg princes his +successor both to the imperial crown and to the thrones of Bohemia and +Hungary. It is probable that the fear that the pope might make good the +threats contained in this letter induced Rudolph, who had hitherto been +indifferent to matters of religion, to become more subservient to the +Roman church. The papal nuncio at Prague, in particular, appears for a +time to have obtained great influence over the king. Under this +influence, Rudolph in 1602 issued a decree which renewed obsolete +enactments against the Bohemian Brethren that had been published by King +Vladislav in 1508. The royal decree was purposely worded in an obscure +manner. It referred to the Compacts that had been abolished, and was +liable to an interpretation excluding from tolerance all but the +Romanists and the retrograde Utraquists. It appeared therefore as a +menace to the Lutherans--and all the more advanced Utraquists had now +embraced that creed--as well as to the Bohemian Brethren. The estates of +Bohemia met at Prague in January 1603. The discussions were very stormy. +Budovec of Budova, a nobleman belonging to the community of the Bohemian +Brethren, became the leader of all those who were opposed to the Church +of Rome. He vigorously attacked the royal decree, which he declared to +be contrary to the promises made by King Maximilian. He, however, +advised the estates to vote the supplies that King Rudolph had demanded. +Immediately after this vote had been passed, the diet was closed by +order of the king. Though the royal power was at that period very weak +in Bohemia, the open partisanship of the king encouraged the Romanist +nobles, who were not numerous, but among whom were some owners of large +estates, to attempt to re-establish the Roman creed on their +territories. Some of these nobles committed great cruelties while +attempting to obtain these forcible conversions. + +Strife again broke out between Rudolph and his treacherous younger +brother Matthias, who used the religious and political controversies of +the time for the purpose of supplanting his brother. The formal cause of +the rupture between the two princes was Rudolph's refusal to sanction a +treaty of peace with Turkey, which Matthias had concluded as his +brother's representative in Hungary. The Hungarians accepted Matthias as +their ruler, and when his forces entered Moravia the estates of that +country had, by Charles, lord of Zerotin, also renounced the allegiance +of Rudolph. Matthias then invaded Bohemia, and invited the estates of +the kingdom to meet him at Caslav (Ceslau). In consequence of a sudden +revolution of feeling for which it is difficult to account, the +Bohemians declined the overtures of Matthias. The estates met at Prague +in March 1608, and, though again submitting their demands concerning +ecclesiastical matters to Rudolph, authorized him to levy troops for the +defence of Bohemia. The forces of Matthias had meanwhile entered Bohemia +and had arrived at Liben, a small town near Prague now incorporated with +that city. Here Matthias, probably disappointed by the refusal of the +Bohemians to join his standard, came to an understanding with his +brother (June 25, 1608). Rudolph formally ceded to Matthias the +government of Hungary, Moravia, and Upper and Lower Austria, but +retained his rights as king of Bohemia. + + + Diet of 1609. Demand for religious liberty. + +Soon after the conclusion of this temporary settlement, the estates of +Bohemia again brought their demands before their king. Rudolph had +declined to discuss all religious matters during the time that the +troops of his brother occupied part of Bohemia. The diet that met on the +20th of January 1609 is one of the most important in the history of +Bohemia. Here, as so frequently in the 17th century, the religious +controversies were largely influenced by personal enmities. Rudolph +never forgave the treachery of his brother, and was secretly negotiating +(at the time when he again appeared as champion of Catholicism) with +Christian of Anhalt, the leader of the German Protestants. This was +known to the court of Spain, and the Bohemians also knew that the king +could therefore rely on no aid from that quarter. They were therefore +not intimidated when Rudolph, vacillating as ever, suddenly assumed a +most truculent attitude. The estates had at their meeting in March of +the previous year drawn up a document consisting of twenty-five +so-called Articles, which formulated their demands with regard to +matters of religion. The king now demanded that this document, which he +considered illegal, should be delivered up to him for destruction. The +"articles" expressed the wish that the _Confessio Bohemica_ should be +recognized as one of the fundamental laws of the kingdom, and that +complete religious liberty should be granted to all classes. They +further demanded that the Protestants--as it now became customary to +call jointly the Utraquists, Lutherans and Bohemian Brethren--and the +Roman Catholics should have an equal right to hold all the offices of +state, and that the power of the Jesuits to acquire land should be +limited. They finally asked for redress of several grievances caused by +the misrule of Rudolph. This document had remained in the hands of +Budova, who refused to deliver it to the king. The estates then chose +twelve of their number--among whom was Count Henry Matthias Thurn--who +were to negotiate with the king and his councillors. Protracted +discussions ensued, and the king finally stated, on the 31st of March, +that he could grant no concessions in matters of religion. On the +following day the estates met under the leadership of Budova. They +decided to arm for the defence of their rights, and when the king +immediately afterwards dissolved the diet, it was resolved to meet again +after a month, even without a royal summons. When they returned to +Prague, Adam of Sternberg, the burgrave, again informed Budova that the +king would grant no concessions in ecclesiastical matters. Bohemia +appeared to be on the verge of a revolution. It is unnecessary to record +the frequent and contradictory resolutions of the king, influenced now +by the extreme Romanists, now by those of his councillors who favoured a +peaceful solution. Finally--on the 9th of July 1609--Rudolph signed the +famed "Letter of Majesty" which gave satisfaction to all the legitimate +demands of the Bohemian Protestants. In the "Letter of Majesty" Rudolph +recognized the _Confessio Bohemica_. He further granted to the +Protestant estates the control over the university of Prague, and +authorized them to elect the members of the Utraquist consistory. They +were further empowered to elect "defenders" chosen in equal number from +the estates of the nobles, knights and citizens, who were to superintend +the execution of the enactments of the Letter of Majesty and generally +to uphold the rights of the Protestants. On the same day the Romanist +and the Protestant members of the diet also signed an agreement by which +they guaranteed to each other full liberty of religious worship and +declared that this liberty should be extended to all classes of the +population. + + + Matthias. + +In 1611 the peace of Bohemia was again disturbed by the invasion of the +archduke Leopold of Austria, bishop of Passau, who probably acted in +connivance with his cousin King Rudolph. Leopold succeeded in obtaining +possession of part of the town of Prague, but his army was defeated by +the troops which the Bohemian estates had hurriedly raised, and he was +obliged to leave Bohemia. Matthias considered his hereditary rights +menaced by the raid of Leopold and again occupied Bohemia. Mainly at his +instigation the estates now formally deposed Rudolph, who survived his +dethronement only a few months, and died on the 20th of January 1612. +Though Matthias had allied himself with the Bohemian Protestants during +his prolonged struggle against his brother, he now adopted that policy +favourable to the Church of Rome which is traditional of the Habsburg +dynasty. His relations with the Bohemian Protestants, therefore, soon +became strained. In 1615 Matthias convoked a general diet, i.e. one that +besides the Bohemian representatives included also the representatives +of the "lands of the Bohemian crown." At the meeting of this diet the +question of nationality, which through the constant religious +controversies had receded to the background, again became predominant. +Former enactments enforcing the use of the national language were +reaffirmed, and it was decreed that Bohemian should be the "authorized" +(i.e. official) language of the country. + +As Matthias was childless, the question as to the succession to the +Bohemian throne again arose. The king wished to secure the succession to +his cousin Ferdinand, duke of Styria. Ferdinand was known as a fanatical +adherent of the Church of Rome and as a cruel persecutor of the +Protestants of Styria. None the less the state officials of Bohemia, by +not very scrupulous means, succeeded in persuading the estates to accept +Ferdinand as heir to the throne and to consent to his coronation, which +took place at Prague on the 17th of June 1617. No doubt through the +influence of Ferdinand, the policy of Matthias henceforth assumed a yet +more pronouncedly ultramontane character. The king's councillors, all +adherents of the Church of Rome, openly expressed their hope that the +Catholic Church would soon recover its ancient hold over Bohemia. On the +other hand the Bohemian Protestants, led by Count Thurn, one of the few +nobles who had refused to vote for the recognition of Ferdinand as heir +to the throne, did not wish to defer what they considered an inevitable +conflict. It appeared to them more advantageous to encounter the weak +Matthias than his younger and more fanatical successor. A comparatively +unimportant incident precipitated matters. In December 1617, the +archbishop of Prague and the abbot of Brevnov (Braunau) ordered the +suppression of the Protestant religious services in churches that had +been built on their domains. This was a direct infringement of the +agreement concluded by the Romanist and Utraquist estates on the day on +which King Rudolph had signed the Letter of Majesty. The defenders took +immediate action, by inviting all Protestant members of the diet to meet +at Prague. They assembled there on 21st of May 1618, and decided to +proceed in full armour to the Hradcany palace to bring their complaints +to the knowledge of the councillors of Matthias. On the following day, +Thurn, Wenceslas of Ruppa, Ulrich of Kinsky, and other members of the +more advanced party held a secret meeting, at which it was decided to +put to death the most influential of Matthias's councillors. On the 23rd +the representatives of the Protestants of Bohemia proceeded to the +Hradcany. Violent accusations were brought forward, particularly against +Martinic and Slavata, the king's most trusted councillors, who were +accused of having advised him to oppose the wishes of the Bohemians. +Finally these two councillors, together with Fabricius, secretary of the +royal council, were thrown from the windows of the Hradcany into the +moat below--an event known in history as the Defenestration of Prague. +Both Martinic and Slavata were but little injured, and succeeded in +escaping from Prague. The Bohemians immediately established a +provisional government consisting of thirty "directors," ten of whom +were chosen by each of the estates. They also proceeded to raise an +armed force, the command of which was given to Count Thurn. Hostilities +with Austria began in July, when an imperial force entered Bohemia. The +troops of Matthias were, however, soon repulsed by the Bohemians, and in +November Thurn's army entered Austria, but was soon obliged to retire to +Bohemia because of the lateness of the season. + + + War with the emperor Ferdinand. + +In the following March the Bohemian crown became vacant by the death of +Matthias. On the 31st of July the Bohemian estates pronounced the formal +deposition of Ferdinand, and on the 26th of August they elected as their +king Frederick, elector palatine. The new king and his queen, Elizabeth +of England, arrived in Bohemia in October, and were crowned somewhat +later at St Vitus's cathedral in Prague. Warfare with Austria continued +during this year--1619. Thurn occupied Moravia, which now threw in its +lot with Bohemia, and he even advanced on Vienna, but was soon obliged +to retreat. In the following year events took a fatal turn for Bohemia. +The powerful duke Maximilian of Bavaria joined his forces to those of +Ferdinand, who had become Matthias's successor as emperor, and who was +determined to reconquer Bohemia. Ferdinand also received aid from Spain, +Poland and several Italian states. Even the Lutheran elector of Saxony +espoused his cause. A large imperialist army, under the command of the +duke of Bavaria, Tilly and Bouquoi, entered Bohemia in September 1620. +After several skirmishes, in all of which the Bohemians were defeated, +the imperial forces arrived at the outskirts of Prague on the evening of +the 7th of November. On the following morning they attacked the Bohemian +army, which occupied a slightly fortified position on the plateau known +as the "Bila Hora" (White Hill). The Bohemians were defeated after a +struggle of only a few hours, and on the evening of battle the +imperialists already occupied the port of Prague, situated on the left +bank of the Vltava (Moldau). King Frederick, who had lost all courage, +hurriedly left Prague on the following morning. + + + Submission of Bohemia. + +Bohemia itself, as well as the lands of the Bohemian crown, now +submitted to Ferdinand almost without resistance. The battle of the +White Hill marks an epoch in the history of Bohemia. The execution of +the principal leaders of the national movement (June 21, 1621) was +followed by a system of wholesale confiscation of the lands of all who +had in any way participated in the national movement. Almost the entire +ancient nobility of Bohemia was driven into exile, and adventurers from +all countries, mostly men who had served in the imperial army, shared +the spoils. Gradually all those who refused to recognize the creed of +the Roman church were expelled from Bohemia, and by the use of terrible +cruelty Catholicism was entirely re-established in the country. In 1627 +Ferdinand published a decree, which formally suppressed the ancient free +constitution of Bohemia, though a semblance of representative government +was left to the country. The new constitution proclaimed the heredity of +the Bohemian crown in the house of Habsburg. It added a new "estate," +that of the clergy, to the three already existing. This estate, which +was to take precedence of all the others, consisted of the Roman +archbishop of Prague and of all the ecclesiastics who were endowed with +landed estates. The diet was deprived of all legislative power, which +was exclusively vested in the sovereign. At its meetings the diet was to +discuss such matters only as were laid before it by the representatives +of the king. The estates continued to have the right of voting taxes, +but they were specially forbidden to attach any conditions to the grants +of money which they made to their sovereign. It was finally decreed that +the German language should have equal right with the Bohemian one in all +the government offices and law-courts of the kingdom. This had indeed +become a necessity, since, in consequence of the vast confiscations, the +greatest part of the land was in the hands of foreigners to whom the +national language was unknown. Though these enactments still left some +autonomy to Bohemia, the country gradually lost all individuality. Its +history from this moment to the beginning of the 19th century is but a +part of the history of Austria (q.v.). + + + Bohemia under Austrian domination. + +Bohemia was the theatre of hostilities during a large part of the Thirty +Years' War, which had begun in its capital. In 1631 the Saxons for a +time occupied a large part of Bohemia, and even attempted to +re-establish Protestantism, During the later period of the Thirty Years' +War Bohemia was frequently pillaged by Swedish troops, and the taking of +part of Prague by the Swedish general Konigsmark in 1648 was the last +event of the great war. The attempts of the Swedish envoys to obtain a +certain amount of toleration for the Bohemian Protestants proved +fruitless, as the imperial representatives were inflexible on this +point. At the beginning of the 18th century the possibility of the +extinction of the male line of the house of Habsburg arose. The estates +of Bohemia, at a meeting that took place at Prague on the 16th of +October 1720, sanctioned the female succession to the Bohemian throne +and recognized the so-called Pragmatic Sanction which proclaimed the +indivisibility of the Habsburg realm. The archduchess Maria Theresa, in +whose favour these enactments were made, none the less met with great +opposition on the death of her father the emperor Charles VI. Charles, +elector of Bavaria, raised claims to the Bohemian throne and invaded the +country with a large army of Bavarian, French and Saxon troops. He +occupied Prague, and a large part of the nobles and knights of Bohemia +took the oath of allegiance to him (December 19, 1741). The fortune of +war, however, changed shortly afterwards. Maria Theresa recovered +Bohemia and the other lands that had been under the rule of the house of +Habsburg. During the reign of Maria Theresa, and to a greater extent +during that of her son Joseph II., many changes in the internal +administration of the Habsburg realm took place which all tended to +limit yet further the autonomy of Bohemia. A decree of 1749 abolished +the separate law-courts that still existed in Bohemia, and a few years +later an Austro-Bohemian chancellor was appointed who was to have the +control of the administration of Bohemia, as well as of the German +domains of the house of Habsburg. The power of the royal officials who +constituted the executive government of Bohemia was greatly curtailed, +and though the chief representative of the sovereign in Prague continued +to bear the ancient title of supreme burgrave, he was instructed to +conform in all matters to the orders of the central government of +Vienna. Yet more extreme measures tending to centralization were +introduced by the emperor Joseph, who refused to be crowned at Prague as +king of Bohemia. The powers of the Bohemian diet and of the royal +officials at Prague were yet further limited, and the German language +was introduced into all the upper schools of Bohemia. Some of the +reforms introduced by Joseph were, incidentally and contrary to the +wishes of their originator, favourable to the Bohemian nationality. Thus +the greater liberty which he granted to the press enabled the Bohemians +to publish a newspaper in the national language. After the death of +Joseph in 1790 the Bohemian estates, whose meetings had been suspended +during his reign, again assembled, but they at first made but scanty +attempts to reassert their former rights. During the long Napoleonic +wars, in which the house of Habsburg was almost continuously engaged, +Bohemia continued in its previous lethargic state. In 1804 a merely +formal change in the constitutional position of Bohemia took place when +Francis I. assumed the hereditary title of emperor of Austria. It was +stated in an imperial decree that the new title of the sovereign should +in no way prejudice the ancient rights of Bohemia and that the +sovereigns would continue to be crowned as kings of Bohemia. + + + Revival of national aspirations. + + Collapse in 1848. + +After the re-establishment of European peace in 1815 the long-suppressed +national aspirations of Bohemia began to revive. The national movement, +however, at first only found expression in the revival of Bohemian +literature. The arbitrary and absolutist government of Prince Metternich +rendered all political action impossible in the lands ruled by the house +of Habsburg. In spite of this pressure the estates of Bohemia began in +1845 to assume an attitude of opposition to the government of Vienna. +They affirmed their right of voting the taxes of the country--a right +that was due to them according to the constitution of 1627. To obtain +the support of the wider classes of the population, they determined in +1847 to propose at their session of the following year that the towns +should have a more extensive representation at the diet, that the +control of the estates over the finances of the country should be made +more stringent, and that the Bohemian language should be introduced into +all the higher schools of the country. The revolutionary outbreak of +1848 prevented this meeting of the estates. When the news of the +February revolution in Paris reached Prague the excitement there was +very great. On the 11th of March a vast public meeting voted a petition +to the government of Vienna which demanded that the Bohemian language +should enjoy equal rights with the German in all the government offices +of the country, that a general diet comprising all the Bohemian lands, +but elected on an extensive suffrage, should be convoked, and that +numerous liberal reforms should be introduced. The deputation which +presented these demands in Vienna received a somewhat equivocal answer. +In reply, however, to a second deputation, the emperor Ferdinand +declared on the 8th of April that equality of rights would be secured to +both nationalities in Bohemia, that the question of the reunion of +Moravia and Silesia to Bohemia should be left to a general meeting of +representatives of all parts of Austria, and that a new meeting of the +estates of Bohemia, which would include representatives of the principal +towns, would shortly be convoked. This assembly, which was to have had +full powers to create a new constitution, and which would have +established complete autonomy, never met, though the election of its +members took place on the 17th of May. In consequence of the general +national movement which is so characteristic of the year 1848, it was +decided to hold at Prague a "Slavic congress" to which Slavs of all +parts of the Austrian empire, as well as those belonging to other +countries, were invited. The deliberations were interrupted by the +serious riots that broke out in the streets of Prague on the 12th of +June. They were suppressed after prolonged fighting and considerable +bloodshed. The Austrian commander, Prince Windischgratz, bombarded the +city, which finally capitulated unconditionally. The nationalist and +liberal movement in Bohemia was thus suddenly checked, though the +Bohemians took part in the Austrian constituent assembly that met at +Vienna, and afterwards at Kromeriz (Kremsier). + +By the end of the year 1849 all constitutional government had ceased in +Bohemia, as in all parts of the Habsburg empire. The reaction that now +ensued was felt more severely than in any other part of the monarchy; +for not only were all attempts to obtain self-government and liberty +ruthlessly suppressed, but a determined attempt was made to exterminate +the national language. The German language was again exclusively used in +all schools and government offices, all Bohemian newspapers were +suppressed, and even the society of the Bohemian museum--a society +composed of Bohemian noblemen and scholars--was for a time only allowed +to hold its meetings under the supervision of the police. + + + Austrian constitutional changes. + +The events of the Italian campaign of 1859 rendered the continuation of +absolutism in the Austrian empire impossible. It was attempted to +establish a constitutional system which, while maintaining to a certain +extent the unity of the empire, should yet recognize the ancient +constitutional rights of some of the countries united under the rule of +the house of Habsburg. A decree published on the 20th of October 1860 +established diets with limited powers. The composition of these +parliamentary assemblies was to a certain extent modelled on that of the +ancient diets of Bohemia and other parts of the empire. This decree was +favourably received in Bohemia, but the hopes which it raised in the +country fell when a new imperial decree appeared on the 26th of February +1861. This established a central parliament at Vienna with very +extensive powers, and introduced an electoral system which was grossly +partial to the Germans. The Bohemians indeed consented to send their +representatives to Vienna, but they left the parliament in 1863, stating +that the assembly had encroached on the power which constitutionally +belonged to the diet of Prague. Two years later the central parliament +of Vienna was suspended, and in the following year--1866--the +Austro-Prussian war caused a complete change in the constitutional +position of Bohemia. The congress of Vienna in 1815 had declared that +that country should form part of the newly formed Germanic +Confederation; this was done without consulting the estates of the +country, as had been customary even after the battle of the White Hill +on the occasion of serious constitutional changes. The treaty with +Prussia, signed at Prague on the 23rd of August 1866, excluded from +Germany all lands ruled by the house of Habsburg. As a natural +consequence German influence declined in the Austrian empire, and in +Bohemia in particular. While Hungary now obtained complete independence, +the new constitution of 1867, which applied only to the German and +Slavic parts of the Habsburg empire, maintained the system of +centralization and attempted to maintain the waning German influence. +The Bohemians energetically opposed this new constitution and refused to +send representatives to Vienna. + + + Renewed struggles of Bohemian nationalism. + +In 1871 it appeared probable for a moment that the wishes of the +Bohemians, who desired that their ancient constitution should be +re-established in a modernized form, would be realized. The new Austrian +prime minister, Count Karl Hohenwart, took office with the firm +intention of accomplishing an agreement between Bohemia and the other +parts of the Habsburg empire. Prolonged negotiations ensued, and an +attempt was made to establish a constitutional system which, while +satisfying the claims of the Bohemians, would yet have firmly connected +them with the other lands ruled by the house of Habsburg. An imperial +message addressed to the diet of Prague (September 14, 1871) stated that +the sovereign "in consideration of the former constitutional position of +Bohemia and remembering the power and glory which its crown had given to +his ancestors, and the constant fidelity of its population, gladly +recognized the rights of the kingdom of Bohemia, and was willing to +confirm this assurance by taking the coronation oath." Various +influences caused the failure of this attempt to reconcile Bohemia with +Austria. In 1872 a government with a pronounced German tendency took +office in Vienna, and the Bohemians for a time again refused to attend +the parliamentary assemblies of Vienna and Prague. In 1879 Count Eduard +Taaffe became Austrian prime minister, and he succeeded in persuading +the representatives of Bohemia to take part in the deliberations of the +parliament of Vienna. They did so, after stating that they took this +step without prejudice to their view that Bohemia with Moravia and +Silesia constituted a separate state under the rule of the same +sovereign as Austria and Hungary. The government of Count Taaffe, in +recognition of this concession by the Bohemians, consented to remove +some of the grossest anomalies connected with the electoral system of +Bohemia, which had hitherto been grossly partial to the German minority +of the population. The government of Count Taaffe also consented to the +foundation of a Bohemian university at Prague, which greatly contributed +to the intellectual development of the country. On the fall of the +government of Count Taaffe, Prince Alfred Windischgratz became prime +minister. The policy of his short-lived government was hostile to +Bohemia and he was soon replaced by Count Badeni. + + + The language question. + +Badeni again attempted to conciliate Bohemia. He did not indeed consider +it feasible to reopen the question of its autonomy, but he endeavoured +to remedy some of the most serious grievances of the country. In the +beginning of 1897 Count Badeni issued a decree which stated that after a +certain date all government officials who wished to be employed in +Bohemia would have to prove a certain knowledge of the Bohemian as well +as of the German language. This decree met with violent opposition on +the part of the German inhabitants of Austria, and caused the fall of +Count Badeni's cabinet at the end of the year 1897. After a brief +interval he was succeeded by Count Thun and then by Count Clary, whose +government repealed the decrees that had to a certain extent granted +equal rights to the Bohemian language. In consequence troubles broke out +in Prague, and were severely repressed by the Austrian authorities. +During the subsequent ministries of Korber and Gautsch the Bohemians +continued to oppose the central government of Vienna, and to assert +their national rights. + + See generally Count Lutzow, _Bohemia, a Historical Sketch_ (London, + 1896). The valuable collection of historical documents entitled + _Fontes Rerum Bohemicarum_, published at Prague in the latter part of + the 19th century, has superseded earlier ones such as Freherus + (Marquard Freher), _Rerum Bohemicarum Antiqui Scriptores_. Similarly, + the earlier historical works of Pubitschka, Pelzl and De Florgy are + superseded by Frantisek Palacky's _Geschichte von Bohmen_ (Prague, + 1844-1867), which, however, ends with the year 1526. Rezek, Gindely + and others have dealt with the history of Bohemia posterior to the + year 1526. Professor Adolf Bachmann published (vol. i. in 1899, vol. + ii. 1905) a _Geschichte Bohmens_ up to 1526, which has a strongly + marked German tendency. Of French works Professor Ernest Denis's _Jean + Hus, et la guerre des Hussites_ (Paris, 1878), _Fin de l'independance + boheme_ (2 vols., 1890), and _La Boheme depuis la Montagne Blanche_ (2 + vols., 1903), give a continuous account of Bohemian history from the + beginning of the 15th century. (L.) + + +LITERATURE + +The earliest records of the Bohemian or Czech language are very ancient, +though the so-called MSS. of Zelena Hora (Gruneberg) and Kralodvur +(Koniginhof) are almost certainly forgeries of the early part of the +19th century. The earliest genuine documents of the Bohemian language +comprise several hymns and legends; of the latter the legend of St +Catherine and that of St Dorothy have the greatest value. Several +ancient epic fragments have also been preserved, such as the +_Alexandreis_ and _Tandarias a Floribella_. These and other early +Bohemian writings have been printed since the revival of Bohemian +literature in the 19th century. Of considerable historical value is the +rhymed chronicle generally though wrongly known as the chronicle of +Dalimil. The author, who probably lived during the reign of King John +(1310-1346), records the events of Bohemian history from the earliest +period to the reign of King Henry of Carinthia, the immediate +predecessor of John. A strong feeling of racial antipathy to the +Germans pervades the chronicle. + + + Old Czech literature. + +It is undoubtedly to be attributed to the high intellectual level which +Bohemia attained in the 14th century that at that period we already find +writers on religious and philosophical subjects who used the national +language. Of these the most important is Thomas of Stitny (c. +1331-1401). Of his works, which contain many ideas similar to those of +his contemporary Wycliffe, those entitled _O obecnych vecech +Krestanskych_ (on general Christian matters) and _Besedni reci_ (in a +rough translation "learned entertainments") have most value. Stitny and +some of his contemporaries whose Bohemian writings have perished are +known as the forerunners of Huss. Huss, like many of his contemporaries +in Bohemia, wrote both in Bohemian and in Latin. Of the Bohemian +writings of Huss, who contributed greatly to the development of his +native language, the most important is his _Vyklad viry, desatera Boziho +prikazani, a patere_ (exposition of the creed, the ten commandments and +the Lord's Prayer) written in 1412. Of his numerous other Bohemian works +we may mention the _Postilla_ (collection of sermons), the treatises _O +poznani cesty prave k spaseni_ (the true road to salvation) and _O +svatokupectvi_ (on simony), and a large collection of letters; those +written in prison are very touching. + +The years that followed the death of Huss formed in Bohemia a period of +incessant theological strife. The anti-Roman or Hussite movement was +largely a democratic one, and it is therefore natural that the national +language rather than Latin should have been used in the writings that +belong to this period. Unfortunately in consequence of the systematic +destruction of all Bohemian writings which took place through the agency +of the Jesuits, after the battle of the White Hill (1620), a large part +of this controversial literature has perished. Thus the writings of the +members of the extreme Hussite party, the so-called Taborites, have been +entirely destroyed. Of the writings of the more moderate Hussites, known +as the Calixtines or Utraquists, some have been preserved. Such are the +books entitled _Of the Great Torment of the Holy Church_ and the _Lives +of the Priests of Tabor_, written in a sense violently hostile to that +community. A Bohemian work by Archbishop John of Rokycan has also been +preserved; it is entitled _Postilla_ and is similar though inferior to +the work of Huss that bears the same name. + +A quite independent religious writer who belongs to the period of the +Hussite wars is Peter Chelcicky (born in the last years of the 14th +century, died 1460), who may be called the Tolstoy of the 15th. His +dominant ideas were horror of bloodshed and the determination to accept +unresistingly all, even unjust, decrees of the worldly authorities. +Though a strenuous enemy of the Church of Rome, Chelcicky joined none of +the Hussite parties. His masterpiece is the _Sit viry_ (the net of +faith). Among his other works his _Postilla_ and polemical writings in +the form of letters to Archbishop John of Rokycan and Bishop Nicolas of +Pelhrimov deserve mention. + +The Hussite period is rather poor in historical works written in the +language of the country. We should, however, mention some chroniclers +who were contemporaries and sometimes eye-witnesses of the events of the +Hussite wars. Their writings have been collected and published by +Frantisek Palacky under the title of _Stare ceske letopisy_. + +In the 16th century when Bohemia was in a state of comparative +tranquillity, the native literature was largely developed. Besides the +writers of the community of the Bohemian Brethren, we meet at this +period with three historians of merit. Of these far the best-known is +Wenceslas Hajek of Libocan. The year of his birth is uncertain, but we +read of him as a priest in 1524; he died in 1553. His great work +_Kronika ceska_ was dedicated to the emperor Ferdinand I., king of +Bohemia, and appeared under the auspices of government officials. It has +therefore a strong dynastic and Romanist tendency, and its circulation +was permitted even at the time when most Bohemian books were prohibited +and many totally destroyed. Hajek's book was translated into several +languages and frequently quoted. We find such second-hand quotations +even in the works of many writers who had probably never heard of Hajek. +His book is, however, inaccurate and grossly partial. Very little known +on the other hand are the works of Bartos, surnamed "pisar" (the +writer), as he was for many years employed as secretary by the city of +Prague, and those of Sixt of Ottersdorf. The work of Bartos (or +Bartholomew) entitled the _Chronicle of Prague_ has great historical +value. He describes the troubles that befell Prague and Bohemia +generally during the reign of the weak and absentee sovereign King +Louis. The year of the birth of Bartos is uncertain, but it is known +that he died in 1539. The somewhat later work of Sixt of Ottersdorf +(1500-1583) deals with a short but very important episode in the history +of Bohemia. It is entitled _Memorials of the Troubled Years 1546 and +1547_. The book describes the unsuccessful rising of the Bohemians +against Ferdinand I. of Austria. Sixt took a considerable part in this +movement, a fact that greatly enhances the value of his book. + +Though the life of Chelcicky, who has already been mentioned, was an +isolated one, he is undoubtedly the indirect founder of the community of +the "Bohemian Brethren," who greatly influenced Bohemian literature. +Almost all their historical and theological works were written in the +national language, which through their influence became far more refined +and polished. Before referring to some of the writings of members of the +community we should mention the famed translation of the Scriptures +known as the _Bible of Kralice_. It was the joint work of several +divines of the brotherhood, and was first printed at Kralice in Moravia +in 1593. Brother Gregory, surnamed the patriarch of the brotherhood, has +left a large number of writings dealing mainly with theological matters. +Most important are the _Letters to Archbishop Rokycan_ and the book _On +good and evil priests_. After the death of Brother Gregory in 1480 +discord broke out in the community, and it resulted in very great +literary activity. Brothers Lucas, Blahoslav and Jaffet, as well as +Augusta, a bishop of the community, have left us numerous controversial +works. Very interesting is the account of the captivity of Bishop +Augusta, written by his companion the young priest Jan Bilek. We have +evidence that numerous historical works written by members of the +brotherhood existed, but most of them perished in the 17th century when +nearly all anti-Roman books written in Bohemia were destroyed. Thus only +fragments of Blahoslav's _History of the Unity_ (i.e. the brotherhood) +have been preserved. One of the historians of the brotherhood, Wenceslas +Brezan, wrote a _History of the House of Rosenberg_, of which only the +biographies of William and Peter of Rosenberg have been preserved. The +greatest writer of the brotherhood is John Amos Komensky or Comenius +(1592-1670). Of his many works written in his native language the most +important is his _Labyrinth of the World_, an allegorical tale which is +perhaps the most famous work written in Bohemian.[4] Many of the +numerous devotional and educational writings of Comenius,--his works +number 142,--are also written in his native tongue. + +The year 1620, which witnessed the downfall of Bohemian independence, +also marks the beginning of a period of decline of the national tongue, +which indeed later, in the 18th century, was almost extinct as a written +language. Yet we must notice besides Comenius two other writers, both +historians, whose works belong to a date later than 1620. Of these one +was an adherent of the nationalist, the other of the imperialist party. +Paul Skala ze Zhore (1582-c. 1640) was an official in the service of the +"winter king" Frederick of the Palatinate. He for a time followed his +sovereign into exile, and spent the last years of his life at Freiberg +in Saxony. It was at this period of his life, after his political +activity had ceased, that he wrote his historical works. His first work +was a short book which is a mere series of chronological tables. +Somewhat later he undertook a vast work entitled _Histoire cirkevni_ +(history of the church). In spite of its title the book, which consists +of ten enormous MS. volumes, deals as much with political as with +ecclesiastical matters. The most valuable part, that dealing with events +of 1602 to 1623, of which Skala writes as a contemporary and often as an +eye-witness, has been edited and published by Prof. Tieftrunk. A +contemporary and a political opponent of Skala was William Count Slavata +(1572-1652). He was a faithful servant of the house of Habsburg, and one +of the government officials who were thrown from the windows of the +Hradcany palace in 1618, at the beginning of the Bohemian uprising. In +1637 Slavata published his _Pamety_ (memoirs) which deal exclusively +with the events of the years 1618 and 1619, in which he had played so +great a part. During the leisure of the last years of his long life +Slavata composed a vast work entitled _Historicke Spisovani_ (historical +works). It consists of fourteen large MS. volumes, two of which contain +the previously-written memoirs. These two volumes have recently been +edited and published by Dr Jos. Jirecek. + + + 19th-century revival. + +After the deaths of Skala, Slavata and Comenius, no works of any +importance were written in the Bohemian language for a considerable +period, and the new Austrian government endeavoured in every way to +discourage the use of that language. A change took place when the +romantic movement started at the beginning of the 19th century. The +early revival of the Bohemian language was very modest, and at first +almost exclusively translations from foreign languages were published. +The first writer who again drew attention to the then almost forgotten +Bohemian language was Joseph Dobrovsky (1753-1829). His works, which +include a grammar of the Bohemian language and a history of Bohemian +literature, were mostly written in German or Latin, and his only +Bohemian works are some essays which he contributed to the early numbers +of the _Casopis Musea Kralovstvi Ceskeho_ (Journal of the Bohemian +Museum) and a collection of letters. + +It is, however, to four men belonging to a time somewhat subsequent to +that of Dobrovsky that the revival of the language and literature of +Bohemia is mainly due. They are Jungmann, Kolar, Safarik and Palacky. +Joseph Jungmann (1773-1847) published early in life numerous Bohemian +translations of German and English writers. His most important works are +his _Dejepes literatury ceska_ (history of Bohemian literature), and his +monumental German and Bohemian dictionary, which largely contributed to +the development of the Bohemian language. John Kolar (1793-1852) was the +greatest poet of the Bohemian revival, and it is only in quite recent +days that Bohemian poetry has risen to a higher level. Kolar's principal +poem is the _Slavy dcera_ (daughter of Slavia), a personification of the +Slavic race. Its principal importance at the present time consists +rather in the part it played in the revival of Bohemian literature than +in its artistic value. Kolar's other works are mostly philological +studies. Paul Joseph Safarik (1795-1861) was a very fruitful writer. His +_Starozitnosti Slovanske_ (Slavic antiquities), an attempt to record the +then almost unknown history and literature of the early Slavs, has still +considerable value. Francis Palacky (1798-1876) is undoubtedly the +greatest of Bohemian historians. Among his many works his history of +Bohemia from the earliest period to the year 1526 is the most important. + +Other Bohemian writers whose work belongs mainly to the earlier part of +the 19th century are the poets Francis Ladislav Celakovsky, author of +the _Ruze stolistova_ (the hundred-leaved rose), Erben, Macha, Tyl, to +mention but a few of the most famous writers. The talented writer Karel +Havlicek, the founder of Bohemian journalism, deserves special notice. + +During the latter part of the 19th century, and particularly after the +foundation of the national university in 1882, Bohemian literature has +developed to an extent that few perhaps foresaw. Of older writers Bozena +Nemceva, whose _Babicka_ has been translated into many languages, and +Benes Trebizky, author of many historical novels, should be named. John +Neruda (1834-1891) was a very fruitful and talented writer both of +poetry and of prose. Perhaps the most valuable of his many works is his +philosophical epic entitled _Kosmicke basne_ (cosmic poems). Julius +Zeyer (1841-1901) also wrote much both in prose and in verse. His epic +poem entitled _Vysehrad_, which celebrates the ancient glory of the +acropolis of Prague, has great value, and of his many novels _Jan Maria +Plojhar_ has had the greatest success. Of later Bohemian poets the best +are Adolf Heyduk, Svatopluk Cech and Jaroslav Vrchlicky (b. 1853). Of +Svatopluk Cech's many poems, which are all inspired by national +enthusiasm, _Vaclav z Michalovic, Lesetinsky Kovar_ (the smith of +Lesetin) and _Basne otroka_ (the songs of a slave) are the most notable. +While Vrchlicky (pseudonym of Emil Frida) has no less strong patriotic +feelings, he has been more catholic in the choice of the subjects of his +many works, both in poetry and in prose. Of his many collections of +lyric poems _Rok na jihu_ (a year in the south), _Poute k Eldoradu_ +(pilgrimages to Eldorado) and _Sonety Samotare_ (sonnets of a recluse) +have particular value. Vrchlicky is also a very brilliant dramatist. +Bohemian novelists have become very numerous. Mention should be made of +Alois Jirasek, also a distinguished dramatic author; Jacob Arbes, whose +_Romanetta_ have great merit; and Vaclav Hladik, whose _Evzen Voldan_ is +a very striking representation of the life of modern Prague. Like so +many Bohemian authors, Hladik also is a copious dramatic author. + +Bohemia has been very fruitful in historic writers. Wenceslas Tomek +(1818-1905) left many historical works, of which his _Dejepis miesta +Prahy_ (history of the town of Prague) is the most important. Jaroslav +Goll (b. 1846) is the author of many historical works, especially on the +community of the Bohemian Brethren. Professor Joseph Kalousek has +written much on the early history of Bohemia, and is also the author of +a very valuable study of the ancient constitution (_Statni pravo_) of +Bohemia. Dr Anton Rezek is the author of important historical studies, +many of which appeared in the Journal of the Bohemian Museum and in the +_Cesky Casopis Historicky_ (Bohemian Historical Review), which he +founded in 1895 jointly with Professor Jaroslav Goll. More recently Dr +Vaclav Flajshans has published some excellent studies on the life and +writings of John Huss, and Professors Pic and Niederle have published +learned archaeological studies on the earliest period of Bohemian +history. + + See Count Lutzow, _A History of Bohemian Literature_ (London, 1899); + W.R. Morfill, _Slavonic Literature_ (1883); A.N. Pypin and V.D. + Spasovic, _History of Slavonic Literature_ (written in Russian, + translated into German by Trangott Pech, _Gesch. der slav. + Literaturen_, 2 vols., Leipzig, 1880-1884). There are modern histories + of Bohemian literature written in the national language by Dr Karel + Tieftrunk, Dr Vaclav Flajshans and Mr Jaroslav Vlaek. (L.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] As a guide to the English-speaking reader, the following notes on + the pronunciation of Bohemian names are appended. The Czech (Cech) + alphabet is the same as the English, with the omission of the letters + q, w and x. Certain letters, however, vary in pronunciation, and are + distinguished by diacritical marks, a device orginated by John Huss. + The vowels a, e, i, (y), o, u, are pronounced as in Italian; but e = + Eng. ye in "yet," and [ou] = Eng. oo. + + The consonants, b, d, f, k, l, m, n, p, r, v, z, are as in English; g + = Eng. g in "gone"; s = Eng. initial s. But n = Span. n (in _canon_); + r = rsh; s = sh; z = zh (i.e. the French j); k before d = g; v before + k, p, s, t = f. Of the other consonants c = Eng. ts; c = ch; ch = + Germ. ch; j = Eng. y, but is not pronounced before d, m, s. Accents + on vowels lengthen them; on d and t they are softening marks. H is + always pronounced in Czech. At the end of words and before k and t it + = Germ, ch; in other places, as in _bahno_ (morass) its pronunciation + is somewhat softer. + + [2] _Protestatio Bohemorum_, frequently printed in English and + German, as well as in the Latin original. + + [3] Laurence of Brezova's (contemporary) _Kronika Husitska_. + + [4] This work has been translated into English by Count Lutzow for + the "Temple Classics." + + + + +BOHEMUND, the name of a series of princes of Antioch, afterwards counts +of Tripoli. Their connexion is shown in the following table:-- + + Robert Guiscard = (1)Alberida: (2)Sicelgaeta. + | + Bohemund I. = Constance, daughter of Philip I. of France. + | + Bohemund II. = Alice, daughter of Baldwin II. of + | Jerusalem. + (1)Raymund = Constance = (2)Raynald of Chatillon. + | + Bohemund III. = (2)Orguilleuse. + | + Bohemund IV. = (1)Plaisance. + | (2)Melisinda, daughter of Amalric II. + | + Bohemund V. = (1)Alice, widow of Hugh of Cyprus. + = (2)Luciana, daughter of count of + |_________ Segni. + | | + Henry I. = Plaisance Bohemund VI. = Sibylla, + of Cyprus | | sister of Leo + | |of Armenia. III. + Hugh II. Bohemund VII.--_o.s.p._ + +BOHEMUND I. (c. A.D. 1058-1111), prince of Otranto and afterwards of +Antioch, whose first name was Marc, was the eldest son of Robert +Guiscard, _dux Apuliae et Calabriae_, by an early marriage contracted +before 1059. He served under his father in the great attack on the East +Roman empire (1080-1085), and commanded the Normans during Guiscard's +absence (1082-1084), penetrating into Thessaly as far as Larissa, but +being repulsed by Alexius Comnenus. This early hostility to Alexius had +a great influence in determining the course of his future career, and +thereby helped to determine the history of the First Crusade, of which +Bohemund may be regarded as the leader. On the death of Guiscard in +1085, his younger son Roger, born "in the purple" of a Lombard princess +Sicelgaeta, succeeded to the duchy of Apulia and Calabria, and a war +arose between Bohemund (whom his father had destined for the throne of +Constantinople) and Duke Roger. The war was finally composed by the +mediation of Urban II. and the award of Otranto and other possessions to +Bohemund. In 1096 Bohemund, along with his uncle the great count of +Sicily, was attacking Amalfi, which had revolted against Duke Roger, +when bands of crusaders began to pass, on their way through Italy to +Constantinople. The zeal of the crusader came upon Bohemund: it is +possible, too, that he saw in the First Crusade a chance of realizing +his father's policy (which was also an old Norse instinct) of the _Drang +nach Osten_, and hoped from the first to carve for himself an eastern +principality. He gathered a fine Norman army (perhaps the finest +division in the crusading host), at the head of which he crossed the +Adriatic, and penetrated to Constantinople along the route he had tried +to follow in 1082-1084. He was careful to observe a "correct" attitude +towards Alexius, and when he arrived at Constantinople in April 1097 he +did homage to the emperor. He may have negotiated with Alexius about a +principality at Antioch; if he did so, he had little encouragement. From +Constantinople to Antioch Bohemund was the real leader of the First +Crusade; and it says much for his leading that the First Crusade +succeeded in crossing Asia Minor, which the Crusades of 1101, 1147 and +1189 failed to accomplish. A _politique_, Bohemund was resolved to +engineer the enthusiasm of the crusaders to his own ends; and when his +nephew Tancred left the main army at Heraclea, and attempted to +establish a footing in Cilicia, the movement may have been already +intended as a preparation for Bohemund's eastern principality. Bohemund +was the first to get into position before Antioch (October 1097), and he +took a great part in the siege, beating off the Mahommedan attempts at +relief from the east, and connecting the besiegers on the west with the +port of St Simeon and the Italian ships which lay there. The capture of +Antioch was due to his connexion with Firuz, one of the commanders in +the city; but he would not bring matters to an issue until the +possession of the city was assured him (May 1098), under the terror of +the approach of Kerbogha with a great army of relief, and with a +reservation in favour of Alexius, if Alexius should fulfil his promise +to aid the crusaders. But Bohemund was not secure in the possession of +Antioch, even after its surrender and the defeat of Kerbogha; he had to +make good his claims against Raymund of Toulouse, who championed the +rights of Alexius. He obtained full possession in January 1099, and +stayed in the neighbourhood of Antioch to secure his position, while the +other crusaders moved southward to the capture of Jerusalem. He came to +Jerusalem at Christmas 1099, and had Dagobert of Pisa elected as +patriarch, perhaps in order to check the growth of a strong Lotharingian +power in the city. It might seem in 1100 that Bohemund was destined to +found a great principality in Antioch, which would dwarf Jerusalem; he +had a fine territory, a good strategical position and a strong army. But +he had to face two great forces--the East Roman empire, which claimed +the whole of his territories and was supported in its claim by Raymund +of Toulouse, and the strong Mahommedan principalities in the north-east +of Syria. Against these two forces he failed. In 1100 he was captured by +Danishmend of Sivas, and he languished in prison till 1103. Tancred took +his place; but meanwhile Raymund established himself with the aid of +Alexius in Tripoli, and was able to check the expansion of Antioch to +the south. Ransomed in 1103 by the generosity of an Armenian prince, +Bohemund made it his first object to attack the neighbouring Mahommedan +powers in order to gain supplies. But in heading an attack on Harran, in +1104, he was severely defeated at Balich, near Rakka on the Euphrates. +The defeat was decisive; it made impossible the great eastern +principality which Bohemund had contemplated. It was followed by a Greek +attack on Cilicia; and despairing of his own resources, Bohemund +returned to Europe for reinforcements in order to defend his position. +His attractive personality won him the hand of Constance, the daughter +of the French king, Philip I., and he collected a large army. Dazzled by +his success, he resolved to use his army not to defend Antioch against +the Greeks, but to attack Alexius. He did so; but Alexius, aided by the +Venetians, proved too strong, and Bohemund had to submit to a +humiliating peace (1108), by which he became the vassal of Alexius, +consented to receive his pay, with the title of _Sebastos_, and promised +to cede disputed territories and to admit a Greek patriarch into +Antioch. Henceforth Bohemund was a broken man. He died without returning +to the East, and was buried at Canossa in Apulia, in 1111. + + LITERATURE.--The anonymous _Gesta Francorum_ (edited by H. Hagenmeyer) + is written by one of Bohemund's followers; and the _Alexiad_ of Anna + Comnena is a primary authority for the whole of his life. His career + is discussed by B. von Kugler, _Bohemund und Tancred_ (Tubingen, + 1862); while L. von Heinemann, _Geschichte der Normannen in Sicilien + und Unteritalien_ (Leipzig, 1894), and R. Rohricht, _Geschichte des + ersten Kreuzzuges_ (Innsbruck, 1901), and _Geschichte des Konigreichs + Jerusalem_ (Innsbruck, 1898), may also be consulted for his history. + +BOHEMUND II. (1108-1131), son of the great Bohemund by his marriage with +Constance of France, was born in 1108, the year of his father's defeat +at Durazzo. In 1126 he came from Apulia to Antioch (which, since the +fall of Roger, the successor of Tancred, in 1119, had been under the +regency of Baldwin II.); and in 1127 he married Alice, the younger +daughter of Baldwin. After some trouble with Joscelin of Edessa, and +after joining with Baldwin II. in an attack on Damascus (1127), he was +defeated and slain on his northern frontier by a Mahommedan army from +Aleppo (1131). He had shown that he had his father's courage: if time +had sufficed, he might have shown that he had the other qualities of the +first Bohemund. + +BOHEMUND III. was the son of Constance, daughter of Bohemund II., by her +first husband, Raymund of Antioch. He succeeded his mother in the +principality of Antioch in 1163, and first appears prominently in 1164, +as regent of the kingdom of Jerusalem during the expedition of Amalric +I. to Egypt. During the absence of Amalric, he was defeated and captured +by Nureddin (August 1164) at Harenc, to the east of Antioch. He was at +once ransomed by his brother-in-law, the emperor Manuel, and went to +Constantinople, whence he returned with a Greek patriarch. In 1180 he +deserted his second wife, the princess Orguilleuse, for a certain +Sibylla, and he was in consequence excommunicated. By Orguilleuse he had +had two sons, Raymund and Bohemund (the future Bohemund IV.), whose +relations and actions determined the rest of his life. Raymund married +Alice, a daughter of the Armenian prince Rhupen (Rupin), brother of Leo +of Armenia, and died in 1197, leaving behind him a son, Raymund Rhupen. +Bohemund, the younger brother of Raymund, had succeeded the last count +of Tripoli in the possession of that county, 1187; and the problem which +occupied the last years of Bohemund III. was to determine whether his +grandson, Raymund Rhupen, or his younger son, Bohemund, should succeed +him in Antioch. Leo of Armenia was naturally the champion of his +great-nephew, Raymund Rhupen; indeed he had already claimed Antioch in +his own right, before the marriage of his niece to Raymund, in 1194, +when he had captured Bohemund III. at Gastin, and attempted without +success to force him to cede Antioch.[1] Bohemund the younger, however, +prosecuted his claim with vigour, and even evicted his father from +Antioch about 1199: but he was ousted by Leo (now king of Armenia by +the grace of the emperor, Henry VI.), and Bohemund III. died in +possession of his principality (1201). + +BOHEMUND IV., younger son of Bohemund III. by his second wife +Orguilleuse, became count of Tripoli in 1187, and succeeded his father +in the principality of Antioch, to the exclusion of Raymund Rhupen, in +1201. But the dispute lasted for many years (Leo of Armenia continuing +to champion the cause of his great-nephew), and long occupied the +attention of Innocent III. Bohemund IV. enjoyed the support of the +Templars (who, like the Knights of St John, had estates in Tripoli) and +of the Greek inhabitants of Antioch, to whom he granted their own +patriarch in 1207, while Leo appealed (1210-1211) both to Innocent III. +and the emperor Otto IV., and was supported by the Hospitallers. In 1216 +Leo captured Antioch, and established Raymund Rhupen as its prince; but +he lost it again in less than four years, and it was once more in the +possession of Bohemund IV. when Leo died in 1220. Raymund Rhupen died in +1221; and after the event Bohemund reigned in Antioch and Tripoli till +his death, proving himself a determined enemy of the Hospitallers, and +thereby incurring excommunication in 1230. He first joined, and then +deserted, the emperor Frederick II., during the crusade of 1228-29; and +he was excluded from the operation of the treaty of 1229. When he died +in 1233, he had just concluded peace with the Hospitallers, and Gregory +IX. had released him from the excommunication of 1230. + +BOHEMUND V., son of Bohemund IV. by his wife Plaisance (daughter of Hugh +of Gibelet), succeeded his father in 1233. He was prince of Antioch and +count of Tripoli, like his father; and like him he enjoyed the alliance +of the Templars and experienced the hostility of Armenia, which was not +appeased till 1251, when the mediation of St Louis, and the marriage of +the future Bohemund VI. to the sister of the Armenian king, finally +brought peace. By his first marriage in 1225 with Alice, the widow of +Hugh I. of Cyprus, Bohemund V. connected the history of Antioch for a +time with that of Cyprus. He died in 1251. He had resided chiefly at +Tripoli, and under him Antioch was left to be governed by its bailiff +and commune. + +BOHEMUND VI. was the son of Bohemund V. by Luciana, a daughter of the +count of Segni, nephew of Innocent III. Born in 1237, Bohemund VI. +succeeded his father in 1251, and was knighted by St Louis in 1252. His +sister Plaisance had married in 1250 Henry I. of Cyprus, the son of Hugh +I.; and the Cypriot connexion of Antioch, originally formed by the +marriage of Bohemund V. and Alice, the widow of Hugh I., was thus +maintained. In 1252 Bohemund VI. established himself in Antioch, leaving +Tripoli to itself, and in 1257 he procured the recognition of his +nephew, Hugh II., the son of Henry I. by Plaisance, as king of +Jerusalem. He allied himself to the Mongols against the advance of the +Egyptian sultan; but in 1268 he lost Antioch to Bibars, and when he died +in 1275 he was only count of Tripoli. + +BOHEMUND VII., son of Bohemund VI. by Sibylla, sister of Leo III. of +Armenia, succeeded to the county of Tripoli in 1275, with his mother as +regent. In his short and troubled reign he had trouble with the Templars +who were established in Tripoli; and in the very year of his death +(1287) he lost Laodicea to the sultan of Egypt. He died without issue; +and as, within two years of his death, Tripoli was captured, the county +of Tripoli may be said to have become extinct with him. + + LITERATURE.--The history of the Bohemunds is the history of the + principality of Antioch, and, after Bohemund IV., of the county of + Tripoli also. For Antioch, we possess its _Assises_ (Venice, 1876); + and two articles on its history have appeared in the _Revue de + l'Orient Latin_ (Paris, 1893, fol.), both by E. Rey ("Resume + chronologique de l'histpire des princes d'Antioche," vol. iv., and + "Les dignitaires de la principaute d'Antioche," vol. viii.). R. + Rohricht, _Geschichte des Konigreichs Jerusalem_ (Innsbruck, 1898), + gives practically all that is known about the history of Antioch and + Tripoli. (E. Br.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] During the captivity of Bohemund III. the patriarch of Antioch + helped to found a commune, which persisted, with its mayor and + _jurats_, during the 13th century. + + + + +BOHMER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1795-1863), German historian, son of Karl +Ludwig Bohmer (d. 1817), was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 22nd of +April 1795. Educated at the universities of Heidelberg and Gottingen, he +showed an interest in art and visited Italy; but returning to Frankfort +he turned his attention to the study of history, and became secretary +of the _Gesellschaft fur altere deutsche Geschichtskunde_. He was also +archivist and then librarian of the city of Frankfort. Bohmer had a +great dislike of Prussia and the Protestant faith, and a corresponding +affection for Austria and the Roman Catholic Church, to which, however, +he did not belong. His critical sense was, perhaps, somewhat warped; but +his researches are of great value to students. He died unmarried, at +Frankfort, on the 22nd of October 1863. Bohmer's historical work was +chiefly concerned with collecting and tabulating charters and other +imperial documents of the middle ages. First appeared an abstract, the +_Regesta chronologico-diplomatica regum atque imperatorum Romanorum +911-1313_ (Frankfort, 1831), which was followed by the _Regesta +chronologico-diplomatica Karolorum. Die Urkunden samtlicher Karolinger +in kurzen Auszugen_ (Frankfort, 1833), and a series of _Regesta +imperii_. For the period 1314-1347 (Frankfort, 1839) the _Regesta_ was +followed by three, and for the period 1246-1313 (Frankfort, 1844) by two +supplementary volumes. The remaining period of the _Regesta_, as edited +by Bohmer, is 1198-1254 (Stuttgart, 1849). These collections contain +introductions and explanatory passages by the author. Very valuable also +is the _Fontes rerum Germanicarum_ (Stuttgart, 1843-1868), a collection +of original authorities for German history during the 13th and 14th +centuries. The fourth and last volume of this work was edited by A. +Huber after the author's death. Other collections edited by Bohmer are: +_Die Reichsgesetze 900-1400_ (Frankfort, 1832); _Wittelsbachische +Regesten von der Erwerbung des Herzogtums Bayern bis zu 1340_ +(Stuttgart, 1854); and _Codex diplomaticus Moeno-Francofurtanus. +Urkundenbuch der Reichsstadt Frankfurt_ (Frankfort, 1836; new edition by +F. Law, 1901). Other volumes and editions of the _Regesta imperii_, +edited by J. Ficker, E. Muhlbacher, E. Winkelmann and others, are +largely based on Bohmer's work. Bohmer left a great amount of +unpublished material, and after his death two other works were published +from his papers: _Acta imperii selecta_, edited by J. Ficker (Innsbruck, +1870); and _Regesta archiepiscoporum Maguntinensium_, edited by C. Will +(Innsbruck, 1877-1886). + + See J. Janssen, _J.F. Bohmers Leben, Briefe und kleinere Schriften_ + (Freiburg, 1868). + + + + +BOHN, HENRY GEORGE (1796-1884), British publisher, son of a German +bookbinder settled in England, was born in London on the 4th of January +1796. In 1831 he started as a dealer in rare books and "remainders." In +1841 he issued his "Guinea" Catalogue of books, a monumental work +containing 23,208 items. Bohn was noted for his book auction sales: one +held in 1848 lasted four days, the catalogue comprising twenty folio +pages. Printed on this catalogue was the information: "Dinner at 2 +o'clock, dessert at 4, tea at 5, and supper at 10." The name of Bohn is +principally remembered by the important _Libraries_ which he +inaugurated: these were begun in 1846 and comprised editions of standard +works and translations, dealing with history, science, classics, +theology and archaeology, consisting in all of 766 volumes. One of +Bohn's most useful and laborious undertakings was his revision (6 vols. +1864) of _The Bibliographer's Manual of English Literature_ (1834) of +W.T. Lowndes. The plan includes bibliographical and critical notices, +particulars of prices, &c., and a considerable addition to the original +work. It had been one of Bohn's ambitions to found a great publishing +house, but, finding that his sons had no taste for the trade, he sold +the _Libraries_ in 1864 to Messrs. Bell and Daldy, afterwards G. Bell & +Sons. Bohn was a man of wide culture and many interests. He himself made +considerable contributions to his _Libraries_: he collected pictures, +china and ivories, and was a famous rose-grower. He died at Twickenham +on the 22nd of August 1884. + + + + +BOHTLINGK, OTTO VON (1815-1004) German Sanskrit scholar, was born on the +30th of May (11th of June O.S.) 1815 at St Petersburg. Having studied +(1833-1835) Oriental languages, particularly Arabic, Persian and +Sanskrit, at the university of St Petersburg, he continued his studies +in Germany, first in Berlin and then (1839-1842) in Bonn. Returning to +St Petersburg in 1842, he was attached to the Royal Academy of Sciences, +and was elected an ordinary member of that society in 1855. In 1860 he +was made "Russian state councillor," and later "privy councillor" with a +title of nobility. In 1868 he settled at Jena, and in 1885 removed to +Leipzig, where he resided until his death there on the 1st of April +1904. Bohtlingk was one of the most distinguished scholars of the 19th +century, and his works are of pre-eminent value in the field of Indian +and comparative philology. His first great work was an edition of +Panini's _Acht Bucher grammatischer Regeln_ (Bonn, 1839-1840), which was +in reality a criticism of Franz Bopp's philological methods. This book +Bohtlingk again took up forty-seven years later, when he republished it +with a complete translation under the title _Paninis Grammatik mit +Ubersetzung_ (Leipzig, 1887). The earlier edition was followed by +_Vopadevas Grammatik_ (St Petersburg, 1847); _Uber die Sprache der +Jakuten_ (St Petersburg, 1851); _Indische Spruche_ (2nd ed. in 3 parts, +St Petersburg, 1870-1873, to which an index was published by Blau, +Leipzig, 1893); a critical examination and translation of +_Chhandogya-upanishad (St Petersburg, 1889) and a translation of +Brihadaranyaka-upanishad_ (St Petersburg, 1889). In addition to these he +published several smaller treatises, notably one on the Sanskrit +accents, _Uber den Accent im Sanskrit_ (1843). But his _magnum opus_ is +his great Sanskrit dictionary, _Sanskrit-Worterbuch_ (7 vols., St +Petersburg, 1853-1875; new ed. 7 vols., St Petersburg, 1879-1889), which +with the assistance of his two friends, Rudolf Roth (1821-1895) and +Albrecht Weber (b. 1825), was completed in twenty-three years. + + + + +BOHUN, the name of a family which plays an important part in English +history during the 13th and 14th centuries; it was taken from a village +situated in the Cotentin between Coutances and the estuary of the Vire. +The Bohuns came into England at, or shortly after, the Norman Conquest; +but their early history there is obscure. The founder of their greatness +was Humphrey III., who in the latter years of Henry I., makes his +appearance as a _dapifer_, or steward, in the royal household. He +married the daughter of Milo of Gloucester, and played an ambiguous part +in Stephen's reign, siding at first with the king and afterwards with +the empress. Humphrey III. lived until 1187, but his history is +uneventful. He remained loyal to Henry II. through all changes, and +fought in 1173 at Farnham against the rebels of East Anglia. Outliving +his eldest son, Humphrey IV., he was succeeded in the family estates by +his grandson Henry. Henry was connected with the royal house of Scotland +through his mother Margaret, a sister of William the Lion; an alliance +which no doubt assisted him to obtain the earldom of Hereford from John +(1199). The lands of the family lay chiefly on the Welsh Marches, and +from this date the Bohuns take a foremost place among the Marcher +barons. Henry de Bohun figures with the earls of Clare and Gloucester +among the twenty-five barons who were elected by their fellows to +enforce the terms of the Great Charter. In the subsequent civil war he +fought on the side of Louis, and was captured at the battle of Lincoln +(1217). He took the cross in the same year and died on his pilgrimage +(June 1, 1220). Humphrey V., his son and heir, returned to the path of +loyalty, and was permitted, some time before 1239, to inherit the +earldom of Essex from his maternal uncle, William de Mandeville. But in +1258 this Humphrey fell away, like his father, from the royal to the +baronial cause. He served as a nominee of the opposition on the +committee of twenty-four which was appointed, in the Oxford parliament +of that year, to reform the administration. It was only the alliance of +Montfort with Llewelyn of North Wales that brought the earl of Hereford +back to his allegiance. Humphrey V. headed the first secession of the +Welsh Marchers from the party of the opposition (1263), and was amongst +the captives whom the Montfortians took at Lewes. The earl's son and +namesake was on the victorious side, and shared in the defeat of +Evesham, which he did not long survive. Humphrey V. was, therefore, +naturally selected as one of the twelve arbitrators to draw up the ban +of Kenilworth (1266), by which the disinherited rebels were allowed to +make their peace. Dying in 1275, he was succeeded by his grandson +Humphrey VII. This Bohun lives in history as one of the recalcitrant +barons of the year 1297, who extorted from Edward I. the _Confirmatio +Cartarum_. The motives of the earl's defiance were not altogether +disinterested. He had suffered twice from the chicanery of Edward's +lawyers; in 1284 when a dispute between himself and the royal favourite, +John Giffard, was decided in the latter's favour; and again in 1292 when +he was punished with temporary imprisonment and sequestration for a +technical, and apparently unwitting, contempt of the king's court. In +company, therefore, with the earl of Norfolk he refused to render +foreign service in Gascony, on the plea that they were only bound to +serve with the king, who was himself bound for Flanders. Their attitude +brought to a head the general discontent which Edward had excited by his +arbitrary taxation; and Edward was obliged to make a surrender on all +the subjects of complaint. At Falkirk (1298) Humphrey VII. redeemed his +character for loyalty. His son, Humphrey VIII., who succeeded him in the +same year, was allowed to marry one of the king's daughters, Eleanor, +the widowed countess of Holland (1302). This close connexion with the +royal house did not prevent him, as it did not prevent Earl Thomas of +Lancaster, from joining the opposition to the feeble Edward II. In 1310 +Humphrey VIII. figured among the Lords Ordainers; though, with more +patriotism than some of his fellow-commissioners, he afterwards followed +the king to Bannockburn. He was taken captive in the battle, but +exchanged for the wife of Robert Bruce. Subsequently he returned to the +cause of his order, and fell on the side of Earl Thomas at the field of +Boroughbridge (1322). With him, as with his father, the politics of the +Marches had been the main consideration; his final change of side was +due to jealousy of the younger Despenser, whose lordship of Glamorgan +was too great for the comfort of the Bohuns in Brecon. With the death of +Humphrey VIII. the fortunes of the family enter on a more peaceful +stage. Earl John (d. 1335) was inconspicuous; Humphrey IX. (d. 1361) +merely distinguished himself as a captain in the Breton campaigns of the +Hundred Years' War, winning the victories of Morlaix (1342) and La Roche +Derrien (1347). His nephew and heir, Humphrey X., who inherited the +earldom of Northampton from his father, was territorially the most +important representative of the Bohuns. But the male line was +extinguished by his death (1373). The three earldoms and the broad lands +of the Bohuns were divided between two co-heiresses. Both married +members of the royal house. The elder, Eleanor, was given in 1374 to +Thomas of Woodstock, seventh son of Edward III.; the younger, Mary, to +Henry, earl of Derby, son of John of Gaunt and afterwards Henry IV., in +1380 or 1381. From these two marriages sprang the houses of Lancaster +and Stafford. + + See J.E. Doyle's _Official Baronage of England_ (1886), the _Complete + Peerage_ of G. E. C(okayne), (1867-1898); T.F. Tout's "Wales and the + March during the Barons' War," in Owens College Historical Essays, pp. + 87-136 (1902); J.E. Morris' _Welsh Wars of King Edward I._, chs. vi., + viii. (1901). (H. W. C. D.) + + + + +BOIARDO, MATTEO MARIA, COUNT (1434-1404), Italian poet, who came of a +noble and illustrious house established at Ferrara, but originally from +Reggio, was born at Scandiano, one of the seignorial estates of his +family, near Reggio di Modena, about the year 1434, according to +Tiraboschi, or 1420 according to Mazzuchelli. At an early age he entered +the university of Ferrara, where he acquired a good knowledge of Greek +and Latin, and even of the Oriental languages, and was in due time +admitted doctor in philosophy and in law. At the court of Ferrara, where +he enjoyed the favour of Duke Borso d'Este and his successor Hercules, +he was entrusted with several honourable employments, and in particular +was named governor of Reggio, an appointment which he held in the year +1478. Three years afterwards he was elected captain of Modena, and +reappointed governor of the town and citadel of Reggio, where he died in +the year 1494, though in what month is uncertain. + +Almost all Boiardo's works, and especially his great poem of the +_Orlando Inamorato_, were composed for the amusement of Duke Hercules +and his court, though not written within its precincts. His practice, it +is said, was to retire to Scandiano or some other of his estates, and +there to devote himself to composition; and Castelvetro, Vallisnieri, +Mazzuchelli and Tiraboschi all unite in stating that he took care to +insert in the descriptions of his poem those of the agreeable environs +of his chateau, and that the greater part of the names of his heroes, as +Mandricardo, Gradasse, Sacripant, Agramant and others, were merely the +names of some of his peasants, which, from their uncouthness, appeared +to him proper to be given to Saracen warriors. Be this as it may, the +_Orlando Inamorato_ deserves to be considered as one of the most +important poems in Italian literature, since it forms the first example +of the romantic epic worthy to serve as a model, and, as such, +undoubtedly produced Ariosto's _Orlando Furioso_. Gravina and Mazzuchell +have said, and succeeding writers have repeated on their authority, that +Boiardo proposed to himself as his model the _Iliad_ of Homer; that +Paris is besieged like the city of Troy; that Angelica holds the place +of Helen; and that, in short, the one poem is a sort of reflex image of +the other. In point of fact, however, the subject-matter of the poem is +derived from the _Fabulous Chronicle_ of the pseudo-Turpin; though, with +the exception of the names of Charlemagne, Roland, Oliver, and some +other principal warriors, who necessarily figure as important characters +in the various scenes, there is little resemblance between the detailed +plot of the one and that of the other. The poem, which Boiardo did not +live to finish, was printed at Scandiano the year after his death, under +the superintendence of his son Count Camillo. The title of the book is +without date; but a Latin letter from Antonia Caraffa di Reggio, +prefixed to the poem, is dated the kalends of June 1495. A second +edition, also without date, but which must have been printed before the +year 1500, appeared at Venice; and the poem was twice reprinted there +during the first twenty years of the 16th century. These editions are +the more curious and valuable since they contain nothing but the text of +the author, which is comprised in three books, divided into cantos, the +third book being incomplete. But Niccolo degli Agostini, an indifferent +poet, had the courage to continue the work commenced by Boiardo, adding +to it three books, which were printed at Venice in 1526-1531, in 4to; +and since that time no edition of the _Orlando_ has been printed without +the continuation of Agostini, wretched as it unquestionably is. +Boiardo's poem suffers from the incurable defect of a laboured and heavy +style. His story is skilfully constructed, the characters are well drawn +and sustained throughout; many of the incidents show a power and +fertility of imagination not inferior to that of Ariosto, but the +perfect workmanship indispensable for a great work of art is wanting. +The poem in its original shape was not popular, and has been completely +superseded by the _Rifacimento_ of Francesco Berni (q.v.). + +The other works of Boiardo are--(1) _Il Timone_, a comedy, Scandiano, +1500, 4to; (2) _Sonnetti e Canzoni_, Reggio, 1499, 4to; (3) _Carmen +Bucolicon_, Reggio, 1500, 4to; (4) _Cinque Capitoli in terza rima_, +Venice, 1523 or 1533; (5) _Apulejo dell' Asino d'Oro_, Venice, 1516, +1518; (6) _Asino d'Oro de Luciano tradolto in volgare_, Venice, 1523, +8vo; (7) _Erodoto Alicarnasseo istorico, tradotto di Greco in Lingua +Italiana_, Venice, 1533 and 1538, 8vo; (8) _Rerum Italicarum +Scriptores_. + + See Panizzi's _Boiardo_ (9 vols., 1830-1831). + + + + +BOIE, HEINRICH CHRISTIAN (1744-1806), German author, was born at Meldorf +in the then Danish province of Schleswig-Holstein on the 19th of July +1744. After studying law at Jena, he went in 1769 to Gottingen, where he +became one of the leading spirits in the Gottingen "Dichterbund" or +"Hain." Boie's poetical talent was not great, but his thorough knowledge +of literature, his excellent taste and sound judgment, made him an ideal +person to awake the poetical genius of others. Together with F.W. Gotter +(q.v.) he founded in 1770 the Gottingen _Musenalmanach_, which he +directed and edited until 1775, when, in conjunction with C.W. von Dohm +(1751-1820), he brought out _Das deutsche Museum_, which became one of +the best literary periodicals of the day. In 1776 Boie became secretary +to the commander-in-chief at Hanover, and in 1781 was appointed +administrator of the province of Suderditmarschen in Holstein. He died +at Meldorf on the 3rd of March 1806. + + See K. Weinhold, _Heinrich Christian Boie_ (Halle, 1868). + + + + +BOIELDIEU, FRANCOIS ADRIEN (1775-1834), French composer of comic opera, +was born at Rouen on the 15th of December 1775. He received his first +musical education from M. Broche, the cathedral organist, who appears to +have treated him very harshly. He began composing songs and chamber +music at a very early age-his first opera, _La Fille coupable_ (the +libretto by his father), and his second opera, _Rosalie et Myrza_, being +produced on the stage of Rouen in 1795. Not satisfied with his local +success he went to Paris in 1795. His scores were submitted to +Cherubini, Mehul and others, but met with little approbation. Grand +opera was the order of the day. Boieldieu had to fall back on his talent +as a pianoforte-player for a livelihood. Success came at last from an +unexpected source. P.J. Garat, a fashionable singer of the period, +admired Boieldleu's touch on the piano, and made him his accompanist. In +the drawing-rooms of the Directoire Garat sang the charming songs and +ballads with which the young composer supplied him. Thus Boieldieu's +reputation gradually extended to wider circles. In 1796 _Les Deux +lettres_ was produced, and in 1797 _La Famille suisse_ appeared for the +first time on a Paris stage, and was well received. Several other operas +followed in rapid succession, of which only _Le Calife de Bagdad_ (1800) +has escaped oblivion. After the enormous success of this work, Boieldieu +felt the want of a thorough musical training and took lessons from +Cherubini, the influence of that great master being clearly discernible +in the higher artistic finish of his pupil's later compositions. In 1802 +Boieldieu, to escape the domestic troubles caused by his marriage with +Clotilde Aug. Mafleuroy, a celebrated ballet-dancer of the Paris opera, +took flight and went to Russia, where he was received with open arms by +the emperor Alexander. During his prolonged stay at St Petersburg he +composed a number of operas. He also set to music the choruses of +Racine's _Athalie_, one of his few attempts at the tragic style of +dramatic writing. In 1811 he returned to his own country, where the +following year witnessed the production of one of his finest works, +_Jean de Paris_, in which he depicted with much felicity the charming +coquetry of the queen of Navarre, the chivalrous _verve_ of the king, +the officious pedantry of the seneschal, and the amorous tenderness of +the page. He succeeded Mehul as professor of composition at the +Conservatoire in 1817. _Le Chapeau rouge_ was produced with great +success in 1818. Boieldieu's second and greatest masterpiece was his +_Dame blanche_ (1825). The libretto, written by Scribe, was partly +suggested by Walter Scott's _Monastery_, and several original Scottish +tunes cleverly introduced by the composer add to the melodious charm and +local colour of the work. On the death of his wife in 1825, Boieldieu +married a singer. His own death was due to a violent attack of pulmonary +disease. He vainly tried to escape the rapid progress of the illness by +travel in Italy and the south of France, but returned to Paris only to +die on the 8th of October 1834. + + Lives of Boieldieu have been written by Pougin (Paris, 1875), J.A. + Refeuvaille (Rouen, 1836), Hequet (Paris, 1864), Emile Duval (Geneva, + 1883). See also Adolphe Charles Adam, _Derniers souvenirs d'un + musicien_. + + + + +BOIGNE, BENOIT DE, COUNT (1751-1830), the first of the French military +adventurers in India, was born at Chambery in Savoy on the 8th of March +1751, being the son of a fur merchant. He joined the Irish Brigade in +France in 1768, and subsequently he entered the Russian service and was +captured by the Turks. Hearing of the wealth of India, he made his way +to that country, and after serving for a short time in the East India +Company, he resigned and joined Mahadji Sindhia in 1784 for the purpose +of training his troops in the European methods of war. In the battles of +Lalsot and Chaksana Boigne and his two battalions proved their worth by +holding the field when the rest of the Mahratta army was defeated by the +Rajputs. In the battle of Agra (1788) he restored the Mahratta fortunes, +and made Mahadji Sindhia undisputed master of Hindostan. This success +led to his being given the command of a brigade of ten battalions of +infantry, with which he won the victories of Patan and Merta in 1790. In +consequence Boigne was allowed to raise two further brigades of +disciplined infantry, and made commander-in-chief of Sindhia's army. In +the battle of Lakhairi (1793) he defeated Holkar's army. On the death of +Mahadji Sindhia in 1794, Boigne could have made himself master of +Hindostan had he wished it, but he remained loyal to Daulat Rao Sindhia. +In 1795 his health began to fail, and he resigned his command, and in +the following year returned to Europe with a fortune of L400,000. He +lived in retirement during the lifetime of Napoleon, but was greatly +honoured by Louis XVIII. He died on the 21st of June 1830. + + See H. Compton, _European Military Adventurers of Hindustan_ (1892). + + + + +BOII (perhaps = "the terrible"), a Celtic people, whose original home +was Gallia Transalpina. They were known to the Romans, at least by name, +in the time of Plautus, as is shown by the contemptuous reference in the +_Captivi_ (888). At an early date they split up into two main groups, +one of which made its way into Italy, the other into Germany. Some, +however, appear to have stayed behind, since, during the Second Punic +War, Magalus, a Boian prince, offered to show Hannibal the way into +Italy after he had crossed the Pyrenees (Livy xxi. 29). The first group +of immigrants is said to have crossed the Pennine Alps (Great St +Bernard) into the valley of the Po. Finding the district already +occupied, they proceeded over the river, drove out the Etruscans and +Umbrians, and established themselves as far as the Apennines in the +modern Romagna. According to Cato (in Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ iii. 116) they +comprised as many as 112 different tribes, and from the remains +discovered in the tombs at Hallstatt, La Tene and other places, they +appear to have been fairly civilized. Several wars took place between +them and the Romans. In 283 they were defeated, together with the +Etruscans, at the Vadimonian lake; in 224, after the battle of Telamon +in Etruria, they were forced to submit. But they still cherished a +hatred of the Romans, and during the Second Punic War (218), irritated +by the foundation of the Roman colonies of Cremona and Placentia, they +rendered valuable assistance to Hannibal. They continued the struggle +against Rome from 201 to 191, when they were finally subdued by P. +Cornelius Scipio Nasica, and deprived of nearly half their territory. +According to Strabo (v. p. 213) the Boii were driven back across the +Alps and settled on the land of their kinsmen, the Taurisci, on the +Danube, adjoining Vindelicia and Raetia. Most authorities, however, +assume that there had been a settlement of the Boii on the Danube from +very early times, in part of the modern Bohemia (anc. _Boiohemum_, "land +of the Boii"). About 60 B.C. some of the Boii migrated to Noricum and +Pannonia, when 32,000 of them joined the expedition of the Helvetians +into Gaul, and shared their defeat near Bibracte (58). They were +subsequently allowed by Caesar to settle in the territory of the Aedui +between the Loire and the Allier. Their chief town was Gorgobina (site +uncertain). Those who remained on the Danube were exterminated by the +Dacian king, Boerebista, and the district they had occupied was +afterwards called the "desert of the Boii" (Strabo vii. p. 292). In A.D. +69 a Boian named Mariccus stirred up a fanatical revolt, but was soon +defeated and put to death. Some remnants of the Boii are mentioned as +dwelling near Bordeaux; but Mommsen inclines to the opinion that the +three groups (in Bordeaux, Bohemia and the Po districts) were not really +scattered branches of one and the same stock, but that they are +instances of a mere similarity of name. + +The Boii, as we know them, belonged almost certainly to the Early Iron +age. They probably used long iron swords for dealing cutting blows, and +from the size of the handles they must have been a race of large men +(cf. Polybius ii. 30). For their ethnological affinities and especially +their possible connexion with the Homeric Achaeans see W. Ridgeway's +_Early Age of Greece_ (vol. i., 1901). + + See L. Contzen, _Die Wanderungen der Kelten_ (Leipzig, 1861); A. + Desjardins, _Geographie historique de la Gaule romaine_, ii. + (1876-1893); T.R. Holmes, _Caesar's Conquest of Gaul_ (1899), pp. + 426-428; T. Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_, ii. (Eng. trans. 5 vols., 1894), + p. 373 note; M. Ihm in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_, iii. pt. 1 + (1897); A. Holder, _Alt-celtischer Sprachschatz_. + + + + +BOIL, in medicine, a progressive local inflammation of the skin, taking +the form of a hard suppurating tumour, with a core of dead tissue, +resulting from infection by a microbe, _Staphylococcus pyogenes_, and +commonly occurring in young persons whose blood is disordered, or as a +complication in certain diseases. Treatment proceeds on the lines of +bringing the mischief out, assisting the evacuation of the boil by the +lancet, and clearing the system. In the English Bible, and also in +popular medical terminology, "boil" is used of various forms of ulcerous +affection. The boils which were one of the plagues in Egypt were +apparently the bubonic plague. The terms Aleppo boil (or button), Delhi +boil, Oriental boil, Biskra button, &c., have been given to a tropical +epidemic, characterized by ulcers on the face, due to a diplococcus +parasite. + + + + +BOILEAU-DESPREAUX, NICOLAS (1636-1711), French poet and critic, was born +on the 1st of November 1636 in the rue de Jerusalem, Paris. The same +Despreaux was derived from a small property at Crosne near Villeneuve +Saint-Georges. He was the fifteenth child of Gilles Boileau, a clerk in +the parlement. Two of his brothers attained some distinction: Gilles +Boileau (1631-1669), the author of a translation of Epictetus; and +Jacques Boileau, who became a canon of the Sainte-Chapelle, and made +valuable contributions to church history. His mother died when he was +two years old; and Nicolas Boileau, who had a delicate constitution, +seems to have suffered something from want of care. Sainte-Beuve puts +down his somewhat hard and unsympathetic outlook quite as much to the +uninspiring circumstances of these days as to the general character of +his time. He cannot be said to have been early disenchanted, for he +never seems to have had any illusions; he grew up with a single passion, +"the hatred of stupid books." He was educated at the College de +Beauvais, and was then sent to study theology at the Sorbonne. He +exchanged theology for law, however, and was called to the bar on the +4th of December 1656. From the profession of law, after a short trial, +he recoiled in disgust, complaining bitterly of the amount of chicanery +which passed under the name of law and justice. His father died in 1657, +leaving him a small fortune, and thenceforward he devoted himself to +letters. + +Such of his early poems as have been preserved hardly contain the +promise of what he ultimately became. The first piece in which his +peculiar powers were displayed was the first satire (1660), in imitation +of the third satire of Juvenal; it embodied the farewell of a poet to +the city of Paris. This was quickly followed by eight others, and the +number was at a later period increased to twelve. A twofold interest +attaches to the satires. In the first place the author skilfully +parodies and attacks writers who at the time were placed in the very +first rank, such as Jean Chapelain, the abbe Charles Cotin, Philippe +Quinault and Georges de Scudery; he openly raised the standard of revolt +against the older poets. But in the second place he showed both by +precept and practice what were the poetical capabilities of the French +language. Prose in the hands of such writers as Descartes and Pascal had +proved itself a flexible and powerful instrument of expression, with a +distinct mechanism and form. But except with Malherbe, there had been no +attempt to fashion French versification according to rule or method. In +Boileau for the first time appeared terseness and vigour of expression, +with perfect regularity of verse structure. His admiration for Moliere +found expression in the stanzas addressed to him (1663), and in the +second satire (1664). In 1664 he composed his prose _Dialogue des heros +de roman_, a satire on the elaborate romances of the time, which may be +said to have once for all abolished the lucubrations of La Calprenede, +Mlle de Scudery and their fellows. Though fairly widely read in +manuscript, the book was not published till 1713, out of regard, it is +said, for Mlle de Scudery. To these early days belong the reunions at +the _Moulon Blanc_ and the _Pomme du Pin_, where Boileau, Moliere, +Racine, Chapelle and Antoine Furetiere met to discuss literary +questions. To Moliere and Racine he proved a constant friend, and +supported their interests on many occasions. + +In 1666, prompted by the publication of two unauthorized editions, he +published _Satires du Sieur D...._, containing seven satires and the +_Discours au roi_. From 1669 onwards appeared his epistles, graver in +tone than the satires, maturer in thought, more exquisite and polished +in style. The _Epitres_ gained for him the favour of Louis XIV., who +desired his presence at court. The king asked him which he thought his +best verses. Whereupon Boileau diplomatically selected as his "least +bad" some still unprinted lines in honour of the grand monarch and +proceeded to recite them. He received forthwith a pension of 2000 +livres. In 1674 his two masterpieces, _L'Art poetique_ and _Le Lutrin_, +were published with some earlier works as the _Oeuvres diverses du sieur +D_.... The first, in imitation of the _Ars Poetica_ of Horace, lays down +the code for all future French verse, and may be said to fill in French +literature a parallel place to that held by its prototype in Latin. On +English literature the maxims of Boileau, through the translation +revised by Dryden, and through the magnificent imitation of them in +Pope's _Essay on Criticism_, have exercised no slight influence. Boileau +does not merely lay down rules for the language of poetry, but analyses +carefully the various kinds of verse composition, and enunciates the +principles peculiar to each. Of the four books of _L'Art poetique_, the +first and last consist of general precepts, inculcating mainly the great +rule of _bon sens_; the second treats of the pastoral, the elegy, the +ode, the epigram and satire; and the third of tragic and epic poetry. +Though the rules laid down are of value, their tendency is rather to +hamper and render too mechanical the efforts of poetry. Boileau himself, +a great, though by no means infallible critic in verse, cannot be +considered a great poet. He rendered the utmost service in destroying +the exaggerated reputations of the mediocrities of his time, but his +judgment was sometimes at fault. The _Lutrin_, a mock heroic poem, of +which four cantos appeared in 1674, furnished Alexander Pope with a +model for the _Rape of the Lock_, but the English poem is superior in +richness of imagination and subtlety of invention. The fifth and sixth +cantos, afterwards added by Boileau, rather detract from the beauty of +the poem; the last canto in particular is quite unworthy of his genius. +In 1674 appeared also his translation of Longinus _On the Sublime_, to +which were added in 1693 certain critical reflections, chiefly directed +against the theory of the superiority of the moderns over the ancients +as advanced by Charles Perrault. + +Boileau was made historiographer to the king in 1677. From this time the +amount of his production diminished. To this period of his life belong +the satire, _Sur les femmes_, the ode, _Sur la prise de Namur_, the +epistles, _A mes vers_ and _Sur l'amour de Dieu_, and the satire _Sur +l'homme_. The satires had raised up a crowd of enemies against Boileau. +The 10th satire, on women, provoked an _Apologie des femmes_ from +Charles Perrault. Antoine Arnauld in the year of his death wrote a +letter in defence of Boileau, but when at the desire of his friends he +submitted his reply to Bossuet, the bishop pronounced all satire to be +incompatible with the spirit of Christianity, and the 10th satire to be +subversive of morality. The friends of Arnauld had declared that it was +inconsistent with the dignity of a churchman to write on any subject so +trivial as poetry. The epistle, _Sur l'amour de Dieu_, was a triumphant +vindication on the part of Boileau of the dignity of his art. It was not +until the 15th of April 1684 that he was admitted to the Academy, and +then only by the king's wish. In 1687 he retired to a country-house he +had bought at Auteuil, which Racine, because of the numerous guests, +calls his _hotellerie d'Auteuil_. In 1705 he sold his house and returned +to Paris, where he lived with his confessor in the cloisters of Notre +Dame. In the 12th satire, _Sur l'equivoque_, he attacked the Jesuits in +verses which Sainte-Beuve called a recapitulation of the _Lettres +provinciales_ of Pascal. This was written about 1705. He then gave his +attention to the arrangement of a complete and definitive edition of his +works. But the Jesuit fathers obtained from Louis XIV. the withdrawal of +the privilege already granted for the publication, and demanded the +suppression of the 12th satire. These annoyances are said to have +hastened his death, which took place on the 13th of March 1711. + +Boileau was a man of warm and kindly feelings, honest, outspoken and +benevolent. Many anecdotes are told of his frankness of speech at court, +and of his generous actions. He holds a well-defined place in French +literature, as the first who reduced its versification to rule, and +taught the value of workmanship for its own sake. His influence on +English literature, through Pope and his contemporaries, was not less +strong, though less durable. After much undue depreciation Boileau's +critical work has been rehabilitated by recent writers, perhaps to the +extent of some exaggeration in the other direction. It has been shown +that in spite of undue harshness in individual cases most of his +criticisms have been substantially adopted by his successors. + + Numerous editions of Boileau's works were published during his + lifetime. The last of these, _Oeuvres diverses_ (1701), known as the + "favourite" edition of the poet, was reprinted with variants and notes + by Alphonse Pauly (2 vols., 1894). The critical text of his works was + established by Berriat Saint-Prix, _Oeuvres de Boileau_ (4 vols., + 1830-1837), who made use of some 350 editions. This text, edited with + notes by Paul Cheron, with the _Boloeana_ of 1740, and an essay by + Sainte-Beuve, was reprinted by Garnier _freres_ (1860). + + See also Sainte-Beuve, _Causeries du lundi_, vol. vi.; F. Brunetiere, + "L'Esthetique de Boileau" (_Revue des Deux Mondes_, June 1889), and an + exhaustive article by the same critic in _La Grande encyclopedie_; G. + Lanson, _Boileau_ (1892), in the series of _Grands ecrivains + francais_. + + + + +BOILER, a vessel in which water or other liquid is heated to the boiling +point; specifically, the apparatus by which steam is produced from +water, as one step in the process whereby the potential energy of coal +or other fuel is converted into mechanical work by means of the +steam-engine. Boilers of the latter kind must all possess certain +essential features, whilst of other qualities that are desirable some +may not be altogether compatible with the special conditions under which +the boilers are to be worked. Amongst the essentials are a receptacle +capable of containing the water and the steam produced by its +evaporation, and strong enough continuously to withstand with safety the +highest pressure of steam for which the boiler is intended. Another +essential is a furnace for burning the fuel, and a further one is the +provision of a sufficiency of heating surface for the transmission of +the heat produced by the combustion of the fuel to the water which is +required to be evaporated. Desirable qualities are that the arrangements +of the furnaces should be such that a reasonably perfect combustion of +the fuel should be possible, and that the heating surfaces should be +capable of transmitting a large proportion of the heat produced to the +water so as to obtain a high evaporative efficiency. Further, the design +generally should be compact, not too heavy or costly, and such that the +cleaning necessary to maintain the evaporative efficiency can be easily +effected. It should also be such that the cost of upkeep will be small, +and that only an average amount of skill and attention will be required +under working conditions. It is for providing these qualities in +different degrees according to the special requirements of various +circumstances that the very different designs of the various types of +boilers have been evolved. + +_Classes of Boilers._--Boilers generally may be divided into two +distinct classes, one comprising those which are generally called "tank" +boilers, containing relatively large quantities of water, and the other +those which are generally called "water-tube" boilers, in which the +water is mainly contained in numerous comparatively small tubes. There +are, however, some types of boiler which combine to some extent the +properties of both these classes. Each class has its representatives +amongst both land and marine boilers. In "tank" boilers the outer shell +is wholly or partially cylindrical, this form being one in which the +necessary strength can be obtained without the use of a large number of +stays. The boilers are generally internally fired, the furnace plates +being surrounded with water and forming the most efficient portion of +the heating surfaces. On leaving the furnace the products of combustion +are led into a chamber and thence through flues or through numerous +small tubes which serve to transmit some of the heat of combustion to +the water contained in the boiler. In "water-tube" boilers the fire is +usually placed under a collection of tubes containing water and forming +the major portion of the heating surface of the boiler. Both the fire +and the tubes are enclosed in an outer casing of brickwork or other +fire-resisting substance. In some forms of water-tube boiler the fire +is entirely surrounded by water-tubes and the casing is in no part +exposed to the direct action of the fire. In "tank" boilers generally no +difficulty is experienced in keeping all the heating surfaces in close +contact with water, but in "water-tube" boilers special provision has to +be made in the design for maintaining the circulation of water through +the tubes. (For "flash" boilers see MOTOR VEHICLES, and for domestic +hot-water boilers HEATING.) + + + Lancashire. + + _Tank Boilers._--Of large stationary boilers the forms most commonly + used are those known as the "Lancashire" boiler, and its modification + the "Galloway" boiler. These boilers are made from 26 to 30 ft. long, + with diameters from 6-1/2 to 8 ft., and have two cylindrical furnace + flues which in the "Lancashire" boiler extend for its whole length + (see fig. 3). The working pressure is about 60 lb. per sq. in. in the + older boilers, from 100 lb. to 120 lb. per sq. in. in those supplying + steam to compound engines, and from 150 to 170 lb. where triple + expansion engines are used. In some cases they have been constructed + for a pressure of 200 lb. per sq. in. The furnace flues are usually + made in sections from 3 to 3-1/2 ft. long. Each section consists of + one plate bent into a cylindrical form, the longitudinal joint being + welded, and is flanged at both ends, the various pieces being joined + together by an "Adamson" joint (fig. 1.). It will be seen that these + joints do not expose either rivets or double thickness of plate to the + action of the fire; they further serve as stiffening rings to prevent + collapse of the flue. In most of these boilers the heating surface is + increased by fitting in the furnace flues a number of "Galloway" + tubes. These are conical tubes, made with a flange at each end, by + means of which they are connected to the furnace plate. They are so + proportioned that the diameter of the large end of the tube is + slightly greater than that of the flange of the small end; this + enables them to be readily removed and replaced if necessary. These + tubes not only add to the heating surface, but they stiffen the flue, + promote circulation of the water in the boiler, and by mixing up the + flue gases improve the evaporative efficiency. + + [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Adamson Joint.] + + In the "Galloway" boiler the two furnaces extend only for about 9 or + 10 ft. into the boiler, and lead into a large chamber or flue in which + a number of "Galloway" tubes are fitted, and which extends from the + furnace end to the end of the boiler. A cross section of this flue + showing the distribution of the Galloway tubes is shown in fig. 2. + When boilers less than about 6-1/2 ft. in diameter are needed, a + somewhat similar type to the Lancashire boiler is used containing only + one furnace. This is called a "Cornish" boiler. + + [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Galloway Boiler: Section beyond the Bridge.] + + In all three types of boiler the brickwork is constructed to form one + central flue passing along the bottom of the boiler and two side flues + extending up the side nearly to the water-level. A cross section of + the brickwork is shown in fig. 2. The usual arrangement is for the + flue gases to be divided as they leave the internal flue; one-half + returns along each side flue to the front of the boiler, and the whole + then passes downwards into the central flue, travelling under the + bottom of the boiler until the gases again reach the back end, where + they pass into the chimney. In a few cases the arrangement is + reversed, the gases first passing along the bottom flue and returning + along the side flues. This latter arrangement, whilst promoting a more + rapid circulation of water, has the disadvantage of requiring two + dampers, and it is not suitable for those cases in which heavy + deposits form on the bottoms of the boilers. + + + Vertical. + + Where floor space is limited and also for small installations, other + forms of cylindrical boilers are used, most of them being of the + vertical type. That most commonly used is the simple vertical boiler, + with a plain vertical fire-box, and an internal smoke stack traversing + the steam space. The fire-box is made slightly tapering in diameter, + the space between it and the shell being filled with water. In all but + the small sizes cross tubes are generally fitted. These are made about + 9 in. in diameter of 3/8-in. plate flanged at each end to enable them + to be riveted to the fire-box plates. They are usually fitted with a + slight inclination to facilitate water circulation. and a hand-hole + closed by a suitable door is provided in the outer shell opposite to + each tube for cleaning purposes. A boiler of this kind is illustrated + in fig. 4. This form is often used on board ship for auxiliary + purposes. Where more heating surface is required than can be obtained + in the cross-tube boiler other types of vertical boiler are employed. + For instance, in the "Tyne" boiler (fig. 5) the furnace is + hemispherical, and the products of combustion are led into an upper + combustion chamber traversed by four or more inclined water-tubes of + about 9 in. diameter and by several vertical water-tubes of less + diameter. In the "Victoria" boiler made by Messrs Clarke, Chapman & + Co., and illustrated in fig. 6, the furnace is hemispherical; the + furnace gases are led to an internal combustion chamber, and thence + through numerous horizontal smoke-tubes to a smoke-box placed on the + side of the boiler. In the somewhat similar boiler known as the + "Cochran," the combustion chamber is made with a "dry" back. Instead + of a water space at the back of the chamber, doors lined with + firebrick are fitted. These give easy access to the tube ends. + + [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Lancashire Boiler.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Simple Vertical Boiler (Messrs Tinker, Ltd.).] + + + Marine. + + The cylindrical multitubular return tube boiler is in almost universal + use in merchant steamers. It is made in various sizes ranging up to 17 + ft. in diameter, the usual working pressure being from 160 to 200 lb + per sq. in., although in some few cases pressures of 265 lb. per sq. + in. are in use. These boilers are of two types, double- and + single-ended. In single-ended boilers, which are those most generally + used, the furnaces are fitted at one end only and vary in number from + one in the smallest boiler to four in the largest. Three furnaces are + the most usual practice. Each furnace generally has its own separate + combustion chamber. In four furnace boilers, however, one chamber is + sometimes made common to the two middle furnaces, and sometimes one + chamber is fitted to each pair of side furnaces. In double-ended + boilers furnaces are fitted at each end. In some cases each furnace + has a separate combustion chamber, but more usually one chamber is + made to serve for two furnaces, one at each end of the boiler. The two + types of boilers are shown in figs. 7 and 8, which illustrate boilers + made by Messrs D. Rowan & Co. of Glasgow, and which may be taken as + representing good modern practice. The furnaces used in the smaller + sizes are often of the plain cylindrical type, the thickness of plate + varying from 3/8 in. up to 3/4 in. according to the diameter of the + furnace and the working pressure. Occasionally furnaces with "Adamson" + joints similar to those used in Lancashire boilers are employed, but + for large furnaces and for high pressures corrugated or ribbed + furnaces are usually adopted. Sketches of the sections of these are + shown in fig. 9. The sections of the Morison, Fox and Deighton types + are made from plates originally rolled of a uniform thickness, made + into a cylindrical form with a welded longitudinal joint and then + corrugated, the only difference between them being in the shapes of + the corrugations. In the other three types the plates from which the + furnaces are made are rolled with ribs or thickened portions at + distances of 9 in. These furnaces are stronger to resist collapse than + plain furnaces of the same thickness, and accommodate themselves more + readily to changes of temperature. + + [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Vertical Boiler with Water-tubes (the "Tyne," + by Messrs Clarke, Chapman & Co.).] + + There are two distinct types of connexion between the furnaces and the + combustion chambers. In one, shown in fig. 8, the furnace is flanged + at the crown portion for riveting to the tube plate, and the lower + part of the furnace is riveted to the "wrapper" or side plate of the + combustion chamber. In the other type, shown in fig. 7, and known + generally as the "Gourlay back end," the end of the furnace is + contracted into an oval conical form, and is then flanged outwards + round the whole of its circumference. The tube plate is made to extend + to the bottom of the combustion chamber, and the furnace is riveted to + the tube plate. The advantage of the Gourlay back end is that in case + of accident to the furnace it can be removed from the boiler and be + replaced by one of the same design without disturbing the end plates, + which is not possible with the other design. The Gourlay back end, + however, is not so stiff as the other, and more longitudinal stays are + required in the boiler. + + [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Vertical Boiler with internal combustion + chamber (the "Victoria," by Messrs Clarke, Chapman & Co.).] + + [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Single-ended Marine Boiler.] + + The flat sides and backs of the combustion chambers are stayed either + to one another or to the shell of the boiler by numerous screw stays + which are screwed through the two plates they connect, and which are + nearly always fitted with nuts inside the combustion chambers. The + tops of the chambers are usually stayed by strong girders resting upon + the tube plates and chamber back plates. In a few cases, however, they + are stayed by vertical stays attached to T bars riveted to the boiler + shell. A few boilers are made in which the chamber tops are + strengthened by heavy transverse girder plates. The end plates of the + boiler in the steam space and below the combustion chambers are stayed + by longitudinal stays passing through the whole length of the boiler + and secured by double nuts at each end. The tube plates are + strengthened by stay tubes screwed into them. + + Where natural or chimney draught is used the tubes are generally made + 3 or 3-1/4 in. outside diameter and are rarely more than 7 ft. long, + but where "forced" draught is employed they are usually made 2-1/2 in. + diameter and 8 to 8-1/2 ft. long. A clear space of 1-1/4 in. between + the tubes is almost always arranged for, irrespective of size of + tubes. + + [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Double-ended Marine Boiler.] + + Stay tubes are screwed at both ends, the threads of the two ends being + continuous so that they can be screwed into both tube plates; + occasionally nuts are fitted to the front ends. The stay tubes are + expanded into the plates and then beaded over. + + + Locomotive. + + The locomotive boiler consists of a cylindrical barrel attached to a + portion containing the fire-box, which is nearly rectangular both in + horizontal and vertical section. The fire-box sides are stayed to the + fire-box shell by numerous stays about 1 in. in diameter, usually + pitched 4 in. apart both vertically and horizontally. The top of the + fire-box in small boilers is stayed by means of girder stays running + longitudinally and supported at the ends upon the tube plate and the + opposite fire-box plate. In some boilers the girders are partly + supported by slings from the crown of the boiler. In larger boilers + the crown of the boiler above the fire-box is made flat and the + fire-box crown is supported by vertical stays connecting it with the + shell crown. Provision is generally made for the expansion of the tube + plate, which is of copper, by allowing the two or three cross rows of + stays nearest the tube plate to have freedom of motion upwards but not + downwards. The ordinary tubes are usually 1-3/4 in. diameter. The + fire-bars are generally, though not always, made to slope downwards + away from the fire door, and just below the lowest tubes a fire-bridge + or baffle is fitted, extending about half-way from the tube plate to + the fire-door side of the fire-box. In some cases water-tubes are + fitted, extending right across the fire-box. In a boiler for the + London & South-Western Railway Co., having a grate area of 31.5 sq. + ft. and a total heating surface of 2727 sq. ft., there are 112 + water-tubes each 2-3/4 in. diameter. These are arranged in two + clusters, each containing 56, one set being placed above the + fire-bridge, and the other set nearer the fire-door end of the boiler. + The water-tubes are of seamless steel, and are expanded into the + fire-box side plates. In way of these tubes the outer shell side + plates are supported by stay bars passing right through the + water-tubes. The usual pressure of locomotive boilers is about 175 + lb. to 200 lb. per sq. in. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.] + + A good example of an express locomotive boiler is shown in fig. 10. In + this case the grate area is 30.9 sq. ft. and the heating surface 2500 + sq. ft. The barrel is 5 ft. 6 in. diameter, 16 ft. long between tube + plates. The fire-box crown is stayed by vertical stays extending to + the shell crown, except for the three rows of stays nearest the tube + plates. These are supported by cross girders resting upon brackets + secured to the outer shell. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Express Locomotive Boiler, with widened + fire-box (Great Northern Railway, England).] + + + Babcock and Wilcox stationary. + + _Water-Tube Boilers._--The "Babcock & Wilcox" boiler, as fitted for + land purposes, and illustrated in fig. 11, consists of a horizontal + cylinder forming a steam chest, having dished ends and two specially + constructed cross-boxes riveted to the bottom. Under the cylinder is + placed a sloping nest of tubes, under the upper end of which is the + fire. The sides and back of the boiler are enclosed in brickwork up to + the height of the centre of the horizontal cylinder and the front is + fitted with an iron casing lined with brick at the lower part. + Suitable brickwork baffles are arranged between the tubes themselves, + and between the nests of tubes and the cylinder, to ensure a proper + circulation of the products of combustion, which are made to pass + between the tubes three times. The nest of tubes consists of several + separate elements, each formed by a front and back header made of + wrought steel of sinuous form connected by a number of tubes. The + upper ends of the front headers are connected by short tubes to the + front cross-box of the horizontal cylinder, the lower ends being + closed. The upper ends of the back headers are connected by longer + pipes to the back cross-box, and their lower ends by short pipes to a + horizontal mud drum to which a blow-off cock and pipe are attached. + The headers are furnished with holes on two opposite sides; those on + one side form the means of connexion between the headers and tubes, + and the others allow access for fixing the tubes in position and + cleaning. The outer holes are oval, and closed by special fittings + shown in fig. 18, the watertightness of the joints being secured by + the outer cover plates. The holes being oval, the inside fitting can + be placed in position from outside, and it is so made as to cover the + opening and prevent any great outrush of steam or water should the + bolt break. Any desired working pressure can be provided for in these + boilers; in some special cases it rises as high as 500 lb. per sq. + in., but a more usual pressure is 180 lb. Like all water-tube + boilers, they require to be frequently cleaned if impure feed-water is + used, but the straightness of their tubes enables their condition to + be ascertained at any time when the boiler is out of use, and any + accumulation of scale to be removed. The superheaters, which are + frequently fitted, consist of two cross-boxes or headers placed + transversely under the cylindrical drum and connected by numerous + C-shaped tubes. They are situated between the tubes and the + steam-chest, and are exposed to the heat of the furnace gases after + their first passage across the tubes. The steam is taken by an + internal pipe passing through the bottom of the drum into the upper + cross-box, then through the C tubes into the lower box, and thence to + the steam pipe. When steam is being raised, the superheater is flooded + with water, which is drained out through a blow-off pipe before + communication is opened with the steam-pipe. In large boilers of this + type, two steam-chests are placed side by side connected together by + two cross steam pipes and by the mud drum. Each, however, has its own + separate feed supply. The largest boiler made has two steam chests + 4-1/2 ft. diameter by 25-1/2 ft. long, a grate surface of 85 sq. ft., + and a total heating surface of 6182 sq. ft. + + + Stirling. + + Another type of water-tube boiler in use for stationary purposes is + the "Stirling" (fig. 12). This boiler consists of four or five + horizontal drums, of which the three upper form the steam-space, and + the one or two lower contain water. The lower drums, where two are + fitted, are connected to each other at about the middle of their + height by horizontal tubes, and to the upper drums by numerous nearly + vertical tubes which form the major portion of the heating surfaces. + The central upper drum is at a slightly higher level than the others, + and communicates with that nearest the back of the boiler by a set of + curved tubes entirely above the water-level, and with the front drum + by two sets--the upper one being above and the lower below the + water-level. The whole boiler is enclosed in brickwork, into which the + supporting columns and girders are built. Brickwork baffles compel the + furnace gases to take specified courses among the tubes. It will be + seen that the space between the boiler front and the tubes form a + large combustion chamber into which all the furnace gases must pass + before they enter the spaces between the tubes; in this chamber a + baffle-bridge is sometimes built. Another chamber is formed between + the first and second sets of tubes. The feed-water enters the back + upper drum, and must pass down the third set of tubes into the lower + drum before it reaches the other parts of the boiler. Thus the coldest + water is always where the temperature of the furnace gases is lowest; + and as the current through the lower drum is slight, the solid matters + separated from the feed-water while its temperature is being raised + have an opportunity of settling to the bottom of this drum, where the + heating is not great and where therefore their presence will not be + injurious. When superheaters are required, they are made of two drums + connected by numerous small tubes, and are somewhat similar in + construction to the boiler proper. The superheater is placed between + the first and second sets of tubes, where it is exposed to the furnace + gases before too much heat has been taken from them. Arrangements are + provided for flooding the superheater while steam is being raised, and + for draining it before the steam is passed through it. + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Babcock & Wilcox Water-tube Boiler fitted + with Superheaters.] + + + Woodeson. + + A somewhat similar boiler is made by Messrs. Clarke, Chapman & Co., + and is known as the "Woodeson" boiler (fig. 13). It consists of three + upper drums placed side by side connected together by numerous short + tubes, some above and some below the water-level, and of three smaller + lower drums also connected by short cross tubes. The upper and lower + drums are connected by numerous nearly vertical straight tubes. The + whole is enclosed in firebrick casing. The design permits of the + insides of all the tubes being readily inspected, and also of any tube + being taken out and renewed without displacing any other part of the + boiler. + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Stirling Water-tube Boiler.] + + + Belleville. + + The earliest form of water-tube boiler which came into general use in + the British navy is the Belleville. Two views of this boiler are shown + in fig. 14. It is composed of two parts, the boiler proper and the + "economizer." Each of these consists of several sets of elements + placed side by side; those of the boiler proper are situated + immediately over the fire, and those of the economizer in the uptake + above the boiler, the intervening space being designed to act as a + combustion chamber. Each element is constructed of a number of + straight tubes connected at their ends by means of screwed joints to + junction-boxes which are made of malleable cast iron. These are + arranged vertically over one another, and except in the case of the + upper and lower ones at the front of the boiler, each connects the + upper end of one tube with the lower end of the next tube of the + element. The boxes at the back of the boiler are all close-ended, but + those at the front are provided with a small oval hole, opposite to + each tube end, closed by an internal door with bolt and cross-bar; the + purpose of these openings is to permit the inside of the tubes to be + examined and cleaned. The lower front box of each element of the + boiler proper is connected to a horizontal cross-tube of square + section, called a "feed-collector," which extends the whole width of + the boiler. When the boiler is not in use, any element can be readily + disconnected and a spare one inserted. The lower part of the + steam-chest is connected to the feed-collector by vertical pipes at + each end of the boiler, and prolongations of these pipes below the + level of the feed-collector form closed pockets for the collection of + sediment. The tubes are made of seamless steel. They are generally + about 4-1/2 in. in external diameter: the two lower rows are 3/8 in. + thick, the next two rows 5/16 and the remainder about 1/5 in. The + construction of the economizer is similar to that of the boiler + proper, but the tubes are shorter and smaller, being generally about + 2-3/4 in. in diameter. The lower boxes of the economizer elements are + connected to a horizontal feed pipe which is kept supplied with water + by a feed-pumping engine, and the upper boxes are connected to another + horizontal pipe from which the heated feed-water is taken into the + steam-chest. Both the boiler proper and the economizer are enclosed in + a casing which is formed of two thicknesses of thin iron separated by + non-conducting material and lined with firebrick at the part between + the fire-bar level and the lower rows of tubes. Along the front of the + boiler, above the level of the firing-doors, there is a small tube + having several nozzles directed across the fire-grate, and supplied + with compressed air at a pressure of about 10 lb. per sq. in. In this + way not only is additional air supplied, but the gases issuing from + the fire are stirred up and mixed, their combustion being thereby + facilitated before they pass into the spaces between the tubes. A + similar air-tube is provided for the space between the boiler proper + and the economizer. Any water suspended in the steam is separated in a + special separator fitted in the main steam-pipe, and the steam is + further dried by passing through a reducing-valve, which ensures a + steady pressure on the engine side of the valve, notwithstanding + fluctuations of pressure in the boiler. The boiler pressure is usually + maintained at about 50 lb. per sq. in. in excess of that at which the + engines are working, the excess forming a reservoir of energy to + provide for irregular firing or feeding. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Woodeson Boiler (Messrs Clarke, Chapman & + Co.).] + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Belleville Boiler.] + + + Niclausse. + + Another type of large-tube boiler which has been used in the British + and in other navies is the "Niclausse," shown in fig. 15. It is also + in use on land in several electric-light installations. It consists of + a horizontal steam-chest under which is placed a number of elements + arranged side by side over the fire, the whole being enclosed in an + iron casing lined with firebrick where it is exposed to the direct + action of the fire. Each element consists of a header of rectangular + cross-section, fitted with two rows of inclined close-ended tubes, + which slope downwards towards the back of the boiler with an + inclination of 6 deg. to the horizontal. The headers are usually of + malleable cast iron with diaphragms cast in them, but sometimes steel + has been employed, the bottoms being closed by a riveted steel plate, + and the diaphragms being made of the same material. The headers are + bolted to socket-pieces which are riveted to the bottom of the + steam-chest, so that any element may be easily removed. The tube-holes + are accurately bored, at an angle to suit the inclination of the + tubes, through both the front and back of the headers and through the + diaphragm, those in the header walls being slightly conical. The tubes + themselves, which are made of seamless steel, are of peculiar + construction. The lower or back ends are reduced in diameter and + screwed and fitted with cap-nuts which entirely close them. The front + ends are thickened by being upset, and the parts where they fit into + the header walls and in the diaphragm are carefully turned to gauge. + The upper and lower parts of the tubes between these fitting portions + are then cut away, the side portions only being retained, and the end + is termed a "lanterne." A small water-circulating tube of thin sheet + steel, fitted inside each generating tube, is open at the lower end, + and at the other is secured to a smaller "lanterne," which, however, + only extends from the front of the header to the diaphragm. This + smaller "lanterne" closes the front end of the generating tube. The + whole arrangement is such that when the tubes are in place only the + small inner circulating tubes communicate with the space between the + front of the header and the diaphragm, while the annular spaces in the + generating tubes around the water-circulating tubes communicate only + with the space between the diaphragm and the back of the header. The + steam formed in the tubes escapes from them into this back space, + through which it rises into the steam-chest, whilst the space in the + front of the header always contains a down-current of water supplying + the inner circulating tubes. The tubes are maintained in position by + cross-bars, each secured by one stud-bolt screwed into the header + front wall, and each serving to fix two tubes. The products of + combustion ascend directly from the fire amongst the tubes, and the + combustion is rendered more complete by the introduction of jets of + high-pressure air immediately over the fire, as in the "Belleville" + boiler. + + + Durr. + + The "Durr" boiler, in use in several vessels in the German navy, and + in a few vessels of the British navy, in some respects resembles the + "Niclausse." The separate headers of the latter, however, are replaced + by one large water-chamber formed of steel plates with welded joints, + and instead of the tubes being secured by "lanternes" to two plates + they are secured to the inner plate only by conical joints, the holes + in the outer plate being closed by small round doors fitted from the + inside. In fixing the tubes each is separately forced into its + position by means of a small portable hydraulic jack. The lower ends + of the caps are closed by cap-nuts made of a special heat-resisting + alloy of copper and manganese. Circulation is provided for by a + diaphragm in the water-chamber and by inner tubes as in the Niclausse + boiler. Baffle plates are fitted amongst the tubes to ensure a + circulation of the furnace gases amongst them. Above the main set of + tubes is a smaller set arranged horizontally, and connected directly + to the steam receiver. These are fitted with internal tubes, and an + internal diaphragm is provided so that steam from the chest circulates + through these tubes on its way to the stop-valves. This supplementary + set of tubes is intended to serve as a superheater, but the amount of + surface is not sufficient to obtain more than a very small amount of + superheat. + + + Yarrow. + + The Yarrow boiler (fig. 16) is largely in use in the British and also + in several other navies. It consists of a large cylindrical steam + chest and two lower water-chambers, connected by numerous straight + tubes. In the boilers for large vessels all the tubes are of 1-3/4 in. + external diameter, but in the large express boilers the two rows + nearest to the fire on each side are of 1-1/4 in. and the remainder of + 1 in. diameter. They are arranged with their centres forming + equilateral triangles, and are spaced so that they can be cleaned + externally both from the front of the boiler and also cross-ways in + two directions. In some boilers the lower part of the steam-chest is + connected with the water-chambers by large pipes outside the casings + with the view of improving the circulation. + + The largest size of single-ended large tube boiler in use has a steam + drum 4 ft. 2 in. diameter, a grate area of 73.5 sq. ft. and 3750 sq. + ft. of heating surface, but much larger double-ended boilers have been + made, these being fired from both ends. + + In most of the boilers made, access to the inside is obtained by + manholes in the steam-chest and water-chamber ends, but in the smaller + sizes fitted in torpedo boats the water-chambers are too small for + this, and they are each arranged in two parts connected by a bolted + joint, which makes all the tube ends accessible. + + The Babcock & Wilcox marine boiler (fig. 17) is much used in the + American and British navies, and it has also been used in several + yachts and merchant steamers. It consists of a horizontal cylindrical + steam-chest placed transversely over a group of elements, beneath + which is the fire, the whole being enclosed in an iron casing lined + with firebrick. Each element consists of a front and back header + connected by numerous water-tubes which have a considerable + inclination to facilitate the circulation. The upper ends of the front + headers are situated immediately under the steam-chest and are + connected to it by short nipples; by a similar means they are + connected at the bottom to a pipe of square section which extends + across the width of the boiler. Additional connexions are made by + nearly vertical tubes between this cross-pipe and the bottom of the + steam-chest. The back headers are each connected at their upper ends + by means of two long horizontal tubes with the steam-chest, the bottom + ends of the headers being closed. The headers are made of wrought + steel, and except the outer pairs, which are flat on the outer + portions, they are sinuous on both sides, the sinuosities fitting into + one another. The tubes are of two sizes, the two lower rows and the + return tubes between the back headers and steam-chest being 3-15/16 + in. outside diameter, and the remaining tubes 1-13/16 in. The small + tubes are arranged in groups of two or four to nearly all of the + sinuosities of the headers, the purpose of this arrangement being to + give opportunities for the furnace gases to become well mixed + together, and to ensure their contact with the heating surfaces. + Access for securing the tubes in the headers is provided by a hole + formed on the other side of the header opposite each of the tubes, + where they are grouped in fours, and by one larger hole opposite each + group of two tubes. The larger holes are oval, and are closed by + fittings similar to those used in the land boiler (fig. 18). The + smaller holes are conical, with the larger diameter on the inside, + and are closed by special conical fittings: the conical portion and + bolt are one forging, and the nut is close-ended. In case of the + breakage of the bolt, the fitting would be retained in place by the + steam-pressure. A set of firebrick baffles is placed so as to cover + rather more than half of the spaces between the upper of the two + bottom rows of large tubes, and another set of baffles covers about + two-thirds of the spaces between the upper small tubes. Vertical + baffles are also built between the smaller tubes, as shown in the + longitudinal section. These baffles compel the products of combustion + to circulate among the tubes in the direction shown by the arrows. + Experience has shown that this arrangement gives a better evaporative + efficiency than where the furnace gases are allowed to pass unbaffled + straight up between the tubes. The boilers are usually fitted in pairs + placed back to back, and one side of each is always made accessible. + On this side the casing is provided with numerous small doors, through + any of which a steam jet can be inserted for the purpose of sweeping + the tubes. + + [Illustration: FIG 15.--Niclausse Boiler--transverse section.] + + + Express boilers. + + A class of water-tube boilers largely in use in torpedo-boat + destroyers and cruisers, where the maximum of power is required in + proportion to the total weight of the installation, is generally known + as express boilers. In these the tubes are made of smaller diameter + than those used in the boilers already described, and the boilers are + designed to admit of a high rate of combustion of fuel obtained by a + high degree of "forced draught." Of these express boilers the Yarrow + is of similar construction to the large tube Yarrow boiler already + described with the exception that the tubes are smaller in diameter + and much more closely arranged. + + + Normand. + + In the Normand boiler (fig. 19) there are three chambers as in the + Yarrow, connected together by a large number of bent tubes which form + the heating surface, and also connected at each end by large outside + circulating tubes. The two outer rows of heating tubes on each side + are arranged to touch one another to nearly their whole length so as + to form a "water-wall" for the protection of the outer casing. They + enter the steam-chest at about the water-level. The two inner rows of + tubes, which are bent to the form shown in the figure, also form a + water-wall for the larger portion of the length of the boiler, and + thus compel the products of combustion to pass in a definite course + amongst all the tubes. In the Blechynden and White-Foster boilers + there are also three chambers connected by bent tubes, the curvature + being so arranged that in the former boiler any of the tubes can be + taken out of the boiler through small doors provided in the upper part + of the steam-chest, and in the White-Foster boiler they can be taken + out through the manhole in the end of the steam-chest. + + + Reed. + + In the Reed boiler the tubes are longer and more curved than in the + Normand boiler, and there are no "water-walls," the products of + combustion passing from the fire-grate amongst all the tubes direct to + the chimney. The special feature of the boiler is that each tube, + instead of being expanded into the tube plate, is fitted at each end + with specially designed screw and nut connexions to enable them to be + quickly taken out and replaced if necessary. At their lower ends the + tubes are reduced in diameter to enable smaller chambers to be used + than would otherwise be necessary. Provision is made for access to the + lower tube ends by means of numerous doors in the water-chambers. + Access to the top ends is obtained in the steam-chest. + + + Thornycroft. + + Messrs John I. Thornycroft & Co. make two forms of express boiler. One + called the Thornycroft boiler consists of three chambers connected by + tubes which are straight for the major portion of their length but + bent at each end to enable them to enter the steam- and water-chambers + normally. The outer rows of tubes form "water-walls" at their lower + parts, but permit the passage of the gases between them at their upper + ends. Similarly the inner rows form "water-walls" at their upper + parts, but are open at the lower ends. The products of combustion are + thus compelled to pass over the whole of the heating surfaces. The + fire-rows of tubes in this boiler are made 1-3/8 in. outside diameter + and the remainder are made 1-3/8 in. diameter. Large outside + circulating pipes are provided at the front end of the boiler. + + + Thornycroft-Schulz. + + In the other type of boiler, known as the Thornycroft-Schulz boiler + (fig. 20), there are four chambers, and the fire-grate is arranged in + two separate portions. The two outermost rows of tubes on each side + are arranged to form water-walls at their lower part, and permit the + gases to pass between them at the upper part. The rows nearest the + fires are arranged similarly to those in the Thornycroft boiler. + Circulation in the outer sets of tubes is arranged for by outer + circulating pipes of large diameter connecting the steam- and + water-chambers. For the middle water-chamber several nearly vertical + down-comers are provided in the centre of the boiler. Boilers of this + type are extensively used in the British and German navies. + +_Material of Boilers._--In ordinary land boilers and in marine boilers +of all types the plates and stays are almost invariably made of mild +steel. For the shell plates and for long stays, a quality having a +tensile strength ranging from 28 to 32 tons per sq. in. is usually +employed, and for furnaces and flues, for plates which have to be +flanged, and for short-screwed stays, a somewhat softer steel with a +strength ranging from 26 to 30 tons per sq. in. is used. The tubes of +ordinary land and marine boilers are usually made of lap-welded wrought +iron. In water-tube boilers for naval purposes seamless steel tubes are +invariably used. In locomotive boilers the shells are generally of mild +steel, the fire-box plates of copper (in America of steel), the fire-box +side stays of copper or special bronze, and other stays of steel. The +tubes are usually of brass with a composition either of two parts by +weight of copper to one of zinc or 70% copper, 30% zinc; sometimes, +however, copper tubes and occasionally steel tubes are used. Where water +tubes are used they are made of seamless steel. + +_Boiler Accessories._--All boilers must be provided with certain +mountings and accessories. The water-level in them must be kept above +the highest part of the heating surfaces. In some land boilers, and in +some of the water-tube boilers used on shipboard, the feeding is +automatically regulated by mechanism actuated by a float, but in these +cases means of regulating the feed-supply by hand are also provided. In +most boilers hand regulation only is relied upon. The actual level of +water in the boiler is ascertained by a glass water-gauge, which +consists of a glass tube and three cocks, two communicating directly +with the boiler, one above and one below the desired water-level, and +the third acting as a blow-out for cleaning the gauge and for testing +its working. Three small try-cocks are also fitted, one just at, one +above, and one below the proper water-level. The feeding of the boiler +is sometimes performed by a pump driven from the main engine, sometimes +by an independent steam-pump, and sometimes by means of an injector. The +feed-water is admitted by a "check-valve," the lift of which is +regulated by a screw and hand-wheel, and which when the feed-pump is not +working is kept on its seating by the boiler pressure. + +[Illustration: FIG. 16.--Yarrow Water-tube Boiler.] + +Every boiler is in addition supplied with a steam-gauge to indicate the +steam-pressure, with a stop-valve for regulating the admission of steam +to the steam-pipes, and with one or two safety-valves. These last in +stationary boilers usually consist of valves kept in their seats against +the steam-pressure in the boiler by levers carrying weights, but in +marine and locomotive boilers the valves are kept closed by means of +steel springs. One at least of the safety-valves is fitted with easing +gear by which it can be lifted at any time for blowing off the steam. +Blow-out cocks are fitted for emptying the boiler. + +Openings must always be made in boilers for access for cleaning and +examination. When these are large enough to allow a man to enter the +boiler they are termed man-holes. They are usually made oval, as this +shape permits the doors by which they are closed to be placed on the +inside so that the pressure upon them tends to keep them shut. The doors +are held in place by one or two bolts, secured to cross-bars or "dogs" +outside the boiler. It is important in making these doors that they +should fit the holes so accurately that the jointing material cannot be +forced out of its proper position. In the few cases where doors are +fitted outside a boiler, so that the steam-pressure tends to open them, +they are always secured by several bolts so that the breakage of one +bolt will not allow the door to be forced off. + +_Water-softening._--Seeing that the impurities contained in the +feed-water are not evaporated in the steam they become concentrated in +the boiler water. Most of them become precipitated in the boiler either +in the form of mud or else as scale which forms on the heating surfaces. +Some of the mud and such of the impurities as remain soluble may be +removed by means of the blow-off cocks, but the scale can only be +removed by periodical cleaning. Incrustations on the heating surface not +only lessen the efficiency of the boiler by obstructing the transmission +of heat through the plates and tubes, but if excessive they become a +source of considerable danger by permitting the plates to become +overheated and thereby weakened. When the feed-water is very impure, +therefore, the boilers used are those which permit of very easy +cleaning, such as the Lancashire, Galloway and Cornish types, to the +exclusion of multitubular or water-tube boilers in which thorough +cleaning is more difficult. In other cases, however, the feed-water is +purified by passing it through some type of "softener" before pumping it +into the boiler. Most of the impurities in ordinary feed-water are +either lime or magnesia salts, which although soluble in cold water are +much less so in hot water. In the "softener" measured quantities of +feed-water and of some chemical reagents are thoroughly mixed and at the +same time the temperature is raised either by exhaust steam or by other +means. Most of the impurity is thus precipitated, and some of the +remainder is converted into more soluble salts which remain in solution +in the boiler until blown out. The water is filtered before being pumped +into the boiler. The quantity and kind of chemical employed is +determined according to the nature and amount of the impurity in the +"hard" feed-water. + +_Thermal Storage._--In some cases where the work required is very +intermittent, "thermal storage" is employed. Above the boiler a large +cylindrical storage vessel is placed, having sufficient capacity to +contain enough feed-water to supply the boiler throughout the periods +when the maximum output is required. The upper part of this storage +vessel is always in free communication with the steam space of the +boiler, and from the lower part of it the feed-water may be run into the +boiler when required. The feed-water is delivered into the upper part of +the vessel, and arrangements are made by which before it falls to the +bottom of the chamber it runs over very extended surfaces exposed to the +steam, its temperature being thus raised to that of the steam. At times +when less than the normal supply of steam is required for the engine +more than the average quantity of feed-water is pumped into the chamber, +and the excess accumulates with its temperature raised to the +evaporation point. When an extra supply of steam is required, the +feed-pump is stopped and the boiler is fed with the hot water stored in +the chamber. Besides the "storage" effect, it is found that many of the +impurities of the feed become deposited in the chamber, where they are +comparatively harmless and from which they are readily removable. + +[Illustration: Longitudinal section. + +Section at AB--Front elevation. + +FIG. 17.--Bobcock & Wilcox Water-tube Boiler (marine type).] + +_Oil Separators._--When the steam from the engines is condensed and used +as feed-water, as is the case with marine boilers, much difficulty is +often experienced with the oil which passes over with the steam. +Feed-filters are employed to stop the coarser particles of the oil, but +some of the oil becomes "emulsified" or suspended in the water in such +extremely minute particles that they pass through the finest filtering +materials. On the evaporation of the water in the boiler, this oil is +left as a thin film upon the heating surfaces, and by preventing the +actual contact of water with the plates has been the cause of serious +trouble. An attempt has been made to overcome the emulsion difficulty by +uniformly mixing with the water a small quantity of solution of lime. On +the water being raised in temperature the lime is precipitated, and the +minute particles separated apparently attract the small globules of oil +and become aggregated in sufficient size to deposit themselves in quiet +parts of the boiler, whence they can be occasionally removed either by +blowing out or by cleaning. Much, however, still remains to be done +before the oil difficulty will be thoroughly removed. + +_Corrosion._--When chemicals of any kind are used to soften or purify +feed-water it is essential that neither they nor the products they form +should have a corrosive effect upon the boiler-plates, &c. Much of the +corrosion which occasionally occurs has been traced to the action of the +oxygen of the air which enters the boiler in solution in the feed-water, +and the best practice now provides for the delivery of the feed into the +boiler at such positions that the air evolved from it as it becomes +heated passes direct to the steam space without having an opportunity of +becoming disengaged upon the under-water surfaces of the boiler. + +Where corrosion is feared it is usual to fit zinc slabs in the water +spaces of the boiler. Experience shows that it is better to make them of +rolled rather than of cast zinc, and to secure them on studs which can +be kept bright, so as to ensure a direct metallic contact between the +zinc and the boiler-plate. The function of the zinc is to set up +galvanic action; it plays the part of the negative metal, and is +dissolved while the metal of the shell is kept electro-positive. Care +must always be taken that the fragments which break off the zinc as it +wastes away cannot fall upon the heating surfaces of the boiler. + +_Evaporators._--In marine boilers the waste of water which occurs from +leakages in the cycle of the evaporation in the boiler, use in the +engine, condensation in the condenser and return to the boiler as +feed-water, is made up by fresh water distilled from sea-water in +"evaporators." Of these there are many forms with different provisions +for cleaning the coils, but they are all identical in principle. They +are fed with sea-water, and means are provided for blowing out the brine +produced in them when some of the water is evaporated. The heat required +for the evaporation is obtained from live steam from the boilers, which +is admitted into coils of copper pipe. The water condensed in these +coils is returned direct to the feed-water, and the steam evaporated +from the sea-water is led either into the low-pressure receiver of the +steam-engine or into the condenser. + +[Illustration: FIG. 18.--Handhole Fittings.] + +_Efficiency of Boilers._--The useful work obtained from any boiler +depends upon many considerations. For a high efficiency, that is, a +large amount of steam produced in proportion to the amount of fuel +consumed, different conditions have to be fulfilled from those required +where a large output of steam from a given plant is of more importance +than economy of fuel. For a high efficiency, completeness of combustion +of fuel must be combined with sufficient heating surface to absorb so +much of the heat produced as will reduce the temperature of the funnel +gases to nearly that of steam. Completeness of combustion can only be +obtained by admitting considerably more air to the fire than is +theoretically necessary fully to oxidize the combustible portions of the +fuel, and by providing sufficient time and opportunity for a thorough +mixture of the air and furnace gases to take place before the +temperature is lowered to that critical point below which combustion +will not take place. It is generally considered that the amount of +excess air required is nearly equal to that theoretically necessary; +experience, however, tends to show that much less than this is really +required if proper means are provided for ensuring an early complete +mixture of the gases. Different means are needed to effect this with +different kinds of coal, those necessary for properly burning Welsh coal +being altogether unsuitable for use with North Country or Scottish coal. +As all the excess air has to be raised to the same temperature as that +of the really burnt gases, it follows that an excess of air passing +through the fire lowers the temperature in the fire and flues, and +therefore lessens the heat transmission; and as it leaves the boiler at +a high temperature it carries off some of the heat produced. A reduction +of the amount of air, therefore, may, by increasing the fire temperature +and lessening the chimney waste, actually increase the efficiency even +if at the same time it is accompanied by a slight incompleteness of +combustion. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19.--Normand Boiler.] + +_Mechanical Stoking._--Most boilers are hand-fired, a system involving +much labour and frequent openings of the furnace doors, whereby large +quantities of cold air are admitted above the fires. Many systems of +mechanical stoking have been tried, but none has been found free from +objections. That most usually employed is known as the "chain-grate" +stoker. In this system, which is illustrated in fig. 13 (Woodeson +boiler), the grate consists of a wide endless chain formed of short +cast-iron bars; this passes over suitable drums at the front and back of +the boiler, by the slow rotation of which the grate travels very slowly +from front to back. The coal, which is broken small, is fed from a +hopper over the whole width of the grate, the thickness of the fire +being regulated by a door which can be raised or lowered as desired. +Thus the volatile portions of the coal are distilled at the front of the +fire, and pass over the incandescent fuel at the back end. The speed of +travel is so regulated that by the time the remaining parts of the fuel +reach the back end the combustion is nearly complete. It will be seen +that the fire becomes thinner towards the back, and too much air is +prevented from entering the thin portion by means of vanes actuated from +the front of the boiler. + +_Draught._--In most boilers the draught necessary for combustion is +"natural," i.e. produced by a chimney. For marine purposes, although +"natural" draught is the more common, many boiler installations are +fitted with "forced" draught arrangements. Two distinct systems are +used. In that known as the "closed stokehold" the stokehold compartment +of the vessel is so closed that the only exit for air from it is through +the fires. Air is driven into the stokehold by means of fans which are +made so that they can maintain an air pressure in the stokehold above +that of the outside atmosphere. This is the system almost universally +adopted in war vessels, and it is used also in some fast passenger +ships. The air pressure usually adopted in large vessels is that +corresponding to a height of from 1 to 1-1/2 in. of water, whilst so much +as 4 in. is sometimes used in torpedo-boats and similar craft. This is, +of course, in addition to the chimney-draught due to the height of the +funnel. In the closed ashpit or Howden system, the stokehold is open, +and fans drive the air round a number of tubes, situated in the uptake, +through which the products of combustion pass on their way to the +chimney. The air thus becomes heated, and part of it is then delivered +into the ashpit below the fire and part into a casing round the furnace +front from which it enters the furnace above the fire. In locomotive +boilers the draught is produced by the blast or the exhaust steam. With +natural draught a combustion of about 15 to 20 lb. of coal per sq. ft. +of grate area per hour can be obtained. With forced draught much greater +rates can be maintained, ranging from 20 lb. to 35 lb. in the larger +vessels with a moderate air pressure, to as much as 70 and even 80 lb +per sq. ft. in the express types of boiler used in torpedo boats and +similar craft. + +_Performance of Boilers._--The makers of several types of boilers have +published particulars regarding the efficiency of the boilers they +construct, but naturally these results have been obtained under the most +favourable circumstances which may not always represent the conditions +of ordinary working. The following table of actual results of marine +boiler trials, made at the instance of the British admiralty, is +particularly useful because the trials were made with great care under +working conditions, the whole of the coal being weighed and the +feed-water measured throughout the trials by skilled observers. The +various trials can be compared amongst themselves as South Welsh coal of +excellent quality was used in all cases. + +In experimental tests such as those above referred to, many conditions +have to be taken into account, the principal being the duration of the +trial. It is essential that the condition of the boiler at the +conclusion of the test should be precisely the same as at the +commencement, both as regards the quantity of unconsumed coals on the +fire-grate and the quantity of water and the steam-pressure in the +boiler. The longer the period over which the observations are taken the +less is the influence of errors in the estimation of these particulars. +Further, in order properly to represent working conditions, the rate of +combustion of the fuel throughout the trial must be the same as that +intended to be used in ordinary working, and the duration of the test +must be sufficient to include proportionately as much cleaning of fires +as would occur under the normal working conditions. The tests should +always be made with the kind of coal intended to be generally used, and +the records should include a test of the calorific value of a sample of +the fuel carefully selected so as fairly to represent the bulk of the +coal used during the trial. The periodic records taken are the weights +of the fuel used and of the ashes, &c., produced, the temperature and +quantity of the feed-water, the steam pressure maintained, and the +wetness of the steam produced. This last should be ascertained from +samples taken from the steam pipe at a position where the full pressure +is maintained. In order to reduce to a common standard observations +taken under different conditions of feed temperatures and steam +pressures, the results are calculated to an equivalent evaporation at +the atmospheric pressure from a feed temperature of 212 deg. F. + (J. T. Mi.) + + +TRIALS OF VARIOUS TYPES OF MARINE BOILERS + + +----------------------------+-------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+---------+----------------+----------+---------+------+ + | | | | | | Air | |Water Evaporated| Water | | | + | | | | | Coal |Pressure |Chimney |per lb. of Coal.| Evapor- | Thermal |Effic-| + | | Grate |Heating |Duration| burned |in Stoke-|Draught--+-------+--------+ated per |Units per|iency | + | Description of Boiler. | Area |Surface |of Trial|Per sq. ft.| hold-- |Inches of| |From and|sq. ft. of| lb. of | of | + | |sq. ft.|sq. ft. | Hours. | of Grate |Inches of| Water |Actual | at 212 | Heating | coal. |Boiler| + | | | | | per Hour. | Water. | | | deg. F.| Surface. | | %. | + +----------------------------+-------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+----------+---------+------+ + |Ordinary cylindrical single-| 81 | 2308 | 25 | 14.2 | Nil | 0.36 | 8.56 | 10.26 | 4.26 | 14,267 | 69.7 | + | ended; 3 furnaces; 155 lb. | " | " | 24 | 13.9 | " | 0.50 | 8.84 | 10.33 | 4.32 | 14,697 | 68.0 | + | working pressure; closed | " | " | 9 | 30.3 | 0.81 | 0.39 | 7.93 | 9.27 | 8.46 | 14,686 | 61.4 | + | stokehold system.[1] | " | " | 8-1/2| 29.1 | 0.65 | 0.32 | 8.84 | 10.34 | 9.05 | 14,612 | 68.4 | + +----------------------------+-------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+----------+---------+------+ + |Ordinary cylindrical single-| |2876 in | | | | | | | | | | + | ended; 3 furnaces; 210 lb. | |boiler, | | | In Ash- | | | | | | | + | working pressure; closed | 63.2 |766 in | 13 | 20.6 | pit | 0.58 | 11.30 | 12.33 | 5.14 | 14,475 | 82.3 | + | ashpit, Howden system.[2] | | air | | | 1.53 | | | | | | | + | | |heaters | | | | | | | | | | + +----------------------------+-------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+----------+---------+------+ + |Niclausse water-tube; 160 | 46 | 1322 | 8 | 12.8 | Nil | 0.20 | 8.41 | 10.15 | 3.75 | 14,680 | 66.9 | + | lb. working pressure. | " | " | 8 | 21.9 | " | 0.20 | 8.01 | 9.40 | 6.11 | 14,760 | 62.1 | + | | " | " | 37 | 20.2 | " | 0.29 | 7.62 | 9.00 | 5.44 | 14,600 | 60.5 | + +----------------------------+-------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+----------+---------+------+ + |Niclausse water-tube; | 34 | 990 | 9 | 14.0 | 0.10 | 0.23 | 8.77 | 10.50 | 4.17 | 14,640 | 69.8 | + | 250 lb. working pressure. | " | " | 9 | 22.0 | 0.27 | 0.23 | 7.68 | 9.06 | 5.74 | 14,640 | 60.4 | + | | " | " | 90 | 15.4 | Nil |Not asce-| 7.61 | 9.08 | 4.00 | 14,630 | 59.9 | + | | | | | | | rtained | | | | | | + +----------------------------+-------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+----------+---------+------+ + |Babcock water-tube; 3-3/16 | 36 | 1010 | 9 | 13.0 | " | 0.26 | 9.31 | 11.02 | 4.30 | 14,590 | 73.2 | + | in. tubes; 260 lb. working | " | " | 9 | 20.0 | 0.18 | 0.20 | 8.58 | 10.11 | 6.13 | 14,590 | 67.0 | + | pressure. | " | " | 90 | 14.5 | Nil |Not asce-| 8.09 | 9.53 | 4.18 | . . | 63.1 | + | | | | | | | rtained | | | | | | + +----------------------------+-------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+----------+---------+------+ + |Babcock water-tube; 1-13/16 | 62 | 2167 | 28 | 18.4 | " | 0.45 | 8.94 | 10.61 | 4.61 | 14,520 | 70.7 | + | in. tubes; 270 lb. working | " | " | 24 | 19.2 | " | 0.47 | 8.93 | 10.59 | 4.82 | 14,390 | 71.1 | + | pressure.[3] | " | " | 12 | 20.5 | " | 0.42 | 9.42 | 11.04 | 5.41 | 14,080 | 75.8 | + | | " | " | 7 | 28.9 | 0.50 |Not asce-| 8.54 | 9.88 | 6.91 | 14,390 | 66.3 | + | | | | | | | rtained | | | | | | + | | " | " | 30 | 19.9 | Nil | 0.38 | 10.11 | 12.00 | 6.01 | 14,530 | 79.9 | + | | " | " | 29 | 27.1 | 0.66 | 0.23 | 9.96 | 11.67 | 8.05 | 14,630 | 77.1 | + +----------------------------+-------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+----------+---------+------+ + |Belleville water-tube with | 44 | 910 in | 24-1/2| 15.8 | Nil | 0.36 | 9.65 | 11.46 | 4.94 | 14,697 | 77.2 | + | economizers; 320 lb. | " | boiler;| 24 | 17.4 | " | 0.39 | 9.33 | 11.00 | 5.30 | 14,805 | 71.8 | + | working pressure. | " | 447 in | 11 | 19.8 | " | 0.43 | 9.39 | 11.03 | 6.38 | 14,578 | 73.3 | + | | " |economi-| 8 | 27.2 | " | 0.39 | 8.28 | 9.79 | 7.78 | 14,611 | 65.0 | + | | |zer;1357| | | | | | | | | | + | | | total. | | | | | | | | | | + +----------------------------+-------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+----------+---------+------+ + |Yarrow water tube; 1-3/4 in.| 56 | 2896 | 26 | 16.9 | Nil | 0.31 | 9.57 | 11.45 | 3.12 | 14,750 | 75.0 | + | tubes; 250 lb. working | " | " | 26 | 18.2 | " | 0.31 | 9.37 | 11.33 | 3.30 | 14,500 | 75.7 | + | pressure. | " | " | 25 | 21.3 | " | 0.31 | 8.83 | 10.45 | 3.63 | 13,500 | 75.2 | + | | " | " | 30 | 35.4 | 0.53 | 0.26 | 8.82 | 10.59 | 6.04 | 14,430 | 70.9 | + | | " | " | 8 | 41.9 | 0.86 | 0.31 | 8.24 | 9.94 | 6.69 | 14,500 | 66.3 | + | | " | " | 8 | 33.7 | 0.31 | 0.30 | 8.39 | 9.93 | 5.47 | 14,680 | 65.4 | + | | " | " | 8 | 39.8 | 0.82 | 0.24 | 8.85 | 10.43 | 6.81 | 14,530 | 69.5 | + +----------------------------+-------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+----------+---------+------+ + |Durr water-tube; 250 lb. | 71 |2671 in | 26 | 16.1 | Nil | 0.39 | 7.95 | 9.50 | 3.24 | 14,500 | 63.8 | + | working pressure. | " | boiler;| 26 | 17.7 | " | 0.30 | 7.06 | 9.28 | 3.43 | 14,620 | 61.7 | + | | " | 140 in | 25 | 21.1 | " | 0.31 | 7.62 | 9.08 | 4.05 | 14,650 | 60.3 | + | | " | super- | 7 | 33.8 | 0.70 | 0.36 | 7.72 | 9.29 | 6.59 | 14,570 | 62.7 | + | | " | heater;| 8 | 26.7 | 0.33 | 0.35 | 7.86 | 9.26 | 5.30 | 14,320 | 63.1 | + | | " | 2811 | 8 | 34.6 | 1.11 | 0.20 | 8.02 | 9.53 | 7.02 | 14,230 | 64.8 | + | | " | total. | 22 | 34.8 | 0.73 | 0.16 | 6.84 | 8.06 | 6.02 | 14,430 | 54.0 | + | | " | | 24 | 29.9 | 0.35 | 0.12 | 7.62 | 9.00 | 5.75 | 14,240 | 61.2 | + | | " | | 20 | 19.9 | Nil | 0.21 | 7.30 | 8.33 | 3.66 | 14,240 | 58.6 | + +----------------------------+-------+--------+--------+-----------+---------+---------+-------+--------+----------+---------+------+ + + [1] In the first three trials no retarders were used in the tubes. In + the last trial retarders were used. + + [2] In this trial retarders were used in the tubes. + + [3] The first four trials were made with horizontal baffles above the + tubes; the last two trials with the baffling described in the text. + + +BOILER MAKING. + +The practice of the boiler, bridge and girder shops may here be +conveniently treated together, because similar materials and methods are +employed in each, notwithstanding that many points of divergence in +practice generally relegate them to separate departments. The materials +used are chiefly iron and steel. The methods mostly adopted are those +involved in the working of plates and rolled sections, which vastly +predominate over the bars and rods used chiefly in the smithy. But there +are numerous differences in methods of construction. Flanging occupies a +large place in boilermaking, for end-plates, tube-plates, furnace flues, +&c., but is scarcely represented in bridge and girder work. Plates are +bent to cylindrical shapes in boilermaking, for shells and furnaces, but +not in girder work. Welding is much more common in the first than in the +second, furnace flues being always welded and stand pipes frequently. In +boiler work holes are generally drilled through the seams of adjacent +plates. In bridge work each plate or bar is usually drilled or punched +apart from its fellows. Boilers, again, being subject to high +temperatures and pressures, must be constructed with provisions to +ensure some elasticity and freedom of movement under varying +temperatures to prevent fractures or grooving, and must be made of +materials that combine high ductility with strength when heated to +furnace temperatures. Flanging of certain parts, judicious staying, +limitation of the length of the tubes, the forms of which are +inherently weak, provide for the first; the selection of steel or iron +of high percentage elongation, and the imposition of temper, or bending +tests, both hot and cold, provide for the second. + +The following are the leading features of present-day methods. + + It might be hastily supposed that, because plates, angles, tees, + channels and joist sections are rolled ready for use, little work + could be left for the plater and boilermaker. But actually so much is + involved that subdivisions of tasks are numerous; the operations of + templet-making, rolling, planing, punching and shearing, bending, + welding and forging, flanging, drilling, riveting, caulking, and + tubing require the labours of several groups of machine attendants, + and of gangs of unskilled labourers or helpers. Some operations also + have to be done at a red or white heat, others cold. To the first + belong flanging and welding, to the latter generally all the other + operations. Heating is necessary for the rolling of tubes of small + diameter; bending is done cold or hot according to circumstances. + + [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Thornycroft-Schulz Water-tube Boiler.] + + The fact that some kinds of treatment, as shearing and punching, + flanging and bending, are of a very violent character explains why + practice has changed radically in regard to the method of performing + these operations in cases where safety is a cardinal matter. Shearing + and punching are both severely detrusive operations performed on cold + metal; both leave jagged edges and, as experience has proved, very + minute cracks, the tendency of which is to extend under subsequent + stress, with liability to produce fracture. But it has been found + that, when a shorn edge is planed and a punched hole enlarged by + reamering, no harm results, provided not less than about 1/16 in. is + removed. A great advance was therefore made when specifications first + insisted on the removal of the rough edges before the parts were + united. + + In the work of riveting another evil long existed. When holes are + punched it is practically impossible to ensure the exact coincidence + of holes in different plates which have to be brought together for the + purpose of riveting. From this followed the use of the drift,--a + tapered rod driven forcibly by hammer blows through corresponding + holes in adjacent plates, by which violent treatment the holes were + forcibly drawn into alignment. This drifting stressed the plates, + setting up permanent strains and enlarging incipient cracks, and many + boiler explosions have been clearly traceable to the abuse of this + tool. Then, next, specifications insisted that all holes should be + enlarged by reamering _after_ the plates were in place. But even that + did not prove a safeguard, because it often happened that the metal + reamered was nearly all removed from one side of a hole, so leaving + the other side just as the punch had torn it. Ultimately came the era + of drilling rivet-holes, to which there is no exception now in + high-class boiler work. For average girder and bridge work the + practice of punching and reamering is still in use, because the + conditions of service are not so severe as are those in steam boilers. + + Flanging signifies the turning or bending over of the edges of a + plate to afford a means of union to other plates. Examples occur in + the back end-plates of Lancashire and Cornish boilers, the front and + back plates of marine boilers, the fire-boxes of locomotive boilers, + the crowns of vertical boilers, the ends of conical cross-tubes, and + the Adamson seams of furnace flues. This practice has superseded the + older system of effecting union by means of rings forming two sides of + a rectangular section (angle iron rings). These were a fruitful source + of grooving and explosions in steam boilers, because their sharp + angular form lacked elasticity; hence the reason for the substitution + of a flange turned with a large radius, which afforded the elasticity + necessary to counteract the effects of changes in temperature. In + girder work where such conditions do not exist, the method of union + with angles is of course retained. In the early days of flanging the + process was performed in detail by a skilled workman (the angle + ironsmith), and it is still so done in small establishments. A length + of edge of about 10 in. or a foot is heated, and bent by hammering + around the edge of a block of iron of suitable shape. Then another + "heat" is taken and flanged, and another, until the work is complete. + But in modern boiler shops little hand work is ever done; instead, + plates 4 ft., 6 ft., or 8 ft. in diameter, and fire-box plates for + locomotive boilers, have their entire flanges bent at a single squeeze + between massive dies in a hydraulic press. In the case of the ends of + marine boilers which are too large for such treatment, a special form + of press bends the edges over in successive heats. The flanges of + Adamson seams are rolled over in a special machine. A length of flue + is rotated on a table, while the flange is turned over within a minute + between revolving rollers. There is another advantage in the adoption + of machine-flanging, besides the enormous saving of time, namely, that + the material suffers far less injury than it does in hand-flanging. + + These differences in practice would not have assumed such magnitude + but for the introduction of mild steel in place of malleable iron. + Iron suffers less from overheating and irregular heating than does + steel. Steel possesses higher ductility, but it is also more liable to + develop cracks if subjected to improper treatment. All this and much + more is writ large in the early testing of steel, and is reflected in + present-day practice. + + A feature peculiar to the boiler and plating shops is the enormous + number of rivet holes which have to be made, and of rivets to be + inserted. These requirements are reflected in machine design. To punch + or drill holes singly is too slow a process in the best practice, and + so machines are made for producing many holes simultaneously. Besides + this, the different sections of boilers are drilled in machines of + different types, some for shells, some for furnaces, some peculiar to + the shells or furnaces of one type of boilers, others to those of + another type only. And generally now these machines not only drill, + but can also be adjusted to drill to exact pitch, the necessity thus + being avoided of marking out the holes as guides to the drills. + + Hand-riveting has mostly been displaced by hydraulic and pneumatic + machines, with resulting great saving in cost, and the advantage of + more trustworthy and uniform results. For boiler work, machines are + mostly of fixed type; for bridge and girder work they are portable, + being slung from chains and provided with pressure water or compressed + air by systems of flexible pipes. + + Welding fills a large place in boiler work, but it is that of the + edges of plates chiefly, predominating over that of the bars and rods + of the smithy. The edges to be united are thin and long, so that short + lengths have to be done in succession at successive "heats." Much of + this is hand work, and "gluts" or insertion pieces are generally + preferred to overlapping joints. But in large shops, steam-driven + power hammers are used for closing the welds. Parts that are commonly + welded are the furnace flues, the conical cross-tubes and angle rings. + + Another aspect of the work of these departments is the immense + proportions of the modern machine tools used. This development is due + in great degree to the substitution of steel for iron. The steel + shell-plates of the largest boilers are 1-1/2 in. thick, and these + have to be bent into cylindrical forms. In the old days of iron + boilers the capacity of rolls never exceeded about 3/4 in. plate. + Often, alternatively to rolling, these thick plates are bent by + squeezing them in successive sections between huge blocks operated by + hydraulic pressure acting on toggle levers. And other machines besides + the rolls are made more massive than formerly to deal with the immense + plates of modern marine boilers. + + The boiler and plating shops have been affected by the general + tendency to specialize manufactures. Firms have fallen into the + practice of restricting their range of product, with increase in + volume. The time has gone past when a single shop could turn out + several classes of boilers, and undertake any bridge and girder work + as well. One reason is to be found in the diminution of hand work and + the growth of the machine tool. Almost every distinct operation on + every section of a boiler or bridge may now be accomplished by one of + several highly specialized machines. Repetitive operations are + provided for thus, and by a system of templeting. If twenty or fifty + similar boilers are made in a year, each plate, hole, flange or stay + will be exactly like every similar one in the set. Dimensions of + plates will be marked from a sample or templet plate, and holes will + be marked similarly; or in many cases they are not marked at all, but + pitched and drilled at once by self-acting mechanism embodied in + drilling machines specially designed for one set of operations on one + kind of plate. Hundreds of bracing bars for bridges and girders will + be cut off all alike, and drilled or punched from a templet bar, so + that they are ready to take their place in bridge or girder without + any adjustments or fitting. (J. G. H.) + + + + +BOILING TO DEATH, a punishment once common both in England and on the +continent. The only extant legislative notice of it in England occurs in +an act passed in 1531 during the reign of Henry VIII., providing that +convicted poisoners should be boiled to death; it is, however, +frequently mentioned earlier as a punishment for coining. The +_Chronicles of the Grey Friars_ (published by the Camden Society, 1852) +have an account of boiling for poisoning at Smithfield in the year 1522, +the man being fastened to a chain and lowered into boiling water several +times until he died. The preamble of the statute of Henry VIII. (which +made poisoning treason) in 1531 recites that one Richard Roose (or +Coke), a cook, by putting poison in some food intended for the household +of the bishop of Rochester and for the poor of the parish of Lambeth, +killed a man and woman. He was found guilty of treason and sentenced to +be boiled to death without benefit of clergy. He was publicly boiled at +Smithfield. In the same year a maid-servant for poisoning her mistress +was boiled at King's Lynn. In 1542 Margaret Davy, a servant, for +poisoning her employer, was boiled at Smithfield. In the reign of Edward +VI., in 1547, the act was repealed. + + See also W. Andrews, _Old Time Punishments_ (Hull, 1890); _Notes and + Queries_, vol. i. (1862), vol. ix. (1867); Du Cange (s.v. _Caldariis + decoquere_). + + + + +BOIS BRULES, or BRULES (a French translation of their Indian name +SICHANGU), a sub-tribe of North American Dakota Indians (Teton river +division). The name is most frequently associated with the half-breeds +in Manitoba, who in 1869 came into temporary prominence in connexion +with Riel's Rebellion (see RED RIVER); at that time they had lost all +tribal purity, and were alternatively called _Metis_ (half-castes), the +majority being descendants of French-Canadians. + + + + +BOISE, a city and the county-seat of Ada county, Idaho, U.S.A., and the +capital of the state, situated on the N. side of the Boise river, in the +S.W. part of the state, at an altitude of about 2700 ft. Pop. (1890) +2311; (1900) 5957; (1910) 17,358. It is served by the Oregon Short Line +railway, being the terminus of a branch connecting with the main line at +Nampa, about 20 m. W.; and by electric lines connecting with Caldwell +and Nampa. The principal buildings are the state capitol, the United +States assay office, a Carnegie library, a natatorium, and the Federal +building, containing the post office, the United States circuit and +district court rooms, and a U.S. land office. Boise is the seat of the +state school for the deaf and blind (1906), and just outside the city +limits are the state soldiers' home and the state penitentiary. About 2 +m. from the city are Federal barracks. Hot water (175 deg. F.) from +artesian wells near the city is utilized for the natatorium and to heat +many residences and public buildings. The Boise valley is an excellent +country for raising apples, prunes and other fruits. The manufactured +products of the city are such as are demanded by a mining country, +principally lumber, flour and machine-shop products. Boise is the trade +centre of the surrounding fruit-growing, agricultural and mining +country, and is an important wool market. The oldest settlement in the +vicinity was made by the Hudson's Bay Fur Company on the west side of +the Boise river, before 1860; the present city, chartered in 1864, dates +from 1863. After 1900 the city grew very rapidly, principally owing to +the great irrigation schemes in southern Idaho; the water for the +immense Boise-Payette irrigation system is taken from the Boise, 8 m. +above the city. (See IDAHO.) + + + + +BOISGOBEY, FORTUNE DU (1824-1891), French writer of fiction, whose real +surname was Castille, was born at Granville (Manche) on the 11th of +September 1824. He served in the army pay department in Algeria from +1844 to 1848, and extended his travels to the East. He made his literary +debut in the _Petit journal_ with a story entitled _Deux comediens_ +(1868). With _Le Forcat colonel_ (1872) he became one of the most +popular feuilleton writers. His police stories, though not so convincing +as those of Emile Gaboriau, with whom his name is generally associated, +had a great circulation, and many of them have been translated into +English. Among his stories may be mentioned: _Les Mysteres du nouveau +Paris_ (1876), _Le Demi-Monde sous la Terreur_ (1877), _Les Nuits de +Constantinople_ (1882), _Le Cri du sang_ (1885), _La Main froide_ +(1889). Boisgobey died on the 26th of February 1891. + + + + +BOISGUILBERT, PIERRE LE PESANT, SIEUR DE (1676-1714), French economist, +was born at Rouen of an ancient noble family of Normandy, allied to that +of Corneille. He received his classical education in Rouen, entered the +magistracy and became judge at Montivilliers, near Havre. In 1690 he +became president of the _bailliage_ of Rouen, a post which he retained +almost until his death, leaving it to his son. In these two situations +he made a close study of local economic conditions, personally +supervising the cultivation of his lands, and entering into relations +with the principal merchants of Rouen. He was thus led to consider the +misery of the people under the burden of taxation. In 1695 he published +his principal work, _Le Detail de la France; la cause de la diminution +de ses biens, et la facilite du remede_.... In it he drew a picture of +the general ruin of all classes of Frenchmen, caused by the bad economic +regime. In opposition to Colbert's views he held that the wealth of a +country consists, not in the abundance of money which it possesses but +in what it produces and exchanges. The remedy for the evils of the time +was not so much the reduction as the equalization of the imposts, which +would allow the poor to consume more, raise the production and add to +the general wealth. He demanded the reform of the _taille_, the +suppression of internal customs duties and greater freedom of trade. In +his _Factum de la France_, published in 1705 or 1706, he gave a more +concise _resume_ of his ideas. But his proposal to substitute for all +aides and customs duties a single capitation tax of a tenth of the +revenue of all property was naturally opposed by the farmers of taxes +and found little support. Indeed his work, written in a diffuse and +inelegant style, passed almost unnoticed. Saint Simon relates that he +once asked a hearing of the comte de Pontchartrain, saying that he would +at first believe him mad, then become interested, and then see he was +right. Pontchartrain bluntly told him that he did think him mad, and +turned his back on him. With Michel de Chamillart, whom he had known as +intendant of Rouen (1689-1690), he had no better success. Upon the +disgrace of Vauban, whose _Dime royale_ had much in common with +Boisguilbert's plan, Boisguilbert violently attacked the controller in a +pamphlet, _Supplement au detail de la France_. The book was seized and +condemned, and its author exiled to Auvergne, though soon allowed to +return. At last in 1710 the controller-general, Nicolas Desmarets, +established a new impost, the "tenth" (_dixieme_), which had some +analogy with the project of Boisguilbert. Instead of replacing the +former imposts, however, Desmarets simply added his _dixieme_ to them; +the experiment was naturally disastrous, and the idea was abandoned. + + In 1712 appeared a _Testament politique de M. de Vauban_, which is + simply Boisguilbert's _Detail de la France_. Vauban's _Dime royale_ + was formerly wrongly attributed to him. Boisguilbert's works were + collected by Daire in the first volume of the _Collection des grands + economistes_. His letters are in the _Correspondance des controleurs + generaux_, vol. i., published by M. de Boislisle. + + + + +BOISROBERT, FRANCOIS LE METEL DE (1592-1662), French poet, was born at +Caen in 1592. He was trained for the law, and practised for some time at +the bar at Rouen. About 1622 he went to Paris, and by the next year had +established a footing at court, for he had a share in the ballet of the +_Bacchanales_ performed at the Louvre in February. He accompanied an +embassy to England in 1625, and in 1630 visited Rome, where he won the +favour of Urban VIII. by his wit. He took orders, and was made a canon +of Rouen. He had been introduced to Richelieu in 1623, and by his humour +and his talent as a raconteur soon made himself indispensable to the +cardinal. Boisrobert became one of the five poets who carried out +Richelieu's dramatic ideas. He had a passion for play, and was a friend +of Ninon de l'Enclos; and his enemies found ready weapons against him +in the undisguised looseness of his life. He was more than once +disgraced, but never for long, although in his later years he was +compelled to give more attention to his duties as a priest. It was +Boisrobert who suggested to Richelieu the plan of the Academy, and he +was one of its earliest and most active members. Rich as he was through +the benefices conferred on him by his patron, he was liberal to men of +letters. After the death of Richelieu, he attached himself to Mazarin, +whom he served faithfully throughout the Fronde. He died on the 30th of +March 1662. He wrote a number of comedies, to one of which, _La Belle +Plaideuse_, Moliere's _L'Avare_ is said to owe something; and also some +volumes of verse. The licentious _Contes_, published under the name of +his brother D'Ouville, are often attributed to him. + + + + +BOISSARD, JEAN JACQUES (1528-1602), French antiquary and Latin poet, was +born at Besancon. He studied at Louvain; but, disgusted by the severity +of his master, he secretly left that seminary, and after traversing a +great part of Germany reached Italy, where he remained several years and +was often reduced to great straits. His residence in Italy developed in +his mind a taste for antiquities, and he soon formed a collection of the +most curious monuments from Rome and its vicinity. He then visited the +islands of the Archipelago, with the intention of travelling through +Greece, but a severe illness obliged him to return to Rome. Here he +resumed his favourite pursuits with great ardour, and having completed +his collection, returned to his native country; but not being permitted +to profess publicly the Protestant religion, which he had embraced some +time before, he withdrew to Metz, where he died on the 30th of October +1602. His most important works are: _Poemata_ (1574); _Emblemata_ +(1584); _Icones Virorum Illustrium_ (1597); _Vitae et Icones Sultanorum +Turcicorum_, &c. (1597); _Theatrum Vitae Humanae_ (1596); _Romanae Urbis +Topographia_ (1597-1602), now very rare; _De Divinatione et Magicis +Praestigiis_ (1605); _Habitus Variarum Orbis Gentium_ (1581), ornamented +with seventy illuminated figures. + + + + +BOISSIER, MARIE LOUIS ANTOINE GASTON (1823-1908), French classical +scholar, and secretary of the French Academy, was born at Nimes on the +15th of August 1823. The Roman monuments of his native town very early +attracted Gaston Boissier to the study of ancient history. He made +epigraphy his particular theme, and at the age of twenty-three became a +professor of rhetoric at Angouleme, where he lived and worked for ten +years without further ambition. A travelling inspector of the +university, however, happened to hear him lecture, and Boissier was +called to Paris to be professor at the Lycee Charlemagne. He began his +literary career by a thesis on the poet Attius (1857) and a study on the +life and work of M. Terentius Varro (1861). In 1861 he was made +professor of Latin oratory at the College de France, and he became an +active contributor to the _Revue des deux mondes_. In 1865 he published +_Ciceron et ses amis_ (Eng. trans, by A.D. Jones, 1897), which has +enjoyed a success such as rarely falls to the lot of a work of +erudition. In studying the manners of ancient Rome, Boissier had learned +to re-create its society and to reproduce its characteristics with +exquisite vivacity. In 1874 he published _La Religion romaine d'Auguste +aux Antonins_ (2 vols.), in which he analysed the great religious +movement of antiquity that preceded the acceptance of Christianity. In +_L'Opposition sous les Cesars_ (1875) he drew a remarkable picture of +the political decadence of Rome under the early successors of Augustus. +By this time Boissier had drawn to himself the universal respect of +scholars and men of letters, and on the death of H.J.G. Patin, the +author of _Etudes sur les tragiques grecs_, in 1876, he was elected a +member of the French Academy, of which he was appointed perpetual +secretary in 1895. + +His later works include _Promenades archeologiques: Rome et Pompei_ +(1880; second series, 1886); _L'Afrique romaine, promenades +archeologiques_ (1901); _La Fin du paganisme_ (2 vols., 1891); _Le +Conjuration de Catilina_ (1905); _Tacite_ (1903, Eng. trans, by W.G. +Hutchison, 1906). He was a representative example of the French talent +for lucidity and elegance applied with entire seriousness to weighty +matters of literature. Though he devoted himself mainly to his great +theme, the reconstruction of the elements of Roman society, he also +wrote monographs on _Madame de Sevigne_ (1887) and _Saint-Simon_ (1892). +He died in June 1908. + + + + +BOISSONADE DE FONTARABIE, JEAN FRANCOIS (1774-1857), French classical +scholar, was born at Paris on the 12th of August 1774. In 1792 he +entered the public service during the administration of General +Dumouriez. Driven from it in 1795, he was restored by Lucien Bonaparte, +during whose time of office he served as secretary to the prefecture of +the Upper Marne. He then definitely resigned public employment and +devoted himself to the study of Greek. In 1809 he was appointed deputy +professor of Greek at the faculty of letters at Paris, and titular +professor in 1813 on the death of P.H. Larcher. In 1828 he succeeded +J.B. Gail in the chair of Greek at the College de France. He also held +the offices of librarian of the Bibliotheque du Roi, and of perpetual +secretary of the Academie des Inscriptions. He died on the 8th of +September 1857. Boissonade chiefly devoted his attention to later Greek +literature: Philostratus, _Heroica_ (1806) and _Epistolae_ (1842); +Marinus, _Vita procli_ (1814); Tiberius Rhetor, _De Figuris_ (1815); +Nicetas Eugenianus, _Drosilla et Charicles_ (1819); Herodian, +_Partitiones_ (1819); Aristaenetus, _Epistolae_ (1822); Eunapius, _Vitae +Sophistarum_ (1822); Babrius, _Fables_ (1844); Tzetzes, _Allegoriae +Iliados_ (1851); and a _Collection of Greek Poets_ in 24 vols. The +_Anecdota Graeca_ (1829-1833) and _Anecdota Nova_ (1844) are important +for Byzantine history and the Greek grammarians. + + A selection of his papers was published by F. Colincamp, _Critique + litteraire sous le premier Empire_ (1863), vol. i. of which contains a + complete list of his works, and a "Notice Historique sur Monsieur B.," + by Naudet. + + + + +BOISSY D'ANGLAS, FRANCOIS ANTOINE DE (1756-1828), French statesman, +received a careful education and busied himself at first with +literature. He had been a member of several provincial academies before +coming to Paris, where he purchased a position as advocate to the +parlement. In 1789 he was elected by the third estate of the +_senechaussee_ of Annonay as deputy to the states-general. He was one of +those who induced the states-general to proclaim itself a National +Assembly on the 17th of June 1789; approved, in several speeches, of the +capture of the Bastille and of the taking of the royal family to Paris +(October 1789); demanded that strict measures be taken against the +royalists who were intriguing in the south of France, and published some +pamphlets on finance. During the Legislative Assembly he was +_procureur-syndic_ for the directory of the department of Ardeche. +Elected to the Convention, he sat in the centre, "_le Marais_," voting +in the trial of Louis XVI. for his detention until deportation should be +judged expedient for the state. He was then sent on a mission to Lyons +to investigate the frauds in connexion with the supplies of the army of +the Alps. During the Terror he was one of those deputies of the centre +who supported Robespierre; but he was gained over by the members of the +Mountain hostile to Robespierre, and his support, along with that of +some other leaders of the _Marais_, made possible the 9th Thermidor. He +was then elected a member of the Committee of Public Safety and charged +with the superintendence of the provisioning of Paris. He presented the +report supporting the decree of the 3rd Ventose of the year III. which +established liberty of worship. In the critical days of Germinal and of +Prairial of the year III. he showed great courage. On the 12th Germinal +he was in the tribune, reading a report on the food supplies, when the +hall of the Convention was invaded by the rioters, and when they +withdrew he quietly continued where he had been interrupted. On the 1st +Prairial he presided over the Convention, and remained unmoved by the +insults and menaces of the insurgents. When the head of the deputy, Jean +Feraud, was presented to him on the end of a pike, he saluted it +impassively. He was reporter of the committee which drew up the +constitution of the year III., and his report shows keen apprehension of +a return of the Reign of Terror, and presents reactionary measures as +precautions against the re-establishment of "tyranny and anarchy." This +report, the proposal that he made (August 27, 1795) to lessen the +severity of the revolutionary laws, and the eulogies he received from +several Paris sections suspected of disloyalty to the republic, resulted +in his being obliged to justify himself (October 15, 1795). As a member +of the Council of the Five Hundred he became more and more suspected of +royalism. He presented a measure in favour of full liberty for the +press, which at that time was almost unanimously reactionary, protested +against the outlawry of returned _emigres_, spoke in favour of the +deported priests and attacked the Directory. Accordingly he was +proscribed on the 18th Fructidor, and lived in England until the +Consulate. In 1801 he was made a member of the Tribunate, and in 1805 a +senator. In 1814 he voted for Napoleon's abdication, which won for him a +seat in the chamber of peers; but during the Hundred Days he served +Napoleon, and in consequence, on the second Restoration, was for a short +while excluded. In the chamber he still sought to obtain liberty for the +press--a theme upon which he published a volume of his speeches (Paris, +1817). He was a member of the Institute from its foundation, and in +1816, at the reorganization, became a member of the Academie des +Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. He published in 1819-1821 a two-volume +_Essai sur la vie et les opinions de M. de Malesherbes_. + + See F.A. Aulard, _Les Orateurs de la Revolution_ (2nd ed., 1906); L. + Sciout, _Le Directoire_ (4 vols., 1895); and the "Notice sur la vie et + les oeuvres de M. Boissy d'Anglas" in the _Memoires de l'Academie des + Inscriptions_, ix. (R. A.*) + + + + +BOITO, ARRIGO (1842- ), Italian poet and musical composer, was born at +Padua on the 24th of February 1842. He studied music at the Milan +Conservatoire, but even in those early days he devoted as much of his +time to literature as to music, forecasting the divided allegiance which +was to be the chief characteristic of his life's history. While at the +Conservatoire he wrote and composed, in collaboration with Franco +Faccio, a cantata, _Le Sorelle d'Italia_, which was performed with +success. On completing his studies Boito travelled for some years, and +after his return to Italy settled down in Milan, dividing his time +between journalism and music. In 1866 he fought under Garibaldi, and in +1868 conducted the first performance of his opera _Mefistofele_ at the +Scala theatre, Milan. The work failed completely, and was withdrawn +after a second performance. It was revived in 1875 at Bologna in a much +altered and abbreviated form, when its success was beyond question. It +was performed in London in 1880 with success, but in spite of frequent +revivals has never succeeded in firmly establishing itself in popular +favour. Boito treated the Faust legend in a spirit far more nearly akin +to the conception of Goethe than is found in Gounod's Faust, but, in +spite of many isolated beauties, his opera lacks cohesion and dramatic +interest. His energies were afterwards chiefly devoted to the +composition of libretti, of which the principal are _Otello_ and +_Falstaff_, set to music by Verdi; _La Gioconda_, set by Ponchielli; +_Amleto_, set by Faccio; and _Ero e Leandre_, set by Bottesini and +Mancinelli. These works display a rare knowledge of the requirements of +dramatic poetry, together with uncommon literary value. Boito also +published a book of poems and a novel, _L'Alfier Meno_. The degree of +doctor of music was conferred upon him in 1893 by the university of +Cambridge. + + + + +BOIVIN, FRANCOIS DE, Baron de Villars (d. 1618), French chronicler, +entered the service of Charles, Marshal Brissac, as secretary, and +accompanied him to Piedmont in 1550 when the marshal went to take +command of the French troops in the war with Spain. Remaining in this +service he was sent after the defeat of the French at St Quentin in 1557 +to assure the French king Henry II. of the support of Brissac. He took +part in the negotiations which led to the treaty of Cateau-Cambresis in +April 1559, but was unable to prevent Henry II. from ceding the +conquests made by Brissac. Boivin wrote _Memoires sur les guerres +demelees tant dans le Piemont qu'au Montferrat et duche de Milan par +Charles de Cosse, comte de Brissac_ (Paris, 1607), which, in spite of +some drawbacks, is valuable as the testimony of an eye-witness of the +war. An edition, carefully revised, appears in the _Memoires relatifs a +l'histoire de France_, tome x., edited by J.F. Michaud and J.J.F. +Poujoulat (Paris, 1850). He also wrote _Instruction sur les affaires +d'etat_ (Lyons, 1610). + + See J. Lelong, _Bibliotheque historique de la France_ (Paris, + 1768-1778). + + + + +BOKENAM, OSBERN (1393?-1447?), English author, was born, by his own +account, on the 6th of October 1393. Dr Horstmann suggests that he may +have been a native of Bokeham, now Bookham, in Surrey, and derived his +name from the place. In a concluding note to his _Lives of the Saints_ +he is described as "a Suffolke man, frere Austyn of Stoke Clare." He +travelled in Italy on at least two occasions, and in 1445 was a pilgrim +to Santiago de Compostela. He wrote a series of thirteen legends of holy +maidens and women. These are written chiefly in seven-and eight-lined +stanzas, and nine of them are preceded by prologues. Bokenam was a +follower of Chaucer and Lydgate, and doubtless had in mind Chaucer's +_Legend of Good Women_. His chief, but by no means his only, source was +the _Legenda Aurea_ of Jacobus de Voragine, archbishop of Genoa, whom he +cites as "Januence." The first of the legends, _Vita Scae Margaretae, +virginis et martiris_, was written for his friend, Thomas Burgh, a +Cambridge monk; others are dedicated to pious ladies who desired the +history of their name-saints. The Arundel MS. 327 (British Museum) is a +unique copy of Bokenam's work; it was finished, according to the +concluding note, in 1447, and presented by the scribe, Thomas Burgh, to +a convent unnamed "that the nuns may remember him and his sister, Dame +Betrice Burgh." The poems were edited (1835) for the Roxburghe Club with +the title _Lyvys of Seyntys_ ..., and by Dr Carl Horstmann as _Osbern +Bokenams Legenden_ (Heilbronn, 1883), in E. Kolbing's _Altengl. +Bibliothek_, vol. i. Both editions include a dialogue written in Latin +and English taken from Dugdale's _Monasticon Anglicanum_ (ed. 1846, vol. +vi. p. 1600); "this dialogue betwixt a Secular asking and a Frere +answerynge at the grave of Dame Johan of Acres shewith the lyneal +descent of the lordis of the honoure of Clare fro ... MCCXLVIII to ... +MCCCLVI". Bokenam wrote, as he tells us, plainly, in the Suffolk speech. +He explains his lack of decoration on the plea that the finest flowers +had been already plucked by Chaucer, Gower and Lydgate. + + + + +BOKHARA, or BUKHARA (the common central Asian pronunciation is Bukhara), +a state of central Asia, under the protection of Russia. It lies on the +right bank of the middle Oxus, between 37 deg. and 41 deg. N., and +between 62 deg. and 72 deg. E., and is bounded by the Russian +governments of Syr-darya, Samarkand and Ferghana on the N., the Pamirs +on the E., Afghanistan on the S., and the Transcaspian territory and +Khiva on the W. Its south-eastern frontier on the Pamirs is undetermined +except where it touches the Russian dominions. Including the khanates of +Karateghin and Darvaz the area is about 85,000 sq. m. The western +portion of the state is a plain watered by the Zarafshan and by +countless irrigation canals drawn from it. It has in the east the +Karnap-chul steppe, covered with grass in early summer, and in the north +an intrusion of the Kara-kum sand desert. Land suitable for cultivation +is found only in oases, where it is watered by irrigation canals, but +these oases are very fertile. The middle portion of the state is +occupied by high plateaus, about 4000 ft. in altitude, sloping from the +Tian-shan, and intersected by numerous rivers, flowing towards the Oxus. +This region, very fertile in the valleys and enjoying a cooler and +damper climate than the lower plains, is densely populated, and +agriculture and cattle-breeding are carried on extensively. Here are the +towns of Karshi, Kitab, Shaar, Chirakchi and Guzar or Huzar. The Hissar +range, a westward continuation of the Alai Mountains, separates the +Zarafshan from the tributaries of the Oxus--the Surkhan, Kafirnihan and +Vakhsh. Its length is about 200 m., and its passes, 1000 to 3000 ft. +below the surrounding peaks, reach altitudes of 12,000 to 14,000 ft. and +are extremely difficult. Numbers of rivers pierce or flow in wild gorges +between its spurs. Its southern foot-hills, covered with loess, make the +fertile valleys of Hissar and the Vakhsh. The climate is so dry, and the +rains are so scarce, that an absence of forests and Alpine meadows is +characteristic of the ridge; but when heavy rain falls simultaneously +with the melting of the snows in the mountains, the watercourses become +filled with furious torrents, which create great havoc. The main +glaciers (12) are on the north slope, but none creeps below 10,000 to +12,000 ft. The Peter the Great range, or Periokh-tau, in Karateghin, +south of the valley of the Vakhsh, runs west-south-west to +east-north-east for about 130 m., and is higher than the Hissar range. +From the meridian of Garm or Harm it rises above the snowline, attaining +at least 18,000 ft. in the Sary-kaudal peak, and 20,000 ft. farther east +where it joins the snow-clad Darvaz range, and where the group Sandal, +adorned with several glaciers, rises to 24,000 or 25,000 ft. Only three +passes, very difficult, are known across it. + +Darvaz, a small vassal state of Bokhara, is situated on the Panj, where +it makes its sharp bend westwards, and is emphatically a mountainous +region, agriculture being possible only in the lower parts of the +valleys. The population, about 35,000, consists chiefly of Moslem +Tajiks, and the closely-related Galchas, and its chief town is +Kala-i-khumb on the Panj, at an altitude of 4370 ft. + +The chief river of Bokhara is the Oxus or Amu-darya, which separates it +from Afghanistan on the south, and then flows along its south-west +border. It is navigated from the mouth of the Surkhan, and steamboats +ply on it up to Karki near the Afghan frontier. The next largest river, +the Zarafshan, 660 m. long, the water of which is largely utilized for +irrigation, is lost in the sands 20 m. before reaching the Oxus. The +Kashka-darya, which flows westwards out of the glaciers of Hazret-sultan +(west of the Hissar range), supplies the Shahri-sabs (properly +Shaar-sabiz) oasis with water, but is lost in the desert to the west of +Karshi. + +The climate of Bokhara is extreme. In the lowlands a very hot summer is +followed by a short but cold winter, during which a frost of -20 deg. +Fahr. may set in, and the Oxus may freeze for a fortnight. In the +highlands this hot and dry summer is followed by four months of winter; +and, finally, in the regions above 8000 ft. there is a great development +of snowfields and glaciers, the passes are buried under snow, and the +short summer is rainy. The lowlands are sometimes visited by terrible +sand-storms from the west, which exhaust men and kill the cotton trees. +Malaria is widely prevalent, and in some years, after a wet spring, +assumes a malignant character. + +The population is estimated at 1,250,000. The dominant race is the +Uzbegs, who are fanatical Moslem Sunnites, scorn work, despise their +Iranian subjects, and maintain their old division into tribes or clans. +The nomad Turkomans and the nomad Kirghiz are also of Turkish origin; +while the Sarts, who constitute the bulk of the population in the towns, +are a mixture of Turks with Iranians. The great bulk of the population +in the country is composed of Iranian Tajiks, who differ but very little +from Sarts. Besides these there are Afghans, Persians, Jews, Arabs and +Armenians. Much of the trade is in the hands of a colony of Hindus from +Shikarpur. Nearly 20% of the population are nomads and about 15% +semi-nomads. + +On the irrigated lowlands rice, wheat and other cereals are cultivated, +and exported to the highlands. Cotton is widely grown and exported. Silk +is largely produced, and tobacco, wine, flax, hemp and fruits are +cultivated. Cattle-breeding is vigorously prosecuted in Hissar and the +highlands generally. Cotton, silks, woollen cloth, and felt are +manufactured, also boots, saddles, cutlery and weapons, pottery and +various oils. Salt, as also some iron and copper, and small quantities +of gold are extracted. Trade has been greatly promoted by the building +of the Transcaspian railway across the country (from Charjui on the Oxus +to Kati-kurgan) in 1886-1888. The exports to Russia consist of raw +cotton and silk, lamb-skins, fruits and carpets, and the imports of +manufactured goods and sugar. The imports from India are cottons, tea, +shawls and indigo. There are very few roads; goods are transported on +camels, or on horses and donkeys in the hilly tracts. + +Bokhara has for ages been looked upon as the centre of Mussulman +erudition in central Asia. About one-fourth of the population is said +to be able to read and write. The primary schools are numerous in the +capital, as well as in the other cities, and even exist in villages, and +_madrasas_ or theological seminaries for higher courses of study are +comparatively plentiful. The _mullahs_ or priests enjoy very great +influence, but the people are very superstitious, believing in +witchcraft, omens, spirits and the evil eye. Women occupy a low position +in the social scale, though slavery has been abolished at the instance +of Russia. The emir of Bokhara is an autocratic ruler, his power being +limited only by the traditional custom (_sheriat_) of the Mussulmans. He +maintains an army of some 11,000 men, but is subject to Russian control, +being in fact a vassal of that empire. + +_History._--Bokhara was known to the ancients under the name of +Sogdiana. It was too far removed to the east ever to be brought under +the dominion of Rome, but it has shared deeply in all the various and +bloody revolutions of Asia. The foundation of the capital is ascribed to +Efrasiab, the great Persian hero. After the conquests of Alexander the +Great Sogdiana formed part of the empire of the Seleucidae, and shared +the fortunes of the rather better-known Bactria. Somewhat later the +nomad Yue-chi began to move into the valley of the Oxus from the east, +and gradually became a settled territorial power in Bactria and +Sogdiana, and the dominions of their king, Kadphises I. (who is believed +to have come to the throne about A.D. 45), extended from Bokhara to the +Indus. The district, however, was reconquered by Persia under the +Sassanian dynasty, and we hear of Nestorian Christians at Samarkand, at +any rate in the 6th century. Islam was introduced shortly after the Arab +conquest of Persia (640-642) and speedily became the dominant faith. In +the early centuries of Mahommedan rule Sogdiana was one of the most +celebrated and flourishing districts of central Asia. It was called +Sughd, and contained the two great cities of Samarkand and Bokhara, of +which the former was generally the seat of government, while the latter +had a high reputation as a seat of religion and learning. During the +early middle ages this legion was also known as Ma wara 'l Nahr or +Ma-vera-un-nahr, the meaning of which is given in the alternative +classical title of Transoxiana. Malik Shah, third of the Seljuk dynasty +of Persia, passed the Oxus about the end of the 11th century, and +subdued the whole country watered by that river and the Jaxartes. In +1216 Bokhara was again subdued by Mahommed Shah Khwarizm, but his +conquest was wrested from him by Jenghiz Khan in 1220. The country was +wasted by the fury of this savage conqueror, but recovered something of +its former prosperity under Ogdai Khan, his son, whose disposition was +humane and benevolent. His posterity kept possession till 1369, when +Timur or Tamerlane bore down everything before him, and established his +capital at Samarkand, which with Bokhara regained for a time its former +splendour. Babar, the fifth in descent from Timur, was originally prince +of Ferghana, but conquered Samarkand and northern India, where he +founded the Mogul (Mughal) empire. His descendants ruled in the country +until about 1500, when it was overrun by the Uzbeg Tatars, under +Abulkhair or Ebulkheir Khan, the founder of the Shaibani dynasty, with +which the history of Bokhara properly commences. The most remarkable +representative of this family was Abdullah Khan (1556-1598), who greatly +extended the limits of his kingdom by the conquest of Badakshan, Herat +and Meshhed, and increased its prosperity by the public works which he +authorized. Before the close of the century, however, the dynasty was +extinct, and Bokhara was at once desolated by a Kirghiz invasion and +distracted by a disputed succession. At length, in 1598, Baki Mehemet +Khan, of the Astrakhan branch of the Timur family, mounted the throne, +and thus introduced the dynasty of the Ashtarkhanides. The principal +event of his reign was the defeat he inflicted on Shah Abbas of Persia +in the neighbourhood of Balkh. His brother Vali Mehemet, who succeeded +in 1605, soon alienated his subjects, and was supplanted by his nephew +Imamkuli. After a highly prosperous reign this prince resigned in favour +of his brother, Nazr Mehemet, under whom the country was greatly +troubled by the rebellion of his sons, who continued to quarrel with +each other after their father's death. Meanwhile the district of Khiva, +previously subject to Bokhara, was made an independent khanate by +Abdul-Gazi Bahadur Khan; and in the reign of Subhankuli, who ascended +the throne in 1680, the political power of Bokhara was still further +lessened, though it continued to enjoy the unbounded respect of the +Sunnite Mahommedans. Subhankuli died in 1702, and a war of succession +broke out between his two sons, who were supported by the rivalry of two +Uzbeg tribes. After five years the contest terminated in favour of +Obeidullah, who was little better than a puppet in the hands of Rehim Bi +Atalik, his vizier. The invasion of Nadir Shah of Persia came to +complete the degradation of the land; and in 1740 the feeble king, Abu +'l-Faiz, paid homage to the conqueror, and was soon after murdered and +supplanted by his vizier. The time of the Ashtarkhanides had been for +the most part a time of dissolution and decay; fanaticism and imbecility +went hand in hand. On its fall (1785) the throne was seized by the +Manghit family in the person of Mir Ma'sum, who pretended to the most +extravagant sanctity, and proved by his military career that he had no +small amount of ability. He turned his attention to the encroachments of +the Afghans, and in 1781 reconquered the greater part of what had been +lost to the south of the Oxus. Dying in 1802 he was succeeded by Said, +who in bigotry and fanaticism was a true son of his father. In 1826 +Nasrullah mounted the throne, and began with the murder of his brother a +reign of continued oppression and cruelty. Meanwhile Bokhara became an +object of rivalry to Russia and England, and envoys were sent by both +nations to cultivate the favour of the emir, who treated the Russians +with arrogance and the English with contempt. Two emissaries of the +British government, Colonel C. Stoddart and Captain A. Conolly, were +thrown by Nasrullah into prison, where they were put to death in 1842. +In 1862-1864 Arminius Vambery made in the disguise of a dervish a +memorable journey through this fanatical state. At this time the Russian +armies were gradually advancing, and at last they appeared in Khokand; +but the new emir, Mozaffer-eddin, instead of attempting to expiate the +insults of his predecessor, sent a letter to General M.G. Chernayev +summoning him to evacuate the country, and threatening to raise all the +faithful against him. In 1866 the Russians invaded the territory of +Bokhara proper, and a decisive battle was fought on the 20th of May at +Irdjar on the left bank of the Jaxartes. The Bokharians were defeated; +but after a period of reluctant peace they forced the emir to renew the +war. In 1868 the Russians entered Samarkand (May 14), and the emir was +constrained to submit to the terms of the conqueror, becoming +henceforward only a Russian puppet. + + See Khanikov's _Bokhara_, translated by De Bode (1845); Vambery, + _Travels in Central Asia_ (1864), _Sketches of Central Asia_ (1868), + and _History of Bokhara_ (1873); Fedchenko's "Sketch of the Zarafshan + Valley" in _Journ. R. Geogr. Soc._ (1870); Hellwald, _Die Russen in + Central Asien_ (1873); Lipsky, _Upper Bukhara_, in Russian (1902); + Skrine and Ross, _The Heart of Asia_ (1899); Lord Ronaldshay, + _Outskirts of Empire in Asia_ (1904); and Le Strange, _The Lands of + the Eastern Caliphate_ (1905). (P. A. K.; C. El.) + + + + +BOKHARA (Bokkara-i-Sherif), capital of the state of Bokhara, on the left +bank of the Zarafshan, and on the irrigation canal of Shahri-rud, +situated in a fertile plain. It is 8 m. from the Bokhara station of the +Transcaspian railway, 162 m. by rail W. of Samarkand, in 39 deg. 47' N. +lat. and 64 deg. 27' E. long. The city is surrounded by a stone wall 28 +ft. high and 8 m. long, with semicircular towers and eleven gates of +little value as a defence. The present city was begun in A.D. 830 on the +site of an older city, was destroyed by Jenghiz Khan in 1220, and +rebuilt subsequently. The water-supply is very unhealthy. The city has +no less than 360 mosques. Nearly 10,000 pupils are said to receive their +education in its 140 _madrasas_ or theological colleges; primary schools +are kept at most mosques. Some of these buildings exhibit very fine +architecture. The most notable of the mosques is the Mir-Arab, built in +the 16th century, with its beautiful lecture halls; the chief mosque of +the emir is the Mejid-kalyan, or Kok-humbez, close by which stands a +brick minaret, 203 ft. high, from the top of which state criminals used +to be thrown until 1871. Of the numerous squares the Raghistan is the +principal. It has on one side the citadel, erected on an artificially +made eminence 45 ft. high, surrounded by a wall 1 m. long, and +containing the palace of the emir, the houses of the chief +functionaries, the prison and the water-cisterns. The houses are mostly +one-storeyed, built of unburned bricks, and have flat roofs. + +Bokhara has for ages been a centre of learning and religious life. The +mysticism which took hold on Persia in the middle ages spread also to +Bokhara, and later, when the Mongol invasions of the 13th century laid +waste Samarkand and other Moslem cities, Bokhara, remaining independent, +continued to be a chief seat of Islamitic learning. The _madrasa_ +libraries, some of which were very rich, have been scattered and lost, +or confiscated by the emirs, or have perished in conflagrations. But +there are still treasures of literature concealed in private libraries, +and Afghan, Persian, Armenian and Turkish bibliophiles still repair to +Bokhara to buy rare books. Bokhara is, in fact, the principal +book-market of central Asia. The population is supposed by Russian +travellers not to exceed 50,000 or 60,000, but is otherwise estimated at +75,000 to 100,000. Amongst them is a large and ancient colony of Jews. +Bokhara is the most important trading town in central Asia. In the city +bazaars are made or sold silk stuffs, metal (especially copper) wares, +Kara-kul (i.e. astrakhan) lamb-skins and carpets. + +_New Bokhara_, or _Kagan_, a Russian town near the railway station, 8 m. +from Bokhara itself, is rapidly growing, on a territory ceded by the +emir. Pop. 2000. (P. A. K.) + + + + +BOKSBURG, a town of the Transvaal; 14 m. E. of Johannesburg by rail. +Pop. of the municipality (1904) 14,757, of whom 4175 were whites. It is +the headquarters of the Witwatersrand coal mining industry. The +collieries extend from Boksburg eastward to Springs, 11 m. distant. +Brakpan, the largest colliery in South Africa, lies midway between the +places named. + + + + +BOLAN PASS, an important pass on the Baluch frontier, connecting +Jacobabad and Sibi with Quetta, which has always occupied an important +place in the history of British campaigns in Afghanistan. Since the +treaty of Gandamak, which was signed at the close of the first phase of +the Afghan War in 1879, the Bolan route has been brought directly under +British control, and it was selected for the first alignment of the +Sind-Pishin railway from the plains to the plateau. From Sibi the line +runs south-west, skirting the hills to Rindli, and originally followed +the course of the Bolan stream to its head on the plateau. The +destructive action of floods, however, led to the abandonment of this +alignment, and the railway now follows the Mashkaf valley (which +debouches into the plains close to Sibi), and is carried from near the +head of the Mashkaf to a junction with the Bolan at Mach. An alternative +route from Sibi to Quetta was found in the Harnai valley to the N.E. of +Sibi, the line starting in exactly the opposite direction to that of the +Bolan and entering the hills at Nari. The Harnai route, although longer, +is the one adopted for all ordinary traffic, the Bolan loop being +reserved for emergencies. At the Khundilani gorge of the Bolan route +conglomerate cliffs enclose the valley rising to a height of 800 ft., +and at Sir-i-Bolan the passage between the limestone rocks hardly admits +of three persons riding abreast. The temperature of the pass in summer +is very high, whereas in winter, near its head, the cold is extreme, and +the ice-cold wind rushing down the narrow outlet becomes destructive to +life. Since 1877, when the Quetta agency was founded, the freedom of the +pass from plundering bands of Baluch marauders (chiefly Marris) has been +secured, and it is now as safe as any pass in Scotland. (T. H. H.*) + + + + +BOLAS (plural of Span, _bola_, ball), a South American Indian weapon of +war and the chase, consisting of balls of stone attached to the ends of +a rope of twisted or braided hide or hemp. Charles Darwin thus describes +them in his _Voyage of the Beagle_: "The _bolas_, or balls, are of two +kinds: the simplest, which is used chiefly for catching ostriches, +consists of two round stones, covered with leather, and united by a +thin, plaited thong, about 8 ft. long. The other kind differs only in +having three balls united by thongs to a common centre. The Gaucho +(native of Spanish descent) holds the smallest of the three in his +hand, and whirls the other two around his head; then, taking aim, sends +them like chain shot revolving through the air. The balls no sooner +strike any object, than, winding round it, they cross each other and +become firmly hitched." Bolas have been used for centuries in the South +American pampas and even the forest regions of the Rio Grande. F. Ratzel +(_History of Mankind_) supposes them to be a form of lasso. The Eskimos +use a somewhat similar weapon to kill birds. _Bolas perdidas_ (i.e. +lost) are stones attached to a very short thong, or, in some cases, +having none at all. + + + + +BOLBEC, a town of northern France, in the department of +Seine-Inferieure, on the Bolbec, 19 m. E.N.E. of Havre by rail. Pop. +(1906) 10,959. Bolbec is important for its cotton spinning and weaving, +and carries on the dyeing and printing of the fabric, and the +manufacture of sugar. There are a chamber of commerce and a board of +trade-arbitration. The town was enthusiastic in the cause of the +Reformed Religion in the 16th century, and still contains many +Protestants. It was burned almost to the ground in 1765. + + + + +BOLE (Gr. [Greek: bolos], "a clod of earth"), a clay-like substance of +red, brown or yellow colour, consisting essentially of hydrous aluminium +silicate, with more or less iron. Most bole differs from ordinary clay +in not being plastic, but in dropping to pieces when placed in water, +thus behaving rather like fuller's-earth. Bole was formerly in great +repute medicinally, the most famous kind being the Lemnian Earth +([Greek: gae Laemnia]), from the Isle of Lemnos in the Greek +Archipelago. The earth was dug with much ceremony only once a year, and +having been mixed with goats' blood was made into little cakes or balls, +which were stamped by the priests, whence they became known as _Terra +sigillata_ ("sealed earth"). Large quantities of bole occur as red +partings between the successive lava flows of the Tertiary volcanic +series in the north of Ireland and the west of Scotland. Here it seems +to have resulted from the decomposition of the basalt and kindred rocks +by meteoric agencies, during periods of volcanic repose. In Antrim the +bole is associated with lithomarge, bauxite and pisolitic iron-ore. Bole +occurs in like manner between the great sheets of the Deccan traps in +India; and a similar substance is also found interbedded with some of +the doleritic lavas of Etna. + +In the sense of stem or trunk of a tree, "bole" is from the O. Norwegian +_bolr_, of. Ger. _Bohle_, plank. It is probably connected with the large +number of words, such as "boll," "ball," "bowl," &c., which stand for a +round object. + + + + +BOLESLAUS I., called "The Great," king of Poland (d. 1025), was the son +of Mieszko, first Christian prince of Poland, and the Bohemian princess +Dobrawa, or Bona, whose chaplain, Jordan, converted the court from +paganism to Catholicism. He succeeded his father in 992. A born warrior, +he speedily raised the little struggling Polish principality on the +Vistula to the rank of a great power. In 996 he gained a seaboard by +seizing Pomerania, and subsequently took advantage of the troubles in +Bohemia to occupy Cracow, previously a Czech city. Like his +contemporaries, Stephen of Hungary and Canute of Denmark, Boleslaus +recognized from the first the essential superiority of Christianity over +every other form of religion, and he deserves with them the name of +"Great" because he deliberately associated himself with the new faith. +Thus despite an inordinate love of adventure, which makes him appear +rather a wandering chieftain than an established ruler, he was +essentially a man of insight and progress. He showed great sagacity in +receiving the fugitive Adalbert, bishop of Prague, and when the saint +suffered martyrdom at the hands of the pagan Slavs (April 23, 997), +Boleslaus purchased his relics and solemnly laid them in the church of +Gnesen, founded by his father, which now became the metropolitan see of +Poland. It was at Gnesen that Boleslaus in the year 1000 entertained +Otto III. so magnificently that the emperor, declaring such a man too +worthy to be merely _princeps_, conferred upon him the royal crown, +though twenty-five years later, in the last year of his life, Boleslaus +thought it necessary to crown himself king a second time. On the death +of Otto, Boleslaus invaded Germany, penetrated to the Elbe, occupying +Stralsund and Meissen on his way, and extended his dominions to the +Elster and the Saale. He also occupied Bohemia, till driven out by the +emperor Henry IV. in 1004. The German war was terminated in 1018 by the +peace of Bautzen, greatly to the advantage of Boleslaus, who retained +Lusatia. He then turned his arms against Jaroslav, grand duke of Kiev, +whom he routed on the banks of the Bug, then the boundary between Russia +and Poland. For ten months Boleslaus remained at Kiev, whence he +addressed triumphant letters to the emperors of the East and West. At +his death in 1025 he left Poland one of the mightiest states of Europe, +extending from the Bug to the Elbe, and from the Baltic to the Danube, +and possessing besides the overlordship of Russia. But his greatest +achievement was the establishment in Poland of a native church, the +first step towards political independence. + + See J.N. Pawlowski, _St Adalbert_ (Danzig, 1860); _Chronica Nestoris_ + (Vienna, 1860); Heinrich R. von Zeissberg, _Die Kriege Kaiser + Heinrichs II. mit Herzog Boleslaw I._ (Vienna, 1868). + + + + +BOLESLAUS II., called "The Bold," king of Poland (1039-1081), eldest son +of Casimir I., succeeded his father in 1058. The domestic order and +tranquillity of the kingdom had been restored by his painstaking father, +but Poland had shrunk territorially since the age of his grandfather +Boleslaus I., and it was the aim of Boleslaus II. to restore her dignity +and importance. The nearest enemy was Bohemia, to whom Poland had lately +been compelled to pay tribute for her oldest possession, Silesia. But +Boleslaus's first Bohemian war proved unsuccessful, and was terminated +by the marriage of his sister Swatawa with the Czech king Wratyslaus II. +On the other hand Boleslaus's ally, the fugitive Magyar prince Bela, +succeeded with Polish assistance in winning the crown of Hungary. In the +East Boleslaus was more successful. In 1069 he succeeded in placing +Izaslaus on the throne of Kiev, thereby confirming Poland's overlordship +over Russia and enabling Boleslaus to chastise his other enemies, +Bohemia among them, with the co-operation of his Russian auxiliaries. +But Wratyslaus of Bohemia speedily appealed to the emperor for help, and +a war between Poland and the Empire was only prevented by the sudden +rupture of Henry IV. with the Holy See and the momentous events which +led to the humiliating surrender of the emperor at Canossa. There is +nothing to show that Boleslaus took any part in this struggle, though at +this time he was on the best of terms with Gregory VII. and there was +some talk of sending papal legates to restore order in the Polish +Church. On the 26th of December 1076 Boleslaus encircled his own brows +with the royal diadem, a striking proof that the Polish kings did not +even yet consider their title quite secure. A second successful +expedition to Kiev to reinstate his _protege_ Izaslaus, is Boleslaus's +last recorded exploit. Almost immediately afterwards (1079) we find him +an exile in Hungary, where he died about 1081. The cause of this sudden +eclipse was the cruel vengeance he took on the _milites_, or noble +order, who, emulating the example of their brethren in Bohemia, were +already attempting to curb the royal power. The churchmen headed by +Stanislaus Szczepanowski, bishop of Cracow, took the side of the nobles, +whose grievances seem to have been real. Boleslaus in his fury slew the +saintly bishop, but so general was the popular indignation that he had +to fly his kingdom. + + See M. Maksymilian Gumplowicz, _Zur Geschichte Polens im Mittelalter_ + (Innsbruck, 1898); W.P. Augerstein, _Der Konflikt des polnischen + Konigs Boleslaw II. mit dem Bischof Stanislaus_ (Thorn, 1895). + + + + +BOLESLAUS III., king of Poland (1086-1139), the son of Wladislaus I. and +Judith of Bohemia, was born on the 23rd of December 1086 and succeeded +his father in 1102. His earlier years were troubled continually by the +intrigues of his natural half-brother Zbigniew, who till he was +imprisoned and blinded involved Boleslaus in frequent contests with +Bohemia and the emperor Henry V. The first of the German wars began in +1109, when Henry, materially assisted by the Bohemians, invaded Silesia. +It was mainly a war of sieges, Henry sitting down before Lubusz, Glogau +and Breslau, all of which he failed to take. The Poles avoided an +encounter in the open field, but harried the Germans so successfully +around Breslau that the plain was covered with corpses, which Henry had +to leave to the dogs on his disastrous retreat; hence the scene of the +action was known as "the field of dogs." The chief political result of +this disaster was the complete independence of Poland for the next +quarter of a century. It was during this respite that Boleslaus devoted +himself to the main business of his life--the subjugation of Pomerania +(i.e. the maritime province) with the view of gaining access to the sea. +Pomerania, protected on the south by virgin forests and almost +impenetrable morasses, was in those days inhabited by a valiant and +savage Slavonic race akin to the Wends, who clung to paganism with +unconquerable obstinacy. The possession of a seaboard enabled them to +maintain fleets and build relatively large towns such as Stettin and +Kolberg, whilst they ravaged at will the territories of their southern +neighbours the Poles. In self-defence Boleslaus was obliged to subdue +them. The struggle began in 1109, when Boleslaus inflicted a terrible +defeat on the Pomeranians at Nackel which compelled their temporary +submission. In 1120-1124 the rebellion of his vassal Prince Warceslaus +of Stettin again brought Boleslaus into the country, but the resistance +was as stout as ever, and only after 18,000 of his followers had fallen +and 8000 more had been expatriated did Warceslaus submit to his +conqueror. The obstinacy of the resistance convinced Boleslaus that +Pomerania must be christianized before it could be completely subdued; +and this important work was partially accomplished by St Otto, bishop of +Bamberg, an old friend of Boleslaus's father, who knew the Slavonic +languages. In 1124 the southern portions of the land were converted by +St Otto, but it was only under the threat of extermination if they +persisted in their evil ways that the people of Stettin accepted the +faith in the following year. In 1128, at the council of Usedom, St Otto +appointed his disciple Boniface bishop of Julin, the first Pomeranian +diocese, and the foundation of a better order of things was laid. In his +later years Boleslaus waged an unsuccessful war with Hungary and +Bohemia, and was forced to claim the mediation of the emperor Lothair, +to whom he did homage for Pomerania and Rugen at the diet of Merseburg +in 1135. He died in 1139. + + See Gallus, _Chronicon_, ed. Finkal (Cracow, 1899); Maksymilian + Gumplowicz, _Zur Geschichte Polens im Mittelalter_ (Innsbruck, 1898). + + + + +BOLETUS, a well-marked genus of fungi (order _Polyporeae_), +characterized by the central stem, the cap or pileus, the soft, fleshy +tissue, and the vertical, closely-packed tubes or pores which cover the +under surface of the pileus and are easily detachable. The species all +grow on the ground, in woods or under trees, in the early autumn. They +are brown, red or yellow in colour; the pores also vary in colour from +pure white to brown, red, yellow or green, and are from one or two lines +to nearly an inch long. A few are poisonous; several are good for +eating. One of the greatest favourites for the table is _Boletus +edulis_, recognized by its brown cap and white pores which become green +when old. It is the _ceps_ of the continental European markets. There +are forty-nine British species of _Boletus_. + + + + +BOLEYN (or BULLEN), ANNE (c. 1507-1536), queen of Henry VIII. of +England, daughter of Sir Thomas Boleyn, afterwards earl of Wiltshire and +Ormonde, and of Elizabeth, daughter of Thomas Howard, earl of Surrey, +afterwards duke of Norfolk, was born, according to Camden, in 1507, but +her birth has been ascribed, though not conclusively, to an earlier date +(to 1502 or 1501) by some later writers.[1] In 1514 she accompanied Mary +Tudor to France on the marriage of the princess to Louis XII., remained +there after the king's death, and became one of the women in waiting to +Queen Claude, wife of Francis I. She returned in 1521 or 1522 to +England, where she had many admirers and suitors. Among the former was +the poet Sir Thomas Wyatt,[2] and among the latter, Henry Percy, heir of +the earl of Northumberland, a marriage with whom, however, was stopped +by the king and another match provided for her in the person of Sir +James Butler. Anne Boleyn, however, remained unmarried, and a series of +grants and favours bestowed by Henry on her father between 1522 and 1525 +have been taken, though very doubtfully, as a symptom of the king's +affections. Unlike her sister Mary, who had fallen a victim to Henry's +solicitations,[3] Anne had no intention of being the king's mistress; +she meant to be his queen, and her conduct seems to have been governed +entirely by motives of ambition. The exact period of the beginning of +Anne's relations with Henry is not known. They have been surmised as +originating as early as 1523; but there is nothing to prove that Henry's +passion was anterior to the proceedings taken for the divorce in May +1527, the celebrated love letters being undated. Her name is first +openly connected with the king's as a possible wife in the event of +Catherine's divorce, in a letter of Mendoza, the imperial ambassador, to +Charles V. of the 16th of August 1527,[4] during the absence in France +of Wolsey, who, not blinded by passion like Henry, naturally opposed the +undesirable alliance, and was negotiating a marriage with Renee, +daughter of Louis XII. Henry meanwhile, however, had sent William +Knight, his secretary, on a separate mission to Rome to obtain +facilities for his marriage with Anne; and on the cardinal's return in +August he found her installed as the king's companion and proposed +successor to Catherine of Aragon. After the king's final separation from +his wife in July 1531, Anne's position was still more marked, and in +1532 she accompanied Henry on the visit to Francis I., while Catherine +was left at home neglected and practically a prisoner. Soon after their +return Anne was found to be pregnant, and in consequence Henry married +her about the 25th of January 1533[5] (the exact date is unknown), their +union not being made public till the following Easter. Subsequently, on +the 23rd of May, their marriage was declared valid and that with +Catherine null, and in June Anne was crowned with great state in +Westminster Abbey. Anne Boleyn had now reached the zenith of her hopes. +A weak, giddy woman of no stability of character, her success turned her +head and caused her to behave with insolence and impropriety, in strong +contrast with Catherine's quiet dignity under her misfortunes. She, and +not the king, probably was the author of the petty persecutions +inflicted upon Catherine and upon the princess Mary, and her jealousy of +the latter showed itself in spiteful malice. Mary was to be forced into +the position of a humble attendant upon Anne's infant, and her ears were +to be boxed if she proved recalcitrant. She urged that both should be +brought to trial under the new statute of succession passed in 1534, +which declared her own children the lawful heirs to the throne. She was +reported as saying that when the king gave opportunity by leaving +England, she would put Mary to death even if she were burnt or flayed +alive for it.[6] She incurred the remonstrances of the privy council and +alienated her own friends and relations. Her uncle, the duke of Norfolk, +whom she was reported to have treated "worse than a dog," reviled her, +calling her a "grande putaine." But her day of triumph was destined to +be even shorter than that of her predecessor. There were soon signs that +Henry's affection, which had before been a genuine passion, had cooled +or ceased. He resented her arrogance, and a few months after the +marriage he gave her cause for jealousy, and disputes arose. A strange +and mysterious fate had prepared for Anne the same domestic griefs that +had vexed and ruined Catherine and caused her abandonment. In September +1533 the birth of a daughter, afterwards Queen Elizabeth, instead of the +long-hoped-for son, was a heavy disappointment; next year there was a +miscarriage, and on the 29th of January 1536, the day of Catherine's +funeral, she gave birth to a dead male child. + +On the 1st of May following the king suddenly broke up a tournament at +Greenwich, leaving the company in bewilderment and consternation. The +cause was soon known. Inquiries had been made on reports of the queen's +ill-conduct, and several of her reputed lovers had been arrested. On the +2nd Anne herself was committed to the Tower on a charge of adultery with +various persons, including her own brother, Lord Rochford. On the 12th +Sir Francis Weston, Henry Norris, William Brereton and Mark Smeaton were +declared guilty of high treason, while Anne herself and Lord Rochford +were condemned unanimously by an assembly of twenty-six peers on the +15th. Her uncle, the duke of Norfolk, presided as lord steward, and gave +sentence, weeping, that his niece was to be burned or beheaded as +pleased the king. Her former lover, the earl of Northumberland, left the +court seized with sudden illness. Her father, who was excused +attendance, had, however, been present at the trial of the other +offenders, and had there declared his conviction of his daughter's +guilt. On the 16th, hoping probably to save herself by these means, she +informed Cranmer of a certain supposed impediment to her marriage with +the king--according to some accounts a previous marriage with +Northumberland, though the latter solemnly and positively denied +it--which was never disclosed, but which, having been considered by the +archbishop and a committee of ecclesiastical lawyers, was pronounced, on +the 17th, sufficient to invalidate her marriage. The same day all her +reputed lovers were executed; and on the 19th she herself suffered death +on Tower Green, her head being struck off with a sword by the +executioner of Calais brought to England for the purpose.[7] She had +regarded the prospect of death with courage and almost with levity, +laughing heartily as she put her hands about her "little neck" and +recalled the skill of the executioner. "I have seen many men" (wrote Sir +William Kingston, governor of the Tower) "and also women executed, and +all they have been in great sorrow, and to my knowledge this lady has +much joy and pleasure in death." On the following day Henry was +betrothed to Jane Seymour. + +Amidst the vituperations of the adherents of the papacy and the later +Elizabethan eulogies, and in the absence of the records on which her +sentence was pronounced, Anne Boleyn's guilt remains unproved. To Sir +William Kingston she protested her entire innocence, and on the scaffold +while expressing her submission she made no confession.[8] Smeaton alone +of her supposed lovers made a full confession, and it is possible that +his statement was drawn from him by threats of torture or hopes of +pardon. Norris, according to one account,[9] also confessed, but +subsequently declared that he had been betrayed into making his +statement. The others were all said to have "confessed in a manner" on +the scaffold, but much weight cannot be placed on these general +confessions, which were, according to the custom of the time, a +declaration of submission to the king's will and of general repentance +rather than acknowledgment of the special crime. "I pray God save the +king," Anne herself is reported to have said on the scaffold, "and send +him long to reign over you, for a gentler nor a more merciful prince was +there never; and to me he was ever a good, a gentle and sovereign lord." +A principal witness for the charge of incest was Rochford's own wife, a +woman of infamous character, afterwards executed for complicity in the +intrigues of Catherine Howard. The discovery of Anne's misdeeds +coincided in an extraordinary manner with Henry's disappointment in not +obtaining by her a male heir, while the king's despotic power and the +universal unpopularity of Anne both tended to hinder the administration +of pure justice. Nevertheless, though unproved, Anne's guilt is more +than probable. It is almost incredible that two grand juries, a petty +jury, and a tribunal consisting of nearly all the lay peers of England, +with the evidence before them which we do not now possess, should have +all unanimously passed a sentence of guilt contrary to the facts and +their convictions, and that such a sentence should have been supported +by Anne's own father and uncle. Every year since her marriage Anne had +given birth to a child, and Henry had no reason to despair of more; +while, if Henry's state of health was such as was reported, the desire +for children, which Anne shared with him, may be urged as an argument +for her guilt. Sir Francis Weston in a letter to his family almost +acknowledges his guilt in praying for pardon, especially for offences +against his wife;[10] Anne's own conduct and character almost prepare us +for some catastrophe. Whether innocent or guilty, however, her fate +caused no regrets and her misfortunes did not raise a single champion or +defender. The sordid incidents of her rise, and the insolence with which +she used her triumph, had alienated all hearts from the unhappy woman. +Among the people she had always been intensely disliked; the love of +justice, and the fear of trade losses imminent upon a breach with +Charles V., combined to render her unpopular. She appealed to the king's +less refined instincts, and Henry's deterioration of character may be +dated from his connexion with her. She is described as "not one of the +handsomest women in the world; she is of a middling stature, swarthy +complexion, long neck, wide mouth, bosom not much raised, and in fact +has nothing but the English king's great appetite, and her eyes which +are black and beautiful, and take great effect."[11] Cranmer admired +her--"sitting in her hair" (i.e. with her hair falling over her +shoulders, which seems to have been her custom on great occasions), +"upon a horse litter, richly apparelled," at her coronation.[12] + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Art. in the _Dict. of Nat. Biography_ and authorities + cited; _Henry VIII._ by A.F. Pollard (1905); _Anne Boleyn_, by P. + Friedman (1884); _The Early Life of Anne Boleyn_, by J.H. Round + (1886); _The Divorce of Catherine of Aragon_, by J.A. Froude (1891); + "Der Ursprung der Ehescheidung Konig Heinrichs VIII." and "Der Sturz + des Cardinals Wolsey," by W. Busch (_Historisches Taschenbuch_, vi. + Folge viii. 273 and ix. 41, 1889 and 1890); _Lives_, by Miss E.O. + Benger (1821); and Miss A. Strickland, _Lives of the Queens of + England_ (1851), vol. ii.; _Notices of Historic Persons Buried in the + Tower of London_, by D.C. Bell (1877); _The Wives of Henry VIII._ by + M.A.S. Hume (1905); _Excerpta Historica_, by N.H. Nicolas (1831), p. + 260; _Spanish Chronicle of Henry VIII._ tr. by M.A.S. Hume (1889); + _Records of the Reformation_, by N. Pocock (1870); _Harleian + Miscellany_ (1808), iii. 47 (the love letters); _Archaeologia_, xxiii. + 64 (memorial of G. Constantyne); _Eng. Hist. Rev._ v. 544, viii. 53, + 299, x. 104; _State Trials_, i. 410; _History of Henry VIII._ by Lord + Herbert of Cherbury; E. Hall's _Chronicle: Original Letters_, ed. by + Sir H. Ellis, i. ser., ii. 37, 53 et seq., ii. ser., ii. 10; _Extracts + from the Life of Queen Anne Boleigne_, by G. Wyat (1817); _The + Negotiations of Thomas Wolsey_, by Sir W. Cavendish (1641, rep. + Harleian Misc. 1810 v.); C. Wriothesley's _Chronicle_ (Camden Soc., + 1875-1877); _Notes and Queries_, 8 ser., viii. 141, 189, 313, 350; _Il + Successo de la Morte de la Regina de Inghilterra_ (1536); _The Maner + of the Tryumphe of Caleys and Bullen_, and the _Noble Tryumphaunt + Coronacyon of Queen Anne_ (1533, rep. 1884); _State Papers Henry + VIII._; _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._, by Brewer and Gardiner, + esp. the prefaces; _Cal. of State Pap. England and Spain, Venetian and + Foreign_ (1558-1559), p. 525 (an account full of obvious errors); + _Colton MSS._ (Brit. Mus.), Otho C. 10; "Baga de secretis" in Rep. + iii., App. ii. of Dep. Keeper of Public Records, p. 242; "Romische + Dokumente," v., M.S. Ehses (_Gorres-gesellschaft_, Bd. ii., 1893). See + also articles on CATHERINE OF ARAGON and HENRY VIII. (P. C. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See _Anne Boleyn_, by P. Friedman; _The Early Life of Anne + Boleyn_, by J.H. Round; and J. Gairdner in _Eng. Hist. Review_, viii. + 53, 299, and x. 104. + + [2] According to the _Chronicle of King Henry VIII._, tr. by M.A.S. + Hume, p. 68, she was his mistress. + + [3] Of this there is no direct proof, but the statement rests upon + contemporary belief and chiefly upon the extraordinary terms of the + dispensation granted to Henry to marry Anne Boleyn, which included + the suspension of all canons relating to impediments created by + "affinity rising _ex illicito coitu_ in any degree even in the + first." Froude rejects the whole story, _Divorce of Catherine of + Aragon_, p. 54; and see Friedman's _Anne Boleyn_, ii. 323. + + [4] _Cat. of St. Pap. England and Spain_, iii. pt. ii. p. 327. + + [5] According to Cranmer, _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._ vi. p. + 300, the only authority; and Cranmer himself only knew of it a + fortnight after. The marriage was commonly antedated to the 14th of + November 1532. + + [6] _Cat. of St. Pap. England and Spain_, v. 198. + + [7] _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._, x. pp. 374, 381, 385. + + [8] According to the most trustworthy accounts, but see _Letters and + Papers_, x. p. 382. The well-known letter to Henry VIII. attributed + to her is now recognized as an Elizabethan forgery. + + [9] _Archaeologia_, xxiii. 64. + + [10] _Letters and Papers_, x. 358. + + [11] "Sanuto Diaries," October 31, 1532, in _Cal. of St. Pap. + Venetian_, iv. p. 365. + + [12] _Original Letters_, ed. by Sir H. Ellis, 1 ser. ii. 37, and + _Cal. of St. Pap. Venetian_, iv. 351, 418. + + + + +BOLGARI, or BOLGARY, a ruined town of Russia, in the government of +Kazan, 4 m. from the left bank of the Volga, in 55 deg.N. lat. It is +generally considered to have been the capital of the Bulgarians when +they were established in that part of Europe (5th to 15th century). +Ruins of the old walls and towers still survive, as well as numerous +_kurgans_ or burial-mounds, with inscriptions, some in Arabic +(1222-1341), others in Armenian (years 557, 984 and 986), and yet others +in Turkic. Upon being opened these tombs were found to contain weapons, +implements, utensils, and silver and copper coins, bearing inscriptions, +some in ordinary Arabic, others in Kufic (a kind of epigraphic Arabic). +These and other antiquities collected here (1722) are preserved in +museums at Kazan, Moscow and St Petersburg. The ruins, which were +practically discovered in the reign of Peter the Great, were visited and +described by Pallas, Humboldt and others. The city of Bolgari was +destroyed by the Mongols in 1238, and again by Tamerlane early in the +following century, after which it served as the capital of the Khans +(sovereign princes) of the Golden Horde of Mongols, and finally, in the +second half of the 15th century it became a part of the principality of +Kazan, and so eventually of Russia. The Arab geographer Ibn Haukal +states that in his time, near the end of the 10th century, it was a +place of 10,000 inhabitants. + + See Ibn Fadhlan, _Nachrichten uber die Wolga Bulgaren_ (Ger. trans. by + Frahn, St Petersburg, 1832). + + + + +BOLI, the chief town of a sanjak of the Kastamuni vilayet in Asia Minor, +altitude 2500 ft., situated in a rich plain watered by the Boli Su, a +tributary of the Filiyas Chai (_Billaeus_). Pop. (1894) 10,796 (Moslems, +9642; Greeks, 758; Armenians, 396). Cotton and leather are manufactured; +the country around is fertile, and in the neighbourhood are large +forests of oak, beech, elm, chestnut and pine, the timber of which is +partly used locally and partly exported to Constantinople. Three miles +east of Boli, at Eskihissar, are the ruins of _Bithynium_, the +birthplace of Antinous, also called _Antinoopolis_, and in Byzantine +times _Claudiopolis_. In and around Boli are numerous marbles with Greek +inscriptions, chiefly sepulchral, and architectural fragments. At Ilija, +south of the town, are warm springs much prized for their medicinal +properties. + + + + +BOLINGBROKE, HENRY ST JOHN, VISCOUNT (1678-1751), English statesman and +writer, son of Sir Henry St John, Bart. (afterwards 1st Viscount St +John, a member of a younger branch of the family of the earls of +Bolingbroke and barons St John of Bletso), and of Lady Mary Rich, +daughter of the 2nd earl of Warwick, was baptized on the 10th of October +1678, and was educated at Eton. He travelled abroad during 1698 and 1699 +and acquired an exceptional knowledge of French. The dissipation and +extravagance of his youth exceeded all limits and surprised his +contemporaries. He spent weeks in riotous orgies and outdrank the most +experienced drunkards. An informant of Goldsmith saw him once "run naked +through the park in a state of intoxication." Throughout his career he +desired, says Swift, his intimate friend, to be thought the Alcibiades +or Petronius of his age, and to mix licentious orgies with the highest +political responsibilities.[1] In 1700 he married Frances, daughter of +Sir Henry Winchcombe, Bart., of Bucklebury, Berkshire, but matrimony +while improving his fortune did not redeem his morals. + +He was returned to parliament in 1701 for the family borough of Wootton +Bassett in Wiltshire. He declared himself a Tory, attached himself to +Harley (afterwards Lord Oxford), then speaker, whom he now addressed as +"dear master," and distinguished himself by his eloquence in debate, +eclipsing his schoolfellow, Walpole, and gaining an extraordinary +ascendancy over the House of Commons. In May he had charge of the bill +for securing the Protestant succession; he took part in the impeachment +of the Whig lords for their conduct concerning the Partition treaties, +and opposed the oath abjuring the Pretender. In March 1702 he was chosen +commissioner for taking the public accounts. After Anne's accession he +supported the bills in 1702 and 1704 against occasional conformity, and +took a leading part in the disputes which arose between the two Houses. +In 1704 St John took office with Harley as secretary at war, thus being +brought into intimate relations with Marlborough, by whom he was treated +with paternal partiality. In 1708 he quitted office with Harley on the +failure of the latter's intrigue, and retired to the country till 1710, +when he became a privy councillor and secretary of state in Harley's new +ministry, representing Berkshire in parliament. He supported the bill +for requiring a real property qualification for a seat in parliament. In +1711 he founded the Brothers' Club, a society of Tory politicians and +men of letters, and the same year witnessed the failure of the two +expeditions to the West Indies and to Canada promoted by him. In 1712 he +was the author of the bill taxing newspapers. But the great business of +the new government was the making of the peace with France. The refusal +of the Whigs to grant terms in 1706, and again in 1709 when Louis XIV. +offered to yield every point for which the allies professed to be +fighting, showed that the war was not being continued for English +national interests, and the ministry were supported by the queen, the +parliament and the people in their design to terminate hostilities. But +various obstacles arose from the diversity of aims among the allies; and +St John was induced, contrary to the most solemn obligations, to enter +into separate and secret negotiations with France for the security of +English interests. In May 1712 St John ordered the duke of Ormonde, who +had succeeded Marlborough in the command, to refrain from any further +engagement. These instructions were communicated to the French, though +not to the allies, Louis putting Dunkirk as security into possession of +England, and the shameful spectacle was witnessed of the desertion by +the English troops of their allies almost on the battlefield. +Subsequently St John received the congratulations of the French +minister, Torcy, on the occasion of the French victory over Prince +Eugene at Denain. + +In August St John, who had on the 7th of July been created Viscount +Bolingbroke and Baron St John of Lydiard Tregoze, went to France to +conduct negotiations, and signed an armistice between England and France +for four months on the 19th. Finally the treaty of Utrecht was signed on +the 31st of March 1713 by all the allies except the emperor. The first +production of Addison's _Cato_ was made by the Whigs the occasion of a +great demonstration of indignation against the peace, and by Bolingbroke +for presenting the actor Booth with a purse of fifty guineas for +"defending the cause of liberty against a perpetual dictator" +(Marlborough). In the terms granted to England there was perhaps little +to criticize. But the manner of the peacemaking, which had been carried +on by a series of underhand conspiracies with the enemy instead of by +open conferences with the allies, and was characterized throughout by a +violation of the most solemn international assurances, left a deep and +lasting stain upon the national honour and credit; and not less +dishonourable was the abandonment of the Catalans by the treaty. For all +this Bolingbroke must be held primarily responsible. In June his +commercial treaty with France, establishing free trade with that +country, was rejected. Meanwhile the friendship between Bolingbroke and +Harley, which formed the basis of the whole Tory administration, had +been gradually dissolved. In March 1711, by Guiscard's attempt on his +life, Harley got the wound which had been intended for St John, with all +the credit. In May Harley obtained the earldom of Oxford and was made +lord treasurer, while in July St John was greatly disappointed at +receiving only his viscountcy instead of the earldom lately extinct in +his family, and at being passed over for the Garter. In September 1713 +Swift came to London, and made a last but vain attempt to reconcile his +two friends. But now a further cause of difference had arisen. The +queen's health was visibly breaking, and the Tory ministers could only +look forward to their own downfall on the accession of the elector of +Hanover. Both Oxford[2] and Bolingbroke had maintained for some time +secret communications with James, and promised their help in restoring +him at the queen's death. The aims of the former, prudent, +procrastinating and vacillating by nature, never extended probably +beyond the propitiation of his Tory followers; and it is difficult to +imagine that Bolingbroke could have really advocated the Pretender's +recall, whose divine right he repudiated and whose religion and +principles he despised. Nevertheless, whatever his chief motive may have +been, whether to displace Oxford as leader of the party, to strengthen +his position and that of the faction in order to dictate terms to the +future king, or to reinstate James, Bolingbroke, yielding to his more +impetuous and adventurous disposition, went much further than Oxford. +It is possible to suppose a connexion between his zeal for making peace +with France and a desire to forward the Pretender's interests or win +support from the Jacobites.[3] During his diplomatic mission to France +he had incurred blame for remaining at the opera while the Pretender was +present,[4] and according to the Mackintosh transcripts he had several +secret interviews with him. Regular communications were kept up +subsequently. In March 1714 Herville, the French envoy in London, sent +to Torcy, the French foreign minister in Paris, the substance of two +long conversations with Bolingbroke in which the latter advised patience +till after the accession of George, when a great reaction was to be +expected in favour of the Pretender. At the same time he spoke of the +treachery of Marlborough and Berwick, and of one other, presumably +Oxford, whom he refused to name, all of whom were in communication with +Hanover.[5] Both Oxford and Bolingbroke warned James that he could have +little chance of success unless he changed his religion, but the +latter's refusal (March 13) does not appear to have stopped the +communications. Bolingbroke gradually superseded Oxford in the +leadership. Lady Masham, the queen's favourite, quarrelled with Oxford +and identified herself with Bolingbroke's interests. The harsh treatment +of the Hanoverian demands was inspired by him, and won favour with the +queen, while Oxford's influence declined; and by his support of the +Schism Bill in May 1714, a violent Tory measure forbidding all education +by dissenters by making an episcopal licence obligatory for +schoolmasters, he probably intended to compel Oxford to give up the +game. Finally, a charge of corruption brought by Oxford in July against +Bolingbroke and Lady Masham, in connexion with the commercial treaty +with Spain, failed, and the lord treasurer was dismissed or retired on +the 27th of July. + +Bolingbroke was now supreme, and everything appeared tending inevitably +to a Jacobite restoration. The Jacobite Sir William Windham had been +made chancellor of the exchequer, important military posts were placed +in the hands of the faction, and a new ministry of Jacobites was +projected. But now the queen's sudden death on the 1st of August, and +the appointment of Shrewsbury to the lord treasurership, instantly +changed the whole scene and ruined Bolingbroke. "The earl of Oxford was +removed on Tuesday," he wrote to Swift on the 3rd of August, "the queen +died on Sunday! What a world is this and how does fortune banter us!" +According to Herville, the French envoy, Bolingbroke declared to him +that in six weeks he could have secured everything. Nevertheless the +exact nature of his projects remains obscure. It is probable that his +statement in his letter to Windham that "none of us had any very settled +resolution" is true, though his declaration in the _Patriot King_ that +"there were no designs on foot ... to place the crown on the head of the +Pretender" is a palpable falsehood. His great object was doubtless to +gain supreme power and to keep it by any means, and by any betrayal that +the circumstances demanded; and it is not without significance perhaps +that on the very day of Oxford's dismissal he gave a dinner to the Whig +leaders, and on the day preceding the queen's death ordered overtures to +be made to the elector.[6] + +On the accession of George I. the illuminations and bonfire at Lord +Bolingbroke's house in Golden Square were "particularly fine and +remarkable,"[7] but he was immediately dismissed from office. He retired +to Bucklebury and is said to have now written the answer to the _Secret +History of the White Staff_ accusing him of Jacobitism. In March 1715 he +in vain attempted to defend the late ministry in the new parliament; and +on the announcement of Walpole's intended attack upon the authors of the +treaty of Utrecht he fled in disguise (March 28, 1715) to Paris, where +he was well received, after having addressed a letter to Lord Lansdowne +from Dover protesting his innocence and challenging "the most +inveterate of his enemies to produce any instance of his criminal +correspondence." Bolingbroke in July entirely identified himself with +the interests of the Pretender, whose secretary he became, and on the +10th of September he was attainted. But his counsel was neglected for +that of ignorant refugees and Irish priests. The expedition of 1715 was +resolved upon against his advice. He drew up James's declaration, but +the assurances he had inserted concerning the security of the Church of +England were cancelled by the priests. He remained at Paris, and +endeavoured to establish relations with the regent. On the return of +James, as the result of petty intrigues and jealousies, Bolingbroke was +dismissed from his office. He now renounced all further efforts on the +Pretender's behalf.[8] Replying to Mary of Modena, who had sent a +message deprecating his ill-will, he wished his arm might rot off if he +ever used pen or sword in their service again![9] + +He now turned to the English government in hopes of pardon. In March +1716 he declared his final abandonment of the Pretender and promised to +use his influence to secure the withdrawal of his friends; but he +refused to betray any secrets or any individuals. He wrote his +_Reflexions upon Exile_, and in 1717 his letter to Sir W. Windham in +explanation of his position, generally considered one of his finest +compositions, but not published till 1753 after his death. The same year +he formed a liaison with Marie Claire Deschamps de Marcilly, widow of +the marquis de Villette, whom he married in 1720 after the death in 1718 +of Lady Bolingbroke, whom he had treated with cruel neglect. He bought +and resided at the estate of La Source near Orleans, studied philosophy, +criticized the chronology of the Bible, and was visited amongst others +by Voltaire, who expressed unbounded admiration for his learning and +politeness. In 1723, through the medium of the king's mistress, the +duchess of Kendal, he at last received his pardon, returned to London in +June or July, and placed his services at the disposal of Walpole, by +whom, however, his offers to procure the accession of several Tories to +the administration were received very coldly. During the following +winter he made himself useful in France in gaining information for the +government. In 1725 an act was passed enabling him to hold real estate +but without power of alienating it.[10] But this had been effected in +consequence of a peremptory order of the king, against Walpole's wishes, +who succeeded in maintaining his exclusion from the House of Lords. He +now bought an estate at Dawley, near Uxbridge, where he renewed his +intimacy with Pope, Swift and Voltaire, took part in Pope's literary +squabbles, and wrote the philosophy for the _Essay on Man_. On the first +occasion which offered itself, that of Pulteney's rupture with Walpole +in 1726, he endeavoured to organize an opposition in conjunction with +the former and Windham; and in 1727 began his celebrated series of +letters to the _Craftsman_, attacking the Walpoles, signed an +"Occasional Writer." He gained over the duchess of Kendal with a bribe +of L11,000 from his wife's estates, and with Walpole's approval obtained +an audience with George. His success was imminent, and it was thought +his appointment as chief minister was assured. In Walpole's own words, +"as St John had the duchess entirely on his side I need not add what +must or might in time have been the consequence," and he prepared for +his dismissal. But once more Bolingbroke's "fortune turned rotten at the +very moment it grew ripe,"[11] and his projects and hopes were ruined by +the king's death in June.[12] Further papers from his pen signed "John +Trot" appeared in the _Craftsman_ in 1728, and in 1730 followed _Remarks +on the History of England by Humphrey Oldcastle_, attacking the +Walpoles' policy. The assault on the government prompted by Bolingbroke +was continued in the House of Commons by Windham, and great efforts were +made to establish the alliance between the Tories and the Opposition +Whigs. The Excise Bill in 1733 and the Septennial Bill in the following +year offered opportunities for further attacks on the government, which +Bolingbroke supported by a new series of papers in the _Craftsman_ +styled "A Dissertation on Parties"; but the whole movement collapsed +after the new elections, which returned Walpole to power in 1735 with a +large majority. + +Bolingbroke retired baffled and disappointed from the fray to France in +June, residing principally at the chateau of Argeville near +Fontainebleau. He now wrote his _Letters on the Study of History_ +(printed privately before his death and published in 1752), and the +_True Use of Retirement_. In 1738 he visited England, became one of the +leading friends and advisers of Frederick, prince of Wales, who now +headed the opposition, and wrote for the occasion _The Patriot King_, +which together with a previous essay, _The Spirit of Patriotism_, and +_The State of Parties at the Accession of George I._, were entrusted to +Pope and not published. Having failed, however, to obtain any share in +politics, he returned to France in 1739, and subsequently sold Dawley. +In 1742 and 1743 he again visited England and quarrelled with Warburton. +In 1744 he settled finally at Battersea with his friend Hugh Hume, 3rd +earl of Marchmont, and was present at Pope's death in May. The discovery +that the poet had printed secretly 1500 copies of _The Patriot King_ +caused him to publish a correct version in 1749, and stirred up a +further altercation with Warburton, who defended his friend against +Bolingbroke's bitter aspersions, the latter, whose conduct was generally +reprehended, publishing a _Familiar Epistle to the most Impudent Man +Living_. In 1744 he had been very busy assisting in the negotiations for +the establishment of the new "broad bottom" administration, and showed +no sympathy for the Jacobite expedition in 1745. He recommended the +tutor for Prince George, afterwards George III. About 1749 he wrote the +_Present State of the Nation_, an unfinished pamphlet. Lord Chesterfield +records the last words heard from him: "God who placed me here will do +what He pleases with me hereafter and He knows best what to do." He died +on the 12th of December 1751, his wife having predeceased him in 1750. +They were both buried in the parish church at Battersea, where a +monument with medallions and inscriptions composed by Bolingbroke was +erected to their memory. + +The writings and career of Bolingbroke make a far weaker impression upon +posterity than they made on contemporaries. His genius and character +were superficial; his abilities were exercised upon ephemeral objects, +and not inspired by lasting or universal ideas. Bute and George III. +indeed derived their political ideas from _The Patriot King_, but the +influence which he is said to have exercised upon Voltaire, Gibbon and +Burke is very problematical. Burke wrote his _Vindication of Natural +Society_ in imitation of Bolingbroke's style, but in refutation of his +principles; and in the _Reflections on the French Revolution_ he +exclaims, "Who now reads Bolingbroke, who ever read him through?" Burke +denies that Bolingbroke's words left "any permanent impression on his +mind." Bolingbroke's conversation, described by Lord Chesterfield as +"such a flowing happiness of expression that even his most familiar +conversations if taken down in writing would have borne the press +without the least correction," his delightful companionship, his wit, +good looks, and social qualities which charmed during his lifetime and +made firm friendships with men of the most opposite character, can now +only be faintly imagined. His most brilliant gift was his eloquence, +which according to Swift was acknowledged by men of all factions to be +unrivalled. None of his great orations has survived, a loss regretted by +Pitt more than that of the missing books of Livy and Tacitus, and no art +perishes more completely with its possessor than that of oratory. His +political works, in which the expression is often splendidly eloquent, +spirited and dignified, are for the most part exceedingly rhetorical in +style, while his philosophical essays were undertaken with the chief +object of displaying his eloquence, and no characteristic renders +writings less readable for posterity. They are both deficient in +solidity and in permanent interest. The first deals with mere party +questions without sincerity and without depth; and the second, composed +as an amusement in retirement without any serious preparation, in their +attacks on metaphysics and theology and in their feeble deism present no +originality and carry no conviction. Both kinds reflect in their +Voltairian superficiality Bolingbroke's manner of life, which was +throughout uninspired by any great ideas or principles and thoroughly +false and superficial. Though a libertine and a free-thinker, he had +championed the most bigoted and tyrannical high-church measures. His +diplomacy had been subordinated to party necessities. He had supported +by turns and simultaneously Jacobite and Hanoverian interests. He had +only conceived the idea of _The Patriot King_ in the person of the +worthless Frederick in order to stir up sedition, while his eulogies on +retirement and study were pronounced from an enforced exile. He only +attacked party government because he was excluded from it, and only +railed at corruption because it was the corruption of his antagonists +and not his own. His public life presents none of those acts of devotion +and self-sacrifice which often redeem a career characterized by errors, +follies and even crimes. + +One may deplore his unfortunate history and wasted genius, but it is +impossible to regret his exclusion from the government of England. He +was succeeded in the title as 2nd Viscount Bolingbroke, according to the +special remainder, by his nephew Frederick, 3rd Viscount St John (a +title granted to Bolingbroke's father in 1716), from whom the title has +descended. + + BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Bolingbroke's collected works, including his chief + political writings already mentioned and his philosophical essays + _Concerning the Nature, Extent and Reality of Human Knowledge_, _On + the Folly and Presumption of Philosophers_, _On the Rise and Progress + of Monotheism_, and _On Authority in Matters of Religion_, were first + published in Mallet's faulty edition in 1754,--according to Johnson's + well-known denunciation, "the blunderbuss charged against religion and + morality,"--and subsequently in 1778, 1809 and 1841. _A Collection of + Political Tracts_ by Bolingbroke was published in 1748. His _Letters_ + were published by G. Parke in 1798, and by Grimoard, _Lettres + historiques, politiques, philosophiques, &c._, in 1808; for others see + Pope's and Swift's _Correspondence_; W. Coxe's _Walpole_; Phillimore's + _Life of Lyttelton_; _Hardwick State Papers_, vol. ii.; _Marchmont + Papers_, ed. by Sir G.H. Rose (1831); Letters to Lord Chancellor + Hardwicke in _Add. MSS. Brit. Museum_ (see Index, 1894-1899), mostly + transcribed by W. Sichel; _Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of Marquis of Bath, + Duke of Portland at Welbeck_; while a further collection of his + letters relating to the treaty of Utrecht is in the British Museum. + For his attempts at verse see Walpole's _Royal and Noble Authors_ + (1806), iv. 209 et seq. See also bibliography of his works in Sichel, + ii. 456, 249. + + A life of Bolingbroke appeared in his lifetime about 1740, entitled + _Authentic Memoirs_ (in the Grenville Library, Brit. Mus.), which + recounted his escapades; other contemporary accounts were published in + 1752 and 1754, and a life by Goldsmith in 1770. Of the more modern + biographies may be noted that in the _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ by Sir + Leslie Stephen, 1897; by C. de Remusat in _L'Angleterre au 18me + siecle_ (1856), vol. i.; by T. Macknight (1863); by J. Churton Collins + (1886); by A. Hassall (1889); and by Walter Sichel (1901-1902), + elaborate and brilliant, but unduly eulogistic. (P. C. Y.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Swift's _Inquiry into the Behaviour of the Queen's Last + Ministry_; Mrs Delaney's _Correspondence_, 2 ser., iii. 168. + + [2] _Berwick's Mem._ (Petitot), vol. lxvi. 219. + + [3] _Hist. MSS. Comm., Portland MSS._ v. 235. + + [4] _Stuart MSS._ (Roxburghe Club), ii. 383. + + [5] _Hist. MSS. Comm., MSS. of H.M. the King, Stuart Papers_, i. p. + xlviii. + + [6] Sichel's _Bolingbroke_, i. 340; _Lockhart Papers_, i. 460; + Macpherson, ii. 529. + + [7] _Wentworth Papers_, 408. + + [8] _Hist. MSS. Comm., Stuart Papers_, i. 500; Berwick's _Mem_. + (Petitot), vol. lxvi. 262. + + [9] Coxe's _Walpole_, i. 200; _Stuart Papers_, ii. 511, and also 446, + 460. + + [10] _Hist. MSS. Comm., Onslow MSS._ 515. + + [11] Bolingbroke to Swift, June 24th, 1727. He adds, "to hanker after + a court is below either you or me." + + [12] Sichel's _Bolingbroke_, ii. 267; _Stanhope_, ii. 163; _Hist. + MSS. Comm., Onslow MSS._ 516, 8th Rep. Pt. III. App. p. 3. This + remarkable incident is discredited by H. Walpole in _Letters_ (ed. + 1903), iii. 269; but he was not always well informed concerning his + father's career. + + + + +BOLIVAR, SIMON (1783-1830), the hero of South American independence, was +born in the city of Caracas, Venezuela, on the 24th of July 1783. His +father was Juan Vicente Bolivar y Ponte, and his mother Maria Concepcion +Palacios y Sojo, both descended from noble families in Venezuela. +Bolivar was sent to Europe to prosecute his studies, and resided at +Madrid for several years. Having completed his education, he spent some +time in travelling, chiefly in the south of Europe, and visited Paris, +where he was an eye-witness of some of the last scenes of the +Revolution. Returning to Madrid, he married, in 1801, the daughter of +Don N. Toro, uncle of the marquis of Toro in Caracas, and embarked with +her for Venezuela, intending, it is said, to devote himself to the +improvement of his large estate. But the premature death of his young +wife, who fell a victim to yellow fever, drove him again to Europe. +Returning home in 1809 he passed through the United States, where, for +the first time, he had an opportunity of observing the working of free +institutions; and soon after his arrival in Venezuela he appears to have +identified himself with the cause of independence which had already +agitated the Spanish colonies for some years. Being one of the +promoters of the insurrection at Caracas in April 1810, he received a +colonel's commission from the revolutionary junta, and was associated +with Louis Lopez Mendez in a mission to the court of Great Britain. +Venezuela declared its independence on the 5th of July 1811, and in the +following year the war commenced in earnest by the advance of Monteverde +with the Spanish troops. Bolivar was entrusted with the command of the +important post of Puerto Cabello, but not being supported he had to +evacuate the place; and owing to the inaction of Miranda the Spaniards +recovered their hold over the country. + +Like others of the revolutionists Bolivar took to flight, and succeeded +in reaching Curacao in safety. He did not, however, remain long in +retirement, but in September 1812, hearing of important movements in New +Granada, repaired to Cartagena, where he received a commission to +operate against the Spanish troops on the Magdalena river. In this +expedition he proved eminently successful, driving the Spaniards from +post to post, until arriving at the confines of Venezuela he boldly +determined to enter that province and try conclusions with General +Monteverde himself. His troops did not number more than 500 men; but, in +spite of many discouragements, he forced his way to Merida and Truxillo, +towns of some importance in the west of Venezuela, and succeeded in +raising the population to his support. Forming his increased forces into +two divisions, he committed the charge of one to his colleague Rivas, +and pushing on for Caracas the capital, issued his decree of "war to the +death." A decisive battle ensued at Lastoguanes, where the Spanish +troops under Monteverde sustained a crushing defeat. Caracas was entered +in triumph on the 4th of August 1813, and Monteverde took refuge in +Puerto Cabello. General Marino effected the liberation of the eastern +district of Venezuela, and the patriots obtained entire possession of +the country in January 1814. This success was, however, of very brief +duration. The royalists, effectually roused by the reverses they had +sustained, concentrated all their means, and a number of sanguinary +encounters ensued. Bolivar was eventually defeated by Boves near Cura, +in the plains of La Puerta, and compelled to embark for Cumana with the +shattered remains of his forces. Caracas was retaken by the Spaniards in +July; and before the end of the year 1814 the royalists were again the +undisputed masters of Venezuela. From Cumana Bolivar repaired to +Cartagena, and thence to Tunja, where the revolutionary congress of New +Granada was sitting. Here, notwithstanding his misfortunes and the +efforts of his personal enemies, he was received and treated with great +consideration. The congress appointed him to conduct an expedition +against Santa Fe de Bogota, where Don Cundinamarca had refused to +acknowledge the new coalition of the provinces. In December 1814 he +appeared before Bogota with a force of 2000 men, and obliged the +recalcitrant leaders to capitulate,--a service for which he received the +thanks of congress. In the meanwhile Santa Martha had fallen into the +hands of the royalists, and Bolivar was ordered to the relief of the +place. In this, however, he was not successful, General Morillo having +landed an overwhelming Spanish force. Hopeless of the attempt he +resigned his commission and embarked for Kingston, Jamaica, in May 1814. +While residing there an attempt was made upon his life by a hired +assassin, who, in mistake, murdered his secretary. + +From Kingston Bolivar went to Aux Cayes in Haiti, where he was furnished +with a small force by President Petion. An expedition was organized, and +landed on the mainland in May 1816, but proved a failure. Nothing +daunted, however, he obtained reinforcements at Aux Cayes, and in +December landed first in Margarita, and then at Barcelona. Here a +provisional government was formed, and troops were assembled to resist +Morillo, who was then advancing at the head of a strong division. The +hostile forces encountered each other on the 16th of February 1817, when +a desperate conflict ensued, which lasted during that and the two +following days, and ended in the defeat of the royalists. Morillo +retired in disorder, and being met on his retreat by J.A. Paez with his +_llaneros_, suffered an additional and more complete overthrow. Being +now recognized as commander-in-chief, Bolivar proceeded in his career +of victory, and before the close of the year had fixed his headquarters +at Angostura on the Orinoco. At the opening of the congress which +assembled in that city on the 15th February 1819 he submitted an +elaborate exposition of his views on government, and concluded by +surrendering his authority into the hands of congress. Being, however, +required to resume his power, and retain it until the independence of +the country had been completely established, he reorganized his troops, +and set out from Angostura, in order to cross the Cordilleras, effect a +junction with General Santander, who commanded the republican force in +New Granada, and bring their united forces into action against the +common enemy. This bold and original design was crowned with complete +success. In July 1819 he entered Tunja, after a sharp action on the +adjoining heights; and on the 7th of August he gained the victory of +Boyaca, which gave him immediate possession of Bogota and all New +Granada. + +His return to Angostura was a sort of national festival. He was hailed +as the deliverer and father of his country, and all manner of +distinctions and congratulations were heaped upon him. Availing himself +of the favourable moment, he obtained the enactment of the fundamental +law of the 17th of December 1819, by which the republics of Venezuela +and New Granada were henceforth to be united in a single state, under +his presidency, by the title of the Republic of Colombia. The seat of +government was also transferred provisionally to Rosario de Cucuta, on +the frontier of the two provinces, and Bolivar again took the field. +Being now at the head of the most numerous and best appointed army the +republicans had yet assembled, he gained important advantages over the +Spaniards under Morillo, and on the 25th of November 1820 concluded at +Truxillo an armistice of six months, probably in the hope that the +Spaniards would come to terms, and that the further effusion of blood +might be spared. If such were his views, however, they were +disappointed. Morillo was recalled, and General Torre assumed the +command. The armistice was allowed to expire, and a renewal of the +contest became inevitable. Bolivar therefore resolved, if possible, to +strike a decisive blow; and this accordingly he did at Carabobo, where, +encountering Torre, he so completely routed the Spaniards that the +shattered remains of their army were forced to take refuge in Puerto +Cabello, where two years after they surrendered to Paez. The battle of +Carabobo may be considered as having put an end to the war in Venezuela. +On the 29th of June 1821 Bolivar entered Caracas, and by the close of +the year the Spaniards were driven from every part of the province +except Puerto Cabello. The next step was to secure, by permanent +political institutions, the independence which had been so dearly +purchased; and, accordingly, on the 30th of August 1821 the constitution +of Colombia was adopted with general approbation, Bolivar himself being +president, and Santander vice-president. + +There was, however, more work for him to do. The Spaniards, though +expelled from Colombia, still held possession of the neighbouring +provinces of Ecuador and Peru; and Bolivar determined to complete the +liberation of the whole country. Placing himself at the head of the +army, he marched on Quito in Ecuador. A severe battle was fought at +Pichincha, where, by the prowess of his colleague Sucre, the Spaniards +were routed, and Quito was entered by the republicans in June 1822. +Bolivar then marched upon Lima, which the royalists evacuated at his +approach; and entering the capital in triumph, he was invested with +absolute power as dictator, and authorized to call into action all the +resources of the country. Owing, however, to the intrigues of the +republican factions in Peru he was forced to withdraw to Truxillo, +leaving the capital to the mercy of the Spaniards under Canterac, by +whom it was immediately occupied. But this misfortune proved only +temporary. By June 1824 the liberating army was completely organized; +and taking the field soon after, it routed the vanguard of the enemy. +Improving his advantage, Bolivar pressed forward, and on the 6th of +August defeated Canterac on the plains of Junin, after which he returned +to Lima, leaving Sucre to follow the royalists in their retreat to +Upper Peru--an exploit which the latter executed with equal ability and +success, gaining a decisive victory at Ayacucho, and thus completing the +dispersion of the Spanish force. The possessions of the Spaniards in +Peru were now confined to the castles of Callao, which Rodil maintained +for upwards of a year, in spite of all the means that could be employed +for their reduction. In June 1825 Bolivar visited Upper Peru, which, +having detached itself from the government of Buenos Aires, was formed +into a separate state, called Bolivia, in honour of the liberator. The +first congress of the new republic assembled in August 1825, when +Bolivar was declared perpetual protector, and requested to prepare for +it a constitution of government. + +His care was now directed to the administration of the affairs of the +freed provinces. His endeavours to satisfy his countrymen in this +respect did not always meet with encouragement, and sometimes exposed +him to slander. In December 1824 Bolivar convoked a constituent congress +for the February following; but this body, taking into consideration the +unsettled state of the country, thought it proper to invest him with +dictatorial power for another year. His project of a constitution for +Bolivia was presented to the congress of that state on the 25th of May +1826, accompanied with an address, in which he embodied his opinions +respecting the form of government which he conceived most expedient for +the newly established republics. This code, however, did not give +satisfaction. Its most extraordinary feature consisted in the provision +for lodging the executive authority in the hands of a president for +life, without responsibility and with power to nominate his successor, a +proposal which alarmed the friends of liberty, and excited lively +apprehensions amongst the republicans of Buenos Aires and Chile; whilst +in Peru, Bolivar was accused of a design to unite into one state +Colombia, Peru and Bolivia, and to render himself perpetual dictator of +the confederacy. + +In the meanwhile the affairs of Colombia had taken a turn which demanded +the presence of Bolivar in his own country. During his absence Santander +had administered the government of the state ably and uprightly, and its +independence had been recognized by other countries. But Paez, who +commanded in Venezuela, having been accused of arbitrary conduct in the +enrolment of the citizens of Caracas in the militia, refused obedience +to the summons of the senate, and placed himself in a state of open +rebellion against the government, being encouraged by a disaffected +party in the northern departments who desired separation from the rest +of the republic. + +Accordingly, having entrusted the government to a council nominated by +himself, with Santa Cruz at its head, Bolivar set out from Lima in +September 1826, and hastening to Bogota, arrived there on the 14th of +November. He immediately assumed the extraordinary powers which by the +constitution the president was authorized to exercise in case of +rebellion. After a short stay in the capital he pressed forward to stop +the effusion of blood in Venezuela, where matters had gone much farther +than he could have contemplated. On the 31st of December he reached +Puerto Cabello, and the following day he issued a decree offering a +general amnesty. He had then a friendly meeting with Paez and soon after +entered Caracas, where he fixed his headquarters, in order to check the +northern departments, which had been the principal theatre of the +disturbances. In the meanwhile Bolivar and Santander were re-elected to +the respective offices of president and vice-president, and by law they +should have qualified as such in January 1827. In February, however, +Bolivar formally resigned the presidency of the republic, at the same +time expressing a determination to refute the imputations of ambition +which had been so freely cast upon him, by retiring into private life, +and spending the remainder of his days on his patrimonial estate. +Santander combated this proposal, urging him to resume his station as +constitutional president, and declaring his own conviction that the +troubles and agitations of the country could only be appeased by the +authority and personal influence of the liberator himself. This view +being confirmed by a resolution of congress, although it was not a +unanimous one, Bolivar decided to resume his functions, and he repaired +to Bogota to take the oaths. Before his arrival, however, he issued +simultaneously three separate decrees--one granting a general amnesty, +another convoking a national convention at Ocana, and a third for +establishing constitutional order throughout Colombia. His arrival was +accelerated by the occurrence of events in Peru and the southern +departments which struck at the very foundation of his power. Not long +after his departure from Lima, the Bolivian code had been adopted as the +constitution of Peru, and Bolivar had been declared president for life +on the 9th of December 1826, the anniversary of the battle of Ayacucho. +At this time the Colombian auxiliary army was cantoned in Peru, and the +third division, stationed at Lima, consisting of veteran troops under +Lara and Sands, became distrustful of Bolivar's designs on the freedom +of the republic. Accordingly, in about six weeks after the adoption of +Bolivar's new constitution, a counter-revolution in the government of +Peru was effected by this body of dissatisfied veterans, and the +Peruvians, availing themselves of the opportunity, abjured the Bolivian +code, deposed the council appointed by the liberator, and proceeded to +organize a provisional government for themselves. After this bloodless +revolution the third division embarked at Callao on the 17th of March +1827, and landed in the southern department of Colombia in the following +month. Intelligence of these events reached Bolivar while in the north +of Colombia, and he lost no time in preparing to march against the +refractory troops, who formerly had placed such implicit confidence in +him. But he was spared the necessity of coming to blows, for the +leaders, finding the government in the hands of the national executive, +had peaceably submitted to General Ovando. In the meanwhile Bolivar had +accepted the presidency, and resumed the functions belonging to his +official position. But although Colombia was, to all external +appearance, restored to tranquillity, the nation was divided into two +parties. Bolivar had, no doubt, regained the personal confidence of the +officers and soldiers of the third division; but the republican party, +with Santander at their head, continued to regard with undisguised +apprehension his ascendancy over the army, suspecting him of a desire to +imitate the career of Napoleon. In the meanwhile all parties looked +anxiously to the convention of Ocana, which was to assemble in March +1828, for a decided expression of the national will. The republicans +hoped that the issue of its deliberations would be favourable to their +views; whilst the military, on the other hand, did not conceal their +conviction that a stronger and more permanent form of government was +essential to the public welfare. The latter view seems to have +prevailed. In virtue of a decree, dated Bogota, the 27th of August 1828, +Bolivar assumed the supreme power in Colombia, and continued to exercise +it until his death, which took place at San Pedro, near Santa Marta, on +the 17th of December 1830. + +Bolivar spent nine-tenths of a splendid patrimony in the service of his +country; and although he had for a considerable period unlimited control +over the revenues of three countries--Colombia, Peru and Bolivia--he +died without a shilling of public money in his possession. He achieved +the independence of three states, and called forth a new spirit in the +southern portion of the New World. He purified the administration of +justice; he encouraged the arts and sciences; he fostered national +interests, and he induced other countries to recognize that independence +which was in a great measure the fruit of his own exertions. His remains +were removed in 1842 to Caracas, where a monument was erected to his +memory; a statue was put up in Bogota in 1846; in 1858 the Peruvians +followed the example by erecting an equestrian statue of the liberator +in Lima; and in 1884 a statue was erected in Central Park, New York. + + Twenty-two volumes of official documents bearing on Bolivar's career + were officially published at Caracas in 1826-1833. There are lives by + Larrazabal (New York, 1866); Rojas (Madrid, 1883); and + Ducoudray-Holstein (Paris, 1831). Two volumes of his correspondence + were published in New York in 1866. + + + + +BOLIVAR, till 1908 a department of Colombia, bounded N. and W. by the +Caribbean Sea, E. by the departments of Magdalena and Santander, S. by +Antioquia and S.W. by Cauca. It has an area of 27,028 sq. m., composed +in great part of low, alluvial plains, densely wooded, but slightly +cultivated and unsuited for north European labour. The population, +estimated at 323,097 in 1899, is composed largely of mixed races; in +some localities the inhabitants of mixed race are estimated to +constitute four-fifths of the population. The capital, Cartagena on the +Caribbean coast, was once the principal commercial entrepot of Colombia. +Other important towns are Barranquilla and Mompox (8000), on the +Magdalena river, and Corozal (9000) and Lorica (10,596 in 1902), near +the western coast. + + + + +BOLIVAR, an inland state of Venezuela, lying S. of the Orinoco and +Apure, with the Yuruari territory on the E., the Caroni river forming +the boundary, and the Amazonas territory and Brazil on the S. Frequent +political changes in Venezuela have led to various modifications in the +size and outlines of this state, which comprises large areas of +uninhabited territory. It is a country of extensive plains (_llanos_) +covered in the rainy season with nutritious grass which disappears +completely in the dry season, and of great forests and numerous rivers. +Its population was given in 1894 as 135,232, but its area has been +largely reduced since then. The capital is Ciudad Bolivar, formerly +called Angostura, which is situated on the right bank of the Orinoco +about 240 m. above its mouth; pop. 11,686. Vessels of light draught +easily ascend the Orinoco to this point, and a considerable trade is +carried on, the exports being cocoa, sugar, cotton, hides, jerked beef +and various forest products. + + + + +BOLIVIA, an inland republic of South America, once a part of the Spanish +vice-royalty of Peru and known as the province of Charcas, or Upper +Peru. It is the third largest political division of the continent, and +extends, approximately, from 9 deg. 44' to 22 deg. 50' S. lat., and from +58 deg. to 70 deg. W. long. It is bounded N. and E. by Brazil, S. by +Paraguay and Argentina, and W. by Chile and Peru. Estimates of area vary +widely and have been considerably confused by repeated losses of +territory in boundary disputes with neighbouring states, and no figures +can be given which may not be changed to some extent by further +revisions. Official estimates are 640,226 and 703,633 sq. m., but Supan +(_Die Bevolkerung der Erde_, 1904) places it at 515,156 sq. m. + +_Boundaries._--The boundary line between Bolivia and Brazil has its +origin in the limits between the Spanish and Portuguese colonies +determined by the treaties of Madrid and San Ildefonso (1750 and 1777), +which were modified by the treaties of 1867 and 1903. Beginning at the +outlet of Bahia Negra into the Paraguay river, lat. 28 deg. 08' 35" S., +the line ascends the latter to a point on the west bank 9 kilometres +below Fort Coimbra, thence inland 4 kilometres to a point in lat. 19 +deg. 45' 36" S. and long. 58 deg. 04' 12.7" W., whence it follows an +irregular course N. and E. of N. to Lakes Mandiore, Gaiba or Gahiba, and +Uberaba, then up the San Matias river and N. along the Sierra Ricardo +Franco to the headwaters of the Rio Verde, a tributary of the Guapore. +This part of the boundary was turned inland from the Paraguay to +include, within Brazilian jurisdiction, Fort Coimbra, Corumba and other +settlements on the west bank, and was modified in 1903 by the recession +of about 1158 sq. m. to Bolivia to provide better commercial facilities +on the Paraguay. The line follows the Verde, Guapore, Mamore and Madeira +rivers down to the mouth of the Abuna, in about lat. 9 deg. 44' S., as +determined by the treaty of 1903. This is a part of the original +colonial frontier, which extended down the Madeira to a point midway +between the Beni and the Amazon, and then ran due W. to the Javary. The +treaty of 1867 changed this starting-point to the mouth of the Beni, in +lat. 10 deg. 20' S., and designated a straight line to the source of the +Javary as the frontier, which gave to Brazil a large area of territory; +but when the valuable rubber forests of the upper Purus became known the +Brazilians invaded them and demanded another modification of the +boundary line. This was finally settled in 1903 by the treaty of +Petropolis, which provided that the line should ascend the Abuna river +to lat. 10 deg. 20' S., thence along that parallel W. to the Rapirran +river which is followed to its principal source, thence due W. to the +Ituxy river which is followed W. to its source, thence to the source of +Bahia Creek which is followed to the Acre or Aquiry river, thence up the +latter to its source, whence if east of the 69th meridian it runs direct +to the 11th parallel which will form the boundary line to the Peruvian +frontier. This frontier gave about 60,000 sq. m. of territory to Brazil, +for which the latter gave an indemnity of L2,000,000 and about 1158 sq. +m. of territory on the Matto Grosso frontier. The boundary with Paraguay +is unsettled, but an unratified treaty of the 23rd of November 1894 +provides that the line shall start from a point on the Paraguay river 3 +m. north of Fort Olimpo and run south-west in a straight line to an +intersection with the Pilcomayo in long. 61 deg. 28' W., where it unites +with the Argentine boundary. The boundary with Chile was greatly +modified by the results of the war of 1879-83, as determined by the +treaties of 1884, 1886 and 1895, Bolivia losing her department of the +littoral on the Pacific and all access to the coast except by the grace +of the conqueror. Provisions were made in 1895 for the cession of the +port of Mejillones del Norte and a right of way across the province of +Tarapaca, but Peru protested, and negotiations followed for the cession +of Cobija, in the province of Antofagasta. These negotiations proved +fruitless, and in 1904 Bolivia accepted a pecuniary indemnity in lieu of +territory. The new boundary line starts from the summit of the Sapaleri +(or Zapalegui), where the Argentine, Bolivian and Chilean boundaries +converge, and runs west to Licancaur, thence north to the most southern +source of Lake Ascotan which it follows to and across this lake in the +direction of the Oyahua volcano, and thence in a straight line to the +Tua volcano, on the frontier of the province of Tarapaca. From this +point the line follows the summits of the Cordillera Silillica north to +the Cerro Paquiza, on the Tacna frontier, and to the Nevado Pomarape, +near the frontier of Peru. Thence it continues north to an intersection +with the Desaguadero, in about 16 deg. 45' S. lat., follows that river +to the Winamarca lagoon and Lake Titicaca, and crosses the latter +diagonally to Huaicho on the north shore. From this point the line +crosses the Cordillera Real through the valley of the San Juan del Oro +to Suches Lake, follows the Cololo and Apolobamba ranges to the +headwaters of the Sina river, and thence down that stream to the +Inambari. Thence the line either follows the latter to its confluence +with the Madre de Dios, or the water-parting between that river and the +Tambopata or Pando, to the valley of the Madre de Dios, from which point +it runs due north to 12 deg. 40' S. lat., and north-west to the new +Brazilian frontier. The N.W. angle on the map represents the Bolivian +claim until the settlement of 1909, which gave the territory to Peru. + +[Illustration: Map of Bolivia] + +_Physiography._--Roughly calculated, two-fifths of the total area of +Bolivia is comprised within the Andean cordilleras which cross its +south-west corner and project east toward the Brazilian highlands in the +form of a great obtuse angle. The Cordilleras, divided into two great +parallel chains, with flanking ranges and spurs to the east, reach their +greatest breadth at this point and form the _massif_ of the Andean +system. It is made up of a number of parallel ranges enclosing great +elevated plateaus broken by transverse ranges and deep ravines. +North-east of Lake Titicaca there is a confused mass or knot (the Nudo +de Apolobamba) of lofty intersecting ridges which include some of the +highest peaks in South America. Below this mountainous area the ranges +open out and enclose extensive plateaus. The western range, the +Cordillera Occidental, a part of the boundary between Bolivia and the +northern provinces of Chile, closely follows the coast outline and forms +the western rampart of the great Bolivian tableland or _alta-planicie_, +which extends from the Vilcanota knot in Peru, south to the Serrania de +Lipez on the Argentine frontier, is 500 m. long, and about 80 m. broad, +and contains about 40,000 sq. m. The northern part of this plateau is +commonly called the _puna_; the southern part, the "desert of Lipez," in +character and appearance is part of the great Puna de Atacama. This +plateau has an average elevation of about 12,650 ft. near Lake Titicaca, +but descends about 1000 ft. toward its southern extremity. It is a great +lacustrine basin where once existed an inland sea having an outlet to +the east through the La Paz gorge. The plateau is bleak and inhospitable +in the north, barren and arid toward the south, containing great saline +depressions covered with water in the rainy season, and broken by ridges +and peaks, the highest being the Cerro de Tahua, 17,454 ft. Overlooking +the plateau from the west are the snow-clad peaks of Pomarape (20,505 +ft.), Parinacota (20,918 ft.), Sajama (21,047), Huallatiri (21,654), +Lirima (19,128), and the three volcanic peaks, Oyahua (19,226), San +Pedro y Pablo (19,423) and Licancaur (19,685). The eastern rampart of +this great plateau is formed by the Cordillera Oriental, which extends +north-west into Peru under the name of Carabaya, and south to the +frontier in broken ranges, one of which trends south-east in the +vicinity of Sucre. The main part of this great range, known as the +Cordillera Real, and one of the most imposing mountain masses of the +world, extends from the Peruvian border south-east to the 18th parallel +and exhibits a series of snow-crowned peaks, notably the triple-crested +Illampu or Sorata (21,490 ft.), Illimani (Conway, 21,204), Cacaaca +(20,571) and Chachacomani (21,434). Of the ranges extending south from +the Cordillera Real and branching out between the 18th and 19th +parallels, the more prominent are the Frailes which forms the eastern +rampart of the great central plateau and which is celebrated for its +mineral deposits, the Chichas which runs south from the vicinity of +Potosi to the Argentine frontier, and the Livichuco which turns +south-east and forms the watershed between the Cachimayo and Pilcomayo. +The more prominent peaks in and between these ranges are the Asanaque +(16,857), Michaga (17,389), Cuzco (17,930), Potosi (15,381), Chorolque +(18,480) and Tuluma (15,584). At the southern extremity of the great +plateau is the transverse Serrania de Lipez, the culminating crest of +which stands 16,404 ft. above sea-level. The eastern rampart of the +Bolivian highlands comprises two distinct chains--the Sierra de +Cochabamba on the north-east and the Sierra de Misiones on the east. +Between these and the Cordillera Oriental is an apparently confused mass +of broken, intersecting ranges, which on closer examination are found to +conform more or less closely to the two outside ranges. These have been +deeply cut by rivers, especially on the north-east, where the rainfall +is heavier. The region enclosed by these ranges is extremely rugged in +character, but it is esteemed highly for its fertile valleys and its +fine climate, and is called the "Bolivian Switzerland." Lying wholly +within the tropics, these mountain masses form one of the most +interesting as well as one of the most imposing and difficult regions of +the world. At their feet and in their lower valleys the heat is intense +and the vegetation is tropical. Above these are cool, temperate slopes +and valleys, and high above these, bleak, wind-swept passes and +snow-clad peaks. West of the Cordillera Oriental, where special +conditions prevail, a great desert plateau stretches entirely across one +corner of the republic. Apart from the Andean system there is a group of +low, broken, gneiss ranges stretching along the east side of Bolivia +among the upper affluents of the Mamore and Guapore, which appear to +belong to the older Brazilian orographic system, from which they have +been separated by the erosive action of water. They are known as the +Sierras de Chiquitos, and are geologically interesting because of their +proximity to the eastern projection of the Andes. Their culminating +point is Cerro Cochii, 3894 ft. above sea-level, but for the most part +they are but little more than ranges of low wooded hills, having in +general a north-west and south-east direction between the 15th and 19th +parallels. + +The popular conception of Bolivia is that of an extremely rugged +mountainous country, although fully three-fifths of it, including the +Chiquitos region, is composed of low alluvial plains, great swamps and +flooded bottomlands, and gently undulating forest regions. In the +extreme south are the Bolivian Chaco and the llanos (open grassy plains) +of Manzo, while above these in eastern Chuquisaca and southern Santa +Cruz are extensive swamps and low-lying plains, subject to periodical +inundations and of little value for agricultural and pastoral purposes. +There are considerable areas in this part of Bolivia, however, which lie +above the floods and afford rich grazing lands. The great drawback to +this region is defective drainage; the streams have too sluggish a +current to carry off the water in the rainy season. Between the +Chiquitos sierras and the Andes are the Llanos de Chiquitos, which have +a higher general elevation and a more diversified surface. North of this +elevation, which formed the southern shore of the ancient Mojos Lake, +are the llanos of Guarayos and Mojos, occupying an extensive region +traversed by the Guapore, San Miguel, Guapay, Mamore, Yacuma, Beni and +Madre de Dios rivers and their numerous tributaries. It was once covered +by the great Mojos Lake, and still contains large undrained areas, like +that of Lake Rojoagua (or Roguaguado). It contains rich agricultural +districts and extensive open plains where cattle-raising has been +successfully followed since the days of the Jesuit missions in that +region. The lower slopes of the Andes, especially toward the north-west, +where the country is traversed by the Beni and Madre de Dios, are +covered with heavy forests. This is one of the richest districts of +Bolivia and is capable of sustaining a large population. + +The river-systems of Bolivia fall naturally into three distinct +regions--the Amazon, La Plata and Central Plateau. The first includes +the rivers flowing directly and indirectly into the Madeira, one of the +great tributaries of the Amazon, together with some small tributaries of +the Acre and Purus in the north, all of which form a drainage basin +covering more than one-half of the republic. The two principal rivers of +this system are the Mamore and Beni, which unite in lat. 10 deg. 20' S. +to form the Madeira. The Mamore, the upper part of which is called the +Chimore, rises on the north-east slopes of the Sierra de Cochabamba a +little south of the 17th parallel, and follows a northerly serpentine +course to its confluence with the Beni, the greater part of which course +is between the 65th and 66th meridians. The river has a length of about +600 m., fully three-fourths of which, from Chimore (925 ft. above sea +level) to the rapids near its mouth, passes across a level plain and is +navigable. The principal Bolivian tributary of the Mamore, the Guapay or +Grande, which is larger and longer than the former above their +confluence and should be considered the main stream, rises in the +Cordillera Oriental east of Lake Pampa Aullaguas, and flows east to the +north extremity of the Sierra de Misiones, where it emerges upon the +Bolivian lowlands. Turning to the north in a magnificent curve, it +passes around the south-east extremity of the Sierra de Cochabamba, +skirts the Llanos de Chiquitos, and, turning to the north-west, unites +with the Mamore at Junta de los Rios in about 15 deg. 20' S. lat. and 64 +deg. 40' W. long. It has a tortuous course of over 700 m., which is +described as not navigable. The principal tributaries of the Guapay are +the Mizque, Piray or Sara and Yapacani, the last rising on the east +slopes of the Cordillera Real, flowing east by Cochabamba to the +sierras of that name where it breaks through with a great bend to the +north. The other large Bolivian tributaries of the Mamore, all rising on +the north-east flanks of the Andes, are the Chapare, Secure, Manique or +Apere and Yacuma, the last draining a region of lakes and swamps north +of the Sierra Chamaya. The Beni and its great affluent, the Madre de +Dios, though of smaller volume and extent than the Mamore, are of much +greater economic importance, owing to their navigability, the fertility +of the region they drain, and the great forests along their banks. North +of the Beni, the Abuna flows into the Madeira. Several of its south +tributaries belong to Bolivia. The Guapore, or Itenez, an affluent of +the Mamore, is the third large river of this Bolivian drainage basin, +but it rises in Brazil, on the south slopes of the Sierra dos Parecis, +where it flows in a great bend to the south and then west of north to +the Bolivian frontier in 14 deg. S. lat. From this point to its junction +with the Mamore, a little north of the 12th parallel, it flows in a +northwesterly direction and forms the boundary line between the two +republics. Its Brazilian tributaries are comparatively unimportant, but +from Bolivia it receives the Baures and the San Miguel, both rising in +the Sierras de Chiquitos and flowing north-west across the llanos to the +Guapore. The Baures has one large tributary, the Blanco, and the Itonama +(San Miguel) has its origin in Lake Conception, lying among the west +ranges of the Chiquitos mountains 952 ft. above sea-level. + +The south-east drainage basin, which is smaller and economically less +important than that of the Madeira, discharges into the Paraguay and +extends from the Sierras de Chiquitos south to the Argentine frontier, +and from the Cordillera Oriental east to the Paraguay. It possesses only +one large river in Bolivia, the Pilcomayo, which rises on the east +slopes of the Cordillera Oriental opposite the south end of Lake Pampa +Aullaguas and flows east and south-east through the sierra region to the +Bolivian Chaco. It flows through a nearly level country with so sluggish +a current that its channels are greatly obstructed. Nothing definite is +known of its tributaries in the Chaco, but in the sierra region it +possesses a number of small tributaries, the largest of which are the +Cachimayo, Mataca and Pilaya or Camblaya, the latter formed by the +Cotagaita and San Juan. The Bermejo, which is an Argentine river, +receives one large tributary from the Bolivian uplands, the Tarija or +Rio Grande, which drains a small district south-east of the Santa +Victoria sierra. The Bolivian tributaries of the upper Paraguay are +small and unimportant. The Otuquis, the most southern of the group, is +formed by the San Rafael and Tucabaca, which drain both slopes of the +Cerro Cochii range; but is lost in some great marshes 50 m. from the +Paraguay. Another considerable stream of this region, which is lost in +the great marshy districts of the Bolivian plain, is the Parapiti, which +rises on the eastern slopes of the Sierra de Misiones and flows +north-east through a low plain for about 150 m. until lost. + +The third drainage basin is that of the great central plateau, or +_alta-planicie_. This is one of the most elevated lacustrine basins in +the world, and though it once drained eastward, now has no surface +outlet. Lake Titicaca receives the waters of several short streams from +the neighbouring heights and discharges through the Desaguadero, a +sluggish river flowing south for 184 m. with a gradually diminishing +depth to Lake Pampa Aullaguas or Poopo. The Desaguadero is navigable for +small craft, and has two or three small tributaries from the west. Two +small streams empty into Lake Pampa Aullaguas, which has a small outlet +in the Lacahahuira flowing west for 60 m. to the Cienegas de +(salt-swamps of) Coipasa. The drainage of this extensive district seems +to be wholly absorbed by the dry soil of the desert and by evaporation. +In the extreme south the Rio Grande de Lipez is absorbed in the same +way. + +Few of the Bolivian lakes are at all well known. The great lacustrine +basin between the Beni and the Mamore contains several lakes and +lagoons, two of them of large size. These are Lake Rogagua whose waters +find their way into the Beni through Rio Negro, and the Roguaguado +lagoon and marshes which cover a large area of territory near the +Mamore. The latter has an elevation little, if any, above the level of +the Mamore, which apparently drains this region, and its area has been +estimated at about 580 sq. m. Lake Conception, in the Chiquitos +mountains, belongs to this same hydrographic area. In the south-east +there are several large shallow lakes whose character and size change +with the season. They fill slight depressions and are caused by +defective drainage. Near the Paraguay there are several of these lakes, +partly caused by obstructed outlets, such as Bahia Negra, Caceres, +Mandiore, Gaiba and Uberaba, some of them of sufficient depth to be +navigable by small craft. Above the latter are the great Xarayes swamps, +sometimes described as a lake. This region, like that of the north, is +subject to periodical inundations in the summer months (November-March +or even May), when extensive areas of level country are flooded and +traffic is possible only by the use of boats. The two principal lakes of +the plateau region are Titicaca and Pampa Aullaguas or Poopo. The former +lies near the north end of the great Bolivian _alta-planicie_, 12,644 +ft. above sea-level, being one of the most elevated lakes of the world. +It is indented with numerous bays and coves; its greatest length is 138 +m., and its greatest breadth 69 m. According to a survey made by Dr M. +Neveau-Lemaire (_La Geographie_, ix. p. 409, Paris, 1904), its water +surface, excluding islands and peninsulas, is 1969 sq. m., and its +greatest depth is 892 ft. The level of the lake rises about 5 in. in +summer; the loss in winter is even greater. The lake belongs to both +Bolivia and Peru, and is navigated by steamers running between Bolivian +ports and the Peruvian railway port of Puno. The outlet of the lake is +through the Desaguadero river. It has several islands, the largest of +which bears the same name and contains highly interesting archaeological +monuments of a prehistoric civilization usually attributed to the Incas. +Lake Pampa Aullaguas or Poopo is about 180 m. south-east of Titicaca, +and is fed principally by its outflow. It lies 505 ft. below the level +of Titicaca, which gives an average fall for the Desaguadero of very +nearly 21 ft. per mile. The Pampa Aullaguas has an estimated area of 386 +sq. m., and has one large inhabited island. The lake is shallow and the +district about it is sparsely populated. Its outlet is through the +Lacahahuira river into the Coipasa swamp, and it is estimated that the +outflow is much less than the inflow, showing a considerable loss by +evaporation and earth absorption. + +Having no sea-coast, Bolivia has no seaport except what may be granted +in usufruct by Chile. + + _Geology._--The eastern ranges of ihe Bolivian Andes are formed of + Palaeozoic rocks with granitic and other intrusions; the Western + Cordillera consists chiefly of Jurassic and Cretaceous beds, together + with the lavas and ashes of the great volcanoes; while the intervening + plateau is covered by freshwater and terrestrial deposits through + which rise ridges of Palaeozoic rock and of a series of red sandstones + and gypsiferous marls of somewhat uncertain age (probably, in part at + least, Cretaceous). The Palaeozoic beds have yielded fossils of + Cambrian, Ordovician, Devonian and Carboniferous age. In southern + Bolivia Cambrian and Ordovician beds form the greater part of the + eastern Andes, but farther north the Devonian and Carboniferous are + extensively developed, especially in the north-eastern ranges. The + hills, known as the Chiquitos, which rise from the plains of eastern + Bolivia, are composed of ancient sedimentary rocks of unknown age. The + Palaeozoic beds are directly overlaid by a series of red sandstones + and gypsiferous marls, similar to the _formacion petrolifera_ of + Argentina and Brazil. At the base there is frequently a conglomerate + or tuff of porphyritic rocks. Marine fossils found by Gustav Steinmann + in the middle of the series are said to indicate an age not earlier + than the Jurassic, and Steinmann refers them to the Lower Cretaceous. + It is, however, not improbable that the series may represent more than + one geological system. No later marine deposits have been found either + in the eastern Andes or in the plains of Bolivia, but freshwater beds + of Tertiary and later date occupy a wide area. The recent deposits, + which cover so large a part of the depression between the Eastern and + the Western Cordillera, appear to be partly of torrential origin, like + the talus-fans at the foot of mountain ranges in other dry regions; + but Lakes Titicaca and Pampa Aullaguas (Poopo) were undoubtedly at one + time rather more extensive than they are to-day. The volcanoes of + Bolivia lie almost entirely in the Western Cordillera--the great + summits of the eastern range, such as Illimani and Sorata, being + formed of Palaeozoic rocks with granitic and other intrusions. The + gold, silver and tin of Bolivia occur chiefly in the Palaeozoic rocks + of the eastern ranges. The copper belongs mostly to the red sandstone + series. + +_Climate._--Bolivia lies wholly within the torrid zone, and variations +in temperature are therefore due to elevation, mountain barriers and +prevailing winds. The country possesses every gradation of temperature, +from that of the tropical lowlands to the Arctic cold of the snow-capped +peaks directly above. This vertical arrangement of climatic zones is +modified to some extent (less than in Argentina) by varying rainfall +conditions, which are governed by the high mountain ranges crossing one +corner of the republic, and also by the prevailing winds. The trade +winds give to S. Bolivia a wet and dry season similar to that of N. +Argentina. Farther north, and east of the Cordillera Oriental, rains +fall throughout the year, though the summer months (November-March) are +usually described as the rainy season. On the west side of the +Cordillera, which extracts the moisture from the prevailing easterly +winds, the elevated plateaus have a limited rainfall in the north, which +diminishes toward the south until the surface becomes absolutely barren. +Brief and furious rain-storms sometimes sweep the northern plateau, but +these are not frequent and occur during a short season only. Electrical +wind storms are frequent in these high altitudes. + + Bolivia has a wide range of temperature between places of the same + latitude. The natives designate the Bolivian climatic zones as + _yungas, valle_ or _medio yungas, cabezera de valle, puna_ and _puna + brava_. The _yungas_ comprises all the lowlands and the mountain + valleys up to an elevation of 5000 ft. The temperature is tropical, + winter is unknown and the atmosphere is exceedingly humid. The mean + temperature, according to official estimates, is 70 deg. F., but this + probably represents the average between the higher elevations and the + low country. The _valle_ zone includes the deep valleys from 5000 to + 9500 ft., has a warm climate with moderate variations in temperature + and no cold weather, is sub-tropical in character and productions, and + is sometimes described as a region of perpetual summer. The _cabezera + de valle_, as the name indicates, includes the heads of the deep + valleys above the _valle_ zone, with elevations ranging from 9500 to + 11,000 ft.; its climate is temperate, is divided into regular seasons, + and is favourable to the production of cereals and vegetables. The + _puna_, which lies between 11,000 and 12,500 ft., includes the great + central plateau of Bolivia. It has but two seasons, a cold summer or + autumn and winter. The air is cold and dry, and the warmer season is + too short for the production of anything but potatoes and barley. The + mean temperature is officially estimated as 54 deg. F. The _puna + brava_ extends from 12,500 ft. up to the snow limit (about 17,500 + ft.), and covers a bleak, inhospitable territory, inhabited only by + shepherds and miners. Above this is the region of eternal snow, an + Arctic zone within the tropics. In general, the sub-tropical (_valle_) + and temperate (_cabezera de valle_) regions of Bolivia are healthy and + agreeable, have a plentiful rainfall, moderate temperature in the + shade, and varied and abundant products. There is a high rate of + mortality among the natives, due to unsanitary habits and diet, and + not to the climate. In the tropical _yungas_ the ground is covered + with decaying vegetation, and malaria and fevers are common. There are + localities in the open country and on exposed elevations where healthy + conditions prevail, but the greater part of this region is considered + unhealthy. The prevailing winds are easterly, bringing moisture across + Brazil from the Atlantic, but eastern Bolivia is also exposed to hot, + oppressive winds from the north, and to violent cold winds (_surazos_) + from the Argentine plains, which have been known to cause a fall of + temperature of 36 deg. within a few hours. According to the _Sinopsis + Estadistica y Geografica de la Republica de Bolivia_ (La Paz, 1903), + the average mean temperature and the annual rainfall in eastern + Bolivia are as follows: 10 deg. S. lat., 90.8 deg. F. and 31.5 in. + rainfall; 15 deg. S. lat., 86 deg. F. and 30.7 in. rainfall; 20 deg. + S. lat., 81 deg. F. and 30 in. rainfall; and 25 deg. S. lat., 76.8 + deg. F. and 29.3 in. rainfall. + +_Fauna._--The indigenous fauna of Bolivia corresponds closely to that of +the neighbouring districts of Argentina, Brazil and Peru. Numerous +species of monkeys inhabit the forests of the tropical region, together +with the puma, jaguar, wildcat, coati, tapir or _anta_, sloth, ant-bear, +paca (_Coelogenys paca_) and capybara. A rare species of bear, the +_Ursus ornatus_ (spectacled bear) is found among the wooded Andean +foothills. The chinchilla (_C. laniger_), also found in northern +Argentina and Chile, inhabits the colder plateau regions and is prized +for its fur. The plateau species of the viscacha (_Lagidium cuvieri_) +and the widely distributed South American otter (_Lutra paranensis_) are +also hunted for their skins. The peccary, which prefers a partially open +country, ranges from the Chaco to the densely wooded districts of the +north. There are two or three species of deer, the most common being the +large marsh deer of the Chaco; but the deer are not numerous. The +armadillo, opossum, ferret and skunk are widely distributed. The +amphibia are well represented throughout the lower tropical districts. +Alligators are found in the tributaries of the Paraguay and their +lagoons, lizards and turtles are numerous, and the batrachians are +represented by several species. Snakes are also numerous, including +rattlesnakes and the great boa-constrictors of the Amazon region. + +The most interesting of all the Bolivian animals, however, are the +guanaco (_Auchenia huanaco_) and its congeners, the llama (_A. llama_), +alpaca (_A. pacos_) and vicuna (_A. vicugna_), belonging to the +Camelidae, with the structure and habits of the African camel, but +smaller, having no hump, and inhabiting a mountainous and not a level +sandy region. They are able to go without food and drink for long +periods, and inhabit the arid and semi-arid plateaus of the Andes and +the steppes of Patagonia. The guanaco is supposed to be the original +type, is the largest of the four, and has the greatest range from Peru +to Tierra del Fuego. The llama and alpaca were domesticated long before +the discovery of America, but the guanaco and vicuna are found in a wild +state only. The llama is used as a pack animal in Bolivia and Peru, and +its coarse wool is used in the making of garments for the natives. The +alpaca is highly prized for its fine wool, which is a staple export from +Bolivia, but the animal is reared with difficulty and the product cannot +be largely increased. The vicuna also is celebrated for its wool, which +the natives weave into beautiful and costly _ponchos_ (blanket cloaks) +and other wearing apparel. The guanaco is hunted for its skin, which, +when dressed, makes an attractive rug or robe. The slaughter of the +guanaco and vicuna is rapidly diminishing their number. The rearing of +llamas and alpacas is a recognized industry in the Bolivian highlands +and is wholly in the hands of the Indians, who alone seem to understand +the habits and peculiarities of these interesting animals. + +Of birds and insects the genera and species are very numerous and +interesting. The high sierras are frequented by condors and eagles of +the largest size, and the whole country by the common vulture, while the +American ostrich (_Rhea americanus_) and a species of large stork (the +_bata_ or _jaburu_, _Mycteria americana_; maximum height, 8 ft.; spread +of wings, 8 ft. 6 in.) inhabit the tropical plains and valleys. +Waterfowl are numerous and the forests of the warm valleys are filled +with song-birds and birds of beautiful plumage. Many species of +humming-birds are found even far up in the mountains, and great numbers +of parrots, araras and toucans, beautiful of feather but harsh of voice, +enliven the forests of the lowlands. + +Like other South American states, Bolivia benefited greatly from the +introduction of European animals. Horses, cattle, sheep, goats, swine +and poultry were introduced, and are now sources of food and wealth to a +large part of the population. Mules are used to a large extent as pack +animals, but they are imported from Argentina. Silkworms have been bred +with success in some departments, and the cochineal insect is found +wherever the conditions are favourable for the cactus. + +_Flora._--Owing to the diversities in altitude the flora of Bolivia +represents every climatic zone, from the scanty Arctic vegetation of the +lofty Cordilleras to the luxuriant tropical forests of the Amazon basin. +Between these extremes the diversity in vegetable life is as great as +that of climate and soil. The flora of Bolivia has been studied less +than the flora of the neighbouring republics, however, because of the +inaccessibility of these inland regions. Among the more important +productions, the potato, oca (_Oxalis tuberosa_), quinoa (_Chenopodium +quinoa_) and some coarse grasses characterize the puna region, while +barley, an exotic, is widely grown for fodder. Indian corn was +cultivated in the temperate and warm regions long before the advent of +Europeans, who introduced wheat, rye, oats, beans, pease and the fruits +and vegetables of the Old World, for each of which a favourable soil and +climate was easily found. In the sub-tropical and tropical zones the +indigenous plants are the sweet potato, cassava (_Manihot utilissima_ +and _M. aipi_), peanuts, pineapple, guava, chirimoya (_Anona +cherimolia_), pawpaw (_Carica papaya_), _ipecacuanha_ (_Cephaelis_), +sarsaparilla, vanilla, false jalap (_Mirabilis jalapa_), copaiba, tolu +(_Myroxylon toluiferum_), rubber-producing trees, dyewoods, cotton and +a great number of beautiful hardwoods, such as jacaranda, mahogany, +rosewood, quebracho, colo, cedar, walnut, &c. Among the fruits many of +the most common are exotics, as the orange, lemon, lime, fig, date, +grape, &c., while others, as the banana, caju or cashew (_Anacardium +occidentale_) and aguacate avocado or alligator pear, have a disputed +origin. Coca, one of the most important plants of the country, is +cultivated on the eastern slopes of the Andes at an altitude of 5000 to +6000 ft., where the temperature is uniform and frosts are unknown. Quina +or calisaya is a natural product of the eastern Andes, and is found at +an altitude of 3000 to 9000 ft. above sea-level. The calisaya trees of +Bolivia rank among the best, and their bark forms an important item in +her foreign trade. The destructive methods of collecting the bark are +steadily diminishing the natural sources of supply, and experiments in +cinchona cultivation were undertaken during the last quarter of the 19th +century, with fair prospects of success. The most important of the +indigenous forest products, however, is rubber, derived principally from +the _Hevea guayanensis_ (var. _brasiliensis_), growing along the river +courses in the _yungas_ regions of the north, though Manicoba rubber is +also obtained from _Manihot Glaziovii_ on the drier uplands. Among the +exotics, sugar-cane, rice and tobacco are cultivated in the warm +districts. + +_Population._--The population of Bolivia is composed of Indians, +Caucasians of European origin, and a mixture of the two races, generally +described as _mestizos_. There is also a very small percentage of +Africans, descendants of the negro slaves introduced in colonial times. +A roughly-taken census of 1900 gives the total population as 1,816,271, +including the Litoral department, now belonging to Chile (49,820), and +estimates the number of wild Indians of the forest regions at 91,000. Of +this total, 50.7% were classed as Indians, 12.8% as whites, 26.8% as +_mestizos_, 0.3% as negroes, and 9.4% as unknown. In 1904 an official +estimate made the population 2,181,415, also including the Litoral +(59,784), but of course all census returns and estimates in such a +country are subject to many allowances. The Indian population (920,860) +is largely composed of the so-called civilized tribes of the Andes, +which once formed part of the nationality ruled by the Incas, and of +those of the Mojos and Chiquitos regions, which were organized into +industrial communities by the Jesuits in the l7th century. The former, +which are chiefly Aymaras south of the latitude of Lake Titicaca, +attained a considerable degree of civilization before the discovery of +America and have been in closer contact with Europeans than the other +tribes of Bolivia. It is doubtful, however, whether their condition has +been improved under these influences. The Mojos and Chiquitos tribes, +also, have been less prosperous since the expulsion of the Jesuits, but +they have remained together in organized communities, and have followed +the industries and preserved the religion taught them as well as +circumstances permitted. Both these groups of Indians are peaceable and +industrious, and form an important labouring element. They are addicted +to the excessive use of _chica_ (a native beer made from Indian corn), +and have little or no ambition to improve their condition, but this may +be attributed in part to their profound ignorance and to the state of +peonage in which they are held. Inhabiting the southern part of the +Bolivian plain are the Chiriguanos, a detached tribe of the Guarani race +which drifted westward to the vicinity of the Andes long ago. They are +of a superior physical and mental type, and have made noteworthy +progress toward civilization. They are agriculturists and stock-raisers +and have the reputation of being peaceable and industrious. The +remaining native tribes under the supervision of the state have made +little progress, and their number is said to be decreasing +(notwithstanding the favourable climatic conditions under which most of +them live) because of unsanitary and intemperate habits, and for other +causes not well understood, one being the custom noticed by early +travellers among some of the tribes of the La Plata region of avoiding +the rearing of children. (See Southey's _History of Brazil_, iii. pp. +402, 673.) Of the wild Indians very little is known in regard to either +numbers or customs. + +The white population (231,088) is descended in great part from the early +Spanish adventurers who entered the country in search of mineral wealth. +To these have been added a small number of Spanish Americans from +neighbouring republics and some Portuguese Americans from Brazil. There +has been no direct immigration from Europe, though Europeans of various +nationalities have found their way into the country and settled there as +miners or traders. The percentage of whites therefore does not increase +as in Argentina and Brazil, and cannot until means are found to promote +European immigration. + +The _mestizos_ (486,018) are less numerous than the Indians, but +outnumber the whites by more than two to one. It has been said of the +_mestizos_ elsewhere that they inherit the vices of both races and the +virtues of neither. Yet, with a decreasing Indian population, and with a +white population wanting in energy, barely able to hold its own and +comprising only one-eighth of the total, the future of Bolivia mainly +depends on them. As a rule they are ignorant, unprogressive and +apathetic, intensely superstitious, cruel and intemperate, though +individual strong characters have been produced. It may be that +education and experience will develop the _mestizos_ into a vigorous +progressive nationality, but the first century of self-government can +hardly be said to have given much promise of such a result. + +_Divisions and Towns._--The republic is divided into eight departments +and one territory, and these are subdivided into 54 provinces, 415 +cantons, 232 vice-cantons, 18 missions and one colony. The names, areas +and populations of the departments, with their capitals, according to +the census of 1900, to which corrections must be made on account of the +loss of territory to Brazil in 1903, are as follows:-- + + +----------------+-------------+----------+--------------+----------+ + | | Area sq. m. |Population| |Population| + | Department. |from Official| 1900.[*] | Capitals. | 1900. | + | | Sources. | | | | + +----------------+-------------+----------+--------------+----------+ + | La Paz | 53,777 | 445,616 | La Paz | 54,713 | + | El Beni | 102,111 | 32,180 | Trinidad | 2,556 | + | Oruro | 19,127 | 86,081 | Oruro | 13,575 | + | Cochabamba | 23,328 | 328,163 | Cochabamba | 21,886 | + | Santa Cruz | 141,368 | 209,592 | Santa Cruz de| 15,874 | + | | | | la Sierra | | + | Potosi | 48,801 | 325,615 | Potosi | 20,910 | + | Chuquisaca | 26,418 | 204,434 | Sucre | 20,967 | + | Tarija | 33,036 | 102,887 | Tarija | 6,980 | + | Nat. Territory | 192,260 | 31,883 | | | + +----------------+-------------+----------+--------------+----------+ + | | 640,226 |1,766,451 | | | + +----------------+-------------+----------+--------------+----------+ + + [*] The figures for population include a 5% addition for omissions, + sundry corrections and the estimated number of wild Indians. + +The total area according to Gotha computations, with corrections for +loss of territory to Brazil in 1903, is 515,156 sq. m. + +There are no populous towns other than the provincial capitals above +enumerated. Four of these capitals--Sucre or Chuquisaca, La Paz, +Cochabamba and Oruro--have served as the national capital, and Sucre was +chosen, but after the revolution of 1898 the capital was at La Paz, +which is the commercial metropolis and is more accessible than Sucre. +Among the smaller towns prominent because of an industry or commercial +position, may be mentioned the Huanchaca mining centre of Pulacayo (pop. +6512), where 3200 men are employed in the mines and surface works of +this great silver mining company; Uyuni (pop. 1587), the junction of the +Pulacayo branch with the Antofagasta and Oruro railway, and also the +converging point for several important highways and projected railways; +and Tupiza (pop. 1644), a commercial and mining centre near the +Argentine frontier, and the terminus of the Argentine railway extension +into Bolivia. All these towns are in the department of Potosi. Viacha +(pop. 1670), a small station on the railway from Guaqui to Alto de La +Paz, 14 m. from the latter, is the starting point of an important +projected railway to Oruro. In the department of Cochabamba, Tarata +(4681) and Totora (3501) are two important trading centres, and in the +department of Santa Cruz, Ascension (pop. 4784) is a large mission +station in the Chiquitos hills. + +_Communications._--Under a treaty with Brazil in 1903 and with Chile in +1904 (ratified 1905) provisions were made for railway construction in +Bolivia to bring this isolated region into more effective communication +with the outside world. Brazil agreed to construct a railway around the +falls of the Madeira (about 180 m. long) to give north-eastern Bolivia +access to the Amazon, and paid down L2,000,000 in cash which Bolivia was +to expend on railway construction within her own territory. Chile also +agreed to construct a railway from Arica to La Paz, 295 m. (the Bolivian +section becoming the property of Bolivia fifteen years after +completion), and to pay the interest (not over 5%) which Bolivia might +guarantee on the capital invested in certain interior railways if +constructed within thirty years, providing these interest payments +should not exceed L100,000 a year, nor exceed L1,600,000 in the +aggregate. Argentina had already undertaken to extend her northern +railway from Jujuy to the Bolivian frontier town of Tupiza, and the +Peruvian Corporation had constructed for the Bolivian government a short +line (54 m. long) from Guaqui, on Lake Titicaca, to Alto de La Paz, +which is connected with the city of La Paz, 1493 ft. below, by an +electric line 5 m. long. This line gives La Paz access to the Peruvian +port of Mollendo, 496 m. distant, and promises in time to give it +railway communication with Cuzco. Rivalry for the control of her trade, +therefore, promises to give Bolivia the railways needed for the +development of her resources. Up to 1903 the only railways in Bolivia +were the Antofagasta and Oruro line, with a total length of 574 m., of +which 350 m. are within Bolivian territory, a private branch of that +line (26 m. long) running to the Pulacayo mines, and the line (54 m. +long) from Guaqui to Alto de La Paz--a total of only 430 m. As a result +of her war with Chile in 1878-81, the railways (282 m. long) of her +Litoral department passed under Chilean control. Lines were in 1907 +projected from La Paz to the navigable waters of the Beni, from La Paz +to Cochabamba, from Viacha to Oruro, from Uyuni to Potosi and Sucre, +from Uyuni to Tupiza, and from Arica to La Paz via Corocoro. The central +northern line of the Argentine government was completed to the Bolivian +frontier in 1908, and this line was designed to extend to Tupiza. The +undertaking of the Arica-La Paz line by the Chilean government, also, +was an important step towards the improvement of the economic situation +in Bolivia. Both these lines offer the country new outlets for its +products. + +Public highways have been constructed between the large cities and to +some points on the frontiers, and subsidized stage coaches are run on +some of them. The roads are rough and at times almost impassable, +however, and the river crossings difficult and dangerous. The large +cities are connected with one another by telegraph lines and are in +communication with the outside world through Argentina, Chile and Peru. +Telegraph service dates from 1880, and in 1904 there were 3115 m. in +operation, of which 1936 belonged to the state and 1179 to private +corporations. The latter includes the lines belonging to the Antofagasta +and Oruro railway, which are partly within Chilean territory. Bolivia is +a member of the International Postal Union, and has parcel and money +order conventions with some foreign countries. Special agreements have +been made, also, with Argentina, Chile and Peru for the transmission of +the Bolivian foreign mails. + +The loss of her maritime department has left Bolivia with no other ports +than those of Lake Titicaca (especially Guaqui, or Huaqui, which trades +with the Peruvian port of Puno), and those of the Madeira and Paraguay +rivers and their affluents. As none of these can be reached without +transhipment in foreign territory, the cost of transport is increased, +and her neighbours are enabled to exclude Bolivia from direct commercial +intercourse with other nations. An exception formerly existed at Puerto +Acre, on the Acre river, to which ocean-going steamers could ascend from +Para, but Brazil first closed the Purus and Acre rivers to foreign +vessels seeking this port, and then under a treaty of 1903 acquired +possession of the port and adjacent territory. Since then Bolivia's +outlet to the Amazon is restricted to the Madeira river, the navigation +of which is interrupted by a series of falls before Bolivian territory +is reached. The Bolivian port of entry for this trade, Villa Bella, is +situated above the falls of the Madeira at the confluence of the Beni +and Mamore, and is reached from the lower river by a long and costly +portage. It is also shut off from the navigable rivers above by the +falls of the Beni and Mamore. The railway to be built by Brazil will +remedy this unfavourable situation, will afford a better outlet for +north-eastern Bolivia, and should promote a more rapid development of +that region, which is covered with an admirable system of navigable +rivers above the falls of the Beni and Mamore. Connected with the upper +Paraguay are Puerto Pacheco on Bahia Negra, Puerto Suarez (about 1600 m. +from Buenos Aires by river), on Lake Caceres, through which passes the +bulk of Bolivian trade in that direction, and Puerto Quijarro, on Lake +Gaiba, a projected port said to be more accessible than any other in +this region. Whenever the trade of southern Bolivia becomes important +enough to warrant the expense of opening a navigable channel in the +Pilcomayo, direct river communication with Buenos Aires and Montevideo +will be possible. + +_Industries._--Stock-raising was one of the earliest industries of the +country after that of mining. Horses, formerly successfully raised in +certain parts of the north, have not flourished there since the +introduction of a _peste_ from Brazil, but some are now raised in La Paz +and other departments of the temperate region. The Jesuit founders of +the Mojos missions took cattle with them when they entered that region +to labour among the Indians, with the result that the Mojos and +Chiquitos llanos were soon well stocked, and have since afforded an +unfailing supply of beef for the neighbouring inland markets. Their +inaccessibility and the costs of transportation have prevented a +development of the industry and a consequent improvement in stock, but +the persistency of the industry under conditions so unfavourable is +evidence that the soil and climate are suited to its requirements. +Farther south the llanos of Chuquisaca and Tarija also sustain large +herds of cattle on the more elevated districts, and on the well-watered +plains of the Chaco. There are small districts in La Paz, Potosi and +Cochabamba, also, where cattle are raised. Apart from the cattle driven +into the mining districts for consumption, a number of _saladeros_ are +employed in preparing (usually salting and sun-drying) beef for the home +markets. The hides are exported. Goats are raised in the warm and +temperate regions, and sheep for their wool in the latter. On the higher +and colder plateaus much attention is given to the breeding of llamas +and alpacas. Another industry of a different character is that of +breeding the fur-bearing chinchilla (_C. laniger_), which is a native of +the higher plateaus. The Bolivian government has prohibited the +exportation of the live animals and is encouraging their production. + +The agricultural resources of the republic are varied and of great +value, but their development has been slow and hesitating. The +cultivation of cereals, fruits and vegetables in the temperate and warm +valleys of the Andes followed closely the mining settlements. Sugar-cane +also was introduced at an early date, but as the demand for sugar was +limited the product was devoted chiefly to the manufacture of rum, which +is the principal object of cane cultivation in Bolivia to-day. The +climatic conditions are highly favourable for this product in eastern +Bolivia, but it is heavily taxed and is restricted to a small home +market. Rice is another exotic grown in the tropical districts of +eastern Bolivia, but the quantity produced is far from sufficient to +meet local requirements. Tobacco of a fair quality is produced in the +warm regions of the east, including the _yungas_ valleys of La Paz and +Cochabamba; cacao of a superior grade is grown in the department of +Beni, where large orchards were planted at the missions, and also in the +warm Andean valleys of La Paz and Cochabamba; and coffee of the best +flavour is grown in some of the warmer districts of the eastern Andes. +The two indigenous products which receive most attention, perhaps, are +those of quinoa and coca. Quinoa is grown in large quantities, and is a +staple article of food among the natives. Coca is highly esteemed by +the natives, who masticate the leaf, and is also an article of export +for medicinal purposes. It is extensively cultivated in the departments +of Cochabamba and La Paz, especially in the province of Yungas. + +In the exploitation of her forest products, however, are to be found the +industries that yield the greatest immediate profit to Bolivia. The most +prominent and profitable of these is that of rubber-collecting, which +was begun in Bolivia between 1880 and 1890, and which reached a +registered annual output of nearly 3500 metric tons just before +Bolivia's best rubber forests were transferred to Brazil in 1903. There +still remain extensive areas of forest on the Beni and Madre de Dios in +which the rubber-producing _Hevea_ is to be found. Although representing +less value in the aggregate, the collecting of cinchona bark is one of +the oldest forest industries of Bolivia, which is said still to have +large areas of virgin forest to draw upon. The Bolivian product is of +the best because of the high percentage of quinine sulphate which it +yields. The industry is destructive in method, and the area of cinchona +forests is steadily diminishing. Many other Bolivian plants are +commercially valuable, and organized industry and trade in them will +certainly be profitable. + +The industrial activities of the Bolivian people are still of a very +primitive character. An act was passed in 1894 authorizing the +government to offer premiums and grant advantageous concessions for the +development of manufacturing industries, especially in sugar production, +but conditions have not been favourable and the results have been +disappointing. Spinning and weaving are carried on among the people as a +household occupation, and fabrics are made of an exceptionally +substantial character. It is not uncommon to see the natives busily +twirling their rude spindles as they follow their troops of pack animals +over rough mountain roads, and the yarn produced is woven into cloth in +their own houses on rough Spanish looms of colonial patterns. Not only +is coarse cloth for their own garments made in this manner from the +fleece of the llama, but cotton and woollen goods of a serviceable +character are manufactured, and still finer fabrics are woven from the +wool of the alpaca and vicuna, sometimes mixed with silk or lamb's wool. +The Indian women are expert weavers, and their handiwork often commands +high prices. In the Mojos and Chiquitos districts the natives were +taught by the Jesuit missionaries to weave an excellent cotton cloth, +and the industry still exists. Cashmere, baize, waterproof _ponchos_ of +fine wool and silk, and many other fabrics are made by the Indians of +the Andean departments. They are skilled in the use of dyes, and the +Indian women pride themselves on a large number of finely-woven, +brilliantly-coloured petticoats. Tanning and saddlery are carried on by +the natives with primitive methods, but with excellent results. They are +skilful in the preparation of lap robes and rugs from the skins of the +alpaca and vicuna. The home markets are supplied, by native industry, +with cigars and cigarettes, soap, candles, hats, gloves, starch, cheese +and pottery. Sugar is still made in the old way, and there is a small +production of wine and silk in certain districts. No country is better +supplied with water power, and electric lighting and electric power +plants have been established at La Paz. + +_Commerce._--The foreign trade of Bolivia is comparatively unimportant, +but the statistical returns are incomplete and unsatisfactory; the +imports of 1904 aggregated only L1,734,551 in value, and the exports +only L1,851,758. The imports consisted of cottons, woollens, live-stock, +provisions, hardware and machinery, wines, spirits and clothing. The +principal exports were (in 1903) silver and its ores (L636,743), tin and +its ores (L1,039,298), copper ores (L157,609), bismuth (L16,354), other +minerals (L20,948), rubber (L260,559), coca (L28,907), and cinchona +(L9197)--total exports, L2,453,638. These figures, however, do not +correctly represent the aggregates of Bolivian trade, as her imports and +exports passing through Antofagasta, Arica and Mollendo are to a large +extent credited to Chile and Peru. The import trade of Bolivia is +restricted by the poverty of the people. The geographical position +limits the exports to mineral, forest and some pastoral products, owing +to cost of transportation and the tariffs of neighbouring countries. + +_Government._--The government of Bolivia is a "unitarian" or centralized +republic, representative in form, but autocratic in some important +particulars. The constitution in force (1908) was adopted on the 28th of +October 1880, and is a model in form and profession. The executive +branch of the government is presided over by a president and two +vice-presidents, who are elected by direct popular vote for a period of +four years, and are not eligible for re-election for the next succeeding +term. The president is assisted by a cabinet of five ministers of state, +viz.: foreign relations and worship; finance and industry; interior and +fomento; justice and public instruction; war and colonization. Every +executive act must be countersigned by a minister of state, who is held +responsible for its character and enforcement, and may be prosecuted +before the supreme court for its illegality and effects. The legislative +branch is represented by a national congress of two houses--a Senate and +Chamber of Deputies. The Senate is composed of 16 members, two from each +department, who are elected by direct popular vote for a period of six +years, one-third retiring every two years. The Chamber of Deputies is +composed of 72 members, who are elected for a period of four years, +one-half retiring every two years. In impeachment trials the Chamber +prosecutes and the Senate sits as a court, as in the United States. One +of the duties of the Chamber is to elect the justices of the supreme +court. Congress meets annually and its sessions are for sixty days, +which may be extended to ninety days. The chambers have separate and +concurrent powers defined by the constitution. The right of suffrage is +exercised by all male citizens, twenty-one years of age, or over, if +single, and eighteen years, or over, if married, who can read and write, +and own real estate or have an income of 200 bolivianos a year, said +income not to be compensation for services as a servant. The electoral +body is therefore small, and is under the control of a political +oligarchy which practically rules the country, no matter which party is +in power. + +The Bolivian judiciary consists of a national supreme court, eight +superior district courts, lower district courts, and _juzgados de +instruccion_ for the investigation and preparation of cases. The +_corregidores_ and _alcaldes_ also exercise the functions of a justice +of the peace in the cantons and rural districts. The supreme court is +composed of seven justices elected by the Chamber of Deputies from lists +of three names for each seat sent in by the Senate. A justice can be +removed only by impeachment proceedings before the Senate. + +The supreme administration in each department is vested in a prefect +appointed by and responsible solely to the president. As the prefect has +the appointment of subordinate department officials, including the +_alcaldes_, the authority of the national executive reaches every hamlet +in the republic, and may easily become autocratic. There are no +legislative assemblies in the departments, and their government rests +with the national executive and congress. Subordinate to the prefects +are the sub-prefects in the provinces, the _corregidores_ in the cantons +and the _alcaldes_ in the rural districts--all appointed officials. The +national territory adjacent to Brazil and Peru is governed by two +_delegados nacionales_, appointees of the president. The department +capitals are provided with municipal councils which have jurisdiction +over certain local affairs, and over the construction and maintenance of +some of the highways. + +_Army._--The military forces of the republic in 1905 included 2890 +regulars and an enrolled force of 80,000 men, divided into a first +reserve of 30,000, a second reserve of 40,000, and 10,000 territorial +guards. The enrolled force is, however, both unorganized and unarmed. +The strength of the army is fixed in each year's budget. That for 1903 +consisted of 2933 officers and men, of which 275 were commissioned and +558 non-commissioned officers, 181 musicians, and only 1906 rank and +file. A conscription law of 1894 provides for a compulsory military +service between the ages of twenty-one and fifty years, with two years' +actual service in the regulars for those between twenty-one and +twenty-five, but the law is practically a dead letter. There is a +military school with 60 cadets, and an arsenal at La Paz. + +_Education._--Although Bolivia has a free and compulsory school system, +education and the provision for education have made little progress. +Only a small percentage of the people can read and write. Although +Spanish is the language of the dominant minority, Quichua, Aymara and +Guarani are the languages of the natives, who form a majority of the +population. A considerable percentage of the Indians do not understand +Spanish at all, and they even resist every effort to force it upon them. +Even the _cholos_ (mestizos) are more familiar with the native idioms +than with Spanish, as is the case in some parts of Argentina and +Paraguay. According to official estimates for 1901, the total number of +primary schools in the republic was 733, with 938 teachers and 41,587 +pupils--the total cost of their maintenance being estimated at 585,365 +bolivianos, or only 14.07 bolivianos per pupil (about L1:4:6). The +school enrolment was only one in 43.7 of population, compared with one +in 10 for Argentina. The schools are largely under the control of the +municipalities, though nearly half of them are maintained by the +national government, by the Church and by private means. There were in +the same year 13 institutions of secondary and 14 of superior +instruction. The latter include so-called universities at Sucre +(Chuquisaca), La Paz, Cochabamba, Tarija, Potosi, Santa Cruz and +Oruro--all of which give instruction in law, the first three in medicine +and the first four in theology. The university at Sucre, which dates +from colonial times, and that at La Paz, are the only ones on the list +sufficiently well equipped to merit the title. Secondary instruction is +under the control of the universities, and public instruction in general +is under the direction of a cabinet minister. All educational matters, +however, are practically under the supervision of the Church. The total +appropriation for educational purposes in 1901 was 756,943 bolivianos, +or L66,232:6s. There are a military academy at La Paz, an agricultural +school at Umala in the department of La Paz, a mining and civil +engineering school at Oruro, commercial schools at Sucre and Trinidad, +and several mission schools under the direction of religious orders. + +_Religion._--The constitution of Bolivia, art. 2, defines the attitude +of the republic toward the Church in the following words:--"The state +recognizes and supports the Roman Apostolic Catholic religion, the +public exercise of any other worship being prohibited, except in the +colonies where it is tolerated." This toleration is tacitly extended to +resident foreigners belonging to other religious sects. The census of +1900 enumerated the Roman Catholic population at 1,609,365, and that of +other creeds at 24,245, which gives the former 985 and the latter 15 in +every thousand. The domesticated Indians profess the Roman Catholic +faith, but it is tinged with the superstitions of their ancestors. They +hold the clergy in great fear and reverence, however, and are deeply +influenced by the forms and ceremonies of the church, which have changed +little since the first Spanish settlements. Bolivia is divided into an +archbishopric and three bishoprics. The first includes the departments +of Chuquisaca, Oruro, Potosi, Tarija and the Chilean province of +Antofagasta, with its seat at Sucre, and is known as the archbishopric +of La Plata. The sees of the three bishoprics are La Paz, Cochabamba and +Santa Cruz. Mission work among the Indians is entrusted to the +_Propaganda Fide_, which has five colleges and a large number of +missions, and receives a small subvention from the state. It is +estimated that these missions have charge of fully 20,000 Indians. The +annual appropriation for the Church is about L17,150. The religious +orders, which have never been suppressed in Bolivia, maintain several +convents. + +_Finance._--No itemized returns of receipts and expenditures are ever +published, and the estimates presented to congress by the cabinet +ministers furnish the only source from which information can be drawn. +The expenditures are not large, and taxation is not considered heavy. +The estimated revenues and expenditures for 1904 and 1905 at 21 pence +per boliviano, were as follows: 1904, revenue L632,773:15s., expenditure +L748,571:10s.; 1905, revenue L693,763:17:6, expenditure L828,937:19:9. +The revenues are derived principally from duties and fees on imports, +excise taxes on spirits, wines, tobacco and sugar, general, mining +taxes and export duties on minerals (except silver), export duties on +rubber and coca, taxes on the profits of stock companies, fees for +licences and patents, stamp taxes, and postal and telegraph revenues. +Nominally, the import duties are moderate, so much so that Bolivia is +sometimes called a "free-trade country," but this is a misnomer, for in +addition to the schedule rates of 10 to 40% _ad valorem_ on imports, +there are a consular fee of 1-1/2% for the registration of invoices +exceeding 200 bolivianos, a consumption tax of 10 centavos per quintal +(46 kilogrammes), fees for viseing certificates to accompany merchandise +in transit, special "octroi" taxes on certain kinds of merchandise +controlled by monopolies (spirits, tobacco, &c.), and the import and +consumption taxes levied by the departments and municipalities. The +expenditures are chiefly for official salaries, subsidies, public works, +church and mission support, justice, public instruction, military +expenses, and interest on the public debt. The appropriations for 1905 +were as follows: war, 2,081,119 bolivianos; finance and industry, +1,462,259; government and fomento, 2,021,428; justice and public +instruction, 1,878,941. + +The acknowledged public debt of the country is comparatively small. At +the close of the war with Chile there was an indemnity debt due to +citizens of that republic of 6,550,830 bolivianos, which had been nearly +liquidated in 1904 when Chile took over the unpaid balance. This was +Bolivia's only foreign debt. In 1905 her internal debt, including +1,998,500 bolivianos of treasury bills, amounted to 6,243,270 bolivianos +(L546,286). The government in 1903 authorized the issue of treasury +notes for the department of Beni and the National Territory to the +amount of one million bolivianos (L87,500), for the redemption of which +10% of the customs receipts of the two districts is set apart. The paper +currency of the republic consists of bank-notes issued by four private +banks, and is therefore no part of the public debt. The amount in +circulation on the 30th of June 1903 was officially estimated at +9,144,254 bolivianos (L800,122), issued on a par with silver. The +coinage of the country is of silver, nickel and copper. The silver coins +are of the denominations of 1 boliviano, or 100 centavos, 50, 20, 10 and +5 centavos, and the issue of these coins from the Potosi mint is said to +be about 1,500,000 bolivianos a year. The silver mining companies are +required by law to send to the mint 20% of their product. The silver +boliviano, however, is rarely seen in circulation because of the cheaper +paper currency. To check the exportation of silver coin, the fractional +denominations have been slightly debased. The nickel coins are of 5 and +10 centavos, and the copper 1 and 2 centavos. + +The departmental revenues, which are derived from excise and land taxes, +mining grants, tithes, inheritance taxes, tolls, stamp taxes, subsidies +from the national treasury and other small taxes, were estimated at +2,296,172 bolivianos in 1903, and the expenditures at 2,295,791 +bolivianos. The expenditures were chiefly for justice, police, public +works, public instruction and the Church. The municipal revenues +aggregated 2,317,670 bolivianos in 1902, and the expenditures 61,510 +bolivianos in excess of that sum. These revenues are derived from a +lighting tax, leases and ground rents, cemetery fees, consumption and +market taxes, licences, tolls, taxes on hides and skins, personal and +various minor taxes. There is a multiplication of taxes in trade which +recalls the old colonial _alcabala_ tax, and it serves to restrict +commerce and augment the cost of goods in much the same way, if not to +the same degree. + + AUTHORITIES.--M.V. Ballivian, _Apuntes sobre la industria de goma + elastica, &c._ (La Paz, 1896); _Noticia Politica, Geografica, + Industrial, y Estadistica de Bolivia_ (La Paz, 1900); _Breves + Indicaciones para el Inmigrante y el Viajero a Bolivia_ (La Paz, + 1898); _Monografias de la Industria Minera en Bolivia_, three parts + (La Paz, 1899-1900); _Relaciones Geograficas de Bolivia existentes en + el Archivo de la Oficina Nacional de Inmigracion, &c._ (La Paz, 1898); + M.V. Ballivian and Eduardo Idiaquez, _Diccionario Geografico de la + Republica de Bolivia_ (La Paz, 1900); Andre Bresson, _Sept annees + d'explorations, de voyages et de sejours dans l'Amerique australe_ + (Paris, 1886); Enrique Bolland, _Exploraciones practicadas en el Alto + Paraguay y en la Laguna Gaiba_ (Buenos Aires, 1901); G.E. Church _The + Route to Bolivia via the River Amazon_ (London, 1877); G.E. Church, + "Bolivia by the Rio de la Plata Route," _Geogr. Jour._ xix. pp. 64-73 + (London, 1902); C.B. Cisneros and R.E. Garcia, _Geografia Comercial de + la America del Sur_ (Lima, 1898); Sir W.M. Conway, _Climbing and + Exploration in the Bolivian Andes_ (London, 1903); M. Dalence, + _Bosquejo estadistico de Bolivia_ (Chuquisaca, 1878); J.L. Moreno, + _Nociones de geografia de Bolivia_ (Sucre, 1889); Edward D. Mathews, + _Up the Amazon and Madeira Rivers, through Bolivia and Peru_ (London, + 1879); Carlos Matzenauer, _Bolivia in historischer, geographischer und + cultureller Hinsicht_ (Vienna, 1897); M.F. Soldan, _Narracion de + Guerra de Chile contra Peru y Bolivia_ (La Paz, 1884); C.M. Pepper, + _Panama to Patagonia_ (Chicago, 1906); A. Petrocokino, _Along the + Andes, in Bolivia, Peru, and Ecuador_ (London, 1903); Comte C. + d'Ursel, _Sud Amerique: Sejours et voyages au Bresil, en Bolivie, &c._ + (Paris, 1879); Charles Wiener, _Perou et Bolivie_ (Paris, 1880); + _Bolivia, Geographical Sketch, Natural Resources, &c._, Intern. Bur. + of the American Republics (Washington, 1904); _Boletin de la Oficina + Nacional de Inmigracion, Estadistica y Propaganda Geografica_ (La + Paz); _Sinopsis estadistica y geografica de la Republica de Bolivia_ + (3 vols., La Paz, 1902-1904); G. de Crequi-Montfort, "Exploration en + Bolivie," in _La Geographie_, ix. pp. 79-86 (Paris, 1904); M. + Neveau-Lemaire, "Le Titicaca et le Poopo," &c., in _La Geographie_, + ix. pp. 409-430 (Paris, 1904); _British Foreign Office Diplomatic and + Consular Reports_ (London); _United States Consular Reports_; + Stanford's _Compendium of Geography and Travel_, vol. i., _South and + Central America_ (London, 1904). For Geology see A. d'Orbigny, _Voyage + dans l'Amerique meridionale_, vol. iii. pt. iii. (Paris, 1842); D. + Forbes, "On the Geology of Bolivia and Peru," _Quart. Journ. Geol. + Soc._ vol. xvii. (London, 1861), pp. 7-62, pls. i.-iii.; A. Ulrich, + "Palaeozoische Versteinerungen aus Bolivien," _Neues Jahrb. f. Min._ + Band viii. (1893), pp. 5-116, pls. i.-v.; G. Steinmann, &c., "Geologie + des sudostlichen Boliviens," _Centralb. f. Min., Jahrg._ (1904), pp. + 1-4. (A. J. L.) + + +HISTORY + +The country now forming the republic of Bolivia, named after the great +liberator Simon Bolivar (q.v.), was in early days simply a portion of +the empire of the Incas of Peru (q.v.). After the conquest of Peru by +the Spaniards in the 16th century the natives were subjected to much +tyranny and oppression, though it must in fairness be said that much of +it was carried out in defiance of the efforts and the wishes of the +Spanish home government, whose legislative efforts to protect the +Indians from serfdom and ill-usage met with scant respect at the hands +of the distant settlers and mine-owners, who bid defiance to the humane +and protective regulations of the council of the Indies, and treated the +unhappy natives little better than beasts of burden. The statement, +moreover, that some eight millions of Indians perished through forced +labour in the mines is a gross exaggeration. The annual diminution in +the number of the Indian population was undoubtedly very great, but it +was due far more to the result of European epidemics and to indulgence +in alcohol than to hard work. The abortive insurrection of 1780-82, led +by the Inca Tupac Amaru, was never a general rising, and was directed +rather against Creole tyranny than against Spanish rule. The heavy +losses sustained by the Indians during that outbreak, and their dislike +and distrust of the colonial Spaniard, account for the comparative +indifference with which they viewed the rise and progress of the 1814 +colonial revolt against Spain, which gave the South American states +their independence. + + + War of Independence. + +We are only concerned here with the War of Independence so far as it +affected Upper Peru, the Bolivia of later days. When the patriots of +Buenos Aires had succeeded in liberating from the dominion of Spain the +interior provinces of the Rio de la Plata, they turned their arms +against their enemies who held Upper Peru. An almost uninterrupted +warfare followed, from July 1809 till August 1825, with alternate +successes on the side of the Spanish or royalist and the South American +or patriot forces,--the scene of action lying chiefly between the +Argentine provinces of Salta and Jujuy and the shores of Lake Titicaca. +The first movement of the war was the successful invasion of Upper Peru +by the army of Buenos Aires, under General Balcarce, which, after twice +defeating the Spanish troops, was able to celebrate the first +anniversary of independence near Lake Titicaca, in May 1811. Soon, +however, the patriot army, owing to the dissolute conduct and negligence +of its leaders, became disorganized, and was attacked and defeated, in +June 1811, by the Spanish army under Gey fol Goyeneche, and driven back +into Jujuy. Four years of warfare, in which victory was alternately +with the Spaniards and the patriots, was terminated in 1815 by the total +rout of the latter in a battle which took place between Potosi and +Oruro. To this succeeded a revolt of the Indians of the southern +provinces of Peru, and the object being the independence of the whole +country, it was joined by numerous Creoles. This insurrection was, +however, speedily put down by the royalists. In 1816 the Spanish general +Laserna, having been appointed commander-in-chief of Upper Peru, made an +attempt to invade the Argentine provinces, intending to march on Buenos +Aires, but he was completely foiled in this by the activity of the +irregular _gaucho_ troops of Salta and Jujuy, and was forced to retire. +During this time and in the six succeeding years a guerrilla warfare was +maintained by the patriots of Upper Peru, who had taken refuge in the +mountains, chiefly of the province of Yungas, and who frequently +harassed the royalist troops. In June 1823 the expedition of General +Santa Cruz, prepared with great zeal and activity at Lima, marched in +two divisions upon Upper Peru, and in the following months of July and +August the whole country between La Paz and Oruro was occupied by his +forces; but later, the indecision and want of judgment displayed by +Santa Cruz allowed a retreat to be made before a smaller royalist army, +and a severe storm converted their retreat into a precipitate flight, +only a remnant of the expedition again reaching Lima. In 1824, after the +great battle of Ayacucho in Lower Peru, General Sucre, whose valour had +contributed so much to the patriot success of that day, marched with a +part of the victorious army into Upper Peru. On the news of the victory +a universal rising of the patriots took place, and before Sucre had +reached Oruro and Puno, in February 1825, La Paz was already in their +possession, and the royalist garrisons of several towns had gone over to +their side. The Spanish general Olaneta, with a diminished army of 2000 +men, was confined to the province of Potosi, where he held out till +March 1825, when he was mortally wounded in an action with some of his +own revolted troops. + + + Bolivia a nation. + +General Sucre was now invested with the supreme command in Upper Peru, +until the requisite measures could be taken to establish in that country +a regular and constitutional government. Deputies from the various +provinces to the number of fifty-four were assembled at Chuquisaca, the +capital, to decide upon the question proposed to them on the part of the +government of the Argentine provinces, whether they would or would not +remain separate from that country. In August 1825 they decided this +question, declaring it to be the national will that Upper Peru should in +future constitute a distinct and independent nation. This assembly +continued their session, although the primary object of their meeting +had thus been accomplished, and afterwards gave the name of Bolivia to +the country,--issuing at the same time a formal declaration of +independence. + +The first general assembly of deputies of Bolivia dissolved itself on +the 6th of October 1825, and a new congress was summoned and formally +installed at Chuquisaca on the 25th of May 1826, to take into +consideration the constitution prepared by Bolivar for the new republic. +A favourable report was made to that body by a committee appointed to +examine it, on which it was approved by the congress, and declared to be +the constitution of the republic; and as such, it was sworn to by the +people. General Sucre was chosen president for life, according to the +constitution, but only accepted the appointment for the space of two +years, and on the express condition that 2000 Colombian troops should be +permitted to remain with him. + +The independence of the country, so dearly bought, did not, however, +secure for it a peaceful future. Repeated risings occurred, till in the +end of 1827 General Sucre and his Colombian troops were driven from La +Paz. A new congress was formed at Chuquisaca in April 1828, which +modified the constitution given by Bolivar, and chose Marshal Santa Cruz +for president; but only a year later a revolution, led by General +Blanco, threw the country into disorder and for a time overturned the +government. Quiet being again restored in 1831, Santa Cruz promulgated +the code of laws which bore his name, and brought the financial affairs +of the country into some order; he also concluded a treaty of commerce +with Peru, and for several years Bolivia remained in peace. In 1835, +when a struggle for the chief power had made two factions in the +neighbouring republic of Peru, Santa Cruz was induced to take a part in +the contest; he marched into that country, and after defeating General +Gamarra, the leader of one of the opposing parties, completed the +pacification of Peru in the spring of 1836, named himself its protector, +and had in view a confederation of the two countries. At this juncture +the government of Chile interfered actively, and espousing the cause of +Gamarra, sent troops into Peru. Three years of fighting ensued till in a +battle at Jungay in June 1839 Santa Cruz was defeated and exiled, +Gamarra became president of Peru, and General Velasco provisional chief +in Bolivia. The Santa Cruz party, however, remained strong in Bolivia, +and soon revolted successfully against the new head of the government, +ultimately installing General Ballivian in the chief power. Taking +advantage of the disturbed condition of Bolivia, Gamarra made an attempt +to annex the rich province of La Paz, invading it in August 1841 and +besieging the capital; but in a battle with Ballivian his army was +totally routed, and Gamarra himself was killed. The Bolivian general was +now in turn to invade Peru, when Chile again interfered to prevent him. +Ballivian remained in the presidency till 1848, when he retired to +Valparaiso, and in the end of that year General Belzu, after leading a +successful military revolution, took the chief power, and during his +presidency endeavoured to promote agriculture, industry and trade. +General Jorge Cordova succeeded him, but had not been long in office +when a new revolt in September 1857, originating with the garrison of +Oruro, spread over the land, and compelled him to quit the country. His +place was taken by Dr Jose Maria Linares, the originator of the +revolution, who, taking into his own hands all the powers of government, +and acting with the greatest severity, caused himself to be proclaimed +dictator in March 1858. Fresh disturbances led to the deposition of +Linares in 1861, when Dr Maria de Acha was chosen president. In 1862 a +treaty of peace and commerce with the United States was ratified, and in +the following year a similar treaty was concluded with Belgium; but new +causes of disagreement with Chile had arisen in the discovery of rich +beds of guano on the eastern coast-land of the desert of Atacama, which +threatened warfare, and were only set at rest by the treaty of August +1866, in which the 24th parallel of latitude was adopted as the boundary +between the two republics. A new military revolution, led by Maria +Melgarejo, broke out in 1865, and in February of that year the troops of +President Acha were defeated in a battle near Potosi, when Melgarejo +took the dominion of the country. After defeating two revolutions, in +1865 and 1866, the new president declared a political amnesty, and in +1869, after imposing a revised constitution on the country, he became +its dictator. + + + Recent history. + +In January 1871 President Melgarejo was in his turn deposed and driven +from the country by a revolution headed by Colonel Augustin Morales. The +latter, becoming president, was himself murdered in November 1872 and +was succeeded by Colonel Adolfo Ballivian, who died in 1874. Under this +president Bolivia entered upon a secret agreement with Peru which was +destined to have grave consequences for both countries. To understand +the reasons that urged Bolivia to take this step it is necessary to go +back to the above-mentioned treaty of 1866 between Chile and Bolivia. By +this instrument Bolivia, besides conceding the 24th parallel as the +boundary of Chilean territory, agreed that Chile should have a half +share of the customs and full facilities for trading on the coast that +lay between the 23rd and 24th parallels, Chile at that time being +largely interested in the trade of that region. It was also agreed that +Chile should be allowed to mine and export the products of this district +without tax or hindrance on the part of Bolivia. In 1870, in further +consideration of the sum of $10,000, Bolivia granted to an Anglo-Chilean +company the right of working certain nitrate deposits north of the 24th +parallel. The great wealth which was passing into Chilean hands owing to +these compacts created no little discontent in Bolivia, nor was Peru +any better pleased with the hold that Chilean capital was establishing +in the rich district of Tarapaca. On 6th February 1873 Bolivia entered +upon a secret agreement with Peru, the ostensible object of which was +the preservation of their territorial integrity and their mutual defence +against exterior aggression. There can be no doubt that the aggression +contemplated as possible by both countries was a further encroachment on +the part of Chile. + +Upon the death of Adolfo Ballivian, immediately after the conclusion of +this treaty with Peru, Dr Tomas Frias succeeded to the presidency. He +signed yet another treaty with Chile, by which the latter agreed to +withdraw her claim to half the duties levied in Bolivian ports on +condition that all Chilean industries established in Bolivian territory +should be free from duty for twenty-five years. This treaty was never +ratified, and four years later General Hilarion Daza, who had succeeded +Dr Frias as president in 1876, demanded as the price of Bolivia's +consent that a tax of 10 cents per quintal should be paid on all +nitrates exported from the country, further declaring that, unless this +levy was paid, nitrates in the hands of the exporters would be seized by +the Bolivian government. As an answer to these demands, and in order to +protect the property of Chilean subjects, the Chilean fleet was sent to +blockade the ports of Antofagasta, Cobija and Tocapilla. On the 14th +February 1879 the Chilean colonel Sotomayor occupied Antofagasta, and on +1st March, a fortnight later, the Bolivian government declared war. + +An offer on the part of Peru to act as mediator met with no favour from +Chile. The existence of the secret treaty, well known to the Chilean +government, rendered the intervention of Peru more than questionable, +and the law passed by the latter in 1875, which practically created a +monopoly of the Tarapaca nitrate beds to the serious prejudice of +Chilean enterprise, offered no guarantee of her good faith. Chile +replied by curtly demanding the annulment of the secret treaty and an +assurance of Peruvian neutrality. Both demands being refused, she +declared war upon Peru. + +The superiority of the Chileans at sea, though checked for some time by +the heroic gallantry of the Peruvians, soon enabled them to land a +sufficient number of troops to meet the allied forces which had +concentrated at Arica and other points in the south. The Bolivian ports +were already in Chilean hands, and a sea attack upon Pisagua surprised +and routed the troops under the Peruvian general Buendia and opened the +way into the southern territory of Peru. General Daza, who should have +cooperated with Buendia, turned back, on receiving news of the Peruvian +defeat, and led the Bolivian troops to Tacna in a hasty and somewhat +disorderly retreat. The fall of San Francisco followed, and Iquique, +which was evacuated by the allies without a struggle, was occupied. +Severe fighting took place before Tarapaca surrendered, but the end of +1879 saw the Chileans in complete possession of the province. + +Meanwhile a double revolution took place in Peru and Bolivia. In the +former country General Prado was deposed and Colonel Pierola proclaimed +dictator. The Bolivians followed the example of their allies. The troops +at Tacna, indignant at the inglorious part they had been condemned to +play by the incompetence or cowardice of their president, deprived him +of their command and elected Colonel Camacho to lead them. At the same +time a revolution in La Paz proclaimed General Narciso Campero +president, and he was elected to that post in the following June by the +ordinary procedure of the constitution. During 1880 the war was chiefly +maintained at sea between Chile and Peru, Bolivia taking little or no +part in the struggle. In January of 1881 were fought the battles of +Chorillos and Miraflores, attended by heavy slaughter and savage +excesses on the part of the Chilean troops. They were followed almost +immediately by the surrender of Lima and Callao, which left the Chileans +practically masters of Peru. In the interior, however, where the +Peruvian admiral Montero had formed a provisional government, the war +still lingered, and in September 1882 a conference took place between +the latter and President Campero, at which it was decided that they +should hold out for better terms. But the Peruvians wearied of the +useless struggle. On the 20th of October 1883 they concluded a treaty of +peace with Chile; the troops at Arequipa, under Admiral Montero, +surrendered that town, and Montero himself, coldly received in Bolivia, +whither he had fled for refuge, withdrew from the country to Europe. On +the 9th of November the Chilean army of occupation was concentrated at +Arequipa, while what remained of the Bolivian army lay at Oruro. +Negotiations were opened, and on 11th December a peace was signed +between Chile and Bolivia. By this treaty Bolivia ceded to Chile the +whole of its sea-coast, including the port of Cobija. + +On the 18th of May 1895 a treaty was signed at Santiago between Chile +and Bolivia, "with a view to strengthening the bonds of friendship which +unite the two countries," and, "in accord with the higher necessity that +the future development and commercial prosperity of Bolivia require her +free access to the sea." By this treaty Chile declared that if, in +consequence of the plebiscite (to take place under the treaty of Ancon +with Peru), or by virtue of direct arrangement, she should "acquire +dominion and permanent sovereignty over the territories of Tacna and +Arica, she undertakes to transfer them to Bolivia in the same form and +to the same extent as she may acquire them"; the republic of Bolivia +paying as an indemnity for that transfer $5,000,000 silver. If this +cession should be effected, Chile should advance her own frontier north +of Camerones to Vitor, from the sea up to the frontier which actually +separates that district from Bolivia. Chile also pledged herself to use +her utmost endeavour, either separately or jointly with Bolivia, to +obtain possession of Tacna and Arica. If she failed, she bound herself +to cede to Bolivia the roadstead (_caleta_) of Vitor, or another +analogous one, and $5,000,000 silver. Supplementary protocols to this +treaty stipulated that the port to be ceded must "fully satisfy the +present and future requirements" of the commerce of Bolivia. + +On the 23rd of May 1895 further treaties of peace and commerce were +signed with Chile, but the provisions with regard to the cession of a +seaport to Bolivia still remained unfulfilled. During those ten years of +recovery on the part of Bolivia from the effects of the war, the +presidency was held by Dr Pacheco, who succeeded Campero, and held +office for the full term; by Dr Aniceto Arce, who held it until 1892, +and by Dr Mariano Baptista, his successor. In 1896 Dr Severe Alonso +became president, and during his tenure of office diplomatic relations +were resumed with Great Britain, Senor Aramayo being sent to London as +minister plenipotentiary in July 1897. As an outcome of his mission an +extradition treaty was concluded with Great Britain in March 1898. + +In December an attempt was made to pass a law creating Sucre the +perpetual capital of the republic. Until this Sucre had taken its turn +with La Paz, Cochabamba and Oruro. La Paz rose in open revolt. On the +17th of January of the following year a battle was fought some 40 m. +from La Paz between the insurgents and the government forces, in which +the latter were defeated with the loss of a colonel and forty-three men. +Colonel Pando, the insurgent leader, having gained a strong following, +marched upon Oruro, and entered that town on 11th April 1899, after +completely defeating the government troops. Dr Severo Alonso took refuge +in Chilean territory; and Colonel Pando formed a provisional government. +He had no difficulty in obtaining his election to the presidency without +opposition. He entered upon office on the 26th of October, and proved +himself to be a strong and capable chief magistrate. He had to deal with +two difficult settlements as to boundaries with Chile and Brazil, and to +take steps for improving the means of communication in the country, by +this means reviving its mining and other industries. The dispute with +Brazil over the rich Acre rubber-producing territory was accentuated by +the majority of those engaged in the rubber industry being Brazilians, +who resented the attempts of Bolivian officials to exercise authority in +the district. This led to a declaration of independence on the part of +the state of Acre, and the despatch of a body of Bolivian troops in 1900 +to restore order. There was no desire, however, on the part of +President Pando to involve himself in hostilities with Brazil, and in a +spirit of concession the dispute was settled amicably by diplomatic +means, and a treaty signed in November 1903. A new boundary line was +drawn, and a portion of the Acre province ceded to Brazil in +consideration of a cash indemnity of $10,000,000. + +The long-standing dispute with Chile with regard to its occupation of +the former Bolivian provinces of Tacna and Arica under the Parto de +Tregna of the 4th of April 1884 was more difficult to arrange +satisfactorily. In 1895 there had been some prospect of Chile conceding +an outlet on the sea in exchange for a recognition of the Chilean +ownership of Tacna and Arica. The discovery, however, of secret +negotiations between Bolivia and Argentina caused Chile to change its +conciliatory attitude. Bolivia was in no position to venture upon +hostilities or to compel the Chileans to make concessions, and the final +settlement of the boundary dispute between Argentina and Chile deprived +the Bolivians of the hope of obtaining the support of the Argentines. +President Pando and his successor, Ismail Montes, who became president +in 1904, saw that it was necessary to yield, and to make the best terms +they could. A treaty was accordingly ratified in 1905, which was in many +ways advantageous to Bolivia, though the republic was compelled to cede +to Chile the maritime provinces occupied by the latter power since the +war of 1881, and to do without a seaport. The government of Chile +undertook to construct a railway at its own cost from Arica to the +Bolivian capital, La Paz, and to give the Bolivians free transit through +Chilean territory to certain towns on the coast. Chile further agreed to +pay Bolivia a cash indemnity and lend certain pecuniary assistance to +the construction of other railways necessary for the opening out of the +country. + + See C. Wiener, _Bolivie et Perou_ (Paris, 1880); E. Mossbach, + _Bolivia_ (Leipzig, 1875); Theodore Child, _The South American + Republics_ (New York, 1801); Vicente de Ballivian y Rizas, _Archive + Boliviano. Collecion de documentes relativos a la historia de Bolivia_ + (Paris, 1872); Ramon Sotomayor Valdes, _Estudio historico de Bolivia + bajo la administracion del General don Jose Maria Acha con una + introducion que contiene el compendio de la Guerra de la independencia + i de los gobiernos de dicha Republica hasta 1861_ (Santiago de Chile, + 1874). (W. Hd.; G. E.) + + + + +BOLKHOV, a town of Russia, in the government of Orel, and 35 m. N. of +the city of Orel. Pop. (1897) 20,703. It is prettily situated amongst +orchards and possesses a cathedral. There is a lively trade in hemp, +hemp-seed oil, hemp goods and cattle, and there are hemp-mills, +soap-works and tanneries. The much-venerated monastery, Optina Pustyn, +is close by. + + + + +BOLL, a botanical term for a fruit-pod, particularly of the cotton +plant. The word is in O. Eng. _bolla_, which is also represented in +"bowl," a round vessel for liquids, a variant due to "bowl," ball, which +is from the Fr. _boule_. "Boll" is also used, chiefly in Scotland and +the north of England, as a measure of weight for flour = 140 lb., and of +capacity for grain: 16 pecks = 1 boll. + + + + +BOLLANDISTS, the Belgian Jesuits who publish the _Acta Sanctorum_, the +great collection of biographies and legends of the saints, arranged by +days, in the order of the calendar. The original idea was conceived by a +Jesuit father, Heribert Rosweyde (see HAGIOLOGY), and was explained by +him in a sort of prospectus, which he issued in 1607 under the title of +_Fasti sanctorum quorum vitae in Belgicis Bibliothecis manuscriptae_. +His intention was to publish in eighteen volumes the lives of the saints +compiled from the MSS., at the same time adding sober notes. At the time +of his death (1629) he had collected a large amount of material, but had +not been able actually to begin the work. A Jesuit father, John Bolland, +was appointed to carry on the project, and was sent to Antwerp. He +continued to amass material, and extended the scope of the work. In 1643 +the two volumes for January appeared. The three volumes for February +appeared in 1658, the three for March in 1668, the three for April in +1675, and so on. In 1635 Henschenius (Godfried Henschen) was associated +with Bolland, and collaborated in the work until 1681. From 1659 to 1714 +Papebroch (Daniel van Papenbroeck) collaborated. This was the most +brilliant period in the history of the _Acta Sanctorum_. The freedom of +Papebroch's criticism made him many enemies, and he had often to defend +himself against their attacks. The work was continued--with some +inequalities, but always in the same spirit--until the suppression of +the Society of Jesus in 1773. The last volume published was vol. iii. of +October, which appeared in 1770. + +On the dispersion of the Jesuits the Bollandists were authorized to +continue their work, and remained at Antwerp until 1778, when they were +transferred to Brussels, to the monastery of canons regular of +Coudenberg. Here they published vol. iv. of October in 1780, and vol. v. +of October in 1786, when the monastery of Coudenberg was suppressed. In +1788 the work of the Bollandists ceased. The remains of their library +were acquired by the Premonstratensians of Tongerloo, who endeavoured to +continue the work, and in their abbey vol. vi. of October appeared in +1794. + +After the re-establishment of the Society of Jesus in Belgium the work +was again taken up in 1837, at the suggestion of the Academie Royale of +Belgium and with the support of the Belgian government, and the +Bollandists were installed at the college of St Michael in Brussels. In +1845 appeared vol. vii. of October, the first of the new series, which +reached vol. xiii. of October in 1883. In this series the Jesuit fathers +Joseph van der Moere, Joseph van Hecke, Benjamin Bossue, Victor and Remi +de Buck, Ant. Tinnebroeck, Edu. Carpentier and Henr. Matagne +collaborated. Father John Martinov of Theazan was entrusted with the +editing of the _Annus Graeco-Slavicus_, which appeared in the beginning +of vol. xi. of October in 1864. + +In 1882 the activities of the Bollandists were exerted in a new +direction, with a view to bringing the work more into line with the +progress of historical methods. A quarterly review was established under +the title of _Analecta Bollandiana_ by the Jesuit fathers C. de Smedt, +G. van Hooff and J. de Backer. This reached its 25th volume in 1906, and +was edited by the Bollandists de Smedt, F. van Ontroy, H. Delehaye, A. +Porcelet and P. Peeters. This review contains studies in preparation for +the continuation and remoulding of the _Acta Sanctorum_, inedited texts, +dissertations, and, since 1892, a _Bulletin des publications +hagiographiques_, containing criticisms of recent works on hagiographic +questions. In addition to this review, the Bollandists undertook the +analysis of the hagiographic MSS. in the principal libraries. Besides +numerous library catalogues published in the _Analecta_ (e.g. those of +Chartres, Namur, Ghent, Messina, Venice, etc.), separate volumes were +devoted to the Latin MSS. in the Bibliotheque Royale at Brussels (2 +vols., 1886-1889), to the Latin and Greek MSS. in the Bibliotheque +Nationale at Paris (5 vols., 1889-1896), to the Greek MSS. in the +Vatican (1899), and to the Latin MSS. in the libraries of Rome (1905 +seq.). They also prepared inventories of the hagiographic texts hitherto +published, and of these there have appeared the _Bibliotheca +hagiographica graeca_ (1895), the _Bibliotheca hagiographica latina_ +(1899) and the _Bibliotheca hagiographica Orientalis_. These +indispensable works delayed the publication of the principal collection, +but tended to give it a more solid basis and a strictly scientific +stamp. In 1887 appeared vol. i. for November; in 1894, vol. ii., +preceded by the _Martyrologium Hieronymianum_ by J.B. de Rossi and the +abbe Louis Duchesne; in 1902, the _Propylaeum ad Acta Sanctorum +Novembris_, comprising the _Synaxarium ecclesiae Constantinopolitanae_. + +There are three editions of the _Acta Sanctorum_: the original edition +(Antwerp, Tongerloo and Brussels, 63 vols., 1643-1902); the Venice +edition, stopping at vol. v. of September (1734-1770); and the Paris +edition, stopping at vol. xiii. of October (61 vols., 1863-1883). In +addition to these, there is a volume of tables, edited by the abbe +Rigollot. + + See _Acta Sanctorum apologelicis libris ... vindicata_ (Antwerp, + 1755); L.P. Gachard, _Memoire historique sur les Bollandistes_ + (Brussels, 1835); van Hecke, "De ratione operis Bollandiani" (_Acta + Sanctorum Octobris_, vii.); and Cardinal J.B. Pitra, _Etudes sur la + collection des Actes des Saints_ (Paris, 1880). (H. De.) + + + + +BOLOGNA, GIOVANNI DA (1524-1608) [Ital. for his real name, JEAN BOLOGNE +or BOULLONGNE], French sculptor, was born at Douai in 1524. His early +training as a sculptor was conducted at Antwerp, but at the age of +twenty-five he went to Italy and he settled in 1553 in Florence, where +his best works still remain. His two most celebrated productions are the +single bronze figure of Mercury, poised on one foot, resting on the head +of a zephyr, as if in the act of springing into the air (in the Bargello +gallery), and the marble group known as the Rape of the Sabines, which +was executed for Francesco de' Medici and received this name, Lanzi +informs us, after it was finished. It is now in the Loggia de Lanzi of +the ducal piazza. Giovanni was also employed at Genoa, where he executed +various excellent works, chiefly in bronze. Most of his pieces are +characterized by great spirit and elegance. His great fountain at +Bologna (1563-1567) is remarkable for beauty of proportion. Noteworthy +also are his two fountains in the Boboli gardens, one completed in 1576 +and the other in 1585. He also cast the fine bronze equestrian statue of +Cosimo de' Medici at Florence and the very richly decorated west door of +Pisa cathedral. One of Bologna's best works, a group of two nude figures +fighting, is now lost. A fine copy in lead was at one time in the front +quadrangle of Brasenose College, Oxford. In 1881 it was sold for old +lead by the principal and fellows of the college, and was melted down by +the plumber who bought it. + + See _La Vie et l'oeuvre de Jean Bologne, par Abel Desjardins, d'apres + les manuscrits--recueillis par Foucques de Vagnonville_ (1883, + numerous illustrations; list of works). + + + + +BOLOGNA, a city and archiepiscopal see of Emilia, Italy, the capital of +the province of Bologna, and headquarters of the VI. army corps. It is +situated at the edge of the plain of Emilia, 180 ft. above sea-level at +the base of the Apennines, 82 m. due N. of Florence by rail, 63 m. by +road and 50 m. direct, and 134 m. S.E. of Milan by rail. Pop. (1901) +town, 102,122; commune, 153,501. The more or less rectangular Roman +city, orientated on the points of the compass, with its streets arranged +at right angles, can be easily distinguished from the outer city, which +received its fortifications in 1206 (see G. Gozzadini, _Studi +archeologico-topografici sulla citta di Bologna_, Bologna, 1868). The +streets leading to the gates of the latter radiate from the outskirts, +and not from the centre, of the former. Some of the oldest churches, +however, lie outside the limits of the Roman city (of which no buildings +remain above ground) such as S. Stefano, S. Giovanni in Monte and SS. +Vitale ed Agricola. The first consists of a group of no less than seven +different buildings, of different dates; the earliest of which, the +former cathedral of SS. Pietro e Paolo, was constructed about the middle +of the 4th century, in part with the debris of Roman buildings; while S. +Sepolcro, a circular church with ornamentation in brick and an imitation +of _opus reticulatum_, should probably be attributed to the 6th or 7th +centuries. The present cathedral (S. Pietro), erected in 910, is now +almost entirely in the baroque style. The largest church in the town, +however, is that of S. Petronio, the patron saint of Bologna, which was +begun in 1390; only the nave and aisles as far as the transepts were, +however, completed, but even this is a fine fragment, in the Gothic +style, measuring 384 ft. long, and 157 wide, whereas the projected +length of the whole (a cruciform basilica) was over 700 ft., with a +breadth across the transepts of 460 ft., and a dome 500 ft. high over +the crossing (see F. Cavazza in _Rassegna d' Arte_, 1905, 161). The +church of S. Domenico, which contains the body of the saint, who died +here in 1221, is unfinished externally, while the interior was +remodelled in the 18th century. There are many other churches of +interest, among them S. Francesco, perhaps the finest medieval building +in Bologna, begun in 1246 and finished in 1260; it has a fine brick +campanile of the end of the 14th century. It was restored to sacred uses +in 1887, and has been carefully liberated from later alterations (U. +Berti in _Rassegna d' Arte_, 1901, 55). The church of Corpus Dominii has +fine 15th-century terra cottas on the facade (F. Malaguzzi Valeri in +_Archivio Storico dell' Arte_, ser. ii. vol. ii. (Rome, 1896), 72). The +centre of the town is formed by the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele (formerly +Piazza Maggiore), and the Piazza del Nettuno, which lie at right angles +to one another. Here are the church of S. Petronio, the massive Palazzo +Comunale, dating from 1245, the Palazzo del Podesta, completed in the +same year, and the fine bronze statue of Neptune by Giovanni da Bologna +(Jean Bologne of Douai). + +The famous university of Bologna was founded in the 11th century (its +foundation by Theodosius the Great in A.D. 425 is legendary), and +acquired a European reputation as a school of jurisprudence under Pepo, +the first known teacher at Bologna of Roman law (about 1076), and his +successor Irnerius and their followers the glossators. The students +numbered between three and five thousand in the 12th to the 15th +century, and in 1262, it is said, nearly ten thousand (among them were +both Dante and Petrarch). Anatomy was taught here in the 14th century. +But despite its fame, the university, though an autonomous corporation, +does not seem to have had any fixed residence: the professors lectured +in their own houses, or later in rooms hired or lent by the civic +authorities. It was only in 1520 that the professors of law were given +apartments in a building belonging to the church of S. Petronio; and in +1562, by order of Pius IV., the university itself was constructed close +by, by Carlo Borromeo, then cardinal legate. The reason of this measure +was no doubt partly disciplinary, Bologna itself having in 1506 passed +under the dominion of the papacy. Shortly after this, in 1564, Tasso was +a student there, and was tried for writing a satirical poem. One of the +most famous professors was Marcello Malpighi, a great anatomist of the +17th century. The building has served as the communal library since +1838. Its courtyard contains the arms of those students who were elected +as representatives of their respective nations or faculties. The +university has since 1803 been established in the (16th century) Palazzo +Poggi. Between 1815 and 1848 the number of students sank to about a +hundred in some years, chiefly owing to the political persecutions of +the government: in 1859 the number had risen to 355. It now possesses +four faculties and is attended by some 1700 students. Among its +professors women have more than once been numbered. + +The Museo Civico is one of the most important museums in Italy, +containing especially fine collections of antiquities from Bologna and +its neighbourhood. The picture gallery is equally important in its way, +affording a survey both of the earlier Bolognese paintings and of the +works of the Bolognese eclectics of the 16th and 17th centuries, the +Caracci, Guido Reni, Domenichino, Guercino, &c. The primitive masters +are not of great excellence, but the works of the masters of the 15th +century, especially those of Francesco Francia (1450-1517) and Lorenzo +Costa of Ferrara (1460-1535), are of considerable merit. The great +treasure of the collection is, however, Raphael's S. Cecilia, painted +for the church of S. Giovanni in Monte, about 1515. + +The two leaning towers, the Torre Asinelli and the Torre Garisenda, +dating from 1109 and 1110 respectively, are among the most remarkable +structures in Bologna: they are square brick towers, the former being +320 ft. in height and 4 ft. out of the perpendicular, the latter +(unfinished) 163 ft. high and 10 ft. out of the perpendicular. The town +contains many fine private palaces, dating from the 13th century +onwards. The streets are as a rule arcaded, and this characteristic has +been preserved in modern additions, which have on the whole been made +with considerable taste, as have also the numerous restorations of +medieval buildings. A fine view may be had from the Madonna di S. Luca, +on the south-west of the town (938 ft.). + +Among the specialities of Bologna may be noted the _salami_ or +_mortadella_ (Bologna sausage), _tortellini_ (a kind of macaroni) and +liqueurs. + +Bologna is an important railway centre, just as the ancient Bononia was +a meeting-point of important roads. Here the main line from Milan +divides, one portion going on parallel to the line of the ancient Via +Aemilia (which it has followed from Piacenza downwards) to Rimini, +Ancona and Brindisi, and the other through the Apennines to Florence and +thence to Rome. Another line runs to Ferrara and Padua, another +(eventually to be prolonged to Verona) to S. Felice sul Panaro, and a +third to Budrio and Portomaggiore (a station on the line from Ferrara to +Ravenna). Steam tramways run to Vignola, Pieve di Cento and Malalbergo. + +Bologna was only for a short while subject to the Lombards, remaining +generally under the rule of the exarchate of Ravenna, until this in 756 +was given by Pippin to the papacy. It was sacked by the Hungarians in +902, but otherwise its history is little known, and it is uncertain when +it acquired its freedom and its motto _Libertas_. But the first +"constitution" of the commune of Bologna dates from about 1123, and at +that time we find it a free and independent city. From the 12th to the +14th century it was very frequently at war, and strongly supported the +Guelph cause against Frederick II. and against the neighbouring cities +of Romagna and Emilia; indeed, in 1249 the Bolognese took Enzio, the +emperor's son, prisoner, and kept him in confinement for the rest of his +life. But the struggles between Guelphs and Ghibellines in Bologna +itself soon followed, and the commune was so weakened that in 1337 +Taddeo de' Pepoli made himself master of the town, and in 1350 his son +sold it to Giovanni Visconti of Milan. Ten years later it was given to +the papacy, but soon revolted and recovered its liberty. In 1401 +Giovanni Bentivoglio made himself lord of Bologna, but was killed in a +rebellion of 1402. It then returned to the Visconti, and after various +struggles with the papacy was again secured in 1438 by the Bentivoglio, +who held it till 1506, when Pope Julius II. drove them out, and brought +Bologna once more under the papacy, under the sway of which it remained +(except in the Napoleonic period between 1796 and 1815 and during the +revolutions of 1821 and 1831) until in 1860 it became part of the +kingdom of Italy. + +Among the most illustrious natives of Bologna may be noted Luigi Galvani +(1737-1798), the discoverer of galvanism, and Prospero Lambertini (Pope +Benedict XIV.). + + See C. Ricci, _Guida di Bologna_ (3rd ed., Bologna, 1900). (T. As.) + + + + +BOLSENA (anc. _Volsinii_),[1] a town of the province of Rome, Italy, 12 +m. W.S.W. of Orvieto by road, situated on the north-east bank of the +lake of Bolsena. Pop. (1901) 3286. The town is dominated by a +picturesque medieval castle, and contains the church of S. Christina +(martyred by drowning in the lake, according to the legend, in 278) +which dates from the 11th century and contains some frescoes, perhaps of +the school of Giotto. It has a fine Renaissance facade, constructed +about 1500 by Cardinal Giovanni de' Medici (afterwards Pope Leo X.), and +some good terra cottas by the Della Robbia. Beneath the church are +catacombs, with the tomb of the saint, discovered in 1880 (E. Stevenson +in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1880, 262; G.B. de Rossi in _Bullettino +d'Archeologia Cristiana_, 1880, 109). At one of the altars in this crypt +occurred the miracle of Bolsena in 1263. A Bohemian priest, sceptical of +the doctrine of transubstantiation, was convinced of its truth by the +appearance of drops of blood on the host he was consecrating. In +commemoration of this Pope Urban IV. instituted the festival of Corpus +Christi, and ordered the erection of the cathedral of Orvieto. The +miracle forms the subject of a celebrated fresco by Raphael in the +Vatican. + +The Lake of Bolsena (anc. _Lacus Volsiniensis_), 1000 ft. above +sea-level, 71 sq. m. in area, and 480 ft. deep, is almost circular, and +was the central point of a large volcanic district, though it is +probably not itself an extinct crater. Its sides show fine basaltic +formation in places. It abounds in fish, but its banks are somewhat +deserted and not free from malaria. It contains two islands, Bisentina +and Martana, the former containing a church constructed by Vignola, the +latter remains of the castle where Amalasuntha, the daughter of +Theodoric, was imprisoned and strangled. (T. As.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] According to the theory now generally adopted, the Etruscan + Volsinii occupied the site of Orvieto, which was hence called _Urbs + vetus_ in late classical and medieval times, while the Roman Volsinii + was transferred to Bolaena (see VOLSINII). + + + + +BOLSOVER, an urban district in the north-eastern parliamentary division +of Derbyshire, England, 5-1/2 m. E. of Chesterfield, on branch lines of +the Midland and the Great Central railways. Pop. (1901) 6844. It lies at +a considerable height on a sharp slope above a stream tributary to the +river Rother. The castle round which the town grew up was founded +shortly after the Conquest by William Peveril, but the existing +building, a fine castellated residence, was erected on its site in 1613. +The town itself was fortified, and traces of early works remain. The +church of St Mary is of Norman and later date; it contains some +interesting early stone-carving, and monuments to the family of +Cavendish, who acquired the castle in the 16th century. Coal-mining and +quarrying are carried on in the neighbourhood of Bolsover. + + + + +BOLSWARD, a town in the province of Friesland, Holland, 6-1/2 m. W.N.W. +of Sneek. A steam-tramway connects it with Sneek, Makkum, Harlingen and +Franeker. Pop. (1900) 6517. The Great church, or St Martin's (1446-1466) +is a large building containing some good carving, a fine organ and the +tombs of many Frisian nobles. The so-called Small church, dating from +about 1280, also contains fine carving and tombstones; and is the +remnant of a Franciscan convent which once existed here. Bolsward also +possesses a beautiful renaissance town-hall (1614-1618) and various +educational and charitable institutions, including a music and a drawing +school. It has an active trade in agricultural produce, and some +spinning-mills and tile and pottery works. The town is mentioned in 725, +when it was situated on the Middle Sea. When this receded, a canal was +cut to the Zuider Zee, and in 1422 it was made a Hansa town. + +The medieval constitution of Bolsward, though in its government by eight +_scabini_, with judicial, and four councillors with administrative +functions, it followed the ordinary type of Dutch cities, was in some +ways peculiar. The family of Jongema had certain hereditary rights in +the administration, which, though not mentioned in the town charter of +1455, were defined in that of 1464. According to this the head of the +family sat for two years with the _scabini_ and the third year with the +councillors, and had the right to administer an oath to one of each +body. More singular was the influential position assigned, in civic +legislation and administration, to the clergy, to whom in conjunction +with the councillors, there was even, in certain cases, an appeal from +the judgment of the _scabini_. + + See C. Hegel, _Stadte u. Gilden der germanischen Volker im + Mittelalter_ (Leipzig, 1891). + + + + +BOLT, an O. Eng. word (compare Ger. _Bolz_, an arrow), for a "quarrel" +or cross-bow shaft, or the pin which fastened a door. From the swift +flight of an arrow comes the verb "to bolt," as applied to a horse, &c., +and such expressions as "bolt upright," meaning straight upright; also +the American use of "bolt" for refusing to support a candidate nominated +by one's own party. In the sense of a straight pin for a fastening, the +word has come to mean various sorts of appliances. From the sense of +"fastening together" is derived the use of the word "bolt" as a definite +length (in a roll) of a fabric (40 ft. of canvas, &c.). + +From another "bolt" or "boult," to sift (through O. Fr. _buleter_, from +the Med. Lat. _buretare_ or _buletare_), come such expressions as in +Shakespeare's _Winter's Tale_, "The fann'd snow, That's bolted by the +northern blasts twice o'er," or such a figurative use as in Burke's "The +report of the committee was examined and sifted and bolted to the bran." +From this sense comes that of to moot, or discuss, as in Milton's +_Comus_, "I hate when vice can bolt her arguments." + + + + +BOLTON, DUKES OF. The title of duke of Bolton was held in the family of +Powlett or Paulet from 1689 to 1794. Charles Powlett, the 1st duke (c. +1625-1699), who became 6th marquess of Winchester on his father's death +in 1675, had been member of parliament for Winchester and then for +Hampshire from 1660 to 1675. Having supported the claim of William and +Mary to the English throne in 1688, he was restored to the privy council +and to the office of lord-lieutenant of Hampshire, and was created duke +of Bolton in April 1689. An eccentric man, hostile to Halifax and +afterwards to Marlborough, he is said to have travelled during 1687 with +four coaches and 100 horsemen, sleeping during the day and giving +entertainments at night. He died in February 1699, and was succeeded by +his elder son, Charles, 2nd duke of Bolton (1661-1722), who had also +been a member of parliament for Hampshire and a supporter of William of +Orange. He was lord-lieutenant of Hampshire and of Dorset, a +commissioner to arrange the union of England and Scotland; and was twice +a lord justice of the kingdom. He was also lord chamberlain of the royal +household; governor of the Isle of Wight; and for two short periods was +lord-lieutenant of Ireland. His third wife was Henrietta (d. 1730), a +natural daughter of James, duke of Monmouth. According to Swift this +duke was "a great booby." His eldest son, Charles, 3rd duke of Bolton +(1685-1754), was a member of parliament from 1705 to 1717, when he was +made a peer as Baron Pawlet of Basing. He filled many of the public +offices which had been held by his father, and also attained high rank +in the British army. Having displeased Sir Robert Walpole he was +deprived of several of his offices in 1733; but some of them were +afterwards restored to him, and he raised a regiment for service against +the Jacobites in 1745. He was a famous gallant, and married for his +second wife the singer, Lavinia Fenton (d. 1760), a lady who had +previously been his mistress. He died in August 1754, and was succeeded +as 4th duke by his brother Harry (c. 1690-1759), who had been a member +of parliament for forty years, and who followed the late duke as +lord-lieutenant of Hampshire. The 4th duke's son, Charles (c. +1718-1765), who became 5th duke in October 1759, committed suicide in +London in July 1765, and was succeeded by his brother Harry (c. +1719-1794), an admiral in the navy, on whose death without sons, in +December 1794, the dukedom became extinct. The other family titles +descended to a kinsman, George Paulet (1722-1800), who thus became 12th +marquess of Winchester. In 1778 Thomas Orde (1746-1807) married Jean +Mary (d. 1814), a natural daughter of the 5th duke of Bolton, and this +lady inherited Bolton Castle and other properties on the death of the +6th duke. Having taken the additional name of Powlett, Orde was created +Baron Bolton in 1797, and the barony has descended to his heirs. + + + + +BOLTON (or BOULTON), EDMUND (1575?-1633?), English historian and poet, +was born by his own account in 1575. He was brought up a Roman Catholic, +and was educated at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, afterwards residing in +London at the Inner Temple. In 1600 he contributed to _England's +Helicon_. He was a retainer of the duke of Buckingham, and through his +influence he secured a small place at the court of James I. Bolton +formulated a scheme for the establishment of an English academy, but the +project fell through after the death of the king, who had regarded it +favourably. He wrote a _Life of King Henry II._ for Speed's _Chronicle_, +but his Catholic sympathies betrayed themselves in his treatment of +Thomas Becket, and a life by Dr John Barcham was substituted (Wood, +_Ath. Oxon._ ed. Bliss, iii. 36). The most important of his numerous +works are _Hypercritica_ (1618?), a short critical treatise valuable for +its notices of contemporary authors, reprinted in Joseph Haslewood's +_Ancient Critical Essays_ (vol. ii., 1815); _Nero Caesar, or Monarchic +Depraved_ (1624), with special note of British affairs. Bolton was still +living in 1633, but the date of his death is unknown. + + + + +BOLTON (BOLTON-LE-MOORS), a municipal, county and parliamentary borough +of Lancashire, England, 196 m. N.W. by N. from London and 11 m. N.W. +from Manchester. Pop. (1891) 146,487; (1901) 168,215. Area, 15,279 +acres. It has stations on the London & North-Western and the Lancashire +& Yorkshire railways, with running powers for the Midland railway. It is +divided by the Croal, a small tributary of the Irwell, into Great and +Little Bolton, and as the full name implies, is surrounded by high +moorland. Although of early origin, its appearance, like that of other +great manufacturing towns of the vicinity, is wholly modern. It owes not +a little to the attractions of its site. The only remnants of antiquity +are two houses of the 16th century in Little Bolton, of which one is a +specially good example of Tudor work. The site of the church of St Peter +has long been occupied by a parish church (there was one in the 12th +century, if not earlier), but the existing building dates only from +1870. There may also be mentioned a large number of other places of +worship, a town hall with fine classical facade and tower, market hall, +museums of natural history and of art and industry, an exchange, +assembly rooms, and various benevolent institutions. Several free +libraries are maintained. Lever's grammar school, founded in 1641, had +Robert Ainsworth, the Latin lexicographer, and John Lempriere, author of +the classical dictionary, among its masters. There are municipal +technical schools. A large public park, opened in 1866, was laid out as +a relief work for unemployed operatives during the cotton famine of the +earlier part of the decade. On the moors to the north-west, and +including Rivington Pike (1192 ft.), is another public park, and there +are various smaller pleasure grounds. A large number of cotton mills +furnish the chief source of industry; printing, dyeing and bleaching of +cotton and calico, spinning and weaving machine making, iron and steel +works, and collieries in the neighbourhood, are also important. The +speciality, however, is fine spinning, a process assisted by the damp +climate. The parliamentary borough, created in 1832 and returning two +members, falls within the Westhoughton division of the county. Before +1838, when Bolton was incorporated, the town was governed by a +borough-reeve and two constables appointed at the annual court-leet. The +county borough was created in 1888. The corporation consists of a mayor, +24 aldermen and 72 councillors. + +The earliest form of the name is Bodleton or Botheltun, and the most +important of the later forms are Bodeltown, Botheltun-le-Moors, +Bowelton, Boltune, Bolton-super-Moras, Bolton-in-ye-Moors, +Bolton-le-Moors. The manor was granted by William I. to Roger de +Poictou, and passed through the families of Ferrers and Pilkington to +the Harringtons of Hornby Castle, who lost it with their other estates +for their adherence to Richard III. In 1485 Henry VII. granted it to the +first earl of Derby. The manor is now held by different lords, but the +earls of Derby still have a fourth part. The manor of Little Bolton +seems to have been, at least from Henry III.'s reign, distinct from that +of Great Bolton, and was held till the 17th century by the Botheltons or +Boltons. + +From early days Bolton was famous for its woollen manufactures. In +Richard I.'s reign an aulneger, whose duty it was to measure and stamp +all bundles of woollen goods, was appointed, and it is clear, therefore, +that the place was already a centre of the woollen cloth trade. In 1337 +the industry received an impulse from the settlement of a party of +Flemish clothiers, and extended so greatly that when it was found +necessary in 1566 to appoint by act of parliament deputies to assist the +aulnegers, Bolton is named as one of the places where these deputies +were to be employed. Leland in his _Itinerary_ (1558) recorded the fact +that Bolton made cottons, which were in reality woollen goods. Real +cotton goods were not made in Lancashire till 1641, when Bolton is named +as the chief seat of the manufacture of fustians, vermilions and +dimities. After the revocation of the edict of Nantes the settlement of +some French refugees further stimulated this industry. It was here that +velvets were first made about 1756, by Jeremiah Clarke, and muslins and +cotton quiltings in 1763. The cotton trade received an astonishing +impetus from the inventions of Sir Richard Arkwright (1770), and Samuel +Crompton (1780), both of whom were born in the parish. Soon after the +introduction of machinery, spinning factories were erected, and the +first built in Bolton is said to have been set up in 1780. The number +rapidly increased, and in 1851 there were 66 cotton mills with 860,000 +throstle spindles at work. The cognate industry of bleaching has been +carried on since early in the 18th century, and large ironworks grew up +in the latter half of the 19th century. In 1791 a canal was constructed +from Manchester to Bolton, and by an act of parliament (1792) Bolton +Moor was enclosed. + +During the Civil War Bolton sided with the parliament, and in February +1643 and March 1644 the royalist forces assaulted the town, but were on +both occasions repulsed. On the 28th of May 1644, however, it was +attacked by Prince Rupert and Lord Derby, and stormed with great +slaughter. On the 15th of October 1651 Lord Derby, who had been taken +prisoner after the battle of Worcester, was brought here and executed +the same day. + +Up to the beginning of the 19th century the market day was Monday, but +the customary Saturday market gradually superseded this old chartered +market. In 1251 William de Ferrers obtained from the crown a charter +for a weekly market and a yearly fair, but gradually this annual fair +was replaced by four others chiefly for horses and cattle. The New Year +and Whitsuntide Show fairs only arose during the 19th century. + + + + +BOLTON ABBEY, a village in the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 22 m. +N.W. from Leeds and 5-1/2 from Ilkley by the Midland railway. It takes +its name, inaccurately, from the great foundation of Bolton Priory, the +ruins of which are among the most exquisitely situated in England. They +stand near the right bank of the upper Wharfe, the valley of which is +beautifully wooded and closely enclosed by hills. The earliest part of +the church is of transitional Norman date; the nave, which is perfect, +is Early English and Decorated. The transepts and choir are ruined, and +the remains of domestic buildings are slight. The manor of Bolton Abbey +with the rest of the district of Craven was granted by William the +Conqueror to Robert de Romili, who evidently held it in 1086, although +there is no mention made of it in the Domesday survey. William de +Meschines and Cicely de Romili, his wife, heiress of Robert, founded and +endowed a priory at Embsay or Emmesay, near Skipton, in 1120, but it was +moved here in 1151 by their daughter, Alice de Romili, wife of William +FitzDuncan, who gave the manor to the monks in exchange for other lands. +After the dissolution of the monasteries the manor was sold in 1542 to +Henry Clifford, 2nd earl of Cumberland, whose descendants, the dukes of +Devonshire, now hold it. + + See J.D. Whitaker, LL.D., F.S.A., _History of the District of Craven_ + (ed. Morant, 1878); Dugdale's _Monasticon Anglicanum_. + + + + +BOLZANO, BERNHARD (1781-1848), Austrian priest and philosopher, was born +at Prague on the 5th of October 1781. He distinguished himself at an +early age, and on his ordination to the priesthood (1805) was appointed +professor of the philosophy of religion in Prague University. His +lectures, in which he endeavoured to show that Catholic theology is in +complete harmony with reason, were received with eager interest by the +younger generation of thinkers. But his views met with much opposition; +and it was only through the protection of the archbishop, Prince +Salm-Salm, that he was enabled to retain his chair. In 1820 he was +accused of being connected with some of the students' revolutionary +societies, and was compelled to resign. Several doctrines extracted from +his works were condemned at Rome, and he was suspended from his priestly +functions, spending the rest of his life in literary work. He died at +Prague on the 18th of December 1848. The most important of his numerous +works are the _Wissenschaftslehre, oder Versuch einer neuen Darstellung +der Logik_, advocating a scientific method in the study of logic (4 +vols., Sulzbach, 1837); the _Lehrbuch der Religionswissenschaft_ (4 +vols., Sulzbach, 1834), a philosophic representation of all the dogmas +of Roman Catholic theology; and _Athanasia, oder Grunde fur die +Unsterblichkeit der Seele_ (2nd ed., Mainz, 1838). In philosophy he +followed Reinhard in ethics and the monadology of Leibnitz, though he +was also influenced by Kant. + + See _Lebensbeschreibung des Dr Bolzano_ (an autobiography, 1836); + Wisshaupt, _Skizzen aus dem Leben Dr Bolzanos_ (1850); Palagy, _Kant + und Bolzano_ (Halle, 1902). + + + + +BOMA (properly _Mboma_), a port on the north bank of the river Congo +about 60 m. from its mouth, the administrative capital of Belgian Congo. +Pop. about 5000. It was one of the places at which the European traders +on the west coast of Africa established stations in the 16th and 17th +centuries. It became the entrepot for the commerce of the lower Congo +and a well-known mart for slaves. The trade was chiefly in the hands of +Dutch merchants, but British, French and Portuguese firms also had +factories there. No European power exercised sovereignty, though shadowy +claims were from time to time put forward by Portugal (see AFRICA, S 5). +In 1884 the natives of Boma granted a protectorate of their country to +the International Association of the Congo. + + See H.M. Stanley, _The Congo and the Founding of its Free State_ + (London, 1885). + + + + +BOMB, a term formerly used for an explosive shell (see AMMUNITION) fired +by artillery. The word is derived from the Gr. [Greek: bombos], a +hammering, buzzing noise, cf. "bombard" (q.v.). At the present day it is +most frequently used of a shattering or incendiary grenade, or of an +explosive vessel actuated by clockwork or trip mechanism, employed to +destroy life or property. In naval warfare, before the introduction of +the shell gun, explosive projectiles were carried principally by special +vessels known as bomb-vessels, bombards or, colloquially, bombs. + +In geology, the name "bomb" is given to certain masses of lava which +have been hurled forth from a volcanic vent by explosive action. In +shape they are spheroidal, ellipsoidal or discoidal; in structure they +may be solid, hollow or more or less cavernous; whilst in size they vary +from that of a walnut to masses weighing several tons. It is generally +held that the form is partly due to rotation of the mass during its +aerial flight, and in some cases the bomb becomes twisted by a gyratory +movement. According, however, to Dr H.J. Johnston-Lavis, many of the +so-called bombs of Vesuvius are not projectiles, but merely globular +masses formed in a stream of lava; and in like manner Professor J.D. +Dana showed that what were regarded as bombs in Hawaii are in many cases +merely lava-balls that have not been hurled through the air. Certain +masses of pumice ejected from Vulcano have been called by Johnston-Lavis +"bread-crust bombs," since they present a coating of obsidian which has +been bent and cracked in a way suggestive of the crust of a roll. It is +probable that here the acid magma was expelled in a very viscous +condition, and the crust which formed on cooling was burst by the steam +from the occluded water. Some of the bombs thrown out during recent +eruptions of Etna consist of white granular quartz, encased in a black +scoriaceous crust, the quartz representing an altered sandstone. The +bombs of granular olivine, found in some of the tuffs in the Eifel, are +represented in most geological collections (see VOLCANO). + + + + +BOMBARD (derived through Med. Lat. and Fr. forms from Gr. [Greek: +bombein], to make a humming noise), a term applied in the middle ages to +a sort of cannon, used chiefly in sieges, and throwing heavy stone +balls; hence the later use as a verb (see BOMBARDMENT). The name, in +various forms, was also given to a medieval musical instrument +("bombard," "bumhart," "pumhart," "pommer"), the forerunner of the bass +oboe or schalmey. At the present day a small primitive oboe called +_bombarde_, with eight holes but no keys, is used among the Breton +peasants. + + + + +BOMBARDIER, originally an artilleryman in charge of a bombard; now a +non-commissioned officer in the artillery of the British army, ranking +below a corporal. + + + + +BOMBARDMENT, an attack by artillery fire directed against +fortifications, troops in position or towns and buildings. In its strict +sense the term is only applied to the bombardment of defenceless or +undefended objects, houses, public buildings, &c., the object of the +assailant being to dishearten his opponent, and specially to force the +civil population and authorities of a besieged place to persuade the +military commandant to capitulate before the actual defences of the +place have been reduced to impotence. It is, therefore, obvious that +mere bombardment can only achieve its object when the amount of +suffering inflicted upon non-combatants is sufficient to break down +their resolution, and when the commandant permits himself to be +influenced or coerced by the sufferers. A threat of bombardment will +sometimes induce a place to surrender, but instances of its fulfilment +being followed by success are rare; and, in general, with a determined +commandant, bombardments fail of their object. Further, an intentionally +terrific fire at a large target, unlike the slow, steady and minutely +accurate "artillery attacks "directed upon the fortifications, requires +the expenditure of large quantities of ammunition, and wears out the +guns of the attack. Bombardments are, however, frequently resorted to in +order to test the temper of the garrison and the civil population, a +notable instance being that of Strassburg in 1870. The term is often +loosely employed to describe artillery attacks upon forts or fortified +positions in preparation for assaults by infantry. + + + + +BOMBARDON, or BASS TUBA, the name given to the bass and contrabass of +the brass wind in military bands, called in the orchestra bass tuba. + +The name of bombardon is unquestionably derived from _bombardone_, the +Italian for contrabass pommer (bombard), which, before the invention of +the fagotto, formed the bass of medieval orchestras; it is also used for +a bass reed stop of 16 ft. tone on the organ. The bombardon was the very +first bass wind instrument fitted with valves, and it was at first known +as the _corno basso_, _clavicor_ or _bass horn_ (not to be confounded +with the bass horn with keys, which on being perfected became the +ophicleide). The name was attached more to the position of the wind +instruments as bass than to the individual instrument. The original +corno basso was a brass instrument of narrow bore with the pistons set +horizontally. The valve-ophicleide in F of German make had a wider bore +and three vertical pistons, but it was only a "half instrument," +measuring about 12 ft. A. Kalkbrenner, in his life of W. Wieprecht +(1882), states that in the Jager military bands of Prussia the corno +basso (keyed bass horn) was introduced as bass in 1829, and the +bombardon (or valve-ophicleide) in 1831; in the Guards these instruments +were superseded in 1835 by the bass tuba invented by Wieprecht and J.G. +Moritz. + +The modern bombardon is made in two forms: the upright model, used in +stationary band music; and the circular model, known as the helicon, +worn round the body with the large bell resting on the left shoulder, +after the style of the Roman _cornu_ (see HORN), which is a more +convenient way of carrying this heavy instrument when marching. The +bombardon, and the euphonium, of which it is the bass, are the outcome +of the application of valves to the bugle family whereby the saxhorns +were also produced. The radical difference between the saxhorns and the +tubas (including the bombardon) is that the latter have a sufficiently +wide conical bore to allow of the production of fundamental sounds in a +rich, full quality of immense power. This difference, first recognized +in Germany and Austria, has given rise in those countries to the +classification of the brass wind as "half" and "whole" instruments +(_Halbe_ and _Ganze Instrumente_). When the brass wind instruments with +conical bore and cup-shaped mouthpiece first came into use, it was a +well-understood principle that the tube of each instrument must +theoretically be made twice as long as an organ pipe giving the same +note; for example, the French horn sounding the 8 ft. C of an 8 ft. +organ pipe, must have a tube 16 ft. long; C then becomes the second +harmonic of the series for the 16 ft. tube, the first or fundamental +being unobtainable. After the introduction of pistons, instrument-makers +experimenting with the bugle, which has a conical bore of very wide +diameter in proportion to the length, found that baritone and bass +instruments constructed on the same principle gave out the fundamental +full and clear. A new era in the construction of brass wind instruments +was thus inaugurated, and now that the proportions of the bugle have +been adopted, the tubes of the tubas are made just half the length of +those of the older instruments, corresponding to the length of the organ +pipe of the same pitch, so that a euphonium sounding 8 ft. C no longer +needs to be 16 ft. long but only 8 ft. The older instruments, such as +the saxhorns, with narrow bore, have therefore been denominated "half +instruments," because only half the length of the instrument is of +practical utility, while the tubas with wide bore are styled "whole +instruments." [1] Bombardons are made in E flat and F of the 16 ft. +octave, corresponding to the orchestral bass tuba, double bass in +strings, and pedal clarinet and contrafagotto in the wood wind. The +bombardon in B flat or C, an octave lower than the euphonium, +corresponds to the contrabass tuba in the orchestra. + + The bombardons possess a chromatic compass of 3-1/2 to 4 octaves. The + harmonic series consists of the harmonics from the 1st to the 8th. + + [Illustration: BOMBARDON IN E FLAT.] + + [Illustration: HARMONIC SERIES OF THE CONTRABASS BOMBARDON IN C.] + + The lowest notes produced by the valves are very difficult to obtain, + for the lips seldom have sufficient power to set in vibration a column + of air of such immense length, at a rate of vibration slow enough to + synchronize with that of notes of such deep pitch.[2] Even when they + are played, the lowest valve notes can hardly be heard unless doubled + an octave higher by another bombardon. + + Bombardons are generally treated as non-transposing instruments, the + music being written as sounded, except in France and Belgium, where + transposition is usual. The intervening notes are obtained by means of + pistons or valves, which, on being depressed, either admit the wind + into additional lengths of tubing to lower the pitch, or cut off a + length in order to raise it. Bombardons usually have three or four + pistons lowering the pitch of the instrument respectively 1, 1/2, + 1-1/2 and 2-1/2 tones (in Belgium, 1, 1/2, 2 and 3 tones). The valve + system, disposal of the tubing and shape and position of the bell + differ considerably in the various models of well-known makers. In + Germany and Austria[3] what is known as the cylinder action is largely + used; for the piston or pump is substituted a four-way brass cock + operated by means of a key and a series of cranks. + + In order to obtain a complete chromatic scale throughout the compass, + there must be, as on the slide-trombone, seven different positions or + lengths of tubing available, each having its harmonic series. These + different lengths are obtained on the bombardon by means of a + combination of pistons: the simultaneous use of Nos. 2 and 3 lowers + the pitch two tones; of Nos. 1, 2 and 3, three tones; of Nos. 1, 2, 3, + 4, five and a half tones, &c. A combination of pistons, however, fails + to give the interval with an absolutely correct intonation, since the + length of tubing thrown open is not of the theoretical length required + to produce it. Many ingenious contrivances have been invented from + time to time to remedy this inherent defect of the valve system, such + as the six-valve independent system of Adolphe Sax; the Besson + _Registre_, giving eight independent positions; the Besson + compensating system _Transpositeur_; the Boosey automatic compensating + piston invented by D.J. Blaikley, and V. Mahillon's automatic + regulating pistons. More recently the Besson enharmonic valve system, + with six independent tuning slides and three pistons, and Rudall, + Carte & Company's new (Klussmann's patent) bore, conical throughout + the open tube and additional lengths, have produced instruments which + leave nothing to be desired as to intonation. (See VALVES and TUBA.) + (K. S.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] See Dr E. Schafhautl's article on Musical Instruments, section 4 + of _Bericht der Beurtheilungscommission bei der Allg. deutschen + Industrie-Ausstellung_, 1854 (Munich, 1855), pp. 169-170; also + Friedr. Zamminer, _Die Musik und die Musikinstrumente in ihrer + Beziehung zu den Gesetzen der Akustik_ (Giessen, 1855), p. 313. + + [2] V.C. Mahillon, _Elements d'acoustique musicale et instrumentale_ + (Bruxelles, 1874), p. 153. + + [3] The bombardon is used in the military bands of Austria, but in + those of Germany it has been superseded by a bass tuba differing + slightly in form and construction from the bombardons and bass tubas + used in England, France, Belgium and Austria. + + + + +BOMBAY CITY, the capital of Bombay Presidency, and the chief seaport of +western India, situated in 18 deg. 55' N. and 72 deg. 54' E. The city +stands on an island of the same name, which forms one of a group now +connected by causeways with the mainland. The area is 22 sq. m.; and the +population of the town and island (1901) 776,006 (estimate in 1906, +977,822). Bombay is the second most populous city in the Indian empire, +having fallen behind Calcutta at the census of 1901. Its position on the +side of India nearest to Europe, its advantages as a port and a railway +centre, and its monopoly of the cotton industry, are counteracted by the +fact that the region which it serves cannot vie with the valley of the +Ganges in point of fertility and has no great waterway like the Ganges +or Brahmaputra. Nevertheless Bombay pushes Calcutta hard for supremacy +in point of population and commercial prosperity. + +The Bombay Island, or, as it ought to be more correctly called, the +Bombay Peninsula, stands out from a coast ennobled by lofty hills, and +its harbour is studded by rocky islands and precipices, whose peaks rise +to a great height. The approach from the sea discloses one of the +finest panoramas in the world,--the only European analogy being the Bay +of Naples. The island consists of a plain about 11 m. long by 3 broad, +flanked by two parallel lines of low hills. A neck of land stretching +towards the south-west forms the harbour on its eastern side, sheltering +it from the force of the open sea, and enclosing an expanse of water +from 5 to 7 m. wide. At the south-west of the island, Back Bay, a +shallow basin rather more than 2 m. in breadth, runs inland for about 3 +m. between the extreme points of the two ranges of hills. On a slightly +raised strip of land between the head of Back Bay and the harbour is +situated the fort, the nucleus of the city of Bombay. From this point +the land slopes westward towards the central plain, a low-lying tract, +which before the construction of the embankment known as the Hornby +Vellard, used at high tide to be submerged by the sea. The town itself +consists of well-built and unusually handsome native bazaars, and of +spacious streets devoted to European commerce. In the native bazaar the +houses rise three or four storeys in height, with elaborately carved +pillars and front work. Some of the European hotels and commercial +buildings are on the American scale, and have no rival in any other city +of India. The Taj Mahal hotel, which was built by the Tata family in +1904, is the most palatial and modern hotel in India. The private houses +of the European residents lie apart alike from the native and from the +mercantile quarters of the town. As a rule, each is built in a large +garden or compound; and although the style of architecture is less +imposing than that of the stately residences in Calcutta, it is well +suited to the climate, and has a beauty and comfort of its own. The +favourite suburb is Malabar hill, a high ridge running out into the sea, +and terraced to the top by handsome houses, which command one of the +finest views, of its kind, in the world. Of recent years wealthy natives +have been competing with Europeans for the possession of this desirable +quarter. To the right of this ridge, looking towards the sea, runs +another suburb known as Breach Candy, built close upon the beach and +within the refreshing sound of the waves. To the left of Malabar hill +lies Back Bay, with a promontory on its farther shore, which marks the +site of the old Bombay Fort; its walls are demolished, and the area is +chiefly devoted to mercantile buildings. Farther round the island, +beyond the fort, is Mazagon Bay, commanding the harbour, and the centre +of maritime activity. The defences of the port, remodelled and armed +with the latest guns, consist of batteries on the islands in the +harbour, in addition to which there are three large batteries on the +mainland. There is also a torpedo-boat detachment stationed in the +harbour. + +No city in the world has a finer water-front than Bombay. The great line +of public offices along the esplanade and facing Back Bay, which are in +the Gothic style mixed with Saracenic, are not individually +distinguished for architectural merit, but they have a cumulative effect +of great dignity. The other most notable buildings in the city are the +Victoria terminus of the Great Indian Peninsula railway and the Taj +Mahal hotel. Towards the northern end of Malabar hill lie the Parsee +Towers of Silence, where the Parsees expose their dead till the flesh is +devoured by vultures, and then cast the bones into a well where they +crumble into dust. The foundation-stone of a museum was laid by the +prince of Wales in 1905. + +_Local Government._--The port of Bombay (including docks and warehouses) +is managed by a port trust, the members of which are nominated by the +government from among the commercial community. The municipal government +of the city was framed by an act of the Bombay legislative council +passed in 1888. The governing body consists of a municipal corporation +and a town council. The corporation is composed of 72 members, of whom +16 are nominated by the government. Of the remainder, 36 are elected by +the ratepayers, 16 by the justices of the peace, 2 by the senate of the +university, and 2 by the chamber of commerce. The council, which forms +the standing committee of the corporation, consists of 12 members, of +whom 4 are nominated by the government and the rest elected by the +corporation. The members of the corporation include Europeans, Hindus, +Mahommedans and Parsees. The Bombay University was constituted in 1857 +as an examining body, on the model of the university of London. The +chief educational institutions in Bombay City are the government +Elphinstone College, two missionary colleges (Wilson and St Xavier), the +Grant medical college, the government law school, the Sir Jamsetjee +Jeejeebhoy school of art, and the Victoria Jubilee technical institute. + +_Docks._--The dockyard, originally built in 1736, has a sea-face of +nearly 700 yds. and an area of about 200 acres. There are five graving +docks, three of which together make one large dock 648 ft. long, while +the other two make a single dock 582 ft. long. There are also four +building slips opposite the Apollo Bandar (landing-place) on the +south-east side of the enclosure. The dockyard is lighted by +electricity, so that work can be carried on by night as well as day. +Bombay is the only important place near the sea in India where the rise +of the tide is sufficient to permit docks on the largest scale. The +highest spring tides here reach 17 ft., but the average is 14 ft. +Prince's dock, of which the foundation-stone was laid by the prince of +Wales in 1875, was opened in 1879, and is 1460 ft. long by 1000 ft. +broad, with a water area of 30 acres; while the Victoria dock, which was +completed and opened in 1887-1888, has a water area of 25 acres. South +of the Victoria dock, the foundation-stone of the Alexandra dock, the +largest in India, was laid by the prince of Wales in 1905. + +_Cotton Mills._--The milling industry is, next to the docks, the chief +feature of Bombay's commercial success. The staple manufacture is +cotton-spinning, but in addition to this there are flour mills and +workshops to supply local needs. The number of factories increased from +fifty-three in 1881 to eighty-three in 1890, and that decade saw the +influx of a great industrial population from the surrounding districts; +but the decade 1891-1901 witnessed at least a temporary set-back owing +to the ravages caused by plague and the effects of over-production. In +addition to the actual mortality it inflicted, the plague caused an +exodus of the population from the island, disorganized the labour at the +docks and in the mills, and swallowed up large sums which were spent by +the municipality on plague operations and sanitary improvements. After +1901, however, both population and trade began to revive again. In 1901 +there were 131,796 persons employed in the cotton industry. + +_Population._--Owing to its central position between East and West and +to the diversity of races in India, no city in the world can show a +greater variety of type than Bombay. The Mahratta race is the dominant +element next to the European rulers, but in addition to them are a great +and influential section of Parsee merchants, Arab traders from the Gulf, +Afghans and Sikhs from northern India, Bengalis, Rajputs, Chinese, +Japanese, Malays, negroes, Tibetans, Sinhalese and Siamese. Bombay is +the great port and meeting-place of the Eastern world. Out of the large +sections of its population, Hindu, Mahommedan, Parsee, Jain and +Christian, the Parsees are one of the smallest and yet the most +influential. They number only some 46,000 all told, but most of the +great business houses are owned by Parsee millionaires and most of the +large charities are founded by them. + +_History._--The name of the island and city of Bombay is derived from +Mumba (a form of Parvati), the goddess of the Kolis, a race of +husbandmen and fishermen who were the earliest known inhabitants, having +occupied the island probably about the beginning of the Christian era. +Bombay originally consisted of seven islands (the _Heptanesia_ of +Ptolemy) and formed an outlying portion of the dominions of successive +dynasties dominant in western India: Satavahanas, Mauryas, Chalukyas and +Rashtrakutas. In the Maurya and Chalukya period (450-750) the city of +Puri on Elephanta Island was the principal place in Bombay harbour. The +first town built on Bombay Island was Mahikavati (Mahim), founded by +King Bhima, probably a member of the house of the Yadavas of Deogiri, as +a result of Ala-ud-din Khilji's raid into the Deccan in 1294. It +remained under Hindu rule until 1348, when it was captured by a +Mahommedan force from Gujarat; and the islands remained part of the +province (later kingdom) of Gujarat till 1534, when they were ceded by +Sultan Bahadur to the Portuguese. + +The island did not prosper under Portuguese rule. By the system known as +_aforamento_ the lands were gradually parcelled out into a number of +fiefs granted, under the crown of Portugal, to individuals or to +religious corporations in return for military service or equivalent +quit-rents. The northern districts were divided among the Franciscans +and Jesuits, who built a number of churches, some of which still +survive. The intolerance of their rule did not favour the growth of the +settlement, which in 1661, when it was transferred to the British, had a +population of only 10,000. The English had, however, long recognized its +value as a naval base, and it was for this reason that they fought the +battle of Swally (1614-1615), attempted to capture the place in 1626, +and that the Surat Council urged the purchase of Bombay from the +Portuguese. In 1654 the directors of the Company drew Cromwell's +attention to this suggestion, laying stress on the excellence of its +harbour and its safety from attack by land. It finally became the +property of the British in 1661 as part of the dowry of the infanta +Catherine of Portugal on her marriage to Charles II., but was not +actually occupied by the British until 1665, when they experienced much +difficulty in overcoming the opposition of the Portuguese, and +especially of the religious orders, to the cession. In 1668 it was +transferred by the crown to the East India Company, who placed it under +the factory of Surat. + +The real foundation of the modern city dates from this time, and was the +work of Gerald Aungier (or Angier), brother of Francis Aungier, 3rd Lord +Aungier of Longford and 1st earl of Longford in Ireland (d. 1700), who +succeeded Sir George Oxenden as president of Surat in 1669 and died in +1677. At this time Bombay was threatened by the Mahrattas from inland, +by the Malabar pirates and the Dutch from the sea, and was cut off from +the mainland by the Portuguese, who still occupied the island of +Salsette and had established a customs-barrier in the channel between +Bombay and the shore. In spite of the niggardly policy of the court of +directors, who refused to incur the expense of employing skilled +engineers, Aungier succeeded in fortifying the town and shore; he also +raised a force of militia and regulars, the latter mainly Germans (as +more trustworthy than the riffraff collected in London by the Company's +crimps). In 1672 Aungier transferred his headquarters to Bombay, and +after frightening off an imposing Dutch fleet, which in 1670 attempted +to surprise the island, set to work to organize the settlement anew. To +this task he brought a mind singularly enlightened and a sincere belief +in the best traditions of English liberty. In its fiscal policy, in its +religious intolerance, and in its cruel and contemptuous treatment of +the natives, Portuguese rule had been alike oppressive. Aungier altered +all this. With the consent of "a general assembly of the chief +representatives of the people" he commuted the burdensome land tax for a +fixed money payment; he protected all castes in the celebration of their +religious ceremonies; and he forbade any compulsion of natives to carry +burdens against their will. The result was that the population of Bombay +increased rapidly; a special quarter was set apart for the banya, or +capitalist, class of Hindus; while Parsees and Armenians flocked to a +city where they were secure of freedom alike for their trade and their +religion. Within eight years the population had grown from 10,000 to +60,000. The immediate result of this concentration of people in a spot +so unwholesome was the prevalence of disease, produced by the appalling +sanitary conditions. This, too, Aungier set himself to remedy. In 1675 +he initiated the works for draining the foul tidal swamps; and, failing +the consent of the Company to the erection of a regular hospital, he +turned the law court into an infirmary. He also set up three courts of +justice: a tribunal for petty causes under a factor with native +assessors, a court of appeal under the deputy governor and members of +council, and a court-martial. A regular police force was also +established and a gaol built in the Bazaar.[1] + +During this period, however, the position of Bombay was sufficiently +precarious. The Malabar pirates, though the city itself was too strong +for them, were a constant menace to its trade; and it required all the +genius of Aungier to maintain the settlement, isolated as it was between +the rival powers of the Mahrattas and the Mogul empire. After his death, +on the 30th of June 1677, its situation became even more precarious. +Even under Aungier the Siddi admirals of the Moguls had asserted their +right to use Bombay harbour as winter quarters for their fleet, though +they had failed to secure it as a base against the Mahrattas. Under his +weak successor (Rolt, 1677-1682), the English waters, the value of which +had now been proved, became the battle-ground between the rival navies, +and for some years Bombay lay at the mercy of both. The Company's rule, +moreover, was exposed to another danger. The niggardly policy of the +board of directors, more intent on peaceful dividends than on warlike +rule, could not but be galling to soldiers of fortune. A mutiny at +Bombay in 1674 had only been suppressed by the execution of the +ringleader; and in 1683 a more formidable movement took place under +Richard Keigwin, a naval officer who had been appointed governor of St +Helena in reward for the part played by him in the capture of the island +from the Dutch in 1673. Keigwin, elected governor of Bombay by popular +vote, issued a proclamation in the king's name, citing the "intolerable +extortions, oppressions and exactions" of the Company, and declaring his +government under the immediate authority of the crown. He ruled with +moderation, reformed the system of taxation, obtained notable +concessions from the Mahrattas, and increased the trade of the port by +the admission of "interlopers." But he failed to extend the rebellion +beyond Bombay; and when a letter arrived, under the royal sign manual, +ordering him to surrender the fort to Sir John Child, appointed admiral +and captain-general of the Company's forces, he obeyed.[2] + +Meanwhile the Company had decided to consider Bombay as "an independent +settlement, and the seat of the power and trade of the English in the +East Indies." But a variety of causes set back the development of the +city, notably the prevalence of plague and cholera due to the silting up +of the creeks that divided its component islands; and it was not till +after the amalgamation of the old and new companies in 1708 that the +governor's seat was transferred from Surat to Bombay. In 1718 the city +wall was completed; settlers began to stream in, especially from +distracted Gujarat; and a series of wise administrative reforms +increased this tendency until in 1744 the population, which in 1718 had +sunk to 16,000, had risen to 70,000. Meanwhile the Mahratta conquest of +Bassein and Salsette (1737-1739) had put a stop to the hostility of the +Portuguese, and a treaty of alliance with the Siddis (1733) had secured +a base of supplies on the mainland. The French wars of 1744-1748 and +1756-1763 led to a further strengthening of the fortifications; and the +influx of settlers from the mainland made the questions of supplies and +of the protection of trade from piracy more pressing. The former was in +part settled by the acquisition of Bankot (1755) as a result of an +alliance with the peshwa, the latter by the successful expedition under +Watson and Clive against Vijayadrug (1756). During this period, too, the +importance of Bombay as a naval base, long since recognized, was +increased by the building of a dock (1750), a second being added in +1762. The year 1770 saw the beginning of the cotton trade with China, +the result of a famine in that country, the Chinese government having +issued an edict commanding more land to be used for growing grain. This, +too, was a period of searching reforms in the administration and the +planning and building of the city; the result being a further immense +growth of its population, which in 1780 was 113,000. This was still +further increased by the famine of 1803, which drove large numbers of +people from Konkan and the Deccan to seek employment in Bombay. A great +fire broke out in the fort in the same year and caused enormous loss; +but it enabled the government to open wider thoroughfares in the more +congested parts, and greatly stimulated the tendency of the natives to +build their houses and shops outside the walls of the fort in what are +now some of the busiest parts of the city. + +The British victory over the Mahrattas and the annexation of the Deccan +opened a new period of unrestricted development for Bombay. At this +time, too (1819), its fortunes were vigorously fostered by Mountstuart +Elphinstone, and in 1838 the population had risen to 236,000. But in the +next fifty years it more than doubled itself, the figures for 1891 being +821,000. This great leap was due to the influence of railways, of which +the first line was completed in 1853, the opening of the Suez Canal, and +the foundation of cotton factories. In 1866-1867 the tide of prosperity +was interrupted by a financial crisis, due to the fall in the price of +cotton on the termination of the American war. Bombay, however, soon +recovered herself, and in 1891 was more prosperous than ever before; but +during the ensuing decade great havoc was played by plague (q.v.) with +both her population and her trade. In addition to a decline of 6% in the +population, the exports also declined by 7%, whereas Calcutta's exports +rose during the same period by 38%. + + See S.M. Edwardes, _The Rise of Bombay_ (1902); James Douglas, _Bombay + and Western India_ (1893); G.W. Forrest, _Cities of India_ (1903); Sir + William Hunter, _History of British India_ (London, 1900); _Imp. + Gazetteer of India_ (Oxford, 1908), s.v. "Bombay City." + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Hunter, _Hist. of British India_, ii. pp. 212, &c. + + [2] See Hunter, op. cit. ii. 205, &c. He received a full pardon, was + appointed later to the command of a frigate in the royal navy, and + fell while leading the assault on St Christopher's (June 21, 1690). + + + + +BOMBAY FURNITURE. "Bombay blackwood furniture" is a term applied to a +rather extensive class of articles manufactured in the city of Bombay +and in the towns of Surat and Ahmedabad in India. The wood used is +Shisham or blackwood (_Dalbergia_), a hard-grained dark-coloured timber +which with proper treatment assumes a beautiful natural polish. Much of +the so-called Bombay furniture is clumsy and inelegant in form, defects +which it is suggested by experts, like Sir George Birdwood, it owes to +the circumstance that the original models were Dutch. Some of the +smaller articles, such as flower stands, small tables, and ornamental +stands, are, however, of exceedingly graceful contour, and good examples +are highly prized by collectors. The carving at its best is lace-like in +character, and apart from its inherent beauty is attractive on account +of the ingenuity shown by the worker in adapting his design in detail to +the purpose of the article he is fashioning. The workmen who manufacture +the most artistic Bombay furniture are a special class with inherited +traditions. Often a man knows only one design, which has been +transmitted to him by his father, who in his turn had had it from his +father before him. In recent years under European auspices efforts have +been made with a certain measure of success to modernize the industry by +introducing portions of the native work into furniture of Western +design. In the main, however, the conventional patterns are still +adhered to. "Bombay boxes" are inlaid in geometrical patterns on wood. +The inlaying materials consist of the wire, sandal wood, sapan wood, +ebony, ivory and stags' horns, and the effect produced by the +combination of minute pieces of these various substances is altogether +peculiar and distinctive. + + + + +BOMBAY PRESIDENCY, a province or presidency of British India, consisting +partly of British districts, and partly of native states under the +administration of a governor. This territory extends from 13 deg. 53' to +28 deg. 45' N., and from 66 deg. 40' to 76 deg. 30' E., and is bounded +on the N. by Baluchistan, the Punjab and Rajputana; on the E. by Indore, +the Central Provinces and Hyderabad; on the S. by Madras and Mysore; and +on the W. by the Arabian Sea. Within these limits lie the Portuguese +settlements of Diu, Damaun and Goa, and the native state of Baroda which +has direct relations with the government of India; while politically +Bombay includes the settlement of Aden. The total area, including Sind +but excluding Aden, is 188,745 sq. m., of which 122,984 sq. m. are under +British and 65,761 under native rule. The total population (1901) is +25,468,209, of which 18,515,587 are resident in British territory and +6,908,648 in native states. The province is divided into four +commissionerships and twenty-six districts. The four divisions are the +northern or Gujarat, the central or Deccan, the southern or Carnatic, +and Sind. The twenty-six districts are: Bombay City, Ahmedabad, Broach, +Kaira, Panch Mahals, Surat, Thana, Ahmednagar, Khandesh (partitioned +into two districts in 1906), Nasik, Poona, Satara, Sholapur, Belgaum, +Bijapur, Dharwar, Kanara, Kolaba, Ratnagiri, Karachi, Hyderabad, +Shikarpur, Thar and Parkar, and Upper Sind Frontier. The native states +comprise in all 353 separate units, which are administered either by +political agents or by the collectors of the districts in which the +smaller states are situated. The chief groups of states are North +Gujarat, comprising Cutch, Kathiawar agency, Palanpur agency, Mahi +Kantha agency, Rewa Kantha agency and Cambay; South Gujarat, comprising +Dharampur, Bansda and Sachin; North Konkan, Nasik and Khandesh, +comprising Khandesh political agency, Surgana and Jawhar; South Konkan +and Dharwar, comprising Janjira, Sawantwari and Savanur; the Deccan +Satara Jagirs, comprising Akalkot, Bhor, Aundh, Phaltan, Jath and +Daphlapur; the southern Mahratta states, comprising Kolhapur and other +states, and Khairpur in Sind. The native states under the supervision of +the government of Bombay are divided, historically and geographically, +into two main groups. The northern or Gujarat group includes the +territories of the gaekwar of Baroda, with the smaller states which form +the administrative divisions of Cutch, Palanpur, Rewa Kantha, and Mahi +Kantha. These territories, with the exception of Cutch, have an +historical connexion, as being the allies or tributaries of the gaekwar +in 1805, when final engagements were included between that prince and +the British government. The southern or Mahratta group includes +Kolhapur, Akalkot, Sawantwari, and the Satara and southern Mahratta +Jagirs, and has an historical bond of union in the friendship they +showed to the British in their final struggle with the power of the +peshwa in 1818. The remaining territories may conveniently be divided +into a small cluster of independent zamin-daris, situated in the wild +and hilly tracts at the northern extremity of the Sahyadri range, and +certain principalities which, from their history or geographical +position, are to some extent isolated from the rest of the presidency. + +_Physical Aspects._--The Bombay Presidency consists of a long strip of +land along the Indian Ocean from the south of the Punjab to the north of +Mysore. The coast is rock-bound and difficult of access; and though it +contains several bays forming fairweather ports for vessels engaged in +the coasting trade, Bombay, Karachi-in-Sind, Marmagoa and Karwar alone +have harbours sufficiently land-locked to protect shipping during the +prevalence of the south-west monsoon. The coast-line is regular and +little broken, save by the Gulfs of Cambay and Cutch, between which lies +the peninsula of Kathiawar. + + + Mountains. + +Speaking generally, a range of hills, known as the Western Ghats, runs +down the coast, at places rising in splendid bluffs and precipices from +the water's edge, at others retreating inland, and leaving a flat +fertile strip of 5 to 50 m. between their base and the sea. In the north +of the presidency on the right bank of the Indus, the Hala mountains, a +continuation of the great Suleiman range, separate British India from +the dominions of the khan of Kalat. Leaving Sind, and passing by the +ridges of low sandhills,--the leading feature of the desert east of the +Indus,--and the isolated hills of Cutch and Kathiawar, which form +geologically the western extremity of the Aravalli range, the first +extensive mountain range is that separating Gujarat from the states of +central India. The rugged and mountainous country south of the Tapti +forms the northern extremity of the Sahyadri or Western Ghats. This +great range of hills, sometimes overhanging the ocean, and generally +running parallel to it at a distance nowhere exceeding 50 m., with an +average elevation of about 1800 ft., contains individual peaks rising to +more than double that height. They stretch southwards for upwards of 500 +m., with a breadth of 10 to 20 m. The western declivity is abrupt, the +land at the base of the hills being but slightly raised above the level +of the sea. As is usually the case with the trap formation, they descend +to the plains in terraces with abrupt fronts. The landward slope is in +many places very gentle, the crest of the range being sometimes but +slightly raised above the level of the plateau of the Deccan. Their +best-known elevation is Mahabaleshwar, 4500 ft. high, a fine plateau, +37 m. from Poona, covered with rich vegetation, and used by the Bombay +government as its summer retreat and sanitarium. In the neighbourhood of +the Sahyadri hills, particularly towards the northern extremity of the +range, the country is rugged and broken, containing isolated peaks, +masses of rock and spurs, which, running eastward, form watersheds for +the great rivers of the Deccan. The Satpura hills separate the valley of +the Tapti from the valley of the Nerbudda, and the district of Khandesh +from the territories of Indore. The Satmala or Ajanta hills, which are +rather the northern slope of the plateau than a distinct range of hills, +separate Khandesh from the Nizam's Dominions. + + + Plains. + +The more level parts of Bombay consist of five well-demarcated +tracts--Sind, Gujarat, the Konkan, the Deccan, and the Carnatic. Sind, +or the lower valley of the Indus, is very flat, with but scanty +vegetation, and depending for productiveness entirely on irrigation. +Gujarat, except on its northern parts, consists of rich, highly +cultivated alluvial plains, watered by the Tapti and Nerbudda, but not +much subject to inundation. The Konkan lies between the Western Ghats +and the sea. It is a rugged and difficult country, intersected by +creeks, and abounding in isolated peaks and detached ranges of hills. +The plains of the Deccan and Khandesh are watered by large rivers, but +as the rainfall is uncertain, they are generally, during the greater +part of the year, bleak and devoid of vegetation. The Carnatic plain, or +the country south of the river Kistna, consists of extensive tracts of +black or cotton soil in a high state of cultivation. + + + Rivers. + +The chief river of western India is the Indus, which enters the +presidency from the north of Sind and flowing south in a tortuous +course, falls into the Arabian Sea by several mouths, such as the Ghizri +creek, Khudi creek, Pitiani creek, Sisa creek, Hajamro creek, Vatho +creek, Mall creek, Wari creek, Bhitiara creek, Sir creek and Khori +creek. In the dry season the bed varies at different places from 480 to +1600 yds. The flood season begins in March and continues till September, +the average depth of the river rising from 9 to 24 ft., and the velocity +of the current increasing from 3 to 7 m. an hour. Next to the Indus +comes the Nerbudda. Rising in the Central Provinces, and traversing the +dominions of Holkar, the Nerbudda enters the presidency at the +north-western extremity of the Khandesh district, flows eastward, and +after a course of 700 m. from its source, falls into the Gulf of Cambay, +forming near its mouth the alluvial plain of Broach, one of the richest +districts of Bombay. For about 100 m. from the sea the Nerbudda is at +all seasons navigable by small boats, and during the rains by vessels of +from 30 to 50 tons burden. The Tapti enters the presidency a few miles +south of the town of Burhanpur, a station on the Great Indian Peninsula +railway, flows eastward through the district of Khandesh, the native +state of Rewa Kantha and the district of Surat, and falls into the Gulf +of Cambay, a few miles west of the town of Surat. The Tapti drains about +250 m. of country, and is, in a commercial point of view, the most +useful of the Gujarat rivers. Besides these there are many minor +streams. The Banas and the Saraswati take their rise in the Aravalli +hills, and flowing eastward through the native state of Palanpur, fall +into the Runn of Cutch. The Sabarmati and the Mahi rise in the Mahi +Kantha hills, and flowing southwards, drain the districts of Northern +Gujarat, and fall into the sea near the head of the Gulf of Cambay. The +streams which, rising in the Sahyadri range, or Western Ghats, flow +westward into the Arabian Sea, are of little importance. During the +rains they are formidable torrents, but with the return of the fair +weather they dwindle away, and during the hot season, with a few +exceptions, they almost dry up. Clear and rapid as they descend the +hills, on reaching the lowlands of the Konkan they become muddy and +brackish creeks. The Kanarese rivers have a larger body of water and a +more regular flow than the streams of the Konkan. One of them, the +Sharawati, forcing its way through the western ridge of the Ghats, +plunges from the high to the low country by a succession of falls, the +principal of which is 800 ft. in height. The Sahyadri, or Western Ghats, +also throw off to the eastward the two principal rivers of the Madras +Presidency, the Godavari and the Kistna. These rivers collect countless +tributary streams, some of them of considerable size, and drain the +entire plain of the Deccan as they pass eastward towards the Bay of +Bengal. + + + Lakes. + +The Manchar Lake is situated on the right bank of the Indus. During +inundations it attains a length of 20 m., and a breadth of 10, covering +a total area estimated at 180 sq. m. But the most peculiar lacustrine +feature of the presidency is the Runn or Lake of Cutch, which, according +to the season of the year, is a salt marsh, an inland lake, or an arm of +the sea with an area of 8000 sq. m. It forms the western boundary of the +province of Gujarat, and when flooded during the rains unites the Gulfs +of Cutch and Cambay, and converts the territory of Cutch into an island. + +_Geology._--South of Gujarat nearly the whole of Bombay is covered by +the horizontal lava flows of the Deccan Trap series, and these flows +spread over the greater part of the Kathiawar peninsula and extend into +Cutch. In Cutch and Kathiawar they are underlaid by Jurassic and +Neocomian beds. The Jurassic beds are marine and contain numerous +Ammonites, but the beds which are referred to the Neocomian include a +series of sandstones and shales with remains of plants. Several of the +plants are identical with forms which occur in the upper portion of the +Gondwana system. Tertiary limestones, sandstones and shales overlie the +Deccan Trap in Cutch, but the greatest development of deposits of this +age is to be met with on the western side of the Indus (see SIND). The +plain of Sind and of eastern Gujarat is covered by alluvium and +wind-blown sand. + +_Climate._--Great varieties of climate are met with in the presidency. +In its extreme dryness and heat, combined with the aridity of a sandy +soil, Upper Sind resembles the sultry deserts of Africa. The mean +maximum temperature at Hyderabad, in Lower Sind, during the six hottest +months of the year, is 98 deg. F. in the shade, and the water of the +Indus reaches blood heat; in Upper Sind it is even hotter, and the +thermometer has been known to register 130 deg. in the shade. In Cutch +and in Gujarat the heat, though less, is still very great. The Konkan is +hot and moist, the fall of rain during the monsoon sometimes approaching +300 in. The table-land of the Deccan above the Ghats, on the contrary, +has an agreeable climate except in the hot months, as has also the +southern Mahratta country; and in the hills of Mahabaleshwar, Singarh, +and other detached heights, Europeans may go out at all hours with +impunity. Bombay Island itself, though in general cooled by the sea +breeze, is oppressively hot during May and October. The south-west +monsoon generally sets in about the first week in June, and pours down +volumes of rain along the coast. From June to October travelling is +difficult and unpleasant, except in Sind, where the monsoon rains exert +little influence. + +_Forests._--Bombay Presidency possesses two great classes of +forests--those of the hills and those of the alluvial plains. The hill +forests are scattered over a wide area, extending from 23 deg. to 14 +deg. N. lat. Most of them lie among the Sahyadri hills or Western Ghats. +The alluvial forests lie in Sind, on or close to the banks of the Indus, +and extend over an area of 550 sq. m. The principal timber trees in the +forests are--teak; blackwood of two varieties (_Dalbergia Sisu_ and +_Dalbergia latifolia_), _Dalbergia ujainensis, Pterocarpus Marsupium, +Terminalia glabra, Acacia arabica, Acacia Catechu, Nauclea cordifolia, +Nauclea parvifolia, Bidelia spinosa, Hardwickia binata, Juga xylocarpa, +Populus euphratica_, and _Tamarindus indica_. The forests contain many +trees which, on account of their fruits, nuts or berries, are valuable, +irrespective of the quality of their timber. Among these are the mango +(_Mangifera indica_); the jack (_Artocarpus integrifolia_), _Zizypkus +Jujuba, Aegle Marmelos, Terminalia Chebula, Calophyllum Inophyllum, +Bassia latifolia and Pongamia glabra_. The jungle tribes collect gum +from several varieties of trees, and in Sind the Forest Department +derives a small revenue from lac. The palms of the presidency consist of +cocoa-nut, date, palmyra and areca catechu. + +_Population._--The census of 1901 gave a total of 25,468,209, out of +which the chief religions furnished the following numbers:-- + + Hindu 19,916,438 + Mahommedan 4,567,295 + Jain 535,950 + Zoroastrian 78,552 + Christian 216,118 + +In Sind Islam has been the predominant religion from the earliest Arab +conquest in the 8th century. In Gujarat the predominant religion is +Hinduism, though petty Mahommedan kingdoms have left their influence in +many parts of the province. The Deccan is the home of the Mahrattas, who +constitute 30% of the population. The Konkan is notable for various +Christian castes, owing their origin to Portuguese rule; while in the +Carnatic, Lingayatism, a Hindu reformation movement of the 12th century, +has been embraced by 45% of the population. The Mahrattas are the +dominating race next to the Europeans and number (1901) 3,650,000, +composed of 1,900,000 Kunbis, 350,000 Konkanis, and 1,400,000 Mahrattas +not otherwise specified. + +_Languages._--The chief languages of the presidency are Sindhi in Sind, +Cutchi in Cutch, Gujarati and Hindustani in Gujarat, Mahratti in Thana +and the central division, Gujarati and Mahratti in Khandesh, and +Mahratti and Kanarese in the southern division. There are also Bhil +(120,000) and Gipsy (30,000) dialects. + +_Agriculture._--The staple crops are as follows:--Joar (_Sorghum +vulgare_) and bajra (_Holcus spicatus_) are the staple food grains in +the Deccan and Khandesh. Rice is the chief product of the Konkan. Wheat, +generally grown in the northern part of the Presidency, but specially in +Sind and Gujarat, is exported to Europe in large quantities from +Karachi, and on a smaller scale from Bombay. Barley is principally grown +in the northern parts of the presidency. Nachani (_Eleusine coracana_) +and kodra (_Paspalum serobiculatum_), inferior grains grown on the +hill-sides, furnish food to the Kolis, Bhils, Waralis, and other +aboriginal tribes. Of the pulses the most important are gram (_Cicer +arietinum_), tur (_Cajanus indicus_), kulti (_Dolichos biflorus_), and +mug (_Phaseolus Mungo_). Principal oil-seeds: til (_Sesamum orientale_), +mustard, castor-oil, safflower and linseed. Of fibres the most important +are cotton, Deccan hemp (_Hibiscus cannabinus_), and sunn or tag +(_Crotalaria juncea_). Much has been done to improve the cotton of the +presidency. American varieties have been introduced with much advantage +in the Dharwar collectorate and other parts of the southern Mahratta +country. In Khandesh the indigenous plant from which one of the lowest +classes of cotton in the Bombay market takes its name has been almost +entirely superseded by the superior Hinganghat variety. Miscellaneous +crops: sugar-cane, requiring a rich soil and a perennial water-supply, +and only grown in favoured localities, red pepper, potatoes, turmeric +and tobacco. + +_Manufactures._--The chief feature of the modern industrial life of +Bombay is the great development in the growth and manufacture of cotton. +Large steam mills have rapidly sprung up in Bombay City, Ahmedabad and +Khandesh. In 1905 there were 432 factories in the presidency, of which +by far the greater number were engaged in the preparation and +manufacture of cotton. The industry is centred in Bombay City and +Island, which contains nearly two-thirds of the mills. During the decade +1891-1901 the mill industry passed through a period of depression due to +widespread plague and famine, but on the whole there has been a marked +expansion of the trade as well as a great improvement in the class of +goods produced. In addition to the mills there are (1901) 178,000 +hand-loom weavers in the province, who still have a position of their +own in the manipulation of designs woven into the cloth. Silk goods are +manufactured in Ahmedabad, Surat, Yeola, Nasik, Thana and Bombay, the +material being often decorated with printed or woven designs; but owing +to the competition of European goods most branches of the industry are +declining. The custom of investing savings in gold and silver ornaments +gives employment to many goldsmiths; the metal is usually supplied by +the customer, and the goldsmith charges for his labour. Ahmedabad and +Surat are famous for their carved wood-work. Many of the houses in +Ahmedabad are covered with elaborate wood-carving, and excellent +examples exist in Broach, Baroda, Surat, Nasik and Yeola. Salt is made +in large quantities in the government works at Kharaghoda and Udu in +Ahmedabad, whence it is exported by rail to Gujarat and central India. +There is one brewery at Dapuri near Poona. + +_Railways and Irrigation._--The province is well supplied with railways, +all of which, with one exception, concentrate at Bombay City. The +exception is the North-Western line, which enters Sind from the Punjab +and finds its natural terminus at Karachi. The other chief lines are the +Great Indian Peninsula, Indian Midland, Bombay, Baroda & Central India, +Rajputana-Malwa & Southern Mahratta systems. In 1905 the total length of +railway under the Bombay government open for traffic was 7980 m. These +figures do not include the railway system in Sind. With the exception of +Sind, the water-supply of the Bombay Presidency does not lend itself to +the construction of large irrigation works. + +_Army._--Under Lord Kitchener's re-arrangement of the Indian army in +1904 the old Bombay command was abolished and its place was taken by the +Western army corps under a lieutenant-general. The army corps was +divided into three divisions under major-generals. The 4th division, +with headquarters at Quetta, comprises the troops in the Quetta and Sind +districts. The 5th division, with headquarters at Mhow, consists of +three brigades, located at Nasirabad, Jubbulpore and Jhansi, and +includes the previous Mhow, Deesa, Nagpur, Nerbudda and Bundelkhand +districts, with the Bombay district north of the Tapti. The 6th +division, with headquarters at Poona, consists of three brigades, +located at Bombay, Ahmednagar and Aden. It comprises the previous Poona +district, Bombay district south of the Tapti, Belgaum district north of +the Tungabhadra, and Dharwar and Aurungabad districts. + +_Education._--The university of Bombay, established in 1857, is a body +corporate, consisting of a chancellor, vice-chancellor and fellows. The +governor of Bombay is _ex officio_ chancellor. The education department +is under a director of public instruction, who is responsible for the +administration of the department in accordance with the general +educational policy of the state. The native states have generally +adopted the government system. Baroda and the Kathiawar states employ +their own inspectors. In 1905 the total number of educational +institutions was 10,194 with 593,431 pupils. There are ten art colleges, +of which two are managed by government, three by native states, and five +are under private management. According to the census of 1901, out of a +population of 25-1/2 millions nearly 24 millions were illiterate. + +_Administration._--The government of Bombay is administered by a +governor in council consisting of the governor as president and two +ordinary members. The governor is appointed from England; the council is +appointed by the crown, and selected from the Indian civil service. +These are the executive members of government. For making laws there is +a legislative council, consisting of the governor and his executive +council, with certain other persons, not fewer than eight or more than +twenty, at least half of them being non-officials. Each of the members +of the executive council has in his charge one or two departments of the +government; and each department has a secretary, an under-secretary, and +an assistant secretary, with a numerous staff of clerks. The political +administration of the native states is under the superintendence of +British agents placed at the principal native courts; their position +varies in different states according to the relations in which the +principalities stand with the paramount power. The administration of +justice throughout the presidency is conducted by a high court at +Bombay, consisting of a chief justice and seven puisne judges, along +with district and assistant judges throughout the districts of the +presidency. The administration of the districts is carried on by +collectors, assistant collectors, and a varying number of supernumerary +assistants. + +_History._--In the earliest times of which any record remains the +greater part of the west coast of India was occupied by Dravidian +tribes, living under their kings in fortified villages, carrying on the +simpler arts of life, and holding a faith in which the propitiation of +spirits and demons played the chief part. There is evidence, however, +that so early as 1000 B.C. an export trade existed to the Red Sea by way +of East Africa, and before 750 B.C. a similar trade had sprung up with +Babylon by way of the Persian Gulf. It was by this latter route that the +traders brought back to India the Brahmi alphabet, the art of +brick-making and the legend of the Flood. Later still the settlement of +Brahmans along the west coast had already Aryanized the country in +religion, and to some extent in language, before the Persian conquest of +the Indus valley at the close of the 6th century B.C. The Persian +dominion did not long survive; and the march of Alexander the Great down +the Indus paved the way for Chandragupta and the Maurya empire. Under +this empire Ujjain was the seat of a viceroy, a prince of the imperial +house, who ruled over Kathiawar, Malwa and Gujarat. On the death of +Asoka in 231 B.C. the empire of the Mauryas broke up, and their heritage +in the west fell to the Andhra dynasty of the Satavahanas of Paithan on +the Godavari, a Dravidian family whose dominion by 200 B.C. stretched +across the peninsula from the deltas of the Godavari and Kistna to Nasik +and the Western Ghats. About A.D. 210, however, their power in the west +seems to have died out, and their place was taken by the foreign dynasty +of the Kshaharatas, the Saka satraps of Surashtra (Kathiawar), who in +120 had mastered Ujjain and Gujarat and had built up a rival kingdom to +the north. Since about A.D. 40 the coast cities had been much enriched +by trade with the Roman empire, which both the Satavahanas and the +satraps did much to encourage; but after the fall of Palmyra (273) and +the extinction of the main Kshaharata dynasty (c. 300) this commerce +fell into decay. The history of the century and a half that follows is +very obscure; short-lived Saka dynasties succeeded one another until, +about 388, the country was conquered by the Guptas of Magadha, who kept +a precarious tenure of it till about 470, when their empire was +destroyed by the White Huns, or Ephthalites (q.v.), who, after +breaking the power of Persia and assailing the Kushan kingdom of Kabul, +poured into India, conquered Sind, and established their dominion as far +south as the Nerbudda. + +Under the Hun tyranny, which lasted till the overthrow of the White Huns +on the Oxus by the Turks (c. 565), native dynasties had survived, or new +ones had established themselves. In Kathiawar a chief named Bhatarka, +probably of foreign origin, had established himself at Valabhi (Wala) on +the ruins of the Gupta power (c. 500), and founded a dynasty which +lasted until it was overthrown by Arab invaders from Sind in 770.[1] The +northern Konkan was held by the Mauryas of Puri near Bombay, the +southerly coast by the Kadambas of Vanavasi, while in the southern +Deccan Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas struggled for the mastery. A new +power, too, appeared from the north: the Gurjaras (ancestors, it is +supposed, of the Gujar caste), who had probably entered India with the +White Huns, established their power over Gujarat and (c. 600) overran +north-eastern Kathiawar, made the raja of Valabhi their tributary, and +established a branch at Broach (585-740). During the short-lived empire +of Harsha (d. 647 or 648), Malwa, Gujarat and Kathiawar were subject to +his sway; but the southern boundary of his kingdom was the Nerbudda, +south of which the Chalukyas in the 7th century, having overcome the +Rashtrakutas and other rivals, had absorbed the smaller kingdoms into +their empire. In 710-711 (92 A.H.) the Arabs invaded India, and in 712 +conquered and established themselves in Sind; they did not, however, +attempt any serious attack on the Gurjara and Chalukya empires, +confining themselves to more or less serious raids. In 770 they +destroyed the city of Valabhi and, as already mentioned, brought its +dynasty to an end. Meanwhile the Chalukyas, after successfully +struggling with the Pallavas (whose capital was taken by Vikramaditya +II., c. 740), had in their turn succumbed to their ancient rivals the +Rashtrakutas, who succeeded to the bulk of their dominions, including +Gujarat, where they had set up a branch line. For some two centuries (c. +750-950) there was a balance of power between the Gurjaras and +Rashtrakutas, neither kingdom being strong enough to encroach on the +other to any extent. The Rashtrakutas were, moreover, debarred from +large schemes of conquest by dissensions with the branch dynasty which +they had set up in Gujarat and by the constant threat of attack by the +Chalukyas from Mysore. Nevertheless their power and magnificence (they +were notable builders and patrons of literature) greatly impressed the +Arabs, by whom the king was known as Balhara (_i.e. Vallhaba_, +"well-beloved"), a title borrowed from the preceding dynasty. Under them +the Konkan and the coast farther south were governed by chiefs of the +Silahara family, whose rule is mainly notable for the revival of trade +with the Persian Gulf and, doubtless as a result of this, the arrival in +775 on the west coast of a number of Parsee refugees, who found, in a +country where three religions were already equally honoured, the +toleration denied to them in Mussulman Persia. But in the 10th century +the Rashtrakuta power began to break up; in 961 Mularaja Solanki +(Chalukya) conquered the kingdom of Anhilvada (Anhilvara) in Gujarat, +where his dynasty reigned till 1242; and twelve years later the +Chalukyas once more overthrew the Rashtrakutas in the Deccan, +establishing their capital at Kalyani, while a branch line was set up in +southern Gujarat. Farther south the Silaharas, however, continued to +rule the coast, and succeeded in maintaining their independence until +after the final fall of the Chalukyas in 1192. The cause of the downfall +of the dynasty, splendid and enlightened as any of its predecessors, was +the system of governing by means of great feudatories, which also proved +fatal to the Solanki rajas of Anhilvada. From 1143 onward the power of +the latter had been overshadowed by that of the Vaghela chiefs of +Dholka, and during the same period the Deccan had been rapidly lapsing +into absolute anarchy, amid which rival chiefs struggled for the supreme +power. In the end the Yadavas of Devagiri (Daulatabad) prevailed, and in +1192 established a short-lived empire to which the Dholka princes were +ultimately forced to become tributary. + +But meanwhile a new power had appeared, which was destined to establish +the Mussulman domination in western and southern India. In 1023 Mahmud +of Ghazni had already invaded Gujarat with a large army, destroyed the +national Hindu idol of Somnath, and carried away an immense booty. +Mahommed Ghori also invaded Gujarat, and left a garrison in its capital. +But it was not till after the Mussulman power was firmly established in +northern India that the Mahommedan sovereigns of Delhi attempted the +conquest of the south. In 1294 the emperor Ala-ud-din first invaded the +Deccan, and in 1297 he conquered Gujarat. In 1312 the Mahommedan arms +were triumphant through the Mahratta country; and seven years later the +whole of Malabar fell a prey to the invaders. In the middle of the 14th +century the weakness of the Delhi sovereigns tempted the governors of +provinces to revolt against their distant master, and to form +independent kingdoms. In this way the Bahmani kingdom was established in +the Deccan, and embraced a part of the Bombay presidency. Ahmednagar and +Gujarat also became the seats of a new kingdom. In 1573 Akbar conquered +Gujarat and reannexed it to the empire; in 1599 he effected the +reconquest of Khandesh, and in 1600 that of Ahmednagar. From this time +the country was never tranquil, and Ahmednagar became the focus of +constant rebellions. During the latter part of the 17th century the +Mahrattas rose into power, and almost every part of the country now +comprising the presidency of Bombay fell under their sway. In 1498 the +Portuguese came first to Calicut, their earliest possession in the +presidency being the island of Anjidiv. After their victory at Diu over +the Egyptian fleet their mastery of the Indian Ocean was undisputed, and +they proceeded to establish themselves on the coast. They captured Goa +in 1510, Malacca in 1511, and Ormuz in 1515. They next took advantage of +the decay of the kingdom of Gujarat to occupy Chaul (1531), Bassein with +its dependencies, including Bombay (1534), Diu (1535) and Daman (1559). +But the inherent vices of their intolerant system undermined their +power, even before their Dutch and English rivals appeared on the scene. + +The first English settlement in the Bombay presidency was in 1618, when +the East India Company established a factory at Surat, protected by a +charter obtained from the emperor Jahangir. In 1626 the Dutch and +English made an unsuccessful attempt to gain possession of the island of +Bombay, and in 1653 proposals were suggested for its purchase from the +Portuguese. In 1661 it was ceded to the English crown, as part of the +dower of the infanta Catherine of Portugal on her marriage with Charles +II. So lightly was the acquisition esteemed in England, and so +unsuccessful was the administration of the crown officers, that in 1668 +Bombay was transferred to the East India Company for an annual payment +of L10. At the time of the transfer, powers for its defence and for the +administration of justice were also conferred; a European regiment Vas +enrolled; and the fortifications erected proved sufficient to deter the +Dutch from their intended attack in 1673 (see BOMBAY CITY: History). In +1687 Bombay was placed at the head of all the Company's possessions in +India; but in 1753 the government of Bombay became subordinate to that +of Calcutta. The first collision of the English with the Mahratta power +was in 1774 and resulted in 1782 in the treaty of Salbai, by which +Salsette was ceded to the British, while Broach was handed over to +Sindhia. More important were the results of the second Mahratta war, +which ended in 1803. Surat had already been annexed in 1800; the East +India Company now received the districts of Broach, Kaira, &c. + +In 1803 the Bombay presidency included only Salsette, the islands of the +harbour (since 1774), Surat and Bankot (since 1756); but between this +date and 1827 the framework of the presidency took its present shape. +The Gujarat districts were taken over by the Bombay government in 1805 +and enlarged in 1818; and the first measures for the settlement of +Kathiawar and Mahi Kantha were taken between 1807 and 1820. Baji Rao, +the last of the peshwas, who had attempted to shake off the British +yoke, was defeated, captured and pensioned (1817-1818), and large +portions of his dominions (Poona, Ahmednagar, Nasik, Sholapur, Belgaum, +Kaladgi, Dharwar, &c.) were included in the presidency, the settlement +of which was completed by Mountstuart Elphinstone, governor from 1819 to +1827. His policy was to rule as far as possible on native lines, +avoiding all changes for which the population was not yet ripe; but the +grosser abuses of the old regime were stopped, the country was pacified, +the laws were codified, and courts and schools were established. The +period that followed is notable mainly for the enlargement of the +presidency through the lapse of certain native states, by the addition +of Aden (1839) and Sind (1843), and the lease of the Panch Mahals from +Sindhia (1853). The establishment of an orderly administration, one +outcome of which was a general fall of prices that made the unwonted +regularity of the collection of taxes doubly unwelcome, naturally +excited a certain amount of misgiving and resentment; but on the whole +the population was prosperous and contented, and under Lord Elphinstone +(1853-1860) the presidency passed through the crisis of the Mutiny +without any general rising. Outbreaks among the troops at Karachi, +Ahmedabad and Kolhapur were quickly put down, two regiments being +disbanded, and the rebellions in Gujarat, among the Bhils, and in the +southern Mahratta country were local and isolated. Under Sir Bartle +Frere (1862-1867) agricultural prosperity reached its highest point, as +a result of the American Civil War and the consequent enormous demand +for Indian cotton in Europe. The money thus poured into the country +produced an epidemic of speculation known as the "Share Mania" +(1864-1865), which ended in a commercial crisis and the failure of the +bank of Bombay (1866). But the peasantry gained on the whole more than +they lost, and the trade of Bombay was not permanently injured. Sir +Bartle Frere encouraged the completion of the great trunk lines of +railways, and with the funds obtained by the demolition of the town +walls (1862) he began the magnificent series of public buildings that +now adorn Bombay. + +During recent times the entire history of Bombay has been sadly affected +by plague and famine. Bubonic plague, of a fatal and contagious nature, +first broke out in Bombay City in September 1896, and, despite all the +efforts of the government, quickly spread to the surrounding country. +Down to the end of October 1902 over 531,000 deaths had taken place due +to plague. In 1903-1904 there were 426,387 cases with 316,523 deaths, +and 1904-1905 there were 285,897 cases with 212,948 deaths. The great +cities of Bombay, Karachi and Poona suffered most severely. A few +districts in Gujarat almost entirely escaped; but the mortality was very +heavy in Satara, Thana, Surat, Poona, Kolaba, and in the native states +of Cutch, Baroda, Kolhapur and Palanpur. The only sanitary measure that +can be said to have been successful was complete migration, which could +only be adopted in villages and smaller towns. Inoculation was +extensively tried in some cases. Segregation was the one general method +of fighting the disease; but, unfortunately, it was misunderstood by the +people and led to some deplorable outbreaks. In Poona, during 1897, two +European officials were assassinated; the editor of a prominent native +paper was sentenced to imprisonment for sedition; and two leaders of the +Brahman community were placed in confinement. At Bombay, in March 1898, +a riot begun by Mahommedan weavers was not suppressed until several +Europeans had been fatally injured. In Nasik district, in January 1898, +the native chairman of the plague committee was brutally murdered by a +mob. But on the whole the people submitted with characteristic docility +to the sanitary regulations of the government. Bombay, like the Central +Provinces, suffered from famine twice within three years. The failure of +the monsoon of 1896 caused widespread distress throughout the Deccan, +over an area of 46,000 sq. m., with a population of 7 millions. The +largest number of persons on relief was 301,056 in September 1897; and +the total expenditure on famine relief was Rs. 1,28,000,000. The +measures adopted were signally successful, both in saving life and in +mitigating distress. In 1899 the monsoon again failed in Gujarat, where +famine hitherto had been almost unknown; and the winter rains failed in +the Deccan, so that distress gradually spread over almost the entire +presidency. The worst feature was a virulent outbreak of cholera in +Gujarat, especially in the native states. In April 1900 the total number +of persons in receipt of relief was 1,281,159 in British districts, +566,671 in native states, and 71,734 in Baroda. For 1900-1901 the total +expenditure on famine relief was nearly 3 crores (say, L2,000,000 +sterling); and a continuance of drought necessitated an estimate of 1 +crore in the budget of the following year. The Bombay government +exhausted its balances in 1897, and was subsequently dependent on grants +from the government of India. + + See Sir James Campbell, _Gazetteer of Bombay_ (26 vols., 1896); S.M. + Edwardes, _The Rise of Bombay_ (1902); James Douglas, _Bombay and + Western India_ (1893); and Sir William Lee-Warner, _The Presidency of + Bombay_ (Society of Arts, 1904); _The Imperial Gazetteer of India_ + (Oxford, 1908); and for the early history, V.A. Smith, _The Early + History of India_ (2nd ed., Oxford, 1908). + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] V.A. Smith, _Early History of India_, p. 295. + + + + +BOMBAZINE, or BOMBASINE, a stuff originally made of silk or silk and +wool, and now also made of cotton and wool or of wool alone. Good +bombazine is made with a silk warp and a worsted weft. It is twilled or +corded and used for dress-material. Black bombazine has been used +largely for mourning, but the material has gone out of fashion. The word +is derived from the obsolete French _bombasin_, applied originally to +silk but afterwards to "tree-silk" or cotton. Bombazine is said to have +been made in England in Queen Elizabeth's reign, and early in the 19th +century it was largely made at Norwich. + + + + +BOMBELLES, MARC MARIE, MARQUIS DE (1744-1822), French diplomatist and +ecclesiastic, was the son of the comte de Bombelles, tutor and guardian +of the duke of Orleans. He was born at Bitsch in Lorraine, and served in +the army through the Seven Years' War. In 1765 he entered the diplomatic +service, and after several diplomatic missions became ambassador of +France to Portugal in 1786, being charged to win over that country to +the Family Compact; but the madness of the queen and then the death of +the king prevented his success. He was transferred to Vienna early in +1789, but the Revolution cut short his diplomatic career, and he was +deprived of his post in September 1790. He remained attached to Louis +XVI., and was employed on secret missions to other sovereigns, to gain +their aid for Louis. In 1792 he emigrated, and after Valmy lived in +retirement in Switzerland. In 1804, after the death of his wife, he +withdrew to the monastery of Brunn in Austria, and became bishop of +Oberglogau in Prussia. In 1815 he returned to France, and became bishop +of Amiens (1819). He died in Paris in 1822. + +His son, LOUIS PHILIPPE, comte de Bombelles (1780-1843), born at +Regensburg, passed his life in the diplomatic service of Austria. In +1814 he became Austrian ambassador to Denmark, and in 1816 filled a +similar position at Dresden. (E. Es.) + + + + +BOMBERG, DANIEL, a famous Christian printer of Hebrew books. His chief +activity was in Venice between 1516 and 1549 (the year of his death). +Bomberg introduced a new era in Hebrew typography. Among other great +enterprises, he published the _editio princeps_ (1516-1517) of the +rabbinical Bible (Hebrew text with rabbinical commentaries, &c.). He +also produced the first complete edition of the Talmud (1520-1523). + + + + +BONA, JOHN (1609-1674), Italian cardinal and author, was born at Mondovi +in Piedmont, on the 10th of October 1609. In 1624 he joined the +Congregation of Feuillants and was successively elected prior of Asti, +abbot of Mondovi and general of his order. He was created cardinal in +1669 by Clement IX., and during the conclave, which followed that pope's +death, was regarded as a possible candidate for the papacy. He died on +the 27th of October 1674. Bona's writings are mainly concerned with +liturgical and devotional subjects. Of the numerous editions of his +works, the best are those of Paris (1677), Turin (1747) and Antwerp +(1777). Stores of interesting rubrical information, interspersed with +verses and prayers, are to be found in the _De Libris Liturgicis_ and +the _Divina Psalmodia_; recent advances in liturgical studies, however, +have somewhat lessened their value. The _De Discretione Spirituum_ +treats of certain higher phases of mysticism; the _Via Compendii ad +Deum_ was well translated in 1876 by Henry Collins, O. Cist., under the +title of _An Easy Way to God_. Sir Roger L'Estrange's translation (_The +Guide to Heaven_, 1680) of the _Manuductio ad Coelum_ was reprinted in +1898, and a new edition of the _Principia Vitae Christianae_, ed. by D. +O'Connor, appeared in 1906. The devotional treatise _De Sacrificio +Missae_ is the classical work in its field (new edition by Ildephonsus +Cummins, 1903). + + The chief source for the life of Bona is the biography by the + Cistercian abbot Bertolotti (Asti, 1677); the best modern study is by + A. Ighina (Mondovi, 1874). + + + + +BONA (BONE), a seaport of Algeria, in 36 deg. 53' N., 7 deg. 46' E., on +a bay of the Mediterranean, chief town of an arrondissement in the +department of Constantine, 220 m. by rail W. of Tunis, and 136 m. N.E. +of Constantine. The town, which is situated at the foot of the wooded +heights of Edugh, is surrounded with a modern rampart erected outside +the old Arab wall, the compass of which was found too small for its +growth. Much of the old town has been demolished, and its general +character now is that of a flourishing French city. The streets are wide +and well laid out, but some are very steep. Through the centre of the +town runs a broad tree-lined promenade, the Cours Jerome-Bertagna, +formerly the Cours National, in which are the principal buildings +--theatre, banks, hotels. At its southern end, by the quay, is a bronze +statue of Thiers, and at the northern end, the cathedral of St +Augustine, a large church built in quasi-Byzantine style. In it is +preserved a relic supposed to be the right arm of St Augustine, brought +from Pavia in 1842. The Grand Mosque, built out of ruins of the ancient +Hippo, occupies one side of the chief square, the Place d'Armes. There +are barracks with accommodation for 3000 men, and civil and military +hospitals. The Kasbah (citadel) stands on a hill at the north-east of +the town. The inner harbour, covering 25 acres, is surrounded by fine +quays at which vessels drawing 22 ft. can be moored. Beyond is a +spacious outer harbour, built 1857-1868 and enlarged in 1905-1907. Bona +is in direct steamship communication with Marseilles, and is the centre +of a large commerce, ranking after Algiers and Oran alone in Algeria. It +imports general merchandise and manufactures, and exports phosphates, +iron, zinc, barley, sheep, wool, cork, esparto, &c. There are +manufactories of native garments, tapestry and leather. The marshes at +the mouths of the Seybuse and Bujema rivers, which enter the sea to the +south of Bona, have been drained by a system of canals, to the +improvement of the sanitary condition of the town, which has the further +advantage of an abundant water supply obtained from the Edugh hills. +There are cork woods and marble quarries in the vicinity, and the valley +of the Seybuse and the neighbouring plains are rich in agricultural +produce. The population of the town of Bona in 1906 was 36,004, of the +commune 42,934, of the arrondissement, which includes La Calle (q.v.) +and 11 other communes, 77,803. + +Bona is identified with the ancient _Aphrodisium_, the seaport of _Hippo +Regius_ or _Ubbo_, but it derives its name from the latter city, the +ruins of which, consisting of large cisterns, now restored, and +fragments of walls, are about a mile to the south of the town. In the +first three centuries of the Christian era Hippo was one of the richest +cities in Roman Africa; but its chief title to fame is derived from its +connexion with St Augustine, who lived here as priest and bishop for +thirty-five years. Hippo was captured by the Vandals under Genseric in +431, after a siege of fourteen months, during which Augustine died. Only +the cathedral, together with Augustine's library and MSS., escaped the +general destruction. The town Avas partially restored by Belisarius, and +again sacked by the Arabs in the 7th century. On the top of the hill on +which Hippo stood, a large basilica, with chancel towards the west, +dedicated to St Augustine, was opened in 1900. An altar surmounted by a +bronze statue of the saint has also been erected among the ruins. The +place was named Hippo Regius (Royal) by the Romans because it was a +favourite residence of the Numidian kings. Bona (Arabic _annaba_, "the +city of jujube trees"), which has passed through many vicissitudes, was +built by the Arabs, and was for centuries a possession of the rulers of +Tunis, who built the Kasbah in 1300. From the beginning of the 14th to +the middle of the 15th century it was frequented by Italians and +Spaniards, and in the 16th it was held for some time by Charles V., who +strengthened its citadel. Thereafter it was held in turn by Genoese, +Tunisians and Algerines. From the time of Louis XIV. to the Revolution, +the French _Compagnie d'Afrique_ maintained a very active trade with the +port. The town was occupied by the French for a few months in 1830 and +reoccupied in 1832, when Captains Armandy and Yusuf with a small force +of marines seized the Kasbah and held it for some months until help +arrived. From that time the history of Bona is one of industrial +development, greatly stimulated since 1883 by the discovery of the +phosphate beds at Tebessa. + + + + +BONA DEA, the "good goddess," an old Roman deity of fruitfulness, both +in the earth and in women. She was identified with Fauna, and by later +syncretism also with Ops and Maia--the latter no doubt because the +dedication-day of her temple on the Aventine was 1st May (Ovid, _Fasti_, +v. 149 foll.). This temple was cared for, and the cult attended, by +women only, and the same was the case at a second celebration at the +beginning of December in the house of a magistrate with _imperium_, +which became famous owing to the profanation of these mysteries by P. +Clodius in 62 B.C., and the political consequences of his act. Wine and +myrtle were tabooed in the cult of this deity, and myths grew up to +explain these features of the cult, of which an account may be read in +W.W. Fowler's _Roman Festivals_, pp. 103 foll. Herbs with healing +properties were kept in her temple, and also snakes, the usual symbol of +the medicinal art. Her victim was a porca, as in the cults of other +deities of fertility, and was called _damium_, and we are told that the +goddess herself was known as Damia and her priestess as _damiatrix_. +These names are almost certainly Greek; Damia is found worshipped at +several places in Greece, and also at Tarentum, where there was a +festival called _Dameia_. It is thus highly probable that on the cult of +the original Roman goddess was engrafted the Greek one of Damia, +perhaps after the conquest of Tarentum (272 B.C.). It is no longer +possible to distinguish clearly the Greek and Roman elements in this +curious cult, though it is itself quite intelligible as that of an +Earth-goddess with mysteries attached. + + See also Pauly-Wissowa, _Realencyclopadie_. (W. W. F.*) + + + + +BONA FIDE (Lat. "in good faith"), in law, a term implying the absence of +all fraud or unfair dealing or acting. It is usually employed in +conjunction with a noun, e.g. "bona fide purchaser," one who has +purchased property from its legal owner, to whom he has paid the +consideration, and from whom he has taken a legal conveyance, without +having any notice of any trust affecting the property; "bona fide +holder" of a bill of exchange, one who has taken a bill complete and +regular on the face of it, before it was overdue, and in good faith and +for value, and without notice of any defect in the title of the person +who negotiated it to him; "bona fide traveller" under the licensing +acts, one whose lodging-place during the preceding night is at least 3 +m. distant from the place where he demands to be supplied with liquor, +such distance being calculated by the nearest public thoroughfare. + + + + +BONALD, LOUIS GABRIEL AMBROISE, VICOMTE DE (1754-1840), French +philosopher and politician, was born at Le Monna, near Millau in +Aveyron, on the 2nd of October 1754. Disliking the principles of the +Revolution, he emigrated in 1791, joined the army of the prince of +Conde, and soon afterwards settled at Heidelberg. There he wrote his +first important work, the highly conservative _Theorie du pouvoir +politique et religieux_ (3 vols., 1796; new ed., Paris, 1854, 2 vols.), +which was condemned by the Directory. Returning to France he found +himself an object of suspicion, and was obliged to live in retirement. +In 1806 he was associated with Chateaubriand and Fievee in the conduct +of the _Mercure de France_, and two years later was appointed councillor +of the Imperial University which he had often attacked. After the +restoration he was a member of the council of public instruction, and +from 1815 to 1822 sat in the chamber as deputy. His speeches were on the +extreme conservative side; he even advocated a literary censorship. In +1822 he was made minister of state, and presided over the censorship +commission. In the following year he was made a peer, a dignity which he +lost through refusing to take the oath in 1830. From 1816 he had been a +member of the Academy. He took no part in public affairs after 1830, but +retired to his seat at Le Monna, where he died on the 23rd of November +1840. + +Bonald was one of the leading writers of the theocratic or +traditionalist school, which included de Maistre, Lamennais, Ballanche +and d'Eckstein. His writings are mainly on social and political +philosophy, and are based ultimately on one great principle, the divine +origin of language. In his own words, "L'homme pense sa parole avant de +parler sa pensee"; the first language contained the essence of all +truth. From this he deduces the existence of God, the divine origin and +consequent supreme authority of the Holy Scriptures, and the +infallibility of the church. While this thought lies at the root of all +his speculations there is a formula of constant application. All +relations may be stated as the triad of cause, means and effect, which +he sees repeated throughout nature. Thus, in the universe, he finds the +first cause as mover, movement as the means, and bodies as the result; +in the state, power as the cause, ministers as the means, and subjects +as the effects; in the family, the same relation is exemplified by +father, mother and children. These three terms bear specific relations +to one another; the first is to the second as the second to the third. +Thus, in the great triad of the religious world--God, the Mediator, and +Man-God is to the God-Man as the God-Man is to Man. On this basis he +constructed a system of political absolutism which lacks two things +only:--well-grounded premisses instead of baseless hypotheses, and the +acquiescence of those who were to be subjected to it. + +Bonald's style is remarkably fine; ornate, but pure and vigorous. Many +fruitful thoughts are scattered among his works, but his system scarcely +deserves the name of a philosophy. In abstract thought he was a mere +dilettante, and his strength lay in the vigour and sincerity of his +statements rather than in cogency of reasoning. + +He had four sons. Of these, VICTOR DE BONALD (1780-1871) followed his +father in his exile, was rector of the academy of Montpellier after the +restoration, but lost his post during the Hundred Days. Regaining it at +the second restoration, he resigned finally in 1830. He wrote _Des vrais +principes opposes aux erreurs du XIXe siecle_ (1833), _Moise et les +geologues modernes_ (1835), and a life of his father. LOUIS JACQUES +MAURICE (1787-1870), cardinal (1841), was condemned by the council of +state for a pastoral letter attacking Dupin the elder's _Manuel de droit +ecclesiastique_. In 1848 he held a memorial service "for those who fell +gloriously in defence of civil and religious liberty." In 1851 he +nevertheless advocated in the senate the maintenance of the temporal +power of Rome by force of arms. HENRI (d. 1846) was a contributor to +legitimist journals; and RENE was interim prefect of Aveyron in 1817. + + Besides the _Theorie_ above mentioned, the vicomte de Bonald published + _Essai analytique sur les lois naturelles de l'ordre social_ (1800); + _Legislation primitive_ (1802); _Du divorce considere au XIXe siecle_ + (1801); _Recherches philosophiques sur les premiers objets de + connaissances morales_ (2 vols., 1818); _Melanges litteraires et + politiques, demonstration philosophique du principe constitutif de la + societe_ (1819, 1852). The first collected edition appeared in 12 + vols., 1817-1819; the latest is that of the Abbe Migne (3 vols., + 1859). + + See _Notice sur M. le Vicomte de Bonald_ (1841, ed. Avignon, 1853), + (by his son Victor); Damiron, _Phil. en France au XIXe siecle_; + Windelband, _History of Philosophy_ (trans. J.H. Tufts, 1893); E. + Faguet in _Rev. des deux mondes_ (April 15, 1889). + + + + +BONAPARTE, the name of a family made famous by Napoleon I. (q.v.), +emperor of the French. The French form Bonaparte was not commonly used, +even by Napoleon, until after the spring of 1796. The original name was +Buonaparte, which was borne in the early middle ages by several distinct +families in Italy. One of these, which settled at Florence before the +year 1100, divided in the 13th century into the two branches of San +Miniato and Sarzana. A member of this latter, Francesco Buonaparte, +emigrated in the middle of the 16th century to Corsica, where his +descendants continued to occupy themselves with the affairs of law and +the magistracy. + + + Napoleon's father and mother. + +CARLO BUONAPARTE [Charles Marie de Bonaparte] (1746-1785), the father of +Napoleon I., took his degree in law at the university of Pisa, and after +the conquest of Corsica by the French became assessor to the royal court +of Ajaccio and the neighbouring districts. His restless and dissatisfied +nature led him to press or intrigue for other posts, and to embark in +risky business enterprises which compromised the fortune of his family +for many years to come. In 1764 he married Letizia Ramolino, a beautiful +and high-spirited girl, aged fourteen, descended from a well-connected +family domiciled in Corsica since the middle of the 15th century. The +first two children, born in 1765 and 1767, died in infancy; Joseph (see +below), the first son who survived, was born in 1768, and Napoleon in +1769. The latter was born in the midst of the troubles consequent on the +French conquest, Letizia having recently accompanied her husband in +several journeys and escapes. Her firm and courageous disposition showed +itself at that trying time and throughout the whole of her singularly +varied career. Simple and frugal in her tastes, and devout in thought +and manner of life, she helped to bind her children to the life of +Corsica, while her husband, a schemer by nature and a Voltairian by +conviction, pointed the way to careers in France, the opening up of +which moulded the fortunes of the family and the destinies of Europe. He +died of cancer in the stomach at Montpellier in 1785. + +Letizia lived to witness the glory and the downfall of her great son, +surviving Napoleon I. by sixteen years. She never accommodated herself +to the part she was called on to play during the Empire, and, though +endowed with immense wealth and distinguished by the title of _Madame +Mere_, lived mainly in retirement, and in the exercise of a strict +domestic economy which her early privations had made a second nature to +her, but which rendered her very unpopular in France and was displeasing +to Napoleon. After the events of 1814 she joined the emperor in the +island of Elba and was privy to his plans of escape, returning to Paris +during the Hundred Days. After the final downfall of Waterloo, she took +up her residence at Rome, where Pope Pius VII. treated her with great +kindness and consideration, and protected her from the suspicious +attentions of the powers of the Grand Alliance. In 1818 she addressed a +pathetic letter to the powers assembled at the congress of Aix, +petitioning for Napoleon's release, on the ground that his mortal +illness had removed any possibility of his ever again becoming a menace +to the world's peace. The letter remained unanswered, the powers having +reason to believe that it was a mere political move, and that its terms +had been previously concerted with Napoleon. Henceforth, saddened by the +death of Napoleon, of her daughters Pauline and Elisa, and of several +grandchildren, she lived a life of mournful seclusion. In 1829 she was +crippled by a serious fall, and was all but blind before her death in +1836. + + For the Bonaparte family in general, and Carlo and Letizia, see + _Storia genealogica della famiglia Bonaparte, della sua origine fina + all' estinzione del ramo gia esisente nella citta di S. Miniato, + scritta da un Samminiatese_ (D. Morali) (Florence, 1846); F. de + Stefani, _Le antichita dei Bonaparte; precede per una introduzione_ + (L. Beretta) (Venice, 1857); L. Ambrosini and A. Huard, _La Famille + imperiale. Hist. de la famille Bonaparte depuis son origine jusqu'en + 1860_ (Paris, 1860); C. Leynadier, _Histoire de la famille Bonaparte + de l'an 1050 a l'an 1848_ (_continuee jusqu'en 1866 par de la + Brugere_) (Paris, 1866); A. Kleinschmidt, _Die Eltern und Geschwister + Napoleons I._ (Berlin, 1876); D.A. Bingham, _The Marriages of the + Bonapartes_ (2 vols., London, 1881); F. Masson, _Napoleon et sa + famille_ (4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900); A. Chuquet, _La Jeunesse de + Napoleon_ (3 vols., Paris, 1897-1899); T. Nasica, _Memoires sur + l'enfance et la jeunesse de Napoleon jusqu'a la age vingt-trois ans; + precedes d'une notice historique sur son pere_; Baron H. Larrey, + _Madame Mere_ (2 vols., Paris, 1892); Clara Tschudi, _Napoleons + Mutter: aus dem Norwegischen ubersetzt von H. von Lenk_ (Leipzig, + 1901). + +The brothers and sisters of Napoleon I., taken in order of age, are the +following:-- + + + Napoleon's brothers and sisters: 1. Joseph Bonaparte. + +I. JOSEPH (1768-1844), was born at Corte in Corsica, on the 7th of +January 1768. He was educated at the college at Autun in France, +returned to Corsica in 1784, shortly after the death of his father, and +thereafter studied law at the university of Pisa. He became a barrister +at Bastia in June 1788, and was soon elected a councillor of the +municipality of Ajaccio. Like his brothers, Napoleon and Lucien, he +embraced the French or democratic side, and on the victory of the +Paolist party fled with his family from Corsica and sought refuge in +France. After spending a short time in Paris, where he was disgusted +with the excesses of the Jacobins, he settled at Marseilles and married +Mlle Julie Clary, daughter of a merchant of that town. The Bonapartes +moved from place to place, mainly with the view of concerting measures +for the recovery of Corsica. Joseph took part in these efforts and went +on a mission to Genoa in 1795. In 1796 he accompanied his brother +Napoleon in the early part of the Italian campaign, and had some part in +the negotiations with Sardinia which led to the armistice of Cherasco +(April 28), the news of which he bore to the French government. Later he +proceeded to Leghorn, took part in the French expedition for the +recovery of Corsica, and, along with the commissioner of the French +Republic, Miot de Melito, helped in the reorganization of that island. +In March 1797 he was appointed by the Directory, minister to the court +of Parma, and early in the summer he proceeded to Rome in the same +capacity. Discords arose between the Vatican and the French Republic, +and it is clear that Napoleon and the French Directory ordered Joseph to +encourage revolutionary movements in Rome. On the 28th of December 1797 +a disturbance took place opposite the French embassy, which led to the +death of the French general, Leonard Duphot. Joseph at once left Rome, +which soon became a republic. Repairing to Paris, he entered on +parliamentary life, becoming one of the members for Corsica in the +Council of Five Hundred. He made no mark in the chamber and retired in +1799. + +Before the _coup d'etat_ of Brumaire he helped Napoleon in making +overtures to Sieyes and Moreau, but otherwise did little. Thereafter he +refused to enter the ministry, but became a member of the council of +state and of the _Corps Legislatif_, where his advice on the state of +public opinion was frequently useful. He had a hand in the negotiations +for the Concordat, but, according to Lucien Bonaparte, looked on that +measure as "ill-advised and retrograde." His services in the diplomatic +sphere were more important. At Mortfontaine, his country-house, he +concluded with the envoy of the United States a convention which bears +that name (1800). He also presided over the negotiations which led to +the treaty of Luneville with Austria (February 9, 1801); and he and +Maret represented France in the lengthy discussions with the British +envoy, Lord Cornwallis, which resulted in the signature of the treaty of +Amiens (March 25, 1802). This diplomatic triumph in its turn led to the +consolidation of Napoleon's power as First Consul for life (August 1, +1802) with the chief voice in the selection of his successor. On this +question the brothers disagreed. As neither Joseph nor Napoleon had a +male heir, the eldest brother, whose ideas of primogeniture were very +strict, claimed to be recognized as heir, while Napoleon wished to +recognize the son of Louis Bonaparte. On the proclamation of the French +empire (May 1804) the friction became acute. Napoleon offered to make +Joseph king of Lombardy if he would waive all claim of succession to the +French throne, but met with a firm refusal. + +Meanwhile Joseph had striven earnestly, but in vain, to avert a rupture +with England, which came about in May 1803. In 1805 he acted as chief of +the French government while Napoleon was campaigning in Germany. Early +in 1806 he proceeded to Naples with a French force in order to expel the +Bourbon dynasty from southern Italy, Napoleon adding the promise that +the Neapolitan crown would be for Joseph if he chose to accept it. The +conquest of the mainland was speedily effected, though Gaeta, Reggio and +the rock of Scylla held out for some months. The Bourbon court retired +to Sicily, where it had the protection of a British force. By the decree +of the 30th of March 1806 Napoleon proclaimed Joseph king of Naples, but +allowed him to keep intact his claims to the throne of France. In +several letters he enjoined his brother to greater firmness in his +administration: "These peoples in Italy, and in general all nations, if +they do not find their masters, are disposed to rebellion and mutiny." +The memoirs of Count Miot de Melito, whom Joseph appointed minister of +war, show how great were the difficulties with which the new monarch had +to contend--an almost bankrupt treasury, a fickle and degraded populace, +Bourbon intrigues and plots, and frequent attacks by the British from +Sicily. General Stuart's victory at Maida (July 3) shook Joseph's throne +to its base; but the surrender of Gaeta soon enabled Massena to march +southwards and subdue Calabria. During his brief reign at Naples, Joseph +effected many improvements; he abolished the relics of feudalism, +reformed the monastic orders, reorganized the judicial, financial and +educational systems, and initiated several public works. In everything +he showed his desire to carry out the aims which he expressed to his +consort in April 1806: "Justice demands that I should make this people +as happy as the scourge of war will permit." + +From these well-meant, but not always successful, efforts he was +suddenly called away by Napoleon to take the crown of Spain (May 1808). +There his difficulties were far greater. Despite the benevolent +intentions announced to the Spaniards in his proclamation dated Bayonne, +23rd of June 1808, all reconciliation between them and the French was +impossible after Napoleon's treatment of their _de facto_ king, +Ferdinand VII. For the varying fortunes of King Joseph in Spain and in +the eventful years of the Peninsular War, see SPAIN and PENINSULAR WAR. +His sovereignty was little more than titular. Compelled to leave Madrid +hastily in August 1808, owing to the Spanish success at Baylen, he was +reinstated by Napoleon at the close of the year; and he was thereafter +kept in a subordinate position which led him on four occasions to offer +to abdicate. The emperor took no notice of these offers, and ordered him +to govern with more energy. Between February and May 1810 the emperor +placed the northern and north-eastern provinces under the command of +French generals as military districts, virtually independent of +Joseph's authority. Again the king protested, but in vain. As his +trusted adviser, Miot de Melito, observed in his memoirs, Joseph tried +to be constitutional king of Spain, whereas after the experience of the +years 1808-1809 he could only succeed in the Peninsula by becoming "the +mere instrument of a military power." "Bearing a title which was only an +oppressive burden, the king had in reality ceased to exist as a monarch, +and barely retained some semblance of authority over a small part of the +French army as a general. Reduced by the exhausted state of his treasury +to the last extremity he at length seriously thought of departure." +Joseph took this step in April 1811, and proceeded to Paris in order to +extort better terms, or offer his abdication; but he had to return with +a monthly subsidy of 500,000 francs and the promise that the army of the +centre (the smallest of the five French armies) should be under his +control. Late in that year Napoleon united Catalonia to France. +Wellington's victory at Salamanca (July 22, 1812) compelled Joseph to +leave his capital; and despite the retirement of the British in the +autumn of that year, Joseph's authority never fully recovered from that +blow. The end of his nominal rule came in the next year, when Wellington +utterly overthrew the chief French army, commanded by King Joseph and +Marshal Jourdan, at Vittoria (June 21, 1813). The king fled from Spain, +was disgraced by Napoleon, and received the order to retire incognito to +Mortfontaine. The emperor wrote to the minister of war (July 11, +1813):--"His [Joseph's] behaviour has never ceased bringing misfortune +upon my army; it is time to make an end of it." + +Napoleon was equally dissatisfied with his brother's conduct as +lieutenant-general of France, while he himself was conducting the +campaign of 1814 in the east of France. On the 30th of March, Joseph +empowered Marmont to make a truce with the assailants of Paris if they +should be in overpowering strength. On the surrender of the capital +Joseph at once retired. The part which he played during the Hundred Days +(1815) was also insignificant. It is strange that, four days after +Waterloo, Napoleon should have urged him to inspirit the Chamber of +Deputies with a view to a national resistance (_Lettres nouvelles de +Napoleon_). In point of fact Joseph did little beyond seeking to further +the emperor's plans of escape to America. After the surrender of his +brother to the captain of H.M.S. "Bellerophon" at Rochefort, Joseph went +to the United States. Settling in Bordentown, New Jersey, he adopted the +title of comte de Survilliers, and sought to promote plans for the +rescue of his brother from St Helena. In 1830 he pleaded, but +unsuccessfully, for the recognition of the claims of the duke of +Reichstadt (king of Rome) to the French throne. He afterwards visited +England, and for a time resided at Genoa and Florence. In the latter +city, the cradle of his race, he died on the 28th of July 1844. In +person he somewhat resembled Napoleon, but utterly lacked his strength +and energy. He was fitted for an embassy or judgeship, but was too mild, +supine and luxurious for the tasks thrust upon him by his brother. Yet +his correspondence and memoirs prove that he retained for Napoleon warm +feelings of affection. + + Of the many works dealing with Joseph Bonaparte we may cite Baron A. + du Casse, _Memoires et correspondance politique et militaire du roi + Joseph_ (10 vols., Paris, 1854), and _Les Rois freres de Napoleon_ + (1883); J.S.C. Abbott, _History of Joseph Bonaparte_ (New York, 1869); + G. Bertin, _Joseph Bonaparte in America_; _Joseph Bonaparte juge par + ses contemporains_ (anon.); the _Memoirs of Count Miot de Melito_ + (translation, edited by General Fleischmann, 2 vols., 1881); R.M. + Johnston, _The Napoleonic Empire in Southern Italy_ (2 vols., with an + excellent bibliography, London, 1904); _Correspondence of Napoleon + with Joseph Bonaparte_ (2 vols., New York, 1856); Baron A. du Casse, + _Histoire des ... traites de Mortfontaine, de Luneville et d'Amiens_, + &c. (1855-1857); F. Masson, _Napoleon et sa famille_ (4 vols., Paris, + 1889-1900). + + + 2. Lucien Bonaparte + +II. LUCIEN (1775-1840), prince of Canino, was born at Ajaccio on the +21st of May 1775. He followed his elder brothers to the schools of Autun +and Brienne. At that time he wished to enter the French army, but, being +debarred by defective sight, was destined for the church, and with this +aim in view went to the seminary at Aix in Provence (1786). His +excitable and volatile disposition agreed ill with the discipline of +the place, and on the outbreak of the Revolution in 1789 he eagerly +espoused the democratic and anti-clerical movement then sweeping over +France. On returning to Corsica he became the leading speaker in the +Jacobin club at Ajaccio. Pushing even Napoleon to more decided action, +Lucien urged his brothers to break with Paoli, the leader of the more +conservative party, which sought to ally itself with England as against +the regicide republic of France. He headed a Corsican deputation which +went to France in order to denounce Paoli and to solicit aid for the +democrats; but, on the Paolists gaining the upper hand, the Bonapartes +left the island and joined Lucien at Toulon. In the south of France he +worked hard for the Jacobinical cause, and figured as "Brutus" in the +Jacobin club of the small town of St Maximin (then renamed Marathon). +There on the 4th of May 1794 he married Mlle Catherine Boyer, though he +was a minor and had not the consent of his family--an act which brought +him into a state almost approaching disgrace and penury. The _coup +d'etat_ of Thermidor (July 28, 1794) compelled the young disciple of +Robespierre hurriedly to leave St Maximin, and to accept a small post at +St Chamans. There he was arrested and imprisoned for a time until +Napoleon's influence procured his release, and further gained for him a +post as commissioner in the French army campaigning in Germany. Lucien +soon conceived a dislike for a duty which opened up no vista for his +powers of oratory and political intrigue, and repaired to Corsica. In +the hope of being elected a deputy of the island, he refused an +appointment offered by Napoleon in the army of Egypt in 1798. His hopes +were fulfilled, and in 1798 he entered the Council of Five Hundred at +Paris. There his vivacious eloquence brought him into prominence, and he +was president of that body on the eventful day of the 19th of Brumaire +(November 10) 1799, when Napoleon overthrew the national councils of +France at the palace of St Cloud. The refusal of Lucien to put the vote +of outlawry, for which the majority of the council clamoured, his +opportune closing of the sitting, and his appeal to the soldiers outside +to disperse _les representants du poignard_, turned the scale in favour +of his brother. + +By a strange irony this event, the chief event of Lucien's life, was +fatal to the cause of democracy of which he had been the most eager +exponent. In one of his earlier letters to his brother Joseph, Lucien +stated that he had detected in Napoleon "an ambition not altogether +egotistic but which surpassed his love for the general weal; ... in case +of a counter-revolution he would try to ride on the crest of events." +Napoleon having by his help triumphed over parliamentary institutions in +France, Lucien's suspicion of his brother became a dominant feeling; and +the relations between them became strained during the period of the +consulate (1799-1804). He accepted office as minister of the interior, +but was soon deprived of it owing to political and personal differences +with the First Consul. In order to soften the blow, Napoleon appointed +him ambassador to the court of Madrid (November 1800). There again +Lucien displeased his brother. France and Spain were then about to +partition Portugal, and the Spanish forces were beginning to invade that +land, when the court of Lisbon succeeded, owing (it is said) to the free +use of bribes, in inducing Godoy, the Spanish minister, and Lucien +Bonaparte to sign the preliminaries of peace on the 6th of June 1801 at +Badajoz. The First Consul, finding his plans of seizing Lisbon +frustrated, remonstrated with his brother, who thereupon resigned his +post, and returned to Paris, there taking part in the opposition which +the Tribunate offered to some of Napoleon's schemes. Lucien's next +proceeding completed the breach between the two brothers. His wife had +died in 1800; he became enamoured of a Mme Jouberthou in the early +summer of 1802, made her his mistress, and finally, despite the express +prohibition of the First Consul, secretly married her at his residence +of Plessis (on October 23, 1803). At that time Napoleon was pressing +Lucien for important reasons of state to marry the widow of the king of +Etruria, and on hearing of his brother's action he ordered him to leave +French territory. Lucien departed for Italy with his wife and infant +son, after annoying Napoleon by bestowing on her publicly the name of +Bonaparte. He also charged Joseph never to try to reconcile Napoleon to +him. + +For some years he lived in Italy, chiefly at Rome, showing marked +hostility to the emperor. In December 1807 the latter sought to come to +an arrangement by which Lucien would take his place as a French prince, +provided that he would annul his marriage. This step Lucien refused to +take; and after residing for some time at his estate of Canino, from +which he took the papal title of prince of Canino, he left for America. +Captured by a British ship, he was taken to Malta and thence to England, +where he resided under some measure of surveillance up to the peace of +1814. Returning to Rome, he offered Napoleon his help during the Hundred +Days (1815), stood by his side at the "Champ de Mai" at Paris, and was +the last to defend his prerogatives at the time of his second +abdication. He spent the rest of his life in Italy, and died at Rome on +the 29th of June 1840. His family comprised four sons and six daughters. +He wrote an epic, _Charlemagne, ou l'Eglise delivree_ (2 vols., 1814), +also _La Verite sur les Cent Jours_ and _Memoirs_, which were not +completed. + + For sources see T. Jung, _Lucien Bonaparte et ses memoires_ (3 vols., + Paris, 1882-1883); an anonymous work, _Le Prince Lucien Bonaparte et + sa famille_ (Paris, 1888); F. Masson, _Napoleon et sa famille_ (4 + vols., Paris, 1897-1900), and H. Houssaye, _"1815"_ (3 vols., Paris, + 1899-1905). + + + 3. Elisa. + +III. MARIANNE ELISA (1777-1820) was born at Ajaccio on the 3rd of +January 1777. Owing to the efforts of her brothers she entered the +establishment of St Cyr near Paris as a "king's scholar." On its +disruption by the revolutionists in 1792 Napoleon took charge of her and +brought her back to Ajaccio. She shared the fortunes of the family in +the south of France, and on the 5th of May 1797 married Felix Bacciochi, +a well-connected Corsican. In 1805, after the foundation of the French +empire, Napoleon bestowed upon her the principality of Piombino and +shortly afterwards Lucca; in 1808 her importunities gained for her the +grand duchy of Tuscany. Bacciochi being almost a nullity, her pride and +ability had a great influence on the administration and on Italian +affairs in general. Her relations with Napoleon were frequently +strained; and in 1813-1814 she abetted Murat in his enterprises (see +MURAT). After her brother's fall she retired, with the title of countess +of Compignano, first to Bologna and afterwards to Santo Andrea near +Trieste, where she died on the 6th of August 1820. + + See J. Turquan, _Les Soeurs de Napoleon_ (Paris, 1896); P. Marmothan, + _Elisa Bonaparte_ (Paris, 1898); E. Rodocanachi, _Elisa Bonaparte en + Italie_ (Paris, 1900); F. Masson, _Napoleon et sa famille_ (4 vols., + Paris, 1897-1900). + + + 4. Louis Bonaparte. + +IV. Louis (1778-1846) was born at Ajaccio on the 2nd of September 1778. +His elder brother Napoleon supervised his education with much care, +gaining for him scholarships to the royal military schools of France, +and during the time when the elder brother was a lieutenant in garrison +at Auxonne Louis shared his scanty fare. In 1795 Napoleon procured for +him admission to the military school at Chalons, and wrote thus of the +boy:--"I am very pleased with Louis; he fulfils my hopes; intelligence, +warmth, good health, talent, good address, kindness--he possesses all +these qualities." Louis went through the Italian campaign of 1796-97 +with Napoleon and acted as his aide-de-camp in Egypt in 1798-99. In 1802 +the First Consul married him to Hortense Beauharnais, a forced union +which led to most deplorable results. In 1804 Louis was raised to the +rank of general, and entered the council of state in order to perfect +his knowledge of administrative affairs. In the next year he became +governor of Paris and undertook various military and administrative +duties. + +After the victory of Austerlitz (December 2, 1805) Napoleon began to +plan the formation of a ring of states surrounding, and in close +alliance with, the French empire. He destined Louis for the throne of +Holland, and proclaimed him king of that country on the 6th of June +1806. From the first the emperor reproached him with being too easy with +his subjects and with courting popularity too much. The increasing +rigour of the continental system brought the two brothers to an open +rupture. Their relations were embittered by a violent jealousy which +Louis conceived against his wife. In 1808 the emperor offered Louis the +throne of Spain then vacant; but on Louis refusing to accept it the +honour went to Joseph. The dispute between Louis and the emperor +continued. In the latter part of 1809 Napoleon virtually resolved to +annex Holland, in order to stop the trade which the Dutch secretly +carried on with England. At the close of the year Louis went to Paris, +partly in order to procure a divorce from Hortense and partly to gain +better terms for Holland. He failed in both respects. In January 1810 +Napoleon annexed the island of Walcheren, alleging that Louis had not +done his share in defending the interests of France at the time of the +British Walcheren expedition (1809). The French troops also occupied +Breda and Bergen-op-Zoom. Louis gave way on all the points in dispute; +but his acquiescence only postponed the crisis. After the collapse of +negotiations with Great Britain in the spring of 1810, the emperor again +pressed Louis hard, and finally sent French troops against the Dutch +capital. Thereupon Louis, despairing of offering resistance, fled from +his kingdom and finally settled at Toplitz in Bohemia. On the 9th of +July 1810 Napoleon annexed Holland to the French empire. Louis spent the +rest of his life separated from his wife, and in 1815 gained the custody +of his elder son. He lived chiefly at Rome, concerning himself with +literary and philosophic studies and with the fortunes of his sons. +Their devotion to the national and democratic cause in Italy in +1830-1831 gave him much pleasure, which was overclouded by the death of +the elder, Napoleon Louis, in the spring campaign of 1831 in the +Romagna. The failure of his other son, Charles Louis Napoleon +(afterwards Napoleon III.), to wrest the French crown from Louis +Philippe by the attempts at Strassburg and Boulogne also caused him much +disappointment. He died on the 25th of July 1846 and was buried at St +Leu. Under more favourable conditions Louis would have gained a name for +kindness and philanthropy, proofs of which did indeed appear during his +reign in Holland and gained him the esteem of his subjects; but his +morbid sensitiveness served to embitter his relations both of a domestic +and of a political nature and to sour his own disposition. His literary +works are unimportant. His sons were Napoleon Charles (1802-1807), +Napoleon Louis (1804-1831), and Charles Louis Napoleon (1808-1873), +afterwards emperor of the French as NAPOLEON III. (q.v.). + + The chief works on the life and reign of Louis are le comte de + Saint-Leu, _Documents historiques et reflexions sur le gouvernement de + Hollande_ 3 vols., 2nd ed., Paris, 1820); F. Rocquain, _Napoleon I^er + et le Roi Louis, d'apres les documents conserves aux archives + nationales_ (Paris, 1875); Baron A. du Casse, _Les Rois freres de + Napoleon_ (Paris, 1883); A Garnier, _La Cour de Hollande sous le regne + de Louis Bonaparte, par un auditeur_ (Paris and Amsterdam, 1823); T. + Jorissen, _Napoleon 1'er et le roi de Hollande (1806-1813) d'apres des + documents authentiques et inedits_ (Paris and The Hague, 1868); V. + Loosjes, _Louis Bonaparte, Koning van Holland_ (Amsterdam, 1888); L. + Wichers, _De Regeering van Koning Lodewijk Napoleon_ (1806-1810) + (Utrecht, 1892); F. Masson, _Napoleon et sa famille_ (4 vols., Paris, + 1897-1900). + + + 5. Pauline. + +V. MARIE PAULINE (1780-1825), the gayest and most beautiful member of +the family, was born at Ajaccio on the 20th October 1780. At seventeen +years of age she married General Leclerc, a staff officer of Napoleon, +and accompanied him to St Domingo, where he died of yellow fever in +1802. Returning to Paris she espoused Prince Camillo Borghese (August +23, 1803) and went to reside with him in Rome. She soon tired of him, +returned to Paris and gratified her whims in ways that caused some +scandal. In 1806 she received the title of duchess of Guastalla. Her +offhand treatment of the new empress, Marie Louise, in 1810 led to her +removal from court. Nevertheless in 1814 she repaired with "Madame Mere" +to Elba, and is said to have expressed a wish to share Napoleon's exile +in St Helena. She died in 1825 of cancer. Canova's statue of her as +Venus reclining on a couch is well known. + + See J. Turquan, _Les Soeurs de Napoleon: les princesses Elisa, Pauline + et Caroline_ (Paris, 1896); F. Masson, _Napoleon et sa famille_ (4 + vols., Paris, 1897-1900). + + + + 6. Caroline Murat. + +VI. MARIA ANNUNCIATA CAROLINE (1782-1839) was born at Ajaccio on the +25th of March 1782. Early in 1800 she married Joachim Murat, whose +interests she afterwards advanced with all the power of her ambitious +and intriguing nature. He became governor of Paris, marshal of France +(1804), grand duke of Berg and of Cleves (1806), lieutenant of the +emperor in Spain (1808), and early in the summer of that year king of +Naples. The distance of this capital from Paris displeased Caroline; her +relations with Napoleon became strained, and she associated herself with +the equivocal movements of her husband in 1814-1815. Before his tragic +end at Pizzo on the 13th of October 1815, she had retired to Austrian +territory and was placed under some measure of restraint. Finally she +lived at Trieste with her sister Elisa. She died on the 18th of May +1839. + + See J. Turquan, _Caroline Murat, reine de Naples_ (Paris, 1899); F. + Masson, _Napoleon et sa famille_ (4 vols., Paris, 1897-1900). See also + under MURAT, JOACHIM. + + + 7. Jerome Bonaparte. + +VII. JEROME (1784-1860) was born at Ajaccio on the 15th of November +1784; he shared the fortunes of the family in the early years of the +French Revolution, was then educated at Juilly and was called to the +side of his brother, then First Consul of France, in 1800. Many stories +are told illustrating his impetuous but affectionate nature. While in +the Consular Guard he fought a duel with the younger brother of General +Davout and was wounded. Soon afterwards he was transferred to the navy +and cruised in the West Indies, until, when blockaded by a British +cruiser, he left his ship and travelled through the United States. At +Baltimore he fell in love with Miss Elizabeth Patterson, and, though a +minor, married her. This disregard of discipline and of the laws of +France greatly annoyed Napoleon; and when in 1805 Jerome brought his +wife to Europe, the emperor ordered her to be excluded from his states. +Jerome vainly sought to bend his brother's will in an interview at +Alexandria. In May 1805 he received command of a small squadron in the +Mediterranean, while his wife proceeded to Camberwell, where she gave +birth to a son. In November Jerome sailed in a squadron commanded by +Admiral Willaumez, which was to ravage the West Indies; but it was +scattered by a storm. After damaging British commerce in the North +Atlantic, Jerome reached France with his ship in safety in August 1806. +Napoleon made him a prince of France, and gave him command of a division +of South Germans in the campaign of 1806. After Jena, Jerome received +the surrender of several Prussian towns. An imperial decree having +annulled the Patterson marriage, the emperor united Jerome to the +princess Catherine of Wurttemberg; and in pursuance of the terms of the +treaty of Tilsit (July 7, 1807) raised him to the throne of the new +kingdom of Westphalia. There Jerome, though frequently rebuked by the +emperor, displayed his fondness for luxury, indulged in numerous +_amours_ and ran deeply into debt. In some respects his kingdom +benefited by the connexion with France. Feudalism was abolished; the +_Code Napoleon_ was introduced; the Jews were freed from repressive +laws; and education received some impulse in its higher departments. But +the unpopularity of Jerome's rule was shown by the part taken by the +peasants in the abortive rising headed by Baron Wilhelm von Dornberg and +other Westphalian officers in April 1809. Despite heavy taxation, the +state debt increased greatly; and the sending of a contingent to Russia +in 1812 brought the state to the verge of bankruptcy. In the early part +of that campaign Jerome was entrusted with an important movement which +might have brought the southern Russian army into grave danger; on his +failure (which was probably due to his lack of energy) the emperor +promptly subjected him to the control of Marshal Davout, and Jerome +returned to Cassel. In 1813, on the fall of the Napoleonic regime in +Germany, Jerome retired to France, and in 1814 spent some time in +Switzerland and at Trieste. Returning to France in 1815, he commanded a +division on the French left wing at Waterloo and attacked Hougomont with +great pertinacity. On Napoleon's second abdication Jerome proceeded to +Wurttemberg, was threatened with arrest unless he gave up his wife and +child, and was kept under surveillance at Goppingen; finally he was +allowed to proceed to Augsburg, and thereafter resided at Trieste, or in +Italy or Switzerland. His consort died in 1835. He returned to France in +1847, and after the rise of Louis Napoleon to power, became successively +governor of the Invalides, marshal of France and president of the +senate. He died on the 24th of June 1860. His children were Jerome +Napoleon (see XIV.), Mathilde (see XII.) and Napoleon Joseph Charles +Paul (born in 1822); the last was afterwards known as Prince Napoleon +(see XI. below) and finally became the heir to the fortunes of the +Napoleonic dynasty. + + The chief works relating to Jerome Bonaparte are: Baron Albert du + Casse, _Memoires et correspondance du roi Jerome et de la reine + Catherine_ (7 vols., Paris, 1861-1866) and _Les Rois freres de + Napoleon_ (1883); M.M. Kaisenberg, _Konig Jerome Napoleon_; W.T.R. + Saffell, _The Bonaparte-Patterson Marriage_; August von Schlossberger, + _Briefwechsel der Konigin Katharina und des Konigs Jerome von + Westfalen mit Konig Friedrich von Wurttemberg_ (Stuttgart, 1886-1887), + supplemented by du Casse in _Corresp. inedite de la reine Catherine de + Westphalie_ (Paris, 1888-1893); A. Martinet, _Jerome Napoleon, roi de + Westfalie_ (Paris, 1902); P.W. Sergeant, _The Burlesque Napoleon_ + (1905); F. Masson, _Napoleon et sa famille_ (4 vols., Paris, + 1897-1900). (J. Hl. R.) + +The fortunes of the Bonaparte family may be further followed under the +later biographies of its leading members, mainly descendants of Lucien +(II. above) and Jerome (VII. above). + + + Descendants of Lucien: 8. Charles. + +VIII. CHARLES LUCIEN JULES LAURENT (1803-1857), prince of Canino, son of +Lucien Bonaparte, was a scientist rather than a politician. He married +his cousin, Zenaide Bonaparte, daughter of Joseph, in 1822. At the age +of twenty-two he began the publication of an _American Ornithology_ (4 +vols., Philadelphia, 1825-1833), which established his scientific +reputation. A series of other works in zoology followed: _Iconographia +della fauna Italica_ (3 vols., Rome, 1832-1841), _Catalogo metodico +degli uccelli europei_ (1 vol., Bologna, 1842), _Catalogo metodico dei +pesci europei_ (1 vol., Naples, 1845, 4to), _Catalogo metodico dei +mammiferi europei_ (1 vol., Milan, 1845), _Telachorum tabula analytica_ +(Neufchatel, 1838). He was elected honorary member of the academy of +Upsala in 1833, of that of Berlin in 1843, and correspondent of the +Institute of France in 1844. Towards 1847 he took part in the political +agitation in Italy, and presided over scientific congresses, notably at +Venice, where he declared himself in favour of the independence of Italy +and the expulsion of the Austrians. He entered the Junto of Rome in 1848 +and was elected deputy by Viterbo to the national assembly. The failure +of the revolution forced him to leave Italy in July 1849. He gained +Holland, then France, where he turned again to science. His principal +works were, _Conspectus systematis ornithologiae, mastozologiae, +erpetologiae et amphibologiae, Ichthyologiae_ (Leiden, 1850), _Tableau +des oiseaux-mouches_ (Paris, 1854), _Ornithologie fossile_ (Paris, +1858). Eight children survived him: Joseph Lucien Charles Napoleon, +prince of Canino (1824-1865), who died without heirs; Lucien Louis +Joseph Napoleon, born in 1828, who took holy orders in 1853 and became a +cardinal in 1868; Julie Charlotte Zenaide Pauline Laetitia Desiree +Bartholomee, who married the marquis of Roccagiovine; Charlotte Honorine +Josephine, who married Count Primoli; Marie Desiree Eugenie Josephine +Philomene, who married the count Campello; Auguste Amelie Maximilienne +Jacqueline, who married Count Gabrielli; Napoleon Charles Gregoire +Jacques Philippe, born in 1839, who married the princess Ruspoli, by +whom he had two daughters; and Bathilde Aloyse Leonie, who married the +comte de Cambaceres. The branch is now extinct. + + + 9. Louis Lucien. + +IX. LOUIS LUCIEN (1813-1891), son of Lucien Bonaparte, was born at +Thorngrove, Worcestershire, England, on the 4th of January 1813. He +passed his youth in England, not going to France until 1848, when, after +the revolution, he was elected deputy for Corsica on the 28th of +November 1848; his election having been invalidated, he was returned as +deputy for the Seine in June 1849. He sat in the right of the +Legislative Assembly, but had no direct part in the _coup d'etat_ of his +cousin on the 2nd of December 1851. Napoleon III. named him senator and +prince, but he took hardly any part in politics during the Second +Empire, and after the proclamation of the Third Republic in 1870 he +withdrew to England. There he busied himself with philology, and +published notably some works on the Basque language: _Grammaire basque, +Remarques sur plusieurs assertions concernant la langue basque_ (1876), +_Observations sur le basque Fontarabie_ (1878). He died on the 3rd of +November 1891, leaving no children. + + + 10. Pierre. + +X. PIERRE NAPOLEON (1815-1881), son of Lucien Bonaparte, was born at +Rome on the 12th of September 1815. He began his life of adventure at +the age of fifteen, joining the insurrectionary bands in the Romagna +(1830-1831); was then in the United States, where he went to join his +uncle Joseph, and in Colombia with General Santander (1832). Returning +to Rome he was taken prisoner by order of the pope (1835-1836). He +finally took refuge in England. At the revolution of 1848 he returned to +France and was elected deputy for Corsica to the Constituent Assembly. +He declared himself an out-and-out republican and voted even with the +socialists. He pronounced himself in favour of the national workshops +and against the _loi Falloux_. His attitude contributed greatly to give +popular confidence to his cousin Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III.), of +whose _coup d'etat_ on the 2nd of December 1851 he disapproved; but he +was soon reconciled to the emperor, and accepted the title of prince. +The republicans at once abandoned him. From that time on he led a +debauched life, and lost all political importance. He turned to +literature and published some mediocre poems. In January 1870 a violent +incident brought him again into prominence. As the result of a +controversy with Paschal Grousset, the latter sent him two journalists +to provoke him to a duel. Pierre Bonaparte took them personally to +account, and during a violent discussion he drew his revolver and killed +one of them, Victor Noir. This crime greatly excited the republican +press, which demanded his trial. The High Court acquitted him, and +criticism then fell upon the government. Pierre Bonaparte died in +obscurity at Versailles on the 7th of April 1881. He had married the +daughter of a Paris working-man, Justine Eleanore Ruffin, by whom he +had, before his marriage, two children: (1) Roland Napoleon, born on the +19th of May 1858, who entered the army, was excluded from it in 1886, +and then devoted himself to geography and scientific explorations; (2) +Jeanne, wife of the marquis de Vence. + + + Descendants of Jerome: 11. Prince Napoleon (Plon-Plon). + +XI. NAPOLEON JOSEPH CHARLES PAUL, commonly known as Prince Napoleon, or +by the sobriquet of "Plon-Plon,"[1] (1822-1891), was the second son of +Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, by his wife Catherine, princess of +Wurttemberg, and was born at Trieste on the 9th of September 1822. He +soon rendered himself popular by his advanced democratic ideas, which he +expressed on all possible occasions. After the French revolution of 1848 +he was elected to the National Assembly as a representative of Corsica, +and (his elder brother, Jerome Napoleon Charles, dying in 1847) assumed +the name of Jerome. Notwithstanding his ostensible opposition to the +_coup d'etat_ of 1851, he was designated, upon the establishment of the +Empire, as successor to the throne if Napoleon III. should die +childless, and received a liberal dotation, but was allowed no share in +public affairs. Privately he professed himself the representative of the +Napoleonic tradition in its democratic aspect, and associated mainly +with men of advanced political opinions. At court he represented the +Liberal party against the empress Eugenie. In 1854 he took part in the +Crimean campaign as general of division. His conduct at the battle of +the Alma occasioned imputations upon his personal courage, but they seem +to have been entirely groundless. Returning to France he undertook the +chief direction of the National Exhibition of 1855, in which he +manifested great capacity. In 1858 he was appointed minister for the +Colonies and Algeria, and his administration aroused great hopes, but +his activity was diverted into a different channel by his sudden +marriage in January 1859 with the princess Marie Clotilde of Savoy, +daughter of Victor Emmanuel, a prelude to the war for the liberation of +Italy. In this war Prince Napoleon commanded the French corps that +occupied Tuscany, and it was expected that he would become ruler of the +principality, but he refused to exert any pressure upon the inhabitants, +who preferred union with the Italian kingdom. The next few years were +chiefly distinguished by remarkable speeches which displayed the prince +in the unexpected character of a great orator. Unfortunately his +indiscretion equalled his eloquence: one speech (1861) sent him to +America to avoid a duel with the duke d'Aumale; another (1865), in which +he justly but intemperately protested against the Mexican expedition, +cost him all his official dignities. Nevertheless he was influential in +effecting the reform by which in 1869 it was sought to reconcile the +Empire with Liberal principles. The fatal war of 1870 was resolved upon +during his absence in Norway, and was strongly condemned by him. After +the first disasters he undertook an ineffectual mission to Italy to +implore the aid of his father-in-law; and after the fall of the Empire +lived in comparative retirement until in 1879 the death of Napoleon +III.'s son, the Prince Imperial (see XIII. below), made him direct heir +to the Napoleonic succession. His part as imperial pretender was +unfortunate and inglorious: his democratic opinions were unacceptable to +the imperial party, and before his death he was virtually deposed in +favour of his son Prince Napoleon Victor, who, supported by Paul de +Cassagnac and others, openly declared himself a candidate for the throne +in 1884. He died at Rome on the 17th of March 1891. In the character of +his intellect, as in personal appearance, he bore an extraordinary +resemblance to the first Napoleon, possessing the same marvellous +lucidity of insight, and the same gift of infallibly distinguishing the +essential from the non-essential. He was a warm friend of literature and +art, and in a private station would have achieved high distinction as a +man of letters. + +His eldest son, Prince Napoleon Victor Jerome Frederic (b. 1862), became +at his death the recognized head of the French Bonapartist party. The +second son, Prince Louis Napoleon, an officer in the Russian army, +showed a steadier disposition, and was more favoured in some monarchist +quarters; in 1906 he was made governor of the Caucasus. + + + 12. Mathilde. + +XII. MATHILDE LETITIA WILHELMINE (1820-1904), daughter of Jerome, and +sister of Prince Napoleon (XI.), was born at Trieste on the 20th of May +1820; after being almost betrothed to her cousin Louis Napoleon, in 1840 +she was married to Prince Anatole Demidov. His conduct, however, led to +a separation within five years, and the tsar Nicholas compelled him to +make Princess Mathilde a handsome allowance. After the election of Louis +Napoleon to the presidency of the republic she took up her residence in +Paris, and did the honours of the Elysee till his marriage. She +continued to live in Paris, having great influence as a friend and +patron of men of art and letters, till her death on the 2nd of January +1904. + + + 13. Prince Imperial: son of Napoleon III. + +XIII. NAPOLEON EUGENE LOUIS JEAN JOSEPH (1856-1879), Prince Imperial, +only son of the emperor Napoleon III. and the empress Eugenie, was born +at Paris on the 16th of March 1856. He was a delicate boy, but when the +war of 1870 broke out his mother sent him to the army, to win popularity +for him, and the government journals vaunted his bravery. After the +first defeats he had to flee from France with the empress, and settled +in England at Chislehurst, completing his military education at +Woolwich. On the death of his father on the 9th of January 1873 the +Imperialists proclaimed him Napoleon IV., and he became the official +Pretender. He was naturally inactive, but he was influenced by his +mother on the one hand, and by the Bonapartist leaders in France on the +other. They thought that he should win his crown by military prestige, +and he was persuaded to attach himself as a volunteer to the English +expedition to Zululand in February 1879. It was a blunder to have +allowed him to go, and the blunder ended in a tragedy, for while out on +a reconnaissance with a few troopers they were surprised by Zulus, and +the Prince Imperial was killed (June 1, 1879). His body was brought back +to England, and buried at Chislehurst. + +XIV. THE BONAPARTES OF BALTIMORE are a branch of the family settled in +America, descended from Jerome Bonaparte (VII.) by his union with +Elizabeth (b. 1785), daughter of William Patterson, a Baltimore +merchant, probably descended from the Robert Paterson who was the +original of Sir Walter Scott's "Old Mortality." The marriage took place +at Baltimore on the 24th of December 1803, but it was greatly disliked +by Napoleon, who refused to recognize its legality. However, it was +valid according to American law, and Pope Pius VII. refused to declare +it void. Nevertheless Jerome was forced by his brother to separate +himself from his wife, whom he had brought to Europe, and after a stay +in England Madame Patterson, or Madame Bonaparte, as she was usually +called, returned to Baltimore. She died in 1879. Jerome's only child by +this marriage was Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte (1805-1870), who was born in +England, but resided chiefly in Baltimore, and is said to have shown a +marked resemblance to his uncle, the great emperor. He was on good terms +with Jerome, who for some time made him a large allowance, and father +and son occasionally met. His elder son, also called Jerome Napoleon +Bonaparte (1832-1893), entered the French army, with which he served in +the Crimea and in Italy. + +Charles Joseph Bonaparte (b. 1851), younger son of the first Jerome +Napoleon Bonaparte, and a grandson of Jerome, king of Westphalia, +attained a distinguished place in American politics. Born at Baltimore +on the 9th of June 1851 and educated at Harvard University, he became a +lawyer in 1874 and has been president of the National Municipal League +and has filled other public positions. He was secretary of the navy in +President Roosevelt's cabinet from July 1905 to December 1906, and then +attorney-general of the United States until March 1909. + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Derived, it is supposed, from the nickname "Plomb-plomb," or + "Craint-plomb" (fear-lead), given him by his soldiers in the Crimea. + + + + +BONAR, HORATIUS (1808-1889), Scottish Presbyterian divine, was born in +Edinburgh on the 19th of December 1808, and educated at the high school +and university of his native city. After a term of mission work at +Leith, he was appointed parish minister of Kelso in 1837, and at the +Disruption of 1843 became minister of the newly formed Free Church, +where he remained till 1866, when he went to the Chalmers memorial +church, Edinburgh. He had in 1853 received the D.D. degree from Aberdeen +University, and in 1883 he was moderator of the general assembly of his +church. He died on the 31st of July 1889. Bonar was a prolific writer of +religious literature, and edited several journals, including the +_Christian Treasury_, the _Presbyterian Review_ and the _Quarterly +Journal of Prophecy_; but his best work was done in hymnology, and he +published three series of _Hymns of Faith and Hope_ between 1857 and +1866 (new ed., 1886). Nearly every modern hymnal contains perhaps a +score of his hymns, including "Go, labour on," "I heard the voice of +Jesus say," "Here, O my Lord, I see Thee face to face," "When the weary, +seeking rest." + + See _Horatius Bonar, D.D., a Memorial_ (1889). + + + + +BONAVENTURA, SAINT (JOHN OF FIDANZA), Franciscan theologian, was born in +1221 at Bagnarea in Tuscany. He was destined by his mother for the +church, and is said to have received his cognomen of Bonaventura from St +Francis of Assisi, who performed on him a miraculous cure. He entered +the Franciscan order in 1243, and studied at Paris possibly under +Alexander of Hales, and certainly under Alexander's successor, John of +Rochelle, to whose chair he succeeded in 1253. Three years earlier his +fame had gained for him permission to read upon the _Sentences_, and in +1255 he received the degree of doctor. So high was his reputation that +in the following year he was elected general of his order. It was by his +orders that Roger Bacon was interdicted from lecturing at Oxford, and +compelled to put himself under the surveillance of the order at Paris. +He was instrumental in procuring the election of Gregory X., who +rewarded him with the titles of cardinal and bishop of Albano, and +insisted on his presence at the great council of Lyons in the year 1274. +At this meeting he died. + +Bonaventura's character seems not unworthy of the eulogistic title, +"Doctor Seraphicus," bestowed on him by his contemporaries, and of the +place assigned to him by Dante in his _Paradiso_. He was formally +canonized in 1482 by Sixtus IV., and ranked as sixth among the great +doctors of the church by Sixtus V. in 1587. His works, as arranged in +the Lyons edition (7 vols., folio), consist of expositions and sermons, +filling the first three volumes; of a commentary on the _Sentences_ of +Lombardus, in two volumes, celebrated among medieval theologians as +incomparably the best exposition of the third part; and of minor +treatises filling the remaining two volumes, and including a life of St +Francis. The smaller works are the most important, and of them the best +are the famous _Itinerarium Mentis ad Deum, Breviloquium, De Reductione +Artium ad Theologiam, Soliloquium_, and _De septem itineribus +aeternitatis_, in which most of what is individual in his teaching is +contained. + +In philosophy Bonaventura presents a marked contrast to his great +contemporaries, Thomas Aquinas and Roger Bacon. While these may be taken +as representing respectively physical science yet in its infancy, and +Aristotelian scholasticism in its most perfect form, he brings before us +the mystical and Platonizing mode of speculation which had already to +some extent found expression in Hugo and Richard of St Victor, and in +Bernard of Clairvaux. To him the purely intellectual element, though +never absent, is of inferior interest when compared with the living +power of the affections or the heart. He rejects the authority of +Aristotle, to whose influence he ascribes much of the heretical tendency +of the age, and some of whose cardinal doctrines--such as the eternity +of the world--he combats vigorously. But the Platonism he received was +Plato as understood by St Augustine, and as he had been handed down by +the Alexandrian school and the author of the mystical works passing +under the name of Dionysius the Areopagite. Bonaventura accepts as +Platonic the theory that ideas do not exist _in rerum natura_, but as +thoughts of the divine mind, according to which actual things were +formed; and this conception has no slight influence upon his philosophy. +Like all the great scholastic doctors he starts with the discussion of +the relations between reason and faith. All the sciences are but the +handmaids of theology; reason can discover some of the moral truths +which form the groundwork of the Christian system, but others it can +only receive and apprehend through divine illumination. In order to +obtain this illumination the soul must employ the proper means, which +are prayer, the exercise of the virtues, whereby it is rendered fit to +accept the divine light, and meditation which may rise even to ecstatic +union with God. The supreme end of life is such union, union in +contemplation or intellect and in intense absorbing love; but it cannot +be entirely reached in this life, and remains as a hope for futurity. +The mind in contemplating God has three distinct aspects, stages or +grades--the senses, giving empirical knowledge of what is without and +discerning the traces (_vestigia_) of the divine in the world; the +reason, which examines the soul itself, the image of the divine Being; +and lastly, pure intellect (_intelligentia_), which, in a transcendent +act, grasps the Being of the divine cause. To these three correspond the +three kinds of theology--_theologia symbolica, theologia propria_ and +_theologia mystica_. Each stage is subdivided, for in contemplating the +outer world we may use the senses or the imagination; we may rise to a +knowledge of God _per vestigia_ or _in vestigiis_. In the first case the +three great properties of physical bodies--weight, number, measure,--in +the second the division of created things into the classes of those that +have merely physical existence, those that have life, and those that +have thought, irresistibly lead us to conclude the power, wisdom and +goodness of the Triune God. So in the second stage we may ascend to the +knowledge of God, _per imaginem_, by reason, or _in imagine_, by the +pure understanding (_intellectus_); in the one case the triple +division--memory, understanding and will,--in the other the Christian +virtues--faith, hope and charity,--leading again to the conception of a +Trinity of divine qualities--eternity, truth and goodness. In the last +stage we have first _intelligentia_, pure intellect, contemplating the +essential being of God, and finding itself compelled by necessity of +thought to hold absolute being as the first notion, for non-being +cannot be conceived apart from being, of which it is but the privation. +To this notion of absolute being, which is perfect and the greatest of +all, objective existence must be ascribed. In its last and highest form +of activity the mind rests in the contemplation of the infinite goodness +of God, which is apprehended by means of the highest faculty, the _apex +mentis_ or _synderesis_. This spark of the divine illumination is common +to all forms of mysticism, but Bonaventura adds to it peculiarly +Christian elements. The complete yielding up of mind and heart to God is +unattainable without divine grace, and nothing renders us so fit to +receive this gift as the meditative and ascetic life of the cloister. +The monastic life is the best means of grace. + +Bonaventura, however, is not merely a meditative thinker, whose works +may form good manuals of devotion; he is a dogmatic theologian of high +rank, and on all the disputed questions of scholastic thought, such as +universals, matter, the principle of individualism, or the _intellectus +agens_, he gives weighty and well-reasoned decisions. He agrees with +Albertus Magnus in regarding theology as a practical science; its +truths, according to his view, are peculiarly adapted to influence the +affections. He discusses very carefully the nature and meaning of the +divine attributes; considers universals to be the ideal forms +pre-existing in the divine mind according to which things were shaped; +holds matter to be pure potentiality which receives individual being and +determinateness from the formative power of God, acting according to the +ideas; and finally maintains that the _intellectus agens_ has no +separate existence. On these and on many other points of scholastic +philosophy the Seraphic Doctor exhibits a combination of subtilty and +moderation which makes his works peculiarly valuable. + + EDITIONS.--7 vols., Rome, 1588-1596; 7 vols., Lyons, 1668; 13 vols., + Venice, 1751 ff.; by A.C. Peltier, 15 vols., Paris, 1863 ff.; 10 + vols., Rome, 1882-1892. K.J. Hefele edited the _Breviloquium_ and the + _Itin. Mentis_ (3rd ed., Tubingen, 1862); two volumes of selections + were issued by Alix in 1853-1856. + + LITERATURE.--W.A. Hollenberg, _Studien zu Bonaventura_ (1862); F. + Nitzsch, art. in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyk. fur prot. Theol._, where a + list of monographs is given, to which add one by De Chevance (1899). + (R. Ad.; X.) + + + + +BONCHAMPS, CHARLES MELCHIOR ARTUS, MARQUIS DE (c. 1760-1793), Vendean +leader, was born at Jouverteil, Anjou. He gained his first military +experience in the American War of Independence, and on his return to +France was made a captain of grenadiers in the French army. He was a +staunch upholder of the monarchy, and at the outbreak of the French +Revolution resigned his command and retired to his chateau at St +Florent. In the spring of 1793 he was chosen leader by the insurgents of +the Vendee, and to his counsels may be attributed in great measure the +success of the peasants' arms. He was present at the taking of +Bressuire, Thouars and Fontenay, at which last place he was wounded; but +dissensions among their leaders weakened the insurgents, and at the +bloody battle of Cholet (October 1793) the Vendeans sustained a severe +defeat and Bonchamps was mortally wounded. He died the next day. It is +said that his last act was the pardoning of five thousand republican +prisoners, whom his troops had sworn to kill in revenge for his death. A +statue of him by David d'Angers stands in the church of St Florent. + + + + +BOND, SIR EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1815-1898), English librarian, was born at +Hanwell on the 31st of December 1815, the son of a schoolmaster. He was +educated at Merchant Taylors' school, and in 1832 obtained a post in the +public record office. In 1838 he became an assistant in the manuscript +department of the British Museum, where he attracted the notice of his +chief, Sir Frederick Madden, the most eminent palaeographer of his day, +and in 1852 he was made Egerton librarian. In 1856 he became assistant +keeper of MSS., and in 1867 was promoted to the post of keeper. His work +in reorganizing the manuscript department was of lasting value, and to +him is due the classified catalogue of MSS., and the improved efficiency +and punctuality of publication of the department. In 1878 he was +appointed principal librarian. Under his supervision were erected the +new buildings of the "White Wing," which provide accommodation for +prints, drawings, manuscripts and newspapers, and the purchase of the +Stowe MSS. was concluded while he remained in office. He founded, in +conjunction with Sir E. Maunde Thompson, the Palaeographical Society, +and first made classical palaeography an exact science. He was made +LL.D. of Cambridge in 1879, created C.B. in 1885, and K.C.B. the day +before his death on the 2nd of January 1898. He was the editor of four +volumes of facsimiles of Anglo-Saxon charters from 679 to the Conquest, +_The Speeches in the Trial of Warren Hastings_ (1859-1861), and a number +of other interesting historic documents. + + + + +BOND,[1] in English law, an obligation by deed. Its design is to secure +that the obligor, i.e. the person giving the bond, will either pay a +sum of money, or do or refrain from doing some act; and for this purpose +the obligor binds himself in a penalty to the obligee, with a condition +added that, if the obligor pays the sum secured--which is usually half +the penalty--or does or refrains from doing the specified act, the bond +shall be void: otherwise it shall remain in full force. This condition +is known as the defeasance because it defeats or undoes the bond. The +form of a common money bond runs as follows:-- + + Know All Men by these presents that I, A.B. (name, address and + description of obligor), am bound to C.D. (name, address and + description of obligee) in the sum of L[2000] to be paid to the said + (obligee), his executors, administrators or assigns or to his or their + attorney or attorneys, for which payment I bind myself by these + presents. Sealed with my seal. Dated this day of 19 . + + The condition of the above-written bond is such that if the above + A.B., his heirs, executors or administrators, shall on the day + of pay to the above-named C.D., his heirs, executors, administrators + or assigns the sum of L[1000], with interest for the same from the + date of the above-written bond at the rate of per cent per + annum without any deduction, then the above-written bond shall be + void: otherwise the bond shall remain in full force. + + Signed, sealed and delivered + by the above-named A.B. + in the presence of (witness) + +Recitals are frequently added to explain the circumstances under which +the bond is given. + +If the condition is not performed, i.e. if the obligor does not pay the +money by the day stipulated, or do or refrain from doing the act +provided for, the bond becomes forfeit or absolute at law, and charges +the obligor and his estate (see Conveyancing Act 1881, s. 59). In old +days, when a bond was forfeit, the whole penalty was recoverable at law +and payment _post diem_ could not be pleaded to an action on it, but the +court of chancery early interposed to prevent oppression. It held the +penalty of a bond to be the form, not the substance of it, a pledge +merely to secure repayment of the sum bona fide advanced, and would not +permit a man to take more than in conscience he ought, i.e. in case of a +common money bond, his principal, interest and expenses. This equitable +relief received statutory recognition by an act of 1705, which provided +that, in case of a common money bond, payment of the lesser sum with +interest and costs shall be taken in full satisfaction of the bond. An +obligee of a common money bond can, since the date of the Judicature +Act, obtain summary judgment under O. xiv. (R.S.C. 1883) by specially +endorsing his writ under O. iii. R. 6. + +Bonds were, however, and still are given to secure performance of a +variety of matters other than the payment of a sum of money at a fixed +date. They may be given and are given, for instance, to guarantee the +fidelity of a clerk, of a rent collector, or of a person in an office of +public trust, or to secure that an intended husband will settle a sum on +his wife in the event of her surviving him, or that a building contract +shall be carried out, or that a rival business shall not be carried on +by the obligor except within certain limits of time and space. The same +object can often be attained--and more conveniently attained--by a +covenant than by bond, and covenants have in the practice of +conveyancers largely superseded bonds, but there are cases where +security by bond is still preferable to security by covenant. Thus under +a bond to secure an annuity, if the obligor makes default, judgment may +be entered for the penalty and stand as security for the future payments +without the necessity of bringing a fresh action for each payment. In +cases of bonds with special conditions, such as those instanced above, +the remedy of the obligee for breach of the condition is prescribed by +an act of 1696, the procedure under which is preserved by the Judicature +Act (O. xxii. R. 1, O. xiii. R. 14). The obligee assigns the particular +breaches of which he complains, damages in respect of such breaches are +assessed, and, on payment into court by the obligor of the amount of +such damages, the court enters a stay of execution. A difficulty which +has much exercised and still exercises the courts is to determine, in +these cases of special conditions, whether the sum for which the bond is +given is a true penalty or only liquidated damages. There is nothing to +prevent the parties to a bond from agreeing the damages for a breach, +and if they have done so, the court will not interfere, as it will in +the case of a penalty. The leading case on the subject is _Kemble_ v. +_Farren_ (1829; 6 Bing. 148). + +Bonds given to secure the doing of anything which is contrary to the +policy of the law are void. Such, for instance, is a bond given to a +woman for future cohabitation (as distinguished from past cohabitation), +or a marriage brocage bond, that is, a bond given to procure a marriage +between parties. (See the matrimonial agency case, _Hermann_ v. +_Charlesworth_, 1905, 2 K.B. 123). It was not without design that +Shakespeare laid the scene of Shylock's suit on Antonio's bond in a +Venetian court; the bond would have had short shrift in an English +court. + + _Post Obit Bonds._--A post obit bond is one given by an expectant heir + or legatee, payable on or after the death of the person from whom the + obligor has expectations. Such a bond, if the obligee has exacted + unconscionable terms, may be set aside. + + _Bottomry Bonds._--A bottomry bond is a contract of hypothecation by + which the owner of a ship, or the master as his agent, borrows money + for the use of the ship to meet some emergency, e.g. necessary + repairs, and pledges the ship (or keel or bottom of the ship, _partem + pro toto_) as security for repayment. If the ship safely accomplishes + her voyage, the obligee gets his money back with the agreed interest: + if the ship is totally lost, he loses it altogether. + + _Lloyd's Bonds._--Lloyd's bonds are instruments under the seal of a + railway company, admitting the indebtedness of the company to the + obligee to a specified amount for work done or goods supplied, with a + covenant to pay him such amount with interest on a future day. They + are a device by which railway companies were enabled to increase their + indebtedness without technically violating their charter. The name is + derived from the counsel who settled the form of the bond. + + _Debenture Bonds._--Debenture bonds are bonds secured only by the + covenant of the company without any floating or fixed charge on the + assets. (See DEBENTURES AND DEBENTURE STOCK.) + + _Recognizance._--A recognizance differs from a bond in being entered + into before a court of record and thereby becoming an obligation of + record. + + _Heritable bond_ is a Scots law term, meaning a bond for money, joined + with a conveyance of land, and held by a creditor as security for his + debt. + + For goods "in bond" see BONDED WAREHOUSE. (E. Ma.) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] This word, meaning "that which binds," is a phonetic variant of + "band," and is derived from the Teutonic root seen in _bindan_, to + bind; it must be distinguished from the obsolete "bond," meaning + originally a householder. In the laws of Canute this word is used as + equal to the Old English _ceorl_ (see CHURL), and thus, as the + churl's position became less free after the Norman Conquest, the + "bond" approximated to the "villein," and still later to the "serf." + The word is in Old English _bonda_, and appears in "husband" + (q.v.), and is derived from the root of the verb _bua_, to dwell, + to have a house, the Latin _colere_, and thus in origin is cognate + with German _Bauer_ and English "boor." The transition in meaning to + the idea of serfdom, and hence to slavery, is due to an early + confusion with "bond," from "bind." The same wrong connexion appears + in the transition of meaning in "bondage," properly "tenure in + villeinage," but now used as synonymous with "slavery." A trace of + the early meaning still survives in "bondager" (q.v.). + + + + +BONDAGER, a word meaning generally a servant, but specially used in the +south of Scotland and Northumberland as the term for a female outworker +whom a married farm-labourer, living in a cottage attached to the farm, +undertakes as a condition of his tenancy to supply for field-labour, +sometimes also to board and lodge. The origin of the system was a dearth +of field-labour. + + + + +BONDE, GUSTAF, COUNT (1620-1667), Swedish statesman. He is remarkable +for being the persistent advocate of a pacific policy at a time when war +on the slightest provocation was the watchword of every Swedish +politician. Even the popular Polish adventure of Charles X. was +strenuously opposed by Bonde, though when once it was decided upon he +materially assisted the king to find the means for carrying it on. He +was also in favour of strict economy coupled with the recovery of the +royal domains which had fallen into the hands of the nobles, though his +natural partiality for his fellow-peers came out clearly enough when in +1655 he was appointed a member of Charles X.'s land-recovery commission. +In 1659 he succeeded Herman Fleming as lord high treasurer, and was one +of the council of regency appointed to govern Sweden during the minority +of Charles XI. In 1661 he presented to the senate a plan which aimed at +rendering Sweden altogether independent of foreign subsidies, by a +policy of peace, economy and trade-development, and by further recovery +of alienated estates. His budget in the following year, framed on the +same principles, subsequently served as an invaluable guide to Charles +XI. Bonde's extraordinary tenacity of purpose enabled him for some years +to carry out his programme, despite the opposition of the majority of +the senate and his co-regents, who preferred the more adventurous +methods of the chancellor Magnus de la Gardie, ultimately so ruinous to +Sweden. But the ambition of the oligarchs, and the fear and jealousy of +innumerable monopolists who rose in arms against his policy of economy, +proved at last too strong for Bonde, while the costly and useless +expedition against Bremen in 1665, undertaken contrary to his advice, +completed the ruin of the finances. In his later years Bonde's powers of +resistance were weakened by sickness and mortification at the triumph of +reckless extravagance, and he practically retired from the government +some time before his death. + + See Martin Veibull, _Sveriges Storhetstid_ (Stockholm, 1881). + + + + +BONDED WAREHOUSE, a warehouse established by the state, or by private +enterprise, in which goods liable to duty are lodged until the duty upon +them has been paid. Previous to the establishment of bonded warehouses +in England the payment of duties on imported goods had to be made at the +time of importation, or a bond with security for future payment given to +the revenue authorities. The inconveniences of this system were many; it +was not always possible for the importer to find sureties, and he had +often to make an immediate sale of the goods, in order to raise the +duty, frequently selling when the market was depressed and prices low; +the duty, having to be paid in a lump sum, raised the price of the goods +by the amount of the interest on the capital required to pay the duty; +competition was stifled from the fact that large capital was required +for the importation of the more heavily taxed articles; there was also +the difficulty of granting an exact equivalent drawback to the exporter, +on goods which had already paid duty. To obviate these difficulties and +to put a check upon frauds on the revenue, Sir Robert Walpole proposed +in his "excise scheme" of 1733, the system of warehousing, so far as +concerned tobacco and wine. The proposal, however, was very unpopular, +and it was not till 1803 that the system was actually adopted. By an act +of that year imported goods were to be placed in warehouses approved by +the customs authorities, and importers were to give "bonds" for payment +of duties when the goods were removed. It was from this that the +warehouses received the name of "bonded" or "bonding." The Customs +Consolidation Act 1853 dispensed with the giving of bonds, and laid down +various provisions for securing the payment of customs duties on goods +warehoused. These provisions are contained in the Customs Consolidation +Act 1876, and the amending statutes, the Customs and Inland Revenue Act +1880, and the Revenue Act 1883. The warehouses are known as "king's +warehouses," and by s. 284 of the act of 1876 are defined as "any place +provided by the crown or approved by the commissioners of customs, for +the deposit of goods for security thereof, and the duties due thereon." +By s. 12 of the same act the treasury may appoint warehousing ports or +places, and the commissioners of customs may from time to time approve +and appoint warehouses in such ports or places where goods may be +warehoused or kept, and fix the amount of rent payable in respect of the +goods. The proprietor or occupier of every warehouse so approved +(except existing warehouses of special security in respect of which +security by bond has hitherto been dispensed with), or some one on his +behalf, must, before any goods be warehoused therein, give security by +bond, or such other security as the commissioners may approve of, for +the payment of the full duties chargeable on any goods warehoused +therein, or for the due exportation thereof (s. 13). All goods deposited +in a warehouse, without payment of duty on the first importation, upon +being entered for home consumption, are chargeable with existing duties +on like goods under any customs acts in force at the time of passing +such entry (s. 19). The act also prescribes various rules for the +unshipping, landing, examination, warehousing and custody of goods, and +the penalties on breach. The system of warehousing has proved of great +advantage both to importers and purchasers, as the payment of duty is +deferred until the goods are required, while the title-deeds, or +warrants, are transferable by endorsement. + +While the goods are in the warehouse ("in bond") the owner may subject +them to various processes necessary to fit them for the market, such as +the repacking and mixing of tea, the racking, vatting, mixing and +bottling of wines and spirits, the roasting of coffee, the manufacture +of certain kinds of tobacco, &c., and certain specific allowances are +made in respect of waste arising from such processes or from leakage, +evaporation and the like. + + + + +BONDU, a French protectorate in West Africa, dependent on the colony of +Senegal. Bondu lies between the Faleme river and the upper course of the +Gambia, that is between 13 deg. and 15 deg. N., and 12 deg. and 13 deg. +W. The country is an elevated plateau, with hills in the southern and +central parts. These are generally unproductive, and covered with +stunted wood; but the lower country is fertile, and finely clothed with +the baobab, the tamarind and various valuable fruit-trees. Bondu is +traversed by torrents, which flow rapidly during the rains but are empty +in the dry season, such streams being known in this part of West Africa +as _marigots_. The inhabitants are mostly Fula, though the trade is +largely in the hands of Mandingos. The religion and laws of the country +are Mahommedan, though the precepts of that faith are not very +rigorously observed. Mungo Park, the first European traveller to visit +the country, passed through Bondu in 1795, and had to submit to many +exactions from the reigning prince. The royal residence was then at +Fatteconda; but when Major W. Gray, a British officer who attempted to +solve the Niger problem, visited Bondu in 1818 it had been removed to +Bulibani, a small town, with about 3000 population, surrounded by a +strong clay wall. In August 1845 the king of Bondu signed a treaty +recognizing French sovereignty over his country. The treaty was +disregarded by the natives, but in 1858 Bondu came definitely under +French control. The country has since enjoyed considerable prosperity +(see SENEGAL). + + See A. Rancon, _Le Bondou: etude de geographie et d'histoire + soudaniennes de 1681 a nos jours_ (Bordeaux, 1894). + + + + +BONE, HENRY (1755-1834), English enamel painter, was born at Truro. He +was much employed by London jewellers for small designs in enamel, +before his merits as an artist were well known to the public. In 1800 +the beauty of his pieces attracted the notice of the Royal Academy, of +which he was then admitted as an associate; in 1811 he was made an +academician. Up to 1831 he executed many beautiful miniature pieces of +much larger size than had been attempted before in England; among these +his eighty-five portraits of the time of Queen Elizabeth, of different +sizes, from 5 by 4 to 13 by 8 in. are most admired. They were disposed +of by public sale after his death. His Bacchus and Ariadne, after +Titian, painted on a plate, brought the great price of 2200 guineas. + + + + +BONE (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages, in many of +which it is confined to the shank of the leg, as in the German _Bein_), +the hard tissue constituting the framework of the animal skeleton. For +anatomy see SKELETON and CONNECTIVE TISSUES. + +BONE DISEASES AND INJURIES.--The more specific diseases affecting the +bones of the human body are treated under separate headings; in this +article _inflammation of bone_ and _fractures_ are dealt with. + + + Ostitis. + +_Ostitis_ ([Greek: osteon], bone), or inflammation of bone, may be acute +or chronic. _Acute ostitis_ is one of the most serious diseases which +can be met with in young people. It is due to the cultivation of +virulent germs in the delicate growing tissue of the bone and in the +marrow. Another name for it is _septic osteomyelitis_, which has the +advantage of expressing the cause as well as the exact seat ([Greek: +myelos], marrow) of the inflammation. The name of the micro-organism +causing the inflammation is _Staphylococcus pyogenes aureus_, which +means that the germs collect in clusters like grapes, that they are of +the virulent pus-producing kind, and that they have a yellow tinge. As a +rule, the germs find their way to the bone by the blood-stream, which +they have entered through the membrane lining the mouth or gullet, or +some other part of the alimentary canal. In the pre-antiseptic days they +often entered the sawn bone during the amputation of a limb, and were +not infrequently the cause of blood-poisoning and death. When the +individual is well and strong, and there has been no hurt, strain or +accident to lower the power of resistance of the bone, the staphylococci +may circulate harmlessly in the blood, until they are gradually eaten up +by the white corpuscles; but if a bone has been injured it offers a +likely and attractive focus to the wandering germs. + +The disease is infective. That is to say, the micro-organisms having +begun to germinate in the damaged bone find their way by the +blood-stream into other tissues, and developing after their kind, are +apt to cause blood-poisoning. Should a surgeon prick his finger whilst +operating on a case of septic osteomyelitis his blood also might be +poisoned, and he would run the risk of losing his finger, his hand, or +even his life. The starting-point of the disease is the delicate growing +tissue recently deposited between the main part of the shaft of the bone +(diaphysis) and the cartilaginous end. And it often happens that the +earliest complaint of pain is just above or below the knee; just above +the ankle, the elbow or the wrist. If the surgeon is prompt in operating +he may find the disease limited to that spot. In the case of infants, +the germs are very apt to make their way into the neighbouring joint, +giving rise to the very serious disease known as _acute arthritis of +infants_. + +Probably the first sign of there being anything amiss with the limb will +be a complaint of aches or pains near a joint; and these pains are apt +to be miscalled rheumatic. Perhaps they occur during convalescence from +scarlet or typhoid fever, or after exposure to injury, or to wet or +cold, or after unusual fatigue. The part becomes swollen, hot, red and +excessively tender; the tenderness, however, is not in the skin but in +the bone, and in the engorged membrane around it, the periosteum. The +temperature may run up to 104 deg., and may be associated with +convulsions or shiverings. The patient's nights are disturbed, and very +likely he has violent delirium. If the case is allowed to drift on, +abscess forms, and death may ensue from septic pneumonia, or +pericarditis, or from some other form of blood-poisoning. + +As soon as the disease is recognized an incision should be made down to +the bone, and the affected area should be scraped out, and disinfected +with a solution of corrosive sublimate. A considerable area of the bone +may be found stripped bare by sub-periosteal abscess, and necrosis is +likely to ensue. Perhaps the shaft of the bone will have to be opened up +in the chief part of its length in order that it may be cleared of germs +and pus. The surgeon is more apt to err on the side of doing too little +in these serious cases than too much. It may be that the whole of that +piece of bone (diaphysis) which lies between the joint-ends is found +loose in a large abscess cavity, and in some cases immediate amputation +of the limb may be found necessary in order to save life; in other +cases, amputation may be called for later because of long-continued +suppuration and grave constitutional disturbance. Several bones may be +affected at the same time, and large pieces of them may be killed +outright (_multiple necrosis_) by inflammatory engorgement and +devastating abscess. + +Septic ostitis may be confounded with erysipelas and rheumatism, but +the central thickening and tenderness should suffice to distinguish it. + +_Chronic ostitis_ and _periostitis_ denote long-continued and increased +vascular supply. This may be due to injury, syphilis or rheumatism. The +disease is found chiefly in the shafts of the bones. There is a dull +pain in the bone, which is worse at night, and the inflamed piece of +bone is thickened and tender. The lump thus formed is called a _hard +node_, and its outline shows clearly by X-rays. The affected limb should +be rested and kept elevated. Leeches and fomentations may ease the pain, +and iodide of potassium is the most useful medicine. + +_Chronic inflammation of tuberculous origin_ affects the soft, +cancellated tissue of such bones as the vertebrae, and the bones of the +hands and feet, as well as the spongy ends of the long bones. In +tuberculous ostitis the presence of the bacilli in the spongy tissue +causes an escape of colourless corpuscles from the blood, which, +collecting around the bacilli, form a small greyish white heap, a +_tubercle_. These tubercles may be present in large numbers at the +expense of the living tissue, and a _rarefying ostitis_ is thus +produced. Later the tubercles break down and form tuberculous abscesses, +which slowly, and almost painlessly, find escape upon the surface. They +should not be allowed to open spontaneously, however, as the wounds are +then likely to become infected with pus-producing germs, and fuel being +added to the fire, as it were, destruction advances with increased +rapidity. The treatment for these tuberculous foci is to place the limb +or the part at absolute rest upon a splint, to give plenty of fresh air +to the patient, and to prescribe cod-liver oil and iron. And when it is +seen that in spite of the adoption of these measures the tuberculous +abscess is advancing towards the surface, the surgeon should cut down +upon the part, scrape out the foci, and disinfect with some strong +antiseptic lotion. Consideration should also be given to the treatment +by injection of tuberculin. + +_Caries_ (rottenness, decay) is the name given to tuberculous disease of +bone when the tubercles are running together and are breaking down the +cancellous tissue. In short, caries generally means tuberculous ostitis, +though syphilitic ulceration of bone has also received the same name. + + + Fracture. + +_Fractures._--A bone may be broken at the part where it is struck +(fracture from direct violence), or it may break in consequence of a +strain applied to it (fracture from indirect violence), or the fracture +may be due to muscular action as when a violent cough causes a rib to +break. In the first case the fracture is generally transverse and in the +second more or less oblique. The fully developed bone is broken fairly +across; the soft bones of young people may simply be bent--_green stick_ +or _willow fracture._ Fractures are either _simple_ or _compound_. A +simple fracture is analogous to the subcutaneous laceration in the soft +parts, and a compound one to an open wound in the soft parts. The wound +of the soft parts in the compound fracture may be due either to the +force which caused the fracture, as in the case of a cart-wheel going +over a limb, first wounding the soft parts and then fracturing the bone, +or to the sharp point of the fractured bone coming out through the skin. +In either case there is a communication between the external air and +injured bone, and the probability arises of the germs of suppuration +finding their way to the seat of fracture. This greatly increases the +risks of the case, for septic inflammation and suppuration may lead to +delayed union, to death of large pieces of the bone (necrosis), and to +osteomyelitis and to blood-poisoning. In the treatment of a fracture, +every care should be taken to prevent any sharp fragment coming near the +skin. Careless handling has often been the means of a simple fracture +being converted into a compound one. + +In most cases of fracture _crepitus_ can be made out; this is the +feeling elicited when two rough osseous surfaces are rubbed together. +When a bone is merely bent there is, of course, no crepitus. It is also +absent in fractures in which the broken extremities are driven into one +another (impacted fracture). In order to get firm bony union it is +necessary to secure accurate apposition of the fragments. Putting the +broken ends together is termed "setting the fracture," and the needful +amount of rest is obtained by the use of splints. As a rule, it is also +advisable to fix with the splint the joint above or below the fracture. +In cases in which a splintering of the bone into a joint has taken +place, more especially in those cases in which tendons have been +injured, there may be a good deal of effusion into the joint and the +tendon sheaths, and this may be organized into fibrous tissue leading to +permanent stiffness. This is particularly apt to occur in old people. +Care must be taken in such instances by gentle exercises, and by passive +movement during the process of cure, to keep the joint and tendons free. +To take a common example,--in fracture close to the wrist joint, it is +necessary to arrange the splint so that the patient can move his fingers +and thumb, and the splint must be taken off every day, in order that the +wrist and fingers may be gently bent, straightened and exercised. + +The treatment of fractures has undergone considerable improvement of +late years. Simple fractures are not kept so long at rest in splints, +but are constantly "taken down" in order that massage and movements of +the limb may be resorted to. This, of course, is done with the utmost +gentleness, and with the result that swelling, pain and other evidences +of the serious injury quickly disappear, whilst a more rapid and +complete recovery is ensured. Stiff hands and feet after fracture are +much less frequently met with. By the aid of the X-rays it is now easy +for the surgeon to assure himself that fractured surfaces have been well +adjusted and are in close apposition. But if they are not in a +satisfactory position, and it be found impracticable to assure their +close adjustment by ordinary methods, the surgeon now, without undue +loss of time, cuts down upon the broken ends and fixes them together by +a strong wire suture, which remains permanently in the tissues. If the +fracture be associated with an open wound of the part (compound +fracture), and the broken ends are found incapable of easy adjustment, +immediate wiring together of the fragments is now considered to be a +necessary part of the primary treatment. The French surgeon, Just +Lucas-Championniere, has done more than any one else to show the +advantage of discreet movements, of massage and of exercises in the +treatment of fractures. + +_Special Fracture in Young People._--The long bones of children and +growing persons consist of a shaft with cartilaginous ends in which bone +is developed. As the result of injury, the end of the bone may become +detached, a variety of fracture known as _diastasis_. Such a +fracture--however well treated--may be followed by arrest of growth of +the bone or by stiffness of the neighbouring joint. + +_Delayed union_ means that consolidation is taking place very slowly, if +at all. This may be due to local or constitutional causes, but provided +the bones are in good position, nothing further than patience, with +massage, and with due attention to general health-measures, is +necessary. + +An _ununited fracture_ is one in which after many weeks or months no +attempt has been made by nature to consolidate the parts. This may be +due to the ends not having been brought close enough together; to the +seat of fracture having been constantly disturbed; to muscle or tendon +being interposed between the broken ends, or to the existence of some +constitutional defect in the patient. Except in the last-named +condition, the treatment consists in cutting down to the broken ends; +freshening them up by sawing off a thin slice, and by adjusting and +fixing them by a wire or screw. Ununited fracture of the leg-bones in +children is a most unsatisfactory and rebellious condition to deal with. + +There is still a difference of opinion as to the best way of treating a +recent _fracture of the patella_ (knee-cap). Many surgeons are still +content to follow the old plan of fixing the limb on a back-splint, or +in plaster of Paris splints, and awaiting the result. It is beyond +question that a large percentage of these cases recover with a perfectly +useful limb--especially if the fibrous bond of union between the pieces +of the broken knee-cap is adequately protected against being stretched +by bending the leg at too early a date. But in some cases the fragments +have been eventually found wide apart, the patient being left with an +enfeebled limb. Still, at any rate, this line of treatment was +unassociated with risk. But after Lister showed (1883) that with due +care and cleanliness the knee-joint could be opened, and the fragments +of the broken patella secured in close apposition by a stout wire +suture, the treatment of the injury underwent a remarkable change. The +great advantage of Lister's treatment was that the fragments, being +fixed close together by the wire stitch, became solidly united by bone, +and the joint became as sound as it was before. Some surgeons, however, +objected to the operation--in spite of the excellence of the results +obtainable by it--because of the undoubted risk which it entailed of the +joint becoming invaded by septic micro-organisms. As a sort of +compromise, Professor A.E.J. Barker introduced the method, which he +deemed to be less hazardous, of holding the fragments close together by +means of a strong silver wire passed round them vertically by a large +needle without actually laying open the joint. But experience has shown +that in the hands of careful and skilful surgeons Lister's operation of +openly wiring the fragments gives a perfect result with a comparatively +small risk. Other surgeons secure the fragments in close contact for +bony union by passing a silk or metal suture around them +circumferentially. Many years ago Lister remarked that the careful +selection of one's patients is an antiseptic measure--by which he meant +that if a surgeon intended to get the most perfect results for his +operative work, he must carefully consider whether any individual +patient is physically adapted for the performance upon him of any +particular operation. This aphorism implies that not every patient with +a broken knee-cap is suited for the opening of his knee-joint, or even +for the subcutaneous adjustment of the broken fragments. An operative +procedure which is admirably suited for one patient might result in +disaster when adopted for another, and it is an important part of the +surgeon's business to know what to advise in each individual case. + (E. O.*) + + _Industrial Applications of Bones._--By the increasing inventiveness + of man, the industrial utilization of animal bone has been so + developed that not one of the constituents fails to reappear in + commerce. Composed of mineral matter--phosphates, &c.--fat and + gelatinous substances, the phosphates are used as artificial manures, + the fat is worked up by the soap-maker and chandler, and the + gelatinous matter forms the basis of the gelatin and glue of commerce; + while by the dry distillation of bones from which the gelatin has been + but partially removed, there are obtained a carbonaceous + residue--animal charcoal--and a tarry distillate, from which "bone + oil" and bone pitch are obtained. To these by-products there must be + added the direct uses of bone--for making buttons, knife-handles, + &c.--when an estimate is desired of the commercial importance of these + components of the animal frame. + + While most of the world's supply of bones goes to the glue and gelatin + works, the leg and thigh bones, termed "marrows" and "knuckles," are + used for the manufacture of bone articles. The treatment which they + receive is very different from that practised in the glue-works. The + ends are removed by a saw, and the bones are steeped in a 1% brine + solution for three to four days, in order to separate the fibrous + matter. The bones are now heated with water, and allowed to simmer for + about six hours. This removes a part of the fat and gelatinous matter; + the former rises as a scum, the latter passes into solution, and the + bones remain sufficiently firm to be worked up by the lathe, &c. The + fat is skimmed off, and, after bleaching, reappears as a component of + fine soaps, or, if unbleached, the oil is expressed and is used as an + adulterant of other oils, while the stearine or solid matter goes to + the candle-maker; the gelatinous water is used (after filtration) for + making size for cardboard boxes; while the bones are scrubbed, dried, + and then transferred to the bone-worker. + + The glue-worker first removes the fat, which is supplied to the soap + and candle trades; the bones are now treated for glue (q.v.); and + the residue is worked up for manures, &c. These residues are ground to + a fine or coarse meal, and supplied either directly as a fertilizer or + treated with sulphuric acid to form the more soluble superphosphates, + which are more readily assimilated by growing plants. In some places, + especially South America, the residues are burned in a retort to a + white ash, the "bone-ash" of commerce, which contains some 70-80% of + tricalcium phosphate, and is much used as a manure, and in the + manufacture of high-grade superphosphates. In the gelatin industry + (see GELATIN) the mineral matter has to be recovered from its solution + in hydrochloric acid. To effect this, the liquors are freed from + suspended matter by filtration, and then run into vats where they are + mixed with milk of lime, or some similar neutralizer. The slightly + soluble bicalcium phosphate, CaHPO4, is first precipitated, which, + with more lime, gives ordinary tricalcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2. The + contents of the vats are filter-pressed, and the cakes dried on + plates supported on racks in heated chambers. This product is a very + valuable manure, and is also used in the manufacture of phosphorus. + + Instead of extracting all the gelatinous matter from degreased bones, + the practice of extracting about one half and carbonizing the residue + is frequently adopted. The bones are heated in horizontal cast-iron + retorts, holding about 5 cwt., and the operation occupies about twelve + to thirteen hours. The residue in the retorts is removed while still + red-hot to air-tight vessels in which it is allowed to cool. It is + then passed through grinding mills, and is subsequently riddled by + revolving cylindrical sieves. The yield is from 55 to 60% of the bones + carbonized, and the product contains about 10% of carbon and about 75% + of calcium phosphate, the remainder being various inorganic salts and + moisture (6-7%). Animal charcoal has a deep black colour, and is much + used as a filtering and clarifying material. The vapours evolved + during carbonization are condensed in vertical air condensers. The + liquid separates into two layers: the upper tarry layer is floated off + and redistilled; the distillate is termed "bone oil,"[1] and mainly + consists of many fatty amines and pyridine derivatives, characterized + by a most disgusting odour; the residue is "bone pitch," and finds + application in the manufacture of black varnishes and like + compositions. The lower layer is ammoniacal liquor; it is transferred + to stills, distilled with steam, and the ammonia received in sulphuric + acid; the ammonium sulphate, which separates, is removed, drained and + dried, and is principally used as a manure. Both during the + carbonization of the bones and the distillation of the tar inflammable + gases are evolved; these are generally used, after purification, for + motive or illuminating purposes. (C. E.*) + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] Bone oil, also known as Dippel's oil, was originally produced by + the distillation of stags' horns; it is of interest in the history of + chemistry, since from it were isolated in 1846 by T. Anderson + pyridine and some of its homologues. + + + + +BONE BED, a term loosely used by geologists when speaking generally of +any stratum or deposit which contains bones of whatever kind. It is also +applied to those brecciated and stalagmitic deposits on the floor of +caves, which frequently contain osseous remains. In a more restricted +sense it is used to connote certain thin layers of bony fragments, which +occur upon well-defined geological horizons. One of the best-known of +these is the Ludlow Bone Bed, which is found at the base of the Downton +Sandstone in the Upper Ludlow series. At Ludlow itself, two such beds +are actually known, separated by about 14 ft. of strata. Although quite +thin, the Ludlow Bone Bed can be followed from that town into +Gloucestershire for a distance of 45 m. It is almost made up of +fragments of spines, teeth and scales of ganoid fish. Another well-known +bed, formerly known as the "Bristol" or "Lias" Bone Bed, exists in the +form of several thin layers of micaceous sandstone, with the remains of +fish and saurians, which occur in the Rhaetic Black Paper Shales that +lie above the Keuper marls in the south-west of England. It is +noteworthy that a similar bone bed has been traced on the same +geological horizon in Brunswick, Hanover and Franconia. A bone bed has +also been observed at the base of the Carboniferous limestone series in +certain parts of the south-west of England. + + + + +BONE-LACE, a kind of lace made upon a cushion from linen thread; the +pattern is marked out with pins, round which are twisted the different +threads, each wound on its own bobbin. The lace was so called from the +fact that bobbins were formerly made of bone. + + + + +BONER (or BONERIUS), ULRICH (fl. 14th century), German-Swiss writer of +fables, was born in Bern. He was descended of an old Bernese family, +and, as far as can be ascertained, took clerical orders and became a +monk; yet as it appears that he subsequently married, it is certain that +he received the "tonsure" only, and was thus entitled to the benefit of +the _clerici uxoriati_, who, on divesting themselves of the clerical +garb, could return to secular life. He is mentioned in records between +1324 and 1349, but neither before nor after these dates. He wrote, in +Middle High German, a collection of fables entitled _Der Edelstein_ (c. +1349), one hundred in number, which were based principally on those of +Avianus (4th century) and the _Anonymus_ (edited by I. Nevelet, 1610). +This work he dedicated to the Bernese patrician and poet, Johann von +Rinkenberg, advocatus (_Vogt_) of Brienz (d. c. 1350). It was printed in +1461 at Bamberg; and it is claimed for it that it was the first book +printed in the German language. Boner treats his sources with +considerable freedom and originality; he writes a clear and simple +style, and the necessarily didactic tone of the collection is relieved +by touches of humour. + + _Der Edelstein_ has been edited by G.F. Benecke (Berlin, 1816) and + Franz Pfeiffer (Leipzig, 1844); a translation into modern German by K. + Pannier will be found, in Reclam's _Universal-Bibliothek_ (Leipzig, + 1895). See also G.E. Lessing in _Zur Geschichte und Literatur_ + (_Werke_, ix.); C. Waas, _Die Quellen der Beispiele Boners_ (Giessen, + 1897). + + + + +BO'NESS, or BORROWSTOUNNESS, a municipal and police burgh and seaport of +Linlithgowshire, Scotland. Pop. (1891) 6295; (1901) 9306. It lies on the +southern shore of the Firth of Forth, 17 m. W. by N. of Edinburgh, and +24 m. by rail, being the terminus of the North British railway's branch +line from Manuel. In the 18th century it ranked next to Leith as a port, +but the growth of Grangemouth, higher up the firth, seriously affected +its shipping trade, which is, however, yet considerable, coal and +pig-iron forming the principal exports, and pit props from the Baltic +the leading import. It has an extensive harbour (the area of the dock +being 7-3/4 acres). The great industries are coal-mining--some of the +pits extending for a long distance beneath the firth--iron-founding +(with several blast furnaces) and engineering, but it has also important +manufactures of salt, soap, vitriol and other chemicals. Shipbuilding +and whaling are extinct. Traces of the wall of Antoninus which ran +through the parish may still be made out, especially near Inveravon. +Blackness, on the coast farther east, was the seaport of Linlithgow till +the rise of Bo'ness, but its small export trade now mainly consists of +coal, bricks, tiles and lime. Its castle, standing on a promontory, is +of unknown age. James III. of Scotland is stated to have consigned +certain of the insurgent nobles to its cells; and later it was used as a +prison in which many of the Covenanters were immured. It was one of the +four castles that had to be maintained by the Articles of Union, but +when its uselessness for defensive purposes became apparent, it was +converted into an ammunition depot. Kinneil House, 1 m. south of +Bo'ness, a seat of the duke of Hamilton, formerly a keep, was fortified +by the regent Arran, plundered by the rebels in Queen Mary's reign, and +reconstructed in the time of Charles II. Dr John Roebuck (1718-1794), +founder of the Carron Iron Works, occupied it for several years from +1764. It was here that, on his invitation, James Watt constructed a +model of his steam-engine, which was tested in a now disused colliery. +Though Roebuck lost all his money in the coal-mines and salt works which +he established at Bo'ness, the development of the mineral resources of +the district may be regarded as due to him. + + + + +BONFIGLI, BENEDETTO, 15th century Italian painter, was born at Perugia. +Until near the middle of the 15th century the Umbrian school was far +behind those of Florence and the North, but in the person of Perugino +and some of his followers it suddenly advanced into the very first rank. +Among the latter none holds a more distinguished place than Benedetto +Bonfigli. The most important of his extant works are a series, in +fresco, of the life of St Louis of Toulouse, in the communal palace of +Perugia. + + + + +BONFIRE (in Early English "bone-fire," Scottish "bane-fire"), originally +a fire of bones, now any large fire lit in the open air on an occasion +of rejoicing. Though the spelling "bonfire" was used in the 16th +century, the earlier "bone-fire" was common till 1760. The earliest +known instance of the derivation of the word occurred as _ban fyre ignis +ossium_ in the _Catholicon Anglicum_, A.D. 1483. Other derivations, now +rejected, have been sought for the word. Thus some have thought it +_Baal-fire_, passing through _Bael_, _Baen_ to _Bane_. Others have +declared it to be _boon_-fire by analogy with _boen-harow_, i.e. +"harrowing by gift," the suggestion being that these fires were +"contribution" fires, every one in the neighbourhood contributing a +portion of the material, just as in Northumberland the "contributed +Ploughing Days" are known as _Bone-daags_. + +Whatever the origin of the word, it has long had several meanings-(a) a +fire of bones, (b) a fire for corpses, a funeral pile, (c) a fire for +immolation, such as that in which heretics and proscribed books were +burnt, (d) a large fire lit in the open air, on occasions of national +rejoicing, or as a signal of alarm such as the bonfires which warned +England of the approach of the Armada. Throughout Europe the peasants +from time immemorial have lighted bonfires on certain days of the year, +and danced around or leapt over them. This custom can be traced back to +the middle ages, and certain usages in antiquity so nearly resemble it +as to suggest that the bonfire has its origin in the early days of +heathen Europe. Indeed the earliest proof of the observance of these +bonfire ceremonies in Europe is afforded by the attempts made by +Christian synods in the 7th and 8th centuries to suppress them as pagan. +Thus the third council of Constantinople (A.D. 680), by its 65th canon, +orders: "Those fires that are kindled by certaine people on new moones +before their shops and houses, over which also they use ridiculously and +foolishly to leape, by a certaine antient custome, we command them from +henceforth to cease." And the Synodus Francica under Pope Zachary, A.D. +742, forbids "those sacrilegious fires which they call _Nedfri_ (or +bonefires), and all other observations of the Pagans whatsoever." +Leaping over the fires is mentioned among the superstitious rites used +at the Palilia (the feast of Pales, the shepherds' goddess) in Ovid's +_Fasti_, when the shepherds lit heaps of straw and jumped over them as +they burned. The lighting of the bonfires in Christian festivals was +significant of the compromise made with the heathen by the early Church. +In Cornwall bonfires are lighted on the eve of St John the Baptist and +St Peter's day, and midsummer is thence called in Cornish _Goluan_, +which means both "light" and "festivity." Sometimes effigies are burned +in these fires, or a pretence is made of burning a living person in +them, and there are grounds for believing that anciently human +sacrifices were actually made in the bonfires. Spring and midsummer are +the usual times at which these bonfires are lighted, but in some +countries they are made at Hallowe'en (October 31) and at Christmas. In +spring the 1st Sunday in Lent, Easter eve and the 1st of May are the +commonest dates. + + See J.G. Frazer, _Golden Bough_, vol. iii., for a very full account of + the bonfire customs of Europe, &c. + + + + +BONGARS, JACQUES (1554-1612), French scholar and diplomatist, was born +at Orleans, and was brought up in the reformed faith. He obtained his +early education at Marburg and Jena, and returning to France continued +his studies at Orleans and Bourges. After spending some time in Rome he +visited eastern Europe, and subsequently made the acquaintance of Segur +Pardaillan, a representative of Henry, king of Navarre, afterwards Henry +IV. of France. He entered the service of Pardaillan, and in 1587 was +sent on a mission to many of the princes of northern Europe, after which +he visited England to obtain help from Queen Elizabeth for Henry of +Navarre. He continued to serve Henry as a diplomatist, and in 1593 +became the representative of the French king at the courts of the +imperial princes. Vigorously seconding the efforts of Henry to curtail +the power of the house of Habsburg, he spent health and money +ungrudgingly in this service, and continued his labours until the king's +murder in 1610. He then returned to France, and died at Paris on the +29th of July 1612. Bongars wrote an abridgment of Justin's abridgment of +the history of Trogus Pompeius under the title _Justinus, Trogi Pompeii +Historiarum Philippicarum epitoma de manuscriptis codicibus emendatior +et prologis auctior_ (Paris, 1581). He collected the works of several +French writers who as contemporaries described the crusades, and +published them under the title _Gesta Dei per Francos_ (Hanover, 1611). +Another collection made by Bongars is the _Rerum Hungaricarum scriptores +varii_ (Frankfort, 1600). His _Epistolae_ were published at Leiden in +1647, and a French translation at Paris in 1668-1670. Many of his papers +are preserved in the library at Bern, to which they were presented in +1632, and a list of them was made in 1634. Other papers and copies of +instructions are now in several libraries in Paris; and copies of other +instructions are in the British Museum. + + See H. Hagen, _Jacobus Bongarsius_ (Bern, 1874); L. Anquez, _Henri IV + et l'Allemagne_ (Paris, 1887). + + + + + +BONGHI, RUGGERO (1828-1895), Italian scholar, writer and politician, was +born at Naples on the 20th of March 1828. Exiled from Naples in +consequence of the movement of 1848, he took refuge in Tuscany, whence +he was compelled to flee to Turin on account of a pungent article +against the Bourbons. At Turin he resumed his philosophic studies and +his translation of Plato, but in 1858 refused a professorship of Greek +at Pavia, under the Austrian government, only to accept it in 1859 from +the Italian government after the liberation of Lombardy. In 1860, with +the Cavour party, he opposed the work of Garibaldi, Crispi and Bertani +at Naples, and became secretary of Luigi Carlo Farini during the +latter's lieutenancy, but in 1865 assumed contemporaneously the +editorship of the _Perseveranza_ of Milan and the chair of Latin +literature at Florence. Elected deputy in 1860 he became celebrated by +the biting wit of his speeches, while, as journalist, the acrimony of +his polemical writings made him a redoubtable adversary. Though an +ardent supporter of the historic Right, and, as such, entrusted by the +Lanza cabinet with the defence of the law of guarantees in 1870, he was +no respecter of persons, his caustic tongue sparing neither friend nor +foe. Appointed minister for public instruction in 1873, he, with +feverish activity, reformed the Italian educational system, suppressed +the privileges of the university of Naples, founded the Vittorio +Emanuele library in Rome, and prevented the establishment of a Catholic +university in the capital. Upon the fall of the Right from power in 1876 +he joined the opposition, and, with characteristic vivacity, protracted +during two months the debate on Baccelli's University Reform Bill, +securing, single-handed, its rejection. A bitter critic of King Humbert, +both in the _Perseveranza_ and in the _Nuova Antologia_, he was, in +1893, excluded from court, only securing readmission shortly before his +death on the 22nd of October 1895. In foreign policy a Francophil, he +combated the Triple Alliance, and took considerable part in the +organization of the inter-parliamentary peace conference. (H. W. S.) + + + + +BONGO (DOR or DERAN), a tribe of Nilotic negroes, probably related to +the Zandeh tribes of the Welle district, inhabiting the south-west +portion of the Bahr-el-Ghazal province, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. G.A. +Schweinfurth, who lived two years among them, declares that before the +advent of the slave-raiders, c. 1850, they numbered at least 300,000. +Slave-raiders, and later the dervishes, greatly reduced their numbers, +and it was not until the establishment of effective control by the Sudan +government (1904-1906) that recuperation was possible. The Bongo +formerly lived in countless little independent and peaceful communities, +and under the Sudan government they again manage their own affairs. +Their huts are well built, and sometimes 24 ft. high. The Bongo are a +race of medium height, inclined to be thick-set, with a red-brown +complexion--"like the soil upon which they reside"--and black hair. +Schweinfurth declares their heads to be nearly round, no other African +race, to his knowledge, possessing a higher cephalic index. The women +incline to steatopygia in later life, and this deposit of fat, together +with the tail of bast which they wore, gave them, as they walked, +Schweinfurth says, the appearance of "dancing baboons." The Bongo men +formerly wore only a loin-cloth, and many dozen iron rings on the arms +(arranged to form a sort of armour), while the women had simply a +girdle, to which was attached a tuft of grass. Both sexes now largely +use cotton cloths as dresses. The tribal ornaments consist of nails or +plugs which are passed through the lower lip. The women often wear a +disk several inches in diameter in this fashion, together with a ring or +a bit of straw in the upper lip, straws in the _alae_ of the nostrils, +and a ring in the _septum_. The Bongo, unlike other of the upper Nile +Negroes, are not great cattle-breeders, but employ their time in +agriculture. The crops mostly cultivated are sorghum, tobacco, sesame +and durra. The Bongo eat the fruits, tubers and fungi in which the +country is rich. They also eat almost every creature--bird, beast, +insect and reptile, with the exception of the dog. They despise no +flesh, fresh or putrid. They drive the vulture from carrion, and eat +with relish the intestinal worms of the ox. Earth-eating, too, is +common among them. They are particularly skilled in the smelting and +working of iron. Iron forms the currency of the country, and is +extensively employed for all kinds of useful and ornamental purposes. +Bongo spears, knives, rings, and other articles are frequently fashioned +with great artistic elaboration. They have a variety of musical +instruments--drums, stringed instruments, and horns--in the practice of +which they take great delight; and they indulge in a vocal recitative +which seems intended to imitate a succession of natural sounds. +Schweinfurth says that Bongo music is like the raging of the elements. +Marriage is by purchase; and a man is allowed to acquire three wives, +but not more. Tattooing is partially practised. As regards burial, the +corpse is bound in a crouching position with the knees drawn up to the +chin; men are placed in the grave with the face to the north, and women +with the face to the south. The form of the grave is peculiar, +consisting of a niche in a vertical shaft, recalling the mastaba graves +of the ancient Egyptians. The tombs are frequently ornamented with rough +wooden figures intended to represent the deceased. Of the immortality of +the soul they have no defined notion; and their only approach to a +knowledge of a beneficent deity consists in a vague idea of luck. They +have, however, a most intense belief in a great variety of petty goblins +and witches, which are essentially malignant. Arrows, spears and clubs +form their weapons, the first two distinguished by a multiplicity of +barbs. Euphorbia juice is used as a poison for the arrows. Shields are +rare. Their language is musical, and abounds in the vowels o and a; its +vocabulary of concrete terms is very rich, but the same word has often a +great variety of meanings. The grammatical structure is simple. As a +race the Bongo are gentle and industrious, and exhibit strong family +affection. + + See G.A. Schweinfurth, _The Heart of Africa_ (London, 1873); W. + Junker, _Travels in Africa_ (Eng. edit., London, 1890-1892). + + + + +BONGO (_Boocercus eurycerus_), a West African bushbuck, the largest of +the group. The male is deep chestnut, marked on the body with narrow +white stripes, on the chest with a white crescent, and on the face by +two white spots below the eye. In the East African bongo (_B. e. +Isaaei_) the body hue is stronger and richer. There is, as yet, no +evidence as to whether the females of the true bongo bear horns, though +it is probable they do; but as the horns are present in both sexes of +the East African form, Mr Oldfield Thomas has made that the type of the +genus.[1] + + +FOOTNOTE: + + [1] _Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist._ vol. x. (seventh series), p. 309. + + + + +BONHAM, a town and the county-seat of Fannin county, Texas, U.S.A., +about 14 m. S. of the Red river, in the north-east part of the state, +and 70 m. N. of Dallas. Pop. (1890) 3361; (1900) 5042 (1223 being +negroes); (1910), 4844. It is served by the Missouri, Kansas & Texas, +and the Texas & Pacific railways. Bonham is the seat of Carlton College +(Christian), a woman's college founded in 1867; and its high school is +one of the best in the state. It is a trading and shipping centre of an +extensive farming territory devoted to the raising of live-stock and to +the growing of cotton, Indian corn, fruit, &c. It has large cotton gins +and compresses, a large cotton mill, flour mills, canning and ice +factories, railway repair shops, planing mills and carriage works. The +town was named in honour of J.B. Bonham, a native of South Carolina, who +was killed in the Alamo. The first settlement here was made in 1836. The +town was incorporated in 1850, and was re-incorporated in 1886. + + + + +BONHEUR [MARIE ROSALIE], ROSA (1822-1899), French painter, was born at +Bordeaux on the 22nd of March 1822. She was of Jewish origin. Jacques +Wiener, the Belgian medallist, a native of Venloo, says that he and +Raymond Bonheur, Rosa's father, used to attend synagogue in that town; +while another authority asserts that Rosa used to be known in common +parlance by the name of Rosa Mazeltov (a Hebrew term for "good luck," +_Gallice_ Bonheur). She was the eldest of four children, all of whom +were artists--Auguste (1824-1884) painted animals and landscape; +Juliette (1830-1891) was "honourably mentioned" at the exhibition of +1855; Isidore, born in 1827, was a sculptor of animals. Rosa at an early +age was taught to draw by her father (who died in 1849), and he, +perceiving her very remarkable talent, permitted her to abandon the +business of dressmaking, to which, much against her will, she had been +put, in order to devote herself wholly to art. From 1840 to 1845 she +exhibited at the salon, and five times received a prize; in 1848 a medal +was awarded to her. Her fame dates more especially from the exhibition +of 1855; from that time Rosa Bonheur's works were much sought after in +England, where collectors and public galleries competed eagerly for +them. What is chiefly remarkable and admirable in her work is that, like +her contemporary, Jacques Raymond Brascassat (1804-1867), she represents +animals as they really are, as she saw them in the country. Her gift of +accurate observation was, however, allied to a certain dryness of style +in painting; she often failed to give a perfect sense of atmosphere. On +the other hand, the anatomy of her animals is always faultlessly true. +There is nothing feminine in her handling; her treatment is always manly +and firm. Of her many works we may note the following:--"Ploughing in +the Nivernais" (1848), in the Luxembourg gallery; "The Horse Fair" +(1853), one of the two replicas of which is in the National Gallery, +London, the original being in the United States; and "Hay Harvest in +Auvergne" (1835). She was decorated with the Legion of Honour by the +empress Eugenie, and was subsequently promoted to the rank of "officer" +of the order. After 1867 Rosa Bonheur exhibited but once in the salon, +in 1899, a few weeks before her death. She lived quietly at her country +house at By, near Fontainebleau, where for some years she had held +gratuitous classes for drawing. She left at her death a considerable +number of pictures, studies, drawings and etchings, which were sold by +auction in Paris in the spring of 1900. (H. Fr.) + + + + +BONHEUR DU JOUR, the name for a lady's writing-desk, so called because, +when it was introduced in France about 1760, it speedily became +intensely fashionable. The bonheur du jour is always very light and +graceful; its special characteristic is a raised back, which may form a +little cabinet or a nest of drawers, or may simply be fitted with a +mirror. The top, often surrounded with a chased and gilded bronze +gallery, serves for placing small ornaments. Beneath the writing surface +there is usually a single drawer. The details vary greatly, but the +general characteristics are always traceable. The bonheur du jour has +never been so delicate, so charming, so coquettish as in the quarter of +a century which followed its introduction. The choicer examples of the +time are inlaid with marqueterie, edged with exotic woods, set in gilded +bronze, or enriched with panels of Oriental lacquer. + + + + +BONI (_Bone_), a vassal state of the government of Celebes, Dutch East +Indies, in the south-west peninsula of Celebes, on the Gulf of Boni. +Area, 2600 sq. m. It produces rice, tobacco, coffee, cotton and +sugar-cane, none of them important as exports. The breeds of buffaloes +and horses in this state are highly esteemed. The chief town, Boni, lies +80 m. N.E. of Macassar, and 2-1/2 m. from the east coast of the peninsula. +The native race of Bugis (q.v.), whose number within this area is +about 70,000, is one of the most interesting in the whole archipelago. + +Boni was once the most powerful state of Celebes, all the other princes +being regarded as vassals of its ruler, but its history is not known in +detail. In 1666 the rajah Palakkah, whose father and grandfather had +been murdered by the family of Hassan, the tyrant of Sumatra, made +common cause with the Dutch against that despot. From that date till the +beginning of the 19th century Dutch influence in the state remained +undisputed. In 1814, however, Boni fell into the hands of the British, +who retained it for two years; but by the European treaties concluded on +the downfall of Napoleon it reverted to its original colonizers. Their +influence, however, was resisted more than once by the natives. An +expedition in 1825, under General van Geen, was not fully successful in +enforcing it; and in 1858 and the following year two expeditions were +necessary to oppose an attempt by the princess regent towards +independence. In 1860 a new prince, owning allegiance to the Dutch, was +set up. As in other native states in Celebes, succession to the throne +in the female line has precedence over the male line. + + For the wars in Boni, see Perelaer, _De Bonische expeditien, + 1859-1860_ (Leiden, 1872); and Meyers, in the _Militaire Spectator_ + (1880). + + + + +BONIFACE, SAINT (680-754), the apostle of Germany, whose real name was +Wynfrith, was born of a good Saxon family at Crediton or Kirton in +Devonshire. While still young he became a monk, and studied grammar and +theology first at Exeter, then at Nutcell near Winchester, under the +abbot Winberht. He soon distinguished himself both as scholar and +preacher, and had every inducement to remain in his monastery, but in +716 he followed the example of other Saxon monks and set out as +missionary to Frisia. He was soon obliged to return, however, probably +owing to the hostility of Radbod, king of the Frisians, then at war with +Charles Martel. At the end of 717 he went to Rome, where in 719 Pope +Gregory II. commissioned him to evangelize Germany and to counteract the +influence of the Irish monks there. Crossing the Alps, Boniface visited +Bavaria and Thuringia, but upon hearing of the death of Radbod he +hurried again to Frisia, where, under the direction of his countryman +Willibrord (d. 738), the first bishop of Utrecht, he preached +successfully for three years. About 722 he visited Hesse and Thuringia, +won over some chieftains, and converted and baptized great numbers of +the heathen. Having sent special word to Gregory of his success, he was +summoned to Rome and consecrated bishop on the 30th of November 722, +after taking an oath of obedience to the pope. Then his mission was +enlarged. He returned with letters of recommendation to Charles Martel, +charged not only to convert the heathen but to suppress heresy as well. + +Charles's protection, as he himself confessed, made possible his great +career. Armed with it he passed safely into heathen Germany and began a +systematic crusade, baptizing, overturning idols, founding churches and +monasteries, and calling from England a band of missionary helpers, +monks and nuns, some of whom have become famous: St Lull, his successor +in the see at Mainz; St Burchard, bishop of Wurzburg; St Gregory, abbot +at Utrecht; Willibald, his biographer; St Lioba, St Walburge, St Thecla. +In 732 Boniface was created archbishop. In 738 for the third time he +went to Rome. On his return he organized the church in Bavaria into the +four bishoprics of Regensburg, Freising, Salzburg and Passau. Then his +power was extended still further. In 741 Pope Zacharias made him legate, +and charged him with the reformation of the whole Frankish church. With +the support of Carloman and Pippin, who had just succeeded Charles +Martel as mayors of the palace, Boniface set to work. As he had done in +Bavaria, he organized the east Frankish church into four bishoprics, +Erfurt, Wurzburg, Buraburg and Eichstadt, and set over them his own +monks. In 742 he presided at what is generally counted as the first +German council. At the same period he founded the abbey of Fulda, as a +centre for German monastic culture, placing it under the Bavarian Sturm, +whose biography gives us so many picturesque glimpses of the time, and +making its rule stricter than the Benedictine. Then came a theological +and disciplinary controversy with Virgil, the Irish bishop of Salzburg, +who held, among other heresies, that there were other worlds than ours. +Virgil must have been a most remarkable man; in spite of his leanings +toward science he held his own against Boniface, and was canonized after +his death. Boniface was more successful in France. There a certain +Adalbert or Aldebert, a Frankish bishop of Neustria, had caused great +disturbance. He had been performing miracles, and claimed to have +received his relics, not from Rome like those of Boniface, but directly +from the angels. Planting crosses in the open fields he drew the people +to desert the churches, and had won a great following throughout all +Neustria. Opinions are divided as to whether he was a Culdee, a +representative of a national Frankish movement, or simply the charlatan +that Boniface paints him. At the instance of Pippin, Boniface secured +Adalbert's condemnation at the synod of Soissons in 744; but he, and +Clement, a Scottish missionary and a heretic on predestination, +continued to find followers in spite of legate, council and pope, for +three or four years more. + +Between 746 and 748 Boniface was made bishop of Mainz, and became +metropolitan over the Rhine bishoprics and Utrecht, as well as over +those he had established in Germany--thus founding the pre-eminence of +the see of Mainz. In 747 a synod of the Frankish bishops sent to Rome a +formal statement of their submission to the papal authority. The +significance of this act can only be realized when one recalls the +tendencies toward the formation of national churches, which had been so +powerful under the Merovingians. Boniface does not seem to have taken +part in the anointing of Pippin as king of the Franks in 752. In 754 he +resigned his archbishopric in favour of Lull, and took up again his +earliest plan of a mission to Frisia; but on the 5th of June 754 he and +his companions were massacred by the heathen near Dockum. His remains +were afterwards taken to Fulda. + +St Boniface has well been called the proconsul of the papacy. His +organizing genius, even more than his missionary zeal, left its mark +upon the German church throughout all the middle ages. The missionary +movement which until his day had been almost independent of control, +largely carried on by schismatic Irish monks, was brought under the +direction of Rome. But in so welding together the scattered centres and +binding them to the papacy, Boniface seems to have been actuated by +simple zeal for unity of the faith, and not by a conscious political +motive. + +Though pre-eminently a man of action, Boniface has left several literary +remains. We have above all his Letters (_Epistolae_), difficult to date, +but extremely important from the standpoint of history, dogma, or +literature; see Dummler's edition in the _Monumenta Germaniae +historica_, 1892. Besides these there are a grammar (_De octo partibus +orationibus_, ed. Mai, in _Classici Auctores_, t. vii.), some sermons of +contested authenticity, some poems (_Aenigmata_, ed. Dummler, _Poetae +latini aevi Carolini_, i. 1881), a penitential, and some _Dicta +Bonifacii_ (ed. Nurnberger in _Theologische Quartalschrift_, Tubingen, +vol. 70, 1888), the authenticity of which it is hard to prove or to +refute. Migne in his _Patrologia Latina_ (vol. 89) has reproduced the +edition of Boniface's works by Giles (London, 1844). + + There are very many monographs on Boniface and on different phases of + his life (see Potthast, _Bibliotheca medii aevi_, and Ulysse + Chevalier's _Bibliographie_, 2nd ed. for indications), but none that + is completely satisfactory. Among recent studies are those of B. + Kuhlmann, _Der heilige Bonifatius, Apostel der Deutschen_ (Paderborn, + 1895), and of G. Kurth, _Saint Boniface_ (2nd ed., 1902). W. Levison + has edited the _Vitae sancti Bonifatii_ (Hanover, 1905). + (J. T. S.*) + + + + +BONIFACE (_Bonifacius_), the name of nine of the popes. + +BONIFACE I., bishop of Rome from 418 to 422. At the death of Pope +Zosimus, the Roman clergy were divided into two factions, one of which +elected the deacon Eulalius, and the other the priest Boniface. The +imperial government, in the interests of public order, commanded the two +competitors to leave the town, reserving the decision of the case to a +council. Eulalius having broken his ban, the emperor Honorius decided to +recognize Boniface, and the council was countermanded. But the faction +of Eulalius long continued to foment disorders, and the secular +authority was compelled to intervene. + +BONIFACE II., pope from 530 to 532, was by birth a Goth, and owed his +election to the nomination of his predecessor, Felix IV., and to the +influence of the Gothic king. The Roman electors had opposed to him a +priest of Alexandria called Dioscorus, who died a month after his +election, and thus left the position open for him. Boniface endeavoured +to nominate his own successor, thus transforming into law, or at least +into custom, the proceeding by which he had benefited; but the clergy +and the senate of Rome forced him to cancel this arrangement. + +BONIFACE III. was pope from the 15th of February to the 12th of November +606. He obtained from Phocas recognition of the "headship of the church +at Rome," which signifies, no doubt, that Phocas compelled the patriarch +of Constantinople to abandon (momentarily) his claim to the title of +oecumenical patriarch. + +BONIFACE IV. was pope from 608 to 615. He received from the emperor +Phocas the Pantheon at Rome, which was converted into a Christian +church. + +BONIFACE V., pope from 619 to 625, did much for the christianizing of +England. Bede mentions (_Hist. Eccl._) that he wrote encouraging letters +to Mellitus, archbishop of Canterbury, and Justus, bishop of Rochester, +and quotes three letters--to Justus, to Eadwin, king of Northumbria, and +to his wife Aethelberga. William of Malmesbury gives a letter to Justus +of the year 625, in which Canterbury is constituted the metropolitan see +of Britain for ever. + +BONIFACE VI. was elected pope in April 896, and died fifteen days +afterwards. + +BONIFACE VII. was pope from August 984 to July 985. His family name was +Franco. In 974 he was substituted by Crescentius and the Roman barons +for Benedict VI., who had been assassinated. He was ejected by Count +Sicco, the representative of the emperor Otto II., and fled to +Constantinople. On the death of Otto (983) he returned, seized Pope John +XIV., threw him into prison, and installed himself in his place. + (L. D.*) + +BONIFACE VIII. (Benedetto Gaetano), pope from 1294 to 1303, was born of +noble family at Anagni, studied canon and civil law in Italy and +possibly at Paris. After being appointed to canonicates at Todi (June +1260) and in France, he became an advocate and then a notary at the +papal court. With Cardinal Ottoboni, who was to aid the English king, +Henry III., against the bishops of the baronial party, he was besieged +in the Tower of London by the rebellious earl of Gloucester, but was +rescued by the future Edward I., on the 27th of April 1267. Created +cardinal deacon in 1281, and in 1291 cardinal priest (SS. Sylvestri et +Martini), he was entrusted with many diplomatic missions and became very +influential in the Sacred College. He helped the ineffective Celestine +V. to abdicate, and was himself chosen pope at Naples on the 24th of +December 1294. Contrary to custom, the election was not made unanimous, +probably because of the hostility of certain French cardinals. Celestine +attempted to rule in extreme monastic poverty and humility; not so +Boniface, who ardently asserted the lordship of the papacy over all the +kingdoms of the world. He was crowned at Rome in January 1295 with great +pomp. He planned to pacify the West and then recover the Holy Land from +the infidel; but during his nine years' reign, so far from being a +peacemaker, he involved the papacy itself in a series of controversies +with leading European powers. Avarice, lofty claims and frequent +exhibitions of arrogance made him many foes. The policy of supporting +the interests of the house of Anjou in Sicily proved a grand failure. +The attempt to build up great estates for his family made most of the +Colonna his enemies. Until 1303 he refused to recognize Albert of +Austria as the rightful German king. Assuming that he was overlord of +Hungary, he declared that its crown should fall to the house of Anjou. +He humbled Eric VI. of Denmark, but was unsuccessful in the attempt to +try Edward I., the conqueror of Scotland, on the charge of interfering +with a papal fief; for parliament declared in 1301 that Scotland had +never been a fief of Rome. The most noted conflict of Boniface was that +with Philip IV. of France. In 1296, by the bull _Clericis laicos_, the +pope forbade the levying of taxes, however disguised, on the clergy +without his consent. Forced to recede from this position, Boniface +canonized Louis IX. (1297). The hostilities were later renewed; in 1302 +Boniface himself drafted and published the indubitably genuine bull +_Unam sanctam_, one of the strongest official statements of the papal +prerogative ever made. The weight of opinion now tends to deny that any +part of this much-discussed document save the last sentence bears the +marks of an infallible utterance. The French vice-chancellor Guillaume +de Nogaret was sent to arrest the pope, against whom grave charges had +been brought, and bring him to France to be deposed by an oecumenical +council. The accusation of heresy has usually been dismissed as a +slander; but recent investigations make it probable, though not quite +certain, that Boniface privately held certain Averroistic tenets, such +as the denial of the immortality of the soul. With Sciarra Colonna, +Nogaret surprised Boniface at Anagni, on the 7th of September 1303, as +the latter was about to pronounce the sentence of excommunication +against the king. After a nine-hours' truce the palace was stormed, and +Boniface was found lying in his bed, a cross clasped to his breast; that +he was sitting in full regalia on the papal throne is a legend. Nogaret +claimed that he saved the pope's life from the vengeful Colonna. +Threatened, but not maltreated, the pope had remained three days under +arrest when the citizens of Anagni freed him. He was conducted to Rome, +only to be confined in the Vatican by the Orsini. He died on the 11th or +12th of October 1303, not eighty-six years old, as has commonly been +believed, but perhaps under seventy, at all events not over +seventy-five. "He shall come in like a fox, reign like a lion, die like +a dog," is a gibe wrongly held to be a prophecy of his unfortunate +predecessor. Dante, who had become embittered against Boniface while on +a political mission in Rome, calls him the "Prince of the new Pharisees" +(_Inferno_, 27, 85), but laments that "in his Vicar Christ was made a +captive," and was "mocked a second time" (_Purgatory_, 20, 87 f.). + + AUTHORITIES.--Digard, Faucon and Thomas, _Les Registres de Boniface + VIII_ (Paris, 1884 ff.); Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_, vol. ii. + (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1883), 1037-1062; Herzog-Hauck, + _Realencyklopadie_, vol. iii. (3rd ed., Leipzig, 1897), 291-300, + contains an elaborate bibliography; J. Loserth, _Geschichte des + spateren Mittelalters_ (Munich, 1903), 206-232; H. Finke, _Aus den + Tagen Bonifaz VIII._ (Munster, 1902) is dreary but epoch-making; + _Gottingische gelehrte Anzeigen_, Jahrgang 166, 857-869 (Berlin, + 1904); R. Scholz, _Die Publizistik zur Zeit Philipps des Schonen und + Bonifaz VIII._ (Stuttgart, 1903); K. Wenck, "War Bonifaz VIII. ein + Ketzer?" in von Sybel's _Historische Zeitschrift_, vol. xciv. (Munich, + 1905), 1-66. Special literature on _Unam Sanctum_: C. Mirbt, _Quellen + zur Geschichte des Papsttums_ (2nd ed., Tubingen, 1901), 148 f.; + _Kirchenlexikon_, xii. (1901), 229-240, an exhaustive discussion; H. + Finke, 146-190; J.H. Robinson, _Readings in European History_, vol. i. + (Boston, 1904), 346 ff. On _Clericis laicos_: Gee and Hardy, + _Documents Illustrative of English Church History_ (London, 1896), 87 + ff. (W. W. R.*) + +BONIFACE IX. (Piero Tomacelli), pope from 1389 to 1404, was born at +Naples of a poor but ancient family. Created cardinal by Urban VI., he +was elected successor to the latter on the 2nd of November 1389. In 1391 +he canonized Birgitta of Sweden. He was able to restore Roman authority +in the major part of the papal states, and in 1398 put an end to the +republican liberties of the city itself. Boniface won Naples, which had +owed spiritual allegiance to the antipopes Clement VII. and Benedict +XIII. of Avignon, to the Roman obedience. In 1403 he ventured at last to +confirm the deposition of the emperor Wenceslaus and the election of +Rupert. Negotiations for the healing of the Great Schism were without +result. In spite of his inferior education, the contemporaries of +Boniface trusted his prudence and moral character; yet when in financial +straits he sold offices, and in 1399 transformed the annates into a +permanent tax. In 1390 he celebrated the regular jubilee, but a rather +informal one held in 1400 proved more profitable. Though probably not +personally avaricious, he was justly accused of nepotism. He died on the +1st of October 1404, being still under sixty years of age. + (W. W. R.*) + + + + +BONIFACE OF SAVOY (d. 1270), archbishop of Canterbury, became primate in +1243, through the favour of Henry III., of whose queen, Eleanor of +Provence, he was an uncle. Boniface, though a man of violent temper and +too often absent from his see, showed some sympathy with the reforming +party in the English church. Though in 1250 he provoked the English +bishops by claiming the right of visitation in their dioceses, he took +the lead at the council of Merton (1258) in vindicating the privileges +of his order. In the barons' war he took the royalist side, but did not +distinguish himself by great activity. + + See Matthew Paris, _Chronica Majora_; Francois Mugnier, _Les Savoyards + en Angleterre_ (Chambery, 1890). + + + + +BONIFACIO, a maritime town at the southern extremity of Corsica, in the +arrondissement of Sartene, 87 m. S.S.E. of Ajaccio by road. Pop. (1906) +2940. Bonifacio, which overlooks the straits of that name separating +Corsica from Sardinia, occupies a remarkable situation on the summit of +a peninsula of white calcareous rock, extending parallel to the coast +and enclosing a narrow and secure harbour. Below the town and in the +cliffs facing it the rock is hollowed into caverns accessible only by +boat. St Dominic, a church built in the 13th century by the Templars, +and the cathedral of Santa Maria Maggiore which belongs mainly to the +12th century, are the chief buildings. The fortifications and citadel +date from the 16th and 17th centuries. A massive medieval tower serves +as a powder-magazine. The trade of Bonifacio, which is carried on +chiefly with Sardinia, is in cereals, wine, cork and olive-oil of fine +quality. Cork-cutting, tobacco-manufacture and coral-fishing are carried +on. The olive is largely cultivated in the neighbourhood and there are +oil-works in the town. + +Bonifacio was founded about 828 by the Tuscan marquis whose name it +bears, as a defence against the Saracen pirates. At the end of the 11th +century it became subject to Pisa, and at the end of the 12th was taken +and colonized by the Genoese, whose influence may be traced in the +character of the population. In 1420 it heroically withstood a +protracted siege by Alphonso V. of Aragon. In 1554 it fell into the +hands of the Franco-Turkish army. + + + + +BONIFACIUS (d. 432), the Roman governor of the province of Africa who is +generally believed to have invited the Vandals into that province in +revenge for the hostile action of Placidia, ruling in behalf of her son +the emperor Valentinian III. (428-429). That action is by Procopius +attributed to his rival Aetius, but the earliest authorities speak of a +certain Felix, chief minister of Placidia, as the calumniator of +Bonifacius. Whether he really invited the Vandals or not, there is no +doubt that he soon turned against them and bravely defended the city of +Hippo from their attacks. In 432 he returned to Italy, was received into +favour by Placidia, and appointed master of the soldiery. Aetius, +however, resented his promotion, the two rivals met, perhaps in single +combat, and Bonifacius, though victorious, received a wound from the +effects of which he died three months later. + + The authorities for the extremely obscure and difficult history of + these transactions are well discussed by E.A. Freeman in an article in + the _English Historical Review_, July 1887, to which the reader is + referred. But compare also Gibbon, _Decline and Fall of the Roman + Empire_, vol. iii. pp. 505-506, edited by J.B. Bury (London, 1897). + + + + +BONIN ISLANDS, called by the Japanese OGASAWARA-JIMA, a chain of small +islands belonging to Japan, stretching nearly due north and south, a +little east of 142 E., and from 26 deg. 35' to 27 deg. 45' N., about 500 +m. from the mainland of Japan. They number twenty, according to Japanese +investigations, and have a coast-line of 174.65 m. and a superficies of +28.82 sq. m. Only ten of them have any appreciable size, and these are +named--commencing from the north--Muko-shima (Bridegroom Island), +Nakadachi-shima (Go-between Island[1]), Yome-shima (Bride Island), +Ototo-jima (Younger-brother Island), Ani-shima (Elder-brother Island), +Chichi-jima (Father Island), Haha-jima (Mother Island), Mei-jima (Niece +Island), Ani-jima (Elder-sister Island) and Imoto-jima (Younger-sister +Island). European geographers have been accustomed to divide the islands +into three groups for purposes of nomenclature, calling the northern +group the Parry Islands, the central the Beechey Islands and the +southern the Coffin or Bailey Islands. The second largest of all, +Chichi-jima, in Japanese cartography was called Peel Island in 1827 by +Captain Beechey, and the same officer gave the name of Stapleton Island +to the Ototo-jima of the Japanese, and that of Buckland Island to their +Ani-jima. To complete this account of Captain Beechey's nomenclature, it +may be added that he called a large bay on the south of Peel Island +Fitton Bay, and a bay on the south-west of Buckland Island Walker +Bay.[2] Port Lloyd, the chief anchorage (situated on Peel Island), is +considered by Commodore Perry--who visited the islands in 1853 and +strongly urged the establishment of a United States coaling station +there--to have been formerly the crater of a volcano from which the +surrounding hills were thrown up, the entrance to the harbour being a +fissure through which lava used to pour into the sea. The islands are, +indeed, plainly volcanic in their nature. + +_History._--The diversity of nomenclature indicated above suggests that +the ownership of the islands was for some time doubtful. According to +Japanese annals they were discovered towards the close of the 16th +century, and added to the fief of a Daimyo, Ogasawa Sadayori, whence the +name Ogasawara-jima. They were also called _Bunin-jima_ (corrupted by +foreigners into Bonin) because of their being without (_bu_) inhabitants +(_nin_). Effective occupation did not take place, however, and +communications with the islands ceased altogether in 1635, as was a +natural consequence of the Japanese government's veto against the +construction of sea-going vessels. In 1728 fitful communication was +restored by the then representative of the Ogasawara family, only to be +again interrupted until 1861, when an unsuccessful attempt was made to +establish a Japanese colony at Port Lloyd. Meanwhile, Captain Beechey +visited the islands in the "Blossom," assigned names to some of them, +and published a description of their features. Next a small party +consisting of two British subjects, two American citizens, and a Dane, +sailed from the Sandwich Islands for Port Lloyd in 1830, taking with +them some Hawaiian natives. These colonists hoisted the British flag on +Peel Island (Chichi-jima), and settled there. When Commodore Perry +arrived in 1853, there were on Peel Island thirty-one inhabitants, four +being English, four American, one Portuguese and the rest natives of the +Sandwich Islands, the Ladrones, &c.; and when Mr Russell Robertson +visited the place in 1875, the colony had grown to sixty-nine, of whom +only five were pure whites. Mr Robertson found them without education, +without religion, without laws and without any system of government, but +living comfortably on clearings of cultivated land. English was the +language of the settlers, and they regarded themselves as a British +colony. But in 1861 the British government renounced all claim to the +islands in recognition of Japan's right of possession. There is now +regular steam communication; the affairs of the islands are duly +administered, and the population has grown to about 4500. There are no +mountains of any considerable height in the Ogasawara Islands, but the +scenery is hilly with occasional bold crags. The vegetation is almost +tropically luxuriant--palms, wild pineapples, and ferns growing +profusely, and the valleys being filled with wild beans and patches of +taro. Mr Robertson catalogues a number of valuable timbers that are +obtained there, among them being Tremana, cedar, rose-wood, iron-wood +(red and white), box-wood, sandal and white oak. The kekop tree, the +orange, the laurel, the juniper, the wild cactus, the curry plant, wild +sage and celery flourish. No minerals have been discovered. The shores +are covered with coral; earthquakes and tidal waves are frequent, the +latter not taking the form of bores, but of a sudden steady rise and +equally sudden fall in the level of the sea; the climate is rather +tropical than temperate, but sickness is almost unknown among the +residents. (F. By.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Referring to the Japanese custom of employing a go-between to + arrange a marriage. + + [2] These details are taken from _The Bonin Islands_ by Russell + Robertson, formerly H.B.M. consul in Yokohama, who visited the + islands in 1875. + + + + +BONITZ, HERMANN (1814-1888), German scholar, was born at Langensalza in +Saxony on the 29th of July 1814. Having studied at Leipzig under G. +Hermann and at Berlin under Bockh and Lachmann, he became successively +teacher at the Blochmann institute in Dresden (1836), Oberlehrer at the +Friedrich-Wilhelms gymnasium (1838) and the Graues Kloster (1840) in +Berlin, professor at the gymnasium at Stettin (1842), professor at the +university of Vienna (1849), member of the imperial academy (1854), +member of the council of education (1864), and director of the Graues +Kloster gymnasium (1867). He retired in 1888, and died on the 25th of +July in that year at Berlin. He took great interest in higher education, +and was chiefly responsible for the system of teaching and examination +in use in the high schools of Prussia after 1882. But it is as a +commentator on Plato and Aristotle that he is best known outside +Germany. His most important works in this connexion are: _Disputationes +Platonicae Duae_ (1837); _Platonische Studien_ (3rd ed., 1886); +_Observations Criticae in Aristotelis Libros Metaphysicos_ (1842); +_Observationes Criticae in Aristotelis quae feruntur Magna Moralia et +Ethica Eudemia_ (1844); _Alexandri Aphrodisiensis Commentarius in Libras +Metaphysicos Aristotelis_ (1847); _Aristotelis Metaphysica_ (1848-1849); +_Uber die Kategorien des A._ (1853); _Aristotelische Studien_ +(1862-1867); _Index Aristotelicus_ (1870). Other works: _Uber den +Ursprung der homerischen Gedichte_ (5th ed., 1881); _Beitrage zur +Erklarung des Thukydides_ (1854), _des Sophokles_ (1856-1857). He also +wrote largely on classical and educational subjects, mainly for the +_Zeitschrift fur die osterreichischen Gymnasien_. + + A full list of his writings is given in the obituary notice by T. + Gompertz in the _Biographisches Jahrbuch fur Altertumskunde_ (1890). + + + + +BONIVARD, FRANCOIS (1493-1570), the hero of Byron's poem, _The Prisoner +of Chillon_, was born at Seyssel of an old Savoyard family. Bonivard has +been described as "a man of the Renaissance who had strayed into the age +of the Reformation." His real character and history are, however, widely +different from the legendary account which was popularized by Byron. In +1510 he succeeded his uncle, who had educated him, as prior of the +Cluniac priory of St Victor, close to Geneva. He naturally, therefore, +opposed the attempts of the duke of Savoy, aided by his relative, the +bishop of the city, to maintain his rights as lord of Geneva. He was +imprisoned by the duke at Gex from 1519 to 1521, lost his priory, and +became more and more anti-Savoyard. In 1530 he was again seized by the +duke and imprisoned for four years underground, in the castle of +Chillon, till he was released in 1536 by the Bernese, who then wrested +Vaud from the duke. He had been imprisoned for political reasons, for he +did not become a Protestant till after his release, and then found that +his priory had been destroyed in 1534. He obtained a pension from +Geneva, and was four times married, but owing to his extravagances was +always in debt. He was officially entrusted in 1542 with the task of +compiling a history of Geneva from the earliest times. In 1551 his MS. +of the _Chroniques de Geneve_ (ending in 1530) was submitted to Calvin +for correction, but it was not published till 1831. The best edition is +that of 1867. The work is uncritical and partial, but is his best title +to fame. + + + + +BONN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the left +bank of the Rhine, 15 m. S. by E. from Cologne, on the main line of +railway to Mainz, and at the junction of the lines to the Eifel and (by +ferry) to the right bank of the Rhine. Pop. (1885) 35,989; (1905) +81,997. The river is here crossed by a fine bridge (1896-1898), 1417 ft. +in length, flanked by an embankment 2 m. long, above and parallel with +which is the Coblenzer-strasse, with beautiful villas and pretty gardens +reaching down to the Rhine. The central part of the town is composed of +narrow streets, but the outskirts contain numerous fine buildings, and +the appearance of the town from the river is attractive. There are six +Roman Catholic and two Protestant churches, the most important of which +is the Munster (minster), an imposing edifice of grey stone, in the +Romanesque and Transition styles, surmounted by five towers, of which +the central, rising to a height of 315 ft., is a landmark in the Rhine +valley. The church dates from the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries, was +restored in 1875 and following years and in 1890-1894 was adorned with +paintings. Among other churches are the Stiftskirche (monasterial +church), rebuilt 1879-1884; the Jesuitenkirche (1693); the +Minoritenkirche (1278-1318), the Herz Jesu-kirche (1862) and the +Marienkirche (1892). There is also a synagogue, and the university +chapel serves as an English church. The town also possesses a town hall +situate on the market square and dating from 1737, a fine block of +law-court buildings, several high-grade schools and a theatre. + +By far the finest of the buildings, however, is the famous university, +which occupies the larger part of the southern frontage of the town. The +present establishment only dates from 1818, and owes its existence to +King Frederick William III. of Prussia; but as early as 1786 the academy +which had been founded about nine years before was raised by Archbishop +Maximilian Frederick of Cologne to the rank of a university, and +continued to exercise its functions till 1794, when it was dissolved by +the last elector. The building now occupied by the university was +originally the electoral palace, constructed about 1717 out of the +materials of the old fortifications. It was remodelled after the town +came into Prussian possession. There are five faculties in the +university--a legal, a medical, and a philosophic, and one of Roman +Catholic and another Protestant theology. The library numbers upwards of +230,000 volumes; and the antiquarian museum contains a valuable +collection of Roman relics discovered in the neighbourhood. Connected +with the university are also physiological, pathological and chemical +institutes, five clinical departments and a laboratory. An academy of +agriculture, with a natural history museum and botanic garden attached, +is established in the palace of Clemensruhe at Poppelsdorf, which is +reached by a fine avenue about a mile long, bordered on both sides by a +double row of chestnut trees. A splendid observatory, long under the +charge of Friedrich Wilhelm Argelander, stands on the south side of the +road. The Roman Catholic archiepiscopal theological college, beautifully +situated on an eminence overlooking the Rhine, dates from 1892. + +Beethoven was born in Bonn, and a statue was erected to him in the +Munster-platz in 1845. B.G. Niebuhr is buried in the cemetery outside of +the Sterntor, where a monument was placed to his memory by Frederick +William IV. Here are also the tombs of A.W. von Schlegel, the +diplomatist Christian Karl von Bunsen, Robert Schumann, Karl Simrock, +E.M. Arndt and Schiller's wife. The town is adorned with a marble +monument commemorating the war of 1870-71, a handsome fountain, and a +statue of the Old Catholic bishop Reinkens. In 1889 a museum of +Beethoven relics was opened in the house in which the composer was born. +There are further a municipal museum, arranged in a private house since +1882, an academic art museum (1884), with some classic originals, a +creation of F.G. Welcker, and the provincial museum, standing near the +railway station, which contains a collection of medieval stone monuments +and works of art, besides a small picture gallery. + +One of the most conspicuous features of Bonn, viewed from the river, is +the pilgrimage (monastic) church of Kreuzberg (1627), behind and above +Poppelsdorf; it has a flight of 28 steps, which pilgrims used to ascend +on their knees. "Der alte Zoll," commanding a magnificent view of the +Siebengebirge, is the only remaining bulwark of the old fortifications, +the Sterntor having been removed in order to open up better +communication with the rapidly increasing western suburbs and the +terminus of the light railway to Cologne. + +But for its university Bonn would be a place of comparatively little +importance, its trade and commerce being of moderate dimensions. Its +principal industries are jute spinning and weaving, and the manufacture +of porcelain, flags, machinery and beer, and it has some trade in wine. +There are considerable numbers of foreign residents, notably English, +attracted by the natural beauty of the place and by the educational +facilities it affords. + +Bonn (_Bonna_ or _Castra Bonnensia_), originally a town of the Ubii, +became at an early period the site of a Roman military settlement, and +as such is frequently mentioned by Tacitus. It was the scene, in A.D. +70, of a battle in which the Romans were defeated by Claudius Civilis, +the valiant leader of the Batavians. Greatly reduced by successive +barbarian inroads, it was restored about 359 by the emperor Julian. In +the centuries that followed the break-up of the Roman empire it again +suffered much from barbarian attacks, and was finally devastated in 889 +by bands of Norse raiders who had sailed up the Rhine. It was again +fortified by Konrad von Hochstaden, archbishop of Cologne (1238-1261), +whose successor, Engelbert von Falkenburg (d. 1274), driven out of his +cathedral city by the townspeople, established himself here (1265); from +which time until 1794 it remained the residence of the electors of +Cologne. During the various wars that devastated Germany in the 16th, +17th and 18th centuries, the town was frequently besieged and occupied +by the several belligerents, but continued to belong to the electors +till 1794, when the French took possession of it. At the peace of +Luneville they were formally recognized in their occupation; but in 1815 +the town was made over by the congress of Vienna to Prussia. The +fortifications had been dismantled in 1717. + + See F. Ritter, _Entstehung der drei altesten Stadte am Rhein: Koln, + Bonn und Mainz_ (Bonn, 1851); H. von Sybel, _Die Grundung der + Universitat Bonn_ (1868); and _Fuhrer von Hesse_ (10th ed., 1901). + + + + +BONNAT, LEON JOSEPH FLORENTIN (1833- ), French painter, was born at +Bayonne on the 20th of June 1833. He was educated in Spain, under +Madrazo at Madrid, and his long series of portraits shows the influence +of Velasquez and the Spanish realists. In 1869 he won a medal of honour +at Paris, where he became one of the leading artists of his day, and in +1888 he became professor of painting at the Ecole des Beaux Arts. In May +1905 he succeeded Paul Dubois as director. His vivid portrait-painting +is his most characteristic work, but his subject pictures, such as the +"Martyrdom of St Denis" in the Pantheon, are also famous. + + + + +BONNE-CARRERE, GUILLAUME DE (1754-1825), French diplomatist, was born at +Muret in Languedoc on the 13th of February 1754. He began his career in +the army, but soon entered the diplomatic service under Vergennes. A +friend of Mirabeau and of Dumouriez, he became very active at the +Revolution, and Dumouriez re-established for him the title of +director-general of the department of foreign affairs (March 1792). He +remained at the ministry, preserving the habits of the diplomacy of the +old regime, until December 1792, when he was sent to Belgium as agent of +the republic, but he was involved in the treason of Dumouriez and was +arrested on the 2nd of April 1793. To justify himself, he published an +account of his conduct from the beginning of the Revolution. He was +freed from prison in July 1794. Napoleon did not trust him, and gave him +only some unimportant missions. After 1815 Bonne-Carrere retired into +private life, directing a profitable business in public carriages +between Paris and Versailles. + + + + +BONNER, EDMUND (1500?-1569), bishop of London, was perhaps the natural +son of George Savage, rector of Davenham, Cheshire, by Elizabeth +Frodsham, who was afterwards married to Edmund Bonner, a sawyer of +Hanley in Worcestershire. This account, which was printed with many +circumstantial details by Strype (_Eccles. Mem._ III. i. 172-173), was +disputed by Strype's contemporary, Sir Edmund Lechmere, who asserted on +not very satisfactory evidence (_ib. Annals_, I. ii. 300)that Bonner was +of legitimate birth. He was educated at Broadgates Hall, now Pembroke +College, Oxford, graduating bachelor of civil and canon law in June +1519. He was ordained about the same time, and admitted D.C.L. in 1525. +In 1529 he was Wolsey's chaplain, and he was with the cardinal at Cawood +at the time of his arrest. Subsequently he was transferred, perhaps +through Cromwell's influence, to the service of the king, and in January +1532 he was sent to Rome to obstruct the judicial proceedings against +Henry in the papal curia. In October 1533 he was entrusted with the +unmannerly task of intimating to Clement VII., while he was the guest of +Francis I. at Marseilles, Henry's appeal from the pope to a general +council; but there seems to be no good authority for Burnet's story that +Clement threatened to have him burnt alive. For these and other services +Bonner had been rewarded by the grant of several livings, and in 1535 he +was made archdeacon of Leicester. + +Towards the end of that year he was sent to further what he called "the +cause of the Gospel" (_Letters and Papers_, 1536, No. 469) in North +Germany; and in 1536 he wrote a preface to Gardiner's _De vera +Obedientia_, which asserted the royal, denied the papal, supremacy, and +was received with delight by the Lutherans. After a brief embassy to the +emperor in the spring of 1538, Bonner superseded Gardiner at Paris, and +began his mission by sending Cromwell a long list of accusations against +his predecessor (_ib_. 1538, ii. 144). He was almost as bitter against +Wyatt and Mason, whom he denounced as a "papist," and the violence of +his conduct led Francis I. to threaten him with a hundred strokes of the +halberd. He seems, however, to have pleased his patron, Cromwell, and +perhaps Henry, by his energy in seeing the king's "Great" Bible in +English through the press in Paris. He was already king's chaplain; his +appointment at Paris had been accompanied by promotion to the see of +Hereford, and before he returned to take possession he was translated to +the bishopric of London (October 1539). + +Hitherto Bonner had been known as a somewhat coarse and unscrupulous +tool of Cromwell, a sort of ecclesiastical Wriothesley, He is not known +to have protested against any of the changes effected by his masters; he +professed to be no theologian, and was wont, when asked theological +questions, to refer his interrogators to the divines. He had graduated +in law, and not in theology. There was nothing in the Reformation to +appeal to him, except the repudiation of papal control; and he was one +of those numerous Englishmen whose views were faithfully reflected in +the Six Articles. He became a staunch Conservative, and, apart from his +embassy to the emperor in 1524-1543, was mainly occupied during the last +years of Henry's reign in brandishing the "whip with six strings." + +The accession of Edward VI opened a fresh and more creditable chapter in +Bonner's career. Like Gardiner, he could hardly repudiate that royal +supremacy, in the establishment of which he had been so active an agent; +but he began to doubt that supremacy when he saw to what uses it could +be put by a Protestant council, and either he or Gardiner evolved the +theory that the royal supremacy was in abeyance during a royal minority. +The ground was skilfully chosen, but it was not legally nor +constitutionally tenable. Both he and Gardiner had in fact sought fresh +licences to exercise their ecclesiastical jurisdiction from the young +king; and, if he was supreme enough to confer jurisdiction, he was +supreme enough to issue the injunctions and order the visitation to +which Bonner objected. Moreover, if a minority involved an abeyance of +the royal supremacy in the ecclesiastical sphere, it must do the same in +the temporal sphere, and there could be nothing but anarchy. It was on +this question that Bonner came into conflict with Edward's government. +He resisted the visitation of August 1547, and was committed to the +Fleet; but he withdrew his opposition, and was released in time to take +an active part against the government in the parliament of November +1547. In the next session, November 1548-March 1549, he was a leading +opponent of the first Act of Uniformity and Book of Common Prayer. When +these became law, he neglected to enforce them, and on the 1st of +September 1549 he was required by the council to maintain at St Paul's +Cross that the royal authority was as great as if the king were forty +years of age. He failed to comply, and after a seven days' trial he was +deprived of his bishopric by an ecclesiastical court over which Cranmer +presided, and was sent to the Marshalsea. The fall of Somerset in the +following month raised Bonner's hopes, and he appealed from Cranmer to +the council. After a struggle the Protestant faction gained the upper +hand, and on the 7th of February 1550 Bonner's deprivation was confirmed +by the council sitting in the Star Chamber, and he was further condemned +to perpetual imprisonment. + +He was released by Mary's accession, and was at once restored to his +see, his deprivation being regarded as invalid and Ridley as an +intruder. He vigorously restored Roman Catholicism in his diocese, made +no difficulty about submitting to the papal jurisdiction which he had +forsworn, and in 1555 began the persecution to which he owes his fame. +His apologists explain that his action was merely "official," but Bonner +was one of those who brought it to pass that the condemnation of +heretics to the fire should be part of his ordinary official duties. The +enforcement of the first Book of Common Prayer had also been part of his +official duties; and the fact that Bonner made no such protest against +the burning of heretics as he had done in the former case shows that he +found it the more congenial duty. Tunstal was as good a Catholic as +Bonner; he left a different repute behind him, a clear enough indication +of a difference in their deeds. + +On the other hand, Bonner did not go out of his way to persecute; many +of his victims were forced upon him by the council, which sometimes +thought that he had not been severe enough (see _Acts of the P.C. +1554-1556_, pp. 115, 139; _1556-1558_, pp. 18, 19, 216, 276). So +completely had the state dominated the church that religious +persecutions had become state persecutions, and Bonner was acting as an +ecclesiastical sheriff in the most refractory district of the realm. +Even Foxe records instances in which Bonner failed to persecute. But he +had no mercy for a fallen foe; and he is seen at his worst in his +brutal jeers at Cranmer, when he was entrusted with the duty of +degrading his former chief. It is a more remarkable fact that, in spite +of his prominence, neither Henry VIII. nor Mary should ever have +admitted him to the privy council. He seems to have been regarded by his +own party as a useful instrument, especially in disagreeable work, +rather than as a desirable colleague. + +On her accession Elizabeth refused to allow him to kiss her hand; but he +sat and voted in the parliament and convocation of 1559. In May he +refused to take the oath of supremacy, acquiring like his colleagues +consistency with old age. He was sent to the Marshalsea, and a few years +later was indicted on a charge of praemunire on refusing the oath when +tendered him by his diocesan, Bishop Horne of Winchester. He challenged +the legality of Horne's consecration, and a special act of parliament +was passed to meet the point, while the charge against Bonner was +withdrawn. He died in the Marshalsea on the 5th of September 1569, and +was buried in St George's, Southwark, at midnight to avoid the risk of a +hostile demonstration. + + See _Letters and Papers of Henry VIII._ vols. iv.-xx.; _Acts of the + Privy Council_ (1542-1569); _Lords' Journals_, vol. i.; Wilkins' + _Concilia_; Foxe's _Acts and Monuments_, ed. Townsend; Burnet, ed. + Pocock; Strype's Works; Gough's _Index to Parker Soc. Publ._; S.R. + Maitland's _Essays on the Ref._; Froude's and R.W. Dixon's + _Histories_; Pollard's _Cranmer_ and _England under Somerset_; other + authorities cited in _Dict. Nat. Biogr_. (A. F. P.) + + + + +BONNET, CHARLES (1720-1793), Swiss naturalist and philosophical writer, +was born at Geneva on the 13th of March 1720, of a French family driven +into Switzerland by the religious persecution in the 16th century. He +made law his profession, but his favourite pursuit was the study of +natural science. The account of the ant-lion in N.A. Pluche's _Spectacle +de la nature_, which he read in his sixteenth year, turned his attention +to insect life. He procured R.A.F. de Reaumur's work on insects, and +with the help of live specimens succeeded in adding many observations to +those of Reaumur and Pluche. In 1740 Bonnet communicated to the academy +of sciences a paper containing a series of experiments establishing what +is now termed parthenogenesis in _aphides_ or tree-lice, which obtained +for him the honour of being admitted a corresponding member of the +academy. In 1741 he began to study reproduction by fusion and the +regeneration of lost parts in the freshwater hydra and other animals; +and in the following year he discovered that the respiration of +caterpillars and butterflies is performed by pores, to which the name of +_stigmata_ has since been given. In 1743 he was admitted a fellow of the +Royal Society; and in the same year he became a doctor of laws--his last +act in connexion with a profession which had ever been distasteful to +him. + +His first published work appeared in 1745, entitled _Traite +d'insectologie_, in which were collected his various discoveries +regarding insects, along with a preface on the development of germs and +the scale of organized beings. Botany, particularly the leaves of +plants, next attracted his attention; and after several years of +diligent study, rendered irksome by the increasing weakness of his +eyesight, he published in 1754 one of the most original and interesting +of his works, _Recherches sur l'usage des feuilles dans les plantes_; in +which among other things he advances many considerations tending to show +(as has quite recently been done by Francis Darwin) that plants are +endowed with powers of sensation and discernment. But Bonnet's eyesight, +which threatened to fail altogether, caused him to turn to philosophy. +In 1754 his _Essai de psychologie_ was published anonymously in London. +This was followed by the _Essai analytique sur les facultes de l'ame_ +(Copenhagen, 1760), in which he develops his views regarding the +physiological conditions of mental activity. He returned to physical +science, but to the speculative side of it, in his _Considerations sur +les corps organises_ (Amsterdam, 1762), designed to refute the theory of +epigenesis, and to explain and defend the doctrine of pre-existent +germs. In his _Contemplation de la nature_ (Amsterdam, 1764-1765; +translated into Italian, German, English and Dutch), one of his most +popular and delightful works, he sets forth, in eloquent language, the +theory that all the beings in nature form a gradual scale rising from +lowest to highest, without any break in its continuity. His last +important work was the _Palingenesie philosophique_ (Geneva, 1769-1770); +in it he treats of the past and future of living beings, and supports +the idea of the survival of all animals, and the perfecting of their +faculties in a future state. + +Bonnet's life was uneventful. He seems never to have left Switzerland, +nor does he appear to have taken any part in public affairs except for +the period between 1752 and 1768, during which he was a member of the +council of the republic. The last twenty five years of his life he spent +quietly in the country, at Genthod, near Geneva, where he died after a +long and painful illness on the 20th of May 1793. His wife was a lady of +the family of De la Rive. + +They had no children, but Madame Bonnet's nephew, the celebrated H.B. de +Saussure, was brought up as their son. + +Bonnet's philosophical system may be outlined as follows. Man is a +compound of two distinct substances, mind and body, the one immaterial +and the other material. All knowledge originates in sensations; +sensations follow (whether as physical effects or merely as sequents +Bonnet will not say) vibrations in the nerves appropriate to each; and +lastly, the nerves are made to vibrate by external physical stimulus. A +nerve once set in motion by a particular object tends to reproduce that +motion; so that when it a second time receives an impression from the +same object it vibrates with less resistance. The sensation accompanying +this increased flexibility in the nerve is, according to Bonnet, the +condition of memory. When reflection--that is, the active element in +mind--is applied to the acquisition and combination of sensations, those +abstract ideas are formed which, though generally distinguished from, +are thus merely sensations in combination only. That which puts the mind +into activity is pleasure or pain; happiness is the end of human +existence. Bonnet's metaphysical theory is based on two principles +borrowed from Leibnitz--first, that there are not successive acts of +creation, but that the universe is completed by the single original act +of the divine will, and thereafter moves on by its own inherent force; +and secondly, that there is no break in the continuity of existence. The +divine Being originally created a multitude of germs in a graduated +scale, each with an inherent power of self-development. At every +successive step in the progress of the universe, these germs, as +progressively modified, advance nearer to perfection; if some advanced +and others did not there would be a gap in the continuity of the chain. +Thus not man only but all other forms of existence are immortal. Nor is +man's mind alone immortal; his body also will pass into the higher +stage, not, indeed, the body he now possesses, but a finer one of which +the germ at present exists within him. It is impossible, however, to +reach absolute perfection, because the distance is infinite. In this +final proposition Bonnet violates his own principle of continuity, by +postulating an interval between the highest created being and the +Divine. It is also difficult to understand whether the constant advance +to perfection is performed by each individual, or only by each race of +beings as a whole. There seems, in fact, to be an oscillation between +two distinct but analogous doctrines--that of the constantly increasing +advancement of the individual in future stages of existence, and that of +the constantly increasing advancement of the race as a whole according +to the successive evolutions of the globe. + + Bonnet's complete works appeared at Neuchatel in 1779-1783, partly + revised by himself. An English translation of certain portions of the + _Palingenesie philosophique_ was published in 1787, under the title, + _Philosophical and Critical Inquiries concerning Christianity_. See + also A. Lemoine, _Charles Bonnet_ (Paris, 1850); the duc de Caraman, + _Charles Bonnet, philosophe et naturaliste_ (Paris, 1859); Max Offner, + _Die Psychologie C. B._ (Leipzig, 1893); Joh. Speck, in _Arch. f. + Gesch. d. Philos._ x. (1897), xi. (1897), pp. 58 foll., xi. (1898) pp. + 1-211; J. Trembley, _Vie privee et litteraire de C. B._ (Bern, 1794). + + + + +BONNET (from Lat. _bonetum_, a kind of stuff, then the cap made of this +stuff), originally a soft cap or covering for the head, the common term +in English till the end of the 17th century; this sense survives in +Scotland, especially as applied to the cap known as a "glengarry." The +"bonnet" of a ship's sail now means an additional piece laced on to the +bottom, but it seems to have formerly meant a piece laced to the top, +the term "to vail the bonnet" being found at the beginning of the 16th +century to mean "strike sail" (from the Fr. _avaler_), to let down. In +modern times "bonnet" has come to be used of a type of head-covering for +women, differentiated from "hat" by fitting closely to the head and +often having no brim, but varying considerably in shape according to the +period and fashion. The term, by a natural extension, is also applied to +certain protective devices, as in a steam-engine or safety-lamp, or in +slang use to a gambler's accomplice, a decoy. + + + + +BONNEVAL, CLAUDE ALEXANDRE, COMTE DE (1675-1747), French adventurer, +known also as AHMED PASHA, was the descendant of an old family of +Limousin. He was born on the 14th of July 1675, and at the age of +thirteen joined the Royal Marine Corps. After three years he entered the +army, in which he rose to the command of a regiment. He served in the +Italian campaigns under Catinat, Villeroi and Vendome, and in the +Netherlands under Luxemburg, giving proofs of indomitable courage and +great military ability. His insolent bearing towards the minister of war +was made matter for a court-martial (1704). He was condemned to death, +but saved himself by flight to Germany. Through the influence of Prince +Eugene he obtained a general's command in the Austrian army, and fought +with great bravery and distinction against France, and afterwards +against Turkey. He was present at Malplaquet, and was severely wounded +at Peterwardein. The proceedings against him in France were then allowed +to drop, and he visited Paris, and married a daughter of Marshal de +Biron. He returned, however, after a short time to the Austrian army, +and fought with distinction at Belgrade. He might now have risen to the +highest rank, had he not made himself disagreeable to Prince Eugene, who +sent him as master of the ordnance to the Low Countries. There his +ungovernable temper led him into a quarrel with the marquis de Prie, +Eugene's deputy governor in the Netherlands, who answered his challenge +by placing him in confinement. A court-martial was again held upon him, +and he was condemned to death; but the emperor commuted the sentence to +one year's imprisonment and banishment. Bonneval, soon after his +release, offered his services to the Turkish government, professed the +Mahommedan faith, and took the name of Ahmed. He was made a pasha, and +appointed to organize and command the artillery. He rendered valuable +services to the sultan in his war with Russia, and with the famous Nadir +Shah. As a reward he received the governorship of Chios, but he soon +fell under the suspicion of the Porte, and was banished for a time to +the shores of the Black Sea. He was meditating a return to Europe and +Christianity when he died at Constantinople on the 23rd of March 1747. + + The _Memoirs_ published under his name are spurious. See Prince de + Ligne, _Memoire sur le comte de Bonneval_ (Paris, 1817); and A. + Vandal, _Le Pacha Bonneval_ (Paris, 1885). + + + + +BONNEVILLE, BENJAMIN L.E. (1795-1878), American military engineer and +explorer, was born in France about 1795. He emigrated to the United +States in early youth, and graduated at the United States Military +Academy at West Point in 1815. He was engaged in the construction of +military roads in the south-west, and became a captain of infantry in +1825. In 1831-1836, having obtained leave of absence from the army, he +conducted, largely on his own responsibility, an exploring expedition to +the Rocky Mountains, proceeding up the Platte river through parts of the +later states of Colorado and Wyoming into the Great Salt Lake basin and +thence into California. After being absolutely cut off from civilization +for several years, and having his name struck from the army list, he +returned with an interesting and valuable account of his adventures, +which was edited and amplified by Washington Irving and published under +the title _The Rocky Mountains: or Scenes, Incidents, and Adventures in +the Far West; from the Journal of Captain Benjamin L.E. Bonneville of +the Army of the United States_ (2 vols., 1837), subsequent editions +bearing the title _The Adventures of Captain Bonneville, U.S.A., in the +Rocky Mountains and the Far West._ Bonneville became a major in 1845, +and was breveted lieutenant-colonel for gallantry in the battles of +Contreras and Churubusco during the Mexican War. He became a colonel in +1855, commanded the Gila river expedition against the Apaches in 1857, +and from 1858 to 1861 commanded the department of New Mexico. He was +retired in 1861, but served during the Civil War as recruiting officer +and commandant of barracks at St Louis, Missouri, receiving the brevet +rank of brigadier-general in 1865. He died at Fort Smith, Arkansas, on +the 12th of June 1878. The extinct glacial lake which once covered what +is now north-western Utah has been named in his honour. + + + + +BONNEY, THOMAS GEORGE (1833- ), English geologist, eldest son of the +Rev. Thomas Bonney, master of the grammar school at Rugeley, was born in +that town on the 27th of July 1833. Educated at Uppingham and St John's +College, Cambridge, he graduated as 12th wrangler in 1856, and was +ordained in the following year. From 1856 to 1861 he was mathematical +master at Westminster school, and geology was pursued by him only as a +recreation, mainly in Alpine regions. In 1868 he was appointed tutor at +St John's College and lecturer in geology. His attention was specially +directed to the study of the igneous and metamorphic rocks in Alpine +regions and in various parts of England, in the Lizard, at Salcombe, in +Charnwood Forest, in Wales and the Scottish Highlands. In 1877 he was +chosen professor of geology in University College, London. He became +secretary and afterwards president of the Geological Society +(1884-1886), secretary of the British Association (1881-1885), president +of the Mineralogical Society and of the Alpine Club. He was also in 1887 +appointed honorary canon of Manchester. His purely scientific works are: +_Cambridgeshire Geology_ (1875); _The Story of our Planet_ (1893); +_Charles Lyell and Modern Geology_ (1895); _Ice Work, Past and Present_ +(1896); _Volcanoes_ (1899). In addition to many papers published in the +_Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society_ and _Geological Magazine_, +he wrote several popular works on Alpine Regions, on English and Welsh +scenery, as well as on theological subjects. + + See _Geological Magazine_ for September 1901 (with bibliography). + + + + +BONNIER, ANGE ELISABETH LOUIS ANTOINE (1749-1799), French diplomatist, +was a member of the Legislative Assembly and of the Convention, where he +voted with the majority. During the Directory he was charged with +diplomatic missions, first to Lille and then to the congress of Rastadt +(October 1797), where the negotiations dragged wearily along and were +finally broken. On the 28th of April 1799 the plenipotentiaries on +leaving Rastadt were assailed at the gates of the town by Hungarian +hussars, probably charged to secure their papers. Bonnier and one of his +colleagues, Claude Roberjot, were killed. The other, Jean Debry, was +wounded. + + See Huefer, _Der Rastadtergesandtenmord_ (Bonn, 1896). + + + + +BONNIVET, GUILLAUME GOUFFIER, SEIGNEUR DE (c. 1488-1525), French +soldier, was the younger brother of Artus Gouffier, seigneur de Boisy, +tutor of Francis I. of France. Bonnivet was brought up with Francis, and +after the young king's accession he became one of the most powerful of +the royal favourites. In 1515 he was made admiral of France. In the +imperial election of 1519 he superintended the candidature of Francis, +and spent vast sums of money in his efforts to secure the votes of the +electors, but without success. He was the implacable enemy of the +constable de Bourbon and contributed to his downfall. In command of the +army of Navarre in 1521, he occupied Fuenterrabia and was probably +responsible for its non-restoration and for the consequent renewal of +hostilities. He succeeded Marshal Lautrec in 1523 in the command of the +army of Italy and entered the Milanese, but was defeated and forced to +effect a disastrous retreat, in which the chevalier Bayard perished. He +was one of the principal commanders of the army which Francis led into +Italy at the end of 1524, and died at the battle of Pavia on the 24th of +February 1525. Brantome says that it was at Bonnivet's suggestion that +the battle of Pavia was fought, and that, seeing the disaster he had +caused, he courted and found death heroically in the fight. In spite of +his failures as a general and diplomatist, his handsome face and +brilliant wit enabled him to retain throughout his life the intimacy and +confidence of his king. He was a man of licentious life. According to +Brantome he was the successful rival of the king for the favours of +Madame de Chateaubriand, and if we may believe him to have been--as is +very probable--the hero of the fourth story of the _Heptameron_, +Marguerite d'Angouleme had occasion to resist his importunities. + + AUTHORITIES.--Bonnivet's correspondence in the Bibliotheque Nationale, + Paris; memoirs of the time; complete works of Brantome, vol. iii., + published by Ludovic Lalanne for the Societe de l'Histoire de France + (1864 seq.). See also Ernest Lavisse, _Histoire de France_, vol. v., + by H. Lemonnier (1903-1904). + + + + +BONOMI, GIUSEPPI (1739-1808), English architect, was born at Rome on the +19th of January 1739. After attaining a considerable reputation in +Italy, he came in 1767 to England, and finally settled in practice +there. He was the innocent cause of the retirement of Sir Joshua +Reynolds from the presidency of the Royal Academy. Sir Joshua wished him +to become a full Academician, regarding him as a fitting occupant of the +then vacant chair of perspective. But the majority of the Academicians +were opposed to this suggestion, and Bonomi was elected an associate +only, and that merely by the president's casting vote. Bonomi was +largely responsible for the revival of classical architecture in +England. His most famous work was the Italian villa at Roseneath, +Dumbartonshire, designed for the duke of Argyll. In 1804 he was +appointed honorary architect to St Peter's at Rome. He died in London on +the 9th of March 1808. + +His son, GIUSEPPI BONOMI (1796-1878), studied art in London at the Royal +Academy, and became a sculptor, but is best known as an illustrator of +the leading Egyptological publications of his day. From 1824 to 1832 he +was in Egypt, making drawings of the monuments in the company of Burton, +Lane and Wilkinson. In 1833 he visited the mosque of Omar, returning +with detailed drawings, and from 1842 to 1844 was again in Egypt, +attached to the Prussian government exploration expedition under +Lepsius. He assisted in the arrangement of the Egyptian court at the +Crystal Palace in 1853, and in 1861 was appointed curator of the Soane +Museum. He died on the 3rd of March 1878. + + + + +BONONCINI (or BUONONCINI), GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1672?-1750?), Italian +musical composer, was the son of the composer Giovanni Maria Bononcini, +best known as the author of a treatise entitled _Il Musico Prattico_ +(Bologna, 1673), and brother of the composer Marc' Antonio Bononcini, +with whom he has often been confused. He is said to have been born at +Modena in 1672, but the date of his birth must probably be placed some +ten years earlier. He was a pupil of his father and of Colonna, and +produced his first operas, _Tullo Ostilio_ and _Serse_, at Rome in 1694. +In 1696 he was at the court of Berlin, and between 1700 and 1720 divided +his time between Vienna and Italy. In 1720 he was summoned to London by +the Royal Academy of Music, and produced several operas, enjoying the +protection of the Marlborough family. About 1731 it was discovered that +he had a few years previously palmed off a madrigal by Lotti as his own +work, and after a long correspondence he was obliged to leave the +country. He remained for several years in France, and in 1748 was +summoned to Vienna to compose music in honour of the peace of +Aix-la-Chapelle. He then went to Venice as a composer of operas, and +nothing more is known of his life. + +Bononcini's rivalry with Handel will always ensure him immortality, but +he was in himself a musician of considerable merit, and seems to have +influenced the style, not only of Handel but even of Alessandro +Scarlatti. Either he or his brother (our knowledge of the two composers' +lives is at present not sufficient to distinguish their works clearly) +was the inventor of that sharply rhythmical style conspicuous in _Il +Trionfo di Camilla_ (1697), the success of which at Naples probably +induced Scarlatti to adopt a similar type of melody. It is noticeable in +the once popular air of Bononcini, _L'esperto nocchiero_, and in the air +_Vado ben spesso_, long attributed to Salvator Rosa, but really by +Bononcini. + + + + +BONONIA (mod. _Bologna_), the chief town of ancient Aemilia (see +AEMILIA, VIA), in Italy. It was said by classical writers to be of +Etruscan origin, and to have been founded, under the name Felsina, from +Perusia by Aucnus or Ocnus. Excavations of recent years have, however, +led to the discovery of some 600 ancient Italic (Ligurian?) huts, and of +cemeteries of the same and the succeeding (Umbrian) periods (800-600? +B.C.), of which the latter immediately preceded the Etruscan +civilization (c. 600-400 B.C.). An extensive Etruscan necropolis, too, +was discovered on the site of the modern cemetery (A. Zannoni, _Scavi +della Certosa_, Bologna, 1876), and others in the public garden and on +the Arnoaldi Veli property (_Notizie degli Scavi, indice_ 1876-1900, +s.v. "Bologna"). In 196 B.C., when the town first appears in history, +it was already in the possession of the Boii, and had probably by this +time changed its name, and in 189 B.C. it became a Roman colony. After +the conquest of the mountain tribes, its importance was assured by its +position on the Via Aemilia, by which it was connected in 187 B.C. with +Ariminum and Placentia, and on the road, constructed in the same year, +to Arretium; while another road was made, perhaps in 175 B.C., to +Aquilelia. It thus became the centre of the road system of north Italy. +In 90 B.C. it acquired Roman citizenship. In 43 B.C. it was used as his +base of operations against Decius Brutus by Mark Antony, who settled +colonists here; Augustus added others later, constructing a new aqueduct +from the Letta, a tributary of the Rhenus, which was restored to use in +1881 (G. Gozzadini in _Notizie degli Scavi_, 1881, 162). After a fire in +A.D. 53 the emperor Claudius made a subvention of 10 million sesterces +(L1,087,500). Bononia seems, in fact, to have been one of the most +important cities of ancient Italy, as Bologna is of modern Italy. It was +able to resist Alaric in 410 and to preserve its existence during the +general ruin. It afterwards belonged to the Greek exarchate of Ravenna. +Of remains of the Roman period, however, there are none above ground, +though various discoveries have been made from time to time within the +city walls, the modern streets corresponding more or less, as it seems, +with the ancient lines. Remains of the bridge of the Via Aemilia over +the Rhenus have also been found--consisting of parts of the parapets on +each side, in brick-faced concrete which belong to a restoration, the +original construction (probably by Augustus in 2 B.C.) having been in +blocks of Veronese red marble--and also of a massive protecting wall +slightly above it, of late date, in the construction of which a large +number of Roman tombstones were used. The bed of the river was found to +have risen at least 20 ft. since the collapse of this bridge (about A.D. +1000), the total length of which must have been about 650 ft. and the +width between the parapets 38-1/2 ft. + + See E. Brizio in _Notizie degli Scavi_ (1896), 125, 450; (1897) 330; + (1898) 465; (1902) 532. (T. As.) + + + + +BONPLAND, AIME JACQUES ALEXANDRE (1773-1858), French traveller and +botanist, whose real name was GOUJAND, was born at La Rochelle on the +22nd of August 1773. After serving as a surgeon in the French army and +studying under J.N. Corvisart at Paris, he accompanied A. von Humboldt +during five years of travel in Mexico, Colombia and the districts +bordering on the Orinoco and Amazon. In these explorations he collected +and classified about 6000 plants till then mostly unknown in Europe, +which he afterwards described in _Plantes equinoxiales_, &c. (Paris, +1808-1816). On returning to Paris he received a pension and the +superintendence of the gardens at Malmaison, and published _Monographie +des Melastomees_ (1806), and _Description des plantes rares de Navarre_ +(1813). In 1816 he set out, taking with him various European plants, for +Buenos Aires, where he was elected professor of natural history, an +office which he soon quitted in order to explore central South America. +While journeying to Bolivia he was arrested in 1821, by command of Dr +Francia, the dictator of Paraguay, who detained him until 1831. On +regaining liberty he resided at San Borga in the province of Corrientes, +until his removal in 1853 to Santa Anna, where he died on the 4th of May +1858. + + + + +BONSTETTEN, CHARLES VICTOR DE (1745-1832), Swiss writer, an excellent +type of a liberal patrician, more French than Swiss, and a good +representative of the Gallicized Bern of the 18th century. By birth a +member of one of the great patrician families of Bern, he was educated +in his native town, at Yverdon, and (1763-1766) at Geneva, where he came +under the influence of Rousseau and of Charles Bonnet, and imbibed +liberal sentiments. Recalled to Bern by his father, he was soon sent to +Leiden, and then visited (1769) England, where he became a friend of the +poet Gray. After his father's death (1770) he made a long journey in +Italy, and on his return to Bern (1774) entered political life, for +which he was unfitted by reason of his liberal ideas, which led him to +patronize and encourage Johannes Muller, the future Swiss historian. In +1779 he was named the Bernese bailiff of Saanen or Gessenay (here he +wrote his _Lettres pastorales sur une contree de la Suisse_, published +in German in 1781), and in 1787 was transferred in a similar capacity to +Nyon, from which post he had to retire after taking part (1791) in a +festival to celebrate the destruction of the Bastille. From 1795 to 1797 +he governed (for the Swiss Confederation) the Italian-speaking districts +of Lugano, Locarno, Mendrisio and Val Maggia, of which he published +(1797) a pleasing description, and into which he is said to have +introduced the cultivation of the potato. The French revolution of 1798 +in Switzerland drove him again into private life. He spent the years +1798 to 1801 in Denmark, with his friend Fredirika Brun, and then +settled down in 1803 in Geneva for the rest of his life. There he +enjoyed the society of many distinguished persons, among whom was +(1809-1817) Madame de Stael. It was during this period that he published +his most celebrated work, _L'Homme du midi et l'homme du nord_ (1824), a +study of the influence of climate on different nations, the north being +exalted at the expense of the south. Among his other works are the +_Recherches sur la nature et les lois de l'imagination_ (1807), and the +_Etudes de l'homme, ou Recherches sur les facultes de penser et de +sentir_ (1821), but he was better as an observer than as a philosopher. + + Lives by A. Steinlen (Lausanne, 1860), by C. Morell (Winterthur, + 1861), and by R. Willy (Bern, 1898). See also vol. xiv. of + Sainte-Beuve's _Causeries du Lundi_. (W. A. B. C.) + + + + +BONUS (a jocular application of the Lat. _bonus_, for _bonum_, "a good +thing"), a sum paid to shareholders in a joint-stock company, as an +addition to the ordinary dividend, and generally given out of +accumulated profits, or out of profits gained from exceptional +transactions. As used by insurance companies, the word denotes the +addition made to the amount of a policy by a distribution _pro rata_ of +accumulated profits or surplus. In a more general sense, bonus is any +payment or remuneration over and above what is due and promised. + + + + +BONZE (from Japanese _bonzo_, probably a mispronunciation of Chinese +_fan sung_, "religious person"), the European name for the members of +the Buddhist religious orders of Japan and China. The word is loosely +used of all the Buddhist priests in those and the neighbouring +countries. + + + + +BOOK, the common name for any literary production of some bulk, now +applied particularly to a printed composition forming a volume, or, if +in more than one volume, a single organic literary work. The word is +also used descriptively for the internal divisions or sections of a +comprehensive work. + +The word "book" is found with variations of form and gender in all the +Teutonic languages, the original form postulated for it being a strong +feminine _Boks_, which must have been used in the sense of a +writing-tablet. The most obvious connexion of this is with the old +English _boc_, a beech tree, and though this is not free from +philological difficulties, no probable alternative has been suggested. + +As early as 2400 B.C., in Babylonia, legal decisions, revenue accounts, +&c. were inscribed in cuneiform characters on clay tablets and placed in +jars, arranged on shelves and labelled by clay tablets attached by +straws. In the 7th century B.C. a library of literary works written on +such tablets existed at Nineveh, founded by Sargan (721-705 B.C.). As in +the case of the "Creation" series at the British Museum the narrative +was sometimes continued from one tablet to another, and some of the +tablets are inscribed with entries forming a catalogue of the library. +These clay tablets are perhaps entitled to be called books, but they are +out of the direct ancestry of the modern printed book with which we are +here chiefly concerned. One of the earliest direct ancestors of this +extant is a roll of eighteen columns in Egyptian hieratic writing of +about the 25th century B.C. in the Musee de Louvre at Paris, preserving +the maxims of Ptah-hetep. Papyrus, the material on which the manuscript +(known as the Papyrus Prisse) is written, was made from the pith of a +reed chiefly found in Egypt, and is believed to have been in use as a +writing material as early as about 4000 B.C. It continued to be the +usual vehicle of writing until the early centuries of the Christian era, +was used for pontifical bulls until A.D. 1022, and occasionally even +later; while in Coptic manuscripts, for which its use had been revived +in the 7th century, it was employed as late as about A.D. 1250. It was +from the name by which they called the papyrus, [Greek: bublos] or +[Greek: biblos], that the Greeks formed [Greek: biblion], their word for +a book, the plural of which (mistaken for a feminine singular) has given +us our own word Bible. In the 2nd century B.C. Eumenes II., king of +Pergamus, finding papyrus hard to procure, introduced improvements into +the preparations of the skins of sheep and calves for writing purposes, +and was rewarded by the name of his kingdom being preserved in the word +_pergamentum_, whence our "parchment," by which the dressed material is +known. In the 10th century the supremacy which parchment had gradually +established was attacked by the introduction from the East of a new +writing material made from a pulp of linen rags, and the name of the +vanquished papyrus was transferred to this new rival. Paper-mills were +set up in Europe in the 12th century, and the use of paper gained +ground, though not very rapidly, until on the invention of printing, the +demand for a cheap material for books, and the ease with which paper +could be worked on a press, gave it a practical monopoly. This it +preserved until nearly the end of the 19th century, when substances +mainly composed of wood-pulp, esparto grass and clay largely took its +place, while continuing, as in the transition from papyrus to +linen-pulp, to pass under the same name (see PAPER). + +So long as the use of papyrus was predominant the usual form of a book +was that of the _volumen_ or roll, wound round a stick, or sticks. The +modern form of book, called by the Latins _codex_ (a word originally +used for the stump of a tree, or block of wood, and thence for the +three-leaved tablets into which the block was sawn) was coming into +fashion in Martial's time at Rome, and gained ground in proportion as +parchment superseded papyrus. The _volumen_ as it was unrolled revealed +a series of narrow columns of writing, and the influence of this +arrangement is seen in the number of columns in the earliest codices. +Thus in the Codex Sinaiticus and Codex Vaticanus of the Bible, both of +the 4th century, there are respectively four and three columns to a +page; in the Codex Alexandrinus (5th century) only two; in the Codex +Bezae (6th century) only one, and from this date to the invention of +printing, while there were great changes in handwriting, the arrangement +of books changed very little, single or double columns being used as was +found convenient. In the external form of books there was much the same +conservatism. In the Codex Amiatinus written in England in the 8th +century one of the miniatures shows a book in a red leather cover, and +the arrangement of the pattern on this curiously resembles that of the +15th-century red leather bindings predominant in the Biblioteca +Laurenziana at Florence, in which the codex itself is preserved. In the +same way some of the small stamps used in Oxford bindings in the 15th +century are nearly indistinguishable from those used in England three +centuries earlier. Much fuller details as to the history of written +books in these as well as other respects will be found in the article +MANUSCRIPT, to which the following account of the fortunes of books +after the invention of printing must be regarded as supplementary. + +Between a manuscript written in a formal book-hand and an early printed +copy of the same work, printed in the same district as the manuscript +had been written, the difference in general appearance was very slight. +The printer's type (see TYPOGRAPHY) would as a rule be based on a +handwriting considered by the scribes appropriate to works of the same +class; the chapter headings, headlines, initial-letters, paragraph +marks, and in some cases illustrations, would be added by hand in a +style which might closely resemble the like decorations in the +manuscript from which the text was being printed; there would be no +title-page, and very probably no statement of any kind that the book was +printed, or as to where, when or by whom it was produced. Information as +to these points, if given at all, was reserved for a paragraph at the +end of the book, called by bibliographers a colophon (q.v.), to which +the printer often attached a device consisting of his arms, or those of +the town in which he worked, or a fanciful design. These devices are +sometimes beautiful and often take the place of a statement of the +printer's name. Many facsimiles or copies of them have been +published.[1] The first dated title-page known[2] is a nine-line +paragraph on an otherwise blank page giving the title of the book, +_Sermo ad populum predicabilis in festo presentacionis Beatissime Marie +Semper Virginis_, with some words in its praise, the date 1470 in roman +numerals, and a reference to further information on the next page. The +book in which this title-page occurs was printed by Arnold ther Hoernen +at Cologne. Six years later Erhard Ratdolt and his partners at Venice +printed their names and the date, together with some verses describing +the book, on the title-page of a Latin calendar, and surrounded the +whole with a border in four pieces. For another twenty years, however, +when title-pages were used at all, they usually consisted merely of the +short title of the book, with sometimes a woodcut or the printer's +(subsequently the publisher's) device beneath it, decoration being more +often bestowed on the first page of text, which was sometimes surrounded +by an ornamental border. Title-pages completed by the addition of the +name and address of printer or publisher, and also by the date, did not +become common till about 1520. + +While the development of the title-page was thus slow the completion of +the book, independently of handwork, in other respects was fairly rapid. +Printed illustrations appear first in the form of rude woodcuts in some +small books produced at Bamberg by Albrecht Pfister about 1461. +Pagination and headlines were first used by ther Hoernen at Cologne in +1470 and 1471; printed signatures to guide binders in arranging the +quires correctly (see BIBLIOGRAPHY AND BIBLIOLOGY) by Johann Koelhoff, +also at Cologne in 1472. Illustrations abound in the books printed at +Augsburg in the early 'seventies, and in the 'eighties are common in +Germany, France and the Low Countries, while in Italy their full +development dated from about 1490. Experiments were made in both Italy +and France with illustrations engraved on copper, but in the 15th +century these met with no success. + +Bound with wooden boards covered with stamped leather, or with half of +the boards left uncovered, many of the earliest printed books are +immensely large and heavy, especially the great choir-books, the Bibles +and the Biblical and legal commentaries, in which a great mass of notes +surrounds the text. The paper on which these large books were printed +was also extraordinarily thick and strong. For more popular books small +folio was at first a favourite size, but towards the end of the century +small thin quartos were much in vogue. Psalters, books of hours, and +other prayer-books were practically the only very small books in use. +Owing to changes, not only in the value of money but in the coinage, the +cost of books in the 15th century is extremely difficult to ascertain. A +vellum copy of the first printed Bible (Mainz, c. 1455) in two large +folio volumes, when rubricated and illuminated, is said to have been +worth 100 florins. In 1467 the bishop of Aleria writing to Pope Paul II. +speaks of the introduction of printing having reduced prices to +one-fifth of what they had previously been. Fifteen "Legends" bequeathed +by Caxton to St Margaret's, Westminster, were sold at prices varying +from 6s. 8d. to 5s. This would be cheap for a large work like the +_Golden Legend_, but the bequest was more probably of copies of the +Sarum _Legenda_, or Lectionary, a much smaller book. + +_16th Century._--The popularization of the small octavo by Aldus at +Venice in 1501 and the introduction in these handy books of a new type, +the italic, had far-reaching consequences. Italics grew steadily in +favour during the greater part of the century, and about 1570 had almost +become the standard vernacular type of Italy. In France also they were +very popular, the attempt to introduce a rival French cursive type +(_lettres de civilite_) attaining no success. In England they gained +only slight popularity, but roman type, which had not been used at all +in the 15th century, made steady progress in its contest with black +letter, which by the end of the century was little used save for Bibles +and proclamations. The modern practice in the use of i and j, u and v +dates from about 1580, though not firmly established till the reign of +Charles I. + +In the second quarter of the 16th century the French printers at Paris +and Lyons halved the size of the Aldine octavos in their small +sextodecimos, which found a ready market, though not a lasting one, the +printers of Antwerp and Leiden ousting them with still smaller books in +24mo or small twelves. These little books were printed on paper much +thinner than had previously been used. The size and weight of books was +also reduced by the substitution of pasteboards for wooden sides. Gold +tooling came into use on bindings, and in the second half of the century +very elaborate decoration was in vogue in France until checked by a +sumptuary law. On the other hand a steady decline in the quality of +paper combined with the abandonment of the old simple outline woodcuts +for much more ambitious designs made it increasingly difficult for +printers to do justice to the artists' work, and woodcuts, at first in +the Low Countries and afterwards in England and elsewhere, were +gradually superseded by copper-plates printed separately from the text. +At the beginning of this century in England a ballad or Christmas carol +sold for a halfpenny and thin quarto chapbooks for 4d. (a price which +lasted through the century), the Great Bible of 1541 was priced at 10s. +in sheets and 12s. bound, Edward VI.'s prayer-book (1549) at 2s. 2d. +unbound, and 3s. 8d. in paste or boards; Sidney's _Arcadia_ and other +works in 1598 sold for 9s. + +_17th Century._--Although the miniature editions issued by the Elzevirs +at Leiden, especially those published about 1635, have attracted +collectors, printing in the 17th century was at its worst, reaching its +lowest depths in England in the second quarter. After this there was a +steady improvement, partly due to slight modifications of the old +printing presses, adopted first in Holland and copied by the English +printers. In the first half of the century many English books, although +poorly printed, were ornamented with attractive frontispieces, or +portraits, engraved on copper. During the same period, English +prayer-books and small Bibles and New Testaments were frequently covered +with gay embroideries in coloured silks and gold or silver thread. In +the second half of the century the leather bindings of Samuel Mearne, to +some extent imitated from those of the great French binder Le Gascon, +were the daintiest England had yet produced. For trade bindings rough +calf and sheepskin were most used, and the practice of lettering books +on the back, instead of on the sides or fore-edges or not at all, came +gradually into favour. Owing to the increase of money, and in some cases +to the action of monopolists, in others to the increased payments made +to authors, book-prices rather rose than fell. Thus church Bibles, which +had been sold at 10s. in 1541, rose successively to 25s., 30s. and (in +1641) to 40s. Single plays in quarto cost 6d. each in Shakespeare's +time, 1s. after the Restoration. The Shakespeare folio of 1623 is said +to have been published at L1. Bishop Walton's polyglot Bible in six +large volumes was sold for L10 to subscribers, but resulted in a heavy +loss. Izaak Walton's _Compleat Angler_ was priced at 1s. 6d. in +sheepskin, _Paradise Lost_ at 3s., _The Pilgrim's Progress_ at 1s. 6d.; +Dryden's _Virgil_ was published by subscription at L5:5s. It was a +handsome book, ornamented with plates; but in the case of this and other +subscription books a desire to honour or befriend the author was mainly +responsible for the high price. + +_18th Century._--During this century there was a notable improvement +alike in paper, type and presswork in both France and England, and +towards the end of the century in Germany and Italy also. Books became +generally neat and sometimes elegant. Book-illustration revived with the +French _livres-a-vignettes_, and English books were illustrated by +Gravelot and other French artists. In the last quarter of the century +the work of Bewick heralded a great revival in woodcut illustrations, or +as the use of the graver now entitled them to be called, wood +engravings. The best 18th-century binders, until the advent of Roger +Payne, were inferior to those of the 17th century, but the technique of +the average work was better. In trade bindings the use of sheepskin and +calf became much less common, and books were mostly cased in paper +boards. The practice of publishing poetry by subscription at a very high +price, which Dryden had found lucrative, was followed by Prior and Pope. +Single poems by Pope, however, were sold at 1s. and 1s. 6d. Novels were +mostly in several volumes. The price at the beginning of the century was +mostly 1s. 6d. each. It then remained fairly steady for many years, and +at the close of the century rose again. Thus Miss Burney's _Evelina_ (3 +vols., 1778) sold for 7s. 5d., her _Cecilia_ (5 vols., 1782) for 12s. +6d., and her _Camilla_ (5 vols., 1796) for L1:1s. Johnson's _Dictionary_ +(2 vols. folio, 1755) cost L4:4s. in sheets, L4:15s. in boards. + +_19th Century._--great change in the appearance of books was caused by +the use first of glazed calico (about 1820), afterwards (about 1830) of +cloth for the cases of books as issued by their publishers. At first the +lettering was printed on paper labels, but soon it was stamped in gilt +on the cloth, and in the last quarter of the century many very beautiful +covers were designed for English and American books. The designs for +leather bindings were for many years chiefly imitated from older work, +but towards the end of the 'eighties much greater originality began to +be shown. Book illustrations passed through many phases. As subsidiary +methods colour-prints, line engravings, lithographs and etchings were +all used during the first half of the century, but the main reliance was +on wood-engraving, in which extraordinary technical skill was developed. +In the 'sixties and the years which immediately preceded and followed +them many of the chief English artists supplied the engravers with +drawings. In the last decade of the century wood-engraving was +practically killed by the perfection attained by photographic methods of +reproduction (see PROCESS), the most popular of these methods entailing +the use of paper heavily coated with china clay. During the century +trade-printing, both in England and America, steadily improved, and the +work done by William Morris at his Kelmscott Press (1891-1896), and by +other amateur printers who imitated him, set a new standard of beauty of +type and ornament, and of richness of general effect. On the other hand +the demand for cheap reprints of famous works induced by the immense +extension of the reading public was supplied by scores of pretty if +flimsy editions at 1s. 6d. and 1s. and even less. The problem of how to +produce books at moderate prices on good paper and well sewn, was left +for the 20th century to settle. About 1894 the number of such +medium-priced books was greatly increased in England by the substitution +of single-volume novels at 6s. each (subject to discount) for the +three-volume editions at 31s. 6d. The preposterous price of 10s. 6d. a +volume had been adopted during the first popularity of the _Waverly +Novels_, and despite the example of France, where the standard price was +3 fr. 50, had continued in force for the greater part of the century. +Even after novels were sold at reasonable rates artificial prices were +maintained for books of travel and biographies, so that the circulating +libraries were practically the only customers for the first editions. +(See PUBLISHING and BOOKSELLING). (A. W. Po.) + + +FOOTNOTES: + + [1] Works especially devoted to these facsimiles are:--Berjeau's + _Early Dutch, German and English Printers' Marks_ (London, 1866); W. + Roberts's _Printers' Marks_ (London, 1893); Silvestre's _Marques + typographiques_ (French; Paris, 1853-1867); _Die Buchermarken oder + Buchdrucker und Verlegerzeichen_ (Strassburg, 1892-1898), the + successive parts containing the devices used in Alsace, Italy, Basel, + Frankfort, Mainz and Cologne; and _Marques typographiques des + imprimeurs et libraires qui ont exerce dans les Pays-Bas_ (Gand, + 1894). Numerous devices are also reproduced in histories of printing + and in volumes of facsimiles of early types. + + [2] An edition of a bull of Pope Pius II. in the John Rylands + library, Manchester, in types used by Fust and Schoeffer at Mainz, + bears printed on the top of the first page the words "Dis ist die bul + zu dutsch die unser allerheiligster vatter der bapst Pius herusgesant + hait widder die snoden ungleubigen turcken." This is attributed to + the year 1463, and is claimed as the first book with a printed + title-page. + + + + +BOOKBINDING. + + + Origins. + +Bindings or covers to protect written or printed matter have always +followed the shapes of the material on which the writing or printing was +done. Very early inscriptions on rocks or wood needed no coverings, and +the earliest instances of protective covers are to be found among the +smaller Assyrian tablets of about the 8th century B.C. These tablets, +with cuneiform inscriptions recording sales of slaves, loans of money +and small matters generally, are often enclosed in an outer shell of the +same shape and impressed with a short title. Egyptian papyrus rolls were +generally kept in roll form, bound round with papyrus tape and often +sealed with seals of Nile mud; and the rolls in turn were often +preserved in rectangular hollows cut in wood. The next earliest material +to papyrus used for writing upon was tree bark. Bark books, still +commonly used by uncultured nations, often consisting of collections of +magical formulae or medical receipts, are generally rolls, folded +backwards and forwards upon themselves like the sides of a concertina. +At Pompeii in 1875 several diptychs were found, the wooden leaves +hollowed on the inner sides, filled with blackened wax, and hinged +together at the back with leather thongs. Writings were found scratched +on the wax, one of them being a record of a payment to Umbricia Januaria +in A.D. 55. This is the earliest known Latin manuscript. The diptychs +are the prototypes of the modern book. From about the 1st to the 6th +century, ornamental diptychs were made of carved ivory, and presented to +great personages by the Roman consuls. + +[Illustration: Plate. + + FIG. 1.--WINCHESTER DOMESDAY BOOK OF THE 12TH CENTURY. + + Dark brown morocco, blind stamped. + + FIG. 2.--ST. CUTHBERT'S GOSPELS. + + Red leather with repousse design, probably the work of the 7th or + 8th century. The fine lines are impressed by hand, and painted blue + and yellow. + + FIG. 4.--BINDING MADE FOR JAMES I. + + Dark blue morocco, gold tooled. The red in the coat-of-arms inlaid + with red morocco. + + FIG. 3.--BINDING MADE FOR JEAN GROLIER. + + Pale brown morocco, gold tooled. + + FIG. 5.--COMMON PRAYER (LONDON, 1678). + + Smooth red morocco, gold tooled with black fillets. Bound by Samuel + Mearne. + + FIG. 6.--LE LIVRE DES STATUTS ET ORDONNANCES DE L'ORDRE DU BENVIST + SAINCT ESPRIT (PARIS, 1578). + + Brown morocco, gold tooled, arms of Henry III., King of France. + Bound by Nicholas Eve. + + FIG. 7.--CATALOGUE OF THE PICTURES AT HAGLEY HALL. + + Red niger morocco, gold tooled. Bound by Douglas Cockerell. + + FIG. 8.-WALTON'S COMPLEAT ANGLER (1772). + + Golden brown morocco, gold tooled. Bound by Miss E.M. MacColl.] + +Rolls of papyrus, vellum or paper were written upon in three ways, (1) +In short lines, at right angles to the length of the roll. (2) In long +lines each the entire length of the roll. (3) In short lines parallel to +the length of the roll, each column or page of writing having a space +left on each side of it. Rolls written in the first of these ways were +simply rolled up and kept in cylinders of like shape, sometimes several +together, with a title tag at the end of each, in a box called a +scrinium. In the case of the second form, the most obvious instances of +which are to be found in the Buddhist prayer-wheels, the rolls were and +are kept in circular boxes with handles through the centres so that they +can revolve easily. In the third manner of arranging the manuscript the +page forms show very clearly, and it is still used in the scrolls of the +law in Jewish synagogues, kept on two rollers, one at each end. But this +form of writing also developed a new method for its own more convenient +preservation. A roll of this kind can be folded up, backwards and +forwards, the bend coming in the vacant spaces between the columns of +writing. When this is done it at once becomes a book, and takes the +Chinese and Japanese form known as _orihon_--all the writing on one side +of the roll or strip of paper and all the other side blank. Some books +of this kind are simply guarded by two boards, but generally they are +fastened together along one of the sides, which then becomes the back of +the book. The earliest fastening of such books consists of a lacing with +some cord or fibre run through holes stabbed right through the substance +of the roll, near the edge. Now the _orihon_ is complete, and it is the +link between the roll and the book. This "stabbed" form of binding is +the earliest method of keeping the leaves of a book together; it occurs +in the case of a Coptic papyrus of about the 8th century found at +Thebes, but it is rarely used in the case of papyrus, as the material is +too brittle to retain the threads properly. + +The method of folding vellum into pages seems to have been first +followed about the 5th century. The sheets were folded once, and +gatherings of four or more folded sheets were made, so that stitches +through the fold at the back would hold all the sheets together and each +leaf could be conveniently turned over. Very soon an obvious plan of +fixing several of these gatherings, or quires, together was followed by +the simple expedient of fastening the threads at the back round a strong +strip of leather or vellum held at right angles to the line of the +backs. This early plan of "sewing" books is to-day used in the case of +valuable books; it is known as "flexible" work, and has never been +improved upon. + +As soon as the method of sewing quires together in this way became well +understood, it was found that the projecting bands at the back needed +protection, so that when all the quires were joined together and, so +far, finished, strips of leather were fastened all over the back. But it +was also found that vellum leaves were apt to curl strongly, and to +counteract this tendency strong wooden boards were put on each side. The +loose ends of the bands were fastened to the boards, which hinged upon +them, and the protecting strip of leather at the back was drawn over the +boards far enough to cover the hinge. So we get the medieval +"half-binding" which shows the strip of leather over the back of the +book, projecting for a short way over the boards, the rest of which is +left uncovered. The boards were usually kept closed by means of clasps +in front. + +The leather strip soon developed, and covered the whole of the boards, +"whole" binding as it is called, and it was quickly found that these +fine flat pieces of leather offered a splendid field for artistic +decoration. + + + Progress of artistic binding. + +The first ornamentation on leather bindings was probably made by means +of impressions from small metal points or lines, pressed upon the +leather. This in time led to the purposeful cutting of small decorative +stamps to be used in the same way. It is considered that English binders +excelled in this art of "blind" stamping, that is, without the use of +gold leaf. Most of the stamps were cut intaglio, so that their +impressions are in cameo form. Such bindings were made to perfection +during the 12th and 13th centuries at Durham, Oxford, Cambridge, London +and other places. One of the most charming examples left is the binding +of the Winchester Domesday Book of the 12th century (Plate, fig. 1), now +belonging to the Society of Antiquaries of London. + +From about the 7th to the 16th century illuminated manuscripts were held +in the greatest esteem. Among them can be found not only exquisite +calligraphy but exquisite miniature painting. Moreover, the gorgeousness +of the illuminations inside suggested gorgeousness of the outside +coverings, so we find splendid work in metals with jewels, enamels and +carved ivory, dating from the 7th-century _Gospels of Theodolinda_ at +Monza, the Irish cumdach of the _Stowe Missal_, the _Lindau Gospels_ now +in America, and the _Gospels of Charlemagne_ in the Victoria and Albert +Museum at South Kensington, to the magnificent bindings of 14th-century +Limoges enamel in the British Museum. Such English bindings of this +kind--intrinsically precious--as may have existed have all +disappeared,--most likely they were melted up by Henry VIII. or Edward +VI.; but at Stonyhurst there is a book known as _St Cuthbert's Gospels_, +which is bound in red leather with a repousse design upon it, and is +probably the work of the 7th or 8th century (Plate, fig. 2). + +When printing was introduced into Europe about the middle of the 15th +century, there was very soon a reaction against the large, beautiful and +valuable illuminated MSS. and their equally precious covers. Printing +brought small books, cheap books, ugly books, generally bound in calf, +goatskin or sheepskin, and ornamented with large panel stamps in blind. +But a new art came into birth very shortly, namely the art of gold +tooling on leather, which in capable hands is almost a great art, and +specimens of the work of the few great masters that have practised it +are now much sought after and likely to increase in estimation and +value. All this, as usual, brings a school of skilled _faussaires_ into +the field, and already the collector of fine bindings must be wary, or +he may easily give thousands of pounds for forged or made-up objects +that are worth but little. + +In the matter of leather bindings with gold tooling, an art which was +probably brought to Venice from the East, the finest examples are to be +found in late 15th-century Italian work. The art quickly spread, and +Thomas Berthelet, Royal Binder to Henry VIII., seems to have been the +first binder who practised it in England. Berthelet's work is strongly +Italian in feeling, especially at first, and it is likely that he was +taught the new art by an Italian master; he worked until about 1558. + +During the late 15th and the 16th century in England, numbers of fine +printed books were bound in velvet and satin, sometimes set with +enamels, sometimes embroidered. These books, having strong threads of +metal freely used upon them, have lasted much better than would be +expected, and instances of such work made for Henry VIII. are still in +excellent condition, and most decorative. + +The fashion of ornamenting English royal books with heraldic designs, +which is considered to have begun in the reign of Edward IV., has +continued without break. The same fashion in books belonging to private +owners was first followed during the later Tudor period, and then +numbers were made, and have been, more or less, ever since. + +During the whole Tudor period several small bindings of gold ornamented +with enamels were made. Some of these still exist, and they are charming +little jewels. They were always provided with a ring at the top, no +doubt for attaching to the girdle. + +Aldus Manutius, the great Venetian printer, had several of his books +charmingly bound in dark morocco with "Aldine" knot leaves and small +dolphins both in blind and gold tooling; and Giunta, a Florentine +printer, had his books bound in a similar way but without the dolphins. +Many early Venetian bindings have recessed panels, made by the use of +double boards, the upper of which is pierced, finished in true oriental +fashion. + +Jean Grolier, viscount d'Aguisy, treasurer of France in 1545, was a +great collector of fine books, most of which were bound for himself, and +bear upon them his legend, _Portio mea domine sit in terra viventium_, +and also his name, Io Grolierii et Amicorum (Plate, fig. 3). Tommaso +Maioli, an Italian collector of about the same time, used the same form +of legend. Books bound for him are curiously marked with atoms of gold +remaining in the irregularities of the leather. + +Demetrio Canevari, physician to Pope Urban VIII., had his books bound in +dark green or deep red morocco, and upon them is a fine cameo stamp with +a design of Apollo driving a chariot with one white horse and one black +horse towards a mountain on which is a silver Pegasus. The stamp was +coloured, but in most cases the colour has now worn off. Round the stamp +is the legend [Greek: ORTHOS KAI MAE LOXIOS]. + +The Italian bindings which were made for popes and cardinals are always +of much interest and often of high merit, but as a rule later Italian +bindings are disappointing. + +Geoffrey Tory, printer and engraver to Francis I. of France, designed +some fine bindings, some for himself and quite possibly some for Jean +Grolier. + +For Henry II. of France much highly decorative work in binding was done, +richly gilded and coloured. These bindings have upon them the king's +initials, the initials of his queen, Catherine de' Medici, and the +emblems of crescents and bows. Henry's device was a crescent with the +legend, _Donec impleat totum orbem_. Bindings of similar style were made +for Diane de Poitiers, duchesse de Valentinois, with her initials and +the same devices of crescents and bows. They are always fine work. + +German bindings are mostly in pigskin, finely stamped in blind. Several +are, however, in calf. Gilding, when it exists, is generally bad. + +In England during the 17th century much fine work was done in binding, +most of it in morocco, but Henry, prince of Wales, always had his books +bound in calf. The Jacobean style is heraldic, with semis of small +stamps and heavy corners, but James I. has left some very fine bindings +in another style (Plate, fig. 4), very possibly done for him by John +Gibson, who bound the royal books while James was king of Scotland only. +During the reign of Charles I. Nicholas Ferrar founded his curious +establishment at Little Gidding, and there his niece Mary Collet and her +sisters set up a bindery. They made large scrap-books, harmonies of the +Gospels and other parts of the Bible, with illustrations, and bound them +magnificently in velvet stamped in gold and silver. They were taught by +a binder who worked for John and Thomas Buck, printers to the university +of Cambridge, and the Little Gidding stamps are often identical with +Buck's. + +Samuel Mearne (d. 1683) was royal binder to Charles II., and invented +the cottage style of decoration, a style which has lasted till the +present day; the Bible on which Edward VII. took the coronation oath was +ornamented in that way. An inner rectangle is run parallel to the edges +of the book, and the upper and lower lines are broken outwards into the +outline of a gable roof. Mearne's work as a binder (Plate, fig. 5) is of +the highest merit. Many of his books have their fore-edge painted in +such a way that the work is invisible when the book is shut, and only +shows when the edges are fanned out. + +In France 16th- and 17th-century binding is distinguished by the work of +such masters as Nicholas Eve, who bound the beautiful _Livre des Statuts +et Ordonnances de l'ordre du Benvist Sainct Esprit_ for Henry III. +(Plate, fig. 6); Clovis Eve, who is credited with the invention of the +style known as "fanfare," a delicate tracery over the boards of a book, +filled out with spirals of leafy stems; and Le Gascon, who invented the +dotted work which has been used more or less ever since. Le Gascon +caused his small gilding tools--curves and arabesques--to be scored +across, so that when impressions were made from them a dotted line +showed instead of a right line. Florimond Badier worked in a style very +similar to that of Le Gascon and sometimes signed his work, which Le +Gascon never did. Le Gascon had many imitators, the best and closest +being Poncyn and Magnus, Dutch binders who worked at Amsterdam in the +17th century, and his style has been continuously followed to the +present day. + +The bindings of Padeloup le Jeune often have small tickets with his name +upon them; they usually have borders of lace-like gold tooling known as +"dentelle" and are often inlaid. He belonged to a family of binders, all +of whom were excellent workmen, and lived in the 17th and 18th +centuries. + +The Deromes were another of the great French families of binders; the +most celebrated was Nicholas Denis, called "Le Jeune," born in 1731. He +used dentelle borders resembling those of Padeloup, but with little +birds interspersed among the arabesques--"dentelles a l'oiseau." + +Among the many French binders of the 18th century who used delicate +inlays of coloured leathers, Jean Charles le Monnier was perhaps the +most skilled. He often signed his bindings in small capitals impressed +in gold somewhere about the inlaid part. + +Eliot and Chapman bound the library of Robert Harley, earl of Oxford, +about the middle of the 18th century. The bindings are in morocco, with +broad, richly gold-tooled borders, and usually a diamond-shaped +centre-piece. This is known as the Harleian style. + +Thomas Hollis had his books bound in fine red morocco, ornamented with +small, well-cut stamps engraved by Thomas Pingo, the medallist. These +stamps comprise a cap of liberty, a figure of liberty, a figure of +Britannia and several smaller ones. + +Towards the end of the 18th century, when binding in England was +decoratively at a low level, Roger Payne, a native of Windsor, came to +London and set up as a bookbinder. He was a splendid workman, and +introduced richly gold-tooled corner-pieces, ornamental "doublures" or +inside linings, and also invented the graining of morocco, graining it, +however, in one direction only, known as the "straight grain." It is +said that Payne cut his own binding tools of iron; they certainly are +exquisitely made, and in many of his bindings he has put a written +description of loving work he has done upon them. Payne was, +unfortunately, a drunkard, but he has in spite of this rendered an +immortal service to the art of bookbinding in England. + +In 1785 John Edwards of Halifax patented a method of making vellum +transparent, and using it as a covering over delicate paintings. He also +painted pictures on the fore-edges of many of his books in the same +manner as that followed by Samuel Mearne in the 17th century, so that +they did not show until the book was opened. John Whitaker used calf for +his bindings, but ornamented the calf in a curious way with strong acids +and with prints from engraved metal plates. Both Edwards and Whitaker +liked classical borders and ornaments, and their bindings are in +consequence often known as "Etruscan." + +The main styles used in England at the beginning of the 19th century +were nothing more than distant imitations of Roger Payne. Kalthoeber, +Staggemeier, Walther and Hering were all disciples of this master, but +Charles Lewis worked on original lines. He developed arabesques and paid +particular attention to richly gold-tooled doublures. He also used gold +end papers, and the bands at the back of his bindings are often double +and always broad, flat and gold-tooled. His workmanship is excellent; he +worked largely for Thomas Grenville and other great collectors. + +French binding of the 19th century is remarkable for wonderful technical +excellence in every part. Among the most skilled of these admirable +workmen and artists may be particularly mentioned Thouvenin, Bauzonnet, +Lortic, Niedree, Cape and Duru, and fortunately they generally sign +their work in small gold lettering either on the back of their bindings +or inside along the lower edge. + + + Modern methods. + +Recent years have witnessed a marked revival of interest in the art of +bookbinding, but modern binders have two serious difficulties to contend +with. One of these is the prevalence of bad paper, overladen with clay +and with wood pulp, and also the fact that many of the modern leathers +are badly prepared and dangerously treated with sulphuric acid, which in +time inevitably rots the fibre. The Society of Arts has appointed +committees of experts to report upon both of these evils, and the +published accounts of both inquiries are of much value, and it is to be +hoped that the results may be beneficial. Concurrently with the revival +of the artistic side of the subject, there has also arisen a remarkable +development in the technical processes, owing to the invention of +ingenious and delicate machinery which is capable of executing the work +which had hitherto been always laboriously done by hand. The processes +of folding the printed sheets, and sewing them together on bands, +rounding the backs when sewn, and of making the outer cases, covering +them with cloth or leather and stamping designs upon them, can now all +be efficiently executed by means of machines. The saving in time and +labour thus effected is very great, although it must be said that the +old methods of carrying out the process of sewing and rounding the backs +of books by hand labour were safer and stronger, as well as being much +less liable to bruise and injure the paper. These processes +unfortunately are not only slow but also necessitate highly skilled +labour. Already the larger trade binders utilize machines extensively +and advantageously, but exclusively high-class trade binders do not as +yet materially depart from the older methods. Private binders have +naturally no reason to use machines at all. Fine and delicate examples +of large metal blocks or dies have been very successfully used for the +decoration of covers measuring about 11-1/2 by 8 in. + +Besides the large trade binders working mainly by the help of machinery, +and producing a great quantity of bound work which is not expected to +last long, there also exists in London, Paris, New York and other large +cities, a small class of art binders who work throughout upon the +principles which have been continuously in use for first-class work ever +since about the 5th century. The initial impetus to this school can be +traced to William Morris, who himself made some beautiful designs for +bookbindings, to be executed both in gold and in blind. Although he +probably did not fully appreciate either the peculiar limitations or the +possibilities of the art of gold-tooling on leather, nevertheless his +genius guided him truly as to the spirit in which the designs should be +conceived. The revived art soon reached its first stage of development +under the guidance of Mr T.J. Cobden-Sanderson, who may fairly be +considered as the founder of the modern school of design for +gold-tooling on book-covers, the pre-eminence and individuality of his +work in this direction being proved by the number of his imitators. +Among the most successful of his pupils is Mr Douglas Cockerell, whose +work (Plate, fig. 7) is distinguished by a marked originality of +treatment, while it shows a scholarly appreciation of ancient methods. +Mr Alfred de Sauty has succeeded in developing a new and admirable style +in inlaid leathers, combined with delicate pointille work. A number of +women artists, both in England and in America, have already discovered +in bookbinding a fitting and lucrative field for their energies. One, +Miss Sarah Prideaux, is not only skilled and original in her own work, +but she has also given us much valuable literature on her subject. Miss +E.M. MacColl may claim to be the inventor of the small curved gold line +produced by means of a tiny wheel, for though the possibility of +producing such a line in blind was known for a long time, it was rarely +used. The graceful curves and lines found on Miss MacColl's work have +been designed for her by her brother, Mr D.S. MacColl (Plate, fig. 8). +Miss Joanna Birkenruth recalls the highly decorative medieval binding by +her use of jewels cut _en cabochon_, but set in morocco instead of gold +or silver, and there are many others who are working well and earnestly +at art binding with delicate skill and taste. Outside the inner circle +of professional bookbinders there has grown up a new profession, that of +the designer for pictorial book-covers, especially those intended to be +shown in colour on cloth or paper. Among notable designers may be +mentioned Lewis F. Day, A.A. Turbayne, Walter Crane and Charles +Ricketts. + + [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Book-sewing Machine.] + + _Machine-binding._--The principal types of machine for commercial + binding are described below. They are almost all due to American or + German ingenuity. It may be noted that, while books sewn by hand on + bands have the loose ends of the bands actually drawn through the + boards and strongly fastened to them through their substance, no + machines for covering sewn books will do this so effectively. All they + will do as a rule is to paste down to the inner surfaces of the boards + the loose ends of the tapes on which the sewing is done. So that, + although it may last a long time if not much used, a "cased" book is + likely to slip out of its cover as soon as the paste fixing it + perishes. Modern bookbinding machines of all kinds are usually driven + by power, and in consequence of the necessary setting of most of them + accurately to some particular size of book, they are not suitable for + binding books of different sizes; the full advantage of them can only + be taken where there is a large edition of one book. + + + Sewing. + + Book-sewing machines (fig. 9) are of two kinds one sews the books on + bands, either flat or round, and the other supplies the place of bands + by a kind of chain stitch. The band-working machines bring the return + thread back by pulling it through the upper and lower edges of the + back of each section, thereby to some extent weakening each section, + but at the same time this weakening can be to some extent neutralized + by careful head-banding. The other system, where the band is replaced + by a chain stitch, brings back the return thread inside each section; + the objection to this is that there is a flattening out of the back of + the book, which becomes a difficulty when the subsequent operation of + covering the book begins. The sections are sewn continuously in a long + line, and are afterwards cut apart. The threads catch into hooked + needles and are drawn through holes made by piercers set to a certain + distance; a shuttle like that used in an ordinary sewing-machine sews + the inner thread backwards and forwards. Each section is placed upon a + sort of metal saddle by the hand of the operator, one after the other, + the machine working continuously unless the action is cut off or + controlled by a foot-lever or pedal. This machine is much quieter to + work, and although the inner threads are too bulky to be quite + satisfactory, this is not a serious matter like the cutting of the + upper and lower edges of the back already described, and, moreover, is + probably capable of being either improved away or so minimized that it + will become of small importance. + + The Martini book-sewing machine, which sews books on tape without + cutting up head or tail--a most important improvement--and also forms + complete Kettle stitches, will sew books of any size up to 18 in. The + needles are straight, and the necessary adjustments for various sizes + of books are very simple. + + + Rounding and backing. + + The machine for rounding and backing sewn books requires a rather + elaborate and very careful setting of several parts to the exact + requirement of each size to be worked. The sewn book with the back + glued is caught in a clip and forced between two tight rollers, the + result being that the hitherto flat back is automatically turned into + a rounded shape (figs. 10 and 11). The book is then drawn forward, by + a continuance of the onward movement, until it reaches the rounding + plate, which is a block of steel with a polished groove a little + larger than the size required. This rounding plate moves within a + small arc by means of heavy counter-weights, and on the back of the + book being strongly pressed against it, it receives the permanent form + of the groove cut in it, at the same time a strong grip on each side + of the book causes the ledge to rise up along each outer edge of the + back. This ledge it is which enables the boards to be subsequently + fixed in such a way as to hinge on a line outside the actual and + natural boundary of the book. Before the discovery of the possibility + of producing this ledge, the boards of books hinged upon a line + coincident with the inner edges of the back, the result of which was + that when the book was opened there was an invariable tendency to open + and pull away the few outer sections of the paper or vellum itself--a + destructive and disagreeable peculiarity. These machines are capable, + after they are properly set, of rounding and backing about 750 volumes + of the same size within an hour. + + [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Section of back of book sewn on bands.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Section of same book after it has passed + through the machine for rounding and backing.] + + [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Case-making Machine.] + + The machine for making cases, or "case" covers (fig. 12), for books is + large and complicated, but beautifully effective. It contains + altogether over fifty springs, some of which are very small, like + watch fittings, while others are large and powerful. The machine is + fed with pieces of cardboard cut exactly to the sizes of the required + boards, other pieces cut to the size of the back, and a long roll of + the cloth with which the cases are to be covered, and when set working + the roll of cloth is gradually unwound and glued by contact with a + roller, which is drawn along until it reaches a point where the two + boards are ingeniously dropped upon it one by one, then on again to + where a long arm swings backwards and forwards, at each movement + picking up a piece of cardboard for the back and placing it gently + exactly upon the glued bed left for it between the two boards already + fixed. Next, as the cloth passes along, it comes under the sharp + influence of two rectangular gouges which cut out the corners, the + remaining side pieces being gradually but irresistibly turned up by + hollow raisers and flattened down by small rollers, a very delicate + piece of machinery finishing the corners in a masterly way. Then, + lastly, an arrangement of raisers and rollers acting at right angles + to the last mentioned turn over and press out the remaining pieces of + cloth. Of course each piece of cloth is cut across at the proper point + before the turning up begins. This machine is capable of producing + 1200 cases in an hour of any size that the machine will take. + + [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Smyth Casing-in Machine. + + A. Cases. + B. Side of Case Hopper. + C. Paste box. + D. Head Clamp Rod. + E. Head Clamp. + + 1. 1st position. + 2. 2nd position. + 3. 3rd position and finished book. When in 2nd position the book + drops to level of paste box.] + + The Smyth casing-in machine (fig. 13) pastes the sides of a book as + required and then attaches the cover over all. Cleverly arranged + rollers catch the book, and by a carefully regulated pressure fix the + cover in the proper position. There is a "jointing-in" device which at + a critical moment forces the joints in the cover into the joints in + the book. It will work books from 4 to 22 in. in length and from 1/4 + to 3 in. in thickness, and can cover from 10 to 15 books per minute. + + Here may also be mentioned the Sheridan wrappering machine, which + covers magazines and pamphlets ranging from 5 to 12 in. in length at + the rate of 40 a minute. + + + Wiring. + + Wiring is a cheap method of keeping together thin parts of periodicals + or tracts. The machine that executes it is simple in construction and + use. It drives a short wire pin, bent at right angles at each end, + through the folds of the sections of a book or through the entire + thickness, sideways, after the manner of stabbing. The projecting + ends, when through the substance of the paper, are bent over and + flattened so as to grip firmly. The metal used for these pins was at + first very liable to rust, and consequently did much damage to the + paper near it, but this defect has now been largely remedied. At the + same time the principle of using hard metal wire instead of flexible + hempen thread is essentially vicious, and should only be used as a + temporary expedient for publications of little value. + + + Blocking. + + The machines (fig. 14) now used for blocking designs upon book-covers + are practically the same as have been employed for many years. Several + small improvements have been introduced as to better inking of the + rollers for colour work, and better heating of the blocks used for + gold work. A blocking press is now, in consequence of the size of many + of the blocks, a large and cumbersome machine. The block itself is + fixed firmly in a strong metal bed, and a movable table in front of it + is fitted with gauges which keep the cover exactly in its right place. + For gold work the block is kept at the proper temperature by means of + gas jets, and the cover being properly overlaid with gold leaf is + passed, on its table, directly under the block and then pressed + steadily upwards against it, lowered, drawn out, and the superfluous + gold rubbed off. The same process is followed in the case of colour + blocks, only now the block need not be heated, but is inked by means + of a roller for each impression. A separate printing is necessary for + each colour. These printings always require great care on the part of + the operator, who has to watch the working of each pull very + carefully, and if any readjustment is wanted, to make it at once, so + that it is difficult to estimate at what rate they can be made. In the + matter of gold blocking there must be great care exercised in the + matter of the heat of the block, for if it is too hot the gold will + adhere where it is not wanted, and if too cool it will not adhere + where it is required. Great nicety is also necessary as to the exact + pressure required as well as the precise number of moments during + which the block should be in contact with the gold, which is fastened + to the cloth or leather by means of the solidification by heat of egg + albumen. Blocking presses are mainly of German make, but Scottish and + English presses are also largely used. + + [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Blocking Machine.] + + AUTHORITIES.--See the _Anglo-Saxon Review_ (1899-1901); C.J. + Davenport, _Royal English Bookbindings_ (1896), _Cantor Lectures on + Bookbinding_ (1898), _English Embroidered Bookbindings_ (1899), _Life + of Thomas Berthelet_ (1901), _Life of Samuel Mearne_ (1906); W.Y. + Fletcher, _English Bookbindings in the British Museum_ (1895), + _Foreign Bookbindings in the British Museum_ (1896); L. Gruel, _Manuel + de l'amateur de relieures_ (1887); H.P. Horne, _The Binding of Books_ + (1894); S.T. Prideaux, _Historical Sketch of Bookbinding_ (1893); E. + Thoinan, _Les Relieurs francais_ (1893); O. Uzanne, _La Relieure + moderne_ (1887); H.B. Wheatley, _Remarkable Bindings in the British + Museum_ (1889); J.W. Zaehnsdorf, _The Art of Bookbinding_ (1880). + (C. D.) + + + + +BOOKCASE, an article of furniture, forming a shelved receptacle, usually +perpendicular or horizontal, for the storage of books. When books, being +written by hand, were excessively scarce, they were kept in small +coffers which the great carried about with them on their journeys. As +manuscript volumes accumulated in the religious houses or in regal +palaces, they were stored upon shelves or in cupboards, and it is from +these cupboards that the bookcase of to-day directly descends. At a +somewhat later date the doors were, for convenience' sake, discarded, +and the evolution of the bookcase made one step forward. Even then, +however, the volumes were not arranged in the modern fashion. They were +either placed in piles upon their sides, or if upright, were ranged with +their backs to the wall and their edges outwards. The band of leather, +vellum or parchment which closed the book was often used for the +inscription of the title, which was thus on the fore-edge instead of on +the back. It was not until the invention of printing had greatly +cheapened books that it became the practice to write the title on the +back and place the edges inwards. Early bookcases were usually of oak, +which is still deemed to be the most appropriate wood for a stately +library. The oldest bookcases in England are those in the Bodleian +library at Oxford, which were placed in position in the last year or two +of the 16th century; in that library are the earliest extant examples of +shelved galleries over the flat wall-cases. Long ranges of book-shelves +are necessarily somewhat severe in appearance, and many attempts have +been made by means of carved cornices and pilasters to give them a more +_riant_ appearance--attempts which were never so successful as in the +hands of the great English cabinet-makers of the second half of the 18th +century. + +Both Chippendale and Sheraton made or designed great numbers of +bookcases, mostly glazed with little lozenges encased in fret-work +frames often of great charm and elegance. The alluring grace of some of +Sheraton's satinwood bookcases has very rarely indeed been equalled. The +French cabinet-makers of the same period were also highly successful +with small ornamental cases. Mahogany, rosewood, satinwood and even +choicer exotic timbers were used; they were often inlaid with +marqueterie and mounted with chased and gilded bronze. Dwarf bookcases +were frequently finished with a slab of choice marble at the top. In the +great public libraries of the 20th century the bookcases are often of +iron, as in the British Museum where the shelves are covered with +cowhide, of steel, as in the library of Congress at Washington, or of +slate, as in the Fitzwilliam library at Cambridge. There are three +systems of arranging bookcases--flat against the wall; in "stacks" or +ranges parallel to each other with merely enough space between to allow +of the passage of a librarian; or in bays or alcoves where cases jut out +into the room at right angles to the wall-cases. The stack system is +suitable only for public libraries where economy of space is essential; +the bay system is not only handsome but utilizes the space to great +advantage. The library of the city of London at the Guildhall is a +peculiarly effective example of the bay arrangement. + + The whole question of the construction and arrangement of bookcases + was learnedly discussed in the light of experience by W.E. Gladstone + in the Nineteenth Century for March 1890. (J. P.-B.) + + + + +BOOK-COLLECTING, the bringing together of books which in their contents, +their form or the history of the individual copy possess some element of +permanent interest, and either actually or prospectively are rare, in +the sense of being difficult to procure. This qualification of rarity, +which figures much too largely in the popular view of book-collecting, +is entirely subordinate to that of interest, for the rarity of a book +devoid of interest is a matter of no concern. On the other hand so long +as a book (or anything else) is and appears likely to continue to be +easily procurable at any moment, no one has any reason for collecting +it. The anticipation that it will always be easily procurable is often +unfounded; but so long as the anticipation exists it restrains +collecting, with the result that Horn-books are much rarer than First +Folio Shakespeares. It has even been laid down that the ultimate rarity +of books varies in the inverse ratio of the number of copies originally +printed, and though the generalization is a little sweeping, it is not +far from the truth. To triumph over small difficulties being the chief +element in games of skill, the different varieties of book-collecting, +which offer almost as many varieties of grades of difficulty, make +excellent hobbies. But in its essence the pastime of a book-collector is +identical with the official work of the curator of a museum, and thus +also with one branch of the duties of the librarian of any library of +respectable age. In its inception every library is a literary workshop, +with more or less of a garden or recreation ground attached according as +its managers are influenced by the humanities or by a narrow conception +of utility. As the library grows, the books and editions which have been +the tools of one generation pass out of use; and it becomes largely a +depository or storehouse of a stock much of which is dead. But from out +of this seemingly dead stock preserved at haphazard, critics and +antiquaries gradually pick out books which they find to be still alive. +Of some of these the interest cannot be reproduced in its entirety by +any mere reprint, and it is this salvage which forms the literary +museum. Book-collectors are privileged to leap at once to this stage in +their relations with books, using the dealers' shops and catalogues as +depositories from which to pick the books which will best fit with the +aim or central idea of their collection. For in the modern private +collection, as in the modern museum, the need for a central idea must be +fully recognized. Neither the collector nor the curator can be content +to keep a mere curiosity-shop. It is the collector's business to +illustrate his central idea by his choice of examples, by the care with +which he describes them and the skill with which they are arranged. In +all these matters many amateurs rival, if they do not outstrip, the +professional curators and librarians, and not seldom their collections +are made with a view to their ultimate transference to public ownership. +In any case it is by the zeal of collectors that books which otherwise +would have perished from neglect are discovered, cared for and +preserved, and those who achieve these results certainly deserve well of +the community. + + + History. + +Whenever a high degree of civilization has been attained book-lovers +have multiplied, and to the student with his modest desire to read his +favourite author in a well-written or well-printed copy there has been +added a class of owners suspected of caring more for the externals of +books than for the enjoyment to be obtained by reading them. But +although adumbrations of it existed under the Roman empire and towards +the end of the middle ages, book-collecting, as it is now understood, is +essentially of modern growth. A glance through what must be regarded as +the medieval text-book on the love of books, the _Philobiblon_, +attributed to Richard de Bury (written in 1345), shows that it deals +almost exclusively with the delights of literature, and Sebastian +Brant's attack on the book-fool, written a century and a half later, +demonstrates nothing more than that the possession of books is a poor +substitute for learning. This is so obviously true that before +book-collecting in the modern sense can begin it is essential that there +should be no lack of books to read, just as until cups and saucers +became plentiful there was no room for the collector of old china. Even +when the invention of printing had reduced the cost of books by some +80%, book-collectors did not immediately appear. There is a natural +temptation to imagine that the early book-owners, whose libraries have +enriched modern collectors with some of their best-known treasures, must +necessarily have been collectors themselves. This is far from being the +case. Hardly a book of all that Jean Grolier (1479-1565) caused to be +bound so tastefully for himself and his friends reveals any antiquarian +instincts in its liberal owner, who bought partly to encourage the best +printers of his day, partly to provide his friends with the most recent +fruits of Renaissance scholarship. In England Archbishop Cranmer, Lords +Arundel and Lumley, and Henry, prince of Wales (1594-1612), in France +the famous historian Jacques Auguste de Thou (1553-1617), brought +together the best books of their day in all departments of learned +literature, put them into handsome leather jackets, and enriched them +with their coats of arms, heraldic badges or other marks of possession. +But they brought their books together for use and study, to be read by +themselves and by the scholars who frequented their houses, and no +evidence has been produced that they appreciated what a collector might +now call the points of a book other than its fine condition and literary +or informational merits. Again, not a few other more or less famous men +have been dubbed collectors on the score of a scanty shelf-full of +volumes known to have been stamped with their arms. Collecting, as +distinct both from the formation of working libraries and from casual +ownership of this latter kind, may perhaps be said to have begun in +England at the time of the antiquarian reaction produced by the +book-massacres when the monasteries were dissolved by Henry VIII., and +the university and college libraries and the parish service books were +plundered and stript by the commissioners of Edward VI. To rescue good +books from perishing is one of the main objects of book-collecting, and +when Archbishop Parker and Sir Robert Cotton set to work to gather what +they could of the scattered records of English statecraft and +literature, and of the decorative art bestowed so lavishly on the books +of public and private devotion, they were book-collectors in a sense and +on a scale to which few of their modern imitators can pretend. Men of +more slender purses, and armed with none of Archbishop Parker's special +powers, worked according to their ability on similar lines. Humphrey +Dyson, an Elizabethan notary, who collected contemporary proclamations +and books from the early English presses, and George Thomason (d. 1666), +the bookseller who bought, stored and catalogued all the pamphlet +literature of the Civil War, were mindful of the future historians of +the days in which they lived. By the end of the 17th century +book-collecting was in full swing all over Europe, and much of its +apparatus had come into existence. In 1676 book auctions were introduced +into England from Holland, and soon we can trace in priced catalogues +the beginning of a taste for Caxtons, and the books prized by collectors +slowly fought their way up from amid the heavy volumes of theology by +which they were at first overwhelmed. + +While book-collecting thus came into existence it was rather as an added +grace in the formation of a fine library than as a separate pursuit. +Almost all the large book-buyers of the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries +bought with a public object, or were rewarded for their zeal by their +treasures being thought worthy of a public resting-place. Sir Thomas +Smith (d. 1577) bequeathed his books to Queens' College, Cambridge; +Archbishop Parker's were left under severe restrictions to Corpus +Christi College in the same university; Sir Thomas Bodley refounded +during his lifetime the university library at Oxford, to which also Laud +gave liberally and Selden bequeathed his books. The library of +Archbishop Williams went to St John's College, Cambridge; that of +Archbishop Usher was bought for Trinity College, Dublin. The +mathematical and scientific books of Thomas Howard, earl of Norfolk (d. +1646), were given by his grandson to the Royal Society; the heraldic +collections of Ralph Sheldon (d. 1684) to Heralds' College; the library +in which Pepys took so much pleasure to Magdalene College, Cambridge. +Bishop Moore's books, including a little volume of Caxton quartos, +almost all unique, were bought by George I. and presented to the +university library at Cambridge. Archbishop Marsh, who had previously +bought Stillingfleet's printed books (his manuscripts went to Oxford), +founded a library at Dublin. The immense accumulations of Thomas +Rawlinson (d. 1725) provided materials for a series of auctions, and +Harley's printed books were sold to Osbourne the bookseller. But the +trend was all towards public ownership. While Richard Rawlinson (d. +1755) allowed his brother's books to be sold, the best of his own were +bequeathed to Oxford, and the Harleian MSS. were offered to the nation +at a sum far below their value. A similar offer of the great collections +formed by Sir Hans Sloane, including some 50,000 printed books, together +with the need for taking better care of what remained of the Cotton +manuscripts, vested in trustees for public use in 1702 and partially +destroyed by fire in 1731, led to the foundation of the British Museum +in 1753, and this on its opening in 1757 was almost immediately enriched +by George II.'s gift of the old royal library, formed by the kings and +queens of England from Henry VII. to Charles II., and by Henry, prince +of Wales, son of James I., who had bought the books belonging to +Archbishop Cranmer and Lords Arundel and Lumley. A few notable +book-buyers could not afford to bequeath their treasures to libraries, +e.g. Richard Smith, the secondary of the Poultry Compter (d. 1675), at +whose book-sale (1682) a dozen Caxtons sold for from 2 S. to 18 S. +apiece, Dr Francis Bernard (d. 1698), Narcissus Luttrell(d. 1732) and Dr +Richard Mead (d. 1754). At the opposite end of the scale, in the earls +of Sunderland (d. 1722) and Pembroke (d. 1733), we have early examples +of the attempts, seldom successful, of book-loving peers to make their +libraries into permanent heirlooms. But as has been said, the drift up +to 1760 was all towards public ownership, and the libraries were for the +most part general in character, though the interest in typographical +antiquities was already well marked. + +When George III. came to the throne he found himself bookless, and the +magnificent library of over 80,000 books and pamphlets and 440 +manuscripts which he accumulated shows on a large scale the catholic and +literary spirit of the book-lovers of his day. As befitted the library +of an English king it was rich in English classics as well as in those +of Greece and Rome, and the typographical first-fruits of Mainz, Rome +and Venice were balanced by numerous works from the first presses of +Westminster, London and Oxford. This noble library passed in 1823 to the +British Museum, which had already received the much smaller but +carefully chosen collection of the Rev. C.M. Cracherode (d. 1799), and +in 1846 was further enriched by the wonderful library formed by Thomas +Grenville, the last of its great book-loving benefactors, who died in +that year, aged ninety-one. A few less wealthy men had kept up the old +public-spirited tradition during George III.'s reign, Garrick +bequeathing his fine collection of English plays and Sir Joseph Banks +his natural history books to the British Museum, while Capell's +Shakespearian treasures enriched Trinity College, Cambridge, and those +of Malone went to the Bodleian library at Oxford, the formation of these +special collections, in place of the large general library with a +sprinkling of rarities, being in itself worth noting. But the noble +book-buyers celebrated by the Rev. Thomas Frognall Dibdin in his +numerous bibliographical works kept mainly on the old lines, though with +aims less patriotic than their predecessors. The duke of Roxburghe's +books were sold in 1812, and the excitement produced by the auction, +more especially by the competition between Lord Spencer and the duke of +Marlborough (at that time marquess of Blandford) for an edition of +Boccaccio printed by Valdarfer at Venice in 1471, led to the formation +of the Roxburghe Club at a commemorative dinner. In 1819 the duke of +Marlborough's books were sold, and the Boccaccio for which he had paid +L2260 went to Earl Spencer (d. 1834) for L750, to pass with the rest of +his rare books to Mrs Rylands in 1892, and by her gift to the John +Rylands library at Manchester in 1899. The books of Sir M.M. Sykes were +sold in 1824, those of J.B. Inglis in 1826 (after which he collected +again) and those of George Hibbert in 1829. The 150,000 volumes brought +together by Richard Heber at an expense of about L100,000 were disposed +of by successive sales during the years 1834-1837 and realized not much +more than half their cost. The wonderful library of William Beckford (d. +1844), especially rich in fine bindings, bequeathed to his daughter, the +duchess of Hamilton, was sold in 1882, with the Hamilton manuscripts, +for the most part to the German government. Their dispersal was preceded +in 1881 by that of the Sunderland collection, already mentioned. The +library of Brian Fairfax (d. 1749), which had passed to the earls of +Jersey, was sold in 1885, that of Sir John Thorold (d. 1815) in 1884, +his "Gutenberg" Bible fetching L3900 and his Mainz Psalter L4950. The +great collection of manuscripts formed by Sir Thomas Phillipps (d. 1872) +has furnished materials for numerous sales. The printed books of the +earl of Ashburnham (d. 1878) kept the auctioneers busy in 1897 and 1898; +his manuscripts were sold, some to the British government (the Stowe +collection shared between the British Museum and Dublin), the German +government (part of the Libri and Barrois collection, all, save one MS. +of 13th century German ballads, resold to France), the Italian +government (the rest of the Libri collection) Mr Yates Thompson (the +MSS. known as the Appendix) and Mr J. Pierpont Morgan (the Lindau +Gospels). The collections formed by Mr W.H. Miller (d. 1848, mainly +English poetry), the duke of Devonshire (d. 1858) and Mr Henry Huth (d. +1878), are still intact. + +Among the book-buyers of the reign of George III., John Ratcliffe, an +ex-coal-merchant, and James West had devoted themselves specially to +Caxtons (of which the former possessed 48 and the latter 34) and the +products of other early English presses. The collections of Capell and +Garrick were also small and homogeneous. Each section, moreover, of some +of the great libraries that have just been enumerated might fairly be +considered a collection in itself, the union of several collections in +the same library being made possible by the wealth of their purchaser +and the small prices fetched by most classes of books in comparison with +those which are now paid. But perhaps the modern cabinet theory of +book-collecting was first carried out with conspicuous skill by Henry +Perkins (d. 1855), whose 865 fine manuscripts and specimens of early +printing, when sold in 1870, realized nearly L26,000. If surrounded by a +sufficient quantity of general literature the collection might not have +seemed noticeably different from some of those already mentioned, but +the growing cost of books, together with difficulties as to house-room, +combined to discourage miscellaneous buying on a large scale, and what +has been called the "cabinet" theory of collecting, so well carried out +by Henry Perkins, became increasingly popular among book buyers, alike +in France, England and the United States of America. Henri Beraldi, in +his catalogue of his own collection (printed 1892), has described how in +France a little band of book-loving amateurs grew up who laughed at the +_bibliophile de la vieille roche_ as they disrespectfully called their +predecessors, and prided themselves on the unity and compactness of +their own treasures. In place of the miscellaneous library in which +every class of book claimed to be represented, and which needed a +special room or gallery to house it, they aimed at small collections +which should epitomize the owner's tastes and require nothing bulkier +than a neat bookcase or cabinet to hold them. The French bibliophiles +whom M. Beraldi celebrated applied this theory with great success to +collecting the dainty French illustrated books of the 18th century which +were their especial favourites. In England Richard Fisher treated his +fine examples of early book-illustration as part of his collection of +engravings, etchings and woodcuts (illustrated catalogue printed 1879), +and Frederick Locker (Locker-Lampson) formed in two small bookcases such +a gathering of first editions of English imaginative literature that the +mere catalogue of it (printed in 1886) produced the effect of a stately +and picturesque procession. Some of the book-hoards of previous +generations could have spared the equivalent of the Locker collection +without seeming noticeably the poorer, but the compactness and unity of +this small collection, in which every book appears to have been bought +for a special reason and to form an integral part of the whole, gave it +an artistic individuality which was a pleasant triumph for its owner, +and excited so much interest among American admirers of Mr Locker's +poetry that it may be said to have set a fashion. As another example of +the value of a small collection, both for delight and for historical and +artistic study, mention may be made of the little roomful of manuscripts +and incunabula which William Morris brought together to illustrate the +history of the bookish arts in the middle ages before the Renaissance +introduced new ideals. Many living collectors are working in a similar +spirit, and as this spirit spreads the monotony of the old libraries, in +which the same editions of the same books recurred with wearisome +frequency, should be replaced by much greater individuality and variety. +Moreover, if they can be grouped round some central idea cheap books may +yield just as good sport to the collector as expensive ones, and the +collector of quite modern works may render admirable service to +posterity. The only limitation is against books specially manufactured +to attract him, or artificially made rare. A quite wholesome interest in +contemporary first editions was brought to nought about 1889 by the +booksellers beginning to hoard copies of Browning's _Asolando_ and Mr +Lang's _Blue Fairy Book_ on the day of publication, while a graceful but +quite minor poet was made ridiculous by L100 being asked for a set of +his privately printed _opuscula_. The petty gambling in books printed +at the Kelmscott and Doves' presses, and in the fine paper copies of a +certain _Life of Queen Victoria_, for which a premium of 250% was asked +before publication, is another proof that until the manufacturing stage +is over collecting cannot safely begin. But with this exception the +field is open, and the 19th century offers as good a hunting ground as +any of its predecessors. + + + Objects and methods. + +While book-collecting may thus take an endless variety of forms the +heads under which these may be grouped are few and fairly easily +defined. They may be here briefly indicated together with some notes as +to the literature which has grown up round them. The development which +bibliographical literature has taken is indeed very significant of the +changed ideals of collectors. Brunet's _Manuel du libraire_, first +published in 1810, attained its fifth edition in 1860-1864, and has +never since been re-edited (supplement, 1878-1880). The _Bibliographer's +Manual of English Literature_ by W.T. Lowndes, first published in 1834, +was revised by H.G. Bohn in 1857-1864, and of this also no further +edition has been printed. These two works between them gave all the +information the old-fashioned collectors required, the _Tresor de livres +rares et precieux_ by J.G.T. Graesse (Dresden, 1859-1867, supplementary +volume in 1869) adding little to the information given by Brunet. The +day of the omnivorous collector being past, the place of these general +manuals has been taken by more detailed bibliographies and handbooks on +special books, and though new editions of both Lowndes and Brunet would +be useful to librarians and booksellers no publisher has had the courage +to produce them. + +To attract a collector a book must appeal to his eye, his mind or his +imagination, and many famous books appeal to all three. A book may be +beautiful by virtue of its binding, its illustrations or the simple +perfection and harmony of its print and paper. The attraction of a fine +binding has always been felt in France, the high prices quoted for +Elzevirs and French first editions being often due much more to their +17th and 18th century jackets than to the books themselves. The +appreciation of old bindings has greatly increased in England since the +exhibition of them at the Burlington Fine Arts Club in 1891 (illustrated +catalogue printed the same year), English blind stamped bindings, +embroidered bindings, and bindings attributable to Samuel Mearne +(_temp._ Charles II.) being much more sought after than formerly. (See +BOOKBINDING.) + +Illustrated books of certain periods are also much in request, and with +the exception of a few which early celebrity has prevented becoming rare +have increased inordinately in price. The primitive woodcuts in +incunabula are now almost too highly appreciated, and while the +_Nuremburg Chronicle_ (1493) seldom fetches more than L30 or the +_Hypnerotomachia Poliphili_ (Venice, 1499) more than L120, rarer books +are priced in hundreds. The best books on the subject are: for Italy, +Lippmann's _Wood Engraving in Italy in the 15th Century_ (1888), +Kristeller's _Early Florentine Woodcuts_ (1897), the duc de Rivoli's +(Prince d'Essling's) _Bibliographie des livres a figures venitiens +1469-1525_ (1892, new edition 1906); for Germany, Muther's _Die deutsche +Bucherillustration der Gothik und Fruhrenaissance_ (1884); for Holland +and Belgium, Sir W.M. Conway's _The Woodcutters of the Netherlands in +the 15th Century_ (1884); for France the material will all be found in +Claudin's _Histoire de l'imprimerie en France_ (1900, &c.). Some +information on the illustrated books of the early 16th century is given +in Butsch's _Die Bucherornamentik der Renaissance_ (1878), but the +pretty French books of the middle of the century and the later Dutch and +English copper-engraved book illustrations (for the latter see Colvin's +_Early Engraving and Engravers in England_, 1905) have been imperfectly +appreciated. This cannot be said of the French books of the 18th century +chronicled by H. Cohen, _Guide de l'amateur de livre a gravures du +XVIII^e siecle_ (5th ed., 1886), much of the same information, with a +little more about English books, being given in Lewine's _Bibliography +of Eighteenth Century Art and Illustrated Books_ (1898). English books +with coloured illustrations, for which there has arisen a sudden +fashion, are well described in Martin Hardie's _English Colour Books_ +(1906). Bewick's work has been described by Mr Austin Dobson. + +Appreciation of finely printed books has seldom extended much beyond the +15th century. In addition to the works mentioned in the article on +incunabula(q.v.), note may be made of Humphrey's _Masterpieces of the +Early Printers and Engravers_ (1870), while Lippmann's _Druckschriften +des XV. bis XVIII Jahrhunderts_ (1884-1887) covers, though not very +fully, the later period. + +Among books which make an intellectual appeal to the collectors may be +classed all works of historical value which have not been reprinted, or +of which the original editions are more authentic, or convincing, than +modern reprints. It is evident that these cover a vast field, and that +the collector in taking possession of any corner of it is at once the +servant and rival of historical students. Lord Crawford's vast +collections of English, Scottish and Irish proclamations and of papal +bulls may be cited as capital instances of the work which a collector +may do for the promotion of historical research, and the philological +library brought together by Prince Lucien Bonaparte (_An Attempt at a +Catalogue_ by V. Collins, published 1894) and the Foxwell collection of +early books on political economy (presented to the university of London +by the Goldsmiths' Company) are two other instances of recent date. Much +collecting of this kind is now being carried on by the libraries of +institutes and societies connected with special professions and studies, +but there is ample room also for private collectors to work on these +lines. + +Of books which appeal to a collector's imagination the most obvious +examples are those which can be associated with some famous person or +event. A book which has belonged to a king or queen (more especially one +who, like Mary queen of Scots, has appealed to popular sympathies), or +to a great statesman, soldier or poet, which bears any mark of having +been valued by him, or of being connected with any striking incident in +his life, has an interest which defies analysis. Collectors themselves +have a natural tenderness for their predecessors, and a copy of a famous +work is all the more regarded if its pedigree can be traced through a +long series of book-loving owners. Hence the production of such works as +_Great Book-Collectors_ by Charles and Mary Elton (1893), _English +Book-Collectors_ by W.Y. Fletcher (1902) and Guigard's _Nouvel armorial +du bibliophile_ (1890). Books condemned to be burnt, or which have +caused the persecution of their authors, have an imaginative interest of +another kind, though one which seems to have appealed more to writers of +books than to collectors. As has already been noted, most of the books +specially valued by collectors make a double or triple appeal to the +collecting instinct, and the desire to possess first editions may be +accounted for partly by their positive superiority over reprints for +purposes of study, partly by the associations which they can be proved +to possess or which imagination creates for them. The value set on them +is at least to some extent fanciful. It would be difficult, for +instance, to justify the high prices paid by collectors of the days of +George III. for the first printed editions of the Greek and Latin +classics. With few exceptions these are of no value as texts, and there +are no possible associations by which they can be linked with the +personality of their authors. It may be doubted whether any one now +collects them save as specimens of printing, though no class of books +which has once been prized ever sinks back into absolute obscurity. On +the other hand the prestige of the first editions of English and French +literary masterpieces has immensely increased. A first folio Shakespeare +(1623) was in 1906 sold separately for L3000, and the MacGeorge copies +of the first four folios (1623, 1632, 1663-1664 and 1685) fetched +collectively the high price of L10,000. The quarto editions of +Shakespeare plays have appreciated even more, several of these little +books, once sold at 6d. apiece, having fetched over L1000, while the +unknown and unique copy of the 1594 edition of _Titus Andronicus_, +discovered in Sweden, speedily passed to an American collector for +L2000. Information as to early editions of famous English books will be +found in Lowndes' _Bibliographer's Manual_, in Hazlitt's _Handbook to +the Popular Poetical and Dramatic Literature of Great Britain from the +Invention of Printing to the Restoration_ (1867) and his subsequent +_Collections and Notes_ (1876-1903), and as to more recent books in +Slater's _Early Editions, a bibliographical survey of the works of some +popular modern authors_ (1894), while French classics have found an +excellent chronicler in Jules Le Petit (_Bibliographie des principales +editions originales d'ecrivains francais du XV^e au XVIII^e siecle_, +1888). + +In most cases there is a marked falling off in the interest with which +early editions other than the first are regarded, and consequently in +the prices paid for them, though important changes in the text give to +the edition in which they first occur some shadow of the prestige +attaching to an original issue. One of the recognized byways of +book-collecting, however, used to be the collection of as many editions +as possible of the same work. When this result in the acquisition of +numerous late editions of no value for the text its only usefulness +would appear to be the index it may offer to the author's popularity. +But in translations of the Bible, in liturgical works, and in editions +published during the author's life the aid offered to the study of the +development of the final text by a long row of intermediate editions may +be very great. + +Another instance in which imagination reinforces the more positive +interest a book may possess is in the case of editions which can be +connected with the origin, diffusion or development of printing. Piety +suggests that book-lovers should take a special interest in the history +of the art which has done so much for their happiness, and in this +respect they have mostly shown themselves religious. The first book +printed in any town is reasonably coveted by local antiquaries, and the +desire to measure the amount and quality of the work of every early +printer has caused the preservation of thousands of books which would +otherwise have perished. (See INCUNABULA.) + +The financial side of book-collecting may be studied in Slater's +_Book-Prices Current_, published annually since 1887, and in +Livingston's _American Book Prices Current_, and in the same author's +_Auction Prices of Books_ (1905). While largely influenced by fashion +the prices given for books are never wholly unreasonable. They are +determined, firstly by the positive or associative interest which can be +found in the book itself, secondly by the infrequency with which copies +come into the market compared with the number and wealth of their +would-be possessors, and thirdly, except in the case of books of the +greatest interest and rarity, by the condition of the copy offered in +respect to completeness, size, freshness and absence of stains. + (A. W. Po.) + + + + +BOOK-KEEPING, a systematic record of business transactions, in a form +conveniently available for reference, made by individuals or +corporations engaged in commercial or financial operations with a view +to enabling them with the minimum amount of trouble and of dislocation +to the business itself to ascertain at any time (1) the detailed +particulars of the transactions undertaken, and (2) the cumulative +effect upon the business and its financial relations to others. +Book-keeping, sometimes described as a science and sometimes as an art, +partakes of the nature of both. It is not so much a discovery as a +growth, the crude methods of former days having been gradually improved +to meet the changing requirements of business, and this process of +evolution is still going on. The ideal of any system of book-keeping is +the maximum of record combined with the minimum of labour, but as +dishonesty has to be guarded against, no system of book-keeping can be +regarded as adequate which does not enable the record to be readily +verified as a true and complete statement of the transactions involved. +Such a verification is called an audit, and in the case of public and +other large concerns is ordinarily undertaken by professional +accountants (q.v.). Where the book-keeping staff is large it is +usually organized so that its members, to some extent at least, check +each other's work, and to that extent an audit, known as a "staff audit" +or "internal check," is frequently performed by the book-keeping staff +itself. + +Formerly, when credit was a considerably less important factor than now +in commercial transactions, book-keeping was frequently limited to an +account of receipts and payments of money; and in early times, before +money was in use, to an account of the receipt and issue of goods of +different kinds. Even now what may be called the "cash system" of +accounts is almost exclusively used by governments, local authorities, +and charitable and other institutions; but in business it is equally +necessary to record movements of credit, as a mere statement of receipts +and payments of money would show only a part of the total number of +transactions undertaken. As for practical purposes some limit must be +placed upon the daily record of transactions, certain classes show only +a record of cash receipts and payments, which must, when it is desired +to ascertain the actual position of affairs, be adjusted by bringing +into account those transactions which have not yet been completed by the +receipt or payment of money. For instance, it is usual to charge +customers with goods sold to them at the date when the sale takes place, +and to give them credit for the amount received in payment upon the date +of receipt (thus completely recording every phase of the transaction as +and when it occurs); but in connexion (say) with wages it is not usual +to give each workman credit for the services rendered by him from day to +day, but merely to charge up the amounts, when paid, to a wages account, +which thus at any date only shows the amounts which have actually been +paid, and takes no cognisance of the sums accruing due. When, therefore, +it is desired to ascertain the actual expenditure upon wages for any +given period, it is necessary to allow for the payments made during that +period in respect of work previously performed, and to add the value of +work performed during the current period which remains unpaid. In the +majority of businesses those accounts which deal with various forms of +standing expenses are thus dealt with, and in consequence the record, as +it appears from day to day, is _pro tanto_ incomplete. Another very +important series of transactions which is not included in the ordinary +day-to-day record is that representing the loss gradually accruing by +reason of waste, or depreciation, of assets or general equipment of the +business; proper allowance for these losses must of course be made +whenever it is desired to ascertain the true position of affairs. + + + History. + +The origin of book-keeping is lost in obscurity, but recent researches +would appear to show that some method of keeping accounts has existed +from the remotest times. Babylonian records have been found dating back +as far as 2600 B.C., written with a stylus on small slabs of clay, and +it is of interest to note (_Records of the Past_, xi. 89) that these +slabs or tablets "usually contain impressions from cylinder seals, and +nail marks, which were considered to be a man's natural seal," thus +showing that the modern method of identifying criminals by finger prints +had its counterpart in Babylonia some 4500 years ago. Egyptian records +were commonly written on papyrus, and contemporary pictures show a +scribe keeping account of the quantities of grain brought into and +removed from the government store-houses. It will thus be seen that some +form of book-keeping existed long before bound books were known, and +therefore the more general term _accounting_ would seem to be +preferable--the more so as the most modern developments are in the +direction of again abandoning the bound book in favour of loose or +easily detached sheets of paper or card, thus capable of being +rearranged as circumstances or convenience may dictate. Most of the +earlier accounting records are in the nature of a mere narrative of +events, which--however complete in itself--failed to fulfil the second +requirement of an adequate system of book-keeping already referred to. +Prior to the use of money nothing in this direction could of course well +be attempted; but for a long time after its employment became general +money values were recorded in Roman figures, which naturally did not +lend themselves to ready calculation. + +At the present-time it may be generally stated that all book-keeping +records are kept in three distinct columns, dealing respectively with +the date of the transaction, its nature, and its money value. The +earliest extant example of accounts so kept is probably a ledger in the +Advocates' library at Edinburgh, dated 1697, which, it is of interest to +note, is ruled by hand. Prior to that time, however, double-entry +book-keeping had been in general use. The exact date of its introduction +is unknown; but it was certainly not, as has been frequently stated, the +invention of Lucas de Bergo, in or about 1494. This, however, is the +date of the first issue (at Venice) of a printed book entitled +_Everything about Arithmetic, Geometry and Proportion_, by Luca Paciolo, +which contains _inter alia_ an explanation of book-keeping by +double-entry as then understood; but in all probability, the system had +then been in use for something like 200 years. It is perhaps unfortunate +that from 1494 until comparatively recent times the literature of +accounting has been provided by theorists and students, rather than by +practical business men, and it may well be doubted, therefore, whether +it accurately describes contemporary procedure. Another illusion which +it is necessary to expose in the interests of truth is the value +attached to _Jones's English System of Book-keeping by Single or Double +Entry_, published at Bristol in 1796. Before publishing this book, E.T. +Jones issued a prospectus, stating that he had patented an entirely new +and greatly improved system, and that subscribers (at a guinea a copy) +would be entitled to a special licence empowering them to put the new +invention into practice in their own book-keeping. With this bait he +secured thousands of subscribers, but so far as can be gathered his +system was entirely without merit, and it is chiefly of interest as +indicating the value, even then, of advertising. + + + Modern methods. + +It is impossible here to describe fully all the improvements that have +been made in methods of accounting during recent years, but it is +proposed to deal with the more important of these improvements, after +the general principles upon which all systems of book-keeping are based +have been briefly described. + +The centre of all book-keeping systems is the _ledger_, and it may be +said that all other books are only kept as a matter of practical +convenience--hence the name "subsidiary books" that is frequently +applied thereto. Inasmuch, however, as the transactions are first +recorded in these subsidiary books, and afterwards classified therefrom +into the ledger, the names _books of entry_ or _books of first entry_ +are often employed. Subsidiary books which do not form the basis of +subsequent entries into the ledger, but are merely used for statistical +purposes, are known as _statistical_ or _auxiliary books_. In the early +days of book-keeping the ledger comprised merely those accounts which it +was thought desirable to keep accessible, and was not a complete record +of all transactions. Thus in many instances records were only kept of +transactions with other business houses, known as _personal accounts_. +In the earliest examples transactions tending to reduce indebtedness +were recorded in order of date, as they occurred underneath transactions +recording the creation of the indebtedness; and the amount of the +reduction was subtracted from the sum of the indebtedness up to that +date. This method was found to be inconvenient, and the next step was to +keep one account of the transactions recording the creation of +indebtedness and another account (called the _contra account_) of those +transactions reducing or extinguishing it. For convenience these two +accounts were kept on opposite sides of the ledger, and thus was evolved +the _Dr._ and _Cr._ account as at present in general use:-- + + _Dr._ A.B. Contra. _Cr._ + -------+-------------+---------++-------+------------+--------- + Date. | Narrative. | Amount. || Date. | Narrative. | Amount. + -------+-------------+---------++-------+------------+--------- + | | L s. d. || | | L s. d. + | | || | | + | | || | | + | | || | | + +In this form of account all transactions creating indebtedness due from +the person named therein to the business--that is to say, all benefits +received by that person from the buisness--are recorded upon the +left-hand, or _Dr._ side, and _per contra_ all transactions representing +benefits imparted by him, giving rise to a liability on the part of the +business, are recorded upon the _Cr._ side. The account may run on +indefinitely, but as a matter of convenience is usually ruled off each +time all indebtedness is extinguished, and also at certain periodical +intervals, so that the state of the account may then be readily +apparent. + + + Single-entry accounts. + +A mere collection of _personal accounts_ is, however, obviously a very +incomplete record of the transactions of any business, and does not +suffice to enable a statement of its financial position to be prepared. +So at an early date other accounts were added to the ledger, recording +the acquisition of and disposal of different classes of property, such +accounts being generally known as _real accounts_. These accounts are +kept upon the same principle as personal accounts, in that all +expenditure upon the part of the business is recorded upon the _Dr._ +side, and all receipts upon the _Cr._ side; the excess of the debit +entries over the credit entries thus showing the value placed upon those +assets that still remain the property of the business. With the aid of +personal and real accounts properly written up to date, it is possible +at any time to prepare a statement of assets and liabilities showing the +financial position of a business, and the following is an example of +such a statement, which shows also how the profit made by the business +may be thus ascertained, assuming that the financial position at the +commencement of the current financial period, and the movements of +capital into and out of the business during the period, are capable of +being ascertained. + + STATE OF AFFAIRS AS AT 31ST DECEMBER 1906 + + +----+--------------------+----------------++------------------+--------------- + | | _Liabilities._ | || _Assets._ | + | | | || | + | | Trade Creditors | L4,961 10 0 || Fixtures, Furni- | + | | Bills Payable | 2,620 18 4 || ture, &c. | L1,269 4 3 + | | Balance, being ex- | || Stock on hand | 5,751 3 10 + | | cess of assets | || Trade Debtors | 3,842 7 9 + | | over liabilities | || Bills Recievable | 7,468 14 3 + | | (or "Capital") | || Cash at Bank | 4,169 5 5 + | | at this date | || | + | | carried down | 14,918 7 4 || | + | | +----------------++ +--------------- + | | |L22,500 15 6 || |L22,500 15 6 + | | +----------------++ +--------------- + | | Amount of Capi- | || Balance brought | + | | tal on 1st Jan. | || down |L14,918 7 2 + | | 1906 |L15,010 1 7 || | + | | Balance, being net | || Amount drawn | + | | profit for the | || out of business| + | | year ended this | || during year | + | | date | 1,408 5 7 || ended this date| 1,500 0 0 + | | +----------------++ +--------------- + | | |L16,418 7 2 || |L16,418 7 2 + +----+--------------------+----------------++------------------+--------------- + +The method of accounting hitherto described represents _single-entry_, +which--albeit manifestly incomplete--is still very generally used by +small business houses, and particularly by retail traders. Its essential +weakness is that it provides no automatic check upon the clerical +accuracy of the record, and, should any mistake be made in the keeping +of the books, or in the extraction therefrom of the lists of assets and +liabilities, the statement of assets and liabilities and the profit or +loss of the current financial period, will be incorrect to an equal +extent. It was to avoid this obvious weakness of single-entry that the +system of double-entry was evolved. + + + Double-entry. + +The essential principle of double-entry is that it constitutes a +complete record of _every_ business transaction, and as these +transactions are invariably cross-dealings--involving simultaneously the +receipt of a benefit by some one and the imparting of a benefit by some +one--a complete record of transactions from both points of view +necessitates an entry of equal amount upon debit and credit sides of the +ledger. Hence it follows that, if the clerical work be correctly +performed, the aggregate amount entered up upon the debit side of the +ledger must at all times equal the aggregate amount entered up upon the +credit side; and thus a complete list of all ledger balances will show +an agreement of the total debit balances with the total credit balances. +Such a list is called a _trial balance_, an example of which is given +below. It should be observed, however, that the test supplied by the +_trial balance_ is a purely mechanical one, and does not prove the +absolute accuracy of the ledger as a record of transactions. Thus +transactions which have actually taken place may have been omitted from +the books altogether, or they may have been recorded to the wrong +accounts, or the money values attached to them may be incorrect; or, yet +again, fictitious records may be entered in the ledger of transactions +which have never taken place. A _trial balance_ is thus no very adequate +safeguard against fraud, nor does it bring to light mistakes in the +monetary value attaching to the various transactions recorded. This last +point is of especial importance, in that the monetary value of +transactions may have been correctly recorded in the first instance, but +owing to altered circumstances may have become inaccurate at a later +date. This of course means that the altered circumstances constitute an +additional "transaction" which has been omitted. + + TRIAL BALANCE, 31ST DECEMBER 1906 + + ----+-------------------------+---------------+-------------- + | | _Dr._ | _Cr._ + 1 | Capital account | | L15,010 1 7 + 5 | Drawings | 1,500 0 0 | + 20 | Trade creditors | | 4,961 10 0 + 24 | Fixtures, furniture, &c.| 1,269 4 3 | + 27 | Bills payable | | 2,620 18 4 + 40 | Bad debts | 71 4 2 | + 44 | Stock 1st Jan. 1906 | 4,078 16 4 | + 50 | Discounts allowed | 975 3 3 | + 53 | Trade debtors | 3,842 7 9 | + 60 | Discounts received | | 1,117 17 8 + 65 | Wages and salaries | 1,865 12 0 | + 75 | Depreciation | 141 0 5 | + 78 | Rent, rates and taxes | 1,242 13 8 | + 82 | General expenses | 1,087 8 0 | + 90 | Bills receivable | 7,468 14 3 | + 97 | Purchases | 44,731 2 10 | + 100 | Sales | | 48,732 4 9 + C56 | Cash at bank | 4,169 5 5 | + | +---------------+-------------- + | | L72,442 12 4 | L72,442 12 4 + ----+-------------------------+---------------+-------------- + + + Balance sheet. + +It will be observed, therefore, that in order to complete the record of +the transactions by double-entry, it has become necessary to introduce +into the ledger a third class of accounts, known as _impersonal_ or +_nominal accounts_. These accounts record the transferences of money, or +of money's worth, which, so far from representing a mere reshuffling of +assets and liabilities, involve an increase in or a reduction of the +amount invested in the business, i.e. a profit or a loss. Transactions +representing profits are recorded upon the _Cr._ side of nominal +accounts, and those representing losses (including expenses) upon the +_Dr._ side. This is consistent with the rules already laid down in +connexion with real and nominal accounts, inasmuch as expenditure which +does not result in the acquisition of an asset is a loss, whereas +receipts which do not involve the creation of liabilities represent +profits. All debit balances therefore that are not assets are losses, +and _per contra_ all credit balances that are not liabilities are +profits. So that, inasmuch as double-entry provides _inter alia_ a +complete statement under suitable headings of all profits and all +losses, it is possible by aggregating these results to deduce therefrom +the net profit or loss of carrying on the business--and that by a method +entirely distinct from that previously described in connexion with +single-entry, thus constituting a valuable additional check. Taking the +trial balance shown above, the following represent the _trading +account_, _profit and loss account_, and _balance sheet_ compiled +therefrom. The trading account may be variously regarded as the account +recording the movements of goods which represent the stock-in-trade, and +as a preliminary to (or a subdivision of) the profit and loss account. +The balance sheet is a statement of the assets and liabilities; +but--inasmuch as, by transferring the balance of the profit and loss +account to the capital account, it is possible to bring the latter +account up to date and to show the credit balance representing the +surplus of assets over liabilities to date--the balance sheet, instead +of showing a difference, or a "balance," representing what is _assumed +to be_ the amount of the capital to date, shows an absolute agreement of +assets upon the one hand and of liabilities _plus_ capital upon the +other. The two sides of the account thus balance--hence the name. + + + _Dr._ TRADING ACCOUNT for the Year ended 31st December 1906 _Cr._ + ------+-------------------------------------+-------------++-------+-----------------------------+------------- + | To Stock on hand, 1st Jan. 1906 | L4,078 16 4|| | By Sales |L48,732 4 9 + | " Purchases | 44,731 2 10|| | " Stock on hand 31st Dec. | + | " Gross Profit, transferred | || | 1906 | 5,751 3 10 + | to Profit and Loss account | 5,673 9 5|| | | + | |-------------++ | +------------- + | |L54,483 8 7|| | |L54,483 8 7 + ------+-------------------------------------+-------------++-------+-----------------------------+------------- + + _Dr._ PROFIT AND LOSS ACCOUNT for the Year ended 31st December 1906 _Cr._ + ------+-------------------------------------+-------------++-------+-----------------------------+------------- + | To Rent, rates and taxes L1,242 13 8| || | By Gross Profit as per | + | " Salaries and wages 1,865 12 0| || | Trading Account | L5,673 9 5 + | " General expenses 1,087 8 0| || | " Discount received | 1,117 17 8 + | ----------+ L4,195 13 8|| | | + | " Discounts allowed | 975 3 3|| | | + | " Bad debts | 71 4 2|| | | + | " Deprecation | 141 0 5|| | | + | " Net Profit for the year trans- | || | | + | ferred to Capital account | 1,408 5 7|| | | + | +-------------++ | +------------- + | | L6,791 7 1|| | | L6,791 7 1 + ------+-------------------------------------+-------------++-------+-----------------------------+------------- + + _Dr._ BALANCE SHEET as at 31st December 1906 _Cr._ + ------+-------------------------------------+-------------++-------+-----------------------------+------------- + | To A.B., Capital account |L14,918 7 2|| | By Fixtures, furniture, &c. | L1,269 4 3 + | " Trade creditors | 4,961 10 0|| | " Stock on hand | 5,751 3 10 + | " Bills payable | 2,620 18 4|| | " Trade debtors | 3,842 7 9 + | | || | " Bills receivable | 7,468 14 3 + | | || | " Cash at bank | 4,169 5 5 + | +-------------++ | +------------- + | |L22,500 15 6|| | |L22,500 15 6 + ------+-------------------------------------+-------------++-------+-----------------------------+------------- + + _Dr._ A.B., CAPITAL ACCOUNT _Cr._ + ------+-------------------------------------+-------------++-------+-----------------------------+------------- + | || 1906. | | + 1906. | To Drawings account | L1,500 0 0||Jan. 1 | By balance from last account|L15,010 1 7 + Dec 31| " Balance carried down | 14,918 7 2||Dec. 31| " Profit and Loss account, | + | | || | being net profit for the | + | || | year ended this date | 1,408 5 7 + | +-------------++ | +------------- + | |L16,418 7 2|| | |L16,418 7 2 + | +-------------++ | +------------- + | | || 1907. | | + | | ||Jan. 1 | By Balance brought down |L14,918 7 2 + ------+-------------------------------------+-------------++-------+-----------------------------+------------- + +In the foregoing example the customary method has been followed of +deducting withdrawals of capital from the capital account and of adding +profits thereto. Sometimes, however, the balance of the capital account +remains constant, and the drawings and net profits are transferred to a +separate account called _current account_. This plan is but rarely +observed in the case of undertakings owned by individuals, or private +firms, but is invariably adopted in connexion with joint-stock +companies, although in such cases the name _appropriation of profit +account_ is generally employed. + + + Journal. + +Although it is now usual to employ several books of first-entry, in the +case of comparatively small businesses one such book is sufficient for +all purposes, in that it is practicable for one person to record all the +transactions that take place as and when they occur. A book of this +description is called the _journal_, and for many years represented the +only book of first-entry employed in book-keeping. An example of the +journal is given below. The entries appearing therein are such as would +be necessary to prepare the trading and profit and loss accounts from +the trial balance shown above, and to bring the capital account up to +date. + +In modern times, however, with the growth of business, it was soon found +impracticable to keep one book of first-entry for all transactions, and +accordingly it became necessary either to treat the journal as an +intermediate book, in which the transactions might be brought together +and focused as a preliminary to being recorded in the ledger, or else to +split up the journal into numerous books of first-entry, each of which +might in that case be employed for the record of a particular class of +transaction. The first method has been generally adopted in the +continental countries of Europe, as will be shown later on, whereas in +Great Britain and in North America the latter method more generally +obtains; that is, instead of having one journal in which all classes of +transactions are recorded in the first instance, it is usual to employ +several journals, as follows:--a _sales journal, sales book_ or _day +book_, to record particulars of goods sold; a _bought journal, invoice +book_ or _purchases book_, to record particulars of goods purchased; a +_returns inwards book_, to record particulars of goods sold but +subsequently returned by customers; a _returns outwards book_, to record +the like particulars with regard to goods purchased and subsequently +returned; a _bills receivable book_, to record particulars of bills of +exchange received from debtors; and a _bills payable book_, to record +particulars of bills of exchange given to creditors. + + + JOURNAL 1906 + + -------+----------------------------+----+---------------+---------------+ + | | | _Dr._ | _Cr._ | + Dec. 31|Trading account |110 | L48,809 19 2 | | + | To Stock account | 44 | | L 4,078 16 4 | + | " Purchases account | 97 | | 44,731 2 10 | + +----------------------------+ | | | + " |Sales account |100 | 48,732 4 9 | | + |Stock account | 44 | 5,751 3 10 | | + | To Trading account |110 | | 54,483 8 7 | + +----------------------------+ | | | + " |Trading account |110 | 5,673 9 5 | | + | To Profit and Loss | | | | + | account |120 | | 5,673 9 5 | + +----------------------------+ | | | + " |Profit and Loss account |120 | 5,383 1 6 | | + | To Rent, rates and taxes | 78 | | 1,242 13 8 | + | " Salaries and wages | 65 | | 1,865 12 0 | + | " General expenses | 82 | | 1,087 8 0 | + | " Discounts allowed | 50 | | 975 3 3 | + | " Bad debts | 40 | | 71 4 2 | + | " Depreciation | 75 | | 141 0 5 | + +----------------------------+ | | | + " |Discounts received | 60 | 1,117 17 8 | | + | To Profit and Loss account|120 | | 1,117 17 8 | + +----------------------------+ | | | + " |Profit and Loss account |120 | 1,408 5 7 | | + | To A.B., Capital account | 1 | | 1,408 5 7 | + +----------------------------+ | | | + |A.B., Captial account | 1 | 1,500 0 0 | | + | To Drawings account | 5 | | 1,500 0 0 | + | | +---------------+---------------+ + | | |L118,376 1 11 |L118,376 1 11 | + ------------------------------------+----+---------------+---------------+ + + + DAY BOOK 1906 + + -----+----------------------------------+---------+----------- + | Forward | |L3761 7 8 + +--------- 27th December. ---------+ | + | A. Brown, | | + | 492 New Street, Walworth-- | | + 471 | 2 doz. V.C. port 31/- | L3 2 0 | + | 1 " A.C. pale brandy 49/- | 2 9 0 | + | | | + -----+--------- 28th December. ---------+---------+ 5 11 0 + | Fredk. Newton, | | + | Farleigh House, Epsom-- | | + 216 | 1 gall. E. Pale sherry 13/6 | L0 13 6 | + | 2 doz. O.B. Heidsieck 1892 160/- | 16 0 0 | + | 2 gall. P. Scotch 21/- | 2 2 0 | + -----+----------------------------------+---------+ 18 15 6 + | Robert French, | | + | 214 High Road, Sutton-- | | + 408 | 6 doz. F.D. Pommard, 1899 30/- | L9 0 0 | + | 1 " M.F. Margaux, 1893 66/- | 3 6 0 | + | 2 " A. Niersteiner 24/- | 2 8 0 | + | +---------+ 14 14 0 + | | +----------- + | | |L3800 8 2 + | | +----------- + | | | + | | | 100 + | | | + -----+----------------------------------+---------+----------- + +With a view still further to split up the work, thus enabling a large +staff to be simultaneously engaged, the ledger itself is now generally +kept in sections. Thus the cash account and the bank account are +frequently bound together in one separate book called the _cash book_, +showing in parallel columns the movements of office cash and of cash at +the bank, and by the addition of a third column for discounts the +necessity of keeping an additional book of first entry as a _discount +journal_ may also be avoided. Of late years, however, most businesses +pay all moneys received into their bankers without deduction, and pay +all accounts by cheque; the necessity of an account for office cash thus +no longer exists, save in connexion with petty payments, which are +recorded in a separate book called the _petty cash book_. With regard to +the remaining ledger accounts, personal accounts--which are the most +numerous--are frequently separated from the real and nominal accounts, +and are further subdivided so that customers' accounts are kept separate +from the accounts of trade creditors. The customers' accounts are kept +in a ledger (or, if need be, in several ledgers) called _sales ledgers_, +or _sold ledgers_; while the accounts of trade creditors are similarly +kept in _purchases ledgers_ or _bought ledgers_. The nominal and real +accounts, if together, are kept in what is called the _general ledger_; +but this may be further subdivided into a _nominal ledger_ and a +_private ledger_. This last subdivision is, however, rarely made upon a +scientific basis, for such accounts as the profit and loss account and +trading account are generally kept in the private ledger although +strictly speaking nominal accounts; while the bills receivable account +and the bills payable account are generally kept in the nominal ledger, +so as to reduce to a minimum the amount of clerical work in connexion +with the private ledger, which is kept either by the principal himself +or by his confidential employee. By the employment of _adjustment +accounts_, which complete the double-entry record in each ledger, these +various ledgers may readily be made self-balancing, thus enabling +clerical errors to be localized and responsibility enforced. + + + Tabular book-keeping. + +Of recent years considerable attention has been devoted to further +modifications of book-keeping methods with a view to reducing clerical +work, increasing the speed with which results are available, and +enabling them to be handled more quickly and with greater certainty. +_Tabular book-keeping_ is a device to achieve one or more of these ends +by the substitution of books ruled with numerous columns for the more +usual form. The system may be applied either to books of first entry or +to ledgers. As applied to books of first-entry it enables the same book +to deal conveniently with more than one class of transaction; thus if +the trading of a business is divided into several departments, by +providing a separate column for the sales of each department it is +possible readily to arrive at separate totals for the aggregate sales of +each, thus simplifying the preparation of departmental trading accounts. +As applied to ledgers, the application of the system may be best +described by the aid of the above example (the proceedings of the +columns being given only), which shows how a very large number of +personal accounts may be recorded upon a single opening of a ledger +provided the number of entries to be made against each individual be +few. + + -------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- + (a) | (b) | (c) | (d) | (e) | (f) | (g) | (h) | (i) | (j) | (k) | (l) + -------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------- + | |L s. d.|L s. d.|L s. d.| |L s. d.|L s. d.|L s. d.|L s. d.|L s. d.| + | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | + | | | | | | | | | | | + + (a) Reference No. (b) Name of Debtor. + (c) Amount due on 1st Oct. 1906 (d) Charges for Current Quarter. + (e) Total Debit. (f) Date received. + (g) Amount Received. (h) Discounts. + (i) Allowances. (j) Bad Debts. + {k} Amount due on 31st Dec. 1906 (l) Remarks. + +[Illustration: FIG 1.--Card-Ledger Tray (Librry Bureau System).] + + + Slip system. + +Another important application of modern methods consists of what may be +described as the _slip system_, which is in many respects a reversion to +the method of keeping records upon movable slabs or tablets, as in the +Babylonian accounts referred to at the beginning of this article. This +system may be applied to books of first-entry, or to ledgers, or to +both. As applied to books of first-entry it aims at so modifying the +original record of the transaction--whether it represents an invoice for +goods sold or an acknowledgment given for money received--that a +facsimile duplicate may be taken of the original entry by the aid of a +carbon sheet, which instead of being immovably bound up in a book is +capable of being handled separately and placed in any desired order or +position, and thus more readily recorded in the ledger. Postings are +thus made direct from the original slips, which have been first sorted +out into an order convenient for that purpose, and afterwards resorted +so that the total sales of each department may be readily computed; +after which they are filed away in a form convenient for reference. +Sometimes the process is carried a step further, and the original slips, +filed away with suitable guide-cards indicating the nature of the +account, themselves constitute the ledger record--which in such cases is +to be found scattered over a number of sheets, one for each transaction, +instead of, as in the case of the ordinary book ledger, a considerable +number of transactions being recorded upon a single page. This +adaptation of the slip system is impracticable except in cases where the +transactions with each individual are few in number, and is not worth +adoption unless the exceedingly large number of personal accounts makes +it important as far as possible to avoid all duplication of clerical +work. The more usual adaptation of the slip system to ledgers is to be +found in the employment of _card ledgers_ or _loose-leaf ledgers_. With +card ledgers (fig. 1) each ledger account is upon an independent sheet +of cardboard suitably arranged in drawers or cabinets. The system is +advantageous as allowing all dead matter to be eliminated from the +record continuously in use, and as permitting the order in which the +accounts stand to be varied from time to time as convenience dictates, +thus (if necessary) enabling the accounts to be always kept in +alphabetical order in spite of the addition of new accounts and the +dropping out of old ones. An especial convenience of the card system is +that in times of pressure any desired number of book-keepers may be +simultaneously employed, whereas the maximum number that can be usefully +employed upon any bound book is two. The loose-leaf ledger (fig. 2) may +be described as midway between card and bound ledgers. It consists of a +number of sheets in book form, so bound as to be capable of being +readily separated when desired. The loose-leaf ledger thus embraces most +of the advantages of the card ledger, while remaining sufficiently like +the more old-fashioned book ledger as to enable it to be readily handled +by those whose previous experience has been confined to the latter. Both +the card and loose-leaf systems will be frequently found of value for +records in connexion with cost and stores accounts, quite irrespective +of their advantages in connexion with the book-keeping records pure and +simple of certain businesses. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Loose-Leaf Ledger (Library Bureau System.)] + + + Legislative Requirements. + +All book-keeping methods rest upon the same fundamental principles, but +their development in practice in different countries is to some extent +influenced by the manner in which business is there conducted, and by +the legislative requirements imposed by the several states. In France +traders are required by the Code of Commerce to keep three books--a +journal, an inventory and a letter book, somewhat elaborate provisions +being made to identify these books, and to prevent substitution. The +compulsory journal makes the employment of numerous books of first-entry +impossible without an undesirable amount of duplication, and wherever +this provision obtains the book-keeping methods are in an accordingly +comparatively backward state. The inventory book comprises periodical +lists of ledger balances and the balance sheet, records which are +invariably kept under every adequate system, although not always in a +book specially set aside for that purpose. In Germany the statutory +requirements are similar to those in France, save that the journal is +not compulsory; but there is an additional provision that the accounts +are to be kept in _bound_ books with the pages numbered consecutively--a +requirement which makes the introduction of card or loose-leaf ledgers +of doubtful legality. A balance sheet must be drawn up every year; but +where a stock-in-trade is from its nature or its size difficult to take, +it is sufficient for an inventory to be taken every two years. In +Belgium the law requires every merchant to keep a journal recording his +transactions from day to day, which (with the balance book) must be +initialled by a prescribed officer. All letters and telegrams received, +and copies of all such sent, must be preserved for ten years. The +Commercial Code of Spain requires an inventory, journal, ledger, letter +book and invoice book to be kept; while that of Portugal prescribes the +use of a balance book, journal, ledger and copy-letter book. The law of +Holland requires business men to keep books in which are correctly +recorded their commercial transactions, letters received and copies of +letters sent. It also provides for the preparation of an annual balance +sheet. The law of Rumania makes the employment of journal, inventory +book and ledger compulsory, a small tax per page being charged on the +two first named. There are no special provisions as to book-keeping +contained in the Russian law, nor in the United States law, but in +Russia public companies have to supply the government with copies of +their annual accounts, which are published in a state newspaper, and in +the United States certain classes of companies have to submit their +accounts to an official audit. In general terms it may be stated that at +the present time the employment of card and loose-leaf ledger systems is +more general in the United States than in Great Britain. + + + Education. + +Apart from the organizations of professional accountants, there is none +of note devoted to the scientific study of book-keeping other than +purely educational institutions. Among the universities those in the +United States were the first to include accounting as part of their +curriculum; while in Great Britain the London School of Economics +(university of London), the university of Birmingham, and the Victoria +University of Manchester have, so far, alone treated the subject +seriously and upon adequate lines. Quite recently Japan has been making +a movement in the same direction, and other countries will doubtless +follow suit. In England there have for a number of years past been +various bodies--such for instance as the Society of Arts, the London +Chamber of Commerce and Owens College, Manchester--which hold +examinations in book-keeping and grant diplomas to successful +candidates, while most of the polytechnics and technical schools give +instruction in book-keeping; these latter, however, for the most part +regard it as a "craft" merely. + + AUTHORITIES.--Those interested in the bibliography of book-keeping are + referred to the catalogue of the library of the Institute of Chartered + Accountants in England and Wales, which probably contains the most + complete collection in existence of ancient and modern works on + accounting, both British and foreign. The following short list + comprises those most likely to be found of general interest: G. van de + Linde, _Book-keeping_ (1898); L.R. Dicksee, _Book-keeping_ (5th ed., + 1906) and _Advanced Accounting_ (2nd ed., 1905); _Encyclopaedia of + Accounting_, ed. by G. Lisle (1903); _Accountants' Library_, ed. by + the editor of _The Accountant_ (1901); J.W. Heaps, _The Antiquity of + Book-keeping_ (1898); _History of Accounting and Accountants_, ed. by + R. Brown (1905). (L. R. D.) + + + + +BOOK-PLATES. The book-plate, or _ex-libris_, a printed label intended to +indicate ownership in individual volumes, is nearly as old as the +printed book itself. It bears very much the same relation to the +hand-painted armorial or otherwise symbolical personal device found in +medieval manuscripts that the printed page does to the scribe's work. +The earliest known examples of book-plates are German. According to +Friedrich Warnecke, of Berlin (one of the best authorities on the +subject), the oldest movable _ex-libris_ are certain woodcuts +representing a shield of arms supported by an angel (fig. 1), which were +pasted in books presented to the Carthusian monastery of Buxheim by +Brother Hildebrand Brandenburg of Biberach, about the year 1480--the +date being fixed by that of the recorded gift. The woodcut, in imitation +of similar devices in old MSS., is hand-painted. In France the most +ancient _ex-libris_ as yet discovered is that of one Jean Bertaud de la +Tour-Blanche, the date of which is 1529; and in England that of Sir +Nicholas Bacon, a gift-plate for the books he presented to the +university of Cambridge (fig. 2). Holland comes next with the plate of +a certain Anna van der Aa, in 1597; then Italy with one attributed to +the year 1622. The earliest known American example is the plain printed +label of one John Williams, 1679. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Gift-plate of Hildebrand Brandenburg of Biberach +to the Monastery of Buxheim (c. 1480).] + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Book-plate of Sir Nicholas Bacon (slightly +reduced).] + +A sketch of the history of the book-plate, either as a minor work of +symbolical and decorative art, or as an accessory to the binding of +books, must obviously begin in Germany, not only because the earliest +examples known are German, but also because they are found in great +numbers long before the fashion spread to other countries, and are often +of the highest artistic interest. Albrecht Durer is known to have +actually engraved at least six plates (some of very important size) +between 1503 and 1516 (fig. 3), and to have supplied designs for many +others. Several notable plates are ascribed to Lucas Cranach and to Hans +Holbein, and to that bevy of so-called Little Masters, the Behams, +Virgil Solis, Matthias Zundt, Jost Amman, Saldorfer, Georg Hupschmann +and others. The influence of these draughtsmen over the decorative +styles of Germany has been felt through subsequent centuries down to the +present day, notwithstanding the invasion of successive Italian and +French fashions during the 17th and 18th centuries, and the marked +effort at originality of composition observable among modern designers. +The heavy, over-elaborated German style never seems to have affected +neighbouring countries; but since it was undoubtedly from Germany that +was spread the fashion of ornamental book-plates as marks of possession, +the history of German _ex-libris_ remains on that account one of high +interest to all those who are curious in the matter. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Book-plate of Lazarus Spengler, by Albrecht +Durer, 1515 (reduced).] + +It was not before the 17th century that the _movable ex-libris_ became +tolerably common in France. Up to that time the more luxurious habit of +stamping the cover with a personal device had been in such general +favour with book-owners as to render the use of labels superfluous. From +the middle of the century, however, the _ex-libris_ proper became quite +naturalized; examples of that period are very numerous, and, as a rule, +are very handsome. It may be here pointed out that the expression +_ex-libris_, used as a substantive, which is now the recognized term for +book-plate everywhere on the continent, found its origin in France. The +words only occur in the personal tokens of other nationalities long +after they had become a recognized inscription on French labels. + +In many ways the consideration of the English book-plate, in its +numerous styles, from the late Elizabethan to the late Victorian period, +is peculiarly interesting. In all its varieties it reflects with great +fidelity the prevailing taste in decorative art at different epochs. Of +English examples, none thus far seems to have been discovered of older +date than the gift-plate of Sir Nicholas Bacon; for the celebrated, +gorgeous, hand-painted armorial device attached to a folio that once +belonged to Henry VIII., and now reposes in the King's library, British +Museum, does not come under the head of book-plate in its modern sense. +The next is that of Sir Thomas Tresham, dated 1585. Until the last +quarter of the 17th century the number of authentic English plates is +very limited. Their composition is always remarkably simple, and +displays nothing of the German elaborateness. They are as a rule very +plainly armorial, and the decoration is usually limited to a symmetrical +arrangement of mantling, with an occasional display of palms or wreaths. +Soon after the Restoration, however, a book-plate seems to have suddenly +become an established accessory to most well-ordered libraries. +Book-plates of that period offer very distinctive characteristics. In +the simplicity of their heraldic arrangements they recall those of the +previous age; but their physiognomy is totally different. In the first +place, they invariably display the tincture lines and dots, after the +method originally devised in the middle of the century by Petra Sancta, +the author of _Tesserae Gentilitiae_, which by this time had become +adopted throughout Europe. In the second, the mantling assumes a much +more elaborate appearance--one that irresistibly recalls that of the +periwig of the period--surrounding the face of the shield. This style +was undoubtedly imported from France, but it assumed a character of its +own in England. As a matter of fact, thenceforth until the dawn of the +French Revolution, English modes of decoration in book-plates, as in +most other chattels, follow at some years' distance the ruling French +taste. The main characteristics of the style which prevailed during the +Queen Anne and early Georgian periods are:--ornamental frames suggestive +of carved oak, a frequent use of fish-scales, trellis or diapered +patterns, for the decoration of plain surfaces; and, in the armorial +display, a marked reduction in the importance of the mantling. The +introduction of the scallop-shell as an almost constant element of +ornamentation gives already a foretaste of the _Rocaille-Coquille_, the +so-called Chippendale fashions of the next reign. As a matter of fact, +during the middle third of the century this rococo style (of which the +Convers plate [fig. 4] gives a tolerably typical sample) affects the +book-plate as universally as all other decorative objects. Its chief +element is a fanciful arrangement of scroll and shell work with +curveting acanthus-like sprays--an arrangement which in the examples of +the best period is generally made asymmetrical in order to give freer +scope for a variety of countercurves. Straight or concentric lines and +all appearances of flat surface are studiously avoided; the helmet and +its symmetrical mantling tends to disappear, and is replaced by the +plain crest on a fillet. The earlier examples of this manner are +tolerably ponderous and simple. Later, however, the composition becomes +exceedingly light and complicated; every conceivable and often +incongruous element of decoration is introduced, from cupids to dragons, +from flowerets to Chinese pagodas. During the early part of George +III.'s reign there is a return to greater sobriety of ornamentation, and +a style more truly national, which may be called _the urn style_, makes +its appearance. Book-plates of this period have invariably a physiognomy +which at once recalls the decorative manner made popular by architects +and designers such as Chambers, the Adams, Josiah Wedgwood, Hepplewhite +and Sheraton. The shield shows a plain spade-like outline, manifestly +based upon that of the pseudo-classic urn then so much to the fore. The +ornamental accessories are symmetrical palms and sprays, wreaths and +ribands. The architectural boss is also an important factor. In many +plates, indeed, the shield of arms takes quite a subsidiary position by +the side of the predominantly architectural urn. From the beginning of +the 19th century, until comparatively recent days, no special style of +decoration seems to have established itself. The immense majority of +examples display a plain shield of arms with motto on a scroll below, +and crest on a fillet above. Of late years, however, a rapid impetus +appears to have been given to the designing of _ex-libris_; a new era, +in fact, has begun for the book-plate, one of great interest. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.--Book-plate of P.A. Convers, 1762.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5.--Book-plate of Francis Gwyn of Lansanor, 1698.] + +The main styles of decoration (and these, other data being absent, must +always in the case of old examples remain the criteria of date) have +already been noticed. It is, however, necessary to point out that +certain styles of composition were also prevalent at certain periods. +Many of the older plates (like the majority of the most modern ones) +were essentially pictorial. Of this kind the best-defined English genus +may be recalled: _the library interior_--a term which explains +itself--and _book-piles_, exemplified by the _ex-libris_ (fig. 6) of W. +Hewer, Samuel Pepys's secretary. We have also many _portrait-plates_, of +which, perhaps, the most notable are those of Samuel Pepys himself and +of John Gibbs, the architect; _allegories_, such as were engraved by +Hogarth, Bartolozzi, John Pine and George Vertue; _landscape-plates_, by +wood engravers of the Bewick school (see Plate), &c. In most of these +the armorial element plays but a secondary part. + +[Illustration: FIG. 6.--Book-plate of William Hewer, 1699.] + +The value attached to book-plates, otherwise than as an object of purely +personal interest, is comparatively modern. The study of and the taste +for collecting these private tokens of book-ownership hardly date +farther back than the year 1875. The first real impetus was given by the +appearance of the _Guide to the Study of Book-Plates_, by Lord de Tabley +(then the Hon. Leicester Warren) in 1880. This work, highly interesting +from many points of view, established what is now accepted as the +general classification of styles: _early armorial_ (i.e. previous to +Restoration, exemplified by the Nicholas Bacon plate); _Jacobean_, a +somewhat misleading term, but distinctly understood to include the heavy +decorative manner of the Restoration, Queen Anne and early Georgian days +(the Lansanor plate, fig. 5, is typically Jacobean); _Chippendale_ (the +style above described as _rococo_, tolerably well represented by the +French plate of Convers); _wreath and ribbon_, belonging to the period +described as that of the urn, &c. Since then the literature on the +subject has grown considerably. Societies of collectors have been +founded, first in England, then in Germany and France, and in the United +States, most of them issuing a journal or archives: _The Journal of the +Ex-libris Society_ (London), the _Archives de la societe francaise de +collectionneurs d'ex-libris_ (Paris), both of these monthlies; the +_Ex-libris Zeitschrift_ (Berlin), a quarterly. + +Much has been written for and against book-plate collecting. If, on the +one hand, the more enthusiastic ex-librists (for such a word has +actually been coined) have made the somewhat ridiculous claim of science +for "ex-librisme," the bitter animadversion, on the other, of a certain +class of intolerant bibliophiles upon the vandalism of removing +book-plates from old books has at times been rather extravagant. +Book-plates are undoubtedly very often of high interest (and of a value +often far greater than the odd volume in which they are found affixed), +either as specimens of bygone decorative fashion or as personal relics +of well-known personages. There can be no question, for instance, that +engravings or designs by artists such as Holbein and Durer and the +Little Masters of Germany, by Charles Eisen, Hubert Francois +Bourguignon, _dit_ Gravelot, D.N. Chodowiecki or Simon Gribelin; by W. +Marshall, W. Faithorne, David Loggan, Sir Robert Strange, Francesco +Piranesi; by Hogarth, Cipriani, Bartolozzi, John Keyse Sherwin, William +Henshaw, Hewitt or Bewick and his imitators; or, to come to modern +times, that the occasional examples traced to the handicraft of Thomas +Stothard, Thackeray, Millais, Maclise, Bell Scott, T.G. Jackson, Walter +Crane, Caldecott, Stacy Marks, Edwin Abbey, Kate Greenaway, Gordon +Browne, Herbert Railton, Aubrey Beardsley, Alfred Parsons, D.Y. Cameron, +Paul Avril--are worth collecting. + +[Illustration: PLATE. + + BOOK-PLATE OF ROBERT PINKNEY. By Thoma Bewick. + + BOOK-PLATE OF FREIHERR V. LIPPERHEIDE. By Karl Rickelt. + + BOOK-PLATE OF CHARLES DEXTER ALLEN. By E.D. French. + + BOOK-PLATE OF SIR ARTHUR VICARS. By C.W. Sherborn.] + +Until the advent of the new taste the devising of book-plates was almost +invariably left to the routine skill of the heraldic stationer. Of late +years the composition of personal book-tokens has become recognized as a +minor branch of a higher art, and there has come into fashion an +entirely new class of designs which, for all their wonderful variety, +bear as unmistakable a character as that of the most definite styles of +bygone days. Broadly speaking, it may be said that the purely heraldic +element tends to become subsidiary and the allegorical or symbolic to +assert itself more strongly. Among modern English artists who have more +specially paid attention to the devising of book-plates, and have +produced admirable designs, may be mentioned C.W. Sherborn, G.W. Eve, +Robert Anning Bell, J.D. Batten, Erat Harrison, J. Forbes Nixon, Charles +Ricketts, John Vinycomb, John Leighton and Warrington Hogg. The +development in various directions of process work, by facilitating and +cheapening the reproduction of beautiful and elaborate designs, has no +doubt helped much to popularize the book-plate--a thing which in older +days was almost invariably restricted to ancestral libraries or to +collections otherwise important. Thus the great majority of modern +plates are reproduced by process. There are, however, a few artists left +who devote to book-plates their skill with the graver. Some of the work +they produce challenges comparison with the finest productions of bygone +engravers. Of these the best-known are C.W. Sherborn (see Plate) and +G.W. Eve in England, and in America J.W. Spenceley of Boston, Mass., +K.W.F. Hopson of New Haven, Conn., and E.D. French of New York City (see +Plate). + + AUTHORITIES.--The curious in the matter of book-plate composition will + find it treated in the various volumes of the Ex-libris Series + (London). See also A. Poulet-Malassis, _Les Ex-libris francais_ + (1875); Hon. J. Leicester Warren (Lord de Tabley), _A Guide to the + Study of Book-plates_ (1880); Sir A.W. Franks, _Notes on Book-plates_, + 1574-1800 (private, 1887); Friedrich Warnecke, _Die deutschen + Bucherzeichen_ (1890); Henri Bouchot, _Les Ex-libris et les marques de + possession du livre_ (1891); Egerton Castle, _English Book-plates_ + (1892); Walter Hamilton, _French Book-plates_ (1892), _Dated + Book-plates_ (1895); H.W. Fincham, _Artists and Engravers of British + and American Book-plates_ (1897); _German Book-plates_, by Count K.E. + zu Leiningen-Westerburg, translated by G.R. Denis (1901). (E. Ca.) + + + + +BOOK-SCORPION, or FALSE SCORPION, minute arachnids superficially +resembling tailless scorpions and belonging to the order +Pseudoscorpiones of the class Arachnida. Occurring in all temperate and +tropical countries, book-scorpions live for the most part under stones, +beneath the bark of trees or in vegetable detritus. A few species, +however, like the common British forms _Chelifer cancroides_ and +_Chiridium museorum_, frequent human dwellings and are found in books, +old chests, furniture, &c; others like _Ganypus littoralis_ and allied +species may be found under stones or pieces of coral between tide-marks; +while others, which are for the most part blind, live permanently in +dark caves. Their food consists of minute insects or mites. It is +possibly for the purpose of feeding on parasitic mites that +book-scorpions lodge themselves beneath the wing-cases of large tropical +beetles; and the same explanation, in default of a better, may be +extended to their well-known and oft-recorded habit of seizing hold of +the legs of horse-flies or other two-winged insects. For safety during +hibernation and moulting, book-scorpions spin a small spherical cocoon. +They are oviparous; and the eggs after being laid are carried about by +the mother, attached to the lower surface of her body, the young +remaining with their parent until they have acquired their definite +form and are able to shift for themselves. (R. I. P.) + + + + +BOOKSELLING. The trade in books is of a very ancient date. The early +poets and orators recited their effusions in public to induce their +hearers to possess written copies of their poems or orations. Frequently +they were taken down _viva voce_, and transcripts sold to such as were +wealthy enough to purchase. In the book of Jeremiah the prophet is +represented as dictating to Baruch the scribe, who, when questioned, +described the mode in which his book was written. These scribes were, in +fact, the earliest booksellers, and supplied copies as they were +demanded. Aristotle, we are told, possessed a somewhat extensive +library; and Plato is recorded to have paid the large sum of one hundred +minae for three small treatises of Philolaus the Pythagorean. When the +Alexandrian library was founded about 300 B.C., various expedients were +resorted to for the purpose of procuring books, and this appears to have +stimulated the energies of the Athenian booksellers, who were termed +[Greek: biblion kapaeloi]. In Rome, towards the end of the republic, it +became the fashion to have a library as part of the household furniture; +and the booksellers, _librarii_ (Cic. _D. Leg._ iii. 20) or +_bibliopolae_ (Martial iv. 71, xiii. 3), carried on a flourishing trade. +Their shops (_taberna librarii_, Cicero, _Phil._ ii. 9) were chiefly in +the Argiletum, and in the Vicus Sandalarius. On the door, or on the side +posts, was a list of the books on sale; and Martial (i. 118), who +mentions this also, says that a copy of his First Book of Epigrams might +be purchased for five denarii. In the time of Augustus the great +booksellers were the Sosii. According to Justinian (ii. I. 33), a law +was passed securing to the scribes the property in the materials used; +and in this may, perhaps, be traced the first germ of the modern law of +copyright. + +The spread of Christianity naturally created a great demand for copies +of the Gospels and other sacred books, and later on for missals and +other devotional volumes for church and private use. Benedict Biscop, +the founder of the abbey at Wearmouth in England, brought home with him +from France (671) a whole cargo of books, part of which he had "bought," +but from whom is not mentioned. Passing by the intermediate ages we find +that previous to the Reformation, the text writers or stationers +(_stacyoneres_), who sold copies of the books then in use--the ABC, the +Paternoster, Creed, Ave Maria and other MS. copies of prayers, in the +neighbourhood of St Paul's, London,--were, in 1403, formed into a gild. +Some of these "stacyoneres" had stalls or stations built against the +very walls of the cathedral itself, in the same manner as they are still +to be found in some of the older continental cities. In Henry Anstey's +_Munimenta Academica_, published under the direction of the master of +the rolls, we catch a glimpse of the "sworn" university bookseller or +stationer, John More of Oxford, who apparently first supplied pupils +with their books, and then acted the part of a pawnbroker. Anstey says +(p. 77), "The fact is that they (the students) mostly could not afford +to buy books, and had they been able, would not have found the advantage +so considerable as might be supposed, the instruction given being almost +wholly oral. The chief source of supplying books was by purchase from +the university sworn stationers, who had to a great extent a monopoly. +Of such books there were plainly very large numbers constantly changing +hands." Besides the sworn stationers there were many booksellers in +Oxford who were not sworn; for one of the statutes, passed in the year +1373, expressly recites that, in consequence of their presence, "books +of great value are sold and carried away from Oxford, the owners of them +are cheated, and the sworn stationers are deprived of their lawful +business." It was, therefore, enacted that no bookseller except two +sworn stationers or their deputies, should sell any book being either +his own property or that of another, exceeding half a mark in value, +under a pain of imprisonment, or, if the offence was repeated, of +abjuring his trade within the university. + +"The trade in bookselling seems," says Hallam, "to have been established +at Paris and Bologna in the 12th century; the lawyers and universities +called it into life. It is very improbable that it existed in what we +properly call the dark ages. Peter of Blois mentions a book which he +had bought of a public dealer (_a quodam publico mangone librorum_); but +we do not find many distinct accounts of them till the next age. These +dealers were denominated _stationarii_, perhaps from the open stalls at +which they carried on their business, though _statio_ is a general word +for a shop in low Latin. They appear, by the old statutes of the +university of Paris, and by those of Bologna, to have sold books upon +commission, and are sometimes, though not uniformly, distinguished from +the _librarii_, a word which, having originally been confined to the +copyists of books, was afterwards applied to those who traded in them. +They sold parchment and other materials of writing, which have retained +the name of stationery, and they naturally exercised the kindred +occupations of binding and decorating. They probably employed +transcribers; we find at least that there was a profession of copyists +in the universities and in large cities." + +The modern system of bookselling dates from soon after the introduction +of printing. The earliest printers were also editors and booksellers; +but being unable to sell every copy of the works they printed, they had +agents at most of the seats of learning. Antony Koburger, who introduced +the art of printing into Nuremberg in 1470, although a printer, was more +of a bookseller; for, besides his own sixteen shops, we are informed by +his biographers that he had agents for the sale of his books in every +city of Christendom. Wynkyn de Worde, who succeeded to Caxton's press in +Westminster, had a shop in Fleet Street. + +The religious dissensions of the continent, and the Reformation in +England under Henry VIII. and Edward VI., created a great demand for +books; but in England neither Tudor nor Stuart could tolerate a free +press, and various efforts were made to curb it. The first patent for +the office of king's printer was granted to Thomas Berthelet by Henry +VIII. in 1529, but only such books as were first licensed were to be +printed. At that time even the purchase or possession of an unlicensed +book was a punishable offence. In 1556 the Company of Stationers was +incorporated, and very extensive powers were granted in order that +obnoxious books might be repressed. In the following reigns the Star +Chamber exercised a pretty effectual censorship; but, in spite of all +precaution, such was the demand for books of a polemical nature, that +many were printed abroad and surreptitiously introduced into England. +Queen Elizabeth interfered but little with books except when they +emanated from Roman Catholics, or touched upon her royal prerogatives; +and towards the end of her reign, and during that of her pedantic +successor, James, bookselling flourished. Archbishop Laud, who was no +friend to booksellers, introduced many arbitrary restrictions; but they +were all, or nearly all, removed during the time of the Commonwealth. So +much had bookselling increased during the Protectorate that, in 1658, +was published _A Catalogue of the most Vendible Books in England, +digested under the heads of Divinity, History, Physic, &c., with School +Books, Hebrew, Greek and Latin, and an Introduction, for the use of +Schools_, by W. London. A bad time immediately followed. The Restoration +also restored the office of Licenser of the Press, which continued till +1694. + +In the first English Copyright Act (1709), which specially relates to +booksellers, it is enacted that, if any person shall think the published +price of a book unreasonably high, he may thereupon make complaint to +the archbishop of Canterbury, and to certain other persons named, who +shall thereupon examine into his complaint, and if well founded reduce +the price; and any bookseller charging more than the price so fixed +shall be fined L5 for every copy sold. Apparently this enactment +remained a dead letter. + +For later times it is necessary to make a gradual distinction between +_booksellers_, whose trade consists in selling books, either by retail +or wholesale, and _publishers_, whose business involves the production +of the books from the author's manuscripts, and who are the +intermediaries between author and bookseller, just as the booksellers +(in the restricted sense) are intermediaries between the author and +publisher and the public. The article on PUBLISHING (q.v.) deals more +particularly with this second class, who, though originally booksellers, +gradually took a higher rank in the book-trade, and whose influence +upon the history of literature has often been very great. The +convenience of this distinction is not impaired by the fact either that +a publisher is also a wholesale bookseller, or that a still more recent +development in publishing (as in the instance of the direct sale in +1902, by the London _Times_, of the supplementary volumes to the 9th +edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, which were also "published" +by _The Times_) started a reaction to some extent in the way of +amalgamating the two functions. The scheme of _The Times_ Book Club +(started in 1905) was, again, a combination of a subscription library +with the business of bookselling (see NEWSPAPERS); and it brought the +organization of a newspaper, with all its means of achieving publicity, +into the work of pushing the sale of books, in a way which practically +introduced a new factor into the bookselling business. + +During the 19th century it remains the fact that the distinction between +publisher and bookseller--literary promoter and shopkeeper--became +fundamental. The booksellers, as such, were engaged either in wholesale +bookselling, or in the retail, the old or second-hand, and the +periodical trades. + + Coming between the publisher and the retail bookseller is the + important distributing agency of the _wholesale bookseller_. It is to + him that the retailer looks for his miscellaneous supplies, as it is + simply impossible for him to stock one-half of the books published. In + Paternoster Row, London, which has for over a hundred years been the + centre of this industry, may be seen the collectors from the shops of + the retail booksellers, busily engaged in obtaining the books ordered + by the book-buying public. It is also through these agencies that the + country bookseller obtains his miscellaneous supplies. At the leading + house in this department of bookselling almost any book can be found, + or information obtained concerning it. At one of these establishments + over 1,000,000 books are constantly kept in stock. It is here that the + publisher calls first on showing or "subscribing" a new book, a + critical process, for by the number thus subscribed the fate of a book + is sometimes determined. + + What may be termed the third partner in publishing and its + ramification is the _retail bookseller_; and to protect his interests + there was established in 1890 a London booksellers' society, which had + for its object the restriction of discounts to 25%, and also to + arrange prices generally and control all details connected with the + trade. The society a few years afterwards widened its field of + operations so as to include the whole of the United Kingdom, and its + designation then became "The Associated Booksellers of Great Britain + and Ireland." + + The trade in old or (as they are sometimes called) second-hand books + is in a sense, no doubt, a higher class of business, requiring a + knowledge of bibliography, while the transactions are with individual + books rather than with numbers of copies. Occasionally dealers in this + class of books replenish their stocks by purchasing remainders of + books, which, having ceased from one cause or another to sell with the + publisher, they offer to the public as bargains. The periodical trade + grew up during the 19th century, and was in its infancy when the + _Penny Magazine_, _Chambers's Journal_, and similar publications first + appeared. The growth of this important part of the business was + greatly promoted by the abolition of the newspaper stamp and of the + duty upon paper, the introduction of attractive illustrations, and the + facilities offered for purchasing books by instalments. + +The history of bookselling in America has a special interest. The +Spanish settlements drew away from the old country much of its +enterprise and best talent, and the presses of Mexico and other cities +teemed with publications mostly of a religious character, but many +others, especially linguistic and historical, were also published. +Bookselling in the United States was of a somewhat later growth, +although printing was introduced into Boston as early as 1676, +Philadelphia in 1685, and New York in 1693. Franklin had served to make +the trade illustrious, yet few persons were engaged in it at the +commencement of the 19th century. Books chiefly for scholars and +libraries were imported from Europe; but after the second war +printing-presses multiplied rapidly, and with the spread of newspapers +and education there also arose a demand for books, and publishers set to +work to secure the advantages offered by the wide field of English +literature, the whole of which they had the liberty of reaping free of +all cost beyond that of production. The works of Scott, Byron, Moore, +Southey, Wordsworth, and indeed of every author of note, were reprinted +without the smallest payment to author or proprietor. Half the names of +the authors in the so-called "American" catalogue of books printed +between 1820 and 1852 are British. By this means the works of the best +authors were brought to the doors of all classes in the cheapest +variety of forms. In consequence of the Civil War, the high price of +labour, and the restrictive duties laid on in order to protect native +industry, coupled with the frequent intercourse with England, a great +change took place, and American publishers and booksellers, while there +was still no international copyright, made liberal offers for early +sheets of new publications. Boston, New York and Philadelphia still +retained their old supremacy as bookselling centres. Meanwhile, the +distinct publishing business also grew, till gradually the conditions of +business became assimilated to those of Europe. + +In the course of the 16th and 17th centuries the Low Countries for a +time became the chief centre of the bookselling world, and many of the +finest folios and quartos in our libraries bear the names of Jansen, +Blauw or Plantin, with the imprint of Amsterdam, Utrecht, Leiden or +Antwerp, while the Elzevirs besides other works produced their charming +little pocket classics. The southern towns of Douai and St Omer at the +same time furnished polemical works in English. + + Under PUBLISHING are noticed various further developments of this + subject. Much interesting information on the history of the book trade + will be found in Charles Knight's _Biography of William Caxton_, and + in the same author's _Shadows of the Old Booksellers_ (1865). See also + Henry Curwen, _History of Booksellers_ (1873); and Heinrich Lempertz, + _Bilder-Hefte zur Geschichte des Bucherhandels_ (Cologne, 1854). + + + + +BOOLE, GEORGE (1815-1864), English logician and mathematician, was born +in Lincoln on the 2nd of November 1815. His father was a tradesman of +limited means, but of studious character and active mind. Being +especially interested in mathematical science, the father gave his son +his first lessons; but the extraordinary mathematical powers of George +Boole did not manifest themselves in early life. At first his favourite +subject was classics. Not until the age of seventeen did he attack the +higher mathematics, and his progress was much retarded by the want of +efficient help. When about sixteen years of age he became +assistant-master in a private school at Doncaster, and he maintained +himself to the end of his life in one grade or other of the scholastic +profession. Few distinguished men, indeed, have had a less eventful +life. Almost the only changes which can be called events are his +successful establishment of a school at Lincoln, its removal to +Waddington, his appointment in 1849 as professor of mathematics in the +Queen's College at Cork, and his marriage in 1855 to Miss Mary Everest, +who, as Mrs Boole, afterwards wrote several useful educational works on +her husband's principles. + +To the public Boole was known only as the author of numerous abstruse +papers on mathematical topics, and of three or four distinct +publications which have become standard works. His earliest published +paper was one upon the "Theory of Analytical Transformations," printed +in the _Cambridge Mathematical Journal_ for 1839, and it led to a +friendship between Boole and D.F. Gregory, the editor of the journal, +which lasted until the premature death of the latter in 1844. A long +list of Boole's memoirs and detached papers, both on logical and +mathematical topics, will be found in the _Catalogue of Scientific +Memoirs_ published by the Royal Society, and in the supplementary volume +on _Differential Equations_, edited by Isaac Todhunter. To the +_Cambridge Mathematical Journal_ and its successor, the _Cambridge and +Dublin Mathematical Journal_, Boole contributed in all twenty-two +articles. In the third and fourth series of the _Philosophical Magazine_ +will be found sixteen papers. The Royal Society printed six important +memoirs in the _Philosophical Transactions_, and a few other memoirs are +to be found in the _Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh_ and +of the _Royal Irish Academy_, in the _Bulletin de l'Academie de +St-Petersbourg_ for 1862 (under the name G. Boldt, vol. iv. pp. +198-215), and in _Crelle's Journal_. To these lists should be added a +paper on the mathematical basis of logic, published in the _Mechanic's +Magazine_ for 1848. The works of Boole are thus contained in about fifty +scattered articles and a few separate publications. + +Only two systematic treatises on mathematical subjects were completed by +Boole during his lifetime. The well-known _Treatise on Differential +Equations_ appeared in 1859, and was followed, the next year, by a +_Treatise on the Calculus of Finite Differences_, designed to serve as a +sequel to the former work. These treatises are valuable contributions to +the important branches of mathematics in question, and Boole, in +composing them, seems to have combined elementary exposition with the +profound investigation of the philosophy of the subject in a manner +hardly admitting of improvement. To a certain extent these works embody +the more important discoveries of their author. In the 16th and 17th +chapters of the _Differential Equations_ we find, for instance, a lucid +account of the general symbolic method, the bold and skilful employment +of which led to Boole's chief discoveries, and of a general method in +analysis, originally described in his famous memoir printed in the +_Philosophical Transactions_ for 1844. Boole was one of the most eminent +of those who perceived that the symbols of operation could be separated +from those of quantity and treated as distinct objects of calculation. +His principal characteristic was perfect confidence in any result +obtained by the treatment of symbols in accordance with their primary +laws and conditions, and an almost unrivalled skill and power in tracing +out these results. + +During the last few years of his life Boole was constantly engaged in +extending his researches with the object of producing a second edition +of his _Differential Equations_ much more complete than the first +edition; and part of his last vacation was spent in the libraries of the +Royal Society and the British Museum. But this new edition was never +completed. Even the manuscripts left at his death were so incomplete +that Todhunter, into whose hands they were put, found it impossible to +use them in the publication of a second edition of the original +treatise, and wisely printed them, in 1865, in a supplementary volume. + +With the exception of Augustus de Morgan, Boole was probably the first +English mathematician since the time of John Wallis who had also written +upon logic. His novel views of logical method were due to the same +profound confidence in symbolic reasoning to which he had successfully +trusted in mathematical investigation. Speculations concerning a +calculus of reasoning had at different times occupied Boole's thoughts, +but it was not till the spring of 1847 that he put his ideas into the +pamphlet called _Mathematical Analysis of Logic_. Boole afterwards +regarded this as a hasty and imperfect exposition of his logical system, +and he desired that his much larger work, _An Investigation of the Laws +of Thought, on which are founded the Mathematical Theories of Logic and +Probabilities_ (1854), should alone be considered as containing a mature +statement of his views. Nevertheless, there is a charm of originality +about his earlier logical work which no competent reader can fail to +appreciate. He did not regard logic as a branch of mathematics, as the +title of his earlier pamphlet might be taken to imply, but he pointed +out such a deep analogy between the symbols of algebra and those which +can be made, in his opinion, to represent logical forms and syllogisms, +that we can hardly help saying that logic is mathematics restricted to +the two quantities, 0 and 1. By unity Boole denoted the universe of +thinkable objects; literal symbols, such as x, y, z, v, u, &c., were +used with the elective meaning attaching to common adjectives and +substantives. Thus, if x=horned and y=sheep, then the successive acts of +election represented by x and y, if performed on unity, give the whole +of the class _horned sheep_. Boole showed that elective symbols of this +kind obey the same primary laws of combination as algebraical symbols, +whence it followed that they could be added, subtracted, multiplied and +even divided, almost exactly in the same manner as numbers. Thus, 1 - x +would represent the operation of selecting all things in the world +except _horned things_, that is, _all not horned things_, and (1 - x)(1 +- y) would give us _all things neither horned nor sheep_. By the use of +such symbols propositions could be reduced to the form of equations, and +the syllogistic conclusion from two premises was obtained by eliminating +the middle term according to ordinary algebraic rules. + +Still more original and remarkable, however, was that part of his +system, fully stated in his _Laws of Thought_, which formed a general +symbolic method of logical inference. Given any propositions involving +any number of terms, Boole showed how, by the purely symbolic treatment +of the premises, to draw any conclusion logically contained in those +premises. The second part of the _Laws of Thought_ contained a +corresponding attempt to discover a general method in probabilities, +which should enable us from the given probabilities of any system of +events to determine the consequent probability of any other event +logically connected with the given events. + +Though Boole published little except his mathematical and logical works, +his acquaintance with general literature was wide and deep. Dante was +his favourite poet, and he preferred the _Paradiso_ to the _Inferno_. +The metaphysics of Aristotle, the ethics of Spinoza, the philosophical +works of Cicero, and many kindred works, were also frequent subjects of +study. His reflections upon scientific, philosophical and religious +questions are contained in four addresses upon _The Genius of Sir Isaac +Newton_, _The Right Use of Leisure_, _The Claims of Science_ and _The +Social Aspect of Intellectual Culture_, which he delivered and printed +at different times. + +The personal character of Boole inspired all his friends with the +deepest esteem. He was marked by the modesty of true genius, and his +life was given to the single-minded pursuit of truth. Though he received +a medal from the Royal Society for his memoir of 1844, and the honorary +degree of LL.D. from the university of Dublin, he neither sought nor +received the ordinary rewards to which his discoveries would entitle +him. On the 8th of December 1864, in the full vigour of his intellectual +powers, he died of an attack of fever, ending in suffusion on the lungs. + + An excellent sketch of his life and works, by the Rev. R. Harley, + F.R.S., is to be found in the _British Quarterly Review_ for July + 1866, No. 87. (W. S. J.) + + + + +BOOM, a word of Teutonic origin (cf. the Ger. _Baum_, tree, and the Eng. +_beam_) for a pole, bar or barrier, used especially as a nautical term, +for a long spar, used to extend a sail at the foot (main-boom, jib-boom, +&c.). The "boom" of a cannon (note of a bell, cry of the bittern) is +distinct from this, being onomatopoeic. In the sense of a barrier, a +boom is generally formed of timber lashed together, or of chains, built +across the mouth of a river or harbour as a means of defence. Possibly +from the metaphor of a breaking boom, and the accompanying rush and +roar, or from the rush of rising waters (mingled with the onomatopoeic +use), "boom" began in America to be used of a sudden "spurt" or access +of industrial activity, as in the phrase "a boom in cotton." Hence the +verb "to boom," meaning to advertise or push into public favour. + + + + +BOOMERANG, a missile weapon of the Australian aborigines and other +peoples. The word is taken from the native name used by a single tribe +in New South Wales, and was mentioned in 1827 by Captain King as "the +Port Jackson term" (_Nav. Surv. Coasts Austral._ i. 355) It has been +erroneously connected with the _womera_ or spear-thrower, and equally +erroneously regarded as onomatopoeic--for it does not "boom" but +whistles in the air. Two main types may be distinguished: (a) the return +boomerang; (b) the non-return or war boomerang. Both types are found in +most parts of Australia; the return form was, according to General +Pitt-Rivers, used in ancient Egypt; and a weapon which has a close +resemblance to the boomerang survives to the present day in North-East +Africa, whence it has spread in allied forms made of metal (throwing +knives). Among the Dravidians of South India is found a boomerang-shaped +instrument which can be made to return. It is, however, still uncertain +whether the so-called boomerangs of Egypt and India have any real +resemblance to the Australian return boomerang. The Hopis (Moquis) of +Arizona use a non-return form. The general form of both weapons is the +same. They are sickle-shaped, and made of wood (in India of ivory or +steel), so modelled that the thickness is about 1/6th of the breadth, +which again is 1/12th of the length, the last varying from 6 in. to 3 or +4 ft. The return boomerang, which may have two straight arms at an angle +of from 70 deg. to 120 deg., but in Australia is always curved at an +angle of 90 deg. or more, is usually 2 to 3 ft. in length and weighs +some 8 oz.; the arms have a skew, being twisted 2 deg. or 3 deg. from +the plane running through the centre of the weapon, so that B and D +(fig. 1) are above it, A and E below it; the ends AB and DE are also to +some extent raised above the plane of the weapon at C; the cross section +is asymmetrical, the upper side in the figure being convex, the lower +flat or nearly so; this must be thrown with the right hand. The +non-return boomerang has a skew in the opposite direction but is +otherwise similar. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +The peculiarity of the boomerang's flight depends mainly on its skew. +The return boomerang is held vertically, the concave side forward, and +thrown in a plane parallel to the surface of the ground, as much +rotation as possible being imparted to it. It travels straight for 30 +yds. or more, with nearly vertical rotation; then it inclines to the +left, lying over on the flat side and rising in the air; after +describing a circle of 50 or more yards in diameter it returns to the +thrower. Some observers state that it returns after striking the object; +it is certainly possible to strike the ground without affecting the +return. Throws of 100 yds. or more, before the leftward curve begins, +can be accomplished by Australian natives, the weapon rising as much as +150 ft. in the air and circling five times before returning. The +non-return type may also be made to return in a nearly straight line by +throwing it at an angle of 45 deg., but normally it is thrown like the +return type, and will then travel an immense distance. No accurate +measurements of Australian throws are available, but an English throw of +180 yds. has been recorded, compared with the same thrower's 70 yds. +with the cricket ball. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Flight in Horizontal Plane.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Flight in Vertical Plane.] + +The war boomerang in an expert's hand is a deadly weapon, and the +lighter hunting boomerang is also effective. The return boomerang is +chiefly used as a plaything or for killing birds, and is often as +dangerous to the thrower as to the object at which it is aimed. + + See Pitt-Rivers (Lane Fox) in _Anthropological and Archaeological + Fragments_, "Primitive Warfare"; also in _Journ. Royal United Service + Inst._ xii. No. 51; _British Ass. Report_ (1872); _Catalogue of + Bethnal Green Collection_, p. 28; Buchner in _Globus_, lxxxviii. 39, + 63; G.T. Walker in _Phil. Trans._ cxc. 23; _Wide World Mag._ ii. 626; + _Nature_, xiv. 248, lxiv. 338; Brough Smyth, _Aborigines of Victoria_, + i. 310-329; Roth, _Ethnological Studies_. (N. W. T.) + + + + +BOONE, DANIEL (1734-1820), American pioneer and backwoodsman, of English +descent, was born near the present city of Reading, Pennsylvania, on the +2nd of November (N.S.) 1734. About 1751 his father, Squire Boone, with +his family settled in the Yadkin Valley in what is now Davie county, +North Carolina, then on the frontier. Daniel worked on his father's +farm, and spent much of his time hunting and trapping. In 1755 he served +as a wagoner and blacksmith in Braddock's disastrous expedition against +the Indians. In 1765 he visited Florida, and in 1767 he first visited +the Kentucky region. With several companions, including John Finley, who +had been there as early as 1752, he spent two years, 1769-1771, roaming +about what is now Kentucky, meeting with numberless adventures, coming +in conflict with roving bands of Indians, and collecting bear, beaver +and deer skins. He served in Lord Dunmore's War (1774), and in 1775 led +to Kentucky the party of settlers who founded Boonesborough, long an +important settlement. On the 7th of February 1778 he, and the party he +led, were captured by a band of Shawnees. He was adopted into the +Shawnee tribe, was taken to Detroit, and on the return from that place +escaped, reaching Boonesborough, after a perilous journey of 160 m., +within four days, in time to give warning of a formidable attack by his +captors. In repelling this attack, which lasted from the 8th to the 17th +of September, he bore a conspicuous part. He also took part in the +sanguinary "Battle of Blue Licks" in 1782. For a time he represented the +settlers in the Virginia legislature (Kentucky then being a part of +Virginia), and he also served as deputy surveyor, sheriff and county +lieutenant of Fayette county, one of the three counties into which +Kentucky was then divided. Having lost all his land through his +carelessness in regard to titles, he removed in 1788 to Point Pleasant, +Virginia (now W. Va.), whence about 1799 he removed to a place in what +is now Missouri, about 45 m. west of St Louis, in territory then owned +by Spain. He received a grant of 1000 arpents (about 845 acres) of land, +and was appointed syndic of the district. After the United States gained +possession of "Louisiana" in 1803, Boone's title was found to be +defective, and he was again dispossessed. He died on the 22nd of +September 1820, and in 1845 his remains were removed to Frankfort, +Kentucky, where a monument has been erected to his memory. Boone was a +typical American pioneer and backwoodsman, a great hunter and trapper, +highly skilled in all the arts of woodcraft, familiar with the Indians +and their methods of warfare, a famous Indian fighter, restless, +resourceful and fearless. His services, however, have been greatly +over-estimated, and he was not, as is popularly believed, either the +first to explore or the first to settle the Kentucky region. + + The best biography is that by Reuben G. Thwaites, _Daniel Boone_ (New + York, 1902). + + + + +BOONE, a city and the county-seat of Boone county, Iowa, U.S.A., a short +distance from the Des Moines river and near the centre of the state. +Pop. (1890) 6520; (1900) 8880; (1905, state census) 9500 (1334 +foreign-born); (1910) 10,347. It is served by the Chicago & +North-Western (which has construction and repair shops here), the +Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by the Fort Dodge, Des Moines +& Southern (inter-urban) railway, which connects with Des Moines, Ames, +&c. Boone is an important coal centre; bricks and tiles are manufactured +from the clay obtained near by; there is a packing plant for the +manufacture of beef and pork products; and from the rich farming section +by which the city is surrounded come large quantities of grain, some of +which is milled here, and live-stock. Boone was laid out in 1865, was +incorporated as a town in 1866, and was chartered as a city in 1868. + + + + +BOONVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Cooper county, Missouri, +U.S.A., on the right bank of the Missouri river, about 210 m. W. by N. +of St Louis. Pop. (1890) 4141; (1900) 4377, including 1111 negroes; +(1910) 4252. It is served by the Missouri Pacific, and the Missouri, +Kansas & Texas railways. The city lies along a bluff about 100 ft. above +the river. It is the seat of the Missouri training school for boys +(1889), and of the Kemper military school (1844). Among its manufactures +are earthenware, tobacco, vinegar, flour, farm-gates (iron), sash and +doors, marble and granite monuments, carriages and bricks. Iron, zinc +and lead are found in the vicinity, and some coal is mined. Boonville, +named in honour of Daniel Boone, was settled in 1810, was laid out in +1817, incorporated as a village in 1839, and chartered as a city of the +third class in 1896. Here on the 17th of June 1861, Captain +(Major-General) Nathaniel Lyon, commanding about 2000 Union troops, +defeated a slightly larger, but undisciplined Confederate force under +Brigadier-General John S. Marmaduke. David Barton (d. 1837), one of the +first two United States senators from Missouri, was buried here. + + + + +BOORDE (or BORDE), ANDREW (1490?-1549), English physician and author, +was born at Boord's Hill, Holms Dale, Sussex. He was educated at Oxford, +and was admitted a member of the Carthusian order while under age. In +1521 he was "dispensed from religion" in order that he might act as +suffragan bishop of Chichester, though he never actually filled the +office, and in 1529 he was freed from his monastic vows, not being able +to endure, as he said, the "rugorosite off your relygyon." He then went +abroad to study medicine, and on his return was summoned to attend the +duke of Norfolk. He subsequently visited the universities of Orleans, +Poitiers, Toulouse, Montpellier and Wittenberg, saw the practice of +surgery at Rome, and went on pilgrimage with others of his nation to +Compostella in Navarre. In 1534 Boorde was again in London at the +Charterhouse, and in 1536 wrote to Thomas Cromwell, complaining that he +was in "thraldom" there. Cromwell set him at liberty, and after +entertaining him at his house at Bishops Waltham in Hampshire, seems to +have entrusted him with a mission to find out the state of public +feeling abroad with regard to the English king. He writes to Cromwell +from various places, and from Catalonia he sends him the seeds of +rhubarb, two hundred years before that plant was generally cultivated in +England. Two letters in 1535 and 1536 to the prior of the Charterhouse +anxiously argue for his complete release from monastic vows. In 1536 he +was studying medicine at Glasgow and gathering his observations about +the Scots and the "devellyshe dysposicion of a Scottysh man, not to love +nor favour an Englishe man." About 1538 Boorde set out on his most +extensive journey, visiting nearly all the countries of Europe except +Russia and Turkey, and making his way to Jerusalem. Of these travels he +wrote a full itinerary, lost unfortunately by Cromwell, to whom it was +sent. He finally settled at Montpellier and before 1542 had completed +his _Fyrst Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge_, which ranks as the +earliest continental guide book, his _Dietary_ and his _Brevyary_. He +probably returned to England in 1542, and lived at Winchester and +perhaps at Pevensey. John Ponet, bishop of Winchester, in an _Apology_ +against Bishop Gardiner, relates as matter of common knowledge that in +1547 Doctor Boord, a physician and a holy man, who still kept the +Carthusian rules of fasting and wearing a hair shirt, was convicted in +Winchester of keeping in his house three loose women. For this offence, +apparently, he was imprisoned in the Fleet, where he made his will on +the 9th of April 1549. It was proved on the 25th of the same month. +Thomas Hearne (_Benedictus Abbas_, i, p. 52) says that he went round +like a quack doctor to country fairs, and therefore rashly supposed him +to have been the original merry-andrew. + +Andrew Boorde was no doubt a learned physician, and he has left two +amusing and often sensible works on domestic hygiene and medicine, but +his most entertaining book is _The Fyrst Boke of the Introduction of +Knowledge. The whyche dothe teache a man to speake parte of all maner of +languages, and to know the usage and fashion of all maner of countreys. +And for to know the moste parte of all maner of coynes of money, the +whych is currant in every region. Made by Andrew Borde, of Physycke +Doctor. Dedycated to the right honourable, and gracious lady Mary +daughter of our soverayne Lorde Kyng Henry the eyght_ (c. 1547). The +Englishman describes himself and his foibles--his fickleness, his +fondness for new fashions and his obstinacy--in lively verse. Then +follows a geographical description of the country, followed by a model +dialogue in the Cornish language. Each country in turn is dealt with on +similar lines. His other authentic works are: _Here foloweth a +Compendyous Regimente or Dyetary of health, made in Mountpyllor_ (Thomas +Colwell, 1562), of which there are undated and doubtless earlier +editions; _The Brevyary of Health_ (1547?); _The Princyples of +Astronamy_ (1547?); "The Peregrination of Doctor Board," printed by +Thomas Hearne in _Benedictus Abbas Petroburgensis_, vol. ii. (1735); _A +Pronostycacyon or an Almanacke for the yere of our lorde MCCCCCXLV. made +by Andrew Boorde_. His _Itinerary of Europe_ and _Treatyse upon Berdes_ +are lost. Several jest-books are attributed to him without +authority--_The Merie Tales of the Mad Men of Gotam_ (earliest extant +edition, 1630), _Scogin's Jests_ (1626), _A mery jest of the Mylner of +Abyngton, with his wyfe, and his daughter, and of two poore scholers of +Cambridge_ (printed by Wynkyn de Worde), and a Latin poem, _Nos +Vagabunduli_. + + See Dr F.J. Furnivall's reprint of the _Introduction_ and some other + selections for the Early English Text Society (new series, 1870). + + + + +BOOS, MARTIN (1762-1825), German Roman Catholic theologian, was born at +Huttenried in Bavaria on the 25th of December 1762. Orphaned at the age +of four, he was reared by an uncle at Augsburg, who finally sent him to +the university of Dillingen. There he laid the foundation of the modest +piety by which his whole life was distinguished. After serving as priest +in several Bavarian towns, he made his way in 1799 to Linz in Austria, +where he was welcomed by Bishop Gall, and set to work first at Leonding +and then at Waldneukirchen, becoming in 1806 pastor at Gallneukirchen. +His pietistic movement won considerable way among the Catholic laity, +and even attracted some fifty or sixty priests. The death of Gall and +other powerful friends, however, exposed him to bitter enmity and +persecution from about 1812, and he had to answer endless accusations in +the consistorial courts. His enemies followed him when he returned to +Bavaria, but in 1817 the Prussian government appointed him to a +professorship at Dusseldorf, and in 1819 gave him the pastorate at Sayn +near Neuwied. He died on the 29th of August 1825. + + See _Life_ by J. Gossner (1831). + + + + +BOOT, (1) (From the O. Eng. _bot_, a word common to Teutonic languages, +e.g. Goth, _bota_, "good, advantage," O.H.G. _Buoza_, Mod. Ger. +_Busse_, "penance, fine"; cf. "better," the comparative of "good"), +profit or advantage. The word survives in "bootless," i.e. useless or +unavailing, and in such expressions, chiefly archaistic, as "what boots +it?" "Bote," an old form, survives in some old compound legal words, +such as "house-bote," "fire-bote," "hedge-bote," &c., for particular +rights of "estover," the Norman French word corresponding to the Saxon +"bote" (see ESTOVERS and COMMONS). The same form survives also in such +expressions as "thief-bote" for the Old English customary compensation +paid for injuries. + +(2) (A word of uncertain origin, which came into English through the O. +Fr. _bote_, modern _botte_; Med. Lat. _botta_ or _bota_), a covering for +the foot. Properly a boot covers the whole lower part of the leg, +sometimes reaching to or above the knee, but in common usage it is +applied to one which reaches only above the ankle, and is thus +distinguished from "shoe" (see COSTUME and SHOE). + +The "boot" of a coach has the same derivation. It was originally applied +to the fixed outside step, the French _botte_, then to the uncovered +spaces on or beside the step on which the attendants sat facing +sideways. Both senses are now obsolete, the term now being applied to +the covered receptacles under the seats of the guard and coachman. + +THE BOOT, BOOTS or BOOTIKIN was an instrument of torture formerly in use +to extort confessions from suspected persons, or obtain evidence from +unwilling witnesses. It originated in Scotland, but the date of its +first use is unknown. It was certainly frequently employed there in the +latter years of the 16th century. In a case of forgery in 1579 two +witnesses, a clergyman and an attorney, were so tortured. In a letter +dated 1583 at the Record Office in London, Walsingham instructs the +English ambassador at Edinburgh to have Father Holt, an English Jesuit, +"put to the boots." It seems to have fallen into disuse after 1630, but +was revived in 1666 on the occasion of the Covenanters' rebellion, and +was employed during the reigns of Charles II. and James II. Upon the +accession of William III. the Scottish convention denounced "the use of +torture, without evidence and in ordinary crimes, as contrary to law." +However, a year or so later, one Neville Payne, an Englishman suspected +of treasonable motives for visiting Scotland, was put to the torture +under the authority of a warrant signed by the king. This is the last +recorded case of its use, torture being finally abolished in Scotland in +1709. It was not used in England after 1640. The boot was made of iron +or wood and iron fastened on the leg, between which and the boot wedges +were driven by blows from a mallet. After each blow a question was put +to the victim, and the ordeal was continued until he gave the +information or fainted. The wedges were usually placed against the calf +of the leg, but Bishop Burnet says that they were sometimes put against +the shin-bone. A similar instrument, called "Spanish boots," was used in +Germany. There were also iron boots which were heated on the victim's +foot. A less cruel form was a boot or buskin made wet and drawn upon the +legs and then dried with fire. + + + + +BOOTES (Gr. [Greek: bootaes], a ploughman, from [Greek: bous], an ox), a +constellation of the northern hemisphere, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th +century B.C.) and Aratus (3rd century B.C.), and perhaps alluded to in +the book of Job (see ARCTURUS), and by Homer and Hesiod. The ancient +Greeks symbolized it as a man walking, with his right hand grasping a +club, and his left extending upwards and holding the leash of two dogs, +which are apparently barking at the Great Bear. Ptolemy catalogues +twenty-three stars, Tycho Brahe twenty-eight, Hevelius fifty-two. In +addition to Arcturus, the brightest in the group, the most interesting +stars of this constellation are: _[epsilon] Bootis_, a beautiful double +star composed of a yellow star of magnitude 3, and a blue star of +magnitude 6-1/2; _[xi] Bootis_, a double star composed of a yellow star, +magnitude 4-1/2, and a purple star, magnitude 6-1/2; and _W. Bootis_, an +irregularly variable star. This constellation has been known by many +other names--Arcas, Arctophylax, Arcturus minor, Bubuleus, Bubulus, +Canis latrans, Clamator, Icarus, Lycaon, Philometus, Plaustri custos, +Plorans, Thegnis, Vociferator; the Arabs termed it Aramech or Archamech; +Hesychius named it Orion; Jules Schiller, St Sylvester; Schickard, +Nimrod; and Weigelius, the Three Swedish Crowns. + + + + +BOOTH, BARTON (1681-1733), English actor, who came of a good Lancashire +family, was educated at Westminster school, where his success in the +Latin play _Andria_ gave him an inclination for the stage. He was +intended for the church; but in 1698 he ran away from Trinity College, +Cambridge, and obtained employment in a theatrical company in Dublin, +where he made his first appearance as Oroonoko. After two seasons in +Ireland he returned to London, where Betterton, who on an earlier +application had withheld his active aid, probably out of regard for +Booth's family, now gave him all the assistance in his power. At +Lincoln's Inn Fields (1700-1704) he first appeared as Maximus in +_Valentinian_, and his success was immediate. He was at the Haymarket +with Betterton from 1705 to 1708, and for the next twenty years at Drury +Lane. Booth died on the 10th of May 1733, and was buried in Westminster +Abbey. His greatest parts, after the title-part of Addison's _Cato_, +which established his reputation as a tragedian, were probably Hotspur +and Brutus. His Lear was deemed worthy of comparison with Garrick's. As +the ghost in _Hamlet_ he is said never to have had a superior. Among his +other Shakespearian roles were Mark Antony, Timon of Athens and Othello. +He also played to perfection the gay Lothario in Rowe's _Fair Penitent_. +Booth was twice married; his second wife, Hester Santlow, an actress of +some merit, survived him. + + See Cibber, _Lives and Characters of the most eminent Actors and + Actresses_ (1753); Victor, _Memoirs of the Life of Barton Booth_ + (1733). + + + + +BOOTH, CHARLES (1840- ), English sociologist, was born at Liverpool on +the 30th of March 1840. In 1862 he became a partner in Alfred Booth & +Company, a Liverpool firm engaged in the Brazil trade, and subsequently +chairman of the Booth Steamship Company. He devoted much time, and no +inconsiderable sums of money, to inquiries into the statistical aspects +of social questions. The results of these are chiefly embodied in a work +entitled _Life and Labour of the People in London_ (1891-1903), of which +the earlier portion appeared under the title of _Life and Labour_ in +1889. The book is designed to show "the numerical relation which +poverty, misery and depravity bear to regular earnings and comparative +comfort, and to describe the general conditions under which each class +lives." It contains a most striking series of maps, in which the varying +degrees of poverty are represented street by street, by shades of +colour. The data for the work were derived in part from the detailed +records kept by school-board "visitors," partly from systematic +inquiries directed by Mr Booth himself, supplemented by information +derived from relieving officers and the Charity Organization Society. Mr +Booth also paid much attention to a kindred subject--the lot of the aged +poor. In 1894 he published a volume of statistics on the subject, and, +in 1891 and 1899, works on Old-age pensions, his scheme for the latter +depending on a general provision of pensions of five shillings a week to +all aged persons, irrespective of the cost to the state. He married, in +1871, the daughter of Charles Zachary Macaulay. In 1904 he was made a +privy councillor. + + + + +BOOTH, EDWIN [THOMAS] (1833-1893), American actor, was the second son of +the actor Junius Brutus Booth, and was born in Belair, Maryland, on the +13th of November 1833. His father (1796-1852) was born in London on the +1st of May 1796, and, after trying printing, law, painting and the sea, +made his first appearance on the stage in 1813, and appeared in London +at Covent Garden in 1815. He became almost at once a great favourite, +and a rival of Kean, whom he was thought to resemble. To Kean's Othello +nevertheless he played Iago on several occasions. Richard III., Hamlet, +King Lear, Shylock and Sir Giles Overreach were his best parts, and in +America, whither he removed in 1821, they brought him great popularity. +His eccentricities sometimes bordered on insanity, and his excited and +furious fencing as Richard III. and as Hamlet frequently compelled the +Richmond and Laertes to fight for their lives in deadly earnest. + +Edwin Booth's first regular appearance was at the Boston Museum on the +10th of September 1849, as Tressel to his father's Richard, in Colley +Cibber's version of _Richard III._ He was lithe and graceful in figure, +buoyant in spirits; his dark hair fell in waving curls across his brow, +and his eyes were soft, luminous and most expressive. His father watched +him with great interest, but with evident disappointment, and the +members of the theatrical profession, who held the acting of the elder +Booth in great reverence, seemed to agree that the genius of the father +had not descended to the son. Edwin Booth's first appearance in New York +was in the character of Wilford in _The Iron Chest_, which he played at +the National theatre in Chatham Street, on the 27th of September 1850. A +year later, on the illness of the father, the son took his place in the +character of Richard III. It was not until after his parent's death that +the son conquered for himself an unassailable position on the stage. +Between 1852 and 1856 he played in California, Australia and the +Sandwich Islands, and those who had known him in the east were surprised +when the news came that he had captivated his audiences with his +brilliant acting. From this time forward his dramatic triumphs were +warmly acknowledged. His Hamlet, Richard and Richelieu were pronounced +to be superior to the performances of Edwin Forrest; his success as Sir +Giles Overreach in _A New Way to Pay Old Debts_ surpassed his father's. +In 1862 he became manager of the Winter Garden theatre, New York, where +he gave a series of Shakespearian productions of then unexampled +magnificence (1864-1867), including _Hamlet_, _Othello_ and _The +Merchant of Venice_. The splendour of this period in his career was +dashed for many months when in 1865 his brother, John Wilkes Booth, +assassinated President Lincoln (see LINCOLN, ABRAHAM). The three Booth +brothers, Junius Brutus (1821-1853), Edwin and John Wilkes (1839-1865), +had played together in _Julius Caesar_ in the autumn of the previous +year--the performance being memorable both for its own excellence, and +for the tragic situation into which two of the principal performers were +subsequently hurled by the crime of the third. Edwin Booth did not +reappear on the stage until the 3rd of January 1866, when he played +Hamlet at the Winter Garden theatre, the audience showing by unstinted +applause their conviction that the glory of the one brother would never +be imperilled by the infamy of the other. + +In 1868-1869 Edwin Booth built a theatre of his own--Booth's theatre, at +the corner of 23rd Street and 6th Avenue, New York--and organized an +excellent stock company, which produced _Romeo and Juliet_, _The +Winter's Tale_, _Julius Caesar_, _Macbeth_, _Much Ado about Nothing_, +_The Merchant of Venice_ and other plays. In all cases Booth used the +true text of Shakespeare, thus antedating by many years a similar reform +in England. Almost invariably his ventures were successful, but he was +of a generous and confiding nature, and his management was not +economical. In 1874 the grand dramatic structure he had raised was taken +from him, and with it went his entire fortune. By arduous toil, +however, he again accumulated wealth, in the use of which his generous +nature was shown. He converted his spacious residence in Gramercy Park, +New York, into a club--The Players'--for the elect of his profession, +and for such members of other professions as they might choose. The +house, with all his books and works of art, and many invaluable mementos +of the stage, became the property of the club. A single apartment he +kept for himself. In this he died on the 7th of June 1893. Among his +parts were Macbeth, Lear, Othello, Iago, Shylock, Wolsey, Richard II., +Richard III., Benedick, Petruccio, Richelieu, Sir Giles Overreach, +Brutus (Payne's), Bertuccio (in Tom Taylor's _The Fool's Revenge_), Ruy +Blas, Don Cesar de Bazan, and many more. His most famous part was +Hamlet, for which his extraordinary grace and beauty and his eloquent +sensibility peculiarly fitted him. He probably played the part oftener +than any other actor before or since. He visited London in 1851, and +again in 1880 and in 1882, playing at the Haymarket theatre with +brilliant success. In the last year he also visited Germany, where his +acting was received with the highest enthusiasm. His last appearance was +in Brooklyn as Hamlet in 1891. Booth was twice married: in 1860 to Mary +Devlin (d. 1863), and in 1869 to Mary F. McVicker (d. 1881). He left by +his first wife one daughter, Edwina Booth Grossman, who published _Edwin +Booth: Recollections_ (New York, 1894). + + Edwin Booth's prompt-books were edited by William Winter (1878). In a + series of volumes, _Actors and Actresses of Great Britain and + America_, edited by Lawrence Hutton and Brander Matthews, Edwin Booth + contributed recollections of his father, which contain much valuable + autobiographic material. For the same series Lawrence Barrett + contributed an article on Edwin Booth. See also William Winter, _Life + and Art of Edwin Booth_ (1893); Lawrence Hutton, _Edwin Booth_ (1893); + Henry A. Clapp, _Reminiscences of a Dramatic Critic_ (Boston, 1902); + A.B. Clarke. _The Elder and the Younger Booth_ (Boston, 1882). + (J. J.*) + + + + +BOOTH, WILLIAM (1829- ), founder and "general" of the Salvation Army +(q.v.), was born at Nottingham on the 10th of April 1829. At the age +of fifteen his mind took a strongly religious turn, under the influence +of the Wesleyan Methodists, in which body he became a local preacher. In +1849 he came to London, where, according to his own account, his passion +for open-air preaching caused his severance from the Wesleyans. Joining +the Methodist New Connexion, he was ordained a minister, but, not being +employed as he wished in active "travelling evangelization," left that +body also in 1861. Meanwhile he had (1855) married Miss Catherine +Mumford, and had a family of four children. Both he and his wife +occupied themselves with preaching, first in Cornwall and then in +Cardiff and Walsall. At the last-named place was first organized a +"Hallelujah band" of converted criminals and others, who testified in +public of their conversion. In 1864 Booth went to London and continued +his services in tents and in the open air, and founded a body which was +successively known as the East London Revival Society, the East London +Christian Mission, the Christian Mission and (in 1878) the Salvation +Army. The Army operates (1) by outdoor meetings and processions; (2) by +visiting public-houses, prisons, private houses; (3) by holding meetings +in theatres, factories and other unusual buildings; (4) by using the +most popular song-tunes and the language of everyday life, &c.; (5) by +making every convert a daily witness for Christ, both in public and +private. The army is a quasi-military organization, and Booth modelled +its "Orders and Regulations" on those of the British army. Its early +"campaigns" excited violent opposition, a "Skeleton Army" being +organized to break up the meetings, and for many years Booth's followers +were subjected to fine and imprisonment as breakers of the peace. Since +1889, however, these disorders have been little heard of. The operations +of the army were extended in 1880 to the United States, in 1881 to +Australia, and spread to the European continent, to India, Ceylon and +elsewhere, "General" Booth himself being an indefatigable traveller, +organizer and speaker. His wife (b. 1829) died in 1890. By her preaching +at Gateshead, where her husband was circuit minister, in 1860, she began +the women's ministry which is so prominent a feature of the army's work. +A biography of her by Mr Booth Tucker appeared in 1892. + +In 1890 "General" Booth attracted further public attention by the +publication of a work entitled _In Darkest England, and the Way Out_, in +which he proposed to remedy pauperism and vice by a series of ten +expedients: (1) the city colony; (2) the farm colony; (3) the over-sea +colony; (4) the household salvage brigade; (5) the rescue homes for +fallen women; (6) deliverance for the drunkard; (7) the prison-gate +brigade; (8) the poor man's bank; (9) the poor man's lawyer; (10) +Whitechapel-by-the-Sea. Money was liberally subscribed and a large part +of the scheme was carried out. The opposition and ridicule with which +Booth's work was for many years received gave way, towards the end of +the 19th century, to very widespread sympathy as his genius and its +results were more fully realized. + +The active encouragement of King Edward VII., at whose instance in 1902 +he was invited officially to be present at the coronation ceremony, +marked the completeness of the change; and when, in 1905, the "general" +went on a progress through England, he was received in state by the +mayors and corporations of many towns. In the United States also, and +elsewhere, his work was cordially encouraged by the authorities. + + See T.F. Coates, _The Life Story of General Booth_ (2nd ed., London, + 1906), and bibliography under SALVATION ARMY. + + + + +BOOTH (connected with a Teutonic root meaning to dwell, whence also +"bower"), primarily a temporary dwelling of boughs or other slight +materials. Later the word gained the special meaning of a market stall +or any non-permanent erection, such as a tent at a fair, where goods +were on sale. Later still it was applied to the temporary structure +where votes were registered, viz. polling-booth. Temporary booths +erected for the weekly markets naturally tended to become permanent +shops. Thus Stow states that the houses in Old Fish Street, London, +"were at first but movable boards set out on market days to show their +fish there to be sold; but procuring licence to set up sheds, they grew +to shops, and by little and little, to tall houses." As _bothy_ or +_bothie_, in Scotland, meaning generally a hut or cottage, the word was +specially applied to a barrack-like room on large farms where the +unmarried labourers were lodged. This, known as the _Bothy system_, was +formerly common in Aberdeenshire and other parts of northern Scotland. + + + + +BOOTHIA (_Boothia Felix_), a peninsula of British North America, +belonging to Franklin district, and having an area of 13,100 sq. m., +between 69 deg. 30' and 71 deg. 50' N. and 91 deg. 30' and 97 deg. W. +Its northernmost promontory, Murchison Point, is also the northernmost +point of the American mainland. It was discovered by Captain (afterwards +Sir James) Ross, during his expedition of 1829-1833, and was named after +Sir Felix Booth, who had been chiefly instrumental in fitting out the +expedition. Boothia forms the western side of Boothia Gulf. From the +main mass of the continent the peninsula is almost separated by lakes +and inlets; and a narrow channel known as Bellot Strait intervenes +between it and North Somerset Island, which was discovered by Sir E. +Parry in 1819. The peninsula is not only interesting for its connexion +with the Franklin expedition and the Franklin search, but is of +scientific importance from the north magnetic pole having been first +distinctly localized here by Ross, on the western side, in 70 deg. 5' +N., 96 deg. 47' W. + +Boothia Gulf separates the north-western portion of Baffin Land and +Melville Peninsula from Boothia Peninsula. It is connected with Barrow +Strait and Lancaster Sound by Prince Regent Inlet, with Franklin Strait +by Bellot Strait, and with Fox Channel by Fury and Hecla Strait. The +principal bays are Committee and Pelly in the southern portion, and Lord +Mayor in the western. + + + + +BOOTLE, a municipal and county borough in the Bootle parliamentary +division of Lancashire, England; at the mouth of the Mersey, forming a +northern suburb of Liverpool. Pop. (1901) 58,566; an increase by nearly +nine times in forty years. The great docks on this, the east bank of the +Mersey, extend into the borough, but are considered as a whole under +LIVERPOOL (q.v.). Such features, moreover, as communications, +water-supply, &c., may be considered as part of the greater systems of +the same city. The chief buildings and institutions are a handsome town +hall, a museum, free libraries, technical schools, and several public +pleasure grounds. Bootle was incorporated in 1868 and was created a +county borough in 1888; the corporation consists of a mayor, 10 aldermen +and 30 councillors. A proposal to include it within the city of +Liverpool was rejected in parliament in July 1903. Area, 1576 acres. + + + + +BOOTY (apparently influenced by "boot," 0. Eng. _bot_, advantage or +profit, through an adaptation from an earlier form cognate with Ger. +_Beute_ and Fr. _butin_), plunder or gain. The phrase "to play booty," +dating from the 16th century, means to play into a confederate's hands, +or to play intentionally badly at first in order to deceive an opponent. + + + + +BOPP, FRANZ (1791-1867), German philologist, was born at Mainz on the +14th of September 1791. In consequence of the political troubles of that +time, his parents removed to Aschaffenburg, in Bavaria, where he +received a liberal education at the Lyceum. It was here that his +attention was drawn to the languages and literature of the East by the +eloquent lectures of Karl J. Windischmann, who, with G.F. Creuzer, J.J. +Gorres, and the brothers Schlegel, was full of enthusiasm for Indian +wisdom and philosophy. And further, Fr. Schlegel's book, _Uber die +Sprache und Weisheit der Indier_ (Heidelberg, 1808), which was just then +exerting a powerful influence on the minds of German philosophers and +historians, could not fail to stimulate also Bopp's interest in the +sacred language of the Hindus. In 1812 he went to Paris at the expense +of the Bavarian government, with a view to devote himself vigorously to +the study of Sanskrit. There he enjoyed the society of such eminent men +as A.L. Chezy, S. de Sacy, L.M. Langles, and, above all, of Alexander +Hamilton (1762-1824), who had acquired, when in India, an acquaintance +with Sanskrit, and had brought out, conjointly with Langles, a +descriptive catalogue of the Sanskrit manuscripts of the Imperial +library. At that library Bopp had access not only to the rich collection +of Sanskrit manuscripts, most of which had been brought from India by +Father Pons early in the 18th century, but also to the Sanskrit books +which had up to that time issued from the Calcutta and Serampore +presses. The first fruit of his four years' study in Paris appeared at +Frankfort-On-Main in 1816, under the title _Uber das Conjugationssystem +der Sanskritsprache in Vergleichung mit jenem der griechischen, +lateinischen, persischen und germanischen Sprache_, and it was +accompanied with a preface from the pen of Windischmann. In this first +book Bopp entered at once on the path on which the philological +researches of his whole subsequent life were concentrated. It was not +that he wished to prove the common parentage of Sanskrit with Persian, +Greek, Latin and German, for that had long been established; but his +object was to trace the common origin of their grammatical forms, of +their inflections from composition,--a task which had never been +attempted. By a historical analysis of those forms, as applied to the +verb, he furnished the first trustworthy materials for a history of the +languages compared. + +After a brief sojourn in Germany, Bopp came to London, where he made the +acquaintance of Sir Charles Wilkins and H.T. Colebrooke, and became the +friend of Wilhelm von Humboldt, then Prussian ambassador at the court of +St James's, to whom he gave instruction in Sanskrit. He brought out, in +the _Annals of Oriental Literature_ (London, 1820), an essay entitled, +"Analytical Comparison of the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin and Teutonic +Languages," in which he extended to all parts of the grammar what he had +done in his first book for the verb alone. He had previously published a +critical edition, with a Latin translation and notes, of the story of +_Nala and Damayanti_ (London, 1819), the most beautiful episode of the +Mahabharata. Other episodes of the Mahabharata--_Indralokagamanam_, +and three others (Berlin, 1824); _Diluvium_, and three others (Berlin, +1829); and a new edition of _Nala_ (Berlin, 1832)--followed in due +course, all of which, with A.W. Schlegel's edition of the _Bhagavadgita_ +(1823), proved excellent aids in initiating the early student into the +reading of Sanskrit texts. On the publication, in Calcutta, of the whole +Mahabharata, Bopp discontinued editing Sanskrit texts, and confined +himself thenceforth exclusively to grammatical investigations. + +After a short residence at Gottingen, Bopp was, on the recommendation of +Humboldt, appointed to the chair of Sanskrit and comparative grammar at +Berlin in 1821, and was elected member of the Royal Prussian Academy in +the following year. He brought out, in 1827, his _Ausfuhrliches +Lehrgebaude der Sanskrita-Sprache_, on which he had been engaged since +1821. A new edition, in Latin, was commenced in the following year, and +completed in 1832; and a shorter grammar appeared in 1834. At the same +time he compiled a Sanskrit and Latin glossary (1830) in which, more +especially in the second and third editions (1847 and 1867), account was +also taken of the cognate languages. His chief activity, however, +centred on the elaboration of his _Comparative Grammar_, which appeared +in six parts at considerable intervals (Berlin, 1833, 1835, 1842, 1847, +1849, 1852), under the title _Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, +Zend, Griechischen, Lateinischen, Litthauischen, Altslavischen, +Gothischen, und Deutschen_. How carefully this work was matured may be +gathered from the series of monographs printed in the _Transactions of +the Berlin Academy_ (1824 to 1831), by which it was preceded. They bear +the general title, _Vergleichende Zergliederung des Sanskrits und der +mit ihm verwandten Sprachen_. Two other essays (on the "Numerals," 1835) +followed the publication of the first part of the _Comparative Grammar_. +The Old-Slavonian began to take its stand among the languages compared +from the second part onwards. The work was translated into English by +E.B. Eastwick in 1845. A second German edition, thoroughly revised +(1856-1861), comprised also the Old-Armenian. From this edition an +excellent French translation was made by Professor Michel Breal in 1866. +The task which Bopp endeavoured to carry out in his _Comparative +Grammar_ was threefold,--to give a description of the original +grammatical structure of the languages as deduced from their +intercomparison, to trace their phonetic laws, and to investigate the +origin of their grammatical forms. The first and second points were +subservient to the third. As Bopp's researches were based on the best +available sources, and incorporated every new item of information that +came to light, so they continued to widen and deepen in their progress. +Witness his monographs on the vowel system in the Teutonic languages +(1836), on the Celtic languages (1839), on the Old-Prussian (1853) and +Albanian languages (1854), on the accent in Sanskrit and Greek (1854), +on the relationship of the Malayo-Polynesian with the Indo-European +languages (1840), and on the Caucasian languages (1846). In the two last +mentioned the impetus of his genius led him on a wrong track. Bopp has +been charged with neglecting the study of the native Sanskrit grammars, +but in those early days of Sanskrit studies the requisite materials were +not accessible in the great libraries of Europe; and if they had been, +they would have absorbed his exclusive attention for years, while such +grammars as those of Wilkins and Colebrooke, from which his grammatical +knowledge was derived, were all based on native grammars. The further +charge that Bopp, in his _Comparative Grammar_, gave undue prominence to +Sanskrit may be disproved by his own words; for, as early as the year +1820, he gave it as his opinion that frequently the cognate languages +serve to elucidate grammatical forms lost in Sanskrit (_Annals of Or. +Lit._ i. 3),--an opinion which he further developed in all his +subsequent writings. + +Bopp's researches, carried with wonderful penetration into the most +minute and almost microscopical details of linguistic phenomena, have +led to the opening up of a wide and distant view into the original +seats, the closer or more distant affinity, and the tenets, practices +and domestic usages of the ancient Indo-European nations, and the +science of comparative grammar may truly be said to date from his +earliest publication. In grateful recognition of that fact, on the +fiftieth anniversary (May 16, 1866) of the date of Windischmann's +preface to that work, a fund called _Die Bopp-Stiftung_, for the +promotion of the study of Sanskrit and comparative grammar, was +established at Berlin, to which liberal contributions were made by his +numerous pupils and admirers in all parts of the globe. Bopp lived to +see the results of his labours everywhere accepted, and his name justly +celebrated. But he died, on the 23rd of October 1867, a poor +man,--though his genuine kindliness and unselfishness, his devotion to +his family and friends, and his rare modesty, endeared him to all who +knew him. + + See M. Breal's translation of Bopp's _Vergl. Gramm._ (1866) + introduction; Th. Benfey, _Gesch. der Sprachwissenschaft_ (1869); A. + Kuhn in _Unsere Zeit_, Neue Folge, iv. i (1868); Lefmann, _Franz Bopp_ + (Berlin, 1891-1897). + + + + +BOPPARD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the left +bank of the Rhine, 12 m. S. of Coblenz on the mainline to Cologne. Pop. +(1900) 5806. It is an old town still partly surrounded by medieval +walls, and its most noteworthy buildings are the Roman Catholic parish +church (12th and 13th centuries); the Carmelite church (1318), the +former castle, now used for administrative offices; the Evangelical +church (1851, enlarged in 1887); and the former Benedictine motnastery +of the Marienberg, founded 1123 and since 1839 a hydropathic +establishment, crowning a hill 100 ft. above the Rhine. Boppard is a +favourite tourist centre, and being less pent in by hills than many +other places in this part of the picturesque gorge of the Rhine, has in +modern times become a residential town. It has some comparatively +insignificant industries, such as tanning and tobacco manufacture; its +direct trade is in wine and fruit. + +Boppard (_Baudobriga_) was founded by the Romans; under the Merovingian +dynasty it became a royal residence. During the middle ages it was a +considerable centre of commerce and shipping, and under the Hohenstaufen +emperors was raised to the rank of a free imperial city. In 1312, +however, the emperor Henry VII. pledged the town to his brother Baldwin, +archbishop-elector of Trier, and it remained in the possession of the +electors until it was absorbed by France during the Revolutionary epoch. +It was assigned by the congress of Vienna in 1815 to Prussia. + + + + +BORA, an Italian name for a violent cold northerly and northeasterly +wind, common in the Adriatic, especially on the Istrian and Dalmatian +coasts. There is always a northern tendency in the winds on the north +Mediterranean shores in winter owing to the cold air of the mountains +sliding down to the sea where the pressure is less. When, therefore, a +cyclone is formed over the Mediterranean, the currents in its +north-western area draw the air from the cold northern regions, and +during the passage of the cyclone the bora prevails. The bora also +occurs at Novorossiysk on the Black Sea. It is precisely similar in +character to the mistral which prevails in Provence and along the French +Mediterranean littoral. + + + + +BORACITE, a mineral of special interest on account of its optical +anomalies. Small crystals bounded on all sides by sharply defined faces +are found in considerable numbers embedded in gypsum and anhydrite in +the salt deposits at Luneburg in Hanover, where it was first observed in +1787. In external form these crystals are cubic with inclined +hemihedrism, the symmetry being the same as in blende and tetrahedrite. +Their habit varies according to whether the tetrahedron (fig. 1), the +cube (fig. 2). or the rhombic dodecahedron (fig. 3) predominates. +Penetration twins with a tetrahedron face as twin-plane are sometimes +observed. The crystals vary from translucent to transparent, are +possessed of a vitreous lustre, and are colourless or white, though +often tinged with grey, yellow or green. The hardness is as high as 7 on +Mohs' scale; specific gravity 3.0. As first observed by R.J. Hauy in +1791, the crystals are markedly pyroelectric; a cube when heated becomes +positively electrified on four of its corners and negatively on the four +opposite corners. In a crystal such as represented in fig. 3, the +smaller and dull tetrahedral faces s are situated at the analogous poles +(which become positively electrified when the crystal is heated), and +the larger and bright tetrahedral faces _s'_ at the antilogous poles. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 + +Crystals of Boracite] + +The characters so far enumerated are strictly in accordance with cubic +symmetry, but when a crystal is examined in polarized light, it will be +seen to be doubly refracting, as was first observed by Sir David +Brewster in 1821. Thin sections show twin-lamellae, and a division into +definite areas which are optically biaxial. By cutting sections in +suitable directions, it may be proved that a rhombic dodecahedral +crystal is really built up of twelve orthorhombic pyramids, the apices +of which meet in the centre and the bases coincide with the dodecahedral +faces of the compound (pseudo-cubic) crystal. Crystals of other forms +show other types of internal structure. When the crystals are heated +these optical characters change, and at a temperature of 265 deg. the +crystals suddenly become optically isotropic; on cooling, however, the +complexity of internal structure reappears. Various explanations have +been offered to account for these "optical anomalies" of boracite. Some +observers have attributed them to alteration, others to internal strains +in the crystals, which originally grew as truly cubic at a temperature +above 265 deg. It would, however, appear that there are really two +crystalline modifications of the boracite substance, a cubic +modification stable above 265 deg. and an orthorhombic (or monoclinic) +one stable at a lower temperature. This is strictly analogous to the +case of silver iodide, of which cubic and rhombohedral modifications +exist at different temperatures; but whereas rhombohedral as well as +pseudo-cubic crystals of silver iodide (iodyrite) are known in nature, +only pseudo-cubic crystals of boracite have as yet been met with. + +Chemically, boracite is a magnesium borate and chloride with the formula +Mg7Cl2B16O30--A small amount of iron is sometimes present, and an +iron-boracite with half the magnesium replaced by ferrous iron has been +called huyssenite. The mineral is insoluble in water, but soluble in +hydrochloric acid. On exposure it is liable to slow alteration, owing to +the absorption of water by the magnesium chloride: an altered form is +known as parasite. + +In addition to embedded crystals, a massive variety, known as +stassfurtite, occurs as nodules in the salt deposits at Stassfurt in +Prussia: that from the carnallite layer is compact, resembling +fine-grained marble, and white or greenish in colour, whilst that from +the kainite layer is soft and earthy, and yellowish or reddish in +colour. (L. J. S.) + + + + +BORAGE (pronounced like "courage"; possibly from Lat. _borra_, rough +hair), a herb (_Borago officinalis_) with bright blue flowers and hairy +leaves and stem, considered to have some virtue as a cordial and a +febrifuge; used as an ingredient in salads or in making claret-cup, &c. + + + + +BORAGINACEAE, an order of plants belonging to the sympetalous section of +dicotyledons, and a member of the series Tubiflorae. It is represented +in Britain by bugloss (_Echium_) (fig. 1), comfrey (_Symphytum_), +_Myosotis_, hounds-tongue (_Cynoglossum_) (fig. 2), and other genera, +while borage (_Borago officinalis_) (fig. 3) occurs as a garden escape +in waste ground. The plants are rough-haired annual or perennial herbs, +more rarely shrubby or arborescent, as in _Cordia_ and _Ehretia_, which +are tropical or sub-tropical. The leaves, which are generally alternate, +are usually entire and narrow: the radical leaves in some genera, as +_Pulmonaria_ (lungwort) and _Cynoglossum_, differ in form from the +stem-leaves, being generally broader and sometimes heart-shaped. A +characteristic feature is the one-sided (_dorsiventral_) inflorescence, +well illustrated in forget-me-not and other species of _Myosotis_; the +cyme is at first closely coiled, becoming uncoiled as the flowers open. +At the same time there is often a change in colour in the flowers, which +are red in bud, becoming blue as they expand, as in _Myosotis, Echium, +Symphytum_ and others. The flowers are generally regular; the form of +the corolla varies widely. Thus in borage it is rotate, tubular in +comfrey, funnel-shaped in hounds-tongue, and salver-shaped in alkanet +(_Anchusa_); the throat is often closed by scale-like outgrowths from +the corolla, forming the so-called corona. A departure from the usual +regular corolla occurs in _Echium_ and a few allied genera, where it is +oblique; in _Lycopsis_ it is also bent. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Viper's Bugloss (_Echium vulgare_), about 1/4 +nat. size. + + 1. Single flower, about nat. size. 6. Calyx surrounding nutlets. + 2. Corolla split open. 7. Same part of calyx cut away. + 3. Calyx. 8. Two nutlets. + 4. Pistil. 9. Same enlarged.] + 5. One stamen. + +The five stamens alternate in position with the lobes of the corolla. +The ovary, of two carpels, is seated on a ring-like disk which secretes +honey. Each carpel becomes divided by a median constriction in four +portions, each containing one ovule; the style springs from the centre +of the group of four divisions. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--(1) Inflorescence of Forget-me-not; (2) ripe +fruits.] + +The flowers show well-marked adaptation to insect-visits. Their colour +and tendency to arrangement on one surface, with the presence of honey, +serve to attract insects. The scales around the throat of the corolla +protect the pollen and honey from wet or undesirable visitors, and by +their difference in colour from the corolla-lobes, as in the yellow eye +of forget-me-not, may serve to indicate the position of the honey. In +most genera the fruit consists of one-seeded nutlets, generally four, +but one or more may be undeveloped. The shape of the nutlet and the +character of its coat are very varied. Thus in _Lithospermum_ the +nutlets are hard like a stone, in _Myosotis_ usually polished, in +_Cynoglossum_ covered with bristles, &c. + +The order is widely spread in temperate and tropical regions, and +contains 85 genera with about 1200 species. Its chief centre is the +Mediterranean region, whence it extends over central Europe and Asia, +becoming less frequent northwards. A smaller centre occurs on the +Pacific side of North America. The order is less developed in the south +temperate zone. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--(1) Flower of Borage; (2) same in vertical +section enlarged; (3) horizontal plan of flower; (4) flower of Comfrey +after removal of corolla, showing unripe fruit.] + +The order is of little economic value. Several genera, such as borage +and _Pulmonaria_, were formerly used in medicine, and the roots yield +purple or brown dyes, as in _Alkanna tinctoria_ (alkanet). Heliotrope or +cherry-pie (_Heliotropium peruvianum_) is a well-known garden plant. + + + + +BORAS, a town of Sweden, in the district (_lan_) of Elfsborg, 45 m. E. +of Gothenburg by rail, on the river Viske. Pop. (1880) 4723; (1900) +15,837. It ranks among the first twelve towns in Sweden both in +population and in the value of its manufacturing industries. These are +principally textile, as there are numerous cotton spinning and weaving +mills, together with a technical weaving school. The town was founded in +1632 by King Gustavus Adolphus. + + + + +BORAX (sodium pyroborate or sodium biborate), Na2B4O7, a substance which +appears in commerce under two forms, namely "common" or prismatic borax, +Na_2B4O7.10H2O, and "jewellers'" or octahedral borax, Na_2B4O7.5H2O. It +is to be noted that the term "borax" was used by the alchemists in a +very vague manner, and is therefore not to be taken as meaning the +substance now specifically known by the name. Prismatic borax is found +widely distributed as a natural product (see below, _Mineralogy_) in +Tibet, and in Canada, Peru and Transylvania, while the bed of Borax +Lake, near Clear Lake in California, is occupied by a large mass of +crystallized borax, which is fit for use by the assayer without +undergoing any preliminary purification. The supply of borax is, +however, mainly derived from the boric acid of Tuscany, which is fused +in a reverberatory furnace with half its weight of sodium carbonate, and +the mass after cooling is extracted with warm water. An alternative +method is to dissolve sodium carbonate in lead-lined steam-heated pans, +and add the boric acid gradually; the solution then being concentrated +until the borax crystallizes. Borax is also prepared from the naturally +occurring calcium borate, which is mixed in a finely divided condition +with the requisite quantity of soda ash; the mixture is fused, extracted +with water and concentrated until the solution commences to crystallize. + + From a supersaturated aqueous solution of borax, the pentahydrate, + Na2B4O7.5H2O, is deposited when evaporation takes place at somewhat + high temperatures. The same hydrate can be prepared by dissolving + borax in water until the solution has a specific gravity of 1.246 and + then allowing the solution to cool. The pentahydrate is deposited + between 79 deg. C. and 56 deg. C.; below this temperature the + decahydrate or ordinary borax, Na2B4O7.10H2O, is deposited. Crystals + of ordinary borax swell up to a very great extent on heating, losing + their water of crystallization and melting to a clear white glass. The + crystals of octahedral borax fuse more easily than those of the + prismatic form and are less liable to split when heated, so that they + are preferable for soldering or fluxing. Fused borax dissolves many + metallic oxides, forming complex borates which in many cases show + characteristic colours. Its use in soldering depends on the fact that + solder only adheres to the surface of an untarnished metal, and + consequently a little borax is placed on the surface of the metal and + heated by the soldering iron in order to remove any superficial film + of oxide. It is also used for glazing pottery, in glass-making and the + glazing of linen. + + Boric acid (q.v.) being only a weak acid, its salts readily undergo + hydrolytic dissociation in aqueous solution, and this property can be + readily shown with a concentrated aqueous solution of borax, for by + adding litmus and then just sufficient acetic acid to turn the litmus + red, the addition of a large volume of water to the solution changes + the colour back to blue again. The boric acid being scarcely ionized + gives only a very small quantity of hydrogen ions, whilst the base + (sodium hydroxide) produced by the hydrolysis occasioned by the + dilution of the solution, being a "strong base," is highly ionized and + gives a comparatively large amount of hydroxyl ions. In the solution, + therefore, there is now an excess of hydroxyl ions; consequently it + has an alkaline reaction and the litmus turns blue. + +_Mineralogy._--The Tibetan mineral deposits have been known since very +early times, and formerly the crude material was exported to Europe, +under the name of _tincal_, for the preparation of pure borax and other +boron salts. The most westerly of the Tibetan deposits are in the +lake-plain of Pugha on the Rulangchu, a tributary of the Indus, at an +elevation of 15,000 ft.: here the impure borax (_sohaga_) occurs over an +area of about 2 sq. m., and is covered by a saline efflorescence; +successive crops are obtained by the action of rain and snow and +subsequent evaporation. Deposits of purer material (_chu tsale_ or water +borax) occur at the lakes of Rudok, situated to the east of the Pugha +district; also still farther to the east at the great lakes Tengri Nor, +north of Lhasa, and several other places. More recently, the extensive +deposits of borates (chiefly, however, of calcium; see COLEMANITE) in +the Mohave desert on the borders of California and Nevada, and in the +Atacama desert in South America, have been the chief commercial sources +of boron compounds. The boron contained in solution in the salt lakes +has very probably been supplied by hot springs and solfataras of +volcanic origin, such as those which at the present day charge the +waters of the lagoons in Tuscany with boric acid. The deposits formed by +evaporation from these lakes and marshes or salines, are mixtures of +borates, various alkaline salts (sodium carbonate, sulphate, chloride), +gypsum, &c. In the mud of the lakes and in the surrounding marshy soil +fine isolated crystals of borax are frequently found. For example, +crystals up to 7 in. in length and weighing a pound each have been found +in large numbers at Borax Lake in Lake county, and at Borax Lake in San +Bernardino county, both in California. + + Borax crystallizes with ten molecules of water, the composition of the + crystals being Na2B4O7 + 10H2O. The crystals belong to the monoclinic + system, and it is a curious fact that in habit and angles they closely + resemble pyroxene (a silicate of calcium, magnesium and iron). There + is a perfect cleavage parallel to the orthopinacoid and less perfect + cleavages parallel to the faces of the prism. The mineral is + transparent to opaque and white, sometimes greyish, bluish or greenish + in colour. Hardness 2-2-1/2; sp. gr. 1.69-1.72. + + The optical characters are interesting, because of the striking + crossed dispersion of the optic axes, of which phenomenon borax + affords the best example. The optic figure seen in convergent + polarized light through a section cut parallel to the plane of + symmetry of a borax crystal is symmetrical only with respect to the + central point. The plane of the optic axes for red light is inclined + at 2 deg. to that for blue light, and the angle between the optic axes + themselves is 3 deg. greater for red than for blue light. + + + + +BORDA, JEAN CHARLES (1733-1799), French mathematician and nautical +astronomer, was born at Dax on the 4th of May 1733. He studied at La +Fleche, and at an early age obtained a commission in the cavalry. In +1756 he presented a _Memoire sur le mouvement des projectiles_ to the +Academy of Sciences, who elected him a member. He was present at the +battle of Hastembeck, and soon afterwards joined the naval service. He +visited the Azores and the Canary Islands, of which he constructed an +admirable map. In 1782 his frigate was taken by a British squadron; he +himself was carried to England, but was almost immediately released on +parole and returned to France. He died at Paris on the 20th of February +1799. Borda contributed a long series of valuable memoirs to the Academy +of Sciences. His researches in hydrodynamics were highly useful for +marine engineering, while the reflecting and repeating circles, as +improved by him, were of great service in nautical astronomy. He was +associated with J.B.J. Delambre and P.F.A. Mechain in the attempt to +determine an arc of the meridian, and the greater number of the +instruments employed in the task were invented by him. + + See J.B. Biot, "Notice sur Borda" in the _Mem. de l'Acad. des + Sciences_, iv. + + + + +BORDAGE. (i) A nautical term (from Fr. _bord_, side) for the planking on +a ship's side. (2) A feudal term (from Lat. _borda_, a cottage) for the +tenure by which a certain class of villein held their cottages; also +the services due from these villeins or "bordars." A "bordar" (Med. Lat. +_bardarius_) was a villein who obtained a cottage from his lord in +return for menial services (see VILLENAGE). + + + + +BORDEAUX, a city of south-western France, capital of the department of +Gironde, 359 m. S.S.W. of Paris by a main line of the Orleans railway +and 159 m. N.W. of Toulouse on the main line of the Southern railway. +Pop. (1906) 237,707. Bordeaux, one of the finest and most extensive +cities in France, is situated on the left or west bank of the Garonne +about 60 m. from the sea, in a plain which comprises the wine-growing +district of Medoc. The Garonne at this point describes a semicircle, +separating the city proper on the left bank from the important suburb of +La Bastide on the right bank. The river is crossed by the Pont de +Bordeaux, a fine stone structure of the early 19th century, measuring +1534 ft. in length, and by a railway bridge connecting the station of +the Orleans railway company in La Bastide with that of the Southern +company on the left bank. Looking west from the Pont de Bordeaux, the +view embraces a crescent of wide and busy quays with a background of +lofty warehouses, factories and mansions, behind which rise towers and +steeples. Almost at the centre of the line of quays is the Place des +Quinconces, round which lie the narrow, winding streets in which the +life of the city is concentrated. Outside this quarter, which contains +most of the important buildings, the streets are narrow and quiet and +bordered by the low white houses which at Bordeaux take the place of the +high tenements characteristic of other large French towns. The whole +city is surrounded by a semicircle of boulevards, beyond which lie the +suburbs of Le Bouscat, Cauderan, Merignac, Talence and Begles. The +principal promenades are situated close together near the centre of the +city. They comprise the beautiful public garden, the allees de Tourny +and the Place des Quinconces. The latter is planted with plane trees, +among which stand two huge statues of Montaigne and Montesquieu, and +terminates upon the quays with two rostral columns which serve as +lighthouses. On its west side there is a monument to the Girondin +deputies proscribed under the convention in 1793. At its south-west +corner the Place des Quinconces opens into the Place de la Comedie, +which contains the Grand Theatre (18th century), the masterpiece of the +architect Victor Louis. The Place de la Comedie, the centre of business +in Bordeaux, is traversed by a street which, under the names of Cours du +Chapeau-Rouge, rue de l'Intendance and rue Judaique, runs from the Place +de la Bourse and the quai de la Douane on the east to the outer +boulevards on the west. Another important thoroughfare, the rue Sainte +Catherine, runs at right angles to the rue de l'Intendance and enters +the Place de la Comedie on the south. The Pont de Bordeaux is continued +by the Cours Victor Hugo, a curved street crossing the rue Sainte +Catherine and leading to the cathedral of St Andre. This church, dating +from the 11th to the 14th centuries, is a building in the Gothic style +with certain Romanesque features, chief among which are the arches in +the nave. It consists of a large nave without aisles, a transept at the +extremities of which are the main entrances, and a choir, flanked by +double aisles and chapels and containing many works of art. Both the +north and south facades are richly decorated with sculpture and +statuary. Of the four towers flanking the principal portals, only those +to the north are surmounted by spires. Near the choir stands an isolated +tower. It contains the great bell of the cathedral and is known as the +Clocher Pey-Berland, after the archbishop of Bordeaux who erected it in +the 15th century. Of the numerous other churches of Bordeaux the most +notable are St Seurin (11th to the 15th centuries), with a finely +sculptured southern portal; Ste Croix (12th and 13th centuries), +remarkable for its Romanesque facade; and St Michel, a fine Gothic +building of the 15th and 16th centuries. The bell tower of St Michel, +which has the highest spire (354 ft.) in the south of France, dates from +the end of the 15th century, and, like that of the cathedral, stands +apart from its church. The palace of the Faculties of Science and of +Letters (1881-1886) contains the tomb of Michel de Montaigne. The +prefecture, the hotel de ville, the bourse and the custom-house belong +to the 15th century. The law-courts and the hospital of St Andre (the +foundation of which dates from 1390) belong to the first half of the +19th century. Of greater antiquarian interest is the Palais Gallien, +situated near the public garden, consisting of remains of lofty arcades, +vaulting and fragments of wall, which once formed part of a Roman +amphitheatre. Bordeaux lost its fortifications in the 18th century, but +four of the old gateways or triumphal arches belonging to that period +still remain. Still older are the Porte de Cailhau, once the entrance to +the Palais de l'Ombriere, which before its destruction was the residence +of the duke of Aquitaine, and the Porte de l'Hotel de Ville, the former +of the 15th, the latter of the 13th and 16th centuries. + +Bordeaux is the seat of an archbishop, the headquarters of the XVIII. +army corps, the centre of an _academie_ (educational division) and the +seat of a court of appeal. A court of assizes is held there, and there +are tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a council of +trade-arbitrators, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of +France. Its educational institutions include faculties of law, of +science, of letters and of medicine and pharmacy, a faculty of Catholic +theology, lycees, training colleges, a higher school of commerce, a +chair of agriculture, a school of fine art and a naval school of +medicine. There are several museums, including one with a large +collection of pictures and sculptures, a library with over 200,000 +volumes and numerous learned societies. + +The trade of Bordeaux, the fourth port in France, is chiefly carried on +by sea. Its port, 5-1/2 m. long and on the average 550 yds. wide, is formed +by the basin of the Garonne and is divided into two portions by the Pont +de Bordeaux. That to the south is used only by small craft; that to the +north is accessible to vessels drawing from 21 to 26 ft. according to +the state of the tide. From 1000 to 1200 vessels can be accommodated in +the harbour, which is lined on both sides by quays and sloping wharves +served by railway lines. At the northen extremity of the harbour, on the +left bank, there is a floating basin of 25 acres in extent, capable of +receiving the largest vessels; it has over 1900 yds. of quays and is +furnished with a repairing dock and with elaborate machinery for the +loading and unloading of goods. In 1907 the construction of new docks +behind this basin was begun. The city maintains commercial relations +with nearly all countries, but chiefly with Great Britain, Spain, +Argentina, Portugal and the United States. The most important line of +steamers using the port is the South American service of the Messageries +Maritimes. The total value of the exports and imports of Bordeaux +averages between 25 and 26 millions sterling yearly. Of this amount +exports make up 13-1/2 millions, of which the sales of wine bring in about +one quarter. The city is the centre of the trade in "Bordeaux" wines, +and the wine-cellars of the quays are one of its principal sights. Other +principal exports are brandy, hides and skins, sugar, rice, woollen and +cotton goods, salt-fish, chemicals, oil-cake, pitwood, fruit, potatoes +and other vegetables. The chief imports are wool, fish, timber, rice, +wine, rubber, coal, oil-grains, hardware, agricultural and other +machinery and chemicals. A large fleet is annually despatched to the +cod-fisheries of Newfoundland and Iceland. The most important industry +is ship-building and refitting. Ironclads and torpedo-boats as well as +merchant vessels are constructed. Railway carriages are also built. The +industries subsidiary to the wine-trade, such as wine-mixing, cooperage +and the making of bottles, corks, capsules, straw envelopes and wooden +cases, occupy many hands. There are also flour-mills, sugar-refineries, +breweries, distilleries, oil-works, cod-drying works, manufactories of +canned and preserved fruits, vegetables and meat, and of chocolate. +Chemicals, leather, iron-ware, machinery and pottery are manufactured, +and a tobacco factory employs 1500 hands. + +Bordeaux (_Burdigala_) was originally the chief town of the Bituriges +Vivisci. Under the Roman empire it became a flourishing commercial city, +and in the 4th century it was made the capital of Aquitania Secunda. +Ausonius, a writer of the 4th century, who was a native of the place, +describes it as four-square and surrounded with walls and lofty towers, +and celebrates its importance as one of the greatest educational centres +of Gaul. In the evils that resulted from the disintegration of the +empire Bordeaux had its full share, and did not recover its prosperity +till the beginning of the 10th century. Along with Guienne it belonged +to the English kings for nearly three hundred years (1154-1453), and was +for a time the seat of the brilliant court of Edward the Black Prince, +whose son Richard was born in the city. An extensive commerce was +gradually developed between the Bordeaux merchants and their +fellow-subjects in England,--London, Hull, Exeter, Dartmouth, Bristol +and Chester being the principal ports with which they traded. The +English administration was favourable to the liberties as well as to the +trade of the city. In 1235 it received the right of electing its mayors, +who were assisted in the administration by a "jurade" or municipal +council. The influence of Bordeaux was still further increased when +several important towns of the region, among them St Emilion and +Libourne, united in a federation under its leadership. The defeat of the +English at the battle of Castillon in 1453 was followed, after a siege +of three months, by the submission of Bordeaux to Charles VII. The +privileges of the city were at once curtailed, and were only partially +restored under Louis XI., who established there the parlement of +Guienne. In 1548 the inhabitants resisted the imposition of the salt-tax +by force of arms, a rebellion for which they were punished by the +constable Anne de Montmorency with merciless severity. + +The reformed religion found numerous adherents at Bordeaux, and after +the massacre of St Bartholomew nearly three hundred of its inhabitants +lost their lives. The 17th century was a period of disturbance. The city +was for a time the chief support of the Fronde, and on two occasions, in +1653 and 1675, troops were sent to repress insurrections against royal +measures. In the middle of the 18th century, a period of commercial and +architectural activity for Bordeaux, the marquis de Tourny, _intendant_ +of Guienne, did much to improve the city by widening the streets and +laying out public squares. It was the headquarters of the Girondists at +the Revolution, and during the Reign of Terror suffered almost as +severely as Lyons and Marseilles. Its commerce was greatly reduced under +Napoleon I. In 1814 it declared for the house of Bourbon; and Louis +XVIII. afterwards gave the title of duc de Bordeaux to his grand-nephew, +better known as the comte de Chambord. In 1870 the French government was +transferred to Bordeaux from Tours on the approach of the Germans to the +latter city. + + See Camille Jullian, _Hist. de Bordeaux, depuis les origines jusqu'en + 1895_ (Bordeaux, 1895); T. Malvezin, _Hist. du commerce de Bordeaux_ + (Bordeaux, 1892); _Bordeaux, apercu historique, sol, population, + industrie, commerce, administration_ (Bordeaux, 1892). + + + + +BORDEN, SIR FREDERICK WILLIAM (1847- ), Canadian statesman, was born +at Cornwallis, Nova Scotia, on the 14th of May 1847. He was educated at +King's College, Windsor, and at Harvard University, and for some years +practised medicine at Canning, Nova Scotia. In 1874 he was elected to +the Canadian parliament as Liberal member for King's county. In 1896 he +became minister of militia and defence in the Liberal ministry. + + + + +BORDEN, ROBERT LAIRD (1854- ), Canadian statesman, was born at Grand +Pre, Nova Scotia, on the 26th of June 1854. In 1878 he was called to the +bar, and became a leading lawyer in his native province. In 1896 he was +elected to the Canadian parliament for the city of Halifax, but later +lost his seat there and was elected for Carlton. In February 1901, on +the resignation of Sir Charles Tupper, he became leader of the +Conservative opposition. At the general election of 1908 he was returned +again for Halifax. + + + + +BORDENTOWN, a city of Burlington county, New Jersey, U.S.A., on the E. +bank of the Delaware river, 6 m. S. of Trenton and 28 m. N.E. of +Philadelphia. Pop. (1890) 4232; (1900) 4110; (1905) 4073; (1910) 4250. +It is served by the Pennsylvania railway, the Camden & Trenton railway +(an electric line, forming part of the line between Philadelphia and New +York) and by freight and passenger steamboat lines on the Delaware. +Bordentown is attractively situated on a broad, level plain, 65 ft. +above the river, with wide, beautifully shaded streets. The city is the +seat of the Bordentown Military Institute (with the Woodward memorial +library), of the state manual training and industrial school for +coloured youth, of the St Joseph's convent and mother-house of the +Sisters of Mercy, and of St Joseph's academy for girls. There are +ship-yards, iron foundries and forges, machine shops, shirt factories, a +pottery for the manufacture of sanitary earthenware, a woollen mill and +canning factories. The first settlers on the site of the city were +several Quaker families who came in the 18th century. Bordentown was +laid out by Joseph Borden, in whose honour it was named; was +incorporated as a borough in 1825; was re-incorporated in 1849, and was +chartered as a city in 1867. It was the home for some years of Francis +Hopkinson and of his son Joseph Hopkinson (whose residences are still +standing), and from 1817 to 1832 and in 1837-1839 was the home of Joseph +Bonaparte, ex-king of Spain, who lived on a handsome estate known as +"Bonaparte's Park," which he laid out with considerable magnificence. +Here he entertained many distinguished visitors, including Lafayette. +The legislature of New Jersey passed a special law, enabling him, as an +alien, to own real property, and it is said to have been in reference to +this that the state received its nickname "Spain." Prince Napoleon +Lucien Charles Murat, the second son of Joachim Murat, also lived here +for many years; and the estate known as "Ironsides" was long the home of +Rear-Admiral Charles Stewart. The Camden & Amboy railway, begun in 1831 +and completed from Bordentown to South Amboy (34 m.) in 1832, was one of +the first railways in the United States; in September 1831 the famous +engine "Johnny Bull," built in England and imported for this railway, +had its first trial at Bordentown, and a monument now marks the site +where the first rails were laid. + + See E.M. Woodward, _Bonaparte's Park and the Murats_ (Trenton, 1879). + + + + +BORDERS, THE, a name applied to the territory on both sides of the +boundary line between England and Scotland. The term has also a literary +and historical as well as a geographical sense, and is most frequently +employed of the Scottish side. The line begins on the coast of +Berwickshire at a spot 3 m. N. by W. of Berwick, and, after running a +short distance W. and S., reaches the Tweed near the village of Paxton, +whence it keeps to the river to a point just beyond Carham. There it +strikes off S.S.E. to the Cheviot Hills, the watershed of which for 35 +m. constitutes the boundary, which is thereafter formed by a series of +streams--Bells Burn, the Kershope, Liddel and Esk. After following the +last named for 1 m. it cuts across country due west to the Sark, which +it follows to the river's mouth at the head of the Solway Firth. The +length of the boundary thus described is 108 m., but in a direct line +from the Solway to the North Sea the distance is only 70 m. At the +extreme east end a small district of 8 sq. m., consisting of the tract +north of the Tweed which is not included in Scotland, forms the "bounds" +or "liberties" of Berwick, or the country of the borough and town of +Berwick-on-Tweed. At the extreme west between the Sark and Esk as far up +the latter as its junction with the Liddel, there was a strip of +country, a "No man's land," for generations the haunt of outlaws and +brigands. This was called the Debatable Land, because the possession of +it was a constant source of contention between England and Scotland +until its boundaries were finally adjusted in 1552. The English Border +counties are Northumberland and Cumberland, the Scottish Berwick, +Roxburgh and Dumfries; though historically, and still by usage, the +Scottish shires of Selkirk and Peebles have always been classed as +Border shires. On the English side the region is watered by the Till, +Bowmont, Coquet, Rede and North Tyne; on the Scottish by the Tweed, +Whiteadder, Leet, Kale, Jed, Kershope, Liddel, Esk and Sark. Physically +there is a marked difference between the country on each side. On the +southern it mostly consists of lofty, bleak moorland, affording +subsistence for sheep and cattle, and rugged glens and ravines, while on +the northern there are many stretches of fertile soil, especially in the +valleys and dales, and the landscape is often romantic and beautiful. +Railway communication is supplied by the east coast route to Berwick, +the Waverley route through Liddesdale, the London & North-Western by +Carlisle, the North British branch from Berwick to St Boswells, and the +North Eastern lines from Berwick to Kelso, Alnwick to Coldstream, and +Newcastle to Carlisle. + +At frequent intervals during a period of 1500 years the region was the +scene of strife and lawlessness. The Roman road of Watling Street +crossed the Cheviots at Brownhartlaw (1664 ft.), close to the camp of +_Ad Fines_, by means of which the warlike Brigantes on the south and the +Gadeni and Otadeni on the north were held in check, while another Roman +road, the Wheel Causeway, passed into Scotland near the headwaters of +the North Tyne and Liddel. (For early history see LOTHIAN; NORTHUMBRIA; +STRATHCLYDE.) In the 12th century were founded the abbeys of Hexham and +Alnwick, the priory church of Lindisfarne and the cathedral of Carlisle +on the English side, and on the Scottish the abbeys of Jedburgh, Kelso, +Melrose and Dryburgh. The deaths of Alexander III. (1286) and Margaret +the Maid of Norway (1290), whose right to the throne had been +acknowledged, plunged the country into the wars of the succession and +independence, and until the union of the crowns in 1603 the borders were +frequently disturbed. Berwick and Carlisle were repeatedly assailed, and +battles took place at Halidon Hill (1333), Otterburn (1388), Nisbet +(1402), Homildon (1402), Piperden (1435), Hedgeley Moor (1464), Flodden +(1513), Solway Moss (1542), and Ancrum Moor (1544), in addition to many +fights arising out of family feuds and raids fomented by the Armstrongs, +Eliots, Grahams, Johnstones, Maxwells and other families, of which the +most serious were the encounters at Arkenholme (Langholm) in 1455, the +Raid of Reidswire (1575), and the bloody combat at Dryfe Sands (1593). +The English expeditions of 1544 and 1545 were exceptionally disastrous, +since they involved the destruction of the four Scottish border abbeys, +the sack of many towns, and the obliteration of Roxburgh. The only other +important conflict belongs to the Covenanters' time, when the marquess +of Montrose was defeated at Philiphaugh in 1645. Partly for the defence +of the kingdoms and partly to overawe the freebooters and mosstroopers +who were a perpetual menace to the peace until they were suppressed in +the 17th century, castles were erected at various points on both sides +of the border. + +Even during the period when relations between England and Scotland were +strained, the sovereigns of both countries recognized it to be their +duty to protect property and regulate the lawlessness of the borders. +The frontier was divided into the East, Middle and West Marches, each +under the control of an English and a Scots warden. The posts were +generally filled by eminent and capable men who had to keep the peace, +enforce punishment for breach of the law, and take care that neither +country encroached on the boundary of the other. The wardens usually +conferred once a year on matters of common interest, and as a rule their +meetings were conducted in a friendly spirit, though in 1575 a display +of temper led to the affair of the Raid of Reidswire. The appointment +was not only one of the most important in this quarter of the kingdom, +but lucrative as well, part of the fines and forfeits falling to the +warden, who was also entitled to ration and forage for his retinue. On +the occasion of his first public progress to London, James I. of England +attended service in Berwick church (March 27, 1603) "to return thanks +for his peaceful entry into his new dominions." Anxious to blot out all +memory of the bitter past, he forbade the use of the word "Borders," +hoping that the designation "Middle Shires" might take its place. +Frontier fortresses were also to be dismantled and their garrisons +reduced to nominal strength. In course of time this policy had the +desired effect, though the expression "Borders" proved too convenient +geographically to be dropped, the king's proposed amendment being in +point of fact merely sentimental and, in the relative positions then and +now of England and Scotland, meaningless. Some English strongholds, such +as Alnwick, Chillingham, Ford and Naworth, have been modernized; others, +like Norham, Wark and Warkworth, are picturesque ruins; but most of the +Scottish fortresses have been demolished and their sites built over, or +are now represented by grass-grown mounds. Another familiar feature in +the landscape is the chain of peel towers crossing the country from +coast to coast. Many were homes of marauding chiefs, and nearly all were +used as beacon-stations to give alarm of foray or invasion. Early in the +18th century the Scottish gipsies found a congenial home on the +Roxburghshire side of the Cheviots; and at a later period the Scottish +border became notorious for a hundred years as offering hospitality to +runaway couples who were clandestinely married at Gretna Green, +Coldstream or Lamberton. The toll-house of Lamberton displayed the +following intimation--"Ginger-beer sold here and marriages performed on +the most reasonable terms." + +Border ballads occupy a distinctive place in English literature. Many of +them were rescued from oblivion by Sir Walter Scott, who ransacked the +district for materials for his _Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_, +which appeared in 1802 and 1803. Border traditions and folklore, and the +picturesque, pathetic and stirring incidents of which the country was so +often the scene, appealed strongly to James Hogg ("the Ettrick +Shepherd"), John Wilson ("Christopher North"), and John Mackay Wilson +(1804-1835), whose _Tales of the Borders_, published in 1835, long +enjoyed popular favour. + + Besides the works just mentioned see Sir Herbert Maxwell, _History of + Dumfries and Galloway_ (1896); George Ridpath, _Border History of + England and Scotland_ (1776); Professor John Veitch, _History and + Poetry of the Scottish Border_ (1877); Sir George Douglas, _History of + the Border Counties_ (Scots), (1890): W.S. Crockett, _The Scott + Country_ (1902). + + + + +BORDIGHERA, a town of Liguria, Italy, in the province of Porto Maurizio, +91 m. S.W. of Genoa by rail, and 3 m. E.N.E. of Ventimiglia. Pop. (1901) +4673. It is a favourite winter resort, especially for visitors from +England, and is situated in beautiful coast scenery. It has fine +gardens, and its flowers and palms are especially famous: the former are +largely exported, while the latter serve for the supply of palm branches +for St Peter's at Rome and other churches on Palm Sunday. The new museum +contains a unique collection of the flora of the Riviera. From 1682 +until the Napoleonic period, Bordighera was the capital of a small +republic of the villages of the neighbouring valleys. + + + + +BORDONE, PARIS (1495-1570), Venetian painter, was born at Treviso, and +entered the _bottega_ of Titian in 1509. Vasari, to whom we are indebted +for nearly all the facts of Bordone's life--later research has not added +much to our knowledge--holds that he did not spend many years with +Titian and set himself to imitate the manner of Giorgione to the utmost +of his power. As a matter of fact, the Giorgionesque traits in Bordone's +earlier works are derived entirely from Titian, whom he imitated so +closely that to this day some of his paintings pass under Titian's name. +Crowe and Cavalcaselle and Dr Bode ascribe to Bordone the "Baptism of +Christ" in the Capitoline gallery, but Morelli sees in it an early work +of Titian. Paris Bordone subsequently executed many important mural +paintings in Venice, Treviso and Vicenza, all of which have perished. In +1538 he was invited to France by Francis I., at whose court he painted +many portraits, though no trace of them is to be found in French +collections, the two portraits at the Louvre being later acquisitions. +On his return journey he undertook works of great importance for the +Fugger palace at Augsburg, which again have been lost sight of. +Bordone's pictures are of very unequal merit. They have a certain +nobility of style, and that golden harmony of colour which he derived +from Titian, together with the realistic conception of the human figure +and the dignified character of his portraiture. On the other hand, his +nudes are a little coarse in form, and the action of his figures is +frequently unnatural and affected. A true child of the Renaissance, he +also painted a number of religious pictures, numerous mythological +scenes, allegories, nymphs, cupids and subjects from Ovid's fables, but +he excelled as a portraitist. His principal surviving work is the +"Fisherman and Doge" at the Venice Academy. The National Gallery, +London, has a "Daphnis and Chloe" and a portrait of a lady, whilst a +"Holy Family" from his brush is at Bridgwater House. Other important +works of his are the "Madonna" in the Tadini collection at Lovere, the +paintings in the Duomo of Treviso, two mythological pictures at the +Villa Borghese and the Doria palace in Rome, the "Chess Players" in +Berlin, a very little-known portrait of superb quality in the possession +of the landgrave of Hesse at Kronberg, and a "Baptism of Christ" in +Philadelphia. Besides these, there are examples of his art in Bergamo, +Milan, Genoa, Padua, Siena, Venice, Florence, Munich, Dresden and +Vienna. + + Beyond some references in general works on Italian painting, very + little has been written on Paris Bordone since the days of Vasari. In + 1900 the committee of the fourth centenary of Paris Bordone, Treviso, + published L. Barlo and G. Biscaro's _Della Vita e delle Opere di Paris + Bordone_; and the _Nuova Antologia_ (November 16, 1900) contains a + sixteen-page paper on Paris Bordone by P.G. Molmenti. (P. G. K.) + + + + +BORE, a high tidal wave rushing up a narrow estuary or tidal river. The +bore of the Severn is produced by a tide that rises 18 ft. in an hour +and a half. This body of water becomes compressed in the narrowing +funnel-shaped estuary, and heaped up into an advancing wave extending +from bank to bank. The phenomenon is also particularly well illustrated +in the Bay of Fundy. The origin of this word is doubtful, but it is +usually referred to a Scandinavian word _bara_, a wave, billow. The +other name by which the phenomenon is known, "eagre," is also of unknown +origin. There is, of course, no connexion with "bore," to make a hole by +piercing or drilling, which is a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. +_bohren_, the Indo-European root being seen in Lat. _forare_, to pierce, +Gr. [Greek: pharos], plough. For the making of deep holes for shafts, +wells, &c., see BORING. The substantival use of this word is generally +confined to the circular cavity of objects of tubular shape, +particularly of a gun, hence the internal diameter of a gun, its +"calibre" (see GUN). A "bore" is also a tiresome, wearying person, +particularly one who persistently harps on one subject, in or out of +season, whatever interest his audience may take in it. This has +generally been taken to be merely a metaphorical use of "bore," to +pierce. The earliest sense, however, in which it is found in English +(1766, in certain letters printed in Jesse's _Life of George Selwyn_) is +that of _ennui_, and a French origin is suggested. The _New English +Dictionary_ conjectures a possible source in Fr. _bourrer_, to stuff, +satiate. + + + + +BOREAS, in Greek mythology, a personification of the north wind. He was +described as the son of Astraeus and Eos, brother of Hesperus, Notus and +Zephyrus. His dwelling-place was on Mount Haemus in Thrace, or at +Salmydessus, near the country of the Hyperboreans. He was said to have +carried off the beautiful Oreithyia, a daughter of Erechtheus, king of +Athens, when he found her leading the dance at a festival, or gathering +flowers on the banks of the Ilissus or some other spot in the +neighbourhood of Athens. He had before wooed her in vain, and now +carried her off to Mount Haemus, where they lived as king and queen of +the winds, and had two sons, Zetes and Calais, and two daughters, +Cleopatra and Chione (Apollodorus iii. 15; Ovid, _Metam._ vi. 677). For +the loss of Oreithyia the Athenians in after times counted on Boreas's +friendliness, and were assured of it when he sent storms which wrecked +the Persian fleet at Athos and at Sepias (Herodotus vii. 189). For this +they erected to him a sanctuary or altar near the Ilissus, and held a +festival (Boreasmos) in his honour. Thurii also, which was a colony of +Athens, offered sacrifice to him as Euergetes every year, because he had +destroyed the hostile fleet of Dionysius the elder (Aelian, _Var. Hist._ +xii. 61). In works of art Boreas was represented as bearded, powerful, +draped against cold, and winged. On the Tower of the Winds at Athens he +is figured holding a shell, such as is blown by Tritons. Boreas carrying +off Oreithyia is the subject of a beautiful bronze relief in the British +Museum, found in the island of Calymna. The same subject occurs +frequently on painted Greek vases. + + + + +BOREL, PETRUS, whose full name was PIERRE JOSEPH BOREL D'HAUTERIVE +(1809-1859), French writer, was born at Lyons on the 26th of June 1809. +His father had been ruined by taking part in the resistance offered by +the Lyonnese royalists against the Convention, and Petrus Borel was +educated in Paris to be an architect. He soon abandoned his profession +to become one of the most violent partisans of the Romantic movement. +His extravagant sentiments were illustrated in various volumes: +_Rhapsodies_ (1832), poems; _Champavert, contes immoraux_ (1833); +_Madame Putiphar_ (1839), &c. His works did not rescue him from poverty, +but through the kindness of Theophile Gautier and Mme de Girardin he +obtained a small place in the civil service. He died at Mostaganem in +Algeria on the 14th of July 1859. + + See Jules Claretie, _Petrus Borel, le Lycanthrope_ (1865); and Ch. + Asselineau, _Bibliographie romantique_ (1872). + + + + +BORELLI, GIOVANNI ALFONSO (1608-1679), Italian physiologist and +physicist, was born at Naples on the 28th of January 1608. He was +appointed professor of mathematics at Messina in 1649 and at Pisa in +1656. In 1667 he returned to Messina, but in 1674 was obliged to retire +to Rome, where he lived under the protection of Christina, queen of +Sweden, and died on the 31st of December 1679. His best-known work is +_De motu animalium_ (Rome, 1680-1681), in which he sought to explain the +movements of the animal body on mechanical principles; he thus ranks as +the founder of the iatrophysical school. In a letter, _Del movimento +della cometa apparsa il mese di decembre 1664_, published in 1665 under +the pseudonym Pier Maria Mutoli, he was the first to suggest the idea of +a parabolic path; and another of his astronomical works was _Theorica +mediceorum planetarum ex causis physicis deducta_ (Florence, 1666), in +which he considered the influence of attraction on the satellites of +Jupiter. He also wrote: _Della Causa delle Febbri maligni_ (Pisa, 1658); +_De Renum usu Judicium_ (Strassburg, 1664); _Euclides Restitutus_ (Pisa, +1658); _Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum libri v., vi. et vii._ (Florence, +1661); _De vi percussionis_ (Bologna, 1667); _Meteorologia Aetnea_ +(Reggio, 1669); and _De motionibus naturalibus a gravitate pendentibus_ +(Bologna, 1670). + + + + +BORGA (Finnish _Porvoo_), a seaport in the province of Nyland, grand +duchy of Finland, situated at the entrance of the river Borga into the +Gulf of Finland, about 33 m. by rail N.W. of Helsingfors. Pop. (1810) +1693; (1870) 3478; (1904) 5255. It is the seat of a Lutheran bishopric +which extends over the provinces of Viborg and St Michel with portions +of Tavastehus and Nyland; it possesses a beautiful cathedral, and a high +school (where the well-known Finnish poet Runeberg lectured for many +years), and is the seat of a court of appeal. The weaving of sail-cloth +and the manufacture of tobacco are the principal industries, and the +chief articles of trade are wood, butter and furs. Borga was once a city +of great dignity and importance, but the rapid growth of Helsingfors has +somewhat eclipsed it. In 1809, when the estates of Finland were summoned +to a special diet to decide the future of the country, Borga was the +place of meeting, and it was in the cathedral that the emperor Alexander +I. pledged himself as grand duke of Finland to maintain the constitution +and liberties of the grand duchy. + + + + +BORGHESE, a noble Italian family of Sienese origin, first mentioned in +1238, a member of which, Marcantonio Borghese, settled in Rome and was +the father of Camillo Borghese (1550-1620), elected pope under the title +of Paul V. (1605). Paul created his nephew prince of Vivero on the 17th +of November 1609, and Philip III. of Spain conferred the title of prince +of Sulmona on him in 1610. The family took its place among the higher +Roman nobility by the marriage of the prince's son Paolo with Olimpia, +heiress of the Aldobrandini family, in 1614. In 1803 Camillo Filippo +Ludovico, Prince Borghese (b. 1775), married Pauline, sister of the +emperor Napoleon, and widow of General Leclerc. In 1806 he was made duke +of Guastalla, and for some years acted as governor of the Piedmontese +and Genoese provinces. After the fall of Napoleon he fixed his residence +at Florence, where he died in 1832. The Borghese palace at Rome is one +of the most magnificent buildings in the city, and contained a splendid +gallery of pictures, most of which have been transferred to the Villa +Borghese outside the Porto del Popolo, now Villa Umberto I., the +property of the Italian government. + + See A. von Reumont, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_, iii. 605, 609 617, + &c.; _Almanach de Gotha_ (Gotha, 1902); J.H. Douglas, _The Principal + Noble Families of Rome_ (Rome, 1905). + + + + +BORGHESI, BARTOLOMMEO (1781-1860), Italian antiquarian, was born at +Savignano, near Rimini, on the 11th of July 1781. He studied at Bologna +and Rome. Having weakened his eyesight by the study of documents of the +middle ages, he turned his attention to epigraphy and numismatics. At +Rome he arranged and catalogued several collections of coins, amongst +them those of the Vatican, a task which he undertook for Pius VII. In +consequence of the disturbances of 1821, Borghesi retired to San Marino, +where he died on the 16th of April 1860. Although mainly an enthusiastic +student, he was for some time podesta of the little republic. His +monumental work, _Nuovi Frammenti dei Fasti Consolari Capitolini_ +(1818-1820), attracted the attention of the learned world as furnishing +positive bases for the chronology of Roman history, while his +contributions to Italian archaeological journals established his +reputation as a numismatist and antiquarian. Before his death, Borghesi +conceived the design of publishing a collection of all the Latin +inscriptions of the Roman world. The work was taken up by the Academy of +Berlin under the auspices of Mommsen, and the result was the _Corpus +Inscriptionum Latinarum_. Napoleon III. ordered the publication of a +complete edition of the works of Borghesi. This edition, in ten volumes, +of which the first appeared in 1862, was not completed until 1897. + + + + +BORGIA, CESARE, duke of Valentinois and Romagna (1476-1507) was the son +of Pope Alexander VI. by Vanozza dei Cattanei. He was born at Rome while +his father was cardinal, and on the latter's elevation to the papacy +(1492) he was created archbishop of Valencia, and a year later cardinal. +Cesare was Alexander's favourite son, and it was for him that the pope's +notorious nepotism was most extensively practised. In the early years of +his father's pontificate he led a profligate life at the Vatican. When +Charles VIII. left Rome for the conquest of Naples (January 25, 1495), +Cesare accompanied him as a hostage for the pope's good behaviour, but +he escaped at Velletri and returned to Rome. He soon began to give +proofs of the violence for which he afterwards became notorious; when in +1497 his brother Giovanni, duke of Gandia, was murdered, the deed was +attributed, in all probability with reason, to Cesare. It was suggested +that the motive of the murder was the brothers' rivalry in the affection +of Donna Sancha, wife of Giuffre, the pope's youngest son, while there +were yet darker hints at incestuous relations of Cesare and the duke +with their sister Lucrezia. But it is more probable that Cesare, who +contemplated exchanging his ecclesiastical dignities for a secular +career, regarded his brother's splendid position with envy, and was +determined to enjoy the whole of his father's favours. + +In July 1497 Cesare went to Naples as papal legate and crowned Frederick +of Aragon king. Now that the duke of Gandia was dead, the pope needed +Cesare to carry out his political schemes, and tried to arrange a +wealthy marriage for him. Cesare wished to marry Carlotta, the daughter +of the king of Naples, but both she and her father resolutely refused an +alliance with "a priest, the bastard of a priest." In August 1498, +Cesare in the consistory asked for the permission of the cardinals and +the pope to renounce the priesthood, and the latter granted it "for the +good of his soul." On the 1st of October he set forth for France with a +magnificent retinue as papal legate to Louis XII., to bring him the +pope's bull annulling his marriage with Jeanne of France (Louis wished +to marry Anne of Brittany). In exchange he received the duchy of +Valentinois, as well as military assistance for his own enterprises. He +found Carlotta of Naples in France, and having again tried to win her +over in vain, he had to content himself with Charlotte d'Albret, sister +of the king of Navarre (May 1499). Alexander now contemplated sending +Cesare to Romagna to subdue the turbulent local despots, and with the +help of the French king carve a principality for himself out of those +territories owing nominal allegiance to the pope. Cesare made Cesena his +headquarters, and with an army consisting of 300 French lances, 4000 +Gascons and Swiss, besides Italian troops, he attacked Imola, which +surrendered at once, and then besieged Forli, held by Caterina Sforza +(q.v.), the widow of Girolamo Riario. She held out gallantly, but was +at last forced to surrender on the 22nd of January 1500; Cesare treated +her with consideration, and she ended her days in a convent. The Sforzas +having expelled the French from Milan, Cesare returned to Rome in +February, his schemes checked for the moment; his father rewarded him +for his successes by making him _gonfaloniere_ of the church and +conferring many honours on him; he remained in Rome and took part in +bull fights and other carnival festivities. In July occurred the murder +of the duke of Bisceglie, Lucrezia Borgia's third husband. He was +attacked by assassins on the steps of St Peter's and badly wounded; +attendants carried him to a cardinal's house, and, fearing poison, he +was nursed only by his wife and Sancha, his sister-in-law. Again Cesare +was suspected as the instigator of the deed, and in fact he almost +admitted it himself. Bisceglie was related to the Neapolitan dynasty, +with whose enemies the pope was allied, and he had had a quarrel with +Cesare. When it appeared that he was recovering from his wounds, Cesare +had him murdered, but not apparently without provocation, for, according +to the Venetian ambassador Cappello, the duke had tried to murder Cesare +first. + +In October 1500 Cesare again set out for the Romagna, on the strength of +Venetian friendship, with an army of 10,000 men. Pandolfo Malatesta of +Rimini and Giovanni Sforza of Pesaro fled, and those cities opened their +gates to Cesare. Faenza held out, for the people were devoted to their +lord, Astorre Manfredi, a handsome and virtuous youth of eighteen. +Manfredi surrendered in April 1501, on the promise that his life should +be spared; but Cesare broke his word, and sent him a prisoner to Rome, +where he was afterwards foully outraged and put to death. After taking +Castel Bolognese he returned to Rome in June, to take part in the +Franco-Spanish intrigues for the partition of Naples. He was now lord of +an extensive territory, and the pope created him duke of Romagna. His +cruelty, his utter want of scruple, and his good fortune made him a +terror to all Italy. His avidity was insatiable and he could brook no +opposition; but, unlike his father, he was morose, silent and +unsympathetic. His next conquests were Camerino and Urbino, but his +power was now greatly shaken by the conspiracy of La Magione (a castle +near Perugia where the plotters met). Several of the princes deposed by +him, the Orsinis, and some of his own captains, such as Vitellozzo +Vitelli (q.v.), Oliverotto da Fermo, and G.P. Baglioni, who had been +given estates but feared to lose them, joined forces to conspire against +the Borgias. Risings broke out at Urbino and in Romagna, and the papal +troops were defeated; Cesare could find no allies, and it seemed as +though all Italy was about to turn against the hated family, when the +French king promised help, and this was enough to frighten the +confederates into coming to terms. Most of them had shown very little +political or military skill, and several were ready to betray each +other. But Cesare, while trusting no one, proved a match for them all. +During his operations in northern Romagna, Vitelli, Oliverotto, Paolo +Orsini, and the duke of Gravina, to show their repentance, seized +Senigallia, which still held for the duke of Urbino, in his name. Cesare +arrived at that town, decoyed the unsuspecting _condottieri_ into his +house, had them all arrested, and two of them, Vitelli and Oliverotto, +strangled (December 31, 1502). + +He was back in Rome early in 1503, and took part in reducing the last +rebel Orsinis. He was gathering troops for a new expedition in central +Italy in the summer, when both he and his father were simultaneously +seized with fever. The pope died on the 18th of August, while Cesare was +still incapacitated, and this unfortunate coincidence proved his ruin; +it was the one contingency for which he had not provided. On all sides +his enemies rose up against him; in Romagna the deposed princes prepared +to regain their own, and the Orsinis raised their heads once more in +Rome. Cesare's position was greatly shaken, and when he tried to +browbeat the cardinals by means of Don Michelotto and his bravos, they +refused to be intimidated; he had to leave Rome in September, trusting +that the Spanish cardinals would elect a candidate friendly to his +house. At the conclave Francesco Todeschini-Piccolomini was elected as +Pius III., and he showed every disposition to be peaceful and +respectable, but he was old and in bad health. Cesare's dominion at +once began to fall to pieces; Guidobaldo, duke of Urbino, returned to +his duchy with Venetian help; and the lords of Piombino, Rimini and +Pesaro soon regained their own; Cesena, defended by a governor faithful +to Cesare, alone held out. Pius III. died on the 18th of October 1503, +and a new conclave was held. Cesare, who could still count on the +Spanish cardinals, wished to prevent the election of Giuliano della +Rovere, the enemy of his house, but the latter's chances were so greatly +improved that it was necessary to come to terms with him. On the 1st of +November he was elected, and assumed the name of Julius II. He showed no +ill-will towards Cesare, but declared that the latter's territories must +be restored to the church, for "we desire the honour of recovering what +our predecessors have wrongfully alienated." Venice hoped to intervene +in Romagna and establish her protectorate over the principalities, but +this Julius was determined to prevent, and after trying in vain to use +Cesare as a means of keeping out the Venetians, he had him arrested. +Borgia's power was now at an end, and he was obliged to surrender all +his castles in Romagna save Cesena, Forli and Bettinoro, whose governors +refused to accept an order of surrender from a master who was a +prisoner. Finally, it was agreed that if Cesare were set at liberty he +would surrender the castles; this having been accomplished, he departed +for Naples, where the Spaniards were in possession. The Spanish +governor, Gonzalo de Cordova, had given him a safe-conduct, and he was +meditating fresh plans, when Gonzalo arrested him by the order of +Ferdinand of Spain as a disturber of the peace of Italy (May 1504). In +August he was sent to Spain, where he remained a prisoner for two years; +in November 1506 he made his escape, and fled to the court of his +brother-in-law, the king of Navarre, under whom he took service. While +besieging the castle of Viana, held by the rebellious count of Lerin, he +was killed (March 12, 1507). + +Cesare Borgia was a type of the adventurers with which the Italy of the +Renaissance swarmed, but he was cleverer and more unscrupulous than his +rivals. His methods of conquest were ferocious and treacherous; but once +the conquest was made he governed his subjects with firmness and +justice, so that his rule was preferred to the anarchy of factions and +local despots. But he was certainly not a man of genius, as has long +been imagined, and his success was chiefly due to the support of the +papacy; once his father was dead his career was at an end, and he could +no longer play a prominent part in Italian affairs. His fall proved on +how unsound a basis his system had been built up. + + The chief authorities for the life of Cesare Borgia are the same as + those of Alexander VI., especially M. Creighton's _History of the + Papacy_, vol. v. (London, 1897); F. Gregorovius's _Geschichte der + Stadt Rom_, vol. vii. (Stuttgart, 1881); and P. Villari's + _Machiavelli_ (London 1892); also C. Yriarte, _Cesar Borgia_ (Paris, + 1889), an admirable piece of writing; Schubert-Soldern, _Die Borgia + und ihre Zeit_ (Dresden, 1902), which contains the latest discoveries + on the subject; and E. Alvisi, _Cesare Borgia, Duca di Romagna_ + (Imola, 1878). (L. V.*) + + + + +BORGIA, FRANCIS (1510-1572), Roman Catholic saint, duke of Gandia, and +general of the order of Jesuits, was born at Gandia (Valencia) on the +10th of October 1510, and from boyhood was remarkable for his piety. +Educated from his twelfth year at Saragossa under the charge of his +uncle the archbishop, he had begun to show a strong inclination towards +the monastic life, when his father sent him in 1528 to the court of +Charles V. Here he distinguished himself, and on his marriage with +Eleanor de Castro, a Portuguese lady of high rank, he was created +marquis of Lombay, and was appointed master of the horse to the empress. +He accompanied Charles on his African expedition in 1535, and also into +Provence in 1536; and on the death of the empress in 1539 he was deputed +to convoy the body to the burial-place in Granada. This sad duty +confirmed his determination to leave the court, and also, should he +survive his consort, to embrace the monastic life. On his return to +Toledo, however, new honours were thrust upon him, much against his +will; he was made viceroy of Catalonia and commander of the order of St +James. At Barcelona, the seat of his government, he lived a life of +great austerity, but discharged his official duties with energy and +efficiency until 1543, when, having succeeded his father in the +dukedom, he at length obtained permission to resign his viceroyalty and +to retire to a more congenial mode of life at Gandia. Having already +held some correspondence with Ignatius Loyola, he now powerfully +encouraged the recently founded order of Jesus. One of his first cares +at Gandia was to build a Jesuit college; and on the death of Eleanor in +1546, he resolved to become himself a member of the society. The +difficulties arising from political and family circumstances were +removed by a papal dispensation, which allowed him, in the interests of +his young children, to retain his dignities and worldly possessions for +four years after taking the vows. In 1550 he visited Rome, where he was +received with every mark of distinction, and where he furnished the +means for building the Collegium Romanum. Returning to Spain in the +following year, he formally resigned his rank and estate in favour of +his eldest son, assumed the Jesuit habit, was ordained priest, and +entered upon a life of penance and prayer. At his own earnest request, +seconded by Loyola, a proposal that he should be created a cardinal by +Julius III. was departed from; and at the command of his superior he +employed himself in the work of itinerant preaching. In 1554 he was +appointed commissary-general of the order in Spain, Portugal and the +Indies, in which capacity he showed great activity, and was successful +in founding many new and thriving colleges. In 1556, shortly after +Charles V. retired, Borgia had an interview with him, but would not +yield to his inducements to transfer his allegiance to the older order +of Hieronymites. Some time afterwards Borgia was employed by Charles to +conduct negotiations with reference to a project which was to secure for +Don Carlos of Spain the Portuguese succession in the event of the death +of his cousin Don Sebastian. On the death of Lainez in 1565, Francis +Borgia was chosen to succeed him as third general of the Jesuits. In +this capacity he showed great zeal and administrative skill; and so +great was the progress of the society under his government that he has +sometimes been called "its second founder," The peculiarities which are +most characteristic of the order were, however, derived from Loyola and +Lainez, rather than from Borgia, whose ideal was a simple monasticism +rather than a life of manifold and influential contact with the world. +He died at Rome on the 30th of September 1572. He was beatified by Urban +VIII. in 1624, and canonized by Clement X. in 1671, his festival being +afterwards (1683) fixed by Innocent XI. for the 10th of October. + + Several works by St Francis Borgia have been published, the principal + of these being a series of _Exercises_ similar to the _Exercitia + Spiritualia_ of Loyola, and a treatise _Rhetorica Concionandi_. The + _Opera Omnia_ were published at Brussels in 1675. His life was written + by his confessor Pedro de Ribadeneira. See also A. Butler's _Lives of + the Saints_, and the _Breviarium Romanum_ (second nocturn for October + 10). + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th +Edition, Volume 4, Slice 2, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA *** + +***** This file should be named 33614.txt or 33614.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/3/6/1/33614/ + +Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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