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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Elements of Botany, by Asa Gray
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Elements of Botany
+       For Beginners and For Schools
+
+Author: Asa Gray
+
+Release Date: September 18, 2010 [EBook #33757]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ELEMENTS OF BOTANY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Curtis Weyant, Stephen H. Sentoff and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+GRAY'S LESSONS IN BOTANY
+
+REVISED EDITION
+
+
+
+
+THE
+ELEMENTS OF BOTANY
+
+FOR BEGINNERS AND FOR SCHOOLS
+
+
+By ASA GRAY
+
+
+
+
+IVISON, BLAKEMAN, AND COMPANY
+NEW YORK AND CHICAGO
+
+
+
+
+_Copyright_,
+By Asa Gray.
+1887.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+This volume takes the place of the author's Lessons in Botany and
+Vegetable Physiology, published over a quarter of a century ago. It is
+constructed on the same lines, and is a kind of new and much revised
+edition of that successful work. While in some respects more extended,
+it is also more concise and terse than its predecessor. This should the
+better fit it for its purpose now that competent teachers are common.
+They may in many cases develop paragraphs into lectures, and fully
+illustrate points which are barely, but it is hoped clearly, stated.
+Indeed, even for those without a teacher, it may be that a condensed is
+better than a diffuse exposition.
+
+The book is adapted to the higher schools, "How Plants Grow and Behave"
+being the "Botany for Young People and Common Schools." It is intended
+to ground beginners in Structural Botany and the principles of vegetable
+life, mainly as concerns Flowering or Phanerogamous plants, with which
+botanical instruction should always begin; also to be a companion and
+interpreter to the Manuals and Floras by which the student threads his
+flowery way to a clear knowledge of the surrounding vegetable creation.
+Such a book, like a grammar, must needs abound in technical words, which
+thus arrayed may seem formidable; nevertheless, if rightly apprehended,
+this treatise should teach that the study of botany is not the learning
+of names and terms, but the acquisition of knowledge and ideas. No
+effort should be made to commit technical terms to memory. Any term used
+in describing a plant or explaining its structure can be looked up when
+it is wanted, and that should suffice. On the other hand, plans of
+structure, types, adaptations, and modifications, once understood, are
+not readily forgotten; and they give meaning and interest to the
+technical terms used in explaining them.
+
+In these "Elements" naturally no mention has been made of certain terms
+and names which recent cryptogamically-minded botanists, with lack of
+proportion and just perspective, are endeavoring to introduce into
+phanerogamous botany, and which are not needed nor appropriate, even in
+more advanced works, for the adequate recognition of the ascertained
+analogies and homologies.
+
+As this volume will be the grammar and dictionary to more than one or
+two Manuals, Floras, etc., the particular directions for procedure which
+were given in the "First Lessons" are now relegated to those works
+themselves, which in their new editions will provide the requisite
+explanations. On the other hand, in view of such extended use, the
+Glossary at the end of this book has been considerably enlarged. It will
+be found to include not merely the common terms of botanical description
+but also many which are unusual or obsolete; yet any of them may now and
+then be encountered. Moreover, no small number of the Latin and Greek
+words which form the whole or part of the commoner specific names are
+added to this Glossary, some in an Anglicized, others in their Latin
+form. This may be helpful to students with small Latin and less Greek,
+in catching the meaning of a botanical name or term.
+
+The illustrations in this volume are largely increased in number. They
+are mostly from the hand of Isaac Sprague.
+
+It happens that the title chosen for this book is that of the author's
+earliest publication, in the year 1836, of which copies are rarely seen;
+so that no inconvenience is likely to arise from the present use of the
+name.
+
+                              ASA GRAY.
+
+                              Cambridge, Massachusetts,
+                              _March, 1887_.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                                  Page
+SECTION I. INTRODUCTORY                                              9
+
+
+SECTION II. FLAX AS A PATTERN PLANT                                 11
+
+  Growth from the Seed, Organs of Vegetation                        11
+  Blossoming, Flower, &c.                                           14
+
+
+SECTION III. MORPHOLOGY OF SEEDLINGS                                15
+
+  Germinating Maples                                                15
+  Cotyledons thickened, hypogaeous in germination                    18
+  Store of Food external to the Embryo                              20
+  Cotyledons as to number                                           22
+  Dicotyledonous and Polycotyledonous                               23
+  Monocotyledonous                                                  24
+  Simple-stemmed Plants                                             26
+
+
+SECTION IV. GROWTH FROM BUDS; BRANCHING                             27
+
+  Buds, situation and kinds                                         27
+  Vigorous vegetation from strong Buds                              28
+  Arrangement of Branches                                           29
+  Non-developed, Latent, and Accessory Buds                         30
+  Enumeration of kinds of Buds                                      31
+  Definite and Indefinite growth; Deliquescent and Excurrent        31
+
+
+SECTION V. ROOTS                                                    33
+
+  Primary and Secondary. Contrast between Stem and Root             34
+  Fibrous and Fleshy Roots; names of kinds                          34
+  Anomalous Roots. Epiphytic and Parasitic Plants                   36
+  Duration: Annuals, Biennials, Perennials                          37
+
+
+SECTION VI. STEMS                                                   38
+
+  Those above Ground: kinds and modifications                       39
+  Subterranean Stems and Branches                                   42
+  Rootstock                                                         42
+  Tuber                                                             44
+  Corm                                                              45
+  Bulb and Bulblets                                                 46
+  Consolidated Vegetation                                           47
+
+
+SECTION VII. LEAVES                                                 49
+
+  Sec. 1. LEAVES AS FOLIAGE                                         49
+
+    Parts and Venation                                              50
+    Forms as to general outline                                     52
+    As to apex and particular outline                               53
+    As to lobing or division                                        56
+    Compound, Perfoliate, and Equitant Leaves                       57
+    With no distinction of Petiole and Blade, Phyllodia, &c.        61
+
+  Sec. 2. LEAVES OF SPECIAL CONFORMATION AND USE                    62
+
+    Leaves for storage                                              62
+    Leaves as bud-scales                                            63
+      Spines                                                        64
+      and for Climbing                                              64
+    Pitchers                                                        64
+      and Fly-traps                                                 65
+
+  Sec. 3. STIPULES                                                  66
+
+  Sec. 4. THE ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES                                 67
+
+    Phyllotaxy                                                      67
+    Of Alternate Leaves                                             69
+    Of Opposite and Whorled Leaves                                  71
+    Vernation or Praefoliation                                      71
+
+
+SECTION VIII. FLOWERS                                               72
+
+  Sec. 1. POSITION AND ARRANGEMENT, INFLORESCENCE                   73
+
+    Raceme                                                          73
+    Corymb, Umbel, Spike, Head                                      74
+    Spadix, Catkin, or Ament                                        75
+    Panicle: Determinate Inflorescence                              76
+    Cyme, Fascicle, Glomerule, Scorpioid or Helicoid Cymes          77
+    Mixed Inflorescence                                             78
+
+  Sec. 2. PARTS OR ORGANS OF THE FLOWER                             79
+
+    Floral Envelopes: Perianth, Calyx, Corolla                      79
+    Essential Organs: Stamen, Pistil                                80
+    Torus or Receptacle                                             81
+
+  Sec. 3. PLAN OF THE FLOWER                                        81
+
+    When perfect, complete, regular, or symmetrical                 81
+    Numerical Plan and Alternation of Organs                        82
+    Flowers are altered branches                                    83
+
+  Sec. 4. MODIFICATIONS OF THE TYPE                                 85
+
+    Unisexual or diclinous                                          85
+    Incomplete, Irregular, and Unsymmetrical                        86
+    Flowers with Multiplication of Parts                            88
+    Flowers with Union of Parts: Coalescence                        88
+    Regular Forms                                                   89
+    Irregular Forms                                                 90
+    Papilionaceous                                                  91
+      Labiate                                                       92
+      and Ligulate Corollas                                         93
+    Adnation or Consolidation                                       94
+    Position of Flower or of its Parts                              96
+
+  Sec. 5. ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS IN THE BUD                           97
+
+    AEstivation or Praefloration, its kinds                         97
+
+
+SECTION IX. STAMENS IN PARTICULAR                                   98
+
+  Androecium                                                        98
+    Insertion, Relation, &c.                                        99
+  Anther and Filament. Pollen                                      101
+
+
+SECTION X. PISTILS IN PARTICULAR                                   105
+
+  Sec. 1. ANGIOSPERMOUS OR ORDINARY GYNOECIUM                      105
+
+    Parts of a complete Pistil                                     105
+    Carpels, Simple Pistil                                         106
+    Compound Pistil with Cells and Axile Placentae                 107
+    One-celled with Free Central Placenta                          108
+    One-celled with Parietal Placentae                             108
+
+  Sec. 2. GYMNOSPERMOUS GYNOECIUM                                  109
+
+
+SECTION XI. OVULES                                                 110
+
+  Their Parts, Insertion, and Kinds                                111
+
+
+SECTION XII. MODIFICATIONS OF THE RECEPTACLE                       112
+
+  Torus, Stipe, Carpophore, Disk                                   113
+
+
+SECTION XIII. FERTILIZATION                                        114
+
+  Sec. 1. ADAPTATIONS FOR POLLINATION OF THE STIGMA                114
+
+    Close and Cross Fertilization, Anemophilous and Entomophilous  115
+    Dichogamy and Heterogony                                       116
+
+  Sec. 2. ACTION OF THE POLLEN AND FORMATION OF THE EMBRYO         117
+
+
+SECTION XIV. THE FRUIT                                             117
+
+  Nature and kinds                                                 118
+  Berry, Pepo, Pome                                                119
+  Drupe and Akene                                                  120
+  Cremocarp, Caryopsis, Nut                                        121
+  Follicle, Legume, Capsule                                        122
+  Capsular Dehiscence, Silique and Silicle                         123
+  Pyxis, Strobile or Cone                                          124
+
+
+SECTION XV. THE SEED                                               125
+
+  Seed-coats and their appendages                                  125
+  The Kernel or Nucleus, Embryo and its parts, Albumen             127
+
+
+SECTION XVI. VEGETABLE LIFE AND WORK                               128
+
+  Sec. 1. ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE AND GROWTH                          129
+
+    Nature of Growth, Protoplasm                                   129
+    Cells and Cell-walls. Cellular Structure or Tissue             130
+    Strengthening Cells. Wood, Wood-cells, Vessels or Ducts        132
+
+  Sec. 2. CELL-CONTENTS                                            136
+
+    Sap, Chlorophyll, Starch                                       136
+    Crystals, Rhaphides                                            137
+
+  Sec. 3. ANATOMY OF ROOTS AND STEMS                               138
+
+    Endogenous and Exogenous Stems                                 139
+    Particular structure of the latter                             140
+    Wood, Sapwood and Heart-wood. The living parts of a Tree       141
+
+  Sec. 4. ANATOMY OF LEAVES                                        142
+
+    Epidermis, Stomata or Breathing pores                          143
+
+  Sec. 5. PLANT FOOD AND ASSIMILATION                              144
+
+  Sec. 6. PLANT WORK AND MOVEMENT                                  149
+
+    Movements in Cells or Cyclosis                                 149
+    Transference from Cell to Cell                                 150
+    Movements of Organs, Twining Stems, Leaf-movements             150
+    Movements of Tendrils, Sensitiveness                           152
+    Movements in Flowers                                           153
+    Movements for capture of Insects                               154
+    Work costs, using up Material and Energy                       155
+
+
+SECTION XVII. CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS                    156
+
+  Vascular Cryptogams, Pteridophytes                               156
+  Horsetails (Equisetaceae), Ferns                                 157
+  Club-Mosses (Lycopodium), &c.                                    161
+  Quillworts (Isoetes), Pillworts (Marsilia)                       161
+  Azolla. Cellular Cryptogams                                      162
+  Bryophytes. Mosses (Musci)                                       163
+  Liverworts (Hepaticae)                                           164
+  Thallophytes                                                     165
+  Characeae                                                        167
+  Algae, Seaweeds, &c.                                             168
+  Lichenes or Lichens                                              171
+  Fungi                                                            172
+
+
+SECTION XVIII. CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE                     175
+
+  Sec. 1. KINDS AND RELATIONSHIP                                   175
+
+    Species, Varieties, Individuals                                176
+    Genera, Orders, Classes, &c.                                   177
+
+  Sec. 2. NAMES, TERMS AND CHARACTERS                              178
+
+    Nomenclature of Genera, Species, and Varieties                 179
+    Nomenclature of Orders, Classes, &c. Terminology               180
+
+  Sec. 3. SYSTEM                                                   181
+
+    Artificial and Natural                                         182
+    Synopsis of Series, Classes, &c.                               183
+
+
+SECTION XIX. BOTANICAL WORK                                        184
+
+  Sec. 1. COLLECTION OR HERBORIZATION                              184
+
+  Sec. 2. HERBARIUM                                                186
+
+  Sec. 3. INVESTIGATION AND DETERMINATION OF PLANTS                187
+
+  Sec. 4. SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS                                  188
+
+
+ABBREVIATIONS OF THE NAMES OF BOTANISTS                            190
+
+
+GLOSSARY COMBINED WITH INDEX                                       193
+
+
+
+
+ELEMENTS OF BOTANY.
+
+
+
+
+Section I. INTRODUCTORY.
+
+
+1. BOTANY is the name of the science of the vegetable kingdom in
+general; that is, of plants.
+
+2. Plants may be studied as to their kinds and relationships. This study
+is SYSTEMATIC BOTANY. An enumeration of the kinds of vegetables, as far
+as known, classified according to their various degrees of resemblance
+or difference, constitutes a general _System of plants_. A similar
+account of the vegetables of any particular country or district is
+called a _Flora_.
+
+3. Plants may be studied as to their structure and parts. This is
+STRUCTURAL BOTANY, or ORGANOGRAPHY. The study of the organs or parts of
+plants in regard to the different forms and different uses which the
+same kind of organ may assume,--the comparison, for instance, of a
+flower-leaf or a bud-scale with a common leaf,--is VEGETABLE MORPHOLOGY,
+or MORPHOLOGICAL BOTANY. The study of the minute structure of the parts,
+to learn by the microscope what they themselves are formed of, is
+VEGETABLE ANATOMY, or HISTOLOGY; in other words, it is Microscopical
+Structural Botany. The study of the actions of plants or of their parts,
+of the ways in which a plant lives, grows, and acts, is the province of
+PHYSIOLOGICAL BOTANY, or VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY.
+
+4. This book is to teach the outlines of Structural Botany and of the
+simpler parts of the physiology of plants, that it may be known how
+plants are constructed and adapted to their surroundings, and how they
+live, move, propagate, and have their being in an existence no less
+real, although more simple, than that of the animal creation which they
+support. Particularly, this book is to teach the principles of the
+structure and relationships of plants, the nature and names of their
+parts and their modifications, and so to prepare for the study of
+Systematic Botany; in which the learner may ascertain the name and the
+place in the system of any or all of the ordinary plants within reach,
+whether wild or cultivated. And in ascertaining the name of any plant,
+the student, if rightly taught, will come to know all about its general
+or particular structure, rank, and relationship to other plants.
+
+5. The vegetable kingdom is so vast and various, and the difference is
+so wide between ordinary trees, shrubs, and herbs on the one hand, and
+mosses, moulds, and such like on the other, that it is hardly possible
+to frame an intelligible account of plants as a whole without
+contradictions or misstatements, or endless and troublesome
+qualifications. If we say that plants come from seeds, bear flowers, and
+have roots, stems, and leaves, this is not true of the lower orders. It
+is best for the beginner, therefore, to treat of the higher orders of
+plants by themselves, without particular reference to the lower.
+
+6. Let it be understood, accordingly, that there is a higher and a lower
+series of plants; namely:--
+
+PHANEROGAMOUS PLANTS, which come from seed and bear _flowers_,
+essentially stamens and pistils, through the co-operation of which seed
+is produced. For shortness, these are commonly called PHANEROGAMS, or
+_Phaenogams_, or by the equivalent English name of FLOWERING PLANTS.[1]
+
+CRYPTOGAMOUS PLANTS, or CRYPTOGAMS, come from minute bodies, which
+answer to seeds, but are of much simpler structure, and such plants have
+not stamens and pistils. Therefore they are called in English FLOWERLESS
+PLANTS. Such are Ferns, Mosses, Algae or Seaweeds, Fungi, etc. These
+sorts have each to be studied separately, for each class or order has a
+plan of its own.
+
+7. But Phanerogamous, or Flowering, Plants are all constructed on one
+plan, or _type_. That is, taking almost any ordinary herb, shrub, or
+tree for a pattern, it will exemplify the whole series: the parts of one
+plant answer to the parts of any other, with only certain differences in
+particulars. And the occupation and the delight of the scientific
+botanist is in tracing out this common plan, in detecting the likenesses
+under all the diversities, and in noting the meaning of these manifold
+diversities. So the attentive study of any one plant, from its growth
+out of the seed to the flowering and fruiting state and the production
+of seed like to that from which the plant grew, would not only give a
+correct general idea of the structure, growth, and characteristics of
+Flowering Plants in general, but also serve as a pattern or standard of
+comparison. Some plants will serve this purpose of a pattern much better
+than others. A proper pattern will be one that is perfect in the sense
+of having all the principal parts of a phanerogamous plant, and simple
+and regular in having these parts free from complications or disguises.
+The common Flax-plant may very well serve this purpose. Being an annual,
+it has the advantage of being easily raised and carried in a short time
+through its circle of existence, from seedling to fruit and seed.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The name is sometimes _Phanerogamous_, sometimes _Phaenogamous_
+(_Phanerogams_, or _Phaenogams_), terms of the same meaning
+etymologically; the former of preferable form, but the latter shorter.
+The meaning of such terms is explained in the Glossary.
+
+
+
+
+Section II. FLAX AS A PATTERN PLANT.
+
+
+8. =Growth from the Seed.= Phanerogamous plants grow from seed, and
+their flowers are destined to the production of seeds. A seed has a
+rudimentary plant ready formed in it,--sometimes with the two most
+essential parts, i. e. stem and leaf, plainly discernible; sometimes
+with no obvious distinction of organs until germination begins. This
+incipient plant is called an EMBRYO.
+
+9. In this section the Flax-plant is taken as a specimen, or type, and
+the development and history of common plants in general is illustrated
+by it. In flax-seed the embryo nearly fills the coats, but not quite.
+There is a small deposit of nourishment between the seed-coat and the
+embryo: this may for the present be left out of the account. This embryo
+consists of a pair of leaves, pressed together face to face, and
+attached to an extremely short stem. (Fig. 2-4.) In this rudimentary
+condition the real nature of the parts is not at once apparent; but when
+the seed grows they promptly reveal their character,--as the
+accompanying figures (Fig. 5-7) show.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 1. Pod of Flax. 2. Section lengthwise, showing two
+of the seeds; one whole, the other cut half away, bringing contained
+embryo into view. 3. Similar section of a flax-seed more magnified and
+divided flatwise; turned round, so that the stem-end (caulicle) of the
+embryo is below: the whole broad upper part is the inner face of one of
+the cotyledons; the minute nick at its base is the plumule. 4. Similar
+section through a seed turned edgewise, showing the thickness of the
+cotyledons, and the minute plumule between them, i. e. the minute bud on
+the upper end of the caulicle.]
+
+10. Before the nature of these parts in the seed was altogether
+understood, technical names were given to them, which are still in use.
+These initial leaves were named COTYLEDONS. The initial stem on which
+they stand was called the RADICLE. That was because it gives rise to the
+first root; but, as it is really the beginning of the stem, and because
+it is the stem that produces the root and not the root that produces the
+stem, it is better to name it the CAULICLE. Recently it has been named
+_Hypocotyle_; which signifies something below the cotyledons, without
+pronouncing what its nature is.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 5. Early Flax seedling; stem (caulicle), root at
+lower end, expanded seed-leaves (cotyledons) at the other: minute bud
+(plumule) between these. 6. Same later; the bud developed into second
+pair of leaves, with hardly any stem-part below them; then into a third
+pair of leaves, raised on a short joint of stem; and a fifth leaf also
+showing. 7. Same still older, with more leaves developed, but these
+singly (one after another), and with joints of stem between them.]
+
+11. On committing these seeds to moist and warm soil they soon sprout,
+i. e. _germinate_. The very short stem-part of the embryo is the first
+to grow. It lengthens, protrudes its root-end; this turns downward, if
+not already pointing in that direction, and while it is lengthening a
+root forms at its point and grows downward into the ground. This root
+continues to grow on from its lower end, and thus insinuates itself and
+penetrates into the soil. The stem meanwhile is adding to its length
+throughout; it erects itself, and, seeking the light, brings the seed up
+out of the ground. The materials for this growth have been supplied by
+the cotyledons or seed-leaves, still in the seed: it was the store of
+nourishing material they held which gave them their thickish shape, so
+unlike that of ordinary leaves. Now, relieved of a part of this store of
+food, which has formed the growth by which they have been raised into
+the air and light, they appropriate the remainder to their own growth.
+In enlarging they open and throw off the seed-husk; they expand, diverge
+into a horizontal position, turn green, and thus become a pair of
+evident leaves, the first foliage of a tiny plant. This seedling,
+although diminutive and most simple, possesses and puts into use, all
+the ORGANS of VEGETATION, namely, root, stem, and leaves, each in its
+proper element,--the root in the soil, the stem rising out of it, the
+leaves in the light and open air. It now draws in moisture and some
+food-materials from the soil by its root, conveys this through the stem
+into the leaves, where these materials, along with other crude food
+which these imbibe from the air, are assimilated into vegetable matter,
+i. e. into the material for further growth.
+
+12. =Further Growth= soon proceeds to the formation of new
+parts,--downward in the production of more root, or of branches of the
+main root, upward in the development of more stem and leaves. That from
+which a stem with its leaves is continued, or a new stem (i. e. branch)
+originated, is a BUD. The most conspicuous and familiar buds are those
+of most shrubs and trees, bearing buds formed in summer or autumn, to
+grow the following spring. But every such point for new growth may
+equally bear the name. When there is such a bud between the cotyledons
+in the seed or seedling it is called the PLUMULE. This is conspicuous
+enough in a bean (Fig. 29.), where the young leaf of the new growth
+looks like a little plume, whence the name, _plumule_. In flax-seed this
+is very minute indeed, but is discernible with a magnifier, and in the
+seedling it shows itself distinctly (Fig. 5, 6, 7).
+
+13. As it grows it shapes itself into a second pair of leaves, which of
+course rests on a second joint of stem, although in this instance that
+remains too short to be well seen. Upon its summit appears the third
+pair of leaves, soon to be raised upon its proper joint of stem; the
+next leaf is single, and is carried up still further upon its supporting
+joint of stem; and so on. The root, meanwhile, continues to grow
+underground, not joint after joint, but continuously, from its lower
+end; and commonly it before long multiplies itself by branches, which
+lengthen by the same continuous growth. But stems are built up by a
+succession of leaf-bearing growths, such as are strongly marked in a
+reed or corn-stalk, and less so in such an herb as Flax. The word
+"joint" is ambiguous: it may mean either the portion between successive
+leaves, or their junction, where the leaves are attached. For precision,
+therefore, the place where the leaf or leaves are borne is called a
+NODE, and the naked interval between two nodes, an INTERNODE.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 8. Upper part of Flax-plant in blossom.]
+
+14. In this way a simple stem with its garniture of leaves is developed
+from the seed. But besides this direct continuation, buds may form and
+develop into lateral stems, that is, _into branches_, from any node. The
+proper origin of branches is from the AXIL of a leaf, i. e. the angle
+between leaf and stem on the upper side; and branches may again branch,
+so building up the herb, shrub, or tree. But sooner or later, and
+without long delay in an annual like Flax, instead of this continuance
+of mere vegetation, reproduction is prepared for by
+
+15. =Blossoming.= In Flax the flowers make their appearance at the end
+of the stem and branches. The growth, which otherwise might continue
+them farther or indefinitely, now takes the form of blossom, and is
+subservient to the production of seed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 9. Flax-flowers about natural size. 10. Section of a
+flower moderately enlarged, showing a part of the petals and stamens,
+all five styles, and a section of ovary with two ovules or rudimentary
+seeds.]
+
+16. =The Flower= of Flax consists, first, of five small green leaves,
+crowded into a circle: this is the CALYX, or flower-cup. When its
+separate leaves are referred to they are called SEPALS, a name which
+distinguishes them from foliage-leaves on the one hand, and from petals
+on the other. Then come five delicate and _colored_ leaves (in the Flax,
+blue), which form the COROLLA, and its leaves are PETALS; then a circle
+of organs, in which all likeness to leaves is lost, consisting of
+slender stalks with a knob at summit, the STAMENS; and lastly, in the
+centre, the rounded body, which becomes a pod, surmounted by five
+slender or stalk-like bodies. This, all together, is the PISTIL. The
+lower part of it, which is to contain the seeds, is the OVARY; the
+slender organs surmounting this are STYLES; the knob borne on the apex
+of each style is a STIGMA. Going back to the stamens, these are of two
+parts, viz. the stalk, called FILAMENT, and the body it bears, the
+ANTHER. Anthers are filled with POLLEN, a powdery substance made up of
+minute grains.
+
+17. The pollen shed from the anthers when they open falls upon or is
+conveyed to the stigmas; then the pollen-grains set up a kind of growth
+(to be discerned only by aid of a good microscope), which penetrates the
+style: this growth takes the form of a thread more delicate than the
+finest spider's web, and reaches the bodies which are to become seeds
+(OVULES they are called until this change occurs); these, touched by
+this influence, are incited to a new growth within, which becomes an
+embryo. So, as the ovary ripens into the seed-pod or capsule (Fig. 1,
+etc.) containing seeds, each seed enclosing a rudimentary new plantlet,
+the round of this vegetable existence is completed.
+
+
+
+
+Section III. MORPHOLOGY OF SEEDLINGS.
+
+
+18. Having obtained a general idea of the growth and parts of a
+phanerogamous plant from the common Flax of the field, the seeds and
+seedlings of other familiar plants may be taken up, and their variations
+from the assumed pattern examined.
+
+19. =Germinating Maples= are excellent to begin with, the parts being so
+much larger than in Flax that a common magnifying glass, although
+convenient, is hardly necessary. The only disadvantage is that fresh
+seeds are not readily to be had at all seasons.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 11. Embryo of Sugar Maple, cut through lengthwise
+and taken out of the seed. 12, 13. Whole embryo of same just beginning
+to grow; _a_, the stemlet or caulicle, which in 13 has considerably
+lengthened.]
+
+20. The seeds of Sugar Maple ripen at the end of summer, and germinate
+in early spring. The embryo fills the whole seed, in which it is nicely
+packed; and the nature of the parts is obvious even before growth
+begins. There is a stemlet (caulicle) and a pair of long and narrow
+seed-leaves (cotyledons), doubled up and coiled, green even in the seed,
+and in germination at once unfolding into the first pair of
+foliage-leaves, though of shape quite unlike those that follow.
+
+21. Red Maple seeds are ripe and ready to germinate at the beginning of
+summer, and are therefore more convenient for study. The cotyledons are
+crumpled in the seed, and not easy to straighten out until they unfold
+themselves in germination. The story of their development into the
+seedling is told by the accompanying Fig. 14-20; and that of Sugar Maple
+is closely similar. No plumule or bud appears in the embryo of these two
+Maples until the seed-leaves have nearly attained their full growth and
+are acting as foliage-leaves, and until a root is formed below. There is
+no great store of nourishment in these thin cotyledons; so further
+growth has to wait until the root and seed-leaves have collected and
+elaborated sufficient material for the formation of the second internode
+and its pair of leaves, which lending their help the third pair is more
+promptly produced, and so on.
+
+22. Some change in the plan comes with the Silver or Soft White Maple.
+(Fig. 21-25). This blossoms in earliest spring, and it drops its large
+and ripened keys only a few weeks later. Its cotyledons have not at all
+the appearance of leaves; they are short and broad, and (as there is no
+room to be saved by folding) they are straight, except a small fold at
+the top,--a vestige of the habit of Maples in general. Their unusual
+thickness is due to the large store of nutritive matter they contain,
+and this prevents their developing into actual leaves. Correspondingly,
+their caulicle does not lengthen to elevate them above the surface of
+the soil; the growth below the cotyledons is nearly all of root. It is
+the little plumule or bud between them which makes the upward growth,
+and which, being well fed by the cotyledons, rapidly develops the next
+pair of leaves and raises them upon a long internode, and so on. The
+cotyledons all the while remain below, in the husk of the fruit and
+seed, and perish when they have yielded up the store of food which they
+contained.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 14. One of the pair of keys or winged fruits of Red
+Maple; the seed-bearing portion cut open to show the seed. 15. Seed
+enlarged, and divided to show the crumpled embryo which fills it. 16.
+Embryo taken out and partly opened. 17. Embryo which has unfolded in
+early stage of germination and begun to grow. 18. Seedling with next
+joint of stem and leaves apparent; and 19 with these parts full-grown,
+and bud at apex for further growth. 20. Seedling with another joint of
+stem and pair of leaves.]
+
+23. So, even in plants so much alike as Maples, there is considerable
+difference in the amount of food stored up in the cotyledons by which
+the growth is to be made; and there are corresponding differences in the
+germination. The larger the supply to draw upon, the stronger the
+growth, and the quicker the formation of root below and of stem and
+leaves above. This deposit of food thickens the cotyledons, and renders
+them less and less leaf-like in proportion to its amount.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 21. Fruit (one key) of Silver Maple, Acer
+dasycarpum, of natural size, the seed-bearing portion divided to show
+the seed. 22. Embryo of the seed taken out. 23. Same opened out, to show
+the thick cotyledons and the little plumule or bud between them. 24.
+Germination of Silver Maple, natural size; merely the base of the fruit,
+containing the seed, is shown. 25. Embryo of same, taken out of the
+husk; upper part of growing stem cut off, for want of room.]
+
+24. =Examples of Embryos with thickened Cotyledons.= In the Pumpkin and
+Squash (Fig. 26, 27), the cotyledons are well supplied with nourishing
+matter, as their sweet taste demonstrates. Still, they are flat and not
+very thick. In germination this store is promptly utilized in the
+development of the caulicle to twenty or thirty times its length in the
+seed, and to corresponding thickness, in the formation of a cluster of
+roots at its lower end, and the early production of the incipient
+plumule; also in their own growth into efficient green leaves. The case
+of our common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris, Fig. 28-30) is nearly the same,
+except that the cotyledons are much more gorged; so that, although
+carried up into the air and light upon the lengthening caulicle, and
+there acquiring a green color, they never expand into useful leaves.
+Instead of this, they nourish into rapid growth the plumule, which is
+plainly visible in the seed, as a pair of incipient leaves; and these
+form the first actual foliage.
+
+25. Very similar is the germination of the Beech (Fig. 31-33), except
+that the caulicle lengthens less, hardly raising the cotyledons out of
+the ground. Nothing would be gained by elevating them, as they never
+grow out into efficient leaves; but the joint of stem belonging to the
+plumule lengthens well, carrying up its pair of real foliage-leaves.
+
+26. It is nearly the same in the Bean of the Old World (Vicia Faba, here
+called Horse Bean and Windsor Bean): the caulicle lengthens very little,
+does not undertake to elevate the heavy seed, which is left below or
+upon the surface of the soil, the flat but thick cotyledons remaining
+in it, and supplying food for the growth of the root below and the
+plumule above. In its near relative, the Pea (Fig. 34, 35), this use of
+cotyledons for storage only is most completely carried out. For they are
+thickened to the utmost, even into hemispheres; the caulicle does not
+lengthen at all; merely sends out roots from the lower end, and develops
+its strong plumule from the upper, the seed remaining unmoved
+underground. That is, in technical language, the germination is
+_hypogaeous_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 26. Embryo of Pumpkin-seed, partly opened. 27. Young
+seedling of same.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 28. Embryo of Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris):
+caulicle bent down over edge of cotyledons. 29. Same germinating:
+caulicle well lengthened and root beginning; thick cotyledons partly
+spreading; and plumule (pair of leaves) growing between them. 30. Same,
+older, with plumule developed into internode and pair of leaves.]
+
+27. There is sufficient nourishment in the cotyledons of a pea to make a
+very considerable growth before any actual foliage is required. So it is
+the stem-portion of the plumule which is at first conspicuous and
+strong-growing. Here, as seen in Fig. 35, its lower nodes bear each a
+useless leaf-scale instead of an efficient leaf, and only the later ones
+bear leaves fitted for foliage.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 31. A Beech-nut, cut across. 32. Beginning
+germination of the Beech, showing the plumule growing before the
+cotyledons have opened or the root has scarcely formed. 33. The same, a
+little later, with the plumule-leaves developing, and elevated on a long
+internode.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 34. Embryo of Pea, i. e. a pea with the coats
+removed; the short and thick caulicle presented to view. 35. Same in
+advanced germination: the plumule has developed four or five internodes,
+bearing single leaves; but the first and second leaves are mere scales,
+the third begins to serve as foliage; the next more so.]
+
+28. This _hypogaeous_ germination is exemplified on a larger scale by the
+Oak (Fig. 36, 37) and Horse-chestnut (Fig. 38, 39); but in these the
+downward growth is wholly a stout tap-root. It is not the caulicle; for
+this lengthens hardly any. Indeed, the earliest growth which carries the
+very short caulicle out of the shell comes from the formation of
+foot-stalks to the cotyledons; above these develops the strong plumule,
+below grows the stout root. The growth is at first entirely, for a long
+time mainly, at the expense of the great store of food in the
+cotyledons. These, after serving their purpose, decay and fall away.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 36. Half of an acorn, cut lengthwise, filled by the
+very thick cotyledons, the base of which encloses the minute caulicle.
+37. Oak-seedling.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 38. Half of a horse-chestnut, similarly cut; the
+caulicle is curved down on the side of one of the thick cotyledons. 39.
+Horse-chestnut in germination; foot-stalks are formed to the cotyledons,
+pushing out in their lengthening the growing parts.]
+
+29. Such thick cotyledons never separate; indeed, they sometimes grow
+together by some part of their contiguous faces; so that the germination
+seems to proceed from a solid bulb-like mass. This is the case in a
+horse-chestnut.
+
+30. =Germinating Embryo supplied by its own Store of Nourishment=, i. e.
+the store in the cotyledons. This is so in all the illustrations thus
+far, essentially so even in the Flax. This nourishment was supplied by
+the mother plant to the ovule and seed, and thence taken into the embryo
+during its growth. Such embryos, filling the whole seed, are
+comparatively large and strong, and vigorous in germination in
+proportion to the amount of their growth while connected with the parent
+plant.
+
+31. =Germinating Embryo supplied from a Deposit outside of Itself.= This
+is as common as the other mode; and it occurs in all degrees. Some
+seeds have very little of this deposit, but a comparatively large
+embryo, with its parts more or less developed and recognizable. In
+others this deposit forms the main bulk of the seed, and the embryo is
+small or minute, and comparatively rudimentary. The following
+illustrations exemplify these various grades. When an embryo in a seed
+is thus surrounded by a white substance, it was natural to liken the
+latter to the white of an egg, and the embryo or germ to the yolk. So
+the matter around or by the side of the embryo was called the _Albumen_,
+i. e. the white of the seed. The analogy is not very good; and to avoid
+ambiguity some botanists call it the ENDOSPERM. As that means in English
+merely the inwards of a seed, the new name is little better than the old
+one; and, since we do not change names in botany except when it cannot
+be avoided, this name of _albumen_ is generally kept up. A seed with
+such a deposit is _albuminous_, one with none is _exalbuminous_.
+
+32. The ALBUMEN forms the main bulk of the seed in wheat, maize, rice,
+buckwheat, and the like. It is the floury part of the seed. Also of the
+cocoa-nut, of coffee (where it is dense and hard), etc.; while in peas,
+beans, almonds, and in most edible nuts, the store of food, although
+essentially the same in nature and in use, is in the embryo itself, and
+therefore is not counted as anything to be separately named. In both
+forms this concentrated food for the germinating plant is food also for
+man and for animals.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 40. Seed of Morning Glory divided, moderately
+magnified; shows a longitudinal section through the centre of the embryo
+as it lies crumpled in the albumen. 41. Embryo taken out whole and
+unfolded; the broad and very thin cotyledons notched at summit; the
+caulicle below. 42. Early state of germination. 43. Same, more advanced;
+caulicle or primary stem, cotyledons or seed-leaves, and below, the
+root, well developed.]
+
+33. For an albuminous seed with a well-developed embryo, the common
+Morning Glory (Ipomoea purpurea, Fig. 40-43) is a convenient example,
+being easy and prompt to grow, and having all the parts well apparent.
+The seeds (duly soaked for examination) and the germination should be
+compared with those of Sugar and Red Maple (19-21). The only essential
+difference is that here the embryo is surrounded by and crumpled up in
+the albumen. This substance, which is pulpy or mucilaginous in fresh and
+young seeds, hardens as the seed ripens, but becomes again pulpy in
+germination; and, as it liquefies, the thin cotyledons absorb it by
+their whole surface. It supplements the nutritive matter contained in
+the embryo. Both together form no large store, but sufficient for
+establishing the seedling, with tiny root, stem, and pair of leaves for
+initiating its independent growth; which in due time proceeds as in Fig.
+44, 45.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 44. Seedling of Morning Glory more advanced (root
+cut away); cotyledons well developed into foliage-leaves: succeeding
+internode and leaf well developed, and the next forming. 45. Seedling
+more advanced; reduced to much below natural size.]
+
+34. Smaller embryos, less developed in the seed, are more dependent upon
+the extraneous supply of food. The figures 46-53 illustrate four grades
+in this respect. The smallest, that of the Peony, is still large enough
+to be seen with a hand magnifying glass, and even its cotyledons may be
+discerned by the aid of a simple stage microscope.
+
+35. The broad cotyledons of Mirabilis, or Four-o'clock (Fig. 52, 53),
+with the slender caulicle almost encircle and enclose the floury
+albumen, instead of being enclosed in it, as in the other illustrations.
+Evidently here the germinating embryo is principally fed by one of the
+leaf-like cotyledons, the other being out of contact with the supply. In
+the embryo of Abronia (Fig. 54, 55), a near relative of Mirabilis, there
+is a singular modification; one cotyledon is almost wanting, being
+reduced to a rudiment, leaving it for the other to do the work. This
+leads to the question of the
+
+36. =Number of Cotyledons.= In all the preceding illustrations, the
+embryo, however different in shape and degree of development, is
+evidently constructed upon one and the same plan, namely, that of two
+leaves on a caulicle or initial stem,--a plan which is obvious even when
+one cotyledon becomes very much smaller than the other, as in the rare
+instance of Abronia (Fig. 54, 55). In other words, the embryos so far
+examined are all
+
+37. =Dicotyledonous=, that is, two-cotyledoned. Plants which are thus
+similar in the plan of the embryo agree likewise in the general
+structure of their stems, leaves, and blossoms; and thus form a class,
+named from their embryo DICOTYLEDONES, or in English, DICOTYLEDONOUS
+PLANTS. So long a name being inconvenient, it may be shortened into
+DICOTYLS.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 46. Section of a seed of a Peony, showing a very
+small embryo in the albumen, near one end. 47. This embryo detached, and
+more magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 48. Section of a seed of Barberry, showing the
+straight embryo in the middle of the albumen. 49. Its embryo detached.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 50. Section of a Potato seed, showing the embryo
+coiled in the albumen. 51. Its embryo detached.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 52. Section of the seed of Mirabilis or
+Four-o'clock, showing the embryo coiled round the outside of the
+albumen. 53. Embryo detached; showing the very broad and leaf-like
+cotyledons, applied face to face, and the pair incurved.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 54. Embryo of Abronia umbellata; one of the
+cotyledons very small. 55. Same straightened out.]
+
+38. =Polycotyledonous= is a name employed for the less usual case in
+which there are more than two cotyledons. The Pine is the most familiar
+case. This occurs in all Pines, the number of cotyledons varying from
+three to twelve; in Fig. 56, 57 they are six. Note that they are all on
+the same level, that is, belong to the same node, so as to form a circle
+or _whorl_ at the summit of the caulicle. When there are only three
+cotyledons, they divide the space equally, are one third of the circle
+apart. When only two they are 180 deg. apart, that is, are _opposite_.
+
+39. The case of three or more cotyledons, which is constant in Pines and
+in some of their relatives (but not in all of them), is occasional among
+Dicotyls. And the polycotyledonous is only a variation of the
+dicotyledonous type,--a difference in the number of leaves in the whorl;
+for a pair is a whorl reduced to two members. Some suppose that there
+are really only two cotyledons even in a Pine embryo, but these divided
+or split up congenitally so as to imitate a greater number. But as
+leaves are often in whorls on ordinary stems, they may be so at the very
+beginning.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 56. Section of a Pine-seed, showing its
+polycotyledonous embryo in the centre of the albumen, moderately
+magnified. 57. Seedling of same, showing the freshly expanded six
+cotyledons in a whorl, and the plumule just appearing.]
+
+40. =Monocotyledonous= (meaning with single cotyledon) is the name of
+the one-cotyledoned sort of embryo. This goes along with peculiarities
+in stem, leaves, and flowers, which all together associate such plants
+into a great class, called MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS, or, for shortness,
+MONOCOTYLS. It means merely that the leaves are alternate from the very
+first.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 58. Section of a seed of the Iris, or
+Flower-de-Luce, enlarged, showing its small embryo in the albumen, near
+the bottom. 59. A germinating seedling of the same, its plumule
+developed into the first four leaves (alternate), the first one
+rudimentary, the cotyledon remains in the seed.]
+
+41. In Iris (Fig. 58, 59) the embryo in the seed is a small cylinder at
+one end of the mass of the albumen, with no apparent distinction of
+parts. The end which almost touches the seed coat is caulicle, the other
+end belongs to the solitary cotyledon. In germination the whole
+lengthens (but mainly the cotyledon) only enough to push the proximate
+end fairly out of the seed; from this end the root is formed, and from a
+little higher the plumule later emerges. It would appear therefore that
+the cotyledon answers to a minute leaf rolled up, and that a chink
+through which the plumule grows out is a part of the inrolled edges. The
+embryo of Indian Corn shows these parts on a larger scale and in a more
+open state (Fig. 66-68). There, in the seed, the cotyledon remains,
+imbibing nourishment from the softened albumen, and transmitting it to
+the growing root below and new-forming leaves above.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 60. Section of an Onion seed showing the slender and
+coiled embryo in the albumen, moderately magnified. 61. Seed of same in
+early germination.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 62. Germinating Onion, more advanced, the chink at
+base of cotyledon opening for the protrusion of the plumule, consisting
+of a thread-shaped leaf. 63. Section of base of Fig. 62, showing plumule
+enclosed. 64. Section of same later, plumule emerging. 65. Later stage
+of 62, upper part cut off. 66. A grain of Indian Corn, flatwise, cut
+away a little, so as to show the embryo, lying on the albumen which
+makes the principal bulk of the seed. 67. A grain cut through the middle
+in the opposite direction, dividing the embryo through its thick
+cotyledon and its plumule, the latter consisting of two leaves, one
+enclosing the other. 68. The embryo taken out whole; the thick mass is
+the cotyledon, the narrow body partly enclosed by it is the plumule, the
+little projection at its base is the very short radicle enclosed in the
+sheathing base of the first leaf of the plumule.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 69. Grain of Indian Corn in germination, the
+ascending sprout is the first leaf of the plumule, enclosing the younger
+leaves within, at its base the primary root has broken through. 70. The
+same, advanced; the second and third leaves developing, while the
+sheathing first leaf does not further develop.]
+
+42. The general plan is the same in the Onion (Fig. 60-65), but with a
+striking difference. The embryo is long, and coiled in the albumen of
+the seed. To ordinary examination it shows no distinction of parts. But
+germination plainly shows that all except the lower end of it is
+cotyledon. For after it has lengthened into a long thread, the chink
+from which the plumule in time emerges is seen at the base, or near it,
+so the caulicle is extremely short, and does not elongate, but sends out
+from its base a simple root, and afterwards others in a cluster. Not
+only does the cotyledon lengthen enormously in the seedling, but (unlike
+that of Iris, Indian Corn, and all the cereal grains) it raises the
+comparatively light seed into the air, the tip still remaining in the
+seed and feeding upon the albumen. When this food is exhausted and the
+seedling is well established in the soil, the upper end decays and the
+emptied husk of the seed falls away.
+
+43. In Maize or Indian Corn (Fig. 66-70), the embryo is more developed
+in the seed, and its parts can be made out. It lies against the starchy
+albumen, but is not enclosed therein. The larger part of it is the
+cotyledon, thickish, its edges involute, and its back in contact with
+the albumen; partly enclosed by it is the well-developed plumule or bud
+which is to grow. For the cotyledon remains in the seed to fulfil its
+office of imbibing nourishment from the softened albumen, which it
+conveys to the growing sprout; the part of this sprout which is visible
+is the first leaf of the plumule rolled up into a sheath and enclosing
+the rudiments of the succeeding leaves, at the base enclosing even the
+minute caulicle. In germination the first leaf of the plumule develops
+only as a sort of sheath, protecting the tender parts within; the second
+and the third form the first foliage. The caulicle never lengthens: the
+first root, which is formed at its lower end, or from any part of it,
+has to break through the enclosing sheath; and succeeding roots soon
+spring from all or any of the nodes of the plumule.
+
+44. =Simple-stemmed Plants= are thus built up, by the continuous
+production of one leaf-bearing portion of stem from the summit of the
+preceding one, beginning with the initial stem (or caulicle) in the
+embryo. Some Dicotyls and many Monocotyls develop only in this single
+line of growth (as to parts above ground) until the flowering state is
+approached. For some examples, see Cycas (Fig. 71, front, at the left);
+a tall Yucca or Spanish Bayonet, and two Cocoa-nut Palms behind; at the
+right, a group of Sugar-canes, and a Banana behind.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 71. Simple-stemmed vegetation.]
+
+
+
+
+Section IV. GROWTH FROM BUDS: BRANCHING.
+
+
+45. Most plants increase the amount of their vegetation by branching,
+that is, by producing lateral shoots.
+
+46. Roots branch from any part and usually without definite order. Stems
+normally give rise to branches only at definite points, namely, at the
+nodes, and there only from the axils of leaves.
+
+47. =Buds= (Fig. 72, 73). Every incipient shoot is a _Bud_ (12). A stem
+continues its growth by its _terminal bud_; it branches by the formation
+and development of _lateral buds_. As normal lateral buds occupy the
+axils of leaves, they are called _axillary buds_. As leaves are
+symmetrically arranged on the stem, the buds in their axils and the
+branches into which axillary buds grow partake of this symmetry. The
+most conspicuous buds are the scaly winter-buds of most shrubs and trees
+of temperate and cold climates; but the name belongs as well to the
+forming shoot or branch of any herb.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 72. Shoot of Horse-chestnut, of one year's growth,
+taken in autumn after the leaves have fallen; showing the large terminal
+bud and smaller axillary buds.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 73. Similar shoot of Shagbark Hickory, Carya alba.]
+
+48. =The Terminal Bud=, in the most general sense, may be said to exist
+in the embryo,--as cotyledons, or the cotyledons and plumule,--and to
+crown each successive growth of the simple stem so long as the summit is
+capable of growth. The whole ascending growth of the Palm, Cycas, and
+the like (such as in Fig. 71) is from a terminal bud. Branches, being
+repetitions of the main stem and growing in the same way, are also
+lengthened by terminal buds. Those of Horse-chestnut, Hickory, Maples,
+and such trees, being the resting buds of winter, are conspicuous by
+their protective covering of scales. These bud-scales, as will hereafter
+be shown, are themselves a kind of leaves.
+
+49. =Axillary Buds= were formed on these annual shoots early in the
+summer. Occasionally they grow the same season into branches; at least,
+some of them are pretty sure to do so whenever the growing terminal bud
+at the end of the shoot is injured or destroyed. Otherwise they may lie
+dormant until the following spring. In many trees or shrubs these
+axillary buds do not show themselves until spring; but if searched for,
+they may be detected, though of small size, hidden under the bark.
+Sometimes, although early formed, they are concealed all summer long
+under the base of the leaf-stalk, which is then hollowed out into a sort
+of inverted cup, like a candle-extinguisher, to cover them; as in the
+Locust, the Yellow-wood, or more strikingly in the Button-wood or
+Plane-tree (Fig. 74).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 74. An axillary bud, concealed under the hollowed
+base of the leaf-stalk, in Buttonwood or Plane-tree.]
+
+50. The _leaf-scars_, so conspicuous in Fig. 72, 73, under each axillary
+bud, mark the place where the stalk of the subtending leaf was attached
+until it fell in autumn.
+
+51. =Scaly Buds=, which are well represented in Fig. 72, 73, commonly
+belong to trees and shrubs of countries in which growth is suspended
+during winter. The scaly coverings protect the tender young parts
+beneath, not so much by keeping out the cold, which of course would
+penetrate the bud in time, as by shielding the interior from the effects
+of sudden changes. There are all gradations between these and
+
+52. =Naked Buds=, in which these scales are inconspicuous or wanting, as
+in most herbs, at least above ground, and most tropical trees and
+shrubs. But nearly related plants of the same climate may differ widely
+in this respect. Rhododendrons have strong and scaly winter-buds; while
+in Kalmia they are naked. One species of Viburnum, the Hobble-bush, has
+completely naked buds, what would be a pair of scales developing into
+the first leaves in spring; while another (the Snowball) has conspicuous
+scaly buds.
+
+53. =Vigor of Vegetation from strong buds.= Large and strong buds, like
+those of the Horse-chestnut, Hickory, and the like, contain several
+leaves, or pairs of leaves, ready formed, folded and packed away in
+small compass, just as the seed-leaves of a strong embryo are packed
+away in the seed: they may even contain all the blossoms of the ensuing
+season, plainly visible as small buds. And the stems upon which these
+buds rest are filled with abundant nourishment, which was deposited the
+summer before in the wood or in the bark. Under the surface of the
+soil, or on it covered with the fallen leaves of autumn, similar strong
+buds of our perennial herbs may be found; while beneath are thick roots,
+rootstocks, or tubers, charged with a great store of nourishment for
+their use. This explains how it is that vegetation from such buds shoots
+forth so vigorously in the spring of the year, and clothes the bare and
+lately frozen surface of the soil, as well as the naked boughs of trees,
+very promptly with a covering of fresh green, and often with brilliant
+blossoms. Everything was prepared, and even formed, beforehand: the
+short joints of stem in the bud have only to lengthen, and to separate
+the leaves from each other so that they may unfold and grow. Only a
+small part of the vegetation of the season comes directly from the seed,
+and none of the earliest vernal vegetation. This is all from buds which
+have lived through the winter.
+
+54. =The Arrangement of Branches=, being that of axillary buds, answers
+to that of the leaves. Now leaves principally are either _opposite_ or
+_alternate_. Leaves are _opposite_ when there are two from the same
+joint of stem, as in Maples (Fig. 20), the two being on opposite sides
+of the stem; and so the axillary buds and branches are opposite, as in
+Fig. 75. Leaves are _alternate_ when there is only one from each joint
+of stem, as in the Oak, Lime-tree, Poplar, Button-wood (Fig. 74),
+Morning-Glory (Fig. 45,--not counting the seed-leaves, which of course
+are opposite, there being a pair of them); also in Indian Corn (Fig.
+70), and Iris (Fig. 59). Consequently the axillary buds are also
+alternate, as in Hickory (Fig. 73); and the branches they form
+alternate,--making a different kind of spray from the other mode, one
+branch shooting on one side of the stem and the next on some other. For
+in the alternate arrangement no leaf is on the same side of the stem as
+the one next above or next below it.
+
+55. But the symmetry of branches (unlike that of the leaves) is rarely
+complete. This is due to several causes, and most commonly to the
+
+56. =Non-development of buds.= It never happens that all the buds grow.
+If they did, there might be as many branches in any year as there were
+leaves the year before. And of those which do begin to grow, a large
+portion perish, sooner or later, for want of nourishment, or for want of
+light, or because those which first begin to grow have an advantage,
+which they are apt to keep, taking to themselves the nourishment of the
+stem, and starving the weaker buds. In the Horse-chestnut (Fig. 72),
+Hickory (Fig. 73), Magnolia, and most other trees with large scaly buds,
+the terminal bud is the strongest, and has the advantage in growth; and
+next in strength are the upper axillary buds: while the former continues
+the shoot of the last year, some of the latter give rise to branches,
+and the rest fail to grow. In the Lilac also (Fig. 75), the uppermost
+axillary buds are stronger than the lower; but the terminal bud rarely
+appears at all; in its place the uppermost pair of axillary buds grow,
+and so each stem branches every year into two,--making a repeatedly
+two-forked ramification, as in Fig. 76.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 75. Shoot of Lilac, with winter buds; the two
+uppermost axillary ones strong; the terminal not developed. 76. Forking
+ramification of Lilac; reduced in size.]
+
+57. =Latent Buds.= Axillary buds that do not grow at the proper season,
+and especially those which make no appearance externally, may long
+remain latent, and at length upon a favorable occasion start into
+growth, so forming branches apparently out of place as they are out of
+time. The new shoots seen springing directly out of large stems may
+sometimes originate from such latent buds, which have preserved their
+life for years. But commonly these arise from
+
+58. =Adventitious Buds.= These are buds which certain shrubs and trees
+produce anywhere on the surface of the wood, especially where it has
+been injured. They give rise to the slender twigs which often feather
+the sides of great branches of our American Elms. They sometimes form on
+the root, which naturally is destitute of buds; they are even found upon
+some leaves; and they are sure to appear on the trunks and roots of
+Willows, Poplars, and Chestnuts, when these are wounded or mutilated.
+Indeed Osier-Willows are _pollarded_, or cut off, from time to time, by
+the cultivator, for the purpose of producing a crop of slender
+adventitious twigs, suitable for basket-work. Such branches, being
+altogether irregular, of course interfere with the natural symmetry of
+the tree. Another cause of irregularity, in certain trees and shrubs, is
+the formation of what are called
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 77. Tartarean Honeysuckle, with three accessory buds
+in each axil.]
+
+59. =Accessory or Supernumerary Buds.= There are cases where two, three,
+or more buds spring from the axil of a leaf, instead of the single one
+which is ordinarily found there. Sometimes they are placed one over the
+other, as in the Aristolochia or Pipe-Vine, and in the Tartarean
+Honeysuckle (Fig. 77); also in the Honey-Locust, and in the Walnut and
+Butternut (Fig. 78), where the upper supernumerary bud is a good way
+out of the axil and above the others. And this is here stronger than the
+others, and grows into a branch which is considerably out of the axil,
+while the lower and smaller ones commonly do not grow at all. In other
+cases three buds stand side by side in the axil, as in the Hawthorn, and
+the Red Maple (Fig. 79.) If these were all to grow into branches, they
+would stifle each other. But some of them are commonly flower-buds: in
+the Red Maple, only the middle one is a leaf-bud, and it does not grow
+until after those on each side of it have expanded the blossoms they
+contain.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 78. Butternut branch, with accessory buds, the
+uppermost above the axil.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 79. Red-Maple branch, with accessory buds placed
+side by side. The annular lines toward the base in this and in Fig. 72
+are scars of the bud-scales, and indicate the place of the winter-bud of
+the preceding year.]
+
+60. =Sorts of Buds.= It may be useful to enumerate the kinds of buds
+which have been described or mentioned. They are
+
+_Terminal_, when they occupy the summit of (or terminate) a stem,
+
+_Lateral_, when they are borne on the side of a stem; of which the
+regular kind is the
+
+_Axillary_, situated in the axil of a leaf. These are
+
+_Accessory_ or _Supernumerary_, when they are in addition to the normal
+solitary bud; and these are _Collateral_, when side by side;
+_Superposed_, when one above another;
+
+_Extra-axillary_, when they appear above the axil, as some do when
+superposed, and as occasionally is the case when single.
+
+_Naked buds_; those which have no protecting scales.
+
+_Scaly buds_; those which have protecting scales, which are altered
+leaves or bases of leaves.
+
+_Leaf-buds_, contain or give rise to leaves, and develop into a leafy
+shoot.
+
+_Flower-buds_, contain or consist of blossoms, and no leaves.
+
+_Mixed buds_, contain both leaves and blossoms.
+
+61. =Definite annual Growth= from winter buds is marked in most of the
+shoots from strong buds, such as those of the Horse-chestnut and Hickory
+(Fig. 72, 73). Such a bud generally contains, already formed in
+miniature, all or a great part of the leaves and joints of stem it is to
+produce, makes its whole growth in length in the course of a few weeks,
+or sometimes even in a few days, and then forms and ripens its buds for
+the next year's similar growth.
+
+62. =Indefinite annual Growth=, on the other hand, is well marked in
+such trees or shrubs as the Honey-Locust, Sumac, and in sterile shoots
+of the Rose, Blackberry, and Raspberry. That is, these shoots are apt
+to grow all summer long, until stopped by the frosts of autumn or some
+other cause. Consequently they form and ripen no terminal bud protected
+by scales, and the upper axillary buds are produced so late in the
+season that they have no time to mature, nor has their wood time to
+solidify and ripen. Such stems therefore commonly die back from the top
+in winter, or at least all their upper buds are small and feeble; so the
+growth of the succeeding year takes place mainly from the lower axillary
+buds, which are more mature.
+
+63. =Deliquescent and Excurrent Growth.= In the former case, and
+wherever axillary buds take the lead, there is, of course, no single
+main stem, continued year after year in a direct line, but the trunk is
+soon lost in the branches. Trees so formed commonly have rounded or
+spreading tops. Of such trees with _deliquescent_ stems,--that is, with
+the trunk dissolved, as it were, into the successively divided
+branches,--the common American Elm (Fig. 80) is a good illustration.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 80. An American Elm, with Spruce-trees, and on the
+left Arbor Vitae.]
+
+64. On the other hand, the main stem of Firs and Spruces, unless
+destroyed by some injury, is carried on in a direct line throughout the
+whole growth of the tree, by the development year after year of a
+terminal bud: this forms a single, uninterrupted shaft,--an _excurrent_
+trunk, which cannot be confounded with the branches that proceed from
+it. Of such _spiry_ or _spire-shaped_ trees, the Firs or Spruces are
+characteristic and familiar examples. There are all gradations between
+the two modes.
+
+
+
+
+Section V. ROOTS.
+
+
+65. It is a property of stems to produce roots. Stems do not spring from
+roots in ordinary cases, as is generally thought, but roots from stems.
+When perennial herbs arise from the ground, as they do at spring-time,
+they rise from subterranean stems.
+
+66. =The Primary Root= is a downward growth from the root-end of the
+caulicle, that is, of the initial stem of the embryo (Fig. 5-7, 81). If
+it goes on to grow it makes a _main_ or _tap-root_, as in Fig. 37, etc.
+Some plants keep this main root throughout their whole life, and send
+off only small side branches; as in the Carrot and Radish: and in
+various trees, like the Oak, it takes the lead of the side-branches for
+several years, unless accidentally injured, as a strong tap-root. But
+commonly the main root divides off very soon, and is lost in the
+branches. _Multiple primary roots_ now and then occur, as in the
+seedling of Pumpkin (Fig. 27), where a cluster is formed even at the
+first, from the root-end of the caulicle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 81. Seedling Maple, of the natural size; the root
+well supplied with root hairs, here large enough to be seen by the naked
+eye. 82. Lower end of this root, magnified, the root seen just as
+root-hairs are beginning to form a little behind the tip.]
+
+67. =Secondary Roots= are those which arise from other parts of the
+stem. Any part of the stem may produce them, but they most readily come
+from the nodes. As a general rule they naturally spring, or may be made
+to spring, from almost any young stem, when placed in favorable
+circumstances,--that is, when placed in the soil, or otherwise supplied
+with moisture and screened from the light. For the special tendency of
+the root is to avoid the light, seek moisture, and therefore to bury
+itself in the soil. _Propagation by division_, which is so common and so
+very important in cultivation, depends upon the proclivity of stems to
+strike root. Stems or branches which remain under ground give out roots
+as freely as roots themselves give off branches. Stems which creep on
+the ground most commonly root at the joints; so will most branches when
+bent to the ground, as in propagation by _layering_; and propagation by
+_cuttings_ equally depends upon the tendency of the cut end of a shoot
+to produce roots. Thus, a piece of a plant which has stem and leaves,
+either developed or in the bud, may be made to produce roots, and so
+become an independent plant.
+
+68. =Contrast between Stem and Root.= Stems are ascending axes; roots
+are descending axes. Stems grow by the successive development of
+internodes (13), one after another, each leaf-bearing at its summit (or
+node); so that it is of the essential nature of a stem to bear leaves.
+Roots bear no leaves, are not distinguishable into nodes and internodes,
+but grow on continuously from the lower end. They commonly branch
+freely, but not from any fixed points nor in definite order.
+
+69. Although roots generally do not give rise to stems, and therefore do
+not propagate the plant, exceptions are not uncommon. For as stems may
+produce adventitious buds, so also may roots. The roots of the Sweet
+Potato among herbs, and of the Osage Orange among trees freely produce
+adventitious buds, developing into leafy shoots; and so these plants are
+propagated by _root-cuttings_. But most growths of subterranean origin
+which pass for roots are forms of stems, the common Potato for example.
+
+70. Roots of ordinary kinds and uses may be roughly classed into
+_fibrous_ and _fleshy_.
+
+71. =Fibrous Roots=, such as those of Indian Corn (Fig. 70), of most
+annuals, and of many perennials, serve only for absorption: these are
+slender or thread-like. Fine roots of this kind, and the fine branches
+which most roots send out are called ROOTLETS.
+
+72. The whole surface of a root absorbs moisture from the soil while
+fresh and new; and the newer roots and rootlets are, the more freely do
+they imbibe. Accordingly, as long as the plant grows above ground, and
+expands fresh foliage, from which moisture largely escapes into the air,
+so long it continues to extend and multiply its roots in the soil
+beneath, renewing and increasing the fresh surface for absorbing
+moisture, in proportion to the demand from above. And when growth ceases
+above ground, and the leaves die and fall, or no longer act, then the
+roots generally stop growing, and their soft and tender tips harden.
+From this period, therefore, until growth begins anew the next spring,
+is the best time for transplanting; especially for trees and shrubs.
+
+73. The absorbing surface of young roots is much increased by the
+formation, near their tips, of ROOT-HAIRS (Fig. 81, 82), which are
+delicate tubular outgrowths from the surface, through the delicate walls
+of which moisture is promptly imbibed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 83-85. Forms of tap-root.]
+
+74. =Fleshy Roots= are those in which the root becomes a storehouse of
+nourishment. Typical roots of this kind are those of such biennials as
+the turnip and carrot; in which the food created in the first season's
+vegetation is accumulated, to be expended the next season in a vigorous
+growth and a rapid development of flowers, fruit, and seed. By the time
+the seed is matured the exhausted root dies, and with it the whole
+plant.
+
+75. Fleshy roots may be single or multiple. The single root of the
+commoner biennials is the primary root, or tap-root, which begins to
+thicken in the seedling. Names are given to its shapes, such as
+
+_Conical_, when it thickens most at the crown, or where it joins the
+stem, and tapers regularly downwards to a point, as in the Parsnip and
+Carrot (Fig. 84);
+
+_Turnip-shaped_ or _napiform_, when greatly thickened above, but
+abruptly becoming slender below; as the Turnip (Fig. 83); and
+
+_Spindle-shaped_, or _Fusiform_, when thickest in the middle and
+tapering to both ends; as the common Radish (Fig. 85).
+
+76. These examples are of primary roots. It will be seen that turnips,
+carrots, and the like, are not pure root throughout; for the caulicle,
+from the lower end of which the root grew, partakes of the thickening,
+perhaps also some joints of stem above: so the bud-bearing and growing
+top is stem.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 86. Sweet-Potato plant forming thickened roots. Some
+in the middle are just beginning to thicken; one at the left has grown
+more; one at the right is still larger.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 87. Fascicled fusiform roots of a Dahlia: _a_, _a_,
+buds on base of stem.]
+
+77. A fine example of secondary roots (67), some of which remain fibrous
+for absorption, while a few thicken and store up food for the next
+season's growth, is furnished by the Sweet Potato (Fig. 86). As stated
+above, these are used for propagation by cuttings; for any part will
+produce adventitious buds and shoots. The Dahlia produces _fascicled_
+(i. e. clustered) fusiform roots of the same kind, at the base of the
+stem (Fig. 87): but these, like most roots, do not produce adventitious
+buds. The buds by which Dahlias are propagated belong to the surviving
+base of the stem above.
+
+78. =Anomalous Roots=, as they may be called, are those which subserve
+other uses than absorption, food-storing, and fixing the plant to the
+soil.
+
+_Aerial Roots_, i. e. those that strike from stems in the open air, are
+common in moist and warm climates, as in the Mangrove which reaches the
+coast of Florida, the Banyan, and, less strikingly, in some herbaceous
+plants, such as Sugar Cane, and even in Indian Corn. Such roots reach
+the ground at length, or tend to do so.
+
+_Aerial Rootlets_ are abundantly produced by many climbing plants, such
+as the Ivy, Poison Ivy, Trumpet Creeper, etc., springing from the side
+of stems, which they fasten to trunks of trees, walls, or other
+supports. These are used by the plant for climbing.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 88. Epiphytes of Florida and Georgia, viz.,
+Epidendrum conopseum, a small Orchid, and Tillandsia usneoides, the
+so-called Long Moss or Black Moss, which is no moss, but a flowering
+plant, also _T. recurvata_; on a bough of Live Oak.]
+
+79. =Epiphytes, or Air-Plants= (Fig. 88), are called by the former name
+because commonly growing upon the trunks or limbs of other plants; by
+the latter because, having no connection with the soil, they must derive
+their sustenance from the air only. They have aerial roots, which do not
+reach the ground, but are used to fix the plant to the surface upon
+which the plant grows: they also take a part in absorbing moisture from
+the air.
+
+80. =Parasitic Plants=, of which there are various kinds, strike their
+roots, or what answer to roots, into the tissue of foster plants, or
+form attachments with their surface, so as to prey upon their juices. Of
+this sort is the Mistletoe, the seed of which germinates on the bough
+where it falls or is left by birds; and the forming root penetrates the
+bark and engrafts itself into the wood, to which it becomes united as
+firmly as a natural branch to its parent stem; and indeed the parasite
+lives just as if it were a branch of the tree it grows and feeds on. A
+most common parasitic herb is the Dodder; which abounds in low grounds
+in summer, and coils its long and slender, leafless, yellowish
+stems--resembling tangled threads of yarn--round and round the stalks of
+other plants; wherever they touch piercing the bark with minute and very
+short rootlets in the form of suckers, which draw out the nourishing
+juices of the plants laid hold of. Other parasitic plants, like the
+Beech-drops and Pine-sap, fasten their roots under ground upon the roots
+of neighboring plants, and rob them of their juices.
+
+81. Some plants are partly parasitic; while most of their roots act in
+the ordinary way, others make suckers at their tips which grow fast to
+the roots of other plants and rob them of nourishment. Some of our
+species of Gerardia do this (Fig. 89).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 89. Roots of Yellow Gerardia, some attached to and
+feeding on the root of a Blueberry-bush.]
+
+82. There are phanerogamous plants, like Monotropa or Indian Pipe, the
+roots of which feed mainly on decaying vegetable matter in the soil.
+These are SAPROPHYTES, and they imitate Mushrooms and other Fungi in
+their mode of life.
+
+83. =Duration of Roots, etc.= Roots are said to be either _annual_,
+_biennial_, or _perennial_. As respects the first and second, these
+terms may be applied either to the root or to the plant.
+
+84. =Annuals=, as the name denotes, live for only one year, generally
+for only a part of the year. They are of course herbs; they spring from
+the seed, blossom, mature their fruit and seed, and then die, root and
+all. Annuals of our temperate climates with severe winters start from
+the seed in spring, and perish at or before autumn. Where the winter is
+a moist and growing season and the summer is dry, _winter annuals_
+prevail; their seeds germinate under autumn or winter rains, grow more
+or less during winter, blossom, fructify, and perish in the following
+spring or summer. Annuals are fibrous-rooted.
+
+85. =Biennials=, of which the Turnip, Beet, and Carrot are familiar
+examples, grow the first season without blossoming, usually thicken
+their roots, laying up in them a stock of nourishment, are quiescent
+during the winter, but shoot vigorously, blossom, and seed the next
+spring or summer, mainly at the expense of the food stored up, and then
+die completely. Annuals and biennials flower only once; hence they have
+been called _Monocarpic_ (that is, once-fruiting) plants.
+
+86. =Perennials= live and blossom year after year. A perennial herb, in
+a temperate or cooler climate, usually dies down to the ground at the
+end of the season's growth. But subterranean portions of stem, charged
+with buds, survive to renew the development. Shrubs and trees are of
+course perennial; even the stems and branches above ground live on and
+grow year after year.
+
+87. There are all gradations between annuals and biennials, and between
+these and perennials, as also between herbs and shrubs; and the
+distinction between shrubs and trees is quite arbitrary. There are
+perennial herbs and even shrubs of warm climates which are annuals when
+raised in a climate which has a winter,--being destroyed by frost. The
+Castor-oil plant is an example. There are perennial herbs of which only
+small portions survive, as off-shoots, or, in the Potato, as tubers,
+etc.
+
+
+
+
+Section VI. STEMS.
+
+
+88. =The Stem= is the axis of the plant, the part which bears all the
+other organs. Branches are secondary stems, that is, stems growing out
+of stems. The stem at the very beginning produces roots, in most plants
+a single root from the base of the embryo-stem, or caulicle. As this
+root becomes a _descending axis_, so the stem, which grows in the
+opposite direction is called the _ascending axis_. Rising out of the
+soil, the stem bears leaves; and leaf-bearing is the particular
+characteristic of the stem. But there are forms of stems that remain
+underground, or make a part of their growth there. These do not bear
+leaves, in the common sense; yet they bear rudiments of leaves, or what
+answers to leaves, although not in the form of foliage. The so-called
+stemless or _acaulescent_ plants are those which bear no obvious stem
+(_caulis_) above ground, but only flower-stalks, and the like.
+
+89. =Stems above ground=, through differences in duration, texture, and
+size, form herbs, shrubs, trees, etc., or in other terms are
+
+_Herbaceous_, dying down to the ground every year, or after blossoming.
+
+_Suffrutescent_, slightly woody below, there surviving from year to
+year.
+
+_Suffruticose_ or _Frutescent_, when low stems are decidedly woody
+below, but herbaceous above.
+
+_Fruticose_ or _Shrubby_, woody, living from year to year, and of
+considerable size,--not, however, more than three or four times the
+height of a man.
+
+_Arborescent_, when tree-like in appearance or mode of growth, or
+approaching a tree in size.
+
+_Arboreous_, when forming a proper tree-trunk.
+
+90. As to direction taken in growing, stems may, instead of growing
+upright or erect, be
+
+_Diffuse_, that is, loosely spreading in all directions.
+
+_Declined_, when turned or bending over to one side.
+
+_Decumbent_, reclining on the ground, as if too weak to stand.
+
+_Assurgent_ or _Ascending_, rising obliquely upwards.
+
+_Procumbent_ or _Prostrate_, lying flat on the ground from the first.
+
+_Creeping_ or _Repent_, prostrate on or just beneath the ground, and
+striking root, as does the White Clover, the Partridge-berry, etc.
+
+_Climbing_ or _Scandent_, ascending by clinging to other objects for
+support, whether by _tendrils_, as do the Pea, Grape-Vine, and
+Passion-flower and Virginia Creeper (Fig. 92, 93); by their twisting
+leaf-stalks, as the Virgin's Bower; or by rootlets, like the Ivy, Poison
+Ivy, and Trumpet Creeper.
+
+_Twining_ or _Voluble_, when coiling spirally around other stems or
+supports; like the Morning-Glory (Fig. 90) and the Hop.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 90. Twining or voluble stem of Morning-Glory.]
+
+91. Certain kinds of stems or branches, appropriated to special uses,
+have received distinct substantive names; such as the following:
+
+92. =A Culm=, or straw-stem, such as that of Grasses and Sedges.
+
+93. =A Caudex= is the old name for such a peculiar trunk as a Palm-stem;
+it is also used for an upright and thick rootstock.
+
+94. =A Sucker= is a branch rising from stems under ground. Such are
+produced abundantly by the Rose, Raspberry, and other plants said to
+multiply "by the root." If we uncover them, we see at once the great
+difference between these subterranean branches and real roots. They are
+only creeping branches under ground. Remarking how the upright shoots
+from these branches become separate plants, simply by the dying off of
+the connecting under-ground stems, the gardener expedites the result by
+cutting them through with his spade. That is, he propagates the plant
+"by division."
+
+95. =A Stolon= is a branch from above ground, which reclines or becomes
+prostrate and strikes root (usually from the nodes) wherever it rests on
+the soil. Thence it may send up a vigorous shoot, which has roots of its
+own, and becomes an independent plant when the connecting part dies, as
+it does after a while. The Currant and the Gooseberry naturally multiply
+in this way, as well as by suckers (which are the same thing, only the
+connecting part is concealed under ground). Stolons must have suggested
+the operation of _layering_ by bending down and covering with soil
+branches which do not naturally make stolons; and after they have taken
+root, as they almost always will, the gardener cuts through the
+connecting stem, and so converts a rooting branch into a separate plant.
+
+96. =An Offset= is a short stolon, or sucker, with a crown of leaves at
+the end, as in the Houseleek (Fig. 91), which propagates abundantly in
+this way.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 91. Houseleek (Sempervivum), with offsets.]
+
+97. =A Runner=, of which the Strawberry presents the most familiar and
+characteristic example, is a long and slender, tendril-like stolon, or
+branch from next the ground, destitute of conspicuous leaves. Each
+runner of the Strawberry, after having grown to its full length, strikes
+root from the tip, which fixes it to the ground, then forms a bud there,
+which develops into a tuft of leaves, and so gives rise to a new plant,
+which sends out new runners to act in the same way. In this manner a
+single Strawberry plant will spread over a large space, or produce a
+great number of plants, in the course of the summer, all connected at
+first by the slender runners; but these die in the following winter, if
+not before, and leave the plants as so many separate individuals.
+
+98. =Tendrils= are branches of a very slender sort, like runners, not
+destined like them for propagation, and therefore always destitute of
+buds or leaves, being intended only for climbing. Simple tendrils are
+such as those of Passion-flowers (Fig. 92). Compound or branching
+tendrils are borne by the Cucumber and Pumpkin, by the Grape-Vine,
+Virginia Creeper, etc.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 92. A small Passion-flower (_Passiflora sicyoides_),
+showing the tendrils.]
+
+99. A tendril commonly grows straight and outstretched until it reaches
+some neighboring support, such as a stem, when its apex hooks around it
+to secure a hold; then the whole tendril shortens itself by coiling up
+spirally, and so draws the shoot of the growing plant nearer to the
+supporting object. But the tendrils of the Virginia Creeper (Ampelopsis,
+Fig. 93), as also the shorter ones of the Japanese species, effect the
+object differently, namely, by expanding the tips of the tendrils into a
+flat disk, with an adhesive face. This is applied to the supporting
+object, and it adheres firmly; then a shortening of the tendril and its
+branches by coiling brings up the growing shoot close to the support.
+This is an adaptation for climbing mural rocks or walls, or the trunks
+of trees, to which ordinary tendrils are unable to cling. The Ivy and
+Poison Ivy attain the same result by means of aerial rootlets (78).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 93. Piece of the stem of Virginia Creeper, bearing a
+leaf and a tendril. 94. Tips of a tendril, about the natural size,
+showing the disks by which they hold fast to walls, etc.]
+
+100. Some tendrils are leaves or parts of leaves, as those of the Pea
+(Fig. 35). The nature of the tendril is known by its position. A tendril
+from the axil of a leaf, like that of Passion-flowers (Fig. 92) is of
+course a stem, i. e. a branch. So is one which terminates a stem, as in
+the Grape-Vine.
+
+101. =Spines= or =Thorns= (Fig. 95, 96) are commonly stunted and
+hardened branches or tips of stems or branches, as are those of
+Hawthorn, Honey-Locust, etc. In the Pear and Sloe all gradations occur
+between spines and spine-like (spinescent) branches. Spines may be
+reduced and indurated leaves; as in the Barberry, where their nature is
+revealed by their situation, underneath an axillary bud. But prickles,
+such as those of Blackberry and Roses, are only excrescences of the
+bark, and not branches.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 95. A branching thorn of Honey-Locust, being an
+indurated leafless branch developed from an accessory bud far above the
+axil: at the cut portion below, three other buds (_a_) are concealed
+under the petiole.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 96. Spine of Cockspur Thorn, developed from an
+axillary bud, as the leaf-scar below witnesses: an accessory leaf-bud is
+seen at its base.]
+
+102. Equally strange forms of stems are characteristic of the Cactus
+family (Fig. 111). These may be better understood by comparison with
+
+103. =Subterranean Stems and Branches.= These are very numerous and
+various; but they are commonly overlooked, or else are confounded with
+roots. From their situation they are out of ordinary sight; but they
+will well repay examination. For the vegetation that is carried on under
+ground is hardly less varied or important than that above ground. All
+their forms may be referred to four principal kinds: namely, the
+_Rhizoma_ (_Rhizome_) or _Rootstock_, the _Tuber_, the _Corm_ or solid
+bulb, and the true _Bulb_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 97. Rootstocks, or creeping subterranean branches,
+of the Peppermint.]
+
+104. =The Rootstock, or Rhizoma=, in its simplest form, is merely a
+creeping stem or branch growing beneath the surface of the soil, or
+partly covered by it. Of this kind are the so-called _creeping_,
+_running_, or _scaly roots_, such as those by which the Mint (Fig. 97),
+the Couch-grass, or Quick-grass, and many other plants, spread so
+rapidly and widely,--"by the root," as it is said. That these are really
+_stems_, and not roots, is evident from the way in which they grow;
+from their consisting of a succession of joints; and from the leaves
+which they bear on each _node_, in the form of small scales, just like
+the lowest ones on the upright stem next the ground. They also produce
+buds in the axils of these scales, showing the scales to be leaves;
+whereas real roots bear neither leaves nor axillary buds. Placed as they
+are in the damp and dark soil, such stems naturally produce roots, just
+as the creeping stem does where it lies on the surface of the ground.
+
+105. It is easy to see why plants with these running rootstocks take
+such rapid and wide possession of the soil, and why they are so hard to
+get rid of. They are always perennials; the subterranean shoots live
+over the first winter, if not longer, and are provided with vigorous
+buds at every joint. Some of these buds grow in spring into upright
+stems, bearing foliage, to elaborate nourishment, and at length produce
+blossoms for reproduction by seed; while many others, fed by nourishment
+supplied from above, form a new generation of subterranean shoots; and
+this is repeated over and over in the course of the season or in
+succeeding years. Meanwhile, as the subterranean shoots increase in
+number, the older ones, connecting the successive growths, die off year
+by year, liberating the already rooted side-branches as so many separate
+plants; and so on indefinitely. Cutting these running rootstocks into
+pieces, therefore, by the hoe or the plough, far from destroying the
+plant, only accelerates the propagation; it converts one many-branched
+plant into a great number of separate individuals. Cutting into pieces
+only multiplies the pest; for each piece (Fig. 98) is already a
+plantlet, with its roots and with a bud in the axil of its scale-like
+leaf (either latent or apparent), and with prepared nourishment enough
+to develop this bud into a leafy stem; and so a single plant is all the
+more speedily converted into a multitude. Whereas, when the subterranean
+parts are only roots, cutting away the stem completely destroys the
+plant, except in the rather rare cases where the root freely produces
+adventitious buds.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 98. A piece of the running rootstock of the
+Peppermint, with its node or joint, and an axillary bud ready to grow.]
+
+106. Rootstocks are more commonly thickened by the storing up of
+considerable nourishing matter in their tissue. The common species of
+Iris (Fig. 164) in the gardens have stout rootstocks, which are only
+partly covered by the soil, and which bear foliage-leaves instead of
+mere scales, closely covering the upper part, while the lower produces
+roots. As the leaves die, year by year, and decay, a scar left in the
+form of a ring marks the place where each leaf was attached, that is,
+marks so many nodes, separated by very short internodes.
+
+107. Some rootstocks are marked with large round scars of a different
+sort, like those of the Solomon's Seal (Fig. 99), which gave this name
+to the plant, from their looking somewhat like the impression of a seal
+upon wax. Here the rootstock sends up every spring an herbaceous stalk
+or stem, which bears the foliage and flowers, and dies in autumn. The
+_seal_ is the circular scar left by the death and separation of the base
+of the stout stalk from the living rootstock. As but one of these is
+formed each year, they mark the limits of a year's growth. The bud at
+the end of the rootstock in the figure (which was taken in summer) will
+grow the next spring into the stalk of the season, which, dying in
+autumn, will leave a similar scar, while another bud will be formed
+farther on, crowning the ever-advancing summit or growing end of the
+stem.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 99. Rootstock of Solomon's Seal, with the bottom of
+the stalk of the season, and the bud for the next year's growth.]
+
+108. As each year's growth of stem makes its own roots, it soon becomes
+independent of the older parts. And after a certain age, a portion
+annually dies off behind, about as fast as it increases at the growing
+end, death following life with equal and certain step, with only a
+narrow interval. In vigorous plants of Solomon's Seal or Iris, the
+living rootstock is several inches or a foot in length; while in the
+short rootstock of Trillium or Birthroot (Fig. 100) life is reduced to a
+narrower span.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 100. The very short rootstock and strong terminal
+bud of a Trillium or Birthroot.]
+
+109. An upright or short rootstock, like this of Trillium, is commonly
+called a CAUDEX (93); or when more shortened and thickened it would
+become a corm.
+
+110. =A Tuber= may be understood to be a portion of a rootstock
+thickened, and with buds (eyes) on the sides. Of course, there are all
+gradations between a tuber and a rootstock. Helianthus tuberosus, the
+so-called Jerusalem Artichoke (Fig. 101), and the common Potato, are
+typical and familiar examples of the tuber. The stalks by which the
+tubers are attached to the parent stem are at once seen to be different
+from the roots, both in appearance and manner of growth. The scales on
+the tubers are the rudiments of leaves; the eyes are the buds in their
+axils. The Potato-plant has three forms of branches: 1. Those that bear
+ordinary leaves expanded in the air, to digest what they gather from it
+and what the roots gather from the soil, and convert it into
+nourishment. 2. After a while a second set of branches at the summit of
+the plant bear flowers, which form fruit and seed out of a portion of
+the nourishment which the leaves have prepared. 3. But a larger part of
+this nourishment, while in a liquid state, is carried down the stem,
+into a third sort of branches under ground, and accumulated in the form
+of starch at their extremities, which become tubers, or depositories of
+prepared solid food,--just as in the Turnip, Carrot, and Dahlia (Fig.
+83-87), it is deposited in the root. The use of the store of food is
+obvious enough. In the autumn the whole plant dies, except the seeds (if
+it formed them) and the tubers; and the latter are left disconnected in
+the ground. Just as that small portion of nourishing matter which is
+deposited in the seed feeds the embryo when it germinates, so the much
+larger portion deposited in the tuber nourishes its buds, or eyes, when
+they likewise grow, the next spring, into new plants. And the great
+supply enables them to shoot with a greater vigor at the beginning, and
+to produce a greater amount of vegetation than the seedling plant could
+do in the same space of time; which vegetation in turn may prepare and
+store up, in the course of a few weeks or months, the largest quantity
+of solid nourishing material, in a form most available for food. Taking
+advantage of this, man has transported the Potato from the cool Andes of
+Chili to other cool climates, and makes it yield him a copious supply of
+food, especially important in countries where the season is too short,
+or the summer's heat too little, for profitably cultivating the
+principal grain-plants.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 101. Tubers of Helianthus tuberosus, called
+"artichokes."]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 102. Bulblet-like tubers, such as are occasionally
+formed on the stem of a Potato-plant above ground.]
+
+111. =The Corm or Solid Bulb=, like that of Cyclamen (Fig. 103), and of
+Indian Turnip (Fig. 104), is a very short and thick fleshy subterranean
+stem, often broader than high. It sends off roots from its lower end, or
+rather face, leaves and stalks from its upper. The corm of Cyclamen goes
+on to enlarge and to produce a succession of flowers and leaves year
+after year. That of Indian Turnip is formed one year and is consumed
+the next. Fig. 104 represents it in early summer, having below the corm
+of last year, from which the roots have fallen. It is partly consumed by
+the growth of the stem for the season, and the corm of the year is
+forming at base of the stem above the line of roots.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 103. Corm of Cyclamen, much reduced in size: roots
+from lower face, leaf-stalks and flower-stalks from the upper.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 104. Corm of Indian Turnip (Arisaema).]
+
+112. The corm of Crocus (Fig. 105, 106), like that of its relative
+Gladiolus, is also reproduced annually, the new ones forming upon the
+summit and sides of the old. Such a corm is like a tuber in budding from
+the sides, i. e. from the axils of leaves; but these leaves, instead of
+being small scales, are the sheathing bases of foliage-leaves which
+covered the surface. It resembles a true bulb in having these sheaths or
+broad scales; but in the corm or solid bulb, this solid part or stem
+makes up the principal bulk.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 105. Corm of a Crocus, the investing sheaths or dead
+leaf-bases stripped off. The faint cross-lines represent the scars,
+where the leaves were attached, i. e. the nodes: the spaces between are
+the internodes. The exhausted corm of the previous year is underneath;
+forming ones for next year on the summit and sides.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 106. Section of the same.]
+
+113. =The Bulb=, strictly so-called, is a stem like a reduced corm as to
+its solid part (or plate); while the main body consists of thickened
+scales, which are leaves or leaf-bases. These are like bud-scales; so
+that in fact a bulb is a bud with fleshy scales on an exceedingly short
+stem. Compare a White Lily bulb (Fig. 107) with the strong scaly buds of
+the Hickory and Horse-chestnut (Fig. 72 and 73), and the resemblance
+will appear. In corms, as in tubers and rootstocks, the store of food
+for future growth is deposited in the stem; while in the bulb, the
+greater part is deposited in the bases of the leaves, changing them into
+thick scales, which closely overlap or enclose one another.
+
+114. =A Scaly Bulb= (like that of the Lily, Fig. 107, 108) is one in
+which the scales are thick but comparatively narrow.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 107. Bulb of a wild Lily. 108. The same divided
+lengthwise, showing two forming buds of the next generation.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 109. A ground leaf of White Lily, its base (cut
+across) thickened into a bulb-scale. This plainly shows that bulb-scales
+are leaves.]
+
+115. =A Tunicated or Coated Bulb= is one in which the scales enwrap each
+other, forming concentric coats or layers, as in Hyacinth and Onion.
+
+116. =Bulblets= are very small bulbs growing out of larger ones; or
+small bulbs produced above ground on some plants, as in the axils of the
+leaves of the bulbiferous Lilies of the gardens (Fig. 110), and often in
+the flower-clusters of the Leek and Onion. They are plainly buds with
+thickened scales. They never grow into branches, but detach themselves
+when full grown, fall to the ground, and take root there to form new
+plants.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 110. Bulblets in the axils of leaves of a Tiger
+Lily.]
+
+117. =Consolidated Vegetation.= An ordinary herb, shrub, or tree is
+evidently constructed on the plan developing an extensive surface. In
+fleshy rootstocks, tubers, corms, and bulbs, the more enduring portion
+of the plant is concentrated, and reduced for the time of struggle (as
+against drought, heat, or cold) to a small amount of exposed surface,
+and this mostly sheltered in the soil. There are many similar
+consolidated forms which are not subterranean. Thus plants like the
+Houseleek (Fig. 91) imitate a bulb. Among Cactuses the columnar species
+of Cereus (Fig. 111, _b_), may be likened to rootstocks. A green rind
+serves the purpose of foliage; but the surface is as nothing compared
+with an ordinary leafy plant of the same bulk. Compare, for instance,
+the largest Cactus known, the Giant Cereus of the Gila River (Fig. 111,
+in the background), which rises to the height of fifty or sixty feet,
+with a common leafy tree of the same height, such as that in Fig. 89,
+and estimate how vastly greater, even without the foliage, the surface
+of the latter is than that of the former. Compare, in the same view, an
+Opuntia or Prickly-Pear Cactus, its stem and branches formed of a
+succession of thick and flattened joints (Fig. 111, _a_), which may be
+likened to tubers, or an Epiphyllum (_d_), having short and flat joints,
+with an ordinary leafy shrub or herb of equal size. And finally, in
+Melon-Cactuses, Echinocactus (_c_), or other globose forms (which may be
+likened to permanent corms), with their globular or bulb-like shapes, we
+have plants in the compactest shape; their spherical figure being such
+as to expose the least possible amount of substance to the air. These
+are adaptations to climates which are very dry, either throughout or for
+a part of the year. Similarly, bulbous and corm-bearing plants, and the
+like, are examples of a form of vegetation which in the growing season
+may expand a large surface to the air and light, while during the period
+of rest the living vegetable is reduced to a globe, or solid form of the
+least possible surface; and this protected by its outer coats of dead
+and dry scales, as well as by its situation under ground. Such are also
+adapted to a season of drought. They largely belong to countries which
+have a long hot season of little or no rain, when, their stalks and
+foliage above and their roots beneath early perishing, the plants rest
+securely in their compact bulbs, filled with nourishment and retaining
+their moisture with great tenacity, until the rainy season comes round.
+Then they shoot forth leaves and flowers with wonderful rapidity, and
+what was perhaps a desert of arid sand becomes green with foliage and
+gay with blossoms, almost in a day.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 111.]
+
+
+
+
+Section VII. LEAVES.
+
+
+118. STEMS bear leaves, at definite points (nodes, 13); and these are
+produced in a great variety of forms, and subserve various uses. The
+commonest kind of leaf, which therefore may be taken as the type or
+pattern, is an expanded green body, by means of which the plant exposes
+to the air and light the matters which it imbibes, exhales certain
+portions, and assimilates the residue into vegetable matter for its
+nourishment and growth.
+
+119. But the fact is already familiar (10-30) that leaves occur under
+other forms and serve for other uses,--for the storage of food already
+assimilated, as in thickened seed-leaves and bulb-scales; for covering,
+as in bud-scales; and still other uses are to be pointed out. Indeed,
+sometimes they are of no service to the plant, being reduced to mere
+scales or rudiments, such as those on the rootstocks of Peppermint (Fig.
+97) or the tubers of Jerusalem Artichoke (Fig. 101). These may be said
+to be of service only to the botanist, in explaining to him the plan
+upon which a plant is constructed.
+
+120. Accordingly, just as a rootstock, or a tuber, or a tendril is a
+kind of stem, so a bud-scale, or a bulb-scale, or a cotyledon, or a
+petal of a flower, is a kind of leaf. Even in respect to ordinary
+leaves, it is natural to use the word either in a wider or in a narrower
+sense; as when in one sense we say that a leaf consists of blade and
+petiole or leaf-stalk, and in another sense say that a leaf is petioled,
+or that the leaf of Hepatica is three-lobed. The connection should make
+it plain whether by leaf we mean leaf-blade only, or the blade with any
+other parts it may have. And the student will readily understand that by
+leaf in its largest or _morphological_ sense, the botanist means the
+organ which occupies the place of a leaf, whatever be its form or its
+function.
+
+
+Sec. 1. LEAVES AS FOLIAGE.
+
+121. This is tautological; for foliage is simply leaves: but it is very
+convenient to speak of typical leaves, or those which serve the plant
+for assimilation, as foliage-leaves, or ordinary leaves. These may first
+be considered.
+
+122. =The Parts of a Leaf.= The ordinary leaf, complete in its parts,
+consists of _blade_, _foot-stalk_, or _petiole_, and a pair of
+_stipules_.
+
+123. First the BLADE or LAMINA, which is the essential part of ordinary
+leaves, that is, of such as serve the purpose of foliage. In structure
+it consists of a softer part, the _green pulp_, called _parenchyma_,
+which is traversed and supported by a fibrous frame, the parts of which
+are called _ribs_ or _veins_, on account of a certain likeness in
+arrangement to the veins of animals. The whole surface is covered by a
+transparent skin, the _Epidermis_, not unlike that which covers the
+surface of all fresh shoots.
+
+124. Note that the leaf-blade expands horizontally,--that is, normally
+presents its faces one to the sky, the other to the ground, or when the
+leaf is erect the upper face looks toward the stem that bears it, the
+lower face away from it. Whenever this is not the case there is
+something to be explained.
+
+125. The framework consists of _wood_,--a fibrous and tough material
+which runs from the stem through the leaf-stalk, when there is one, in
+the form of parallel threads or bundles of fibres; and in the blade
+these spread out in a horizontal direction, to form the _ribs_ and
+_veins_ of the leaf. The stout main branches of the framework are called
+the _Ribs_. When there is only one, as in Fig. 112, 114, or a middle one
+decidedly larger than the rest, it is called the _Midrib_. The smaller
+divisions are termed _Veins_; and their still smaller subdivisions,
+_Veinlets_. The latter subdivide again and again, until they become so
+fine that they are invisible to the naked eye. The fibres of which they
+are composed are hollow; forming tubes by which the sap is brought into
+the leaves and carried to every part.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 112. Leaf of the Quince: _b_, blade; _p_, petiole;
+_st_, stipules.]
+
+126. =Venation= is the name of the mode of veining, that is, of the way
+in which the veins are distributed in the blade. This is of two
+principal kinds; namely, the _parallel-veined_, and the _netted-veined_.
+
+127. In _Netted-veined_ (also called _Reticulated_) leaves, the veins
+branch off from the main rib or ribs, divide into finer and finer
+veinlets, and the branches unite with each other to form meshes of
+network. That is, they _anastomose_, as anatomists say of the veins and
+arteries of the body. The Quince-leaf, in Fig. 112, shows this kind of
+veining in a leaf with a single rib. The Maple, Basswood, Plane or
+Buttonwood (Fig. 74) show it in leaves of several ribs.
+
+128. In _parallel-veined_ leaves, the whole framework consists of
+slender ribs or veins, which run parallel with each other, or nearly so,
+from the base to the point of the leaf,--not dividing and subdividing,
+nor forming meshes, except by minute cross-veinlets. The leaf of any
+grass, or that of the Lily of the Valley (Fig. 113) will furnish a good
+illustration. Such parallel veins Linnaeus called _Nerves_, and
+parallel-veined leaves are still commonly called _nerved_ leaves, while
+those of the other kind are said to be _veined_,--terms which it is
+convenient to use, although these "nerves" and "veins" are all the same
+thing, and have no likeness to the _nerves_ and little to the veins of
+animals.
+
+129. _Netted-veined_ leaves belong to plants which have a pair of
+seed-leaves or cotyledons, such as the Maple (Fig. 20, 24), Beech (Fig.
+33), and the like; while _parallel-veined_ or _nerved_ leaves belong to
+plants with one cotyledon or true seed-leaf; such as the Iris (Fig. 59),
+and Indian Corn (Fig. 70). So that a mere glance at the leaves generally
+tells what the structure of the embryo is, and refers the plant to one
+or the other of these two grand classes,--which is a great convenience.
+For when plants differ from each other in some one important respect,
+they usually differ correspondingly in other respects also.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 113. A (parallel-veined) leaf of the Lily of the
+Valley. 114. One of the Calla Lily.]
+
+130. Parallel-veined leaves are of two sorts,--one kind, and the
+commonest, having the ribs or nerves all running from the base to the
+point of the leaf, as in the examples already given; while in another
+kind they run from a midrib to the margin, as in the common
+Pickerel-weed of our ponds, in the Banana, in Calla (Fig. 114), and many
+similar plants of warm climates.
+
+131. Netted-veined leaves are also of two sorts, as in the examples
+already referred to. In one case the veins all rise from a single rib
+(the midrib), as in Fig. 112, 116-127. Such leaves are called
+_Feather-veined_ or _Penni-veined_, i. e. _Pinnately-veined_; both terms
+meaning the same thing, namely, that the veins are arranged on the sides
+of the rib like the plume of a feather on each side of the shaft.
+
+132. In the other case (as in Fig. 74, 129-132), the veins branch off
+from three, five, seven, or nine ribs, which spread from the top of the
+leaf-stalk, and run through the blade like the toes of a web-footed
+bird. Hence these are said to be _Palmately_ or _Digitately_ veined, or
+(since the ribs diverge like rays from a centre) _Radiate-veined_.
+
+133. Since the general outline of leaves accords with the framework or
+skeleton, it is plain that _feather-veined_ (or _penni-veined_) leaves
+will incline to elongated shapes, or at least to be longer than broad;
+while in _radiate-veined_ leaves more rounded forms are to be expected.
+A glance at the following figures shows this.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 115-120. A series of shapes of feather-veined
+leaves.]
+
+134. =Forms of Leaves as to General Outline.= It is necessary to give
+names to the principal shapes, and to define them rather precisely,
+since they afford easy marks for distinguishing species. The same terms
+are used for all other flattened parts as well, such as petals; so that
+they make up a great part of the descriptive language of Botany. It will
+be a good exercise for young students to look up leaves answering to
+these names and definitions. Beginning with the narrower and proceeding
+to the broadest forms, a leaf is said to be
+
+_Linear_ (Fig. 115), when narrow, several times longer than wide, and of
+the same breadth throughout.
+
+_Lanceolate_, or _Lance-shaped_, when conspicuously longer than wide,
+and tapering upwards (Fig. 116), or both upwards and downwards.
+
+_Oblong_ (Fig. 117), when nearly twice or thrice as long as broad.
+
+_Elliptical_ (Fig. 118) is oblong with a flowing outline, the two ends
+alike in width.
+
+_Oval_ is the same as broadly elliptical, or elliptical with the breadth
+considerably more than half the length.
+
+_Ovate_ (Fig. 119), when the outline is like a section of a hen's egg
+lengthwise, the broader end downward.
+
+_Orbicular_, or _Rotund_ (Fig. 132), circular in outline, or nearly so.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 121, oblanceolate; 122, spatulate; 123, obovate; and
+124, wedge-shaped, feather-veined, leaves.]
+
+135. A leaf which tapers toward the base instead of toward the apex may
+be
+
+_Oblanceolate_ (Fig. 121) when of the lance-shaped form, only more
+tapering toward the base than in the opposite direction.
+
+_Spatulate_ (Fig. 122) when more rounded above, but tapering thence to a
+narrow base, like an old-fashioned spatula.
+
+_Obovate_ (Fig. 123) or inversely ovate, that is, ovate with the
+narrower end down.
+
+_Cuneate_ or _Cuneiform_, that is, _Wedge-shaped_ (Fig. 124), broad
+above and tapering by nearly straight lines to an acute angle at the
+base.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 125, sagittate; 126, auriculate; and 127,
+halberd-shaped or hastate leaves.]
+
+136. =As to the Base=, its shape characterizes several forms, such as
+
+_Cordate_ or _Heart-shaped_ (Fig. 120, 129), when a leaf of an ovate
+form, or something like it, has the outline of its rounded base turned
+in (forming a notch or _sinus_) where the stalk is attached.
+
+_Reniform_, or _Kidney-shaped_ (Fig. 131), like the last, only rounder
+and broader than long.
+
+_Auriculate_, or _Eared_, having a pair of small and blunt projections,
+or _ears_, at the base, as in one species of Magnolia (Fig. 126).
+
+_Sagittate_, or _arrow-shaped_, where such ears are acute and turned
+downwards, while the main body of the blade tapers upwards to a point,
+as in the common Sagittaria or Arrow-head, and in the Arrow-leaved
+Polygonum (Fig. 125).
+
+_Hastate_, or _Halberd-shaped_, when such lobes at the base point
+outwards, giving the shape of the halberd of the olden time, as in
+another Polygonum (Fig. 127).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 128-132. Various forms of radiate-veined leaves.]
+
+_Peltate_, or _Shield-shaped_ (Fig. 132), is the name applied to a
+curious modification of the leaf, commonly of a rounded form, where the
+footstalk is attached to the lower surface, instead of the base, and
+therefore is naturally likened to a shield borne by the outstretched
+arm. The common Watershield, the Nelumbium, and the White Water-lily,
+and also the Mandrake, exhibit this sort of leaf. On comparing the
+shield-shaped leaf of the common Marsh Pennywort (Fig. 132) with that of
+another common species (Fig. 130), it is at once seen that a
+shield-shaped leaf is like a kidney-shaped (Fig. 130, 131) or other
+rounded leaf, with the margins at the base brought together and united.
+
+137. =As to the Apex=, the following terms express the principal
+variations:--
+
+_Acuminate_, _Pointed_, or _Taper-pointed_, when the summit is more or
+less prolonged into a narrowed or tapering point; as in Fig. 133.
+
+_Acute_, ending in an acute angle or not prolonged point; Fig. 134.
+
+_Obtuse_, with a blunt or rounded apex; as in Fig. 135, etc.
+
+_Truncate_, with the end as if cut off square; as in Fig. 136.
+
+_Retuse_, with rounded summit slightly indented, forming a very shallow
+notch, as in Fig. 137.
+
+_Emarginate_, or _Notched_, indented at the end more decidedly; as in
+Fig. 138.
+
+_Obcordate_, that is, inversely heart-shaped, where an obovate leaf is
+more deeply notched at the end (Fig. 139), as in White Clover and
+Wood-sorrel; so as to resemble a cordate leaf inverted.
+
+_Cuspidate_, tipped with a sharp and rigid point; as in Fig. 140.
+
+_Mucronate_, abruptly tipped with a small and short point, like a mere
+projection of the midrib; as in Fig. 141.
+
+_Aristate_, _Awn-pointed_, and _Bristle-pointed_, are terms used when
+this mucronate point is extended into a longer bristle-form or slender
+appendage.
+
+The first six of these terms can be applied to the lower as well as to
+the upper end of a leaf or other organ. The others belong to the apex
+only.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 133-141. Forms of the apex of leaves.]
+
+138. =As to degree and nature of Division=, there is first of all the
+difference between
+
+_Simple Leaves_, those in which the blade is of one piece, however much
+it may be cut up, and
+
+_Compound Leaves_, those in which the blade consists of two or more
+separate pieces, upon a common leaf-stalk or support. Yet between these
+two kinds every intermediate gradation is to be met with.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 142-147. Kinds of margin of leaves.]
+
+139. =As to Particular Outlines of Simple Leaves= (and the same applies
+to their separate parts), they are
+
+_Entire_, when their general outline is completely filled out, so that
+the margin is an even line, without teeth or notches.
+
+_Serrate_, or _Saw-toothed_, when the margin only is cut into sharp
+teeth, like those of a saw, and pointing forwards; as in Fig. 142.
+
+_Dentate_, or _Toothed_, when such teeth point outwards, instead of
+forwards; as in Fig. 143.
+
+_Crenate_, or _Scalloped_, when the teeth are broad and rounded; as in
+Fig. 144.
+
+_Repand_, _Undulate_, or _Wavy_, when the margin of the leaf forms a
+wavy line, bending slightly inwards and outwards in succession; as in
+Fig. 145.
+
+_Sinuate_, when the margin is more strongly sinuous or turned inwards
+and outwards; as in Fig. 146.
+
+_Incised_, _Cut_, or _Jagged_, when the margin is cut into sharp, deep,
+and irregular teeth or incisions; as in Fig. 147.
+
+_Lobed_, when deeply cut. Then the pieces are in a general way called
+LOBES. The number of the lobes is briefly expressed by the phrase
+_two-lobed_, _three-lobed_, _five-lobed_, _many-lobed_, etc., as the
+case may be.
+
+140. When the depth and character of the lobing needs to be more
+particularly specified, the following terms are employed, viz.:--
+
+_Lobed_, in a special sense, when the incisions do not extend deeper
+than about half-way between the margin and the centre of the blade, if
+so far, and are more or less rounded; as in the leaves of the Post-Oak,
+Fig. 148, and the Hepatica, Fig. 152.
+
+_Cleft_, when the incisions extend half way down or more, and especially
+when they are sharp; as in Fig. 149, 153. And the phrases _two-cleft_,
+or, in the Latin form, _bifid_, _three-cleft_ or _trifid_, _four-cleft_
+or _quadrifid_, _five-cleft_ or _quinquefid_, etc., or _many-cleft_, in
+the Latin form, _multifid_,--express the number of the _Segments_, or
+portions.
+
+_Parted_, when the incisions are still deeper, but yet do not quite
+reach to the midrib or the base of the blade; as in Fig. 150, 154. And
+the terms _two-parted_, _three-parted_, etc., express the number of such
+divisions.
+
+_Divided_, when the incisions extend quite to the midrib, as in the
+lower part of Fig. 151, or to the leaf-stalk, as in Fig. 155; which
+really makes the leaf compound. Here, using the Latin form, the leaf is
+said to be _bisected_, _trisected_ (Fig. 155), etc., according to the
+number of the divisions.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 148, pinnately lobed; 149, pinnately cleft; 150,
+pinnately parted; 151, pinnately divided, leaves.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 152, palmately three-lobed; 153, palmately
+three-cleft; 154, palmately three-parted; 155, palmately three-divided
+or trisected, leaves.]
+
+141. =The Mode of Lobing or Division= corresponds to that of the
+veining, whether _pinnately veined_ or _palmately veined_. In the former
+the notches or incisions, or _sinuses_, coming between the principal
+veins or ribs are directed toward the midrib: in the latter they are
+directed toward the apex of the petiole; as the figures show.
+
+142. So degree and mode of division may be tersely expressed in brief
+phrases. Thus, in the four upper figures of pinnately veined leaves, the
+first is said to be _pinnately lobed_ (in the special sense), the second
+_pinnately cleft_ (or _pinnatifid_ in Latin form), the third _pinnately
+parted_, the fourth _pinnately divided_, or _pinnatisected_.
+
+143. Correspondingly in the lower row, of palmately veined leaves, the
+first is _palmately lobed_, the second _palmately cleft_, the third
+_palmately parted_, the fourth _palmately divided_. Or, in other
+language of the same meaning (but now less commonly employed), they are
+said to be _digitately lobed_, _cleft_, _parted_, or _divided_.
+
+144. The number of the divisions or lobes may come into the phrase. Thus
+in the four last named figures the leaves are respectively _palmately
+three-lobed_, _three-cleft_ (or _trifid_), _three-parted_,
+_three-divided_, or better (in Latin form), _trisected_. And so for
+higher numbers, as _five-lobed_, _five-cleft_, etc., up to
+_many-lobed_, _many-cleft_ or _multifid_, etc. The same mode of
+expression may be used for pinnately lobed leaves, as _pinnately
+7-lobed_, _-cleft_, _-parted_, etc.
+
+145. The divisions, lobes, etc., may themselves be _entire_ (without
+teeth or notches), or _serrate_, or otherwise toothed or incised; or
+lobed, cleft, parted, etc.: in the latter cases making _twice
+pinnatifid_, _twice palmately_ or _pinnately lobed_, _parted_, or
+_divided_ leaves, etc. From these illustrations one will perceive how
+the botanist, in two or three words, may describe any one of the almost
+endlessly diversified shapes of leaves, so as to give a clear and
+definite idea of it.
+
+146. =Compound Leaves.= A compound leaf is one which has its blade in
+entirely separate parts, each usually with a stalklet of its own; and
+the stalklet is often _jointed_ (or _articulated_) with the main
+leaf-stalk, just as this is jointed with the stem. When this is the
+case, there is no doubt that the leaf is compound. But when the pieces
+have no stalklets, and are not jointed with the main leaf-stalk, it may
+be considered either as a divided simple leaf, or a compound leaf,
+according to the circumstances. This is a matter of names where all
+intermediate forms may be expected.
+
+147. While the pieces or projecting parts of a simple leaf-blade are
+called _Lobes_, or in deeply cut leaves, etc., _Segments_, or
+_Divisions_, the separate pieces or blades of a compound leaf are called
+LEAFLETS.
+
+148. Compound leaves are of two principal kinds, namely, the _Pinnate_
+and the _Palmate_; answering to the two modes of veining in reticulated
+leaves, and to the two sorts of lobed or divided leaves (141).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 156-158. Pinnate leaves, the first with an odd
+leaflet (_odd-pinnate_); the second with a tendril in place of uppermost
+leaflets; the third _abruptly pinnate_, or of even pairs.]
+
+149. _Pinnate_ leaves are those in which the leaflets are arranged on
+the sides of a main leaf-stalk; as in Fig. 156-158. They answer to the
+_feather-veined_ (i. e. _pinnately-veined_) simple leaf; as will be
+seen at once on comparing the forms. The _leaflets_ of the former answer
+to the _lobes_ or _divisions_ of the latter; and the continuation of the
+petiole, along which the leaflets are arranged, answers to the midrib of
+the simple leaf.
+
+150. Three sorts of pinnate leaves are here given. Fig. 156 is _pinnate
+with an odd_ or _end leaflet_, as in the Common Locust and the Ash. Fig.
+157 is _pinnate with a tendril at the end_, in place of the odd leaflet,
+as in the Vetches and the Pea. Fig. 158 is evenly or _abruptly pinnate_,
+as in the Honey-Locust.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 159. Palmate (or digitate) leaf of five leaflets, of
+the Sweet Buckeye.]
+
+151. _Palmate_ (also named _Digitate_) leaves are those in which the
+leaflets are all borne on the tip of the leaf-stalk, as in the Lupine,
+the Common Clover, the Virginia Creeper (Fig. 93), and the
+Horse-chestnut and Buckeye (Fig. 159). They evidently answer to the
+_radiate-veined_ or _palmately-veined_ simple leaf. That is, the
+Clover-leaf of three leaflets is the same as a palmately three-ribbed
+leaf cut into three separate leaflets. And such a simple five-lobed leaf
+as that of the Sugar Maple, if more cut, so as to separate the parts,
+would produce a palmate leaf of five leaflets, like that of the
+Horse-chestnut or Buckeye.
+
+152. Either sort of compound leaf may have any number of leaflets; yet
+palmate leaves cannot well have a great many, since they are all crowded
+together on the end of the main leaf-stalk. Some Lupines have nine or
+eleven; the Horse-chestnut has seven, the Sweet Buckeye more commonly
+five, the Clover three. A pinnate leaf often has only seven or five
+leaflets, or only three, as in Beans of the genus Phaseolus, etc.; in
+some rarer cases only two; in the Orange and Lemon and also in the
+common Barberry there is only one! The joint at the place where the
+leaflet is united with the petiole distinguishes this last case from a
+simple leaf. In other species of these genera the lateral leaflets also
+are present.
+
+153. The leaflets of a compound leaf may be either _entire_ (as in Fig.
+126-128), or _serrate_, or lobed, cleft, parted, etc.; in fact, may
+present all the variations of simple leaves, and the same terms equally
+apply to them.
+
+154. When the division is carried so far as to separate what would be
+one leaflet into two, three, or several, the leaf becomes _doubly_ or
+_twice compound_, either _pinnately_ or _palmately_, as the case may be.
+For example, while the clustered leaves of the Honey-Locust are _simply
+pinnate_, that is, _once pinnate_, those on new shoots are _bipinnate_,
+or _twice pinnate_, as in Fig. 160. When these leaflets are again
+divided in the same way, the leaf becomes _thrice pinnate_, or
+_tripinnate_, as in many Acacias. The first divisions are called
+_Pinnae_; the others, _Pinnules_; and the last, or little blades
+themselves, _Leaflets_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 160. A twice-pinnate (abruptly) leaf of the
+Honey-Locust.]
+
+155. So the palmate leaf, if again compounded in the same way, becomes
+_twice palmate_, or, as we say when the divisions are in threes, _twice
+ternate_ (in Latin form _biternate_); if a third time compounded,
+_thrice ternate_ or _triternate_. But if the division goes still
+further, or if the degree is variable, we simply say that the leaf is
+_decompound_; either palmately or pinnately decompound, as the case may
+be. Thus, Fig. 161 represents a four times ternately compound (in other
+words a _ternately decompound_) leaf of a common Meadow Rue.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 161. Ternately decompound leaf of Meadow Rue.]
+
+156. When the botanist, in describing leaves, wishes to express the
+number of the leaflets, he may use terms like these:--
+
+_Unifoliolate_, for a compound leaf of a single leaflet; from the Latin
+_unum_, one, and _foliolum_, leaflet.
+
+_Bifoliolate_, of two leaflets, from the Latin _bis_, twice, and
+_foliolum_, leaflet.
+
+_Trifoliolate_ (or _ternate_), of three leaflets, as the Clover; and so
+on.
+
+_Palmately bifoliolate_, _trifoliolate_, _quadrifoliolate_,
+_plurifoliolate_ (of several leaflets), etc.: or else
+
+_Pinnately bi-_, _tri-_, _quadri-_, or _plurifoliolate_ (that is, of
+two, three, four, five, or several leaflets), as the case may be: these
+are terse ways of denoting in single phrases both the number of leaflets
+and the kind of compounding.
+
+157. Of foliage-leaves having certain peculiarities in structure, the
+following may be noted:--
+
+158. =Perfoliate Leaves.= In these the stem that bears them seems to
+run through the blade of the leaf, more or less above its base. A common
+Bellwort (Uvularia perfoliata, Fig. 162) is a familiar illustration. The
+lower and earlier leaves show it distinctly. Later, the plant is apt to
+produce some leaves merely clasping the stem by the sessile and
+heart-shaped base, and the latest may be merely sessile. So the series
+explains the peculiarity: in the formation of the leaf the bases,
+meeting around the stem, grow together there.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 162. A summer branch of Uvularia perfoliata; lower
+leaves perfoliate, upper cordate-clasping, uppermost simply sessile.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 163. Branch of a Honeysuckle, with
+connate-perfoliate leaves.]
+
+159. =Connate-perfoliate.= Such are the upper leaves of true
+Honeysuckles. Here (Fig. 163) of the opposite and sessile leaves, some
+pairs, especially the uppermost, in the course of their formation unite
+around the stem, which thus seems to run through the disk formed by
+their union.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 164. Rootstock and equitant leaves of Iris. 165. A
+section across the cluster of leaves at the bottom, showing the
+equitation.]
+
+160. =Equitant Leaves.= While ordinary leaves spread horizontally, and
+present one face to the sky and the other to the earth, there are some
+that present their tip to the sky, and their faces right and left to the
+horizon. Among these are the _equitant_ leaves of the Iris or
+Flower-de-Luce. Inspection shows that each leaf was formed as if _folded
+together lengthwise_, so that what would be the upper surface is
+within, and all grown together, except next the bottom, where each leaf
+covers the next younger one. It was from their straddling over each
+other, like a man on horseback (as is seen in the cross-section, Fig.
+165), that Linnaeus, with his lively fancy, called these _Equitant_
+leaves.
+
+161. =Leaves with no distinction of Petiole and Blade.= The leaves of
+Iris just mentioned show one form of this. The flat but narrow leaves of
+Jonquils, Daffodils, and the cylindrical leaf of Onions are other
+instances. _Needle-shaped_ leaves, like those of the Pine, Larch, and
+Spruce, and the _awl-shaped_ as well as the _scale-shaped_ leaves of
+Junipers, Red Cedar, and Arbor-Vitae (Fig. 166), are examples.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 166. Branch of Arbor-Vitae, with awl-shaped and
+scale-shaped leaves.]
+
+162. =Phyllodia.= Sometimes an expanded _petiole_ takes the place of the
+blade; as in numerous New Holland Acacias, some of which are now common
+in greenhouses. Such counterfeit blades are called _phyllodia_,--meaning
+leaf-like bodies. They may be known from true blades by their standing
+edgewise, their margins being directed upwards and downwards; while in
+true blades the faces look upwards and downwards; excepting in equitant
+leaves, as already explained.
+
+163. =Falsely Vertical Leaves.= These are apparent exceptions to the
+rule, the blade standing edgewise instead of flatwise to the stem; but
+this position comes by a twist of the stalk or the base of the blade.
+Such leaves present the two faces about equally to the light. The
+Compass-plant (Silphium laciniatum) is an example. So also the leaves of
+Boltonia, of Wild Lettuce, and of a vast number of Australian Myrtaceous
+shrubs and trees, which much resemble the phyllodia of the Acacias of
+the same country. They are familiar in Callistemon, the Bottle-brush
+Flower, and in Eucalyptus. But in the latter the leaves of the young
+tree have the normal structure and position.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 167. The ambiguous leaf? (cladophyllum) of
+Myrsiphyllum.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 168. Same of Ruscus, or Butcher's Broom.]
+
+164. =Cladophylla=, meaning _branch-leaves_. The foliage of Ruscus (the
+Butcher's Broom of Europe) and of Myrsiphyllum of South Africa
+(cultivated for decoration under the false name of Smilax) is peculiar
+and puzzling. If these blades (Fig. 167, 168) are really leaves, they
+are most anomalous in occupying the axil of another leaf, reduced to a
+little scale. Yet they have an upper and lower face, as leaves should,
+although they soon twist, so as to stand more or less edgewise. If they
+are branches which have assumed exactly the form and office of leaves,
+they are equally extraordinary in not making any further development.
+But in Ruscus, flowers are borne on one face, in the axil of a little
+scale: and this would seem to settle that they are branches. In
+Asparagus just the same things as to position are thread-shaped and
+branch-like.
+
+
+Sec. 2. LEAVES OF SPECIAL CONFORMATION AND USE.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 169. A young Agave Americana, or Century-plant;
+fleshy-leaved.]
+
+165. =Leaves for Storage.= A leaf may at the same time serve both
+ordinary and special uses. Thus in those leaves of Lilies, such as the
+common White Lily, which spring from the bulb, the upper and green part
+serves for foliage and elaborates nourishment, while the thickened
+portion or bud-scale beneath serves for the storage of this nourishment.
+The thread-shaped leaf of the Onion fulfils the same office, and the
+nourishing matter it prepares is deposited in its sheathing base,
+forming one of the concentric layers of the onion. When these layers, so
+thick and succulent, have given up their store to the growing parts
+within, they are left as thin and dry husks. In a Houseleek, an Aloe or
+an Agave, the green color of the surface of the fleshy leaf indicates
+that it is doing the work of foliage; the deeper-seated white portion
+within is the storehouse of the nourishment which the green surface has
+elaborated. So, also, the seed-leaves or cotyledons are commonly used
+for storage. Some, as in one of the Maples, the Pea, Horse-chestnut,
+Oak, etc., are for nothing else. Others, as in Beech and in our common
+Beans, give faint indications of service as foliage also, chiefly in
+vain. Still others, as in the Pumpkin and Flax, having served for
+storage, develop into the first efficient foliage. Compare 11, 22-30,
+and the accompanying figures.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 170. Series of bud-scales and foliage-leaves from a
+developing bud of the Low Sweet Buckeye (AEsculus parviflora), showing
+nearly complete gradation, from a scale to a compound leaf of five
+leaflets; and that the scales answer to reduced petioles.]
+
+166. =Leaves as Bud-Scales= serve to protect the forming parts within.
+Having fulfilled this purpose they commonly fall off when the shoot
+develops and foliage-leaves appear. Occasionally, as in Fig. 170, there
+is a transition of bud-scales to leaves, which reveals the nature of the
+former. The Lilac also shows a gradation from bud-scale to simple leaf.
+In Cornus florida (the Flowering Dogwood), the four bud-scales which
+through the winter protect the head of forming flowers remain until
+blossoming, and then the base of each grows out into a large and very
+showy petal-like leaf; the original dry scale is apparent in the notch
+at the apex.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 171. Shoot of common Barberry, showing transition of
+foliage-leaves to spines.]
+
+167. =Leaves as Spines= occur in several plants. A familiar instance is
+that of the common Barberry (Fig. 171). In almost any summer shoot, most
+of the gradations may be seen between the ordinary leaves, with sharp
+bristly teeth, and leaves which are reduced to a branching spine or
+thorn. The fact that the spines of the Barberry produce a leaf-bud in
+their axil also proves them to be leaves.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 172. Leaves of Solanum jasminoides, the petiole
+adapted for climbing.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 173. Leaf of Lathyrus Aphaca, consisting of a pair
+of stipules and a tendril.]
+
+168. =Leaves for Climbing= are various in adaptation. True
+foliage-leaves serve this purpose; as in Gloriosa, where the attenuated
+tip of a simple leaf (otherwise like that of a Lily) hooks around a
+supporting object; or in Solanum jasminoides of the gardens (Fig. 172),
+and in Maurandia, etc., where the leaf-stalk coils round and clings to a
+support; or in the compound leaves of Clematis and of Adlumia, in which
+both the leaflets and their stalks hook or coil around the support.
+
+169. Or in a compound leaf, as in the Pea and most Vetches, and in
+Cobaea, while the lower leaflets serve for foliage, some of the uppermost
+are developed as tendrils for climbing (Fig. 167). In the common Pea
+this is so with all but one or two pairs of leaflets.
+
+170. In one European Vetch, the leaflets are wanting and the whole
+petiole is a tendril, while the stipules become the only foliage (Fig.
+173).
+
+171. =Leaves as Pitchers=, or hollow tubes, are familiar in the common
+Pitcher-plant or Side-saddle Flower (Sarracenia, Fig. 174) of our bogs.
+These pitchers are generally half full of water, in which flies and
+other insects are drowned, often in such numbers as to make a rich
+manure for the plant. More curious are some of the southern species of
+Sarracenia, which seem to be specially adapted to the capture and
+destruction of flies and other insects.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 174. Leaf of Sarracenia purpurea, entire, and
+another with the upper part cut off.]
+
+172. The leaf of Nepenthes (Fig. 175) combines three structures and
+uses. The expanded part below is foliage: this tapers into a tendril for
+climbing; and this bears a pitcher with a lid. Insects are caught, and
+perhaps digested, in the pitcher.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 175. Leaf of Nepenthes; foliage, tendril, and
+pitcher combined.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 176. Leaves of Dionaea; the trap in one of them open,
+in the others closed.]
+
+173. =Leaves as Fly-traps.= Insects are caught in another way, and more
+expertly, by the most extraordinary of all the plants of this country,
+the Dionaea or Venus's Fly-trap, which grows in the sandy bogs around
+Wilmington, North Carolina. Here (Fig. 176) each leaf bears at its
+summit an appendage which opens and shuts, in shape something like a
+steel-trap, and operating much like one. For when open, no sooner does a
+fly alight on its surface, and brush against any one of the two or three
+bristles that grow there, than the trap suddenly closes, capturing the
+intruder. If the fly escapes, the trap soon slowly opens, and is ready
+for another capture. When retained, the insect is after a time moistened
+by a secretion from minute glands of the inner surface, and is digested.
+In the various species of Drosera or Sundew, insects are caught by
+sticking fast to very viscid glands at the tip of strong bristles, aided
+by adjacent gland-tipped bristles which bend slowly toward the captive.
+The use of such adaptations and operations may be explained in another
+place.
+
+
+Sec. 3. STIPULES.
+
+174. A leaf complete in its parts consists of blade, leaf-stalk or
+petiole, and a pair of stipules. But most leaves have either fugacious
+or minute stipules or none at all; many have no petiole (the blade being
+_sessile_ or stalkless); some have no clear distinction of blade and
+petiole; and many of these, such as those of the Onion and all phyllodia
+(166), consist of petiole only.
+
+175. The base of the petiole is apt to be broadened and flattened,
+sometimes into thin margins, sometimes into a sheath which embraces the
+stem at the point of attachment.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 177. Leaf of Red Clover: _st_, stipules, adhering to
+the base of _p_, the petiole; _b_, blade of three leaflets.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 178. Part of stem and leaf of Prince's-Feather
+(Polygonum orientale) with the united sheathing stipules forming a
+sheath or _ocrea_.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 179. Terminal winter bud of Magnolia Umbrella,
+natural size. 180. Outermost bud-scale (pair of stipules) detached.]
+
+176. =Stipules= are such appendages, either wholly or partly separated
+from the petiole. When quite separate they are said to be _free_, as in
+Fig. 112. When attached to the base of the petiole, as in the Rose and
+in Clover (Fig. 177), they are _adnate_. When the two stipules unite
+and sheathe the stem above the insertion, as in Polygonum (Fig. 178),
+this sheath is called an _Ocrea_ from its likeness to a greave or
+leggin.
+
+177. In Grasses, when the sheathing base of the leaf may answer to
+petiole, the summit of the sheath commonly projects as a thin and short
+membrane, like an ocrea: this is called a LIGULA or LIGULE.
+
+178. When stipules are green and leaf-like they act as so much foliage.
+In the Pea they make up no small part of the actual foliage. In a
+related plant (Lathyrus Aphaca, Fig. 173), they make the whole of it,
+the remainder of the leaf being tendril.
+
+179. In many trees the stipules are the bud-scales, as in the Beech, and
+very conspicuously in the Fig-tree, Tulip-tree, and Magnolia (Fig. 179).
+These fall off as the leaves unfold.
+
+180. The stipules are spines or prickles in Locust and several other
+Leguminous trees and shrubs; they are tendrils in Smilax or Greenbrier.
+
+
+Sec. 4. THE ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES.
+
+181. =Phyllotaxy=, meaning leaf-arrangement, is the study of the
+position of leaves, or parts answering to leaves, upon the stem.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 181. Alternate leaves, in Linden, Lime-tree, or
+Basswood.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 182. Opposite leaves, in Red Maple.]
+
+182. The technical name for the attachment of leaves to the stem is the
+_insertion_. Leaves (as already noticed, 54) are _inserted_ in three
+modes. They are
+
+_Alternate_ (Fig. 181), that is, one after another, or in other words,
+with only a single leaf to each node;
+
+_Opposite_ (Fig. 182), when there is a pair to each node, the two
+leaves in this case being always on opposite sides of the stem;
+
+_Whorled_ or _Verticillate_ (Fig. 183) when there are more than two
+leaves on a node, in which case they divide the circle equally between
+them, forming a _Verticel_ or whorl. When there are three leaves in the
+whorl, the leaves are one third of the circumference apart; when four,
+one quarter, and so on. So the plan of opposite leaves, which is very
+common, is merely that of whorled leaves, with the fewest leaves to the
+whorl, namely, two.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 183. Whorled leaves of Galium.]
+
+183. In both modes and in all their modifications, the arrangement is
+such as to distribute the leaves systematically and in a way to give
+them a good exposure to the light.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 184. A piece of stem of Larch with two clusters
+(fascicles) of numerous leaves.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 185. Piece of a branch of Pitch Pine, with three
+leaves in a fascicle or bundle, in the axil of a thin scale which
+answers to a primary leaf. The bundle is surrounded at the base by a
+short sheath, formed of the delicate scales of the axillary bud.]
+
+184. No two or more leaves ever grow from the same point. The so-called
+_Fascicled_ or _Clustered_ leaves are the leaves of a branch the nodes
+of which are very close, just as they are in the bud, so keeping the
+leaves in a cluster. This is evident in the Larch (Fig. 184), in which
+examination shows each cluster to be made up of numerous leaves crowded
+on a spur or short axis. In spring there are only such clusters; but in
+summer some of them lengthen into ordinary shoots with scattered
+alternate leaves. So, likewise, each cluster of two or three
+needle-shaped leaves in Pitch Pines (as in Fig. 185), or of five leaves
+in White Pine, answers to a similar extremely short branch, springing
+from the axil of a thin and slender scale, which represents a leaf of
+the main shoot. For Pines produce two kinds of leaves,--1. primary, the
+proper leaves of the shoots, not as foliage, but in the shape of
+delicate scales in spring, which soon fall away; and 2. secondary, the
+_fascicled_ leaves, from buds in the axils of the former, and these form
+the actual foliage.
+
+185. =Phyllotaxy of Alternate Leaves.= Alternate leaves are distributed
+along the stem in an order which is uniform for each species. The
+arrangement in all its modifications is said to be _spiral_, because, if
+we draw a line from the _insertion_ (i. e. the point of attachment) of
+one leaf to that of the next, and so on, this line will wind spirally
+around the stem as it rises, and in the same species will always bear
+the same number of leaves for each turn round the stem. That is, any two
+successive leaves will always be separated from each other by an equal
+portion of the circumference of the stem. The distance in _height_
+between any two leaves may vary greatly, even on the same shoot, for
+that depends upon the length of the _internodes_, or spaces between the
+leaves; but the distance as measured around the circumference (in other
+words, the _Angular Divergence_, or angle formed by any two successive
+leaves) is uniformly the same.
+
+186. =Two-ranked.= The greatest possible divergence is, of course, where
+the second leaf stands on exactly the opposite side of the stem from the
+first, the third on the side opposite the second, and therefore over the
+first, and the fourth over the second. This brings all the leaves into
+two ranks, one on one side of the stem and one on the other, and is
+therefore called the _Two-ranked_ arrangement. It occurs in all
+Grasses,--in Indian Corn, for instance; also, in the Basswood (Fig.
+181). This is the simplest of all arrangements, and the one which most
+widely distributes successive leaves, but which therefore gives the
+fewest vertical ranks. Next is the
+
+187. =Three-ranked= arrangement,--that of all Sedges, and of White
+Hellebore. Here the second leaf is placed one third of the way round the
+stem, the third leaf two thirds of the way round, the fourth leaf
+accordingly directly over the first, the fifth over the second, and so
+on. That is, three leaves occur in each turn round the stem, and they
+are separated from each other by one third of the circumference. (Fig.
+186, 187.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 186. Two-ranked arrangement, shown in a piece of the
+stalk of a Sedge, with the leaves cut off above their bases; the leaves
+are numbered in order, from 1 to 6. 187. Diagram or cross-section of the
+same, in one plane; the leaves similarly numbered; showing two cycles of
+three.]
+
+188. =Five-ranked= is the next in the series, and the most common. It is
+seen in the Apple (Fig. 188), Cherry, Poplar, and the greater number of
+trees and shrubs. In this case the line traced from leaf to leaf will
+pass twice round the stem before it reaches a leaf situated directly
+over any below (Fig. 189). Here the sixth leaf is over the first; the
+leaves stand in five perpendicular ranks, with equal angular distance
+from each other; and this distance between any two successive leaves is
+just two fifths of the circumference of the stem.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 188. Shoot with its leaves 5-ranked, the sixth leaf
+over the first; as in the Apple-tree.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 189. Diagram of this arrangement, with a spiral line
+drawn from the attachment of one leaf to the next, and so on; the parts
+on the side turned from the eye are fainter.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 190. A ground-plan of the same; the section of the
+leaves similarly numbered; a dotted line drawn from the edge of one leaf
+to that of the next marks out the spiral.]
+
+189. The five-ranked arrangement is expressed by the fraction 2/5. This
+fraction denotes the divergence of the successive leaves, i. e. the
+angle they form with each other: the numerator also expresses the number
+of turns made round the stem by the spiral line in completing one cycle
+or set of leaves, namely, two; and the denominator gives the number of
+leaves in each cycle, or the number of perpendicular ranks, namely,
+five. In the same way the fraction 1/2 stands for the two-ranked mode,
+and 1/3 for the three-ranked: and so these different sorts are expressed
+by the series of fractions 1/2, 1/3, 2/5. Other cases follow in the same
+numerical progression, the next being the
+
+190. =Eight-ranked= arrangement. In this the ninth leaf stands over the
+first, and three turns are made around the stem to reach it; so it is
+expressed by the fraction 3/8. This is seen in the Holly, and in the
+common Plantain. Then comes the
+
+191. =Thirteen-ranked= arrangement, in which the fourteenth leaf is over
+the first, after five turns around the stem. The common Houseleek (Fig.
+191) is a good example.
+
+192. The series so far, then, is 1/2, 1/3, 2/5, 3/8, 5/13; the numerator
+and the denominator of each fraction being those of the two next
+preceding ones added together. At this rate the next higher should be
+8/21, then 13/34, and so on; and in fact just such cases are met with,
+and (commonly) no others. These higher sorts are found in the Pine
+Family, both in the leaves and the cones and in many other plants with
+small and crowded leaves. But in those the number of the ranks, or of
+leaves in each cycle, can only rarely be made out by direct inspection.
+They may be indirectly ascertained, however, by studying the _secondary_
+spirals, as they are called, which usually become conspicuous, at least
+two series of them, one turning to the right and one to the left, as
+shown in Fig. 191. For an account of the way in which the character of
+the phyllotaxy may be deduced from the secondary spirals, see Structural
+Botany, Chapter IV.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 191. A young plant of the Houseleek, with the leaves
+(not yet expanded) numbered, and exhibiting the 13-ranked arrangement;
+and showing secondary spirals.]
+
+193. =Phyllotaxy of Opposite and whorled Leaves.= This is simple and
+comparatively uniform. The leaves of each pair or whorl are placed over
+the intervals between those of the preceding, and therefore under the
+intervals of the pair or whorl next above. The whorls or pairs alternate
+or cross each other, usually at right angles, that is, they _decussate_.
+Opposite leaves, that is, whorls of two leaves only, are far commoner
+than whorls of three or four or more members. This arrangement in
+successive decussating pairs gives an advantageous distribution on the
+stem in four vertical ranks. Whorls of three give six vertical ranks,
+and so on. Note that in descriptive botany leaves in whorls of two are
+simply called _opposite_ leaves; and that the term _verticillate_ or
+_whorled_, is employed only for cases of more than two, unless the
+latter number is specified.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 192. Opposite leaves of Euonymus, or Spindle-tree,
+showing the successive pairs crossing each other at right angles.]
+
+194. =Vernation or Praefoliation=, the disposition of the leaf-blades in
+the bud, comprises two things; 1st, the way in which each separate leaf
+is folded, coiled, or packed up in the bud; and 2d, the arrangement of
+the leaves in the bud with respect to one another. The latter of course
+depends very much upon the phyllotaxy, i. e. the position and order of
+the leaves upon the stem. The same terms are used for it as for the
+arrangement of the leaves of the flower in the flower-bud. See,
+therefore, "AEstivation, or Praefloration."
+
+195. As to each leaf separately, it is sometimes _straight_ and open in
+vernation, but more commonly it is either _bent_, _folded_, or _rolled
+up_. When the upper part is bent down upon the lower, as the young blade
+in the Tulip-tree is bent upon the leaf-stalk, it is said to be
+_Inflexed_ or _Reclined_ in vernation. When folded by the midrib so that
+the two halves are placed face to face, it is _Conduplicate_ (Fig. 193),
+as in the Magnolia, the Cherry, and the Oak. When folded back and forth
+like the plaits of a fan, it is _Plicate_ or _Plaited_ (Fig. 194), as
+in the Maple and Currant. If rolled, it may be so either from the tip
+downwards, as in Ferns and the Sundew (Fig. 197), when in unrolling it
+resembles the head of a crosier, and is said to be _Circinate_; or it
+may be rolled up parallel with the axis, either from one edge into a
+coil, when it is _Convolute_ (Fig. 195), as in the Apricot and Plum; or
+rolled from both edges towards the midrib,--sometimes inwards, when it
+is _Involute_ (Fig. 198), as in the Violet and Water-Lily; sometimes
+outwards, when it is _Revolute_ (Fig. 196), in the Rosemary and Azalea.
+The figures are diagrams, representing sections through the leaf, in the
+way they were represented by Linnaeus.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 193. 194. 195. 196. 197. 198.]
+
+
+
+
+Section VIII. FLOWERS.
+
+
+196. Flowers are for the production of seed (16). Stems and branches,
+which for a time put forth leaves for vegetation, may at length put
+forth flowers for reproduction.
+
+
+Sec. 1. POSITION AND ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS, OR INFLORESCENCE.
+
+197. Flower-buds appear just where leaf-buds appear; that is, they are
+either _terminal_ or _axillary_ (47-49). Morphologically, flowers answer
+to shoots or branches, and their parts to leaves.
+
+198. In the same species the flowers are usually from axillary buds
+only, or from terminal buds only; but in some they are both axillary and
+terminal.
+
+199. =Inflorescence=, which is the name used by Linnaeus to signify mode
+of flower-arrangement, is accordingly of three classes: namely,
+_Indeterminate_, when the flowers are in the axils of leaves, that is,
+are from axillary buds; _Determinate_, when they are from terminal buds,
+and so _terminate_ a stem or branch; and _Mixed_, when these two are
+combined.
+
+200. =Indeterminate Inflorescence= (likewise, and for the same reason,
+called _indefinite inflorescence_) is so named because, as the flowers
+all come from axillary buds, the terminal bud may keep on growing and
+prolong the stem indefinitely. This is so in Moneywort (Fig. 199).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 199. Piece of a flowering-stem of Moneywort
+(Lysimachia nummularia,) with single flowers successively produced in
+the axils of the leaves, from below upwards, as the stem grows on.]
+
+201. When flowers thus arise singly from the axils of ordinary leaves,
+they are _axillary_ and _solitary_, not collected into flower-clusters.
+
+202. But when several or many flowers are produced near each other, the
+accompanying leaves are apt to be of smaller size, or of different shape
+or character: then they are called BRACTS, and the flowers thus brought
+together form a cluster. The kinds of flower-clusters of the
+indeterminate class have received distinct names, according to their
+form and disposition. They are principally _Raceme_, _Corymb_, _Umbel_,
+_Spike_, _Head_, _Spadix_, _Catkin_, and _Panicle_.
+
+203. In defining these it will be necessary to use some of the following
+terms of descriptive botany which relate to inflorescence. If a flower
+is stalkless, i. e. sits directly in the axil or other support, it is
+said to be _sessile_. If raised on a naked stalk of its own (as in Fig.
+199) it is _pedunculate_, and the stalk is a PEDUNCLE.
+
+204. A peduncle on which a flower-cluster is raised is a _Common
+peduncle_. That which supports each separate flower of the cluster is a
+_Partial peduncle_, and is generally called a PEDICEL. The portion of
+the general stalk along which flowers are disposed is called the _Axis
+of inflorescence_, or, when covered with sessile flowers, the _Rhachis_
+(back-bone), and sometimes the _Receptacle_. The leaves of a
+flower-cluster generally are termed BRACTS. But when bracts of different
+orders are to be distinguished, those on the common peduncle or axis,
+and which have a flower in their axil, keep the name of _bracts_; and
+those on the pedicels or partial flower-stalks, if any, that of
+BRACTLETS or _Bracteoles_. The former is the preferable English name.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 200. A raceme, with a general peduncle (_p_),
+pedicels (_p'_), bracts (_b_), and bractlets (_b'_). Plainly the bracts
+here answer to the leaves in Fig. 199.]
+
+205. =A Raceme= (Fig. 200) is that form of flower-cluster in which the
+flowers, each on their own foot-stalk or pedicel, are arranged along the
+sides of a common stalk or axis of inflorescence; as in the Lily of the
+Valley, Currant, Barberry, one section of Cherry, etc. Each flower comes
+from the axil of a small leaf, or bract, which, however, is often so
+small that it might escape notice, and even sometimes (as in the Mustard
+Family) disappears altogether. The lowest blossoms of a raceme are of
+course the oldest, and therefore open first, and the order of blossoming
+is _ascending_ from the bottom to the top. The summit, never being
+stopped by a terminal flower, may go on to grow, and often does so (as
+in the common Shepherd's Purse), producing lateral flowers one after
+another for many weeks.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 201. A raceme. 202. A corymb. 203. An umbel.]
+
+206. =A Corymb= (Fig. 202) is the same as a raceme, except that it is
+flat and broad, either convex, or level-topped. That is, a raceme
+becomes a corymb by lengthening the lower pedicels while the uppermost
+remain shorter. The axis of a corymb is short in proportion to the lower
+pedicels. By extreme shortening of the axis the corymb may be converted
+into
+
+207. =An Umbel= (Fig. 203) as in the Milkweed, a sort of flower-cluster
+where the pedicels all spring apparently from the same point, from the
+top of the peduncle, so as to resemble, when spreading, the rays of an
+umbrella; whence the name. Here the pedicels are sometimes called the
+_Rays_ of the umbel. And the bracts, when brought in this way into a
+cluster or circle, form what is called an INVOLUCRE.
+
+208. The corymb and the umbel being more or less level-topped, bringing
+the flowers into a horizontal plane or a convex form, the ascending
+order of development appears as _Centripetal_. That is, the flowering
+proceeds from the margin or circumference regularly towards the centre;
+the lower flowers of the former answering to the outer ones of the
+latter.
+
+209. In these three kinds of flower-clusters, the flowers are raised on
+conspicuous _pedicels_ (204) or stalks of their own. The shortening of
+these pedicels, so as to render the flowers _sessile_ or nearly so,
+converts a raceme into a _Spike_, and a corymb or an umbel into a
+_Head_.
+
+210. =A Spike= is a flower cluster with a more or less lengthened axis,
+along which the flowers are sessile or nearly so; as in the Plantain
+(Fig. 204).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 204. Spike of the common Plantain or Ribwort.]
+
+211. =A Head= (_Capitulum_) is a round or roundish cluster of flowers,
+which are sessile on a very short axis or receptacle, as in the
+Button-ball, Button-bush (Fig. 205), and Red Clover. It is just what a
+spike would become if its axis were shortened; or an umbel, if its
+pedicels were all shortened until the flowers became sessile. The head
+of the Button-bush is naked; but that of the Thistle, of the Dandelion,
+and the like, is surrounded by empty bracts, which form an _Involucre_.
+Two particular forms of the spike and the head have received particular
+names, namely, the _Spadix_ and the _Catkin_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 205. Head of the Button-bush (Cephalanthus).]
+
+212. =A Spadix= is a fleshy spike or head, with small and often
+imperfect flowers, as in the Calla, Indian Turnip, (Fig. 206), Sweet
+Flag, etc. It is commonly surrounded or embraced by a peculiar
+enveloping leaf, called a SPATHE.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 206. Spadix and spathe of the Indian Turnip; the
+latter cut through below.]
+
+213. =A Catkin, or Ament=, is the name given to the scaly sort of spike
+of the Birch (Fig. 207) and Alder, the Willow and Poplar, and one sort
+of flower-clusters of the Oak, Hickory, and the like,--the so-called
+_Amentaceous_ trees.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 207. Catkin, or Ament, of Birch.]
+
+214. _Compound_ flower-clusters of these kinds are not uncommon. When
+the stalks which in the simple umbel are the pedicels of single flowers
+themselves branch into an umbel, a _Compound Umbel_ is formed. This is
+the inflorescence of Caraway (Fig. 208), Parsnip, and almost all of the
+great family of Umbelliferous (umbel-bearing) plants.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 208. Compound Umbel of Caraway.]
+
+215. The secondary or partial umbels of a compound umbel are UMBELLETS.
+When the umbellets are subtended by an involucre, this secondary
+involucre is called an INVOLUCEL.
+
+216. A _Compound raceme_ is a cluster of racemes racemosely arranged, as
+in Smilacina racemosa. A _compound corymb_ is a corymb some branches of
+which branch again in the same way, as in Mountain Ash. A _compound
+spike_ is a spicately disposed cluster of spikes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 209. Diagram of a simple panicle.]
+
+217. =A Panicle=, such as that of Oats and many Grasses, is a compound
+flower-cluster of a more or less open sort which branches with apparent
+irregularity, neither into corymbs nor racemes. Fig. 209 represents the
+simplest panicle. It is, as it were, a raceme of which some of the
+pedicels have branched so as to bear a few flowers on pedicels of their
+own, while others remain simple. A _compound panicle_ is one that
+branches in this way again and again.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 210. Diagram of an opposite-leaved plant, with a
+single terminal flower. 211. Same, with a cyme of three flowers; _a_,
+the first flower, of the main axis; _b b_, those of branches. 212. Same,
+with flowers also of the third order, _c c_.]
+
+218. =Determinate Inflorescence= is that in which the flowers are from
+terminal buds. The simplest case is that of a solitary terminal flower,
+as in Fig. 210. This stops the growth of the stem; for its terminal bud,
+becoming a blossom, can no more lengthen in the manner of a leaf-bud.
+Any further growth must be from axillary buds developing into branches.
+If such branches are leafy shoots, at length terminated by single
+blossoms, the inflorescence still consists of solitary flowers at the
+summit of stem and branches. But if the flowering branches bear only
+bracts in place of ordinary leaves, the result is the kind of
+flower-cluster called
+
+219. =A Cyme.= This is commonly a flat-topped or convex flower-cluster,
+like a corymb, only the blossoms are from terminal buds. Fig. 211
+illustrates the simplest cyme in a plant with opposite leaves, namely,
+with three flowers. The middle flower, _a_, terminates the stem; the two
+others, _b b_, terminate branches, one from the axil of each of the
+uppermost leaves; and being later than the middle one, the flowering
+proceeds from the centre outwards, or is _Centrifugal_. This is the
+opposite of the indeterminate mode, or that where all the flower-buds
+are axillary. If flowering branches appear from the axils below, the
+lower ones are the later, so that the order of blossoming continues
+_centrifugal_ or, which is the same thing, _descending_, as in Fig. 213,
+making a sort of reversed raceme or _false raceme_,--a kind of cluster
+which is to the true raceme just what the flat cyme is to the corymb.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 213. Diagram of a simple cyme in which the axis
+lengthens, so as to take the form of a raceme.]
+
+220. Wherever there are bracts or leaves, buds may be produced from
+their axils and appear as flowers. Fig. 212 represents the case where
+the branches, _b b_, of Fig. 211, each with a pair of small leaves or
+bracts about their middle, have branched again, and produced the
+branchlets and flowers _c c_, on each side. It is the continued
+repetition of this which forms the full or compound cyme, such as that
+of the Laurestinus, Hobble-bush, Dogwood, and Hydrangea (Fig. 214).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 214. Compound cyme of Hydrangea arborescens, with
+neutral enlarged flowers round the circumference.]
+
+221. =A Fascicle= (meaning a bundle), like that of the Sweet William and
+Lychnis of the gardens, is only a cyme with the flowers much crowded.
+
+222. =A Glomerule= is a cyme still more compacted, so as to imitate a
+head. It may be known from a true head by the flowers not expanding
+centripetally, that is, not from the circumference towards the centre.
+
+223. The illustrations of determinate or _cymose_ inflorescence have
+been taken from plants with opposite leaves, which give rise to the most
+regular cymes. But the Rose, Cinquefoil, Buttercup, etc., with alternate
+leaves, furnish also good examples of cymose inflorescence.
+
+224. =A Cymule= (or diminutive cyme) is either a reduced small cyme of
+few flowers, or a branch of a compound cyme, i. e. a partial cyme.
+
+225. =Scorpioid= or =Helicoid Cymes=, of various sorts, are forms of
+determinate inflorescence (often puzzling to the student) in which one
+half of the ramification fails to appear. So that they may be called
+_incomplete cymes_. The commoner forms may be understood by comparing a
+complete cyme, like that of Fig. 215 with Fig. 216, the diagram of a
+cyme of an opposite-leaved plant, having a series of terminal flowers
+and the axis continued by the development of a branch in the axil of
+only one of the leaves at each node. The dotted lines on the left
+indicate the place of the wanting branches, which if present would
+convert this _scorpioid cyme_ into the complete one of Fig. 215. Fig.
+217 is a diagram of similar inflorescence with alternate leaves. Both
+are kinds of _false racemes_ (219). When the bracts are also wanting in
+such cases, as in many Borragineous plants, the true nature of the
+inflorescence is very much disguised.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 215. A complete forking cyme of an Arenaria, or
+Chickweed.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 216. Diagram of a scorpioid cyme, with opposite
+leaves or bracts.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 217. Diagram of analogous scorpioid cyme, with
+alternate leaves or bracts.]
+
+226. These distinctions between determinate and indeterminate
+inflorescence, between corymbs and cymes, and between the true and the
+false raceme and spike, were not recognized by botanists much more than
+half a century ago, and even now are not always attended to in
+descriptions. It is still usual and convenient to describe rounded or
+flat-topped and open ramification as _corymbose_, even when essentially
+cymose; also to call the reversed or false racemes or spikes by these
+(strictly incorrect) names.
+
+227. =Mixed Inflorescence= is that in which the two plans are mixed or
+combined in compound clusters. A _mixed panicle_ is one in which, while
+the primary ramification is of the indeterminate order, the secondary or
+ultimate is wholly or partly of the determinate order. A contracted or
+elongated inflorescence of this sort is called a THYRSUS. Lilac and
+Horse-chestnut afford common examples of mixed inflorescence of this
+sort. When loose and open such flower-clusters are called by the general
+name of _Panicles_. The heads of Compositae are centripetal; but the
+branches or peduncles which bear the heads are usually of centrifugal
+order.
+
+
+Sec. 2. PARTS OR ORGANS OF THE FLOWER.
+
+228. These were simply indicated in Section II. 16. Some parts are
+necessary to seed-bearing; these are _Essential Organs_, namely, the
+_Stamens_ and _Pistils_. Others serve for protection or for attraction,
+often for both. Such are the leaves of the Flower, or the _Floral
+Envelopes_.
+
+229. =The Floral Envelopes=, taken together, are sometimes called the
+PERIANTH, also _Perigone_, in Latin form _Perigonium_. In a flower which
+possesses its full number of organs, the floral envelopes are of two
+kinds, namely, an outer circle, the CALYX, and an inner, the COROLLA.
+
+230. =The Calyx= is commonly a circle of green or greenish leaves, but
+not always. It may be the most brightly colored part of the blossom.
+Each calyx-leaf or piece is called a SEPAL.
+
+231. =The Corolla= is the inner circle of floral envelopes or
+flower-leaves, usually of delicate texture and _colored_, that is, of
+some other color than green. Each corolla-leaf is called a PETAL.
+
+232. There are flowers in abundance which consist wholly of floral
+envelopes. Such are the so-called full _double flowers_, of which the
+choicer roses and camellias of the cultivator are familiar examples. In
+them, under the gardener's care and selection, petals have taken the
+place of both stamens and pistils. These are monstrous or unnatural
+flowers, incapable of producing seed, and subservient only to human
+gratification. Their common name of _double_ flowers is not a sensible
+one: except that it is fixed by custom, it were better to translate
+their Latin name, _flores pleni_, and call them _full flowers_, meaning
+full of leaves.
+
+233. Moreover, certain plants regularly produce _neutral flowers_,
+consisting of floral envelopes only. In Fig. 214, some are seen around
+the margin of the cyme in Hydrangea. They are likewise familiar in the
+Hobble-bush and in Wild-Cranberry tree, Viburnum Oxycoccus; where they
+form an attractive setting to the cluster of small and comparatively
+inconspicuous perfect flowers which they adorn. In the Guelder Rose, or
+Snow-ball of ornamental cultivation, all or most of the blossoms of this
+same shrub are transformed into neutral flowers.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 218. A _flos plenus_, namely, a full double flower
+of Rose.]
+
+234. =The Essential Organs= are likewise of two kinds, placed one above
+or within the other; namely, first, the STAMENS or fertilizing organs,
+and second, the PISTILS, which are to be fertilized and bear the seeds.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 219. A stamen: _a_, filament; _b_, anther,
+discharging pollen.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 220. A pistil; with ovary, _a_, half cut away, to
+show the contained ovules; _b_, style; _c_, stigma.]
+
+235. =A Stamen= consists of two parts, namely, the FILAMENT or stalk
+(Fig. 219 _a_), and the ANTHER (_b_). The latter is the only essential
+part. It is a case, commonly with two lobes or cells, each opening
+lengthwise by a slit, at the proper time, and discharging a powder or
+dust-like substance, usually of a yellow color. This powder is the
+POLLEN, or fertilizing matter, to produce which is the office of the
+stamen.
+
+236. =A Pistil= (Fig. 220, 221) when complete, has three parts; OVARY,
+STYLE, and STIGMA. The _Ovary_, at base, is the hollow portion, which
+contains one or more OVULES or rudimentary seeds. The _Style_ is the
+tapering portion above: the _Stigma_ is a portion of the style, usually
+its tip, with moist naked surface, upon which grains of pollen may lodge
+and adhere, and thence make a growth which extends down to the ovules.
+When there is no style then the stigma occupies the tip of the ovary.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 221. Model of a simple pistil, with ovary cut across
+and slightly opened ventrally, to show the ovules and their attachment.]
+
+237. =The Torus= or =Receptacle= is the end of the flower-stalk, or the
+portion of axis or stem out of which the several organs of the flower
+grow, upon which they are borne (Fig. 223).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 222. Flower of Sedum ternatum, a Stonecrop.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 223. Parts of same, two of each kind, separated and
+displayed; the torus or receptacle in the centre; _a_, a sepal; _b_, a
+petal; _c_, a stamen; _d_, a pistil.]
+
+238. The parts of the flower are thus disposed on the receptacle or axis
+essentially as are leaves upon a very short stem; first the sepals, or
+outer floral leaves; then the petals or inner floral leaves; then the
+stamens; lastly, at summit or centre, the pistils, when there are two or
+more of them, or the single pistil, when only one. Fig. 223 shows the
+organs displayed, two of each kind, of such a simple and symmetrical
+flower as that of a Sedum or Stonecrop, Fig. 222.
+
+
+Sec. 3. PLAN OF FLOWER.
+
+239. All flowers are formed upon one general plan, but with almost
+infinite variations, and many disguises. This common plan is best
+understood by taking for a type, or standard for comparison, some
+_perfect_, _complete_, _regular_, and _symmetrical_ blossom, and one as
+simple as such a blossom could well be. Flowers are said to be
+
+_Perfect_ (_hermaphrodite_), when provided with both kinds of essential
+organs, i. e. with both stamens and pistils.
+
+_Complete_, when, besides, they have the two sets of floral envelopes,
+namely, calyx and corolla. Such are completely furnished with all that
+belongs to a flower.
+
+_Regular_, when all the parts of each set are alike in shape and size.
+
+_Symmetrical_, when there is an equal number of parts in each set or
+circle of organs.
+
+240. Flax-flowers were taken for a pattern in Section II. 16. But in
+them the five pistils have their ovaries as it were consolidated into
+one body. Sedum, Fig. 222, has the pistils and all the other parts free
+from such combination. The flower is perfect, complete, regular, and
+symmetrical, but is not quite as simple as it might be; for there are
+twice as many stamens as there are of the other organs. Crassula, a
+relative of Sedum, cultivated in the conservatories for winter
+blossoming (Fig. 224) is simpler, being _isostemonous_, or with just as
+many stamens as petals or sepals, while Sedum is _diplostemonous_,
+having double that number: it has, indeed, two sets of stamens.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 224. Flower of a Crassula. 225. Diagram or
+ground-plan of same.]
+
+241. =Numerical Plan.= A certain number either runs through the flower
+or is discernible in some of its parts. This number is most commonly
+either five or three, not very rarely four, occasionally two. Thus the
+_ground-plan_ of the flowers thus far used for illustration is five.
+That of Trillium (Fig. 226, 227) is three, as it likewise is as really,
+if not as plainly, in Tulips and Lilies, Crocus, Iris, and all that
+class of blossoms. In some Sedums all the flowers are in fours. In
+others the first flowers are on the plan of five, the rest mostly on the
+plan of four, that is, with four sepals, four petals, eight stamens (i.
+e. twice four), and four pistils. Whatever the ground number may be, it
+runs through the whole in symmetrical blossoms.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 226. Flower of a Trillium; its parts in threes.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 227. Diagram of flower of Trillium. In this, as in
+all such diagrams of cross-section of blossoms, the parts of the outer
+circle represent the calyx; the next, corolla; within, stamens (here in
+two circles of three each, and the cross-section is through the
+anthers); in the centre, section of three ovaries joined into a compound
+one of three cells.]
+
+242. =Alternation of the successive Circles.= In these flowers the parts
+of the successive circles _alternate_; and such is the rule. That is,
+the petals stand over the intervals between the sepals; the stamens,
+when of the same number, stand over the intervals between the petals; or
+when twice as many, as in the Trillium, the outer set alternates with
+the petals, and the inner set, alternating with the other, of course
+stands before the petals; and the pistils alternate with these. This is
+just as it should be on the theory that the circles of the blossom
+answer to whorls of leaves, which alternate in this way. While in such
+flowers the circles are to be regarded as whorls, in others they are
+rather to be regarded as condensed spirals of alternate leaves. But,
+however this may be, in the mind of a morphological botanist,
+
+243. =Flowers are altered Branches=, and their parts, therefore, altered
+leaves. That is, certain buds, which might have grown and lengthened
+into a leafy branch, do, under other circumstances and to accomplish
+other purposes, develop into blossoms. In these the axis remains short,
+nearly as it is in the bud; the leaves therefore remain close together
+in sets or circles; the outer ones, those of the calyx, generally
+partake more or less of the character of foliage; the next set are more
+delicate, and form the corolla, while the rest, the stamens and pistils,
+appear under forms very different from those of ordinary leaves, and are
+concerned in the production of seed. This view gives to Botany an
+interest which one who merely notices the shape and counts the parts of
+blossoms, without understanding their plan, has no conception of.
+
+244. That flowers answer to branches may be shown, first, from their
+position. As explained in the section on Inflorescence, flowers arise
+from the same places as branches, and from no other; flower-buds, like
+leaf-buds, appear either on the summit of a stem, that is, as a terminal
+bud, or in the axil of a leaf, as an axillary bud. And, as the plan of a
+symmetrical flower shows, the arrangement of the parts on their axis or
+receptacle is that of leaves upon the stem.
+
+245. That the sepals and petals are of the nature of leaves is evident
+from their appearance; they are commonly called the leaves of the
+flower. The calyx is most generally green in color, and foliaceous
+(leaf-like) in texture. And though the corolla is rarely green, yet
+neither are proper leaves always green. In our wild Painted-cup, and in
+some scarlet Sages, common in gardens, the leaves just under the flowers
+are of the brightest red or scarlet, often much brighter-colored than
+the corolla itself. And sometimes (as in many Cactuses, and in Carolina
+Allspice) there is such a regular gradation from the last leaves of the
+plant (bracts or bractlets) into the leaves of the calyx, that it is
+impossible to say where the one ends and the other begins. If sepals are
+leaves, so also are petals; for there is no clearly fixed limit between
+them. Not only in the Carolina Allspice and Cactus (Fig. 229), but in
+the Water-Lily (Fig. 228) and in a variety of flowers with more than one
+row of petals, there is such a complete transition between calyx and
+corolla that no one can surely tell how many of the leaves belong to the
+one and how many to the other.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 228. Series of sepals, petals, and stamens of White
+Water-Lily, showing the transitions.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 229. A Cactus blossom.]
+
+246. That stamens are of the same general nature as petals, and
+therefore a modification of leaves, is shown by the gradual transitions
+that occur between the one and the other in many blossoms; especially in
+cultivated flowers, such as Roses and Camellias, when they begin to
+_double_, that is, to change their stamens into petals. Some wild and
+natural flowers show the same interesting transitions. The Carolina
+Allspice and the White Water-Lily exhibit complete gradations not only
+between sepals and petals, but between petals and stamens. The sepals of
+our Water-Lily are green outside, but white and petal-like on the
+inside; the petals, in many rows, gradually grow narrower towards the
+centre of the flower; some of these are tipped with a trace of a yellow
+anther, but still are petals; the next are more contracted and
+stamen-like, but with a flat petal-like filament; and a further
+narrowing of this completes the genuine stamen.
+
+247. Pistils and stamens now and then change into each other in some
+Willows; pistils often turn into petals in cultivated flowers; and in
+the Double Cherry they are occasionally replaced by small green leaves.
+Sometimes a whole blossom changes into a cluster of green leaves, as in
+the "green roses" occasionally noticed in gardens, and sometimes it
+degenerates into a leafy branch. So the botanist regards pistils also as
+answering to leaves; that is, to single leaves when simple and separate,
+to a whorl of leaves when conjoined.
+
+
+Sec. 4. MODIFICATIONS OF THE TYPE.
+
+248. =The Deviations=, as they may be called, from the assumed type or
+pattern of flower are most various and extensive. The differences
+between one species and another of the same genus are comparatively
+insignificant; those between different genera are more striking; those
+between different families and classes of plants more and more profound.
+They represent different adaptations to conditions or modes of life,
+some of which have obvious or probable utilities, although others are
+beyond particular explanation. The principal modifications may be
+conveniently classified. First those which in place of perfect
+(otherwise called _hermaphrodite_ or bisexual) flowers, give origin to
+
+249. =Unisexual, or Separated, or Diclinous Flowers=, _imperfect_
+flowers, as they have been called in contradistinction to perfect
+flowers; but that term is too ambiguous. In these some flowers want the
+stamens, while others want the pistils. Taking hermaphrodite flowers as
+the pattern, it is natural to say that the missing organs are
+_suppressed_. This expression is justified by the very numerous cases in
+which the missing parts are _abortive_, that is, are represented by
+rudiments or vestiges, which serve to exemplify the plan, although
+useless as to office. Unisexual flowers are
+
+_Monoecious_ (or _Monoicous_, i. e. of one household), when flowers of
+both sorts or sexes are produced by the same individual plant, as in the
+Ricinus or Castor-oil Plant, Fig. 230.
+
+_Dioecious_ (or _Dioicous_, i. e. of separate households), when the
+two kinds are borne on different plants; as in Willows, Poplars, Hemp,
+and Moonseed, Fig. 231, 232.
+
+_Polygamous_, when the flowers are some of them perfect, and some
+staminate or pistillate only.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 230. Unisexual flowers of Castor-oil plant: _s_,
+staminate flower; _p_, pistillate flower.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 231, staminate, and 232, pistillate flower of
+Moonseed.]
+
+250. A blossom having stamens and no pistil is a _Staminate_ or _Male_
+flower. Sometimes it is called a _Sterile_ flower, not appropriately,
+for other flowers may equally be sterile. One having pistil but no
+stamens is a _Pistillate_ or _Female_ flower.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 233. Flower of Anemone Pennsylvanica; apetalous,
+hermaphrodite.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 234. Flower of Saururus or Lizard's-tail; naked, but
+hermaphrodite.]
+
+251. =Incomplete Flowers= are so named in contradistinction to complete:
+they want either one or both of the floral envelopes. Those of Fig. 230
+are incomplete, having calyx but no corolla. So is the flower of Anemone
+(Fig. 233), although its calyx is colored like a corolla. The flowers of
+Saururus or Lizard's-tail, although perfect, have neither calyx nor
+corolla (Fig. 234). Incomplete flowers, accordingly, are
+
+_Naked_ or _Achlamydeous_, destitute of both floral envelopes, as in
+Fig. 234, or
+
+_Apetalous_, when wanting only the corolla. The case of corolla present
+and calyx wholly wanting is extremely rare, although there are seeming
+instances. In fact, a single or simple perianth is taken to be a calyx,
+unless the absence or abortion of a calyx can be made evident.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 235. Flower of Mustard. 236. Its stamens and pistil
+separate and enlarged.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 237. Flower of a Violet. 238. Its calyx and corolla
+displayed: the five smaller parts are the sepals; the five intervening
+larger ones are the petals.]
+
+252. In contradistinction to regular and symmetrical, very many flowers
+are
+
+_Irregular_, that is, with the members of some or all of the floral
+circles unequal or dissimilar, and
+
+_Unsymmetrical_, that is, when the circles of the flower or some of them
+differ in the number of their members. (Symmetrical and unsymmetrical
+are used in a different sense in some recent books, but the older use
+should be adhered to). Want of numerical symmetry and irregularity
+commonly go together; and both are common. Indeed, few flowers are
+entirely symmetrical beyond calyx, corolla, and perhaps stamens; and
+probably no irregular blossoms are quite symmetrical.
+
+253. =Irregular and Unsymmetrical Flowers= may therefore be illustrated
+together, beginning with cases which are comparatively free from other
+complications. The blossom of Mustard, and of all the very natural
+family which it represents (Fig. 235, 236), is regular but unsymmetrical
+in the stamens. There are four equal sepals, four equal petals; but six
+stamens, and only two members in the pistil, which for the present may
+be left out of view. The want of symmetry is in the stamens. These are
+in two circles, an outer and an inner. The outer circle consists of two
+stamens only; the inner has its proper number of four. The flower of
+Violet, which is on the plan of five, is symmetrical in calyx, corolla,
+and stamens, inasmuch as each of these circles consists of five members;
+but it is conspicuously irregular in the corolla, one of the petals
+being very different from the rest.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 239. Flower of a Larkspur. 240. Its calyx and
+corolla displayed; the five larger parts are the sepals; the four
+smaller, of two shapes, are the petals; the place of the fifth petal is
+vacant. 241. Diagram of the same; the place for the missing petal marked
+by a dotted line.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 242. Flower of a Monkshood. 243. Its parts
+displayed; five sepals, the upper forming the hood; the two lateral
+alike, broad and flat; the two lower small. The two pieces under the
+hood represent the corolla, reduced to two odd-shaped petals; in centre
+the numerous stamens and three pistils. 244. Diagram of the calyx and
+corolla; the three dotted lines in the place of missing petals.]
+
+254. The flowers of Larkspur, and of Monkshood or Aconite, which are
+nearly related, are both strikingly irregular in calyx and corolla, and
+considerably unsymmetrical. In Larkspur (Fig. 239-241) the irregular
+calyx consists of five sepals, one of which, larger than the rest, is
+prolonged behind into a large sac or spur; but the corolla is of only
+four petals (of two shapes),--the fifth, needed to complete the
+symmetry, being left out. And the Monkshood (Fig. 242-244) has five very
+dissimilar sepals, and a corolla of only two very small and
+curiously-shaped petals,--the three needed to make up the symmetry being
+left out. The stamens in both are out of symmetry with the ground-plan,
+being numerous. So are the pistils, which are usually diminished to
+three, sometimes to two or to one.
+
+255. =Flowers with Multiplication of Parts= are very common. The stamens
+are indefinitely numerous in Larkspur and in Monkshood (Fig. 242, 243),
+while the pistils are fewer than the ground-plan suggests. Most
+Cactus-flowers have all the organs much increased in number (Fig. 229),
+and so of the Water-Lily. In Anemone (Fig. 233) the stamens and pistils
+are multiplied while the petals are left out. In Buttercups or Crowfoot,
+while the sepals and petals conform to the ground-plan of five, both
+stamens and pistils are indefinitely multiplied (Fig. 245).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 245. Flower of Ranunculus bulbosus, or Buttercup, in
+section.]
+
+256. =Flowers modified by Union of Parts=, so that these parts more or
+less lose the appearance of separate leaves or other organs growing out
+of the end of the stem or receptacle, are extremely common. There are
+two kinds of such union, namely:--
+
+_Coalescence_ of parts of the same circle by their contiguous margins;
+and
+
+_Adnation_, or the union of adjacent circles or unlike parts.
+
+257. =Coalescence= is not rare in leaves, as in the upper pairs of
+Honeysuckles, Fig. 163. It may all the more be expected in the crowded
+circles or whorls of flower-leaves. Datura or Stramonium (Fig. 246)
+shows this coalescence both in calyx and corolla, the five sepals and
+the five petals being thus united to near their tips, each into a tube
+or long and narrow cup. These unions make needful the following terms:--
+
+_Gamopetalous_, said of a corolla the petals of which are thus
+coalescent into one body, whether only at base or higher. The union may
+extend to the very summit, as in Morning Glory and the like (Fig. 247),
+so that the number of petals in it may not be apparent. The old name for
+this was _Monopetalous_, but that means "one-petalled;" while
+gamopetalous means "petals united," and therefore is the proper term.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 246. Flower of Datura Stramonium; gamosepalous and
+gamopetalous.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 247. Funnelform corolla of a common Morning Glory,
+detached from its polysepalous calyx.]
+
+_Polypetalous_ is the counterpart term, to denote a corolla of
+_distinct_, that is, separate petals. As it means "many petalled," it is
+not the best possible name, but it is the old one and in almost
+universal use.
+
+_Gamosepalous_ applies to the calyx when the sepals are in this way
+united.
+
+_Polysepalous_, to the calyx when of separate sepals or calyx-leaves.
+
+258. Degree of union or of separation in descriptive botany is expressed
+in the same way as is the lobing of leaves (139). See Fig. 249-253, and
+the explanations.
+
+259. A corolla when gamopetalous commonly shows a distinction (well
+marked in Fig. 249-251) between a contracted tubular portion below, the
+TUBE, and the spreading part above, the BORDER or LIMB. The junction
+between tube and limb, or a more or less enlarged upper portion of the
+tube between the two, is the THROAT. The same is true of the calyx.
+
+260. Some names are given to particular forms of the gamopetalous
+corolla, applicable also to a gamosepalous calyx, such as
+
+_Wheel-shaped_, or _Rotate_; when spreading out at once, without a tube
+or with a very short one, something in the shape of a wheel or of its
+diverging spokes, Fig. 252, 253.
+
+_Salver-shaped_, or _Salver-form_; when a flat-spreading border is
+raised on a narrow tube, from which it diverges at right angles, like
+the salver represented in old pictures, with a slender handle beneath,
+Fig. 249-251, 255.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 248. Polypetalous corolla of Soapwort, of five
+petals with long claws or stalk-like bases.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 249. Flower of Standing Cypress (Gilia
+coronopifolia); gamopetalous: the tube answering to the long claws in
+248, except that they are coalescent: the limb or border (the spreading
+part above) is _five-parted_, that is, the petals not there united
+except at very base.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 250. Flower of Cypress-vine (Ipomoea Quamoclit);
+like preceding, but limb _five-lobed_.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 251. Flower of Ipomoea coccinea; limb almost
+_entire_.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 252. Wheel-shaped or rotate and five-parted corolla
+of Bittersweet, Solanum Dulcamara. 253. Wheel-shaped and five-lobed
+corolla of Potato.]
+
+_Bell-shaped_, or _Campanulate_; where a short and broad tube widens
+upward, in the shape of a bell, as in Fig. 254.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 254. Flower of a Campanula or Harebell, with a
+campanulate or bell-shaped corolla; 255, of a Phlox, with salver-shaped
+corolla; 256, of Dead Nettle (Lamium), with labiate _ringent_ (or
+gaping) corolla; 257, of Snapdragon, with labiate _personate_ corolla;
+258, of Toad-Flax, with a similar corolla spurred at the base.]
+
+_Funnel-shaped_, or _Funnelform_; gradually spreading at the summit of a
+tube which is narrow below, in the shape of a funnel or tunnel, as in
+the corolla of the common Morning Glory (Fig. 247) and of the Stramonium
+(Fig. 246).
+
+_Tubular_; when prolonged into a tube, with little or no spreading at
+the border, as in the corolla of the Trumpet Honeysuckle, the calyx of
+Stramonium (Fig. 246), etc.
+
+261. Although sepals and petals are usually all blade or lamina (123),
+like a sessile leaf, yet they may have a contracted and stalk-like base,
+answering to petiole. This is called its CLAW, in Latin _Unguis_.
+_Unguiculate_ petals are universal and strongly marked in the Pink
+tribe, as in Soapwort (Fig. 248).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 259. Unguiculate (clawed) petal of a Silene; with a
+two-parted crown.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 260. A small Passion-flower, with crown of slender
+threads.]
+
+262. Such petals, and various others, may have an outgrowth of the inner
+face into an appendage or fringe, as in Soapwort, and in Silene (Fig.
+259), where it is at the junction of claw and blade. This is called a
+CROWN, or _Corona_. In Passion-flowers (Fig. 260) the crown consists of
+numerous threads on the base of each petal.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 261. Front view of a papilionaceous corolla. 262.
+The parts of the same, displayed: _s_, Standard, or Vexillum; _w_,
+Wings, or Alae; _k_, Keel, or Carina.]
+
+263. =Irregular Flowers= may be polypetalous, or nearly so, as in the
+papilionaceous corolla; but most of them are irregular through
+coalescence, which often much disguises the numerical symmetry also. As
+affecting the corolla the following forms have received particular
+names:
+
+264. =Papilionaceous Corolla=, Fig. 261, 262. This is polypetalous,
+except that two of the petals cohere, usually but slightly. It belongs
+only to the Leguminous or Pulse family. The name means butterfly-like;
+but the likeness is hardly obvious. The names of the five petals of the
+_papilionaceous_ corolla are curiously incongruous. They are,
+
+The STANDARD or _Banner_ (_Vexillum_), the large upper petal which is
+external in the bud and wrapped around the others.
+
+The WINGS (_Alae_), the pair of side petals, of quite different shape
+from the standard.
+
+The KEEL (_Carina_), the two lower and usually smallest petals; these
+are lightly coalescent into a body which bears some likeness, not to the
+keel, but to the prow of a boat; and this encloses the stamens and
+pistil. A Pea-blossom is a typical example; the present illustration is
+from a species of Locust, Robinia hispida.
+
+265. =Labiate Corolla= (Fig. 256-258), which would more properly have
+been called _Bilabiate_, that is, two-lipped. This is a common form of
+gamopetalous corolla; and the calyx is often bilabiate also. These
+flowers are all on the plan of five; and the irregularity in the corolla
+is owing to unequal union of the petals as well as to diversity of form.
+The two petals of the upper or posterior side of the flower unite with
+each other higher up than with the lateral petals (in Fig. 256, quite to
+the top), forming the _Upper lip_: the lateral and the lower similarly
+unite to form the _Lower lip_. The single notch which is generally found
+at the summit of the upper lip, and the two notches of the lower lip, or
+in other words the two lobes of the upper and the three of the lower
+lip, reveal the real composition. So also does the alternation of these
+five parts with those of the calyx outside. When the calyx is also
+bilabiate, as in the Sage, this alternation gives three lobes or sepals
+to the upper and two to the lower lip. Two forms of the labiate corolla
+have been designated, viz.:--
+
+_Ringent_ or _Gaping_, when the orifice is wide open, as in Fig. 256.
+
+_Personate_ or _Masked_, when a protuberance or intrusion of the base of
+the lower lip (called a _Palate_) projects over or closes the orifice,
+as in Snapdragon and Toad-Flax, Fig. 257, 258.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 263. Corolla of a purple Gerardia laid open, showing
+the four stamens; the cross shows where the fifth stamen would be, if
+present.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 264. Corolla, laid open, and stamens of Pentstemon
+grandiflorus, with a sterile filament in the place of the fifth stamen,
+and representing it.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 265. Corolla of Catalpa laid open, displaying two
+good stamens and three abortive ones or vestiges.]
+
+266. There are all gradations between labiate and regular corollas. In
+those of Gerardia, of some species of Pentstemon, and of Catalpa (Fig.
+263-265), the labiate character is slight, but is manifest on close
+inspection. In almost all such flowers the plan of five, which is
+obvious or ascertainable in the calyx and corolla, is obscured in the
+stamens by the abortion or suppression of one or three of their number.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 266. Two flower-heads of Chiccory.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 267. One of them half cut away, better showing some
+of the flowers.]
+
+267. =Ligulate Corolla.= The ligulate or _Strap-shaped_ corolla mainly
+belongs to the family of Compositae, in which numerous small flowers are
+gathered into a head, within an involucre that imitates a calyx. It is
+best exemplified in the Dandelion and in Chiccory (Fig. 266). Each one
+of these straps or _Ligules_, looking like so many petals, is the
+corolla of a distinct flower: the base is a short tube, which opens out
+into the ligule: the five minute teeth at the end indicate the number of
+constituent petals. So this is a kind of gamopetalous corolla, which is
+open along one side nearly to the base, and outspread. The nature of
+such a corolla (and of the stamens also, to be explained in the next
+section) is illustrated by the flower of a Lobelia, Fig. 285.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 268. Head of flowers of a Coreopsis, divided
+lengthwise.]
+
+268. In Asters, Daisies, Sunflower, Coreopsis (Fig. 268), and the like,
+only the marginal (or _Ray_) corollas are ligulate; the rest (those of
+the _Disk_) are regularly gamopetalous, tubular, and five-lobed at
+summit; but they are small and individually inconspicuous, only the
+_ray-flowers_ making a show. In fact, those of Coreopsis and of
+Sunflower are simply for show, these ray-flowers being not only sterile,
+but _neutral_, that is, having neither stamens nor pistil. But in
+Asters, Daisies, Golden-rods, and the like, these ray-flowers are
+pistillate and fertile, serving therefore for seed-bearing as well as
+for show. Let it not be supposed that the show is useless. See Section
+XIII.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 269. A slice of the preceding more enlarged, with
+one tubular perfect flower (_a_) left standing on the receptacle, with
+its bractlet or chaff (_b_), one ligulate and neutral ray-flower (_cc_)
+and part of another; _dd_, section of bracts or leaves of the
+involucre.]
+
+269. =Adnation, or Consolidation=, is the union of the members of parts
+belonging to different circles of the flower (256). It is of course
+understood that in this (as likewise in coalescence) the parts are not
+formed and then conjoined, but are produced in union. They are born
+united, as the term _adnate_ implies. To illustrate this kind of union,
+take the accompanying series of flowers (Fig. 270-274), shown in
+vertical section. In the first, Fig. 270, Flax-flower, there is no
+adnation; sepals, petals, and stamens, are _free_ as well as distinct,
+being separately borne on the receptacle, one circle within or above the
+next; only the five pistils have their ovaries coalescent. In Fig. 271,
+a Cherry-flower, the petals and stamens are borne on the throat of the
+calyx-tube; that is, the sepals are coalescent into a cup, and the
+petals and stamens are adnate to the inner face of this; in other
+words, the sepals, petals, and stamens are all consolidated up to a
+certain height. In Fig. 272, a Purslane-flower, the same parts are
+adnate to or consolidated with the ovary up to its middle. In Fig. 273,
+a Hawthorn-flower, the consolidation has extended over the whole ovary;
+and petals and stamens are adnate to the calyx still further. In Fig.
+274, a Cranberry-blossom, it is the same except that all the parts are
+free at the same height; all seem to arise from the top of the ovary.
+
+270. In botanical description, to express tersely such differences in
+the relation of these organs to the pistil, they are said to be
+
+_Hypogynous_ (i. e. under the pistil) when they are all _free_, that is,
+not adnate to pistil nor connate with each other, as in Fig. 270.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 270. Flax-flower in section; the parts all
+free,--hypogynous.]
+
+_Perigynous_ (around the pistil) when connate with each other, that is,
+when petals and stamens are _inserted_ or borne on the calyx, whether as
+in Cherry-flowers (Fig. 271) they are free from the pistil, or as in
+Purslane and Hawthorn (Fig. 272, 273) they are also adnate below to the
+ovary.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 271. Cherry-flower in section; petals and stamens
+adnate to tube of calyx,--perigynous.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 272. Purslane-flower in section; calyx, petals,
+stamens, all adnate to lower half of ovary,--perigynous.]
+
+_Epigynous_ (on the ovary) when so adnate that all these parts appear to
+arise from the very summit of the ovary, as in Fig. 274. The last two
+terms are not very definitely distinguished.
+
+271. Another and a simpler form of expression is to describe parts of
+the flower as being
+
+_Free_, when not united with or _inserted_ upon other parts.
+
+_Distinct_, when parts of the same kind are not united. This term is the
+counterpart of coalescent, as free is the counterpart of adnate. Many
+writers use the term "free" indiscriminately for both; but it is better
+to distinguish them.
+
+_Connate_ is a term common for either not free or not distinct, that
+is, for parts united congenitally, whether of same or of different
+kinds.
+
+_Adnate_, as properly used, relates to the union of dissimilar parts.
+
+272. In still another form of expression, the terms superior and
+inferior have been much used in the sense of above and below.
+
+_Superior_ is said of the ovary of Flax-flower, Cherry, etc., because
+above the other parts; it is equivalent to "ovary free." Or it is said
+of the calyx, etc., when above the ovary, as in Fig. 273-275.
+
+_Inferior_, when applied to the ovary, means the same as "calyx adnate;"
+when applied to the floral envelopes, it means that they are free.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 273. Hawthorn-blossom in section; parts adnate to
+whole face of ovary, and with each other beyond; another grade of
+perigynous.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 274. Cranberry-blossom in section; parts epigynous.]
+
+273. =Position of Flower or of its Parts.= The terms superior and
+inferior, or upper and lower, are also used to indicate the relative
+position of the parts of a flower in reference to the axis of
+inflorescence. An axillary flower stands between the bract or leaf which
+subtends it and the axis or stem which bears this bract or leaf. This is
+represented in sectional diagrams (as in Fig. 275, 276) by a transverse
+line for the bract, and a small circle for the axis of inflorescence.
+Now the side of the blossom which faces the bract is the
+
+_Anterior_, or _Inferior_, or _Lower_ side; while the side next the axis
+is the
+
+_Posterior_, or _Superior_, or _Upper_ side of the flower.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 275. Diagram of papilionaceous flower (Robinia, Fig.
+261), with bract below; axis of inflorescence above.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 276. Diagram of Violet-flower; showing the relation
+of parts to bract and axis.]
+
+274. So, in the labiate corolla (Fig. 256-258), the lip which is
+composed of three of the five petals is the _anterior_, or _inferior_,
+or _lower_ lip; the other is the _posterior_, or _superior_, or _upper_
+lip.
+
+275. In Violets (Fig. 238, 276), the odd sepal is posterior (next the
+axis); the odd petal is therefore anterior, or next the subtending leaf.
+In the papilionaceous flower (Fig. 261, and diagram, Fig. 275), the odd
+sepal is anterior, and so two sepals are posterior; consequently, by the
+alternation, the odd petal (the standard) is posterior or upper, and the
+two petals forming the keel are anterior or lower.
+
+
+Sec. 5. ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS IN THE BUD.
+
+276. =AEstivation= was the fanciful name given by Linnaeus to denote the
+disposition of the parts, especially the leaves of the flower, before
+_Anthesis_, i. e. before the blossom opens. _Praefloration_, a better
+term, is sometimes used. This is of importance in distinguishing
+different families or genera of plants, being generally uniform in each.
+The aestivation is best seen by making a slice across the flower-bud; and
+it may be expressed in diagrams, as in the accompanying figures.
+
+277. The pieces of the calyx or the corolla either overlap each other in
+the bud, or they do not. When they do not overlap, the aestivation is
+
+_Valvate_, when the pieces meet each other by their abrupt edges,
+without any infolding or overlapping; as the calyx of the Linden or
+Basswood (Fig. 277).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 277. Diagram of a flower of Linden, showing the
+calyx valvate and corolla imbricate in the bud, etc.]
+
+_Induplicate_, which is valvate with the margins of each piece
+projecting inwards, as in the calyx of a common Virgin's-bower, Fig.
+278, or
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 278. Valvate-induplicate aestivation of calyx of
+common Virgin's-bower.]
+
+_Involute_, which is the same but the margins rolled inward, as in most
+of the large-flowered species of Clematis, Fig. 279.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 279. Valvate-involute aestivation of same in
+Vine-bower, Clematis Vitialla.]
+
+_Reduplicate_, a rarer modification of valvate, is similar but with
+margins projecting outward.
+
+_Open_, the parts not touching in the bud, as the calyx of Mignonette.
+
+278. When the pieces overlap in the bud, it is in one of two ways;
+either every piece has one edge in and one edge out, or some pieces are
+wholly outside and others wholly inside. In the first case the
+aestivation is
+
+_Convolute_, also named _Contorted_ or _Twisted_, as in Fig. 280, a
+cross-section of a corolla very strongly thus convolute or rolled up
+together, and in the corolla of a Flax-flower (Fig. 281), where the
+petals only moderately overlap in this way. Here one edge of every petal
+covers the next before it, while its other edge is covered by the next
+behind it. The other mode is the
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 280. Convolute aestivation, as in the corolla-lobes
+of Oleander.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 281. Diagram of a Flax-flower; calyx imbricated and
+corolla convolute in the bud.]
+
+_Imbricate_ or _Imbricated_, in which the outer parts cover or overlap
+the inner so as to "break joints," like tiles or shingles on a roof;
+whence the name. When the parts are three, the first or outermost is
+wholly external, the third wholly internal, the second has one margin
+covered by the first while the other overlaps the third or innermost
+piece: this is the arrangement of alternate three-ranked leaves (187).
+When there are five pieces, as in the corolla of Fig. 225, and calyx of
+Fig. 281, as also of Fig. 241, 276, two are external, two are internal,
+and one (the third in the spiral) has one edge covered by the outermost,
+while its other edge covers the innermost; which is just the five-ranked
+arrangement of alternate leaves (188). When the pieces are four, two are
+outer and two are inner; which answers to the arrangement of opposite
+leaves.
+
+279. The imbricate and the convolute modes sometimes vary one into the
+other, especially in the corolla.
+
+280. In a gamopetalous corolla or gamosepalous calyx, the shape of the
+tube in the bud may sometimes be noticeable. It may be
+
+_Plicate_ or _Plaited_, that is, folded lengthwise; and the plaits may
+either be turned outwards, forming projecting ridges, as in the corolla
+of Campanula; or turned inwards, as in that of Gentian Belladonna; or
+
+_Supervolute_, when the plaits are convolutely wrapped round each other,
+as in the corolla of Morning Glory and of Stramonium, Fig. 282.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 282. Upper part of corolla of Datura Stramonium in
+the bud; and below a section showing the convolution of the plaits.]
+
+
+
+
+Section IX. STAMENS IN PARTICULAR.
+
+
+281. =Androecium= is a technical name for the staminate system of a
+flower (that is, for the stamens taken together), which it is sometimes
+convenient to use. The preceding section has dealt with modifications of
+the flower pertaining mainly to calyx and corolla. Those relating to the
+stamens are now to be indicated. First as to
+
+282. Insertion, or place of attachment. The stamens usually go with the
+petals. Not rarely they are at base
+
+_Epipetalous_, that is, inserted on (or adnate to) the corolla, as in
+Fig. 283. When free from the corolla, they may be
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 283. Corolla of Morning Glory laid open, to show the
+five stamens inserted on it, near the base.]
+
+_Hypogynous_, inserted on the receptacle under the pistil or gynoecium.
+
+_Perigynous_, inserted on the calyx, that is, with the lower part of
+filament adnate to the calyx-tube.
+
+_Epigynous_, borne apparently on the top of the ovary; all which is
+explained in Fig. 270-274.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 284. Style of a Lady's Slipper (Cypripedium), and
+stamens united with it; _a_, _a_, the anthers of the two good stamens;
+_st_, an abortive stamen, what should be its anther changed into a
+petal-like body; _stig_, the stigma.]
+
+_Gynandrous_ is another term relating to insertion of rarer occurrence,
+that is, where the stamens are inserted on (in other words, adnate to)
+the style, as in Lady's Slipper (Fig. 284), and in the Orchis family
+generally.
+
+283. =In Relation to each Other=, stamens are more commonly
+
+_Distinct_, that is, without any union with each other. But when united,
+the following technical terms of long use indicate their modes of mutual
+connection:--
+
+_Monadelphous_ (from two Greek words, meaning "in one brotherhood"),
+when united by their filaments into one set, usually into a ring or cup
+below, or into a tube, as in the Mallow Family (Fig. 286), the
+Passion-flower (Fig. 260), the Lupine (Fig. 287), and in Lobelia (Fig.
+285).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 285. Flower of Lobelia cardinalis, Cardinal flower;
+corolla making approach to the ligulate form; filaments (_st_)
+monadelphous, and anthers (_a_) syngenesious.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 286. Flower of a Mallow, with calyx and corolla cut
+away; showing monadelphous stamens.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 287. Monadelphous stamens of Lupine. 288.
+Diadelphous stamens (9 and 1) of a Pea-blossom.]
+
+_Diadelphous_ (meaning in two brotherhoods), when united by the
+filaments into two sets, as in the Pea and most of its near relatives
+(Fig. 288), usually nine in one set, and one in the other.
+
+_Triadelphous_ (three brotherhoods), when the filaments are united in
+three sets or clusters, as in most species of Hypericum.
+
+_Pentadelphous_ (five brotherhoods), when in five sets, as in some
+species of Hypericum and in American Linden (Fig. 277, 289).
+
+_Polyadelphous_ (many or several brotherhoods) is the term generally
+employed when these sets are several, or even more than two, and the
+particular number is left unspecified. These terms all relate to the
+filaments.
+
+_Syngenesious_ is the term to denote that stamens have their anthers
+united, coalescent into a ring or tube; as in Lobelia (Fig. 285), in
+Violets, and in all of the great family of Compositae.
+
+284. =Their Number= in a flower is commonly expressed directly, but
+sometimes adjectively, by a series of terms which were the name of
+classes in the Linnaean artificial system, of which the following names,
+as also the preceding, are a survival:--
+
+_Monandrous_, i. e. solitary-stamened, when the flower has only one
+stamen,
+
+_Diandrous_, when it has two stamens only,
+
+_Triandrous_, when it has three stamens,
+
+_Tetrandrous_, when it has four stamens,
+
+_Pentandrous_, when it has five stamens,
+
+_Hexandrous_, when with six stamens, and so on to
+
+_Polyandrous_, when it has many stamens, or more than a dozen.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 289. One of the five stamen-clusters of the flower
+of American Linden, with accompanying scale. The five clusters are shown
+in section in the diagram of this flower, Fig. 277.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 290. Five syngenesious stamens of a Coreopsis. 291.
+Same, with tube laid open and displayed.]
+
+285. For which terms, see the Glossary. They are all Greek numerals
+prefixed to _-andria_ (from the Greek), which Linnaeus used for
+_androecium_, and are made into an English adjective, _-androus_. Two
+other terms, of same origin, designate particular cases of number (four
+or six) in connection with unequal length. Namely, the stamens are
+
+_Didynamous_, when, being only four, they form two pairs, one pair
+longer than the other, as in the Trumpet Creeper, in Gerardia (Fig.
+263), etc.
+
+_Tetradynamous_, when, being only six, four of them surpass the other
+two, as in the Mustard-flower and all the Cruciferous family, Fig. 235.
+
+286. =The Filament= is a kind of stalk to the anther, commonly slender
+or thread-like: it is to the anther nearly what the petiole is to the
+blade of a leaf. Therefore it is not an essential part. As a leaf may be
+without a stalk, so the anther may be _Sessile_, or without a filament.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 292. Stamen of Isopyrum, with innate anther. 293. Of
+Tulip-tree, with adnate (and extrorse) anther. 294. Of Evening Primrose,
+with versatile anther.]
+
+287. =The Anther= is the essential part of the stamen. It is a sort of
+case, filled with a fine powder, _the Pollen_, which serves to fertilize
+the pistil, so that it may perfect seeds. The anther is said to be
+
+_Innate_ (as in Fig. 292), when it is attached by its base to the very
+apex of the filament, turning neither inward nor outward;
+
+_Adnate_ (as in Fig. 293), when attached as it were by one face, usually
+for its whole length, to the side of a continuation of the filament; and
+
+_Versatile_ (as in Fig. 294), when fixed by or near its middle only to
+the very point of the filament, so as to swing loosely, as in the Lily,
+in Grasses, etc. Versatile or adnate anthers are
+
+_Introrse_, or _Incumbent_, when facing inward, that is, toward the
+centre of the flower, as in Magnolia, Water-Lily, etc.
+
+_Extrorse_, when facing outwardly, as in the Tulip-tree.
+
+288. Rarely does a stamen bear any resemblance to a leaf, or even to a
+petal or flower-leaf. Nevertheless, the botanist's idea of a stamen is
+that it answers to a leaf developed in a peculiar form and for a special
+purpose. In the filament he sees the stalk of the leaf; in the anther,
+the blade. The blade of a leaf consists of two similar sides; so the
+anther consists of two LOBES or CELLS, one answering to the left, the
+other to the right, side of the blade. The two lobes are often connected
+by a prolongation of the filament, which answers to the midrib of a
+leaf; this is called the CONNECTIVE. This is conspicuous in Fig. 292,
+where the connective is so broad that it separates the two cells of the
+anther to some distance.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 295. Diagram of the lower part of an anther, cut
+across above, and the upper part of a leaf, to show how the one answers
+to the other; the filament to petiole, the connective to midrib; the two
+cells to the right and left halves of the blade.]
+
+289. A simple conception of the morphological relation of an anther to a
+leaf is given in Fig. 295, an ideal figure, the lower part representing
+a stamen with the top of its anther cut away; the upper, the
+corresponding upper part of a leaf.
+
+290. So anthers are generally _two-celled_. But as the pollen begins to
+form in two parts of each cell (the anterior and the posterior),
+sometimes these two strata are not confluent, and the anther even at
+maturity may be _four-celled_, as in Moonseed (Fig. 296); or rather, in
+that case (the word _cell_ being used for each lateral half of the
+organ), it is _two-celled_, but the cells _bilocellate_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 296. Stamen of Moonseed, with anther cut across;
+this 4-celled, or rather 4-locellate.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 297. Stamen of Pentstemon pubescens; the two
+anther-cells diverging, and almost confluent.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 298. Stamen of Mallow; the anther supposed to answer
+to that of Fig. 297, but the cells completely confluent into one.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 299. Stamen of Globe Amaranth; very short filament
+bearing a single anther-cell; it is open from top to bottom, showing the
+pollen within.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 300-305. Stamens of several plants of the Labiate or
+Mint Family. Fig. 300. Of a Monarda: the two anther-cells with bases
+divergent so that they are transverse to the filament, and their
+contiguous tips confluent, so as to form one cell opening by a
+continuous line. Fig. 301. Of a Calamintha: the broad connective
+separating the two cells. Fig. 302. Of a Sage (Salvia Texana); with long
+and slender connective resembling forks of the filament, one bearing a
+good anther-cell; the other an abortive or poor one. Fig. 303. Another
+Sage (S. coccinea), with connective longer and more thread-shaped, the
+lower fork having its anther-cell wholly wanting. Fig. 304. Of a White
+Sage, Audibertia grandiflora; the lower fork of connective a mere
+vestige. Fig. 305. Of another White Sage (A. stachyoides), the lower
+fork of connective suppressed.]
+
+291. But anthers may become _one-celled_, and that either by confluence
+or by suppression.
+
+292. By confluence, when the two cells run together into one, as they
+nearly do in most species of Pentstemon (Fig. 297), more so in Monarda
+(Fig. 300), and completely in the Mallow (Fig. 298) and all the Mallow
+family.
+
+293. By suppression in certain cases the anther may be reduced to one
+cell or halved. In Globe Amaranth (Fig. 299) there is a single cell
+without vestige of any other. Different species of Sage and of the White
+Sages of California show various grades of abortion of one of the
+anther-cells, along with a singular lengthening of the connective (Fig.
+302-305).
+
+294. The splitting open of an anther for the discharge of its pollen is
+termed its _Dehiscence_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 306. Stamen with the usual dehiscence of anther down
+the side of each cell.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 307. Stamen of Pyrola; cells opening by a terminal
+hole.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 308. Stamen of Barberry; cells of anther each
+opening by an uplifted valve.]
+
+295. As the figures show, this is commonly by a line along the whole
+length of each cell, either lateral or, when the anthers are extrorse,
+often along the outer face, and when introrse, along the inner face of
+each cell. Sometimes the opening is only by a chink, hole, or pore at
+the top, as in the Azalea, Pyrola (Fig. 307), etc.; sometimes a part of
+the face separates as a sort of trap-door (or valve), hinged at the top,
+and opening to allow the escape of the pollen, as in the Sassafras,
+Spice-bush, and Barberry (Fig. 308).
+
+296. =Pollen.= This is the powdery matter, commonly of a yellow color,
+which fills the cells of the anther, and is discharged during
+blossoming, after which the stamens generally fall or wither away. Under
+the microscope it is found to consist of grains, usually round or oval,
+and all alike in the same species, but very different in different
+plants. So that the plant may sometimes be recognized from the pollen
+alone. Several forms are shown in the accompanying figures.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 309. Magnified pollen of a Lily, smooth and oval;
+310, of Echinocystis, grooved lengthwise; 311, of Sicyos, with bristly
+points and smooth bands; 312, of Musk Plant (Mimulus), with spiral
+grooves; 313, of Succory, twelve-sided and dotted.]
+
+297. An ordinary pollen-grain has two coats; the outer coat thickish,
+but weak, and frequently adorned with lines or bands, or studded with
+points; the inner coat is extremely thin and delicate, but extensible,
+and its cavity when fresh contains a thickish protoplasmic fluid, often
+rendered turbid by an immense number of minute particles that float in
+it. As the pollen matures this fluid usually dries up, but the
+protoplasm does not lose its vitality. When the grain is wetted it
+absorbs water, swells up, and is apt to burst, discharging the contents.
+But when weak syrup is used it absorbs this slowly, and the tough inner
+coat will sometimes break through the outer and begin a kind of growth,
+like that which takes place when the pollen is placed upon the stigma.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 314. Magnified pollen of Hibiscus and other
+Mallow-plants, beset with prickly projections; 315, of Circaea, with
+angles bearing little lobes; 316, of Evening Primrose, the three lobes
+as large as the central body; 317, of Kalmia, four grains united, as in
+most of the Heath family; 318, of Pine, as it were of three grains or
+cells united; the lateral empty and light.]
+
+298. Some pollen-grains are, as it were, lobed (as in Fig. 315, 316), or
+formed of four grains united (as in the Heath family, Fig. 317): that of
+Pine (Fig. 318) has a large rounded and empty bladder-like expansion
+upon each side. This renders such pollen very buoyant, and capable of
+being transported to a great distance by the wind.
+
+299. In species of Acacia simple grains lightly cohere into globular
+pellets. In Milkweeds and in most Orchids all the pollen of an
+anther-cell is compacted or coherent into one mass, called a
+_Pollen-mass_, or POLLINIUM, plural POLLINIA. (Fig. 319-322.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 319. Pollen, a pair of pollinia of a Milkweed,
+Asclepias, attached by stalks to a gland; moderately magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 320. Pollinium of an Orchis (Habenaria), with its
+stalk attached to a sticky gland; magnified. 321. Some of the packets or
+partial pollinia, of which Fig. 320 is made up, more magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 322. One of the partial pollinia, torn up at top to
+show the grains (which are each composed of four), and highly
+magnified.]
+
+
+
+
+Section X. PISTILS IN PARTICULAR.
+
+
+Sec. 1. ANGIOSPERMOUS OR ORDINARY GYNOECIUM.
+
+300. =Gynoecium= is the technical name for the pistil or pistils of a
+flower taken collectively, or for whatever stands in place of these. The
+various modifications of the gynoecium and the terms which relate to
+them require particular attention.
+
+301. The PISTIL, when only one, occupies the centre of the flower; when
+there are two pistils, they stand facing each other in the centre of the
+flower; when several, they commonly form a ring or circle; and when very
+numerous, they are generally crowded in rows or spirals on the surface
+of a more or less enlarged or elongated receptacle. Their number gives
+rise to certain terms, the counterpart of those used for stamens (284),
+which are survivals of the names of orders in the Linnaean artificial
+system. The names were coined by prefixing Greek numerals to _-gynia_
+used for gynoecium, and changed into adjectives in the form of
+_-gynous_. That is, a flower is
+
+_Monogynous_, when it has a single pistil, whether that be simple or
+compound;
+
+_Digynous_, when it has only two pistils; _Trigynous_, when with three;
+_Tetragynous_, with four; _Pentagynous_, with five; _Hexagynous_, with
+six; and so on to _Polygynous_, with many pistils.
+
+302. =The Parts of a Complete Pistil=, as already twice explained (16,
+236), are the OVARY, the STYLE, and the STIGMA. The ovary is one
+essential part: it contains the rudiments of seeds, called OVULES. The
+stigma at the summit is also essential: it receives the pollen, which
+fertilizes the ovules in order that they may become seeds. But the
+style, commonly a tapering or slender column borne on the summit of the
+ovary, and bearing the stigma on its apex or its side, is no more
+necessary to a pistil than the filament is to the stamen. Accordingly,
+there is no style in many pistils: in these the stigma is _sessile_,
+that is, rests directly on the ovary (as in Fig. 326). The stigma is
+very various in shape and appearance, being sometimes a little knob (as
+in the Cherry, Fig. 271), sometimes a point or small surface of bare
+tissue (as in Fig. 327-330), and sometimes a longitudinal crest or line
+(as in Fig. 324, 341-343), or it may occupy the whole length of the
+style, as in Fig. 331.
+
+303. The word Pistil (Latin, _Pistillum_) means a pestle. It came into
+use in the first place for such flowers as those of Crown Imperial, or
+Lily, in which the pistil in the centre was likened to the pestle, and
+the perianth around it to the mortar, of the apothecary.
+
+304. A pistil is either _simple_ or _compound_. It is simple when it
+answers to a single flower-leaf, compound when it answers to two or
+three, or a fuller circle of such leaves conjoined.
+
+305. =Carpels.= It is convenient to have a name for each flower-leaf of
+the gynoecium; so it is called a _Carpel_, in Latin _Carpellum_ or
+_Carpidium_. A simple pistil is a carpel. Each component flower-leaf of
+a compound pistil is likewise a carpel. When a flower has two or more
+pistils, these of course are simple pistils, that is, separate carpels
+or pistil-leaves. There may be only a single simple pistil to the
+flower, as in a Pea or Cherry blossom (Fig. 271); there may be two such,
+as in many Saxifrages; or many, as in the Strawberry. More commonly the
+single pistil in the centre of a blossom is a compound one. Then there
+is seldom much difficulty in ascertaining the number of carpels or
+pistil-leaves that compose it.
+
+306. =The Simple Pistil=, viewed morphologically, answers to a
+leaf-blade with margins incurved and united where they meet, so forming
+a closed case or pod (the ovary), and bearing ovules at the suture or
+junction of these margins: a tapering upper portion with margins
+similarly inrolled, is supposed to form the style; and these same
+margins, exposed at the tip or for a portion of the length, become the
+stigma. Compare, under this view, the three accompanying figures.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 323. An inrolled small leaf, such as in
+double-flowered Cherry blossoms is often seen to occupy the place of a
+pistil.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 324. A simple pistil (of Isopyrum), with ovary cut
+across; the inner (ventral) face turned toward the eye: the ovules seem
+to be borne on the ventral suture, answering to leaf-margins: the stigma
+above seen also to answer to leaf-margins.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 325. Pod or simple pistil of Caltha or
+Marsh-Marigold, which has opened, and shed its seeds.]
+
+307. So a simple pistil should have a one-celled ovary, only one line of
+attachment for the ovules, a single style, and a single stigma. Certain
+variations from this normal condition which sometimes occur do not
+invalidate this morphological conception. For instance, the stigma may
+become two-lobed or two-ridged, because it consists of two leaf-margins,
+as Fig. 324 shows; it may become 2-locellate by the turning or growing
+inward of one of the sutures, so as to divide the cavity.
+
+308. There are two or three terms which primarily relate to the parts of
+a simple pistil or carpel, and are thence carried on to the compound
+pistil, viz.:--
+
+VENTRAL SUTURE, the line which answers to the united margins of the
+carpel-leaf, therefore naturally called a suture or seam, and the
+ventral or inner one, because in the circle of carpel-leaves it looks
+inward or to the centre of the flower.
+
+DORSAL SUTURE is the line down the back of the carpel, answering to the
+midrib of the leaf,--not a seam therefore; but at maturity many fruits,
+such as pea-pods, open by this dorsal as well as by the ventral line.
+
+PLACENTA, a name given to the surface, whatever it be, which bears the
+ovules and seeds. The name may be needless when the ovules grow directly
+on the ventral suture, or from its top or bottom; but when there are
+many ovules there is usually some expansion of an ovule-bearing or
+seed-bearing surface; as is seen in our Mandrake or Podophyllum, Fig.
+326.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 326. Simple pistil of Podophyllum, cut across,
+showing ovules borne on placenta.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 327. Pistil of a Saxifrage, of two simple carpels or
+pistil-leaves, united at the base only, cut across both above and
+below.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 328. Compound 3-carpellary pistil of common St.
+John's-wort, cut across: the three styles separate.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 329. The same of shrubby St. John's-wort; the three
+styles as well as ovaries here united into one.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 330. Compound 3-carpellary pistil of Tradescantia or
+Spiderwort; the three stigmas as well as styles and ovary completely
+coalescent into one.]
+
+309. =A Compound Pistil= is a combination of two, three, or a greater
+number of pistil-leaves or carpels in a circle, united into one body, at
+least by their ovaries. The annexed figures should make it clear. A
+series of Saxifrages might be selected the gynoecium of which would
+show every gradation between two simple pistils, or separate carpels,
+and their complete coalescence into one compound and two-celled ovary.
+Even when the constituent styles and stigmas are completely coalescent
+into one, the nature of the combination is usually revealed by some
+external lines or grooves, or (as in Fig. 328-330) by the internal
+partitions, or the number of the placentae. The simplest case of compound
+pistil is that
+
+310. =With two or more Cells and Axile Placentae=, namely, with as many
+cells as there are carpels, that have united to compose the organ. Such
+a pistil is just what would be formed if the simple pistils (two, three,
+or five in a circle, as the case may be), like those of a Paeony or
+Stonecrop (Fig. 224, 225), pressed together in the centre of the flower,
+were to cohere by their contiguous parts. In such a case the placentae
+are naturally _axile_, or all brought together in the axis or centre;
+and the ovary has as many DISSEPIMENTS, or internal _Partitions_, as
+there are carpels in its composition. For these are the contiguous and
+coalescent walls or sides of the component carpels. When such pistils
+ripen into pods, they often separate along these lines into their
+elementary carpels.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 331, 332. Pistil of a Sandwort, with vertical and
+transverse section of the ovary: free central placenta.]
+
+311. =One-celled, with free Central Placenta.= The commoner case is that
+of Purslane (Fig. 272) and of the Pink and Chickweed families (Fig. 331,
+332). This is explained by supposing that the partitions (such as those
+of Fig. 329) have early vanished or have been suppressed. Indeed, traces
+of them may often be detected in Pinks. On the other hand, it is equally
+supposable that in the Primula family the free central is derived from
+parietal placentation by the carpels bearing ovules only at base, and
+forming a consolidated common placenta in the axis. Mitella and Dionaea
+help out this conception.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 333. Plan of a one-celled ovary of three
+carpel-leaves, with parietal placentae, cut across below, where it is
+complete; the upper part showing the top of the three leaves it is
+composed of, approaching, but not united.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 334. Cross section of the ovary of Frost weed
+(Helianthemum), with three parietal placentae, bearing ovules.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 335. Cross section of an ovary of Hypericum
+graveolens, the three large placentae meeting in the centre, so as to
+form a three-celled ovary. 336. Same in fruit, the placentae now separate
+and rounded.]
+
+312. =One-celled, with Parietal Placentae.= In this not uncommon case it
+is conceived that the two or three or more carpel-leaves of such a
+compound pistil coalesce by their adjacent edges, just as sepal-leaves
+do to form a gamosepalous calyx, or petals to form a gamopetalous
+corolla, and as is shown in the diagram, Fig. 333, and in an actual
+cross-section, Fig. 334. Here each carpel is an open leaf, or with some
+introflexion, bearing ovules along its margins; and each placenta
+consists of the contiguous margins of two pistil-leaves grown together.
+There is every gradation between this and the three-celled ovary with
+the placentae in the axis, even in the same genus, sometimes even in
+different stages in the same pistil (Fig. 335, 336).
+
+
+Sec. 2. GYMNOSPERMOUS GYNOECIUM.
+
+313. The ordinary pistil has a closed ovary, and accordingly the pollen
+can act upon the contained ovules only indirectly, through the stigma.
+This is expressed in a term of Greek derivation, viz.:--
+
+_Angiospermous_, meaning that the seeds are borne in a sac or closed
+vessel. The counterpart term is
+
+_Gymnospermous_, meaning naked-seeded. This kind of pistil, or
+gynoecium, the simplest of all, yet the most peculiar, characterizes
+the Pine family and its relatives.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 337. A pistil, that is, a scale of the cone, of a
+Larch, at the time of flowering; inside view, showing its pair of naked
+ovules.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 338. Branchlet of the American Arbor-Vitae,
+considerably larger than in nature, terminated by its pistillate
+flowers, each consisting of a single scale (an open pistil), together
+forming a small cone.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 339. One of the scales or carpels of the last,
+removed and more enlarged, the inside exposed to view, showing a pair of
+ovules on its base.]
+
+314. While the ordinary simple pistil is conceived by the botanist to be
+a leaf rolled together into a closed pod (306), those of the Pine, Larch
+(Fig. 337), Cedar, and Arbor-Vitae (Fig. 338, 339) are open leaves, in
+the form of scales, each bearing two or more ovules on the inner face,
+next the base. At the time of blossoming, these pistil-leaves of the
+young cone diverge, and the pollen, so abundantly shed from the
+staminate blossoms, falls directly upon the exposed ovules. Afterward
+the scales close over each other until the seeds are ripe. Then they
+separate that the seeds may be shed. As the pollen acts directly on the
+ovules, such pistil (or organ acting as pistil) has no stigma.
+
+315. In the Yew, and in Torreya and Gingko, the gynoecium is reduced
+to extremest simplicity, that is, to a naked ovule, without any visible
+carpel.
+
+316. In Cycas the large naked ovules are borne on the margins or lobes
+of an obvious open leaf. All GYMNOSPERMOUS plants have other
+peculiarities, also distinguishing them, as a class, from ANGIOSPERMOUS
+plants.
+
+
+
+
+Section XI. OVULES.
+
+
+317. =Ovule= (from the Latin, meaning a little egg) is the technical
+name of that which in the flower answers to and becomes the seed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 340. A cluster of ovules, pendulous on their
+funicles.]
+
+318. Ovules are _naked_ in gymnospermous plants (as just described), in
+all others they are enclosed in the ovary. They may be produced along
+the whole length of the cell or cells of the ovary, and then they are
+apt to be numerous, or only from some part of it, generally the top or
+the bottom. In this case they are usually few or single (_solitary_, as
+in Fig. 341-343). They may be _sessile_, i. e. without stalk, or they
+may be attached by a distinct stalk, the FUNICLE or FUNICULUS (Fig.
+340).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 341. Section of the ovary of a Buttercup,
+lengthwise, showing its ascending ovule.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 342. Section of the ovary of Buckwheat, showing the
+erect ovule.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 343. Section of the ovary of Anemone, showing its
+suspended ovule.]
+
+319. Considered as to then position and direction in the ovary, they are
+
+_Horizontal_, when they are neither turned upward nor downward, as in
+Podophyllum (Fig. 326),
+
+_Ascending_, when rising obliquely upwards, usually from the side of the
+cell, not from its very base, as in the Buttercup (Fig. 341), and the
+Purslane (Fig. 272),
+
+_Erect_, when rising upright from the very base of the cell, as in the
+Buckwheat (Fig. 342),
+
+_Pendulous_, when hanging from the side or from near the top, as in the
+Flax (Fig. 270), and
+
+_Suspended_, when hanging perpendicularly from the very summit of the
+cell, as in the Anemone (Fig. 343). All these terms equally apply to
+seeds.
+
+320. In structure an ovule is a pulpy mass of tissue, usually with one
+or two coats or coverings. The following parts are to be noted, viz.--
+
+KERNEL or NUCLEUS, the body of the ovule. In the Mistletoe and some
+related plants, there is only this nucleus, the coats being wanting.
+
+TEGUMENTS, or coats, sometimes only one, more commonly two. When two,
+one has been called PRIMINE, the other SECUNDINE. It will serve all
+purposes to call them simply outer and inner ovule coats.
+
+ORIFICE, or FORAMEN, an opening through the coats at the organic apex of
+the ovule. In the seed it is _Micropyle_.
+
+CHALAZA, the place where the coats and the kernel of the ovule blend.
+
+HILUM, the place of junction of the funiculus with the body of the
+ovule.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 344. Orthotropous ovule of Buckwheat: _c_, hilum
+and chalaza; _f_, orifice.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 345. Campylotropous ovule of a Chickweed: _c_, hilum
+and chalaza; _f_, orifice.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 346. Amphitropous ovule of Mallow: _f_, orifice;
+_h_, hilum; _r_, rhaphe; _c_, chalaza.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 347. Anatropous ovule of a Violet, the parts
+lettered as in the last.]
+
+321. =The Kinds of Ovules.= The ovules in their growth develop in three
+or four different ways and thereby are distinguished into
+
+_Orthotropous_ or _Straight_, those which develop without curving or
+turning, as in Fig. 344. The chalaza is at the insertion or base, the
+foramen or orifice is at the apex. This is the simplest, but the least
+common kind of ovule.
+
+_Campylotropous_ or _Incurved_, in which, by the greater growth of one
+side, the ovule curves into a kidney-shaped outline, so bringing the
+orifice down close to the base or chalaza; as in Fig. 345.
+
+_Amphitropous_ or _Half Inverted_, Fig. 346. Here the forming ovule,
+instead of curving perceptibly, keeps its axis nearly straight, and, as
+it grows, turns round upon its base so far as to become transverse to
+its funiculus, and adnate to its upper part for some distance. Therefore
+in this case the attachment of the funiculus or stalk is about the
+middle, the chalaza is at one end, the orifice at the other.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 348-350. Three early stages in the growth of ovule
+of a Magnolia, showing the forming outer and inner coats which even in
+the later figure have not yet completely enclosed the nucleus; 351,
+further advanced, and 352, completely anatropous ovule.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 353. Longitudinal section, and 354, transverse
+section of 352.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 355. Same as 353, enlarged showing the parts in
+section: _a_, outer coat; _b_, inner coat; _c_, nucleus; _d_, rhaphe.]
+
+_Anatropous_ or _Inverted_, as in Fig. 347, the commonest kind, so
+called because in its growth it has as it were turned over upon its
+stalk, to which it has continued adnate. The organic base, or chalaza,
+thus becomes the apparent summit, and the orifice is at the base, by
+the side of the hilum or place of attachment. The adnate portion of the
+funiculus, which appears as a ridge or cord extending from the hilum to
+the chalaza, and which distinguishes this kind of ovule, is called the
+RHAPHE. The amphitropous ovule (Fig. 346) has a short or incomplete
+rhaphe.
+
+322. Fig. 348-352 show the stages through which an ovule becomes
+anatropous in the course of its growth. The annexed two figures are
+sections of such an ovule at maturity; and Fig. 355 is Fig. 353
+enlarged, with the parts lettered.
+
+
+
+
+Section XII. MODIFICATIONS OF THE RECEPTACLE.
+
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 356. Longitudinal section of flower of Silene
+Pennsylvanica, showing stipe between calyx and corolla.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 357. Flower of a Cleome of the section Gynandropsis,
+showing broadened receptacle to bear petals, lengthened stipe below the
+stamens, and another between these and pistil.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 358. Pistil of Geranium or Cranesbill.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 359. The same, ripe, with the five carpels splitting
+away from the long beak (carpophore), and hanging from its top by their
+recurving styles.]
+
+323. =The Torus= or Receptacle of the flower (237, Fig. 223) is the
+portion which belongs to the stem or axis. In all preceding
+illustrations it is small and short. But it sometimes lengthens,
+sometimes thickens or variously enlarges, and takes on various forms.
+Some of these have received special names, very few of which are in
+common use. A lengthened portion of the receptacle is called
+
+A STIPE. This name, which means simply a trunk or stalk, is used in
+botany for various stalks, even for the leaf-stalk in Ferns. It is also
+applied to the stalk or petiole of a carpel, in the rare cases when
+there is any, as in Goldthread. Then it is technically distinguished as
+a THECAPHORE. When there is a stalk, or lengthened internode of
+receptacle, directly under a compound pistil, as in Stanleya and some
+other Cruciferae, it is called a GYNOPHORE. When the stalk is developed
+below the stamens, as in most species of Silene (Fig. 356), it has been
+called an ANTHOPHORE or GONOPHORE. In Fig. 357 the torus is dilated
+above the calyx where it bears the petals, then there is a long
+internode (gonophore) between it and the stamens; then a shorter one
+(gynophore) between these and the pistil.
+
+324. =A Carpophore= is a prolongation of receptacle or axis between the
+carpels and bearing them. Umbelliferous plants and Geranium (Fig. 358,
+359) afford characteristic examples.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 360. Longitudinal section of a young strawberry,
+enlarged.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 361. Similar section of a young Rose-hip.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 362. Enlarged and top-shaped receptacle of
+Nelumbium, at maturity.]
+
+325. Flowers with very numerous simple pistils generally have the
+receptacle enlarged so as to give them room; sometimes becoming broad
+and flat, as in the Flowering Raspberry, sometimes elongated, as in the
+Blackberry, the Magnolia, etc. It is the receptacle in the Strawberry
+(Fig. 360), much enlarged and pulpy when ripe, which forms the eatable
+part of the fruit, and bears the small seed-like pistils on its surface.
+In the Rose (Fig. 361), instead of being convex or conical, the
+receptacle is deeply concave, or urn-shaped. Indeed, a Rose-hip may be
+likened to a strawberry turned inside out, like the finger of a glove
+reversed, and the whole covered by the adherent tube of the calyx. The
+calyx remains beneath in the strawberry.
+
+326. In Nelumbium, of the Water-Lily family, the singular and greatly
+enlarged receptacle is shaped like a top, and bears the small pistils
+immersed in separate cavities of its flat upper surface (Fig. 362).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 363. Hypogynous disk in Orange.]
+
+327. =A Disk= is an enlarged low receptacle or an outgrowth from it,
+_hypogynous_ when underneath the pistil, as in Rue and the Orange (Fig.
+363), and _perigynous_ when adnate to calyx-tube (as in Buckthorn, Fig.
+364, 365), and Cherry (Fig. 271), or to both calyx-tube and ovary, as
+in Hawthorn (Fig. 273). A flattened hypogynous disk, underlying the
+ovary or ovaries, and from which they fall away at maturity, is
+sometimes called a GYNOBASE, as in the Rue family. In some Borragineous
+flowers, such as Houndstongue, the gynobase runs up in the centre
+between the carpels into a carpophore. The so-called _epigynous_ disk
+(or STYLOPODIUM) crowning the summit of the ovary in flowers of
+Umbelliferae, etc., cannot be said to belong to the receptacle.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 364. Flower of a Buckthorn showing a conspicuous
+perigynous disk.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 365. Vertical section of same flower.]
+
+
+
+
+Section XIII. FERTILIZATION.
+
+
+328. The end of the flower is attained when the ovules become seeds. A
+flower remains for a certain time (longer or shorter according to the
+species) in _anthesis_, that is, in the proper state for the fulfilment
+of this end. During anthesis, the ovules have to be fertilized by the
+pollen; or at least some pollen has to reach the stigma, or in
+gymnospermy the ovule itself, and to set up the peculiar growth upon its
+moist and permeable tissue, which has for result the production of an
+embryo in the ovules. By this the ovules are said to be _fertilized_.
+The first step is _pollination_, or, so to say, the sowing of the proper
+pollen upon the stigma, where it is to germinate.
+
+
+Sec. 1. ADAPTATIONS FOR POLLINATION OF THE STIGMA.
+
+329. These various and ever-interesting adaptations and processes are
+illustrated in the "Botanical Text Book, Structural Botany," chap. VI.
+sect. iv., also in a brief and simple way in "Botany for Young People,
+How Plants Behave." So mere outlines only are given here.
+
+330. Sometimes the application of pollen to the stigma is left to
+chance, as in dioecious wind-fertilized flowers; sometimes it is
+rendered very sure, as in flowers that are fertilized in the bud;
+sometimes the pollen is prevented from reaching the stigma of the same
+flower, although placed very near to it, but then there are always
+arrangements for its transference to the stigma of some other blossom of
+the kind. It is among these last that the most exquisite adaptations are
+met with.
+
+331. Accordingly, some flowers are particularly adapted to close or
+self-fertilization; others to cross fertilization; some for either,
+according to circumstances.
+
+_Close Fertilization_ occurs when the pollen reaches and acts upon a
+stigma of the very same flower (this is also called self-fertilization),
+or, less closely, upon other blossoms of the same cluster or the same
+individual plant.
+
+_Cross Fertilization_ occurs when ovules are fertilized by pollen of
+other individuals of the same species.
+
+_Hybridization_ occurs when ovules are fertilized by pollen of some
+other (necessarily some nearly related) species.
+
+332. =Close Fertilization= would seem to be the natural result in
+ordinary hermaphrodite flowers; but it is by no means so in all of them.
+More commonly the arrangements are such that it takes place only after
+some opportunity for cross fertilization has been afforded. But close
+fertilization is inevitable in what are called
+
+_Cleistogamous Flowers_, that is, in those which are fertilized in the
+flower-bud, while still unopened. Most flowers of this kind, indeed,
+never open at all; but the closed floral coverings are forced off by the
+growth of the precociously fertilized pistil. Common examples of this
+are found in the earlier blossoms of Specularia perfoliata, in the later
+ones of most Violets, especially the stemless species, in our wild Jewel
+weeds or Impatiens, in the subterranean shoots of Amphicarpaea. Every
+plant which produces these cleistogamous or bud-fertilized flowers bears
+also more conspicuous and open flowers, usually of bright colors. The
+latter very commonly fail to set seed, but the former are prolific.
+
+333. =Cross Fertilization= is naturally provided for in dioecious
+plants (249), is much favored in monoecious plants (249), and hardly
+less so in dichogamous and in heterogonous flowers (338). Cross
+fertilization depends upon the transportation of pollen; and the two
+principal agents of conveyance are winds and insects. Most flowers are
+in their whole structure adapted either to the one or to the other.
+
+334. =Wind-fertilizable or Anemophilous= flowers are more commonly
+dioecious or monoecious, as in Pines and all coniferous trees, Oaks, and
+Birches, and Sedges; yet sometimes hermaphrodite, as in Plantains and
+most Grasses; they produce a superabundance of very light pollen,
+adapted to be wind-borne; and they offer neither nectar to feed winged
+insects, nor fragrance nor bright colors to attract them.
+
+335. =Insect-fertilizable or Entomophilous= flowers are those which are
+sought by insects, for pollen or for nectar, or for both. Through their
+visits pollen is conveyed from one flower and from one plant to another.
+Insects are attracted to such blossoms by their bright colors, or their
+fragrance, or by the nectar (the material of honey) there provided for
+them. While supplying their own needs, they carry pollen from anthers to
+stigmas and from plant to plant, thus bringing about a certain amount of
+cross fertilization. Willows and some other dioecious flowers are so
+fertilized, chiefly by bees. But most insect-visited flowers have the
+stamens and pistils associated either in the same or in contiguous
+blossoms. Even when in the same blossom, anthers and stigmas are very
+commonly so situated that under insect-visitation, some pollen is more
+likely to be deposited upon other than upon own stigmas, so giving a
+chance for cross as well as for close fertilization. On the other hand,
+numerous flowers, of very various kinds, have their parts so arranged
+that they must almost necessarily be cross-fertilized or be barren, and
+are therefore dependent upon the aid of insects. This aid is secured by
+different exquisite adaptations and contrivances, which would need a
+volume for full illustration. Indeed, there is a good number of volumes
+devoted to this subject.[1]
+
+336. Some of the adaptations which favor or ensure cross fertilization
+are peculiar to the particular kind of blossom. Orchids, Milkweeds,
+Kalmia, Iris, and papilionaceous flowers each have their own special
+contrivances, quite different for each.
+
+337. Irregular flowers (253) and especially irregular corollas are
+usually adaptations to insect-visitation. So are all _Nectaries_,
+whether hollow spurs, sacs, or other concavities in which nectar is
+secreted, and all _nectariferous glands_.
+
+338. Moreover, there are two arrangements for cross fertilization common
+to hermaphrodite flowers in various different families of plants, which
+have received special names, _Dichogamy_ and _Heterogony_.
+
+339. =Dichogamy= is the commoner case. Flowers are _dichogamous_ when
+the anthers discharge their pollen either before or after the stigmas of
+that flower are in a condition to receive it. Such flowers are
+
+_Proterandrous_, when the anthers are earlier than the stigmas, as in
+Gentians, Campanula, Epilobium, etc.
+
+_Proterogynous_, when the stigmas are mature and moistened for the
+reception of pollen, before the anthers of that blossom are ready to
+supply it, and are withered before that pollen can be supplied.
+Plantains or Ribworts (mostly wind-fertilized) are strikingly
+proterogynous: so is Amorpha, our Papaws, Scrophularia, and in a less
+degree the blossom of Pears, Hawthorns, and Horse-chestnut.
+
+340. In Sabbatia, the large-flowered species of Epilobium, and
+strikingly in Clerodendron, the dichogamy is supplemented and perfected
+by movements of the stamens and style, one or both, adjusted to make
+sure of cross fertilization.
+
+341. =Heterogony.= This is the case in which hermaphrodite and fertile
+flowers of two sorts are produced on different individuals of the same
+species; one sort having higher anthers and lower stigmas, the other
+having higher stigmas and lower anthers. Thus reciprocally disposed, a
+visiting insect carries pollen from the high anthers of the one to the
+high stigma of the other, and from the low anthers of the one to the low
+stigma of the other. These plants are practically as if dioecious,
+with the advantage that both kinds are fruitful. Houstonia and
+Mitchella, or Partridge-berry, are excellent and familiar examples.
+These are cases of
+
+_Heterogone Dimorphism_, the relative lengths being only short and long
+reciprocally.
+
+_Heterogone Trimorphism_, in which there is a mid-length as well as a
+long and a short set of stamens and style; occurs in Lythrum Salicaria
+and some species of Oxalis.
+
+342. There must be some essential advantage in cross fertilization or
+cross breeding. Otherwise all these various, elaborate, and exquisitely
+adjusted adaptations would be aimless. Doubtless the advantage is the
+same as that which is realized in all the higher animals by the
+distinction of sexes.
+
+
+Sec. 2. ACTION OF POLLEN, AND FORMATION OF THE EMBRYO.
+
+343. =Pollen-growth.= A grain of pollen may be justly likened to one of
+the simple bodies (_spores_) which answer for seeds in Cryptogamous
+plants. Like one of these, it is capable of germination. When deposited
+upon the moist surface of the stigma (or in some cases even when at a
+certain distance) it grows from some point, its living inner coat
+breaking through the inert outer coat, and protruding in the form of a
+delicate tube. This as it lengthens penetrates the loose tissue of the
+stigma and of a loose conducting tissue in the style, feeds upon the
+nourishing liquid matter there provided, reaches the cavity of the
+ovary, enters the orifice of an ovule, and attaches its extremity to a
+sac, or the lining of a definite cavity, in the ovule, called the
+_Embryo-Sac_.
+
+344. =Origination of the Embryo.= A globule of living matter in the
+embryo-sac is formed, and is in some way placed in close proximity to
+the apex of the pollen tube; it probably absorbs the contents of the
+latter; it then sets up a special growth, and the _Embryo_ (8-10) or
+rudimentary plantlet in the seed is the result.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] Beginning with one by C. C. Sprengel in 1793, and again in our day
+with Darwin, "On the Various Contrivances by which Orchids are
+fertilized by Insects," and in succeeding works.
+
+
+
+
+Section XIV. THE FRUIT.
+
+
+345. =Its Nature.= The ovary matures into the Fruit. In the strictest
+sense the fruit is the seed-vessel, technically named the PERICARP. But
+practically it may include other parts organically connected with the
+pericarp. Especially the calyx, or a part of it, is often incorporated
+with the ovary, so as to be undistinguishably a portion of the pericarp,
+and it even forms along with the receptacle the whole bulk of such
+edible fruits as apples and pears. The receptacle is an obvious part in
+blackberries, and is the whole edible portion in the strawberry.
+
+346. Also a cluster of distinct carpels may, in ripening, be
+consolidated or compacted, so as practically to be taken for one fruit.
+Such are raspberries, blackberries, the Magnolia fruit, etc. Moreover,
+the ripened product of many flowers may be compacted or grown together
+so as to form a single compound fruit.
+
+347. =Its kinds= have therefore to be distinguished. Also various names
+of common use in descriptive botany have to be mentioned and defined.
+
+348. In respect to composition, accordingly, fruits may be classified
+into
+
+_Simple_, those which result from the ripening of a single pistil, and
+consist only of the matured ovary, either by itself, as in a cherry, or
+with calyx-tube completely incorporated with it, as in a gooseberry or
+cranberry.
+
+_Aggregate_, when a cluster of carpels of the same flower are crowded
+into a mass; as in raspberries and blackberries.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 366. Forming fruit (capsule) of Gaultheria, with
+calyx thickening around its base. 367. Section of same mature, the
+berry-like calyx nearly enclosing the capsule.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 368. Section of a part of a strawberry. Compare with
+Fig. 360.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 369. Similar section of part of a blackberry. 370.
+One of its component simple fruits (drupe) in section, showing the pulp,
+stone, and contained seed; more enlarged. Compare with Fig. 375.]
+
+_Accessory_ or _Anthocarpous_, when the surroundings or supports of the
+pistil make up a part of the mass; as does the loose calyx changed into
+a fleshy and berry-like envelope of our Wintergreen (Gaultheria, Fig.
+366, 367) and Buffalo-berry, which are otherwise simple fruits. In an
+aggregate fruit such as the strawberry the great mass is receptacle
+(Fig. 360, 368); and in the blackberry (Fig. 369) the juicy receptacle
+forms the central part of the savory mass.
+
+_Multiple_ or _Collective_, when formed from several flowers
+consolidated into one mass, of which the common receptacle or axis of
+inflorescence, the floral envelopes, and even the bracts, etc., make a
+part. A mulberry (Fig. 408, which superficially much resembles a
+blackberry) is of this multiple sort. A pine-apple is another example.
+
+349. In respect to texture or consistence, fruits may be distinguished
+into three kinds, viz.--
+
+_Fleshy Fruits_, those which are more or less soft and juicy throughout;
+
+_Stone Fruits_, or _Drupaceous_, the outer part fleshy like a berry,
+the inner hard or stony, like a nut; and
+
+_Dry Fruits_, those which have no flesh or pulp.
+
+350. In reference to the way of disseminating the contained seed, fruits
+are said to be
+
+_Indehiscent_ when they do not open at maturity. Fleshy fruits and stone
+fruits are of course indehiscent. The seed becomes free only through
+decay or by being fed upon by animals. Those which escape digestion are
+thus disseminated by the latter. Of dry fruits many are indehiscent; and
+these are variously arranged to be transported by animals. Some burst
+irregularly; many are
+
+_Dehiscent_, that is, they split open regularly along certain lines, and
+discharge the seeds. A dehiscent fruit almost always contains many or
+several seeds, or at least more than one seed.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 371. Leafy shoot and berry (cut across) of the
+larger Cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 372, 373. Pepo of Gourd, in section. 373. One carpel
+of same in diagram.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 374. Longitudinal and transverse sections of a pear
+(pome).]
+
+351. The principal kinds of fruit which have received substantive names
+and are of common use in descriptive botany are the following. Of fleshy
+fruits the leading kind is
+
+352. =The Berry=, such as the gooseberry and currant, the blueberry and
+cranberry (Fig. 371), the tomato, and the grape. Here the whole flesh is
+soft throughout. The orange is a berry with a leathery rind.
+
+353. =The Pepo=, or _Gourd-fruit_, is a hard-rinded berry, belonging to
+the Gourd family, such as the pumpkin, squash, cucumber, and melon, Fig.
+372, 373.
+
+354. =The Pome= is a name applied to the apple, pear (Fig. 374), and
+quince; fleshy fruits, like a berry, but the principal thickness is
+calyx, only the papery pods arranged like a star in the core really
+belonging to the carpels. The fruit of the Hawthorn is a drupaceous
+pome, something between pome and drupe.
+
+355. Of fruits which are externally fleshy and internally hard the
+leading kind is
+
+356. =The Drupe=, or _Stone-fruit_; of which the cherry, plum, and peach
+(Fig. 375) are familiar examples. In this the outer part of the
+thickness of the pericarp becomes fleshy, or softens like a berry, while
+the inner hardens, like a nut. From the way in which the pistil is
+constructed, it is evident that the fleshy part here answers to the
+lower, and the stone to the upper face of the component leaf. The layers
+or concentric portions of a drupe, or of any pericarp which is thus
+separable, are named, when thus distinguishable into three portions,--
+
+_Epicarp_, the external layer, often the mere skin of the fruit,
+
+_Mesocarp_, the middle layer, which is commonly the fleshy part, and
+
+_Endocarp_, the innermost layer, the stone. But more commonly only two
+portions of a drupe are distinguished, and are named, the outer one
+
+_Sarcocarp_ or _Exocarp_, for the flesh, the first name referring to the
+fleshy character, the second to its being an external layer; and
+
+_Putamen_ or _Endocarp_, the _Stone_, within.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 375. Longitudinal section of a peach, showing flesh,
+stone, and seed.]
+
+357. The typical or true drupe is of a single carpel. But, not to
+multiply technical names, this name is extended to all such fruits when
+fleshy without and stony within, although of compound pistil,--even to
+those having several or separable stones, such as the fruit of Holly.
+These stones in such drupes, or drupaceous fruits, are called _Pyrenae_,
+or _Nucules_, or simply _Nutlets_ of the drupe.
+
+358. Of Dry fruits, there is a greater diversity of kinds having
+distinct names. The indehiscent sorts are commonly one-seeded.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 376. Akene of a Buttercup. 377. The same, divided
+lengthwise, to show the contained seed.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 378. Akene of Virgin's-bower, retaining the
+feathered style, which aids in dissemination.]
+
+359. =The Akene or Achenium= is a small, dry and indehiscent one-seeded
+fruit, often so seed-like in appearance that it is popularly taken for a
+naked seed. The fruit of the Buttercup or Crowfoot is a good example,
+Fig. 376, 377. Its nature, as a ripened pistil (in this case a simple
+carpel), is apparent by its bearing the remains of a style or stigma, or
+a scar from which this has fallen. It may retain the style and use it in
+various ways for dissemination (Fig. 378).
+
+360. The fruit of Compositae (though not of a single carpel) is also an
+akene. In this case the pericarp is invested by an adherent calyx-tube;
+the limb of which, when it has any, is called the PAPPUS. This name was
+first given to the down like that of the Thistle, but is applied to all
+forms under which the limb of the calyx of the "compound flower"
+appears. In Lettuce, Dandelion (Fig. 384), and the like, the achenium as
+it matures tapers upwards into a slender beak, like a stalk to the
+pappus.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 379. Akene of Mayweed (no pappus). 380. That of
+Succory (its pappus a shallow cup). 381. Of Sunflower (pappus of two
+deciduous scales). 382. Of Sneezeweed (Helenium), with its pappus of
+five scales. 383. Of Sow-Thistle, with its pappus of delicate downy
+hairs. 384. Of the Dandelion, its pappus raised on a long beak.]
+
+361. =A Cremocarp= (Fig. 385), a name given to the fruit of Umbelliferae,
+consists as it were of a pair of akenes united completely in the
+blossom, but splitting apart when ripe into the two closed carpels. Each
+of these is a _Mericarp_ or _Hemicarp_, names seldom used.
+
+362. =A Utricle= is the same as an akene, but with a thin and bladdery
+loose pericarp; like that of the Goosefoot or Pigweed (Fig. 386). When
+ripe it may burst open irregularly to discharge the seed; or it may open
+by a circular line all round, the upper part falling off like a lid; as
+in the Amaranth (Fig. 387).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 385. Fruit (cremocarp) of Osmorrhiza; the two
+akene-like ripe carpels separating at maturity from a slender axis or
+carpophore.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 386. Utricle of the common Pigweed (Chenopodium
+album).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 387. Utricle (pyxis) of Amaranth, opening all round
+(circumscissile).]
+
+363. =A Caryopsis, or Grain=, is like an akene with the seed adhering to
+the thin pericarp throughout, so that fruit and seed are incorporated
+into one body; as in wheat, Indian corn, and other kinds of grain.
+
+364. =A Nut= is a dry and indehiscent fruit, commonly one-celled and
+one-seeded, with a hard, crustaceous, or bony wall, such as the
+cocoa-nut, hazelnut, chestnut, and the acorn (Fig. 37, 388.) Here the
+involucre, in the form of a cup at the base, is called the CUPULE. In
+the Chestnut the cupule forms the bur; in the Hazel, a leafy husk.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 388. Nut (acorn) of the Oak, with its cup or
+cupule.]
+
+365. =A Samara, or Key-fruit=, is either a nut or an akene, or any other
+indehiscent fruit, furnished with a wing, like that of Ash (Fig. 389),
+and Elm (Fig. 390). The Maple-fruit is a pair of keys (Fig. 391).
+
+366. Dehiscent Fruits, or Pods, are of two classes, viz., those of a
+simple pistil or carpel, and those of a compound pistil. Two common
+sorts of the first are named as follows:--
+
+367. =The Follicle= is a fruit of a simple carpel, which dehisces down
+one side only, i. e. by the inner or ventral suture. The fruits of Marsh
+Marigold (Fig. 392), Paeony, Larkspur, and Milkweed are of this kind.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 389. Samara or key of the White Ash, winged at end.
+390. Samara of the American Elm, winged all round.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 391. Pair of samaras of Sugar Maple.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 392. Follicle of Marsh Marigold (Caltha palustris).]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 393. Legume of a Sweet Pea, opened.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 394. Loment or jointed legume of a Tick-Trefoil
+(Desmodium).]
+
+368. =The Legume= or true Pod, such as the peapod (Fig. 393), and the
+fruit of the Leguminous or Pulse family generally, is one which opens
+along the dorsal as well as the ventral suture. The two pieces into
+which it splits are called VALVES. A LOMENT is a legume which is
+constricted between the seeds, and at length breaks up crosswise into
+distinct joints, as in Fig. 394.
+
+369. The pods or dehiscent fruits belonging to a compound ovary have
+several technical names: but they all may be regarded as kinds of
+
+370. =The Capsule=, the dry and dehiscent fruit of any compound pistil.
+The capsule may discharge its seeds through chinks or pores, as in the
+Poppy, or burst irregularly in some part, as in Lobelia and the
+Snapdragon; but commonly it splits open (or is _dehiscent_) lengthwise
+into regular pieces, called VALVES.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 395. Capsule of Iris, with loculicidal dehiscence;
+below, cut across.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 396. Pod of a Marsh St. John's-wort, with septicidal
+dehiscence.]
+
+371. Regular _Dehiscence_ in a capsule takes place in two ways, which
+are best illustrated in pods of two or three cells. It is either
+
+_Loculicidal_, or, splitting directly into the _loculi_ or cells, that
+is, down the back (or the dorsal suture) of each cell or carpel, as in
+Iris (Fig. 395); or
+
+_Septicidal_, that is, splitting through the partitions or _septa_, as
+in St. John's-wort (Fig. 396), Rhododendron, etc. This divides the
+capsule into its component carpels, which then open by their ventral
+suture.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 397, 398. Diagrams of the two modes.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 399. Diagram of septifragal dehiscence of the
+loculicidal type. 400. Same of the septicidal or _marginicidal_ type.]
+
+372. In loculicidal dehiscence the valves naturally bear the partitions
+on their middle; in the septicidal, half the thickness of a partition is
+borne on the margin of each valve. See the annexed diagrams. A variation
+of either mode occurs when the valves break away from the partitions,
+these remaining attached in the axis of the fruit. This is called
+_Septifragal_ dehiscence. One form is seen in the Morning-Glory (Fig.
+400).
+
+373. The capsules of Rue, Spurge, and some others, are both loculicidal
+and septicidal, and so split into half-carpellary valves or pieces.
+
+374. =The Silique= (Fig. 401) is the technical name of the peculiar pod
+of the Mustard family; which is two-celled by a false partition
+stretched across between two parietal placentae. It generally opens by
+two valves from below upward, and the placentae with the partition are
+left behind when the valves fall off.
+
+375. =A Silicle or Pouch= is only a short and broad silique, like that
+of the Shepherd's Purse, Fig. 402, 403.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 401. Silique of a Cadamine or Spring Cress.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 402. Silicle of Shepherd's Purse.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 403. Same, with one valve removed.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 404. Pyxis of Purslane, the lid detaching.]
+
+376. =The Pyxis= is a pod which opens by a circular horizontal line, the
+upper part forming a lid, as in Purslane (Fig. 404), the Plantain,
+Henbane, etc. In these the dehiscence extends all round, or is
+_circumscissile_. So it does in Amaranth (Fig. 387), forming a
+one-seeded utricular pyxis. In Jeffersonia, the line does not separate
+quite round, but leaves a portion for a hinge to the lid.
+
+377. Of Multiple or Collective Fruits, which are properly masses of
+fruits aggregated into one body (as is seen in the Mulberry (Fig. 408),
+Pine-apple, etc.), there are two kinds with special names and of
+peculiar structure.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 405. A fig-fruit when young. 406. Same in section.
+407. Magnified portion, a slice, showing some of the flowers.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 408. A mulberry. 409. One of the grains younger,
+enlarged; seen to be a pistillate flower with calyx becoming fleshy.
+410. Same, with fleshy calyx cut across.]
+
+378. =The Syconium or Fig-fruit= (Fig. 405, 406) is a fleshy axis or
+summit of stem, hollowed out, and lined within by a multitude of minute
+flowers, the whole becoming pulpy, and in the common fig, luscious.
+
+379. =The Strobile or Cone= (Fig. 411), is the peculiar multiple fruit
+of Pines, Cypresses, and the like; hence named _Coniferae_, viz.
+cone-bearing plants. As already shown (313), these cones are _open
+pistils_, mostly in the form of flat scales, regularly overlying each
+other, and pressed together in a spike or head. Each scale bears one or
+two naked seeds on its inner face. When ripe and dry, the scales turn
+back or diverge, and in the Pine the seed peels off and falls, generally
+carrying with it a wing, a part of the lining of the scale, which
+facilitates the dispersion of the seeds by the wind (Fig. 412, 413). In
+Arbor-Vitae, the scales of the small cone are few, and not very unlike
+the leaves. In Cypress they are very thick at the top and narrow at the
+base, so as to make a peculiar sort of closed cone. In Juniper and Red
+Cedar, the few scales of the very small cone become fleshy, and ripen
+into a fruit which closely resembles a berry.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 411. Cone of a common Pitch Pine. 412. Inside view
+of a separated scale or open carpel; one seed in place: 413, the other
+seed.]
+
+
+
+
+Section XV. THE SEED.
+
+
+380. Seeds are the final product of the flower, to which all its parts
+and offices are subservient. Like the ovule from which it originates, a
+seed consists of coats and kernel.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 414. Seed of a Linden or Basswood cut through
+lengthwise, and magnified, the parts lettered: _a_, the hilum or scar;
+_b_, the outer coat; _c_, the inner; _d_, the albumen; _e_, the embryo.]
+
+381. =The Seed-coats= are commonly two (320), the outer and the inner.
+Fig. 414 shows the two, in a seed cut through lengthwise. The outer coat
+is often hard or crustaceous, whence it is called the _Testa_, or shell
+of the seed; the inner is almost always thin and delicate.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 415. A winged seed of the Trumpet-Creeper.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 416. One of Catalpa, the kernel cut to show the
+embryo.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 417. Seed of Milkweed, with a _Coma_ or tuft of long
+silky hairs at one end.]
+
+382. The shape and the markings, so various in different seeds, depend
+mostly on the outer coat. Sometimes this fits the kernel closely;
+sometimes it is expanded into a _wing_, as in the Trumpet-Creeper (Fig.
+415), and occasionally this wing is cut up into shreds or tufts, as in
+the Catalpa (Fig. 416); or instead of a wing it may bear a _Coma_, or
+tuft of long and soft hairs, as in the Milkweed or Silkweed (Fig. 417).
+The use of wings, or downy tufts is to render the seeds buoyant for
+dispersion by the winds. This is clear, not only from their evident
+adaptation to this purpose, but also from the fact that winged and
+tufted seeds are found only in fruits that split open at maturity, never
+in those that remain closed. The coat of some seeds is beset with long
+hairs or wool. _Cotton_, one of the most important vegetable products,
+since it forms the principal clothing of the larger part of the human
+race, consists of the long and woolly hairs which thickly cover the
+whole surface of the seed. There are also crests or other appendages of
+various sorts on certain seeds. A few seeds have an additional, but more
+or less incomplete covering, outside of the real seed-coats called an
+
+383. =Aril, or Arillus.= The loose and transparent bag which encloses
+the seed of the White Water-Lily (Fig. 418) is of this kind. So is the
+_mace_ of the nutmeg; and also the scarlet pulp around the seeds of the
+Waxwork (Celastrus) and Strawberry-bush (Euonymus). The aril is a growth
+from the extremity of the seed-stalk, or from the placenta when there is
+no seed-stalk.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 418. Seed of White Water Lily, enclosed in its
+aril.]
+
+384. A short and thickish appendage at or close to the hilum in certain
+seeds is called a CARUNCLE or STROPHIOLE (Fig. 419).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 419. Seed of Ricinus or Castor oil plant, with
+caruncle.]
+
+385. The various terms which define the position or direction of the
+ovule (erect, ascending, etc.) apply equally to the seed: so also the
+terms anatropous, orthotropous, campylotropous, etc., as already defined
+(320, 321), and such terms as
+
+HILUM, or _Scar_ left where the seed-stalk or funiculus falls away, or
+where the seed was attached directly to the placenta when there is no
+seed-stalk.
+
+RHAPHE, the line or ridge which runs from the hilum to the chalaza in
+anatropous and amphitropous seeds.
+
+CHALAZA, the place where the seed-coats and the kernel or nucleus are
+organically connected,--at the hilum in orthotropous and campylotropous
+seeds, at the extremity of the rhaphe or tip of the seed in other kinds.
+
+MICROPYLE, answering to the _Foramen_ or orifice of the ovule. Compare
+the accompanying figures and those of the ovules, Fig. 341-355.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 420. Seed of a Violet (anatropous): _a_, hilum;
+_b_, rhaphe; _c_, chalaza.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 421. Seed of a Larkspur (also anatropous); the parts
+lettered as in the last.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 422. The same, cut through lengthwise: _a_, the
+hilum; _c_, chalaza; _d_, outer seed coat; _e_, inner seed-coat; _f_,
+the albumen; _g_, the minute embryo.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 423. Seed of a St. John's-wort, divided lengthwise;
+here the whole kernel is embryo.]
+
+386. =The Kernel, or Nucleus=, is the whole body of the seed within the
+coats. In many seeds the kernel is all _Embryo_; in others a large part
+of it is the _Albumen_. For example, in Fig. 423, it is wholly embryo;
+in Fig. 422, all but the small speck (_g_) is albumen.
+
+387. =The Albumen or Endosperm= of the seed is sufficiently
+characterized and its office explained in Sect. III., 31-35.
+
+388. =The Embryo= or _Germ_, which is the rudimentary plantlet and the
+final result of blossoming, and its development in germination have been
+extensively illustrated in Sections II. and III. Its essential parts are
+the _Radicle_ and the _Cotyledons_.
+
+389. =Its Radicle or Caulicle= (the former is the term long and
+generally used in botanical descriptions, but the latter is the more
+correct one, for it is the initial stem, which merely gives origin to
+the root), as to its position in the seed, always points to and lies
+near the micropyle. In relation to the pericarp it is
+
+_Superior_, when it points to the apex of the fruit or cell, and
+
+_Inferior_, when it points to its base, or downward.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 424. Embryo of Calycanthus; upper part cut away, to
+show the convolute cotyledons.]
+
+390. =The Cotyledons= have already been illustrated as respects their
+number,--giving the important distinction of _Dicotyledonous_,
+_Polycotyledonous_ and _Monocotyledonous_ embryos (36-43),--also as
+regards their thickness, whether _foliaceous_ or _fleshy_; and some of
+the very various shapes and adaptations to the seed have been figured.
+They may be straight, or folded, or rolled up. In the latter case the
+cotyledons may be rolled up as it were from one margin, as in
+Calycanthus (Fig. 424), or from apex to base in a flat spiral, or they
+may be both folded (_plicate_) and rolled up (_convolute_), as in Sugar
+Maple (Fig. 11.) In one very natural family, the Cruciferae, two
+different modes prevail in the way the two cotyledons are brought round
+against the radicle. In one series they are
+
+_Accumbent_, that is, the edges of the flat cotyledons lie against the
+radicle, as in Fig. 425, 426. In another they are
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 425. Seed of Bitter Cress, Barbarea, cut across to
+show the accumbent cotyledons. 426. Embryo of same, whole.]
+
+_Incumbent_, or with the plane of the cotyledons brought up in the
+opposite direction, so that the back of one of them lies against the
+radicle, as shown in Fig. 427, 428.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 427. Seed of a Sisymbrium, cut across to show the
+incumbent cotyledons. 428. Embryo of the same, detached whole.]
+
+391. As to the situation of the embryo with respect to the albumen of
+the seed, when this is present in any quantity, the embryo may be
+_Axile_, that is occupying the axis or centre, either for most of its
+length, as in Violet (Fig. 429), Barberry (Fig. 48), and Pine (Fig. 56);
+and in these it is straight. But it may be variously curved or coiled in
+the albumen, as in Helianthemum (Fig. 430), in a Potato-seed (Fig. 50),
+or Onion-seed (Fig. 60), and Linden (Fig. 414); or it may be coiled
+around the outside of the albumen, partly or into a circle, as in
+Chickweed (Fig. 431, 432) and in Mirabilis (Fig. 52). The latter mode
+prevails in Campylotropous seeds. In the cereal grains, such as Indian
+Corn (Fig. 67) and Rice (Fig. 430a), and in all other Grasses, the
+embryo is straight and applied to the outside of the abundant albumen.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 429. Section of seed of Violet; anatropous with
+straight axile embryo in the albumen. 430. Section of seed of Rock Rose,
+Helianthemum Canadense; orthotropous, with curved embryo in the albumen.
+430a. Section of a grain of Rice, lengthwise, showing the embryo outside
+the albumen, which forms the principal bulk.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 431. Seed of a Chickweed, campylotropous. 432.
+Section of same, showing slender embryo coiled around the outside of the
+albumen of the kernel.]
+
+392. The matured seed, with embryo ready to germinate and reproduce the
+kind, completes the cycle of the vegetable life in a phanerogamous
+plant, the account of which began with the seed and seedling.
+
+
+
+
+Section XVI. VEGETABLE LIFE AND WORK.
+
+
+393. The following simple outlines of the anatomy and physiology of
+plants (3) are added to the preceding structural part for the better
+preparation of students in descriptive and systematic botany; also to
+give to all learners some general idea of the life, growth, intimate
+structure, and action of the beings which compose so large a part of
+organic nature. Those who would extend and verify the facts and
+principles here outlined will use the Physiological Botany of the
+"Botanical Text Book," by Professor Goodale, or some similar book.
+
+
+Sec. 1. ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE AND GROWTH.
+
+394. =Growth= _is the increase of a living thing in size and substance_.
+It appears so natural that plants and animals should grow, that one
+rarely thinks of it as requiring explanation. It seems enough to say
+that a thing is so because it grew so. Growth from the seed, the
+germination and development of an embryo into a plantlet, and at length
+into a mature plant (as illustrated in Sections II. and III.), can be
+followed by ordinary observation. But the embryo is already a miniature
+plantlet, sometimes with hardly any visible distinction of parts, but
+often one which has already made very considerable growth in the seed.
+To investigate the formation and growth of the embryo itself requires
+well-trained eyes and hands, and the expert use of a good compound
+microscope. So this is beyond the reach of a beginner.
+
+395. Moreover, although observation may show that a seedling, weighing
+only two or three grains, may double its bulk and weight every week of
+its early growth, and may in time produce a huge amount of vegetable
+matter, it is still to be asked what this vegetable matter is, where it
+came from, and by what means plants are able to increase and accumulate
+it, and build it up into the fabric of herbs and shrubs and lofty trees.
+
+396. =Protoplasm.= All this fabric was built up under life, but only a
+small portion of it is at any one time alive. As growth proceeds, life
+is passed on from the old to the new parts, much as it has passed on
+from parent to offspring, from generation to generation in unbroken
+continuity. _Protoplasm_ is the common name of that plant-stuff in which
+life essentially resides. All growth depends upon it; for it has the
+peculiar power of growing and multiplying and building up a living
+structure,--the animal no less than the vegetable structure, for it is
+essentially the same in both. Indeed, all the animal protoplasm comes
+primarily from the vegetable, which has the prerogative of producing it;
+and the protoplasm of plants furnishes all that portion of the food of
+animals which forms their flesh and living fabric.
+
+397. The very simplest plants (if such may specifically be called plants
+rather than animals, or one may say, the simplest living things) are
+mere particles, or pellets, or threads, or even indefinite masses of
+protoplasm of vague form, which possess powers of motion or of changing
+their shape, of imbibing water, air, and even other matters, and of
+assimilating these into plant-stuff for their own growth and
+multiplication. Their growth is increase in substance by incorporation
+of that which they take in and assimilate. Their multiplication is by
+spontaneous division of their substance or body into two or more, each
+capable of continuing the process.
+
+398. The embryo of a phanerogamous plant at its beginning (344) is
+essentially such a globule of protoplasm, which soon constricts itself
+into two and more such globules, which hold together inseparably in a
+row; then the last of the row divides without separation in the two
+other planes, to form a compound mass, each grain or globule of which
+goes on to double itself as it grows; and the definite shaping of this
+still increasing mass builds up the embryo into its form.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 433-436. Figures to illustrate the earlier stages in
+the formation of an embryo; a single mass of protoplasm (Fig. 433)
+dividing into two, three, and then into more incipient cells, which by
+continued multiplication build up an embryo.]
+
+399. =Cell-walls.= While this growth was going on, each grain of the
+forming structure formed and clothed itself with a coat, thin and
+transparent, of something different from protoplasm,--something which
+hardly and only transiently, if at all, partakes of the life and action.
+The protoplasm forms the living organism; the coat is a kind of
+protective covering or shell. The protoplasm, like the flesh of animals
+which it gives rise to, is composed of four chemical elements: Carbon,
+Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen. The coating is of the nature of wood
+(is, indeed, that which makes wood), and has only the three elements,
+Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, in its composition.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 437. Magnified view of some of a simple fresh water
+Alga, the Tetraspora lubrica, each sphere of which may answer to an
+individual plant.]
+
+400. Although the forming structure of an embryo in the fertilized ovule
+is very minute and difficult to see, there are many simple plants of
+lowest grade, abounding in pools of water, which more readily show the
+earlier stages or simplest states of plant-growth. One of these, which
+is common in early spring, requires only moderate magnifying power to
+bring to view what is shown in Fig. 437. In a slimy mass which holds all
+loosely together, little spheres of green vegetable matter are seen,
+assembled in fours, and these fours themselves in clusters of fours. A
+transient inspection shows, what prolonged watching would confirm, that
+each sphere divides first in one plane, then in the other, to make four,
+soon acquiring the size of the original, and so on, producing successive
+groups of fours. These pellets each form on their surface a transparent
+wall, like that just described. The delicate wall is for some time
+capable of expansive growth, but is from the first much firmer than the
+protoplasm within; through it the latter imbibes surrounding moisture,
+which becomes a watery sap, occupying vacuities in the protoplasmic mass
+which enlarge or run together as the periphery increases and distends.
+When full grown the protoplasm may become a mere lining to the wall, or
+some of it central, as a nucleus, this usually connected with the
+wall-lining by delicate threads of the same substance. So, when full
+grown, the wall with its lining--a vesicle, containing liquid or some
+solid matters and in age mostly air--naturally came to be named a Cell.
+But the name was suggested by, and first used only for, cells in
+combination or built up into a fabric, much as a wall is built of
+bricks, that is, into a
+
+401. =Cellular Structure or Tissue.= Suppose numerous cells like those
+of Fig. 437 to be heaped up like a pile of cannon-balls, and as they
+grew, to be compacted together while soft and yielding; they would
+flatten where they touched, and each sphere, being touched by twelve
+surrounding ones would become twelve-sided. Fig. 438 would represent one
+of them. Suppose the contiguous faces to be united into one wall or
+partition between adjacent cavities, and a _cellular structure_ would be
+formed, like that shown in Fig. 439. Roots, stems, leaves, and the whole
+of phanerogamous plants are a fabric of countless numbers of such cells.
+No such exact regularity in size and shape is ever actually found; but a
+nearly truthful magnified view of a small portion of a slice of the
+flower-stalk of a Calla Lily (Fig. 440) shows a fairly corresponding
+structure; except that, owing to the great air-spaces of the interior,
+the fabric may be likened rather to a stack of chimneys than to a solid
+fabric. In young and partly transparent parts one may discern the
+cellular structure by looking down directly on the surface, as of a
+forming root. (Fig. 82, 441, 442).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 438. Diagram of a vegetable cell, such as it would
+be if when spherical it were equally pressed by similar surrounding
+cells in a heap.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 439. Ideal construction of cellular tissue so
+formed, in section.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 440. Magnified view of a portion of a transverse
+slice of stem of Calla Lily. The great spaces are tubular air-channels
+built up by the cells.]
+
+402. The substance of which cell-walls are mainly composed is called
+CELLULOSE. It is essentially the same in the stem of a delicate leaf or
+petal and in the wood of an Oak, except that in the latter the walls are
+much thickened and the calibre small. The protoplasm of each living
+cell appears to be completely shut up and isolated in its shell of
+cellulose; but microscopic investigation has brought to view, in many
+cases, minute threads of protoplasm which here and there traverse the
+cell-wall through minute pores, thus connecting the living portion of
+one cell with that of adjacent cells. (See Fig. 447, &c.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 441. Much magnified small portion of young root of a
+seedling Maple (such as of Fig. 82); and 442, a few cells of same more
+magnified. The prolongations from the back of some of the cells are root
+hairs.]
+
+403. The hairs of plants are cells formed on the surface; either
+elongated single cells (like the root-hairs of Fig. 441, 442), or a row
+of shorter cells. Cotton fibres are long and simple cells growing from
+the surface of the seed.
+
+404. The size of the cells of which common plants are made up varies
+from about the thirtieth to the thousandth of an inch in diameter. An
+ordinary size of short or roundish cells is from 1/300 to 1/500 of an
+inch; so that there may generally be from 27 to 125 millions of cells in
+the compass of a cubic inch!
+
+405. Some parts are built up as a compact structure; in others cells are
+arranged so as to build up regular air-channels, as in the stems of
+aquatic and other water-loving plants (Fig. 440), or to leave irregular
+spaces, as in the lower part of most leaves, where the cells only here
+and there come into close contact (Fig. 443).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 443. Magnified section through the thickness of a
+leaf of Florida Star-Anise.]
+
+406. All such soft cellular tissue, like this of leaves, that of pith,
+and of the green bark, is called PARENCHYMA, while fibrous and woody
+parts are composed of PROSENCHYMA, that is, of peculiarly transformed
+
+407. =Strengthening Cells.= Common cellular tissue, which makes up the
+whole structure of all very young plants, and the whole of Mosses and
+other vegetables of the lowest grade, even when full grown, is too
+tender or too brittle to give needful strength and toughness for plants
+which are to rise to any considerable height and support themselves. In
+these needful strength is imparted, and the conveyance of sap through
+the plant is facilitated, by the change, as they are formed, of some
+cells into thicker-walled and tougher tubes, and by the running together
+of some of these, or the prolongation of others, into hollow fibres or
+tubes of various size. Two sorts of such transformed cells go together,
+and essentially form the
+
+408. =Wood.= This is found in all common herbs, as well as in shrubs and
+trees, but the former have much less of it in proportion to the softer
+cellular tissue. It is formed very early in the growth of the root,
+stem, and leaves,--traces of it appearing in large embryos even while
+yet in the seed. Those cells that lengthen, and at the same time thicken
+their walls form the proper WOODY FIBRE or WOOD-CELLS; those of larger
+size and thinner walls, which are thickened only in certain parts so as
+to have peculiar markings, and which often are seen to be made up of a
+row of cylindrical cells, with the partitions between absorbed or broken
+away, are called DUCTS, or sometimes VESSELS. There are all gradations
+between wood-cells and ducts, and between both these and common cells.
+But in most plants the three kinds are fairly distinct.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 444. Magnified wood-cells of the bark (bast-cells)
+of Basswood, one and part of another. 445. Some wood cells from the wood
+(and below part of a duct); and 446, a detached wood-cell of the same;
+equally magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 447. Some wood cells from Buttonwood, Platanus,
+highly magnified, a whole cell and lower end of another on the left; a
+cell cut half away lengthwise, and half of another on the right; some
+pores or pits (_a_) seen on the left; while _b b_ mark sections through
+these on the cut surface. When living and young the protoplasm extends
+into these and by minuter perforations connects across them. In age the
+pits become open passages, facilitating the passage of sap and air.]
+
+409. The proper cellular tissue, or _parenchyma_, is the ground-work of
+root, stem, and leaves; this is traversed, chiefly lengthwise, by the
+strengthening and conducting tissue, wood-cells and duct-cells, in the
+form of bundles or threads, which, in the stems and stalks of herbs are
+fewer and comparatively scattered, but in shrubs and trees so numerous
+and crowded that in the stems and all permanent parts they make a solid
+mass of wood. They extend into and ramify in the leaves, spreading out
+in a horizontal plane, as the framework of ribs and veins, which
+supports the softer cellular portion or parenchyma.
+
+410. =Wood-Cells, or Woody Fibres=, consist of tubes, commonly between
+one and two thousandths, but in Pine-wood sometimes two or three
+hundredths, of an inch in diameter. Those from the tough bark of the
+Basswood, shown in Fig. 444, are only the fifteen-hundredth of an inch
+wide. Those of Buttonwood (Fig. 447) are larger, and are here highly
+magnified besides. The figures show the way wood-cells are commonly put
+together, namely, with their tapering ends overlapping each
+other,--spliced together, as it were,--thus giving more strength and
+toughness. In hard woods, such as Hickory and Oak, the walls of these
+tubes are very thick, as well as dense; while in soft woods, such as
+White Pine and Basswood, they are thinner.
+
+411. Wood-cells in the bark are generally longer, finer, and tougher
+than those of the proper wood, and appear more like fibres. For example,
+Fig. 446 represents a cell of the wood of Basswood of average length,
+and Fig. 444 one (and part of another) of the fibrous bark, both drawn
+to the same scale. As these long cells form the principal part of
+fibrous bark, or _bast_, they are named _Bast-cells_ or _Bast-fibres_.
+These give the great toughness and flexibility to the inner bark of
+Basswood (i. e. Bast-wood) and of Leatherwood; and they furnish the
+invaluable fibres of flax and hemp; the proper wood of their stems being
+tender, brittle, and destroyed by the processes which separate for use
+the tough and slender bast-cells. In Leatherwood (Dirca) the bast-cells
+are remarkably slender. A view of one, if magnified on the scale of Fig.
+444, would be a foot and a half long.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 448. Magnified bit of a pine shaving, taken parallel
+with the silver grain. 449. Separate whole wood-cell, more magnified.
+450. Same, still more magnified; both sections represented: _a_, disks
+in section, _b_, in face.]
+
+412. The wood-cells of Pines, and more or less of all other Coniferous
+trees, have on two of their sides very peculiar disk-shaped markings
+(Fig. 448-450) by which that kind of wood is recognizable.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 451, 452. A large and a smaller dotted duct from
+Grape-Vine.]
+
+413. =Ducts=, also called VESSELS, are mostly larger than wood-cells:
+indeed, some of them, as in Red Oak, have calibre large enough to be
+discerned on a cross section by the naked eye. They make the visible
+porosity of such kinds of wood. This is particularly the case with
+
+_Dotted_ ducts (Fig. 451, 452), the surface of which appears as if
+riddled with round or oval pores. Such ducts are commonly made up of a
+row of large cells more or less confluent into a tube.
+
+_Scalariform_ ducts (Fig. 458, 459), common in Ferns, and generally
+angled by mutual pressure in the bundles, have transversely elongated
+thin places, parallel with each other, giving a ladder-like appearance,
+whence the name.
+
+_Annular_ ducts (Fig. 457) are marked with cross lines or rings, which
+are thickened portions of the cell-wall.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 453, 454. Spiral ducts which uncoil into a single
+thread. 455. Spiral duct which tears up as a band. 456. An annular duct,
+with variations above. 457. Loose spiral duct passing into annular. 458.
+Scalariform ducts of a Fern; part of a bundle, prismatic by pressure.
+459. One torn into a band.]
+
+_Spiral_ ducts or vessels (Fig. 453-455) have thin walls, strengthened
+by a spiral fibre adherent within. This is as delicate and as strong as
+spider-web: when uncoiled by pulling apart, it tears up and annihilates
+the cell-wall. The uncoiled threads are seen by gently pulling apart
+many leaves, such as those of Amaryllis, or the stalk of a Strawberry
+leaflet.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 460. Milk Vessels of Dandelion, with cells of the
+common cellular tissue. 461. Others from the same older and gorged with
+milky juice. All highly magnified.]
+
+_Laticiferous ducts_, _Vessels of the Latex_, or _Milk-vessels_ are
+peculiar branching tubes which hold _latex_ or milky juice in certain
+plants. It is very difficult to see them, and more so to make out their
+nature. They are peculiar in branching and inosculating, so as to make a
+net-work of tubes, running in among the cellular tissue; and they are
+very small, except when gorged and old (Fig. 460, 461).
+
+
+Sec. 2. CELL-CONTENTS.
+
+414. The living contents of young and active cells are mainly protoplasm
+with water or watery sap which this has imbibed. Old and effete cells
+are often empty of solid matter, containing only water with whatever may
+be dissolved in it, or air, according to the time and circumstances. All
+the various products which plants in general elaborate, or which
+particular plants specially elaborate, out of the common food which they
+derive from the soil and the air, are contained in the cells, and in the
+cells they are produced.
+
+415. =Sap= is a general name for the principal liquid contents,--_Crude
+sap_, for that which the plant takes in, _Elaborated sap_ for what it
+has digested or assimilated. They must be undistinguishably mixed in the
+cells.
+
+416. Among the solid matters into which cells convert some of their
+elaborated sap two are general and most important. These are
+_Chlorophyll_ and _Starch_.
+
+417. =Chlorophyll= (meaning _leaf-green_) is what gives the green color
+to herbage. It consists of soft grains of rather complex nature, partly
+wax-like, partly protoplasmic. These abound in the cells of all common
+leaves and the green rind of plants, wherever exposed to the light. The
+green color is seen through the transparent skin of the leaf and the
+walls of the containing cells. Chlorophyll is essential to ordinary
+assimilation in plants: by its means, under the influence of sunlight,
+the plant converts crude sap into vegetable matter.
+
+418. Far the largest part of all vegetable matter produced is that which
+goes to build up the plant's fabric or cellular structure, either
+directly or indirectly. There is no one good name for this most
+important product of vegetation. In its final state of cell-walls, the
+permanent fabric of herb and shrub and tree, it is called _Cellulose_
+(408): in its most soluble form it is _Sugar_ of one or another kind; in
+a less soluble form it is _Dextrine_, a kind of liquefied starch: in the
+form of solid grains stored up in the cells it is _Starch_. By a series
+of slight chemical changes (mainly a variation in the water entering
+into the composition), one of these forms is converted into another.
+
+419. =Starch= (_Farina_ or _Fecula_) is the form in which this common
+plant material is, as it were, laid by for future use. It consists of
+solid grains, somewhat different in form in different plants, in size
+varying from 1/300 to 1/4000 of an inch, partly translucent when wet,
+and of a pearly lustre. From the concentric lines, which commonly appear
+under the microscope, the grains seem to be made up of layer over layer.
+When loose they are commonly oval, as in potato-starch (Fig. 462): when
+much compacted the grains may become angular (Fig. 463).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 462. Some magnified starch-grains, in two cells of a
+potato. 463. Some cells of the albumen or floury part of Indian Corn,
+filled with starch-grains.]
+
+420. The starch in a potato was produced in the foliage. In the soluble
+form of dextrine, or that of sugar, it was conveyed through the cells of
+the herbage and stalks to a subterranean shoot, and there stored up in
+the tuber. When the potato sprouts, the starch in the vicinity of
+developing buds or eyes is changed back again, first into mucilaginous
+dextrine, then into sugar, dissolved in the sap, and in this form it is
+made to flow to the growing parts, where it is laid down into cellulose
+or cell-wall.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 464. Four cells from dried Onion-peel, each holding
+a crystal of different shape, one of them twinned. 465. Some cells from
+stalk of Rhubarb-plant, three containing chlorophyll; two (one torn
+across) with rhaphides. 466. Rhaphides in a cell, from Arisaema, with
+small cells surrounding. 467. Prismatic crystals from the bark of
+Hickory. 468. Glomerate crystal in a cell, from Beet-root. 469. A few
+cells of Locust-bark, a crystal in each. 470. A detached cell, with
+rhaphides being forced out, as happens when put in water.]
+
+421. Besides these cell-contents which are in obvious and essential
+relation to nutrition, there are others the use of which is
+problematical. Of such the commonest are
+
+422. =Crystals.= These when slender or needle-shaped are called
+RHAPHIDES. They are of inorganic matter, usually of oxalate or phosphate
+or sulphate of lime. Some, at least of the latter, may be direct
+crystallizations of what is taken in dissolved in the water absorbed,
+but others must be the result of some elaboration in the plant. Some
+plants have hardly any; others abound in them, especially in the foliage
+and bark. In Locust-bark almost every cell holds a crystal; so that in a
+square inch not thicker than writing-paper there may be over a million
+and a half of them. When needle-shaped (rhaphides), as in stalks of
+Calla-Lily, Rhubarb, or Four-o'clock, they are usually packed in
+sheaf-like bundles. (Fig. 465, 466.)
+
+
+Sec. 3. ANATOMY OF ROOTS AND STEMS.
+
+423. This is so nearly the same that an account of the internal
+structure of stems may serve for the root also.
+
+424. At the beginning, either in the embryo or in an incipient shoot
+from a bud, the whole stem is of tender cellular tissue or parenchyma.
+But wood (consisting of wood-cells and ducts or vessels) begins to be
+formed in the earliest growth; and is from the first arranged in two
+ways, making two general kinds of wood. The difference is obvious even
+in herbs, but is more conspicuous in the enduring stems of shrubs and
+trees.
+
+425. On one or the other of these two types the stems of all
+phanerogamous plants are constructed. In one, the wood is made up of
+separate threads, scattered here and there throughout the whole diameter
+of the stem. In the other, the wood is all collected to form a layer (in
+a slice across the stem appearing as a ring) between a central cellular
+part which has none in it, the _Pith_, and an outer cellular part, the
+_Bark_.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 471. Diagram of structure of Palm or Yucca. 472.
+Structure of a Corn stalk, in transverse and longitudinal section. 473.
+Same of a small Palm stem. The dots on the cross sections represent cut
+ends of the woody bundles or threads.]
+
+426. An Asparagus-shoot and a Corn-stalk for herbs, and a rattan for a
+woody kind, represent the first kind. To it belong all plants with
+monocotyledonous embryo (40). A Bean-stalk and the stem of any common
+shrub or tree represent the second; and to it belong all plants with
+dicotyledonous or polycotyledonous embryo. The first has been called,
+not very properly, _Endogenous_, which means inside-growing; the second,
+properly enough, _Exogenous_, or outside-growing.
+
+427. =Endogenous Stems=, those of Monocotyls (40), attain their greatest
+size and most characteristic development in Palms and Dragon-trees,
+therefore chiefly in warm climates, although the Palmetto and some
+Yuccas become trees along the southern borders of the United States. In
+such stems the woody bundles are more numerous and crowded toward the
+circumference, and so the harder wood is outside; while in an exogenous
+stem the oldest and hardest wood is toward the centre. An endogenous
+stem has no clear distinction of pith, bark, and wood, concentrically
+arranged, no silver grain, no annual layers, no bark that peels off
+clean from the wood. Yet old stems of Yuccas and the like, that continue
+to increase in diameter, do form a sort of layers and a kind of scaly
+bark when old. Yuccas show well the curving of the woody bundles (Fig.
+471) which below taper out and are lost at the rind.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 474. Short piece of stem of Flax, magnified, showing
+the bark, wood, and pith in a cross section.]
+
+428. =Exogenous Stems=, those of Dicotyls (37), or of plants coming from
+dicotyledonous and also polycotyledonous embryos, have a structure which
+is familiar in the wood of our ordinary trees and shrubs. It is the same
+in an herbaceous shoot (such as a Flax-stem, Fig. 474) as in a
+Maple-stem of the first year's growth, except that the woody layer is
+commonly thinner or perhaps reduced to a circle of bundles. It was so in
+the tree-stem at the beginning. The wood all forms in a cylinder,--in
+cross section a ring--around a central cellular part, dividing the
+cellular core within, the pith, from a cellular bark without. As the
+wood-bundles increase in number and in size, they press upon each other
+and become wedge-shaped in the cross section; and they continue to grow
+from the outside, next the bark, so that they become very thin wedges or
+plates. Between the plates or wedges are very thin plates (in cross
+section lines) of much compressed cellular tissue, which connect the
+pith with the bark. The plan of a one-year-old woody stem of this kind
+is exhibited in the figures, which are essentially diagrams.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 475. Diagram of a cross section of a very young
+exogenous stem, showing six woody bundles or wedges. 476. Same later,
+with wedges increased to twelve. 477. Still later, the wedges filling
+the space, separated only by the thin lines, or medullary rays, running
+from pith to bark.]
+
+429. When such a stem grows on from year to year, it adds annually a
+layer of wood outside the preceding one, between that and the bark.
+This is exogenous growth, or outside-growing, as the name denotes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 478. Piece of a stem of Soft Maple, of a year old,
+cut crosswise and lengthwise.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 479. A portion of the same, magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 480. A small piece of the same, taken from one side,
+reaching from the bark to the pith, and highly magnified: _a_, a small
+bit of the pith; _b_, spiral ducts of what is called the _medullary
+sheath_; _c_, the wood; _d_, _d_, dotted ducts in the wood; _e_, _e_,
+annular ducts; _f_, the liber or inner bark; _g_, the green bark; _h_,
+the corky layer; _i_, the skin, or epidermis; _j_, one of the medullary
+rays, or plates of silver grain, seen on the cross-section.]
+
+430. Some new bark is formed every year, as well as new wood, the former
+inside, as the latter is outside of that of the year preceding. The ring
+or zone of tender forming tissue between the bark and the wood has been
+called the _Cambium Layer_. _Cambium_ is an old name of the
+physiologists for nutritive juice. And this thin layer is so gorged with
+rich nutritive sap when spring growth is renewed, that the bark then
+seems to be loose from the wood and a layer of viscid sap (or _cambium_)
+to be poured out between the two. But there is all the while a
+connection of the bark and the wood by delicate cells, rapidly
+multiplying and growing.
+
+431. =The Bark= of a year-old stem consists of three parts, more or less
+distinct, namely,--beginning next the wood,--
+
+1. The LIBER or FIBROUS BARK, the _Inner Bark_. This contains some
+wood-cells, or their equivalent, commonly in the form of bast or
+bast-cells (411, Fig. 444), such as those of Basswood or Linden, and
+among herbs those of flax and hemp, which are spun and woven or made
+into cordage. It also contains cells which are named _sieve_-cells, on
+account of numerous slits and pores in their walls, by which the
+protoplasm of contiguous cells communicates. In woody stems, whenever a
+new layer of wood is formed, some new liber or inner bark is also formed
+outside of it.
+
+2. The GREEN BARK or _Middle Bark_. This consists of cellular tissue
+only, and contains the same green matter (_chlorophyll_, 417) as the
+leaves. In woody stems, before the season's growth is completed, it
+becomes covered by
+
+3. The CORKY LAYER or _Outer Bark_, the cells of which contain no
+chlorophyll, and are of the nature of _cork_. Common cork is the thick
+corky layer of the bark of the Cork-Oak of Spain. It is this which gives
+to the stems or twigs of shrubs and trees the aspect and the color
+peculiar to each,--light gray in the Ash, purple in the Red Maple, red
+in several Dogwoods, etc.
+
+4. The EPIDERMIS, or skin of the plant, consisting of a layer of
+thick-sided empty cells, which may be considered to be the outermost
+layer, or in most herbaceous stems the only layer, of cork-cells.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 481. Magnified view of surface of a bit of young
+Maple wood from which the bark has been torn away, showing the
+wood-cells and the bark-ends of medullary rays.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 482. Section in the opposite direction, from bark
+(on the left) to beginning of pith (on the right), and a medullary ray
+extending from one to the other.]
+
+432. The green layer of bark seldom grows much after the first season.
+Sometimes the corky layer grows and forms new layers, inside of the old,
+for years, as in the Cork-Oak, the Sweet Gum-tree, and the White and the
+Paper Birch. But it all dies after a while; and the continual
+enlargement of the wood within finally stretches it more than it can
+bear, and sooner or later cracks and rends it, while the weather acts
+powerfully upon its surface; so the older bark perishes and falls away
+piecemeal year by year.
+
+433. So on old trunks only the inner bark remains. This is renewed every
+year from within and so kept alive, while the older and outer layers
+die, are fissured and rent by the distending trunk, weathered and worn,
+and thrown off in fragments,--in some trees slowly, so that the bark of
+old trunks may acquire great thickness; in others, more rapidly. In
+Honeysuckles and Grape-Vines, the layers of liber loosen and die when
+only a year or two old. The annual layers of liber are sometimes as
+distinct as those of the wood, but often not so.
+
+434. =The Wood= of an exogenous trunk, having the old growths covered
+by the new, remains nearly unchanged in age, except from decay. Wherever
+there is an annual suspension and renewal of growth, as in temperate
+climates, the annual growths are more or less distinctly marked, in the
+form of concentric rings on the cross section, so that the age of the
+tree may be known by counting them. Over twelve hundred layers have been
+counted on the stumps of Sequoias in California, and it is probable that
+some trees now living antedate the Christian era.
+
+435. The reason why the annual growths are distinguishable is, that the
+wood formed at the beginning of the season is more or less different in
+the size or character of the cells from that of the close. In Oak,
+Chestnut, etc., the first wood of the season abounds in dotted ducts,
+the calibre of which is many times greater than that of the proper
+wood-cells.
+
+436. =Sap-wood, or Alburnum.= This is the newer wood, living or recently
+alive, and taking part in the conveyance of sap. Sooner or later, each
+layer, as it becomes more and more deeply covered by the newer ones and
+farther from the region of growth, is converted into
+
+437. =Heart-wood, or Duramen.= This is drier, harder, more solid, and
+much more durable as timber, than sap-wood. It is generally of a
+different color, and it exhibits in different species the hue peculiar
+to each, such as reddish in Red-Cedar, brown in Black-Walnut, black in
+Ebony, etc. The change of sap-wood into heart-wood results from the
+thickening of the walls of the wood-cells by the deposition of hard
+matter, lining the tubes and diminishing their calibre; and by the
+deposition of a vegetable coloring-matter peculiar to each species. The
+heart-wood, being no longer a living part, may decay, and often does so,
+without the least injury to the tree, except by diminishing the strength
+of the trunk, and so rendering it more liable to be overthrown.
+
+438. =The Living Parts of a Tree=, of the exogenous kind, are only
+these: first, the rootlets at one extremity; second, the buds and leaves
+of the season at the other; and third, a zone consisting of the newest
+wood and the newest bark, connecting the rootlets with the buds or
+leaves, however widely separated these may be,--in the tallest trees
+from two to four hundred feet apart. And these parts of the tree are all
+renewed every year. No wonder, therefore, that trees may live so long,
+since they annually reproduce everything that is essential to their life
+and growth, and since only a very small part of their bulk is alive at
+once. The tree survives, but nothing now living has been so long. In it,
+as elsewhere, life is a transitory thing, ever abandoning the _old_, and
+renewed in the _young_.
+
+
+Sec. 4. ANATOMY OF LEAVES.
+
+439. The wood in leaves is the framework of ribs, veins, and veinlets
+(125), serving not only to strengthen them, but also to bring in the
+sap, and to distribute it throughout every part. The cellular portion is
+the green pulp, and is nearly the same as the green layer of the bark.
+So that the leaf may properly enough be regarded as a sort of expansion
+of the fibrous and green layers of the bark. It has no proper corky
+layer; but the whole is covered by a transparent skin or _epidermis_,
+resembling that of the stem.
+
+440. The cells of the leaf are of various forms, rarely so compact as to
+form a close cellular tissue, usually loosely arranged, at least in the
+lower part, so as to give copious intervening spaces or air passages,
+communicating throughout the whole interior (Fig. 443, 483). The green
+color is given by the chlorophyll (417), seen through the very
+transparent walls of the cells and through the translucent epidermis of
+the leaf.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 483. Magnified section of a leaf of White Lily, to
+exhibit the cellular structure, both of upper and lower stratum, the
+air-passages of the lower, and the epidermis or skin, in section, also a
+little of that of the lower face, with some of its stomates.]
+
+441. In ordinary leaves, having an upper and under surface, the green
+cells form two distinct strata, of different arrangement. Those of the
+upper stratum are oblong or cylindrical, and stand endwise to the
+surface of the leaf, usually close together, leaving hardly any vacant
+spaces; those of the lower are commonly irregular in shape, most of them
+with their longer diameter parallel to the face of the leaf, and are
+very loosely arranged, leaving many and wide air-chambers. The green
+color of the lower is therefore diluted, and paler than that of the
+upper face of the leaf. The upper part of the leaf is so constructed as
+to bear the direct action of the sunshine; the lower so as to afford
+freer circulation of air, and to facilitate transpiration. It
+communicates more directly than the upper with the external air by means
+of _Stomates_.
+
+442. =The Epidermis= or skin of leaves and all young shoots is best seen
+in the foliage. It may readily be stripped off from the surface of a
+Lily-leaf, and still more so from more fleshy and soft leaves, such as
+those of Houseleek. The epidermis is usually composed of a single
+layer, occasionally of two or three layers, of empty cells, mostly of
+irregular outline. The sinuous lines which traverse it, and may be
+discerned under low powers of the microscope (Fig. 487), are the
+boundaries of the epidermal cells.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 484. Small portion of epidermis of the lower face of
+a White-Lily leaf, with stomata.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 485. One of these, more magnified, in the closed
+state. 486. Another stoma, open.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 487. Small portion of epidermis of the Garden
+Balsam, highly magnified, showing very sinuous-walled cells, and three
+stomata.]
+
+443. =Breathing-pores, or Stomates, Stomata= (singular, a
+_Stoma_,--literally, a mouth) are openings through the epidermis into
+the air-chambers or intercellular passages, always between and guarded
+by a pair of thin-walled guardian cells. Although most abundant in
+leaves, especially on their lower face (that which is screened from
+direct sunlight), they are found on most other green parts. They
+establish a direct communication between the external air and that in
+the loose interior of the leaf. Their guardian cells or lips, which are
+soft and delicate, like those of the green pulp within, by their greater
+or less turgidity open or close the orifice as the moisture or dryness
+varies.
+
+444. In the White Lily the stomata are so remarkably large that they may
+be seen by a simple microscope of moderate power, and may be discerned
+even by a good hand lens. There are about 60,000 of them to the square
+inch of the epidermis of the lower face of this Lily-leaf, and only
+about 3000 to the same space on the upper face. It is computed that an
+average leaf of an Apple-tree has on its lower face about 100,000 of
+these mouths.
+
+
+Sec. 5. PLANT FOOD AND ASSIMILATION.
+
+445. Only plants are capable of originating organizable matter, or the
+materials which compose the structure of vegetables and animals. The
+essential and peculiar work of plants is to take up portions of earth
+and air (water belonging to both) upon which animals cannot live at all,
+and to convert them into something organizable; that is, into something
+that, under life, may be built up into vegetable and animal structures.
+All the food of animals is produced by plants. Animals live upon
+vegetables, directly or at second hand, the carnivorous upon the
+herbivorous; and vegetables live upon earth and air, immediately or at
+second hand.
+
+446. =The Food of plants=, then, primarily, is earth and air. This is
+evident enough from the way in which they live. Many plants will
+flourish in pure sand or powdered chalk, or on the bare face of a rock
+or wall, watered merely with rain. And almost any plant may be made to
+grow from the seed in moist sand, and increase its weight many times,
+even if it will not come to perfection. Many naturally live suspended
+from the branches of trees high in the air, and nourished by it alone,
+never having any connection with the soil; and some which naturally grow
+on the ground, like the Live-forever of the gardens, when pulled up by
+the roots and hung in the air will often flourish the whole summer long.
+
+447. It is true that fast-growing plants, or those which produce much
+vegetable matter in one season (especially in such concentrated form as
+to be useful as food for man or the higher animals) will come to
+maturity only in an enriched soil. But what is a rich soil? One which
+contains decomposing vegetable matter, or some decomposing animal
+matter; that is, in either case, some decomposing organic matter
+formerly produced by plants. Aided by this, grain-bearing and other
+important vegetables will grow more rapidly and vigorously, and make a
+greater amount of nourishing matter, than they could if left to do the
+whole work at once from the beginning. So that in these cases also all
+the organic or organizable matter was made by plants, and made out of
+earth and air. Far the larger and most essential part was air and water.
+
+448. Two kinds of material are taken in and used by plants; of which the
+first, although more or less essential to perfect plant-growth, are in a
+certain sense subsidiary, if not accidental, viz.:--
+
+_Earthy constituents_, those which are left in the form of ashes when a
+leaf or a stick of wood is burned in the open air. These consist of some
+_potash_ (or _soda_ in a marine plant), some _silex_ (the same as
+flint), and a little _lime_, _alumine_, or _magnesia_, _iron_ or
+_manganese_, _sulphur_, _phosphorus_, etc.,--some or all of these in
+variable and usually minute proportions. They are such materials as
+happen to be dissolved, in small quantity, in the water taken up by the
+roots; and when that is consumed by the plant, or flies off pure (as it
+largely does) by exhalation, the earthy matter is left behind in the
+cells,--just as it is left incrusting the sides of a teakettle in which
+much hard water has been boiled. Naturally, therefore, there is more
+earthy matter (i. e. more ashes) in the leaves than in any other part
+(sometimes as much as seven per cent, when the wood contains only two
+per cent); because it is through the leaves that most of the water
+escapes from the plant. Some of this earthy matter incrusts the
+cell-walls, some goes to form crystals or rhaphides, which abound in
+many plants (422), some enters into certain special vegetable products,
+and some appears to be necessary to the well-being of the higher orders
+of plants, although forming no necessary part of the proper vegetable
+structure.
+
+_The essential constituents_ of the organic fabric are those which are
+dissipated into air and vapor in complete burning. They make up from 88
+to 99 per cent of the leaf or stem, and essentially the whole both of
+the cellulose of the walls and the protoplasm of the contents. Burning
+gives these materials of the plant's structure back to the air, mainly
+in the same condition in which the plant took them, the same condition
+which is reached more slowly in natural decay. The chemical elements of
+the cell-walls (or cellulose, 402), as also of starch, sugar, and all
+that class of organizable cell-material, are carbon, hydrogen, and
+oxygen (399). The same, with nitrogen, are the constituents of
+protoplasm, or the truly vital part of vegetation.
+
+449. These chemical elements out of which organic matters are composed
+are supplied to the plant by water, carbonic acid, and some combinations
+of nitrogen.
+
+_Water_, far more largely than anything else, is imbibed by the roots;
+also more or less by the foliage in the form of vapor. Water consists of
+oxygen and hydrogen; and cellulose or plant-wall, starch, sugar, etc.,
+however different in their qualities, agree in containing these two
+elements in the same relative proportions as in water.
+
+_Carbonic acid_ gas (Carbon dioxide) is one of the components of the
+atmosphere,--a small one, ordinarily only about 1/2500 of its
+bulk,--sufficient for the supply of vegetation, but not enough to be
+injurious to animals, as it would be if accumulated. Every current or
+breeze of air brings to the leaves expanded in it a succession of fresh
+atoms of carbonic acid, which it absorbs through its multitudinous
+breathing-pores. This gas is also taken up by water. So it is brought to
+the ground by rain, and is absorbed by the roots of plants, either as
+dissolved in the water they imbibe, or in the form of gas in the
+interstices of the soil. Manured ground, that is, soil containing
+decomposing vegetable or animal matters, is constantly giving out this
+gas into the interstices of the soil, whence the roots of the growing
+crop absorb it. Carbonic acid thus supplied, primarily from the air, is
+the source of the carbon which forms much the largest part of the
+substance of every plant. The proportion of carbon may be roughly
+estimated by charring some wood or foliage; that is, by heating it out
+of contact with the air, so as to decompose and drive off all the other
+constituents of the fabric, leaving the large bulk of charcoal or carbon
+behind.
+
+_Nitrogen_, the remaining plant-element, is a gas which makes up more
+than two thirds of the atmosphere, is brought into the foliage and also
+to the roots (being moderately soluble in water) in the same ways as is
+carbonic acid. The nitrogen which, mixed with oxygen, a little carbonic
+acid, and vapor of water, constitutes the air we breathe, is the source
+of this fourth plant-element. But it is very doubtful if ordinary plants
+can use any nitrogen gas directly as food; that is, if they can directly
+cause it to combine with the other elements so as to form protoplasm.
+But when combined with hydrogen (forming ammonia), or when combined with
+oxygen (nitric acid and nitrates) plants appropriate it with avidity.
+And several natural processes are going on in which nitrogen of the air
+is so combined and supplied to the soil in forms directly available to
+the plant. The most efficient is _nitrification_, the formation of nitre
+(nitrate of potash) in the soil, especially in all fertile soils,
+through the action of a bacterial ferment.
+
+450. =Assimilation= in plants is the conversion of these inorganic
+substances--essentially, water, carbonic acid, and some form of combined
+or combinable nitrogen--into vegetable matter. This most dilute food the
+living plant concentrates and assimilates to itself. Only plants are
+capable of converting these mineral into organizable matters; and this
+all-important work is done by them (so far as all ordinary vegetation is
+concerned) only
+
+451. _Under the light of the sun, acting upon green parts or foliage_,
+that is, upon the chlorophyll, or upon what answers to chlorophyll,
+which these parts contain. The sun in some way supplies a power which
+enables the living plant to originate these peculiar chemical
+combinations,--to organize matter into forms which are alone capable of
+being endowed with life. The proof of this proposition is simple; and it
+shows at the same time, in the simplest way, what a plant does with the
+water and carbonic acid it consumes. Namely, 1st, it is only in sunshine
+or bright daylight that the green parts of plants give out oxygen
+gas,--then they regularly do so; and 2d, the giving out of this oxygen
+gas is required to render the chemical composition of water and carbonic
+acid the same as that of _cellulose_, that is, of the plant's permanent
+fabric. This shows why plants spread out so large a surface of foliage.
+Leaves are so many workshops, full of machinery worked by sun-power. The
+emission of oxygen gas from any sun-lit foliage is seen by placing some
+of this under water, or by using an aquatic plant, by collecting the air
+bubbles which rise, and by noting that a taper burns brighter in this
+air. Or a leafy plant in a glass globe may be supplied with a certain
+small percentage of carbonic acid gas, and after proper exposure to
+sunshine, the air on being tested will be found to contain less carbonic
+acid and just so much the more oxygen gas.
+
+452. Now if the plant is making cellulose or any equivalent
+substance,--that is, is making the very materials of its fabric and
+growth, as must generally be the case,--all this oxygen gas given off by
+the leaves comes from the decomposition of carbonic acid taken in by the
+plant. For cellulose, and also starch, dextrine, sugar, and the like are
+composed of carbon along with oxygen and hydrogen in just the
+proportions to form water. And the carbonic acid and water taken in,
+less the oxygen which the carbon brought with it as carbonic acid, and
+which is given off from the foliage in sunshine, just represents the
+manufactured article, cellulose.
+
+453. It comes to the same if the first product of assimilation is sugar,
+or dextrine which is a sort of soluble starch, or starch itself. And in
+the plant all these forms are readily changed into one another. In the
+tiny seedling, as fast as this assimilated matter is formed it is used
+in growth, that is, in the formation of cell-walls. After a time some or
+much of the product may be accumulated in store for future growth, as
+in the root of the turnip, or the tuber of the potato, or the seed of
+corn or pulse. This store is mainly in the form of starch. When growth
+begins anew, this starch is turned into dextrine or into sugar, in
+liquid form, and used to nourish and build up the germinating embryo or
+the new shoot, where it is at length converted into cellulose and used
+to build up plant-structure.
+
+454. But that which builds plant-fabric is not the cellular structure
+itself; the work is done by the living protoplasm which dwells within
+the walls. This also has to take and to assimilate its proper food, for
+its own maintenance and growth. Protoplasm assimilates, along with the
+other three elements, the nitrogen of the plant's food. This comes
+primarily from the vast stock in the atmosphere, but mainly through the
+earth, where it is accumulated through various processes in a fertile
+soil,--mainly, so far as concerns crops, from the decomposition of
+former vegetables and animals. This protoplasm, which is formed at the
+same time as the simpler cellulose, is essentially the same as the flesh
+of animals, and the source of it. It is the common basis of vegetable
+and of animal life.
+
+455. _So plant-assimilation produces all the food and fabric of
+animals._ Starch, sugar, the oils (which are, as it were, these
+farinaceous matters more deoxidated), chlorophyll, and the like, and
+even cellulose itself, form the food of herbivorous animals and much of
+the food of man. When digested they enter into the blood, undergo
+various transformations, and are at length decomposed into carbonic acid
+and water, and exhaled from the lungs in respiration,--in other words,
+are given back to the air by the animal as the very same materials which
+the plant took from the air as its food,--are given back to the air in
+the same form that they would have taken if the vegetable matter had
+been left to decay where it grew, or if it had been set on fire and
+burned; and with the same result, too, as to the heat,--the heat in this
+case producing and maintaining the proper temperature of the animal.
+
+456. The protoplasm and other products containing nitrogen (gluten,
+legumine, etc.), and which are most accumulated in grains and seeds (for
+the nourishment of their embryos when they germinate), compose the most
+nutritious vegetable food consumed by animals; they form their proper
+flesh and sinews, while the earthy constituents of the plant form the
+earthy matter of the bones, etc. At length decomposed, in the secretions
+and excretions, these nitrogenous constituents are through successive
+changes finally resolved into mineral matter, into carbonic acid, water,
+and ammonia or some nitrates,--into exactly or essentially the same
+materials which the plants took up and assimilated. Animals depend upon
+vegetables absolutely and directly for their subsistence; also
+indirectly, because
+
+457. _Plants purify the air for animals._ In the very process by which
+they create food they take from the air carbonic acid gas, injurious to
+animal respiration, which is continually poured into it by the breathing
+of all animals, by all decay, by the burning of fuel and all other
+ordinary combustion; and they restore an equal bulk of life-sustaining
+oxygen needful for the respiration of animals,--needful, also, in a
+certain measure, for plants in any work they do. For in plants, as well
+as in animals, work is done at a certain cost.
+
+
+Sec. 6. PLANT WORK AND MOVEMENT.
+
+458. As the organic basis and truly living material of plants is
+identical with that of animals, so is the life at bottom essentially the
+same; but in animals something is added at every rise from the lowest to
+highest organisms. Action and work in living beings require movement.
+
+459. Living things move; those not living are only moved. Plants move as
+truly as do animals. The latter, nourished as they are upon organized
+food, which has been prepared for them by plants, and is found only here
+and there, must needs have the power of going after it, of collecting
+it, or at least of taking it in; which requires them to make spontaneous
+movements. But ordinary plants, with their wide-spread surface, always
+in contact with the earth and air on which they feed,--the latter
+everywhere the same, and the former very much so,--might be thought to
+have no need of movement. Ordinary plants, indeed, have no locomotion;
+some float, but most are rooted to the spot where they grew. Yet
+probably all of them execute various movements which must be as truly
+self-caused as are those of the lower grades of animals,--movements
+which are overlooked only because too slow to be directly observed.
+Nevertheless, the motion of the hour-hand and of the minute-hand of a
+watch is not less real than that of the second-hand.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 488. Two individuals of an Oscillaria, magnified.]
+
+460. =Locomotion.= Moreover, many microscopic plants living in water are
+seen to move freely, if not briskly, under the microscope; and so
+likewise do more conspicuous aquatic plants in their embryo-like or
+seedling state. Even at maturity, species of Oscillaria (such as in Fig.
+488, minute worm-shaped plants of fresh waters, taking this name from
+their oscillating motions) freely execute three different kinds of
+movement, the very delicate investing coat of cellulose not impeding the
+action of the living protoplasm within. Even when this coat is firmer
+and hardened with a siliceous deposit, such crescent-shaped or
+boat-shaped one-celled plants as _Closterium_ or _Naricula_ are able in
+some way to move along from place to place in the water.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 489. A few cells of a leaf of Naias flexilis, highly
+magnified: the arrows indicate the courses of the circulating currents.]
+
+461. =Movements in Cells=, =or Cell-circulation=, sometimes called
+_Cyclosis_, has been detected in so many plants, especially in
+comparatively transparent aquatic plants and in hairs on the surface of
+land plants (where it is easiest to observe), that it may be inferred to
+take place in all cells during the most active part of their life. This
+motion is commonly a streaming movement of threads of protoplasm,
+carrying along solid granules by which the action may be observed and
+the rate measured, or in some cases it is a rotation of the whole
+protoplasmic contents of the cell. A comparatively low magnifying power
+will show it in the cells of Nitella and Chara (which are cryptogamous
+plants); and under a moderate power it is well seen in the Tape Grass of
+fresh water, Vallisneria, and in Naias flexilis (Fig. 489). Minute
+particles and larger greenish globules are seen to be carried along, as
+if in a current, around the cell, passing up one side, across the end,
+down the other and across the bottom, completing the circuit sometimes
+within a minute or less when well warmed. To see it well in the cell,
+which like a string of beads form the hairs on the stamens of
+Spiderwort, a high magnifying power is needed.
+
+462. =Transference of Liquid from Cell to Cell=, and so from place to
+place in the plant, the absorption of water by the rootlets, and the
+exhalation of the greater part of it from the foliage,--these and
+similar operations are governed by the physical laws which regulate the
+diffusion of fluids, but are controlled by the action of living
+protoplasm. Equally under vital control are the various chemical
+transformations which attend assimilation and growth, and which involve
+not only molecular movements but conveyance. Growth itself, which is the
+formation and shaping of new parts, implies the direction of internal
+activities to definite ends.
+
+463. =Movements of Organs.= The living protoplasm, in all but the lowest
+grade of plants, is enclosed and to common appearance isolated in
+separate cells, the walls of which can only in their earliest state be
+said to be alive. Still plants are able to cause the protoplasm of
+adjacent cells to act in concert, and by their combined action to effect
+movements in roots, stems, or leaves, some of them very slow and
+gradual, some manifest and striking. Such movements are brought about
+through individually minute changes in the form or tension in the
+protoplasm of the innumerable cells which make up the structure of the
+organ. Some of the slower movements are effected during growth, and may
+be explained by inequality of growth on the two sides of the bending
+organ. But the more rapid changes of position, and some of the slow
+ones, cannot be so explained.
+
+464. =Root-movements.= In its growth a root turns or bends away from
+the light and toward the centre of the earth, so that in lengthening it
+buries itself in the soil where it is to live and act. Every one must
+have observed this in the germination of seeds. Careful observations
+have shown that the tip of a growing root also makes little sweeps or
+short movements from side to side. By this means it more readily
+insinuates itself into yielding portions of the soil. The root-tips will
+also turn toward moisture, and so secure the most favorable positions in
+the soil.
+
+465. =Stem-movements.= The root end of the caulicle or first joint of
+stem (that below the cotyledons) acts like the root, in turning downward
+in germination (making a complete bend to do so if it happens to point
+upward as the seed lies in the ground), while the other end turns or
+points skyward. These opposite positions are taken in complete darkness
+as readily as in the light, in dryness as much as in moisture:
+therefore, so far as these movements are physical, the two portions of
+the same internode appear to be oppositely affected by gravitation or
+other influences.
+
+466. Rising into the air, the stem and green shoots generally, while
+young and pliable, bend or direct themselves toward the light, or toward
+the stronger light when unequally illuminated; while roots turn toward
+the darkness.
+
+467. Many growing stems have also a movement of _Nutation_, that is, of
+nodding successively in different directions. This is brought about by a
+temporary increase of turgidity of the cells along one side, thus bowing
+the stem over to the opposite side; and this line of turgescence travels
+round the shoot continually, from right to left or from left to right
+according to the species: thus the shoot bends to all points of the
+compass in succession. Commonly this nutation is slight or hardly
+observable. It is most marked in
+
+468. =Twining Stems= (Fig. 90). The growing upper end of such stems, as
+is familiar in the Hop, Pole Beans, and Morning-Glory, turns over in an
+inclined or horizontal direction, thus stretching out to reach a
+neighboring support, and by the continual change in the direction of the
+nodding, sweeps the whole circle, the sweeps being the longer as the
+stem lengthens. When it strikes against a support, such as a stem or
+branch of a neighboring plant, the motion is arrested at the contact,
+but continues at the growing apex beyond, and this apex is thus made to
+wind spirally around the supporting body.
+
+469. =Leaf-movements= are all but universal. The presentation by most
+leaves of their upper surface to the light, from whatever direction that
+may come, is an instance; for when turned upside down they twist or bend
+round on the stalk to recover this normal position. Leaves, and the
+leaflets of compound leaves, change this position at nightfall, or when
+the light is withdrawn; they then take what is called their sleeping
+posture, resuming the diurnal position when daylight returns. This is
+very striking in Locust-trees, in the Sensitive Plant (Fig. 490), and
+in Woodsorrel. Young seedlings droop or close their leaves at night in
+plants which are not thus affected in the adult foliage. All this is
+thought to be a protection against the cold by nocturnal radiation.
+
+470. Various plants climb by a coiling movement of their leaves or their
+leaf-stalks. Familiar examples are seen in Clematis, Maurandia,
+Tropaeolum, and in a Solanum which is much cultivated in greenhouses
+(Fig. 172). In the latter, and in other woody plants which climb in this
+way, the petioles thicken and harden after they have grasped their
+support, thus securing a very firm hold.
+
+471. =Tendril movements.= Tendrils are either leaves or stems (98, 168),
+specially developed for climbing purposes. Cobaea is a good example of
+partial transformation; some of the leaflets are normal, some of the
+same leaf are little tendrils, and some intermediate in character. The
+Passion-flowers give good examples of simple stem-tendrils (Fig. 92);
+Grape-Vines, of branched ones. Most tendrils make revolving sweeps, like
+those of twining stems. Those of some Passion-flowers, in sultry
+weather, are apt to move fast enough for the movement actually to be
+seen for a part of the circuit, as plainly as that of the second-hand of
+a watch. Two herbaceous species, Passiflora gracilis and P. sicyoides
+(the first an annual, the second a strong-rooted perennial of the
+easiest cultivation), are admirable for illustration both of revolving
+movements and of sensitive coiling.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 490. Piece of stem of Sensitive Plant (Mimosa
+pudica), with two leaves, the lower open, the upper in the closed
+state.]
+
+472. =Movements under Irritation.= The most familiar case is that of the
+Sensitive Plant (Fig. 490). The leaves suddenly take their nocturnal
+position when roughly touched or when shocked by a jar. The leaflets
+close in pairs, the four outspread partial petioles come closer
+together, and the common petiole is depressed. The seat of the movements
+is at the base of the leaf-stalk and stalklets. Schrankia, a near
+relative of the Sensitive Plant, acts in the same way, but is slower.
+These are not anomalous actions, but only extreme manifestations of a
+faculty more or less common in foliage. In Locust and Honey-Locusts for
+example, repeated jars will slowly produce similar effects.
+
+473. Leaf-stalks and tendrils are adapted to their uses in climbing by
+a similar sensitiveness. The coiling of the leaf-stalk is in response to
+a kind of irritation produced by contact with the supporting body. This
+may be shown by gentle rubbing or prolonged pressure upon the upper face
+of the leaf-stalk, which is soon followed by a curvature. Tendrils are
+still more sensitive to contact or light friction. This causes the free
+end of the tendril to coil round the support, and the sensitiveness,
+propagated downward along the tendril, causes that side of it to become
+less turgescent or the opposite side more so, thus throwing the tendril
+into coils. This shortening draws the plant up to the support. Tendrils
+which have not laid hold will at length commonly coil spontaneously, in
+a simple coil, from the free apex downward. In Sicyos, Echinocystis, and
+the above mentioned Passion-flowers (471), the tendril is so sensitive,
+under a high summer temperature, that it will curve and coil promptly
+after one or two light strokes by the hand.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 491. Portion of stem and leaves of Telegraph-plant
+(Desmodium gyrans), almost of natural size.]
+
+474. Among spontaneous movements the most singular are those of
+Desmodium gyrans of India, sometimes called Telegraph-plant, which is
+cultivated on account of this action. Of its three leaflets, the larger
+(terminal) one moves only by drooping at nightfall and rising with the
+dawn. But its two small lateral leaflets, when in a congenial high
+temperature, by day and by night move upward and downward in a
+succession of jerks, stopping occasionally, as if to recover from
+exhaustion. In most plant-movements some obviously useful purpose is
+subserved: this of Desmodium gyrans is a riddle.
+
+475. =Movements in Flowers= are very various. The most remarkable are in
+some way connected with fertilization (Sect. XIII.). Some occur under
+irritation: the stamens of Barberry start forward when touched at the
+base inside: those of many polyandrous flowers (of Sparmannia very
+strikingly) spread outwardly when lightly brushed: the two lips or lobes
+of the stigma in Mimulus close after a touch. Some are automatic and
+are connected with dichogamy (339): the style of Sabbatia and of
+large-flowered species of Epilobium bends over strongly to one side or
+turns downward when the blossom opens, but slowly erects itself a day or
+two later.
+
+476. =Extraordinary Movements connected with Capture of Insects.= The
+most striking cases are those of Drosera and Dionaea; for an account of
+which see "How Plants Behave," and Goodale's "Physiological Botany."
+
+477. The upper face of the leaves of the common species of Drosera, or
+Sundew, is beset with stout bristles, having a glandular tip. This tip
+secretes a drop of a clear but very viscid liquid, which glistens like a
+dew-drop in the sun; whence the popular name. When a fly or other small
+insect, attracted by the liquid, alights upon the leaf, the viscid drops
+are so tenacious that they hold it fast. In struggling it only becomes
+more completely entangled. Now the neighboring bristles, which have not
+been touched, slowly bend inward from all sides toward the captured
+insect, and bring their sticky apex against its body, thus increasing
+the number of bonds. Moreover, the blade of the leaf commonly aids in
+the capture by becoming concave, its sides or edges turning inward,
+which brings still more of the gland-tipped bristles into contact with
+the captive's body. The insect perishes; the clear liquid disappears,
+apparently by absorption into the tissue of the leaf. It is thought that
+the absorbed secretion takes with it some of the juices of the insect or
+the products of its decomposition.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 492. Plant of Dionaea muscipula, or Venus's Fly-trap,
+reduced in size.]
+
+478. Dionaea muscipula, the most remarkable vegetable fly-trap (Fig. 176,
+492), is related to the Sundews, and has a more special and active
+apparatus for fly-catching, formed of the summit of the leaf. The two
+halves of this rounded body move as if they were hinged upon the midrib;
+their edges are fringed with spiny but not glandular bristles, which
+interlock when the organ closes. Upon the face are two or three short
+and delicate bristles, which are sensitive. They do not themselves move
+when touched, but they propagate the sensitiveness to the organ itself,
+causing it to close with a quick movement. In a fresh and vigorous
+leaf, under a high summer temperature, and when the trap lies widely
+open, a touch of any one of the minute bristles on the face, by the
+finger or any extraneous body, springs the trap (so to say), and it
+closes suddenly; but after an hour or so it opens again. When a fly or
+other small insect alights on the trap, it closes in the same manner,
+and so quickly that the intercrossing marginal bristles obstruct the
+egress of the insect, unless it be a small one and not worth taking.
+Afterwards and more slowly it completely closes, and presses down upon
+the prey; then some hidden glands pour out a glairy liquid, which
+dissolves out the juices of the insect's body; next all is re-absorbed
+into the plant, and the trap opens to repeat the operation. But the same
+leaf perhaps never captures more than two or three insects. It ages
+instead, becomes more rigid and motionless, or decays away.
+
+479. That some few plants should thus take animal food will appear less
+surprising when it is considered that hosts of plants of the lower
+grade, known as Fungi, moulds, rusts, ferments, Bacteria, etc., live
+upon animal or other organized matter, either decaying or living. That
+plants should execute movements in order to accomplish the ends of their
+existence is less surprising now when it is known that the living
+substance of plants and animals is essentially the same; that the beings
+of both kingdoms partake of a common life, to which, as they rise in the
+scale, other and higher endowments are successively superadded.
+
+480. =Work uses up material and energy= in plants as well as in animals.
+The latter live and work by the consumption and decomposition of that
+which plants have assimilated into organizable matter through an energy
+derived from the sun, and which is, so to say, stored up in the
+assimilated products. In every internal action, as well as in every
+movement and exertion, some portion of this assimilated matter is
+transformed and of its stored energy expended. The steam-engine is an
+organism for converting the sun's radiant energy, stored up by plants in
+the fuel, into mechanical work. An animal is an engine fed by vegetable
+fuel in the same or other forms, from the same source, by the
+decomposition of which it also does mechanical work. The plant is the
+producer of food and accumulator of solar energy or force. But the
+plant, like the animal, is a consumer whenever and by so much as it does
+any work except its great work of assimilation. Every internal change
+and movement, every transformation, such as that of starch into sugar
+and of sugar into cell-walls, as well as every movement of parts which
+becomes externally visible, is done at the expense of a certain amount
+of its assimilated matter and of its stored energy; that is, by the
+decomposition or combustion of sugar or some such product into carbonic
+acid and water, which is given back to the air, just as in the animal it
+is given back to the air in respiration. So the respiration of plants is
+as real and as essential as that of animals. But what plants consume or
+decompose in their life and action is of insignificant amount in
+comparison with what they compose.
+
+
+
+
+Section XVII. CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS.
+
+
+481. Even the beginner in botany should have some general idea of what
+cryptogamous plants are, and what are the obvious distinctions of the
+principal families. Although the lower grades are difficult, and need
+special books and good microscopes for their study, the higher orders,
+such as Ferns, may be determined almost as readily as phanerogamous
+plants.
+
+482. Linnaeus gave to this lower grade of plants the name of
+_Cryptogamia_, thereby indicating that their organs answering to stamens
+and pistils, if they had any, were recondite and unknown. There is no
+valid reason why this long-familiar name should not be kept up, along
+with the counterpart one of _Phanerogamia_ (6), although organs
+analogous to stamens and pistil, or rather to pollen and ovule, have
+been discovered in all the higher and most of the lower grades of this
+series of plants. So also the English synonymous name of _Flowerless
+Plants_ is both good and convenient: for they have not flowers in the
+proper sense. The essentials of flowers are stamens and pistils, giving
+rise to seeds, and the essential of a seed is an embryo (8).
+Cryptogamous or Flowerless plants are propagated by SPORES; and a spore
+is not an embryo-plantlet, but mostly a single plant-cell (399).
+
+483. =Vascular Cryptogams=, which compose the higher orders of this
+series of plants, have stems and (usually) leaves, constructed upon the
+general plan of ordinary plants; that is, they have wood (wood-cells and
+vessels, 408) in the stem and leaves, in the latter as a frame work of
+veins. But the lower grades, having only the more elementary cellular
+structure, are called _Cellular Cryptogams_. Far the larger number of
+the former are Ferns: wherefore that class has been called
+
+484. =Pteridophyta, Pteridophytes= in English form, meaning
+_Fern-plants_,--that is, Ferns and their relatives. They are mainly
+Horsetails, Ferns, Club-Mosses, and various aquatics which have been
+called _Hydropterides_, i. e. Water-Ferns.
+
+485. =Horsetails=, _Equisetaceae_, is the name of a family which consists
+only (among now-living plants) of _Equisetum_, the botanical name of
+Horsetail and Scouring Rush. They have hollow stems, with partitions at
+the nodes; the leaves consist only of a whorl of scales at each node,
+these coalescent into a sheath: from the axils of these leaf-scales, in
+many species, branches grow out, which are similar to the stem but on a
+much smaller scale, close-jointed, and with the tips of the leaves more
+apparent. At the apex of the stem appears the _fructification_, as it is
+called for lack of a better term, in the form of a short spike or head.
+This consists of a good number of stalked shields, bearing on their
+inner or under face several wedge-shaped spore-cases. The spore-cases
+when they ripen open down the inner side and discharge a great number
+of green spores of a size large enough to be well seen by a hand-glass.
+The spores are aided in their discharge and dissemination by four
+club-shaped threads attached to one part of them. These are hygrometric:
+when moist they are rolled up over the spore; when dry they straighten,
+and exhibit lively movements, closing over the spore when breathed upon,
+and unrolling promptly a moment after as they dry. (See Fig. 493-498.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 493. Upper part of a stem of a Horsetail, Equisetum
+sylvaticum. 494. Part of the head or spike of spore-cases, with some of
+the latter taken off. 495. View (more enlarged) of under side of the
+shield-shaped body, bearing a circle of spore-cases. 496. One of the
+latter detached and more magnified. 497. A spore with the attached arms
+moistened. 498. Same when dry, the arms extended.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 499. A Tree-Fern, Dicksonia arborescens, with a
+young one near its base. In front a common herbaceous Fern (Polypodium
+vulgare) with its creeping stem or rootstock.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 500. A section of the trunk of a Tree-Fern.]
+
+486. =Ferns, or Filices=, a most attractive family of plants, are very
+numerous and varied. In warm and equable climates some rise into
+forest-trees, with habit of Palms; but most of them are perennial herbs.
+The wood of a Fern-trunk is very different, however, from that of a
+palm, or of any exogenous stem either. A section is represented in Fig.
+500. The curved plates of wood each terminate upward in a leaf-stalk.
+The subterranean trunk or stem of any strong-growing herbaceous Fern
+shows a similar structure. Most Ferns are circinate in the bud; that is,
+are rolled up in the manner shown in Fig. 197. Uncoiling as they grow,
+they have some likeness to a crosier.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 501. The Walking-Fern, Camptosorus, reduced in size,
+showing its fruit-dots on the veins approximated in pairs. 502. A small
+piece (pinnule) of a Shield-Fern: a row of fruit-dots on each side of
+the midrib, each covered by its kidney-shaped indusium. 503. A
+spore-case from the latter, just bursting by the partial straightening
+of the incomplete ring; well magnified. 504. Three of the spores of 509,
+more magnified. 505. Schizaea pusilla, a very small and simple-leaved
+Fern, drawn nearly of natural size. 506. One of the lobes of its
+fruit-bearing portion, magnified, bearing two rows of spore-cases. 507.
+Spore-case of the latter, detached, opening lengthwise. 508.
+Adder-tongue, Ophioglossum; spore-cases in a kind of spike: _a_, a
+portion of the fruiting part, about natural size; showing two rows of
+the firm spore-cases, which open transversely into two valves.]
+
+487. The fructification of Ferns is borne on the back or under side of
+the leaves. The early botanists thought this such a peculiarity that
+they always called a Fern-leaf a FROND, and its petiole a STIPE. Usage
+continues these terms, although they are superfluous. The fruit of Ferns
+consists of SPORE-CASES, technically SPORANGIA, which grow out of the
+veins of the leaf. Sometimes these are distributed over the whole lower
+surface of the leaf or frond, or over the whole surface when there are
+no proper leaf-blades to the frond, but all is reduced to stalks.
+Commonly the spore-cases occupy only detached spots or lines, each of
+which is called a SORUS, or in English merely a Fruit-dot. In many Ferns
+these fruit-dots are naked; in others they are produced under a
+scale-like bit of membrane, called an INDUSIUM. In Maidenhair-Ferns a
+little lobe of the leaf is folded back over each fruit-dot, to serve as
+its shield or indusium. In the true Brake or Bracken (Pteris) the whole
+edge of the fruit-bearing part of the leaf is folded back over it like a
+hem.
+
+488. The form and structure of the spore-cases can be made out with a
+common hand magnifying glass. The commonest kind (shown in Fig. 503) has
+a stalk formed of a row of jointed cells, and is itself composed of a
+layer of thin-walled cells, but is incompletely surrounded by a border
+of thicker-walled cells, forming the RING. This extends from the stalk
+up one side of the spore-case, round its summit, descends on the other
+side, but there gradually vanishes. In ripening and drying the shrinking
+of the cells of the ring on the outer side causes it to straighten; in
+doing so it tears the spore-case open on the weaker side and discharges
+the minute spores that fill it, commonly with a jerk which scatters them
+to the wind. Another kind of spore-case (Fig. 507) is stalkless, and has
+its ring-cells forming a kind of cap at the top: at maturity it splits
+from top to bottom by a regular dehiscence. A third kind is of firm
+texture and opens across into two valves, like a clam-shell (Fig. 508a):
+this kind makes an approach to the next family.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 509. A young prothallus of a Maiden-hair, moderately
+enlarged, and an older one with the first fern-leaf developed from near
+the notch. 510. Middle portion of the young one, much magnified, showing
+below, partly among the rootlets, the _antheridia_ or fertilizing
+organs, and above, near the notch, three _pistillidia_ to be
+fertilized.]
+
+489. The spores germinate on moistened ground. In a conservatory they
+may be found germinating on a damp wall or on the edges of a
+well-watered flower-pot. Instead of directly forming a fern-plantlet,
+the spore grows first into a body which closely resembles a small
+Liverwort. This is named a PROTHALLUS (Fig. 509): from some point of
+this a bud appears to originate, which produces the first fern-leaf,
+soon followed by a second and third, and so the stem and leaves of the
+plant are set up.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 511. Lycopodium Carolinianum, of nearly natural
+size. 512. Inside view of one of the bracts and spore-case, magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 513. Open 4-valved spore-case of a Selaginella, and
+its four large spores (macrospores), magnified. 514. Macrospores of
+another Selaginella. 515. Same separated.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 516. Plant of Isoetes. 517. Base of a leaf and
+contained sporocarp filled with microspores cut across, magnified. 518.
+Same divided lengthwise, equally magnified; some microspores seen at the
+left. 519. Section of a spore-case containing macrospores, equally
+magnified; at the right three macrospores more magnified.]
+
+490. Investigation of this prothallus under the microscope resulted in
+the discovery of a wholly unsuspected kind of fertilization, taking
+place at this germinating stage of the plant. On the under side of the
+prothallus two kinds of organs appear (Fig. 510). One may be likened to
+an open and depressed ovule, with a single cell at bottom answering to
+nucleus; the other, to an anther; but instead of pollen, it discharges
+corkscrew-shaped microscopic filaments, which bear some cilia of extreme
+tenuity, by the rapid vibration of which the filaments move freely over
+a wet surface. These filaments travel over the surface of the
+prothallus, and even to other prothalli (for there are natural hybrid
+Ferns), reach and enter the ovule-like cavities, and fertilize the
+cell. This thereupon sets up a growth, forms a vegetable bud, and so
+develops the new plant.
+
+491. An essentially similar process of fertilization has been discovered
+in the preceding and the following families of Pteridophytes; but it is
+mostly subterranean and very difficult to observe.
+
+492. =Club-Mosses or Lycopodiums.= Some of the common kinds, called
+Ground Pine, are familiar, being largely used for Christmas wreaths and
+other decoration. They are low evergreens, some creeping, all with
+considerable wood in their stems: this thickly beset with small leaves.
+In the axils of some of these leaves, or more commonly, in the axils of
+peculiar leaves changed into bracts (as in Fig. 511, 512) spore-cases
+appear, as roundish or kidney-shaped bodies, of firm texture, opening
+round the top into two valves, and discharging a great quantity of a
+very fine yellow powder, the spores.
+
+493. The Selaginellas have been separated from Lycopodium, which they
+much resemble, because they produce two kinds of spores, in separate
+spore-cases. One kind (MICROSPORES) is just that of Lycopodium; the
+other consists of only four large spores (MACROSPORES), in a spore-case
+which usually breaks in pieces at maturity (Fig. 513-515).
+
+494. =The Quillworts, Isoetes= (Fig. 516-519), are very unlike Club
+Mosses in aspect, but have been associated with them. They look more
+like Rushes, and live in water, or partly out of it. A very short stem,
+like a corm, bears a cluster of roots underneath; above it is covered by
+the broad bases of a cluster of awl-shaped or thread-shaped leaves. The
+spore-cases are immersed in the bases of the leaves. The outer
+leaf-bases contain numerous macrospores; the inner are filled with
+innumerable microspores.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 520. Plant of Marsilia quadrifoliata, reduced in
+size; at the right a pair of sporocarps of about natural size.]
+
+495. =The Pillworts= (_Marsilia_ and _Pilularia_) are low aquatics,
+which bear globular or pill-shaped fruit (SPOROCARPS) on the lower part
+of their leaf-stalks or on their slender creeping stems. The leaves of
+the commoner species of Marsilia might be taken for four-leaved Clover.
+(See Fig. 520.) The sporocarps are usually raised on a short stalk.
+Within they are divided lengthwise by a partition, and then crosswise by
+several partitions. These partitions bear numerous delicate sacs or
+spore-cases of two kinds, intermixed. The larger ones contain each a
+large spore, or macrospore; the smaller contain numerous microspores,
+immersed in mucilage. At maturity the fruit bursts or splits open at
+top, and the two kinds of spores are discharged. The large ones in
+germination produce a small prothallus; upon which the contents of the
+microspores act in the same way as in Ferns, and with a similar result.
+
+496. =Azolla= is a little floating plant, looking like a small Liverwort
+or Moss. Its branches are covered with minute and scale-shaped leaves.
+On the under side of the branches are found egg-shaped thin-walled
+sporocarps of two kinds. The small ones open across and discharge
+microspores; the larger burst irregularly, and bring to view globose
+spore-cases, attached to the bottom of the sporocarp by a slender stalk.
+These delicate spore-cases burst and set free about four macrospores,
+which are fertilized at germination, in the manner of the Pillworts and
+Quillworts. (See Fig. 521-526.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 521. Small plant of Azolla Caroliniana. 522. Portion
+magnified, showing the two kinds of sporocarp; the small ones contain
+microspores. 523 represents one more magnified. 524. The larger
+sporocarp more magnified. 525. Same more magnified and burst open,
+showing stalked spore-cases. 526. Two of the latter highly magnified;
+one of them bursting shows four contained macrospores; between the two,
+three of these spores highly magnified.]
+
+497. =Cellular Cryptogams= (483) are so called because composed, even in
+their higher forms, of cellular tissue only, without proper wood-cells
+or vessels. Many of the lower kinds are mere plates, or ribbons, or
+simple rows of cells, or even single cells. But their highest orders
+follow the plan of Ferns and phanerogamous plants in having stem and
+leaves for their upward growth, and commonly roots, or at least
+rootlets, to attach them to the soil, or to trunks, or to other bodies
+on which they grow. Plants of this grade are chiefly Mosses. So as a
+whole they take the name of
+
+498. =Bryophyta, Bryophytes= in English form, Bryum being the Greek name
+of a Moss. These plants are of two principal kinds: true Mosses
+(_Musci_, which is their Latin name in the plural); and Hepatic Mosses,
+or Liverworts (_Hepaticae_).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 527. Single plant of Physcomitrium pyriforme,
+magnified. 528. Top of a leaf, cut across; it consists of a single layer
+of cells.]
+
+499. =Mosses or Musci.= The pale Peat-mosses (species of Sphagnum, the
+principal component of sphagnous bogs) and the strong-growing Hair-cap
+Moss (Polytrichum) are among the larger and commoner representatives of
+this numerous family; while Fountain Moss (Fontinalis) in running water
+sometimes attains the length of a yard or more. On the other hand, some
+are barely individually distinguishable to the naked eye. Fig. 527
+represents a common little Moss, enlarged to about twelve times its
+natural size; and by its side is part of a leaf, much magnified, showing
+that it is composed of cellular tissue (parenchyma-cells) only. The
+leaves of Mosses are always simple, distinct, and sessile on the stem.
+The fructification is an urn-shaped spore-case, in this as in most cases
+raised on a slender stalk. The spore-case loosely bears on its summit a
+thin and pointed cap, like a candle-extinguisher, called a _Calyptra_.
+Detaching this, it is found that the spore-case is like a pyxis (376),
+that is, the top at maturity comes off as a lid (_Operculum_); and that
+the interior is filled with a green powder, the spores, which are
+discharged through the open mouth. In most Mosses there is a fringe of
+one or two rows of teeth or membrane around this mouth or orifice, the
+_Peristome_. When moist the peristome closes hygrometrically over the
+orifice more or less; when drier the teeth or processes commonly bend
+outward or recurve; and then the spores more readily escape. In Hair-cap
+Moss a membrane is stretched quite across the mouth, like a drum-head,
+retaining the spores until this wears away. See Figures 527-541 for
+details.
+
+500. Fertilization in Mosses is by the analogues of stamens and pistils,
+which are hidden in the axils of leaves, or in the cluster of leaves at
+the end of the stem. The analogue of the anther (_Antheridium_) is a
+cellular sac, which in bursting discharges innumerable delicate cells
+floating in a mucilaginous liquid; each of these bursts and sets free a
+vibratile self-moving thread. These threads, one or more, reach the
+orifice of the pistil-shaped body, the _Pistillidium_, and act upon a
+particular cell at its base within. This cell in its growth develops
+into the spore-case and its stalk (when there is any), carrying on its
+summit the wall of the pistillidium, which becomes the calyptra.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 529. Mnium cuspidatum, smaller than nature. 530. Its
+calyptra, detached, enlarged. 531. Its spore-case, with top of stalk,
+magnified, the lid (532) being detached, the outer peristome appears.
+533. Part of a cellular ring (_annulus_) which was under the lid,
+outside of the peristome, more magnified. 534. Some of the outer and of
+the inner peristome (consisting of jointed teeth) much magnified. 535.
+Antheridia and a pistillidium (the so-called flower) at end of a stem of
+same plant, the leaves torn away ([Symbol for Male], antheridia, [Symbol
+for Female], pistillidium), magnified. 536. A bursting antheridium, and
+some of the accompanying jointed threads, highly magnified. 537. Summit
+of an open spore-case of a Moss, which has a peristome of 16 pairs of
+teeth. 538. The double peristome of a Hypnum. 539-541. Spore-case,
+detached calyptra, and top of more enlarged spore-case and detached lid,
+of Physcomitrium pyriforme (Fig. 527): orifice shows that there is no
+peristome.]
+
+501. =Liverworts or Hepatic Mosses= (_Hepaticae_) in some kinds resemble
+true Mosses, having distinct stem and leaves, although their leaves
+occasionally run together; while in others there is no distinction of
+stem and leaf, but the whole plant is a leaf-like body, which produces
+rootlets on the lower face and its fructification on the upper. Those of
+the moss-like kind (sometimes called Scale-Mosses) have their tender
+spore-cases splitting into four valves; and with their spores are
+intermixed some slender spiral and very hygrometric threads (called
+_Elaters_) which are thought to aid in the dispersion of the spores.
+(Fig. 542-544.)
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 542. Fructification of a Jungermannia, magnified;
+its cellular spore-stalk, surrounded at base by some of the leaves, at
+summit the 4-valved spore-case opening, discharging spores and elaters.
+543. Two elaters and some spores from the same, highly magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 544. One of the frondose Liverworts, Steetzia,
+otherwise like a Jungermannia; the spore-case not yet protruded from its
+sheath.]
+
+502. Marchantia, the commonest and largest of the true Liverworts, forms
+large green plates or fronds on damp and shady ground, and sends up from
+some part of the upper face a stout stalk, ending in a several-lobed
+umbrella-shaped body, under the lobes of which hang several thin-walled
+spore-cases, which burst open and discharge spores and elaters. Riccia
+natans (Fig. 545) consists of wedge-shaped or heart-shaped fronds, which
+float free in pools of still water. The under face bears copious
+rootlets; in the substance of the upper face are the spore-cases, their
+pointed tips merely projecting: there they burst open, and discharge
+their spores. These are comparatively few and large, and are in fours;
+so they are very like the macrospores of Pillworts or Quillworts.
+
+503. =Thallophyta, or Thallophytes= in English form. This is the name
+for the lower class of Cellular Cryptogams,--plants in which there is no
+marked distinction into root, stem, and leaves. Roots in any proper
+sense they never have, as organs for absorbing, although some of the
+larger Seaweeds (such as the Sea Colander, Fig. 553) have them as
+holdfasts. Instead of axis and foliage, there is a stratum of frond, in
+such plants commonly called a THALLUS (by a strained use of a Greek and
+Latin word which means a green shoot or bough), which may have any kind
+of form, leaf-like, stem-like, branchy, extended to a flat plate, or
+gathered into a sphere, or drawn out into threads, or reduced to a
+single row of cells, or even reduced to single cells. Indeed,
+Thallophytes are so multifarious, so numerous in kinds, so protean in
+their stages and transformations, so recondite in their fructification,
+and many so microscopic in size, either of the plant itself or its
+essential organs, that they have to be elaborately described in separate
+books and made subjects of special study.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 545, 546. Two plants of Riccia natans, about natural
+size. 547. Magnified section of a part of the frond, showing two
+immersed spore-cases, and one emptied space. 548. Magnified section of a
+spore-case with some spores. 549. Magnified spore-case torn out, and
+spores; one figure of the spores united; the other of the four
+separated.]
+
+504. Nevertheless, it may be well to try to give some general idea of
+what Algae and Lichens and Fungi are. Linnaeus had them all under the
+orders of Algae and Fungi. Afterwards the Lichens were separated; but of
+late it has been made most probable that a Lichen consists of an Alga
+and a Fungus conjoined. At least it must be so in some of the ambiguous
+forms. Botanists are in the way of bringing out new classifications of
+the Thallophytes, as they come to understand their structure and
+relations better. Here, it need only be said that
+
+505. Lichens live in the air, that is, on the ground, or on rocks,
+trunks, walls, and the like, and grow when moistened by rains. They
+assimilate air, water, and some earthy matter, just as do ordinary
+plants. Algae, or Seaweeds, live in water, and live the same kind of life
+as do ordinary plants. Fungi, whatever medium they inhabit, live as
+animals do, upon organic matter,--upon what other plants have
+assimilated, or upon the products of their decay. True as these general
+distinctions are, it is no less true that these orders run together in
+their lowest forms; and that Algae and Fungi may be traced down into
+forms so low and simple that no clear line can be drawn between them;
+and even into forms of which it is uncertain whether they should be
+called plants or animals. It is as well to say that they are not high
+enough in rank to be distinctively either the one or the other. On the
+other hand there is a peculiar group of plants, which in simplicity of
+composition resemble the simpler Algae, while in fructification and in
+the arrangements of their simple cells into stem and branches they seem
+to be of a higher order, viz.:--
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 550. Branch of a Chara, about natural size. 551. A
+fruiting portion, magnified, showing the structure; a sporocarp, and an
+antheridium. 552. Outlines of a portion of the stem in section, showing
+the central cell and the outer or cortical cells.]
+
+506. =Characeae.= These are aquatic herbs, of considerable size,
+abounding in ponds. The simpler kinds (Nitella) have the stem formed of
+a single row of tubular cells, and at the nodes, or junction of the
+cells, a whorl of similar branches. Chara (Fig. 550-552) is the same,
+except that the cells which make up the stem and the principal branches
+are strengthened by a coating of many smaller tubular cells, applied to
+the surface of the main or central cell. The fructification consists of
+a globular sporocarp of considerable size, which is spirally enwrapped
+by tubular cells twisted around it: by the side of this is a smaller and
+globular antheridium. The latter breaks up into eight shield-shaped
+pieces, with an internal stalk, and bearing long and ribbon shaped
+filaments, which consist of a row of delicate cells, each of which
+discharges a free-moving microscopic thread (the analogue of the pollen
+or pollen-tube), nearly in the manner of Ferns and Mosses. One of these
+threads reaches and fertilizes a cell at the apex of the nucleus or
+solid body of the sporocarp. This subsequently germinates and forms a
+new individual.
+
+507. =Algae or Seaweeds.= The proper Seaweeds may be studied by the aid
+of Professor Farlow's "Marine Algae of New England;" the fresh-water
+species, by Prof. H. C. Woods's "Fresh-water Algae of North America," a
+larger and less accessible volume. A few common forms are here very
+briefly mentioned and illustrated, to give an idea of the family. But
+they are of almost endless diversity.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 553. Agarum Turneri, Sea Colander (so called from
+the perforations with which the frond, as it grows, becomes riddled);
+very much reduced in size.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 554. Upper end of a Rockweed, Fucus vesiculosus,
+reduced half or more, _b_, the fructification.]
+
+508. The common Rockweed (Fucus vesiculosus, Fig. 554, abounding between
+high and low water mark on the coast), the rarer Sea Colander (Agarum
+Turneri, Fig. 553), and Laminaria, of which the larger forms are called
+Devil's Aprons, are good representatives of the olive green or brownish
+Seaweeds. They are attached either by a disk-like base or by root-like
+holdfasts to the rocks or stones on which they grow.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 555. Magnified section through a fertile conceptacle
+of Rockweed, showing the large spores in the midst of threads of cells.
+556. Similar section of a sterile conceptacle, containing slender
+antheridia. From Farlow's "Marine Algae of New England."]
+
+509. The hollow and inflated places in the Fucus vesiculosus or Rockweed
+(Fig. 554) are air-bladders for buoyancy. The fructification forms in
+the substance of the tips of the frond: the rough dots mark the places
+where the conceptacles open. The spores and the fertilizing cells are in
+different plants. Sections of the two kinds of conceptacles are given in
+Fig. 555 and 556. The contents of the conceptacles are discharged
+through a small orifice which in each figure is at the margin of the
+page. The large spores are formed eight together in a mother-cell. The
+minute motile filaments of the antheridia fertilize the large spores
+after injection into the water: and then the latter promptly acquire a
+cell-wall and germinate.
+
+510. The Florideae or Rose-red series of marine Algae (which, however, are
+sometimes green or brownish) are the most attractive to amateurs. The
+delicate Porphyra or Laver is in some countries eaten as a delicacy, and
+the cartilaginous Chondrus crispus has been largely used for jelly.
+Besides their conceptacles, which contain true spores (Fig. 560), they
+mostly have a fructification in _Tetraspores_, that is, of spores
+originating in fours (Fig. 559).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 557. Small plant of Chondrus crispus, or Carrageen
+Moss, reduced in size, in fruit; the spots represent the fructification,
+consisting of numerous tetraspores in bunches in the substance of the
+plant. 558. Section through the thickness of one of the lobes,
+magnified, passing through two of the imbedded fruit-clusters. 559. Two
+of its tetraspores (spores in fours), highly magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 560. Section through a conceptacle of Delesseria
+Leprieurei, much magnified, showing the spores, which are single
+specialized cells, two or three in a row.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 561. A piece of the rose-red Delesseria Leprieurei,
+double natural size. 562. A piece cut out and much magnified, showing
+that it is composed of a layer of cells. 563. A few of the cells more
+highly magnified: the cells are gelatinous and thick-walled.]
+
+511. The Grass-green Algae sometimes form broad membranous fronds, such
+as those of the common Ulva of the sea-shore, but most of them form mere
+threads, either simple or branched. To this division belong almost all
+the Fresh-water Algae, such as those which constitute the silky threads
+or green slime of running streams or standing pools, and which were all
+called Confervas before their immense diversity was known. Some are
+formed of a single row of cells, developed each from the end of another.
+Others branch, the top of one cell producing more than one new one (Fig.
+564). Others, of a kind which is very common in fresh water, simple
+threads made of a line of cells, have the chlorophyll and protoplasm of
+each cell arranged in spiral lines or bands. They form spores in a
+peculiar way, which gives to this family the designation of conjugating
+Algae.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 564. The growing end of a branching Conferva
+(Cladophora glomerata), much magnified; showing how, by a kind of
+budding growth, a new cell is formed by a cross partition separating the
+newer tip from the older part below; also, how the branches arise.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 565. Two magnified individuals of a Spirogyra,
+forming spores by conjugation; a completed spore at base: above,
+successive stages of the conjugation are represented.]
+
+512. At a certain time two parallel threads approach each other more
+closely; contiguous parts of a cell of each thread bulge or grow out,
+and unite when they meet; the cell-wall partitions between them are
+absorbed so as to open a free communication; the spiral band of green
+matter in both cells breaks up; the whole of that of one cell passes
+over into the other; and of the united contents a large green spore is
+formed. Soon the old cells decay, and the spore set free is ready to
+germinate. Fig. 565 represents several stages of the conjugating
+process, which, however, would never be found all together like this in
+one pair of threads.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 566. Closterium acutum, a common Desmid, moderately
+magnified. It is a single firm-walled cell, filled with green
+protoplasmic matter.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 567. More magnified view of three stages of the
+conjugation of a pair of the same.]
+
+513. Desmids and Diatomes, which are microscopic one-celled plants of
+the same class, conjugate in the same way, as is shown in a Closterium
+by Fig. 566, 567. Here the whole living contents of two individuals are
+incorporated into one spore, for a fresh start. A reproduction which
+costs the life of two individuals to make a single new one would be
+fatal to the species if there were not a provision for multiplication by
+the prompt division of the new-formed individual into two, and these
+again into two, and so on in geometrical ratio. And the costly process
+would be meaningless if there were not some real advantage in such a
+fresh start, that is, in sexes.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 568. Early stage of a species of Botrydium, a
+globose cell. 569, 570. Stages of growth. 571. Full-grown plant,
+extended and ramified below in a root-like way. 572. A Vaucheria; single
+cell grown on into a much-branched thread; the end of some branches
+enlarging, and the green contents in one (_a_) there condensed into a
+spore. 573. More magnified view of _a_, and the mature spore escaping.
+574. Bryopsis plumosa; apex of a stem with its branchlets; all the
+extension of one cell. Variously magnified.]
+
+514. There are other Algae of the grass-green series which consist of
+single cells, but which by continued growth form plants of considerable
+size. Three kinds of these are represented in Fig. 568-574.
+
+515. =Lichens=, Latin _Lichenes_, are to be studied in the works of the
+late Professor Tuckerman, but a popular exposition is greatly needed.
+The subjoined illustrations (Fig. 575-580) may simply indicate what some
+of the commoner forms are like. The cup, or shield-shaped spot, or knob,
+which bears the fructification is named the _Apothecium_. This is mainly
+composed of slender sacs (_Asci_), having thread-shaped cells
+intermixed; and each ascus contains few or several spores, which are
+commonly double or treble. Most Lichens are flat expansions of grayish
+hue; some of them foliaceous in texture, but never of bright green
+color; more are crustaceous; some are wholly pulverulent and nearly
+formless. But in several the vegetation lengthens into an axis (as in
+Fig. 580), or imitates stem and branches or threads, as in the
+Reindeer-Moss on the ground in our northern woods, and the Usnea hanging
+from the boughs of old trees overhead.
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 575. A stone on which various Lichens are growing,
+such as (passing from left to right) a Parmelia, a Sticta, and on the
+right, Lecidia geographica, so called from its patches resembling the
+outline of islands or continents as depicted upon maps. 576. Piece of
+thallus of Parmelia conspersa, with section through an apothecium. 577.
+Section of a smaller apothecium, enlarged. 578. Two asci of same, and
+contained spores, and accompanying filaments; more magnified. 579. Piece
+of thallus of a Sticta, with section, showing the immersed apothecia;
+the small openings of these dot the surface. 580. Cladonia coccinea; the
+fructification is in the scarlet knobs, which surround the cups.]
+
+516. =Fungi.= For this immense and greatly diversified class, it must
+here suffice to indicate the parts of a Mushroom, a Sphaeria, and of one
+or two common Moulds. The true vegetation of common Fungi consists of
+slender cells which form what is called a _Mycelium_. These filamentous
+cells lengthen and branch, growing by the absorption through their
+whole surface of the decaying, or organizable, or living matter which
+they feed upon. In a Mushroom (Agaricus), a knobby mass is at length
+formed, which develops into a stout stalk (_Stipe_), bearing the cap
+(_Pileus_): the under side of the cap is covered by the _Hymenium_, in
+this genus consisting of radiating plates, the gills or _Lamellae_; and
+these bear the powdery spores in immense numbers. Under the microscope,
+the gills are found to be studded with projecting cells, each of which,
+at the top, produces four stalked spores. These form the powder which
+collects on a sheet of paper upon which a mature Mushroom is allowed to
+rest for a day or two. (Fig. 581-586.)
+
+517. The esculent Morel, also Sphaeria (Fig. 585, 586), and many other
+Fungi bear their spores in sacs (asci) exactly in the manner of Lichens
+(515).
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 581. Agaricus campestris, the common edible
+Mushroom. 582. Section of cap and stalk. 583. Minute portion of a
+section of a gill, showing some spore-bearing cells, much magnified.
+584. One of these, with its four spores, more magnified.]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 585. Sphaeria rosella. 586. Two of the asci and
+contained double spores, quite like those of a Lichen; much magnified.]
+
+518. Of the Moulds, one of the commoner is the Bread-Mould (Fig. 587).
+In fruiting it sends up a slender stalk, which bears a globular sac;
+this bursts at maturity and discharges innumerable spores. The blue
+Cheese-Mould (Fig. 588) bears a cluster of branches at top, each of
+which is a row of naked spores, like a string of beads, all breaking
+apart at maturity. Botrytis (Fig. 589), the fruiting stalk of which
+branches, and each branch is tipped with a spore, is one of the many
+moulds which live and feed upon the juices of other plants or of
+animals, and are often very destructive. The extremely numerous kinds of
+smut, rust, mildew, the ferments, bacteria, and the like, many of them
+very destructive to other vegetable and to animal life, are also low
+forms of the class of Fungi.[1]
+
+[Illustration: Fig. 587. Ascophora, the Bread-Mould. 588. Aspergillus
+glaucus, the mould of cheese, but common on mouldy vegetables. 589. A
+species of Botrytis. All magnified.]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] The "Introduction to Cryptogamous Botany," or third volume of "The
+Botanical Text Book," now in preparation by the author's colleague,
+Professor Farlow, will be the proper guide in the study of the
+Flowerless Plants, especially of the Algae and Fungi.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION XVIII. CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE.
+
+
+519. Classification, in botany, is the consideration of plants in
+respect to their kinds and relationships. Some system of Nomenclature,
+or naming, is necessary for fixing and expressing botanical knowledge so
+as to make it available. The vast multiplicity of plants and the various
+degrees of their relationship imperatively require order and system, not
+only as to _names_ for designating the kinds of plants, but also as to
+_terms_ for defining their differences. Nomenclature is concerned with
+the names of plants. Terminology supplies names of organs or parts, and
+terms to designate their differences.
+
+
+Sec. 1. KINDS AND RELATIONSHIP.
+
+520. Plants and animals have two great peculiarities: 1st, they form
+themselves; and 2d, they multiply themselves. They reproduce their kind
+in a continued succession of
+
+521. =Individuals.= Mineral things occur as _masses_, which are
+divisible into smaller and still smaller ones without alteration of
+properties. But organic things (vegetables and animals) exist as
+_individual beings_. Each owes its existence to a parent, and produces
+similar individuals in its turn. So each individual is a link of a
+chain; and to this chain the natural-historian applies the name of
+
+522. =Species.= All the descendants from the same stock therefore
+compose one species. And it was from our observing that the several
+sorts of plants or animals steadily reproduce themselves, or, in other
+words, keep up a succession of similar individuals, that the idea of
+species originated. There are few species, however, in which man has
+actually observed the succession for many generations. It could seldom
+be proved that all the White Pine trees or White Oaks of any forest came
+from the same stock. But observation having familiarized us with the
+general fact that individuals proceeding from the same stock are
+essentially alike, we infer from their close resemblance that these
+similar individuals belong to the same species. That is, we infer it
+when the individuals are as much like each other as those are which we
+know, or confidently suppose, to have sprung from the same stock.
+
+523. Identity in species is inferred from close similarity in all
+essential respects, or whenever the differences, however considerable,
+are not known or reasonably supposed to have been originated in the
+course of time under changed conditions. No two individuals are exactly
+alike; a tendency to variation pervades all living things. In
+cultivation, where variations are looked after and cared for, very
+striking differences come to light; and if in wild nature they are less
+common or less conspicuous, it is partly because they are uncared for.
+When such variant forms are pretty well marked they are called
+
+524. =Varieties.= The White Oak, for example, presents two or three
+varieties in the shape of the leaves, although they may be all alike
+upon each particular tree. The question often arises, and it is often
+hard to answer, whether the difference in a particular case is that of a
+variety, or is specific. If the former, it may commonly be proved by
+finding such intermediate degrees of difference in various individuals
+as to show that no clear distinction can be drawn between them; or else
+by observing the variety to vary back again in some of its offspring.
+The sorts of Apples, Pears, Potatoes, and the like, show that
+differences which are permanent in the individual, and continue
+unchanged through a long series of generations when propagated by
+division (as by offsets, cuttings, grafts, bulbs, tubers, etc.), are not
+likely to be reproduced by seed. Still they sometimes are so, and
+perhaps always tend in that direction. For the fundamental law in
+organic nature is that offspring shall be like parent.
+
+RACES are such strongly marked varieties, capable of coming true to
+seed. The different sorts of Wheat, Maize, Peas, Radishes, etc., are
+familiar examples. By selecting those individuals of a species which
+have developed or inherited any desirable peculiarity, keeping them from
+mingling with their less promising brethren, and selecting again the
+most promising plants raised from their seeds, the cultivator may in a
+few generations render almost any variety transmissible by seed, so long
+as it is cared for and kept apart. In fact, this is the way the
+cultivated domesticated races, so useful to man, have been fixed and
+preserved. Races, in fact, can hardly, if at all, be said to exist
+independently of man. But man does not really produce them. Such
+peculiarities--often surprising enough--now and then originate, we know
+not how (the plant _sports_, as the gardeners say); they are only
+preserved, propagated, and generally further developed, by the
+cultivator's skilful care. If left alone, they are likely to dwindle and
+perish, or else revert to the original form of the species. Vegetable
+races are commonly annuals, which can be kept up only by seed, or herbs
+of which a succession of generations can be had every year or two, and
+so the education by selection be completed without great lapse of time.
+But all fruit-trees could probably be fixed into races in an equal
+number of generations.
+
+BUD-VARIETIES are those which spring from buds instead of seed. They are
+uncommon to any marked extent. They are sometimes called _Sports_, but
+this name is equally applied to variations among seedlings.
+
+CROSS-BREEDS, strictly so-called, are the variations which come from
+cross-fertilizing one variety of a species with another.
+
+HYBRIDS are the varieties, if they may be so called,--which come from
+the crossing of species (331). Only nearly related species can be
+hybridized; and the resulting progeny is usually self-sterile, but not
+always. Hybrid plants, however, may often be fertilized and made
+prolific by the pollen of one or the other parent. This produces another
+kind of cross-breeds.
+
+525. Species are the units in classification. Varieties, although of
+utmost importance in cultivation and of considerable consequence in the
+flora of any country, are of less botanical significance. For they are
+apt to be indefinite and to shade off one form into another. But
+species, the botanist _expects_ to be distinct. Indeed, the practical
+difference to the botanist between species and varieties is the definite
+limitation of the one and the indefiniteness of the other. The
+botanist's determination is partly a matter of observation, partly of
+judgment.
+
+526. In an enlarged view, varieties may be incipient species; and nearly
+related species probably came from a common stock in earlier times. For
+there is every reason to believe that existing vegetation came from the
+more or less changed vegetation of a preceding geological era. However
+that may be, species are regarded as permanent and essentially unchanged
+in their succession of individuals through the actual ages.
+
+527. There are, at nearly the lowest computation, as many as one hundred
+thousand species of phanerogamous plants, and the cryptogamous species
+are thought to be still more numerous. They are all connected by
+resemblances or relationships, near and remote, which show that they are
+all parts of one system, realizations in nature, as we may affirm, of
+the conception of One Mind. As we survey them, they do not form a single
+and connected chain, stretching from the lowest to the highest organized
+species, although there obviously are lower and higher grades. But the
+species throughout group themselves, as it were, into clusters or
+constellations, and these into still more comprehensive clusters, and so
+on, with gaps between. It is this clustering which is the ground of the
+recognition of _kinds_ of species, that is, of groups of species of
+successive grades or degree of generality; such as that of similar
+species into _Genera_, of genera into _Families_ or _Orders_, of orders
+into _Classes_. In classification the sequence, proceeding from higher
+or more general to lower or special, is always CLASS, ORDER, GENUS,
+SPECIES, VARIETY (if need be).
+
+528. =Genera= (in the singular, _Genus_) are assemblages of closely
+related species, in which the essential parts are all constructed on the
+same particular type or plan. White Oak, Red Oak, Scarlet Oak, Live Oak,
+etc., are so many species of the Oak genus (Latin, _Quercus_). The
+Chestnuts compose another genus; the Beeches another. The Apple, Pear,
+and Crab are species of one genus, the Quince represents another, the
+various species of Hawthorn a third. In the animal kingdom the common
+cat, the wild-cat, the panther, the tiger, the leopard, and the lion are
+species of the cat kind or genus; while the dog, the jackal, the
+different species of wolf, and the foxes, compose another genus. Some
+genera are represented by a vast number of species, others by few, very
+many by only one known species. For the genus may be as perfectly
+represented in one species as in several, although, if this were the
+case throughout, genera and species would of course be identical. The
+Beech genus and the Chestnut genus would be just as distinct from the
+Oak genus even if but one Beech and Chestnut were known; as indeed was
+once the case.
+
+529. =Orders= are groups of genera that resemble each other; that is,
+they are to genera what genera are to species. As familiar
+illustrations, the Oak, Chestnut, and Beech genera, along with the Hazel
+genus and the Hornbeams, all belong to one order. The Birches and the
+Alders make another; the Poplars and Willows, another; the Walnuts (with
+the Butternut) and the Hickories, still another. The Apple genus, the
+Quince and the Hawthorns, along with the Plums and Cherries and the
+Peach, the Raspberry with the Blackberry, the Strawberry, the Rose,
+belong to a large order, which takes its name from the Rose. Most
+botanists use the names "Order" and "Family" synonymously; the latter
+more popularly, as "the Rose Family," the former more technically, as
+"Order _Rosaceae_."
+
+530. But when the two are distinguished, as is common in zoology, Family
+is of lower grade than Order.
+
+531. =Classes= are still more comprehensive assemblages, or great
+groups. Thus, in modern botany, the Dicotyledonous plants compose one
+class, the Monocotyledonous plants another (36-40).
+
+532. These four grades, Class, Order, Genus, Species, are of universal
+use. Variety comes in upon occasion. For, although a species may have no
+recognized varieties, a genus implies at least one species belonging to
+it; every genus is of some order, and every order of some class.
+
+533. But these grades by no means exhaust the resources of
+classification, nor suffice for the elucidation of all the distinctions
+which botanists recognize. In the first place, a higher grade than that
+of class is needful for the most comprehensive of divisions, that of all
+plants into the two _Series_ of Phanerogamous and Cryptogamous (6); and
+in natural history there are the two _Kingdoms_ or _Realms_, the
+Vegetable and the Animal.
+
+534. Moreover, the stages of the scaffolding have been variously
+extended, as required, by the recognition of assemblages lower than
+class but higher than order, viz. _Subclass_ and _Cohort_; or lower than
+order, a _Suborder_; or between this and genus, a _Tribe_; or between
+this and tribe, a _Subtribe_; or between genus and species, a
+_Subgenus_; and by some a species has been divided into _Subspecies_,
+and a variety into _Subvarieties_. Last of all are _Individuals_.
+Suffice it to remember that the following are the principal grades in
+classification, with the proper sequence; also that only those here
+printed in small capitals are fundamental and universal in botany:--
+
+  SERIES,
+      CLASS, Subclass, Cohort,
+          ORDER, or FAMILY, Suborder, Tribe, Subtribe,
+              GENUS, Subgenus or Section,
+                  SPECIES, Variety.
+
+
+Sec. 2. NAMES, TERMS, AND CHARACTERS.
+
+535. The name of a plant is the name of its genus followed by that of
+the species. The name of the genus answers to the surname (or family
+name); that of the species to the baptismal name of a person. Thus
+_Quercus_ is the name of the Oak genus; _Quercus alba_, that of the
+White Oak, _Q. rubra_, that of Red Oak, _Q. nigra_, that of the
+Black-Jack, etc. Botanical names being Latin or Latinized, the adjective
+name of the species comes after that of the genus.
+
+536. =Names of Genera= are of one word, a substantive. The older ones
+are mostly classical Latin, or Greek adopted into Latin; such as
+_Quercus_ for the Oak genus, _Fagus_ for the Beech, _Corylus_, the
+Hazel, and the like. But as more genera became known, botanists had new
+names to make or borrow. Many are named from some appearance or property
+of the flowers, leaves, or other parts of the plant. To take a few
+examples from the early pages of the "Manual of the Botany of the
+Northern United States,"--the genus _Hepatica_ comes from the shape of
+the leaf, resembling that of the liver. _Myosurus_ means mouse-tail.
+_Delphinium_ is from delphin, a dolphin, and alludes to the shape of the
+flower, which was thought to resemble the classical figures of the
+dolphin. _Xanthorrhiza_ is from two Greek words meaning yellow-root, the
+common name of the plant. _Cimicifuga_ is formed of two Latin words
+meaning to drive away bugs, i. e. Bugbane, the Siberian species being
+used to keep away such vermin. _Sanguinaria_, the Bloodroot, is named
+from the blood-like color of its juice. Other genera are dedicated to
+distinguished botanists or promoters of science, and bear their names:
+such are _Magnolia_, which commemorates the early French botanist,
+Magnol; and _Jeffersonia_, named after President Jefferson, who sent the
+first exploring expedition over the Rocky Mountains. Others bear the
+name of the discoverer of the plant; as, _Sarracenia_, dedicated to Dr.
+Sarrazin, of Quebec, who was one of the first to send the common
+Pitcher-plant to the botanists of Europe; and _Claytonia_, first made
+known by the early Virginian botanist Clayton.
+
+537. =Names of Species.= The name of a species is also a single word,
+appended to that of the genus. It is commonly an adjective, and
+therefore agrees with the generic name in case, gender, etc. Sometimes
+it relates to the country the species inhabits; as, Claytonia
+_Virginica_, first made known from Virginia; Sanguinaria _Canadensis_,
+from Canada, etc. More commonly it denotes some obvious or
+characteristic trait of the species; as, for example, in Sarracenia, our
+northern species is named _purpurea_, from the purple blossoms, while a
+more southern one is named _flava_, because its petals are yellow; the
+species of Jeffersonia is called _diphylla_, meaning two-leaved, because
+its leaf is divided into two leaflets. Some species are named after the
+discoverer, or in compliment to a botanist who has made them known; as,
+Magnolia _Fraseri_, named after the botanist Fraser, one of the first
+to find this species; and Sarracenia _Drummondii_, for a Pitcher-plant
+found by Mr. Drummond in Florida. Such personal specific names are of
+course written with a capital initial letter. Occasionally some old
+substantive name is used for the species; as Magnolia _Umbrella_, the
+Umbrella tree, and Ranunculus _Flammula_. These are also written with a
+capital initial, and need not accord with the generic name in gender.
+Geographical specific names, such as _Canadensis_, _Caroliniana_,
+_Americana_, in the later usage are by some written without a capital
+initial, but the older usage is better, or at least more accordant with
+English orthography.
+
+538. =Varietal Names=, when any are required, are made on the plan of
+specific names, and follow these, with the prefix _var_. Ranunculus
+Flammula, var. _reptans_, the creeping variety: R. abortivus, var.
+_micranthus_, the small-flowered variety of the species.
+
+539. In recording the name of a plant it is usual to append the name, or
+an abbreviation of the name, of the botanist who first published it; and
+in a flora or other systematic work, this reference to the source of the
+name is completed by a further citation of the name of the book, the
+volume and page where it was first published. So "_Ranunculus acris_,
+L.," means that this Buttercup was first so named and described by
+Linnaeus; "_R. multifidus_, Pursh," that this species was so named and
+published by Pursh. The suffix is no part of the name, but is an
+abbreviated reference, to be added or omitted as convenience or
+definiteness may require. The authority for a generic name is similarly
+recorded. Thus, "_Ranunculus_, L.," means that the genus was so named by
+Linnaeus; "_Myosurus_, Dill.," that the Mouse-tail was established as a
+genus under this name by Dillenius; _Caulophyllum_, Michx., that the
+Blue Cohosh was published under this name by Michaux. The full reference
+in the last-named instance would be, "in Flora Boreali-Americana, first
+volume, 205th page,"--in the customary abbreviation, "Michx. Fl. i.
+205."
+
+540. =Names of Orders= are given in the plural number, and are commonly
+formed by prolonging the name of a genus of the group taken as a
+representative of it. For example, the order of which the Buttercup or
+Crowfoot genus, _Ranunculus_, is the representative, takes from it the
+name of _Ranunculaceae_; meaning _Plantae Ranunculaceae_ when written out
+in full, that is, Ranunculaceous Plants. Some old descriptive names of
+orders are kept up, such as _Cruciferae_ for the order to which Cress and
+Mustard belong, from the cruciform appearance of their expanded corolla,
+and _Umbelliferae_, from the flowers being in umbels.
+
+541. =Names of Tribes=, also of suborders, subtribes, and the like, are
+plurals of the name of the typical genus, less prolonged, usually in
+_eae_, _ineae_, _ideae_, etc. Thus the proper Buttercup tribe is
+_Ranunculeae_, of the Clematis tribe, _Clematideae_. While the Rose family
+is _Rosaceae_, the special Rose tribe is _Roseae_.
+
+542. =Names of Classes, etc.= For these see the following synopsis of
+the actual classification adopted, p. 183.
+
+543. So a plant is named in two words, the generic and the specific
+names, to which may be added a third, that of the variety, upon
+occasion. The generic name is peculiar: obviously it must not be used
+twice over in botany. The specific name must not be used twice over in
+the same genus, but is free for any other genus. A _Quercus alba_, or
+White Oak, is no hindrance to _Betula alba_, or White Birch; and so of
+other names.
+
+544. =Characters and Descriptions.= Plants are _characterized_ by a
+terse statement, in botanical terms, of their peculiarities or
+distinguishing marks. The character of the order should include nothing
+which is common to the whole class it belongs to; that of the genus,
+nothing which is common to the order; that of the species nothing which
+is shared with all other species of the genus; and so of other
+divisions. _Descriptions_ may enter into complete details of the whole
+structure.
+
+545. =Terminology=, also called _Glossology_, is nomenclature applied to
+organs or parts, and their forms or modifications. Each organ or special
+part has a substantive name of its own: shapes and other modifications
+of an organ or part are designated by adjective terms, or, when the
+forms are peculiar, substantive names are given to them. By the correct
+use of such botanical terms, and by proper subordination of the
+characters under the order, genus, species, etc., plants may be
+described and determined with much precision. The classical language of
+botany is Latin. While modern languages have their own names and terms,
+these usually lack the precision of the Latin or Latinized botanical
+terminology. Fortunately, this Latinized terminology has been largely
+adopted and incorporated into the English technical language of botany,
+thus securing precision. And these terms are largely the basis of
+specific names of plants.
+
+546. A glossary or vocabulary of the principal botanical terms used in
+phanerogamous and vascular cryptogamous botany is appended to this
+volume, to which the student may refer, as occasion arises.
+
+
+Sec. 3. SYSTEM.
+
+547. Two systems of classification used to be recognized in botany,--the
+artificial and the natural; but only the latter is now thought to
+deserve the name of a system.
+
+548. Artificial classifications have for object merely the ascertaining
+of the name and place of a plant. They do not attempt to express
+relationships, but serve as a kind of dictionary. They distribute the
+genera and species according to some one peculiarity or set of
+peculiarities (just as a dictionary distributes words according to their
+first letters), disregarding all other considerations. At present an
+artificial classification in botany is needed only as a key to the
+natural orders,--as an aid in referring an unknown plant to its proper
+family; and such keys are still very needful, at least for the beginner.
+Formerly, when the orders themselves were not clearly made out, an
+artificial classification was required to lead the student down to the
+genus. Two such classifications were long in vogue: First, that of
+Tournefort, founded mainly on the leaves of the flower, the calyx and
+corolla: this was the prevalent system throughout the first half of the
+eighteenth century; but it has long since gone by. It was succeeded by
+the well-known
+
+549. =Artificial System of Linnaeus=, which was founded on the stamens
+and pistils. It consists of twenty-four classes, and of a variable
+number of orders; the classes founded mainly on the number and
+disposition of the stamens; the orders partly upon the number of styles
+or stigmas, partly upon other considerations. Useful and popular as this
+system was down to a time within the memory of still surviving
+botanists, it is now completely obsolete. But the tradition of it
+survives in the names of its classes, Monandria, Diandria, Triandria,
+etc., which are familiar in terminology in the adjective terms
+monandrous, diandrous, triandrous, etc. (284); also of the orders,
+Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, etc., preserved in the form of monogynous,
+digynous, trigynous, etc. (301); and in the name Cryptogamia, that of
+the 24th class, which is continued for the lower series in the natural
+classification.
+
+550. =Natural System.= A genuine system of botany consists of the orders
+or families, duly arranged under their classes, and having the tribes,
+the genera, and the species arranged in them according to their
+relationships. This, when properly carried out, is the _Natural System_;
+because it is intended to express, as well as possible, the various
+degrees of relationship among plants, as presented in nature; that is,
+to rank those species and those genera, etc., next to each other in the
+classification which are really most alike in all respects, or, in other
+words, which are constructed most nearly on the same particular plan.
+
+551. There can be only _one_ natural system of botany, if by this term
+is meant the plan according to which the vegetable creation was called
+into being, with all its grades and diversities among the species, as
+well of past as of the present time. But there may be many natural
+systems, if we mean the attempts of men to interpret and express that
+plan,--systems which will vary with advancing knowledge, and with the
+judgment and skill of different botanists. These must all be very
+imperfect, bear the impress of individual minds, and be shaped by the
+current philosophy of the age. But the endeavor always is to make the
+classification answer to Nature, as far as any system can which has to
+be expressed in a definite and serial arrangement.
+
+552. So, although the classes, orders, genera, etc., are natural, or as
+natural as the systematist can make them, their grouping or order of
+arrangement in a book, must necessarily be in great measure artificial.
+Indeed, it is quite impossible to arrange the orders, or even the few
+classes, in a single series, and yet have each group stand next to its
+nearest relatives on both sides.
+
+553. Especially it should be understood that, although phanerogamous
+plants are of higher grade than cryptogamous, and angiospermous or
+ordinary phanerogamous higher than the gymnospermous, yet there is no
+culmination in the vegetable kingdom, nor any highest or lowest order of
+phanerogamous plants.
+
+554. The particular system most largely used at present in the
+classification of the orders is essentially the following:--
+
+SERIES I. PHANEROGAMIA: PHANEROGAMOUS OR FLOWERING PLANTS.
+
+  CLASS I. DICOTYLEDONES ANGIOSPERMEAE, called for shortness in
+  English, DICOTYLEDONS or DICOTYLS. Ovules in a closed ovary.
+  Embryo dicotyledonous. Stem with exogenous plan of growth. Leaves
+  reticulate-veined,
+
+    _Artificial Division I._ POLYPETALAE, with petals mostly present
+    and distinct. Orders about 80 in number, _Ranunculaceae_ to
+    _Cornaceae_.
+
+    _Artificial Division II._ GAMOPETALAE, with gamopetalous corolla.
+    Orders about 45, _Caprifoliaceae_ to _Plantaginaceae_.
+
+    _Artificial Division III._ APETALAE or INCOMPLETAE, with perianth,
+    when present, of calyx only. Orders about 35 in number, from
+    _Nyctaginaceae_ to _Salicaceae_.
+
+  CLASS II. DICOTYLEDONES GYMNOSPERMEAE, in English GYMNOSPERMS. No
+  ovary or pericarp, but ovules and seeds naked, and no proper calyx
+  nor corolla. Embryo dicotyledonous or polycotyledonous. Stem with
+  exogenous plan of growth. Leaves mostly parallel-veined. Consists
+  of order _Gnetaceae_, which strictly connects with Angiospermous
+  Dicotyls, of _Coniferae_, and of _Cycadaceae_.
+
+  CLASS III. MONOCOTYLEDONES, in English MONOCOTYLEDONS or
+  MONOCOTYLS. Angiospermous. Embryo monocotyledonous. Stem with
+  endogenous plan of growth. Leaves mostly parallel-veined.
+
+    _Division I._ PETALOIDEAE. Perianth complete, having the
+    equivalent of both calyx and corolla, and all the inner series
+    corolline. About 18 orders.
+
+    _Division II._ CALYCINAE. Perianth complete (in two series) but
+    not corolline, mostly thickish or glumaceous. Chiefly two
+    orders, _Juncaceae_, the true Rushes, and _Palmae_, Palms.
+
+    _Division III._ SPADICIFLORAE or NUDIFLORAE. Perianth none, or
+    rudimentary and incomplete: inflorescence spadiceous. Of five
+    orders, _Typhaceae_ and _Aroideae_ the principal.
+
+    _Division IV._ GLUMACEAE. Perianth none, or very rudimentary:
+    glumaceous bracts to the flowers. Orders mainly _Cyperaceae_ and
+    _Gramineae_.
+
+SERIES II. CRYPTOGAMIA: CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS.
+
+  CLASS I. PTERIDOPHYTA, PTERIDOPHYTES (484).
+
+  CLASS II. BRYOPHYTA, BRYOPHYTES (498).
+
+  CLASS III. THALLOPHYTA, THALLOPHYTES (503).
+
+
+
+
+SECTION XIX. BOTANICAL WORK.
+
+
+555. Some hints and brief instructions for the collection, examination,
+and preservation of specimens are added. They are especially intended
+for the assistance of those who have not the advantage of a teacher.
+They apply to phanerogamous plants and Ferns only, and to systematic
+botany.[1]
+
+
+Sec. 1. COLLECTION, OR HERBORIZATION.
+
+556. As much as possible, plants should be examined in the living state,
+or when freshly gathered. But dried specimens should be prepared for
+more leisurely examination and for comparison. To the working botanist
+good dried specimens are indispensable.
+
+557. =Botanical Specimens=, to be complete, should have root or
+rootstock, stem, leaves, flowers, both open and in bud, and fruit.
+Sometimes these may all be obtained at one gathering; more commonly two
+or three gatherings at different times are requisite, especially for
+trees and shrubs.
+
+558. =In Herborizing=, a good knife and a narrow and strong trowel are
+needed; but a very strong knife will serve instead of a trowel or small
+pick for digging out bulbs, tubers, and the like. To carry the
+specimens, either the tin box (_vasculum_) or a portfolio, or both are
+required. The tin box is best for the collection of specimens to be used
+fresh, as in the class-room; also for very thick or fleshy plants. The
+portfolio is indispensable for long expeditions, and is best for
+specimens which are to be preserved in the herbarium.
+
+559. The _Vasculum_, or _Botanical Collecting-box_, is made of tin, in
+shape like a candle-box, only flatter, or the smaller sizes like an
+English sandwich-case; the lid opening for nearly the whole length of
+one side of the box. Any portable tin box of convenient size, and
+capable of holding specimens a foot or fifteen inches long, will answer
+the purpose. The box should shut close, so that the specimens may not
+wilt: then it will keep leafy branches and most flowers perfectly fresh
+for a day or two, especially if slightly moistened. They should not be
+wet.
+
+560. _The Portfolio_ is best made of two pieces of solid binder's-board,
+covered with enamel cloth, which also forms the back, and fastened by
+straps and buckles. It may be from a foot to twenty inches long, from
+nine to eleven or twelve inches wide. It should contain a needful
+quantity of smooth but strong and pliable paper (thin so-called Manilla
+paper is best), either fastened at the back as in a book, or loose in
+folded sheets when not very many specimens are required. As soon as
+gathered, the specimens should be separately laid between the leaves or
+in the folded sheets, and kept under moderate pressure in the closed
+portfolio.
+
+561. Of small herbs, especially annuals, the whole plant, root and all,
+should be taken for a specimen. Of larger ones branches will suffice,
+with some leaves from near the root. Enough of the root or subterranean
+part of the plant should be collected to show whether it is an annual, a
+biennial, or a perennial. Thick roots, bulbs, tubers, or branches of
+specimens intended to be pressed should be thinned with a knife, or cut
+into slices. Keep the specimens within the length of fifteen or sixteen
+inches, by folding, or when that cannot be done, by cutting into
+lengths.
+
+562. =For Drying Specimens= a good supply of soft and unsized paper is
+wanted; and some convenient means of applying considerable pressure. To
+make good dried botanical specimens, dry them as rapidly as possible
+between many thicknesses of sun-dried paper to absorb their moisture,
+under as much pressure as can be given without crushing the more
+delicate parts. This pressure may be had by a botanical press, of which
+various forms have been contrived; or by weights placed upon a
+board,--from forty to eighty or a hundred pounds, according to the
+quantity of specimens drying at the time. For use while travelling, a
+good portable press may be made of thick binders' boards for the sides,
+and the pressure may be applied by strong straps with buckles. Still
+better, on some accounts, are portable presses made of wire network,
+which allow the dampness to escape by evaporation between the meshes.
+For herborization in a small way, a light wire-press may be taken into
+the field and made to serve also as a portfolio.
+
+563. It is well to have two kinds of paper, namely, _driers_ of bibulous
+paper, stitched into pads (or the pads may be of thick carpet-paper, cut
+to size) and thin smooth paper, folded once; the specimens to be laid
+into the fold, either when gathered or on returning from the excursion.
+These sheets are to hold the specimens until they are quite dry. Every
+day, or at first even twice a day, the specimens, left undisturbed in
+their sheets, are to be shifted into fire-dried or sun-dried fresh
+driers, and the pressure renewed, while the moist sheets are spread out
+to dry, so as to take their turn again at the next shifting. This course
+must be continued until the specimens are no longer moist to the touch.
+Good and comely specimens are either made or spoiled within the first
+twenty-four or thirty-six hours. After that, when plenty of driers are
+used, it may not be necessary to change them so frequently.
+
+564. Succulent plants, which long refuse to part with life and moisture,
+and Spruces and some other evergreens which are apt to cast off their
+leaves, may be plunged for a moment into boiling water, all but the
+flowers. Delicate flowers may be encased in thin tissue paper when put
+into the press. Thick parts, like the heads of Sunflowers and Thistles,
+may be cut in two or into slices.
+
+565. Dried specimens may be packed in bundles, either in folded paper or
+upon single half-sheets. It is better that such paper should not be
+bibulous. The packages should be well wrapped or kept in close cases.
+
+566. =Poisoning= is necessary if specimens are to be permanently
+preserved from the depredation of insects. The usual application is an
+almost saturated solution of corrosive sublimate in 95 per cent alcohol,
+freely applied with a large and soft brush, or the specimens dipped into
+some of the solution poured into a large and flat dish; the wetted
+specimens to be transferred for a short time to driers.
+
+
+Sec. 2. HERBARIUM.
+
+567. The botanist's collection of dried specimens, ticketed with their
+names, place, and time of collection, and systematically arranged under
+their genera, orders, etc., forms a _Hortus Siccus_ or _Herbarium_. It
+comprises not only the specimens which the proprietor has himself
+collected, but those which he acquires through friendly exchanges, or in
+other ways. The specimens of an herbarium may be kept in folded sheets
+of paper; or they may be fastened on half-sheets of thick and white
+paper, either by gummed slips, or by glue applied to the specimens
+themselves. The former is best for private and small herbaria; the
+latter for large ones which are much turned over. Each sheet should be
+appropriated to one species; two or more different plants should never
+be attached to the same sheet. The generic and specific name of the
+plant should be added to the lower right-hand corner, either written on
+the sheet, or on a ticket pasted down; and the time of collection, the
+locality, the color of the flowers, and any other information which the
+specimens themselves do not afford, should be duly recorded upon the
+sheet or the ticket. The sheets of the herbarium should all be of
+exactly the same dimensions. The herbarium of Linnaeus is on paper of the
+common foolscap size, about eleven inches long and seven wide. This is
+too small. Sixteen and three eighths inches by eleven and a half inches
+is an approved size.
+
+568. The sheets containing the species of each genus are to be placed in
+_genus-covers_, made of a full sheet of thick paper (such as the
+strongest Manilla-hemp paper), to be when folded of the same dimensions
+as the species-sheet but slightly wider: the name of the genus is to be
+written on one of the lower corners. These are to be arranged under the
+orders to which they belong, and the whole kept in closed cases or
+cabinets, either laid flat in compartments, like "pigeon-holes," or else
+placed in thick portfolios, arranged like folio volumes. All should be
+kept, as much as practicable, in dust-proof and insect-proof cases or
+boxes.
+
+569. Fruits, tubers, and other hard parts, too thick for the herbarium,
+may be kept in pasteboard or light wooden boxes, in a collection apart.
+Small loose fruits, seeds, detached flowers, and the like may be
+conveniently preserved in paper capsules or envelopes, attached to the
+herbarium-sheets.
+
+
+Sec. 3. INVESTIGATION AND DETERMINATION OF PLANTS.
+
+570. =The Implements= required are a hand magnifying glass, a pocket
+lens of an inch or two focus, or a glass of two lenses, one of the lower
+and the other of the higher power; and a sharp penknife for dissection.
+With these and reasonable perseverance the structure of the flowers and
+fructification of most phanerogamous plants and Ferns can be made out.
+But for ease and comfort, as well as for certainty and right training,
+the student should have some kind of simple stage microscope, and under
+this make all dissections of small parts. Without it the student will be
+apt to fall into the bad habit of guessing where he ought to ascertain.
+
+571. The simple microscope may be reduced to a good lens or doublet, of
+an inch focus, mounted over a glass stage, so that it can be moved up
+and down and also sidewise, and with (or without) a little mirror
+underneath. A better one would have one or two additional lenses (say of
+half and of a quarter inch focus), a pretty large stage, on the glass of
+which several small objects can be placed and conveniently brought under
+the lens; and its height or that of the lens should be adjustable by a
+rack-work; also a swivel-mounted little mirror beneath, which is needed
+for minute objects to be viewed by transmitted light.
+
+572. For dissecting and displaying small parts on the stage of the
+microscope, besides a thin-bladed knife, the only tools needed are a
+good stock of common needles of various sizes, mounted in handles, and
+one or more saddler's-needles, which, being triangular, may be ground to
+sharp edges convenient for dissection. Also a pair of delicate-pointed
+forceps; those with curved points used by the dentist are most
+convenient. A cup of clean water is indispensable, with which to moisten
+or wet, or in which occasionally to float delicate parts. Small flowers,
+buds, fruits, and seeds of dried specimens can be dissected quite as
+well as fresh ones. They have only to be soaked in warm or boiling
+water.
+
+573. The compound microscope is rarely necessary except in cryptogamic
+botany and vegetable anatomy; but it is very useful and convenient,
+especially for the examination of pollen. To the advanced botanist it is
+a necessity, to all students of botany an aid and delight.
+
+574. =Analysis.= A few directions and hints may be given. The most
+important is this: In studying an unknown plant, make a complete
+examination of all its parts, and form a clear idea of its floral
+structure and that of its fruit, from pericarp down to the embryo, or as
+far as the materials in hand allow, before taking a step toward finding
+out its name and relationship by means of the keys or other helps which
+the Manuals and Floras provide. If it is the name merely that is wanted,
+the shorter way is to ask some one who already knows it. To verify the
+points of structure one by one as they happen to occur in an artificial
+key, without any preparatory investigation, is a usual but is not the
+best nor the surest way. It is well to make drawings or outline
+sketches of the smaller parts, and especially diagrams of the plan of
+the flower, such as those of Fig. 225, 227, 241, 244, 275-277. For
+these, cross sections of the flower-bud or flower are to be made: and
+longitudinal sections, such as Fig. 270-274, are equally important. The
+dissection even of small seeds is not difficult after some practice.
+Commonly they need to be soaked or boiled.
+
+575. The right appreciation of characters and terms used in description
+needs practice and calls for judgment. Plants do not grow exactly by
+rule and plummet, and measurements must be taken loosely. Difference of
+soil and situation are responded to by considerable variations, and
+other divergences occur which cannot be accounted for by the
+surroundings, nor be anticipated in general descriptions. Annuals may be
+very depauperate in dry soils or seasons, or very large when
+particularly well nourished. Warm and arid situations promote, and wet
+ones are apt to diminish pubescence. Salt water causes increased
+succulence. The color of flowers is apt to be lighter in shade, and
+brighter in open and elevated situations. A color or hue not normal to
+the species now and then occurs, which nothing in the conditions will
+account for. _A white-flowered variation of any other colored blossom
+may always be expected_; this, though it may be notable, no more
+indicates a distinct variety of the species than an albino would a
+variety of the human species. The numerical plan is subject to variation
+in some flowers; those on the plan of five may now and then vary to four
+or to six. Variations of the outline or lobing of leaves are so familiar
+that they do not much mislead. Only wider and longer observation
+suffices to prevent or correct mistakes in botanical study. But the
+weighing of evidence and the balancing of probabilities, no less than
+the use of the well-ordered and logical system of classification, give
+as excellent training to the judgment as the search for the facts
+themselves does to the observing powers.
+
+
+Sec. 4. SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS.
+
+576. For a full account of these, whether of former or actual use, see
+"Structural Botany" of the "Botanical Text Book," pp. 367, 392, as also
+for the principles which govern the accentuation of names. It is needful
+here to explain only those used in the Manuals and Floras of this
+country, for which the present volume is an introduction and companion.
+They are not numerous.
+
+577. In arranging the species, at least those of a large genus, the
+divisions are denoted and graduated as follows: The sign Sec. is prefixed
+to sections of the highest rank: these sections when they have names
+affixed to them (as Prunus Sec. Cerasus) may be called subgenera. When the
+divisions of a genus are not of such importance, or when divisions are
+made under the subgenus itself, the most comprehensive ones are marked
+by asterisks, * for the first, * * for the second, and so on.
+Subdivisions are marked with a prefixed +; those under this head with
+++; and those under this with =, if there be so many grades. A similar
+notation is followed in the synopsis of the genera of an order.
+
+578. The interrogation point is used in botany to indicate doubt. Thus
+_Clematis crispa_, L.? expresses a doubt whether the plant in question
+is really the _Clematis crispa_ of Linnaeus. _Clematis? polypetala_
+expresses a doubt whether the plant so named is really a Clematis. On
+the other hand the exclamation point (!) is used to denote certainty
+whenever there is special need to affirm this.
+
+579. For size or height, the common signs of degrees, minutes, and
+seconds, have been used, thus, 1 deg., 2', 3", stand respectively for a
+foot, two inches, and three lines or twelfths of an inch. A better way,
+when such brevity is needed, is to write 1^{ft}. 2^{in}. 3^{l}.
+
+580. Signs for duration used by Linnaeus were [Symbol for Sun] for an
+annual, [Symbol for Mars] for a biennial, [Symbol for Jupiter] for a
+perennial herb, [Symbol like numeral 5 without the top bar] for a shrub
+or tree. DeCandolle brought in [Symbol for Sun] for a plant that died
+after once flowering, [Symbol with numeral 1 in a circle] if annual,
+[Symbol with numeral 2 in a circle] if biennial.
+
+581. To indicate sexes, [Symbol for Male] means staminate or male plant
+or blossom; [Symbol for Female], pistillate or female; [Symbol like that
+for Mercury, but with two inverted breve accents over it], perfect or
+hermaphrodite.
+
+582. To save room it is not uncommon to use [Symbol for infinity] in
+place of "many;" thus, "Stamens [Symbol for infinity]," for stamens
+indefinitely numerous: "[Symbol for infinity] flora" for pluriflora or
+many-flowered. Still more common is the form "Stamens 5-20," or "Calyx
+4-5-parted," for stamens from five to twenty, calyx four-parted or
+five-parted, and the like. Such abbreviations hardly need explanation.
+
+583. The same may be said of such abbreviations as _Cal._ for calyx,
+_Cor._ for corolla, _Pet._ for petals, _St._ for stamens, _Pist._ for
+pistil, _Hab._ for habitat, meaning place of growth, _Herb._ for
+herbarium, _Hort._ for garden. Also _l. c._, loco citato, which avoids
+repetition of volume and page.
+
+584. "Structural Botany" has six pages of abbreviations of the names of
+botanists, mostly of botanical authors. As they are not of much
+consequence to the beginner, while the more advanced botanist will know
+the names in full, or know where to find them, only a selection is here
+appended.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] For fuller directions in many particulars, see "Structural Botany,"
+pp. 370-374.
+
+
+
+
+ABBREVIATIONS OF THE NAMES OF BOTANISTS.
+
+
+  _Adans._          = Adanson.
+  _Ait._              Aiton.
+  _All._              Allioni.
+  _Andr._             Andrews.
+  _Arn._              Arnott.
+  _Aub._              Aublet.
+  _Bartr._            Bartram.
+  _Beauv._            Palisot de Beauvois.
+  _Benth._            Bentham.
+  _Bernh._            Bernhardi.
+  _Bigel._            Jacob Bigelow.
+  _Bong._             Bongard.
+  _Bonpl._            Bonpland.
+  _Br._ or _R. Br._   Robert Brown.
+  _Cass._             Cassini.
+  _Cav._              Cavanilles.
+  _Cham._             Chamisso.
+  _Chapm._            Chapman.
+  _Chois._            Choisy.
+  _Clayt._            Clayton.
+  _Curt._             Curtis.
+  _Curt. (M. A.)_     M. A. Curtis.
+  _Darl._             Darlington.
+  _DC._             } DeCandolle.
+  _DeCand._         }
+  _A. DC._            Alphonse DeCandolle.
+  _Desc._             Descourtilz.
+  _Desf._             Desfontaines.
+  _Desv._             Desvaux.
+  _Dill._             Dillenius.
+  _Dougl._            Douglas.
+  _Duham._            Duhamel.
+  _Dun._              Dunal.
+  _Eat._              Eaton (Amos) or D. C.
+  _Ehrh._             Ehrhart.
+  _Ell._              Elliott.
+  _Endl._             Endlicher.
+  _Engelm._           Engelmann.
+  _Engl._             Engler.
+  _Fisch._            Fischer.
+  _Froel._            Froelich.
+  _Gaertn._            Gaertner.
+  _Gaud._             Gaudin.
+  _Gaudich._          Gaudichaud.
+  _Ging._             Gingins.
+  _Gmel._             Gmelin.
+  _Good._             Goodenough.
+  _Grev._             Greville.
+  _Griseb._           Grisebach.
+  _Gron._           } Gronovius.
+  _Gronov._         }
+  _Hall._             Haller.
+  _Hartm._            Hartmann.
+  _Hartw._            Hartweg.
+  _Harv._             Harvey.
+  _Haw._              Haworth.
+  _Hegelm._           Hegelmaier.
+  _Hemsl._            Hemsley.
+  _Herb._             Herbert.
+  _Hoffm._            Hoffmann.
+  _Hoffmans._         Hoffmansegg.
+  _Hook._             Hooker.
+  _Hook. f._          J. D. Hooker.
+  _Hornem._           Hornemann.
+  _Huds._             Hudson.
+  _Humb._             Humboldt.
+  _HBK._              Humboldt, Bonpland, and Kunth.
+  _Jacq._             Jacquin.
+  _Jacq. f._          J. F. Jacquin.
+  _Juss._             Jussieu.
+  _A. Juss._          Adrien de Jussieu.
+  _Kit._              Kitaibel.
+  _L._ or _Linn._     Linnaeus.
+  _Labill._           Labillardiere.
+  _Lag._              Lagasca.
+  _Lam._              Lamarck.
+  _Ledeb._            Ledebour.
+  _Lehm._             Lehmann.
+  _Lesq._             Lesquereux.
+  _Less._             Lessing.
+  _Lestib._           Lestibudois.
+  _L'Her._            L'Heritier.
+  _Lindb._            Lindberg.
+  _Lindh._            Lindheimer.
+  _Lindl._            Lindley.
+  _Lodd._             Loddiges.
+  _Loud._             Loudon.
+  _M. Bieb._          Marschall von Bieberstein.
+  _Marsh._            Marshall (Humphrey).
+  _Mart._             Martius.
+  _Mast._           = Masters.
+  _Maxim._            Maximowicz.
+  _Meisn._          } Meisner or
+  _Meissn._         } Meissner.
+  _Michx._ or _Mx._   Michaux.
+  _Michx. f._         F. A. Michaux.
+  _Mill._             Miller.
+  _Miq._              Miquel.
+  _Mitch._            Mitchell.
+  _Moc._              Mocino.
+  _Moq._              Moquin-Tandon.
+  _Moric._            Moricand.
+  _Moris._            Morison.
+  _Muell. Arg._       J. Mueller.
+  _Muell. (F.)_       Ferdinand Mueller.
+  _Muhl._             Muhlenberg.
+  _Murr._             Murray.
+  _Naud._             Naudin.
+  _Neck._             Necker.
+  _Nees_            } Nees von Esenbeck.
+  _N. ab E._        }
+  _Nutt._             Nuttall.
+  _Oed._              Oeder.
+  _Ort._              Ortega.
+  _P. de Beauv._      Palisot de Beauvois.
+  _Pall._             Pallas.
+  _Parl._             Parlatore.
+  _Pav._              Pavon.
+  _Pers._             Persoon.
+  _Planch._           Planchon.
+  _Pluk._             Plukenet.
+  _Plum._             Plumier.
+  _Poir._             Poiret.
+  _Radlk._            Radlkofer.
+  _Raf._              Rafinesque.
+  _Red._              Redoute.
+  _Reichenb._         Reichenbach.
+  _Rich._             L. C. Richard.
+  _Rich. f._ or _A._  Achille Richard.
+  _Richards._         Richardson.
+  _Ridd._             Riddell.
+  _Roem. & Schult._   Roemer & Schultes.
+  _Rottb._            Rottboell.
+  _Rupr._             Ruprecht.
+  _St. Hil._          Saint-Hilaire.
+  _Salisb._           Salisbury.
+  _Schk._             Schkuhr.
+  _Schlecht._         Schlechtendal.
+  _Schrad._           Schrader.
+  _Schreb._           Schreber.
+  _Schwein._          Schweinitz.
+  _Scop._             Scopoli.
+  _Spreng._           Sprengel.
+  _Sternb._           Sternberg.
+  _Steud._            Steudel.
+  _Sull._             Sullivant.
+  _Thunb._            Thunberg.
+  _Torr._             Torrey.
+  _Tourn._            Tournefort.
+  _Trautv._           Trautvetter.
+  _Trin._             Trinius.
+  _Tuck._             Tuckerman.
+  _Vaill._            Vaillant.
+  _Vent._             Ventenat.
+  _Vill._             Villars.
+  _Wahl._             Wahlenberg.
+  _Walds._            Waldstein.
+  _Wall._             Wallich.
+  _Wallr._            Wallroth.
+  _Walp._             Walpers.
+  _Walt._             Walter.
+  _Wang._             Wangenheim.
+  _Wats._             Sereno Watson, unless other initials are given.
+  _Wedd._             Weddell.
+  _Wendl._            Wendland.
+  _Wiks._             Wikstrom.
+  _Willd._            Willdenow.
+  _Wulf._             Wulfen.
+  _Zucc._             Zuccarini.
+  _Zuccag._           Zuccagini.
+
+
+
+
+GLOSSARY AND INDEX,
+
+OR
+
+DICTIONARY OF THE PRINCIPAL TERMS IN DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY, COMBINED WITH
+AN INDEX.
+
+
+     For the convenience of unclassical students, the commoner Latin
+     and Greek words (or their equivalents in English form) which
+     enter into the composition of botanical names, as well as of
+     technical terms, are added to this Glossary. The numbers refer
+     to pages.
+
+
+_A_, at the beginning of words of Greek derivation, commonly signifies a
+negative, or the absence of something; as apetalous, without petals;
+aphyllous, leafless, &c. In words beginning with a vowel, the prefix is
+_an_; as anantherous, destitute of anther.
+
+_Abnormal_, contrary to the usual or the natural structure.
+
+_Aboriginal_, original in the strictest sense; same as indigenous.
+
+_Abortive_, imperfectly formed, or rudimentary.
+
+_Abortion_, the imperfect formation or the non-formation of some part.
+
+_Abrupt_, suddenly terminating; as, for instance,
+
+_Abruptly pinnate_, pinnate without an odd leaflet at the end, 58.
+
+_Acantho-_, spiny.
+
+_Acaulescent_ (_acaulis_), apparently stemless; the proper stem, bearing
+the leaves and flowers, being very short or subterranean.
+
+_Accessory_, something additional; as _Accessory buds_, 30, 31;
+_Accessory fruits_, 118.
+
+_Accrescent_, growing larger after flowering.
+
+_Accrete_, grown to.
+
+_Accumbent_, lying against a thing. The cotyledons are accumbent when
+they lie with their edges against the radicle, 128.
+
+_Acephalous_, headless.
+
+_Acerose_, needle-shaped, as the leaves of Pines.
+
+_Acetabuliform_, saucer-shaped.
+
+_Achaenium_, or _Achenium_ (plural _achenia_), a one-seeded, seed-like
+fruit, 120.
+
+_Achlamydeous_ (flower), without floral envelopes, 86.
+
+_Acicular_, needle-shaped; more slender than acerose.
+
+_Acinaciform_, scimitar-shaped, like some bean-pods.
+
+_Acines_, the separate grains of a fruit, such as the raspberry.
+
+_Acorn_, the nut of the Oak, 122.
+
+_Acotyledonous_, destitute of cotyledons or seed-leaves.
+
+_Acrogenous_, growing from the apex, as the stems of Ferns and Mosses.
+_Acrogens_, or _Acrogenous Plants_, a name for the vascular cryptogamous
+plants, 156.
+
+_Aculeate_, armed with prickles, i. e. _aculei_; as the Rose and Brier.
+
+_Aculeolate_, armed with small prickles, or slightly prickly.
+
+_Acuminate_, taper-pointed, 54.
+
+_Acute_, merely sharp-pointed, or ending in a point less than a right
+angle, 54.
+
+_Adelphous_ (stamens), joined in a fraternity (_adelphia_); see
+_monadelphous_, &c.
+
+_Aden_, Greek for gland. So _Adenophorous_, gland-bearing.
+
+_Adherent_, sticking to, or more commonly, growing fast to another body.
+
+_Adnate_, literally, growing fast to, born adherent, 95. The anther is
+adnate when fixed by its whole length to the filament or its
+prolongation, 101.
+
+_Adnation_, the state of being adnate, 94.
+
+_Adpressed_ or _appressed_, brought into contact with, but not united.
+
+_Adscendent_, _ascendent_, or _ascending_, rising gradually upwards, 39.
+
+_Adsurgent_, or _assurgent_, same as ascending, 39.
+
+_Adventitious_, out of the proper or usual place; e. g. _Adventitious
+buds_, 30.
+
+_Adventive_, applied to foreign plants accidentally or sparingly
+introduced into a country, but hardly to be called naturalized.
+
+_AEquilateral_, equal-sided; opposed to oblique.
+
+_Aerial roots_, &c., 36.
+
+_AEruginous_, verdigris-colored.
+
+_AEstival_, produced in summer.
+
+_AEstivation_, the arrangement of parts in a flower-bud, 97.
+
+_Agamous_, sexless.
+
+_Aggregate fruits_, 118.
+
+_Agrestis_, growing in fields.
+
+_Air-cells_ or _Air-passages_, spaces in the tissue of leaves and some
+stems, 131.
+
+_Air-Plants_, 36.
+
+_Akene_ or _Akenium_, 120.
+
+_Ala_ (plural, _alae_), a wing; the side-petals of a papilionaceous
+corolla, 92.
+
+_Alabastrum_, a flower-bud.
+
+_Alar_, situated in the forks of a stem.
+
+_Alate_, winged.
+
+_Albescent_, whitish, or turning white.
+
+_Albus_, Latin for white.
+
+_Albumen_ of the seed, nourishing matter stored up with the embryo, 21,
+127.
+
+_Albumen_, a vegetable product, of four elements.
+
+_Albuminous_ (seeds), furnished with albumen, 21.
+
+_Alburnum_, young wood, sap-wood, 142.
+
+_Alliaceous_, with odor of garlic.
+
+_Allogamous_, close fertilization.
+
+_Alpestrine_, subalpine.
+
+_Alpine_, belonging to high mountains above the limit of forests.
+
+_Alternate_ (leaves), one after another, 29, 67. Petals are _alternate_
+with the sepals, or stamens with the petals, when they stand over the
+intervals between them, 82.
+
+_Alveolate_, honeycomb-like.
+
+_Ament_, the scaly spike of trees like the Birch and Willow, 75.
+
+_Amentaceous_, catkin-like, or catkin-bearing.
+
+_Amorphous_, shapeless, without any definite form.
+
+_Amphicarpous_, producing two kinds of fruit.
+
+_Amphigastrium_ (plural, _amphigastria_), a peculiar stipule-like leaf
+of Liverworts.
+
+_Amphitropous_ ovules or seeds, 111.
+
+_Amphora_, a pitcher-shaped organ.
+
+_Amplectant_, embracing. _Amplexicaul_ (leaves), clasping the stem by
+the base.
+
+_Ampullaceous_, swelling out like a bottle or bladder (_ampulla_).
+
+_Amylaceous_, _Amyloid_, composed of starch (_amylum_), or starch-like.
+
+_Anandrous_, without stamens.
+
+_Anantherous_, without anthers.
+
+_Ananthous_, destitute of flowers; flowerless.
+
+_Anastomosing_, forming a net-work (_anastomosis_), as the veins of
+leaves, 50.
+
+_Anatropous_ ovules or seeds, 111.
+
+_Ancipital_ (_anceps_), two-edged.
+
+_Androecium_, a name for the stamens taken together, 98.
+
+_Andro-dioecious_, flowers staminate on one plant, perfect on
+another.
+
+_Androgynous_, having both staminate and pistillate flowers in the same
+cluster.
+
+_Androphore_, a column of united stamens, as in a Mallow.
+
+_Androus_, or _Ander_, _andra_, _andrum_, Greek in compounds for male,
+or stamens.
+
+_Anemophilous_, wind-loving, said of wind-fertilizable flowers, 113.
+
+_Anfractuose_, bent hither and thither as the anthers of the Squash, &c.
+
+_Angiospermae_, _Angiospermous_, with seeds formed in an ovary or
+pericarp, 109.
+
+_Angular divergence_ of leaves, 69.
+
+_Anisos_, unequal. _Anisomerous_, parts unequal in number.
+_Anisopetalous_, with unequal petals. _Anisophyllous_, the leaves
+unequal in the pairs.
+
+_Annual_ (plant), flowering and fruiting the year it is raised from the
+seed, and then dying, 37.
+
+_Annular_, in the form of a ring, or forming a circle.
+
+_Annulate_, marked by rings; or furnished with an
+
+_Annulus_, or ring, like that of the spore-case of most Ferns. In Mosses
+it is a ring of cells placed between the mouth of the spore-case and the
+lid in many species.
+
+_Annotinous_, yearly, or in yearly growths.
+
+_Anterior_, in the blossom, is the part next the bract, i. e. external;
+while the posterior side is that next the axis of inflorescence. Thus,
+in the Pea, &c., the keel is _anterior_, and the standard _posterior_,
+96.
+
+_Anthela_, an open paniculate cyme.
+
+_Anther_, the essential part of the stamen, which contains the pollen,
+14, 80, 101.
+
+_Antheridium_ (plural _antheridia_), the organ in Cryptogams which
+answers to the anther of Flowering Plants, 150.
+
+_Antheriferous_, anther-bearing.
+
+_Anthesis_, the period or the act of the expansion of a flower.
+
+_Anthocarpus_ (fruits), 118.
+
+_Anthophore_, a stipe between calyx and corolla, 113.
+
+_Anthos_, Greek for flower; in composition, _Monanthous_, one-flowered,
+&c.
+
+_Anticous_, same as anterior.
+
+_Antrorse_, directed upwards or forwards.
+
+_Apetalous_, destitute of petals, 86.
+
+_Aphyllous_, leafless.
+
+_Apical_, belonging to the apex or point.
+
+_Apiculate_, pointleted; tipped with a small point.
+
+_Apocarpous_ (pistils), when the several pistils of the same flower are
+separate.
+
+_Apophysis_, any irregular swelling; the enlargement at the base of the
+spore-case of the Umbrella-Moss.
+
+_Apothecium_, the fructification of Lichens, 171.
+
+_Appendage_, any superadded part. _Appendiculate_, provided with
+appendages.
+
+_Appressed_, close pressed to the stem, &c.
+
+_Apricus_, growing in dry and sunny places.
+
+_Apterous_, wingless.
+
+_Aquatic_ (_Aquatilis_), living or growing in water; applied to plants
+whether growing under water, or with all but the base raised out of it.
+
+_Arachnoid_, _Araneose_, cobwebby; clothed with, or consisting of, soft
+downy fibres.
+
+_Arboreous_, _Arborescent_, tree-like, in size or form, 39.
+
+_Arboretum_, a collection of trees.
+
+_Archegonium_ (plural _archegonia_), the organ in Mosses, &c., which is
+analogous to the pistil of Flowering Plants.
+
+_Arcuate_, bent or curved like a bow.
+
+_Arenose_ (_Arenarius_), growing in sand.
+
+_Areolate_, marked out into little spaces or _areolae_.
+
+_Argenteous_, or _Argentate_, silvery-like.
+
+_Argillose_, growing in clay.
+
+_Argos_, Greek for pure white; _Argophyllous_ or _Argyrophyllous_,
+white-leaved, &c.
+
+_Argutus_, acutely dentate.
+
+_Arillate_ (seeds) furnished with an aril.
+
+_Arilliform_, aril-like.
+
+_Arillus_, or _Aril_, a fleshy growth from base of a seed, 126.
+
+_Aristate_, awned, i. e. furnished with an _arista_, like the beard of
+Barley, &c., 54.
+
+_Aristulate_, diminutive of the last; short-awned.
+
+_Arrect_, brought into upright position.
+
+_Arrow-shaped_ or _Arrow-headed_, same as _sagittate_, 53.
+
+_Articulated_, jointed; furnished with joints or _articulations_, where
+it separates or inclines to do so. _Articulated leaves_, 57.
+
+_Artificial Classification_, 181.
+
+_Ascending_ (stems, &c.), 39; (seeds or ovules), 110.
+
+_Ascidium_, a pitcher-shaped body, like leaves of Sarracenia.
+
+_Ascus_ (_asci_), a sac, the spore-case of Lichens and some Fungi.
+
+_Aspergilliform_, shaped like the brush used to sprinkle holy water; as
+the stigmas of many Grasses.
+
+_Asperous_, rough to touch.
+
+_Assimilation_, 144, 147.
+
+_Assurgent_, same as ascending, 39.
+
+_Atropous_ or _Atropal_ (ovules), same as orthotropous.
+
+_Aurantiacous_, orange-colored.
+
+_Aureous_, golden.
+
+_Auriculate_, furnished with _auricles_ or ear-like appendages, 53.
+
+_Autogamy_, self-fertilization, 115.
+
+_Awl-shaped_, sharp-pointed from a broader base, 61.
+
+_Awn_, the bristle or beard of Barley, Oats, &c.; or any similar
+appendage.
+
+_Awned_ or _Awn-pointed_, furnished with an awn or long bristle-shaped
+tip, 54.
+
+_Axil_, the angle on the upper side between a leaf and the stem, 13.
+
+_Axile_, belonging to the axis, or occupying the axis.
+
+_Axillary_ (buds, &c.), occurring in an axil, 27.
+
+_Axis_, the central line of any body; the organ round which others are
+attached; the root and stem. _Ascending_ and _Descending Axis_, 38.
+
+
+_Baccate_, berried, berry-like, of a pulpy nature like a berry
+(_bacca_).
+
+_Badius_, chestnut-colored.
+
+_Banner_, see Standard, 92.
+
+_Barbate_, bearded; bearing tufts, spots, or lines of hairs.
+
+_Barbed_, furnished with a _barb_ or double hook; as the apex of the
+bristle on the fruit of Echinospermum (Stickseed), &c.
+
+_Barbellate_, said of the bristles of the pappus of some Compositae when
+beset with short, stiff hairs, longer than when denticulate, but shorter
+than when plumose.
+
+_Barbellulate_, diminutive of barbellate.
+
+_Bark_, the covering of a stem outside of the wood, 138, 140.
+
+_Basal_, belonging or attached to the
+
+_Base_, that extremity of any organ by which it is attached to its
+support.
+
+_Basifixed_, attached by its base.
+
+_Bast_, _Bast-fibres_, 134.
+
+_Beaked_, ending in a prolonged narrow tip.
+
+_Bearded_, see _barbate_. _Beard_ is sometimes used for awn, more
+commonly for long or stiff hairs of any sort.
+
+_Bell-shaped_, of the shape of a bell, as the corolla of Harebell, 90.
+
+_Berry_, a fruit pulpy or juicy throughout, as a grape, 119.
+
+_Bi-_ (or _Bis_), in compound words, twice; as
+
+_Biarticulate_, twice-jointed, or two-jointed; separating into two
+pieces.
+
+_Biauriculate_, having two ears, as the leaf in fig. 126.
+
+_Bicallose_, having two callosities or harder spots.
+
+_Bicarinate_, two-keeled.
+
+_Bicipital_ (_Biceps_), two-headed; dividing into two parts.
+
+_Biconjugate_, twice paired, as when a petiole forks twice.
+
+_Bidentate_, having two teeth (not twice or doubly dentate).
+
+_Biennial_, of two years' continuance; springing from the seed one
+season, flowering and dying the next, 38.
+
+_Bifarious_, two-ranked; arranged in two rows.
+
+_Bifid_, two-cleft to about the middle.
+
+_Bifoliolate_, a compound leaf of two leaflets, 59.
+
+_Bifurcate_, twice forked; or more commonly, forked into two branches.
+
+_Bijugate_, bearing two pairs (of leaflets, &c.).
+
+_Bilabiate_, two-lipped, as the corolla of Labiatae.
+
+_Bilamellate_, of two plates (_lamellae_), as the stigma of Mimulus.
+
+_Bilobed_, the same as two-lobed.
+
+_Bilocellate_, when a cell is divided into two _locelli_.
+
+_Bilocular_, two-celled; as most anthers, the pod of Foxglove, &c.
+
+_Binary_, in twos.
+
+_Binate_, in couples, two together. _Bipartite_, the Latin form of
+two-parted.
+
+_Binodal_, of two nodes.
+
+_Binomial_, of two words, as the name of genus and species taken
+together, 180.
+
+_Bipalmate_, twice palmately divided.
+
+_Biparous_, bearing two.
+
+_Bipinnate_ (leaf), twice pinnate, 58. _Bipinnatifid_, twice pinnatifid,
+57.
+
+_Bipinnatisect_, twice pinnately divided.
+
+_Biplicate_, twice folded together.
+
+_Biserial_, or _Biseriate_, occupying two rows, one within the other.
+
+_Biserrate_, doubly serrate, as when the teeth of a leaf are themselves
+serrate.
+
+_Bisexual_, having both stamens and pistil.
+
+_Biternate_, twice ternate; i. e. principal divisions three, each
+bearing three leaflets, 59.
+
+_Bladdery_, thin and inflated.
+
+_Blade_ of a leaf, its expanded portion, 49.
+
+_Bloom_, the whitish powder on some fruits, leaves, &c.
+
+_Boat-shaped_, concave within and keeled without, in shape like a small
+boat.
+
+_Border_ of corolla, &c., 89.
+
+_Brachiate_, with opposite branches at right angles to each other.
+
+_Brachy-_, short, as _Brachycarpous_, short-fruited, &c.
+
+_Bract_ (_Bractea_), the leaf of an inflorescence. Specially, the bract
+is the small leaf or scale from the axil of which a flower or its
+pedicel proceeds, 73.
+
+_Bracteate_, furnished with bracts.
+
+_Bracteolate_, furnished with bractlets.
+
+_Bracteose_, with numerous or conspicuous bracts.
+
+_Bractlet_ (_Bracteola_), or _Bracteole_, is a bract seated _on_ the
+pedicel or flower-stalk, 73.
+
+_Branch_, _Branching_, 27.
+
+_Breathing-pores_, 144.
+
+_Bristles_, stiff, sharp hairs, or any very slender bodies of similar
+appearance.
+
+_Bristly_, beset with bristles. _Bristle-pointed_, 54.
+
+_Brunneous_, brown.
+
+_Brush-shaped_, see _aspergilliform_.
+
+_Bryology_, that part of botany which relates to Mosses.
+
+_Bryophyta_, _Bryophytes_, 163.
+
+_Bud_, a branch in its earliest or undeveloped state, 27. _Bud-scales_,
+63.
+
+_Bulb_, a leaf-bud with fleshy scales, usually subterranean, 46.
+
+_Bulbils_, diminutive bulbs.
+
+_Bulbiferous_, bearing or producing bulbs. _Bulbose_ or _bulbous_,
+bulb-like in shape, &c.
+
+_Bulblets_, small bulbs, borne above ground, 46.
+
+_Bulb-scales_, 46.
+
+_Bullate_, appearing as if blistered or bladdery (from _bulla_, a
+bubble).
+
+_Byssaceous_, composed of fine flax-like threads.
+
+
+_Caducous_, dropping off very early, compared with other parts; as the
+calyx in the Poppy, falling when the flower opens.
+
+_Caeruleous_, blue. _Caerulescent_, becoming bluish.
+
+_Caespitose_, or _Cespitose_, growing in turf-like patches or tufts.
+
+_Calathiform_, cup-shaped.
+
+_Calcarate_, furnished with a spur (_calcar_), 86, 87.
+
+_Calceolate_ or _Calceiform_, slipper-shaped, like one petal of the
+Lady's Slipper.
+
+_Callose_, hardened; or furnished with callosities or thickened spots.
+
+_Calvous_, bald or naked of hairs.
+
+_Calyciflorus_, when petals and stamens are adnate to calyx.
+
+_Calycine_, belonging to the calyx.
+
+_Calyculate_, furnished with an outer accessory calyx (_calyculus_) or
+set of bracts looking like a calyx, as in true Pinks.
+
+_Calyptra_, the hood or veil of the capsule of a Moss, 163.
+
+_Calyptrate_, having a calyptra.
+
+_Calyptriform_, shaped like a calyptra or candle-extinguisher.
+
+_Calyx_, the outer set of the floral envelopes or leaves of the flower,
+14, 79.
+
+_Cambium_, _Cambium-layer_, 140.
+
+_Campanulate_, bell-shaped, 90.
+
+_Campylotropous_, or _Campylotropal_, curved ovules and seeds, 111.
+_Campylospermous_, applied to fruits of Umbelliferae when the seed is
+curved in at the edges, forming a groove down the inner face; as in
+Sweet Cicely.
+
+_Canaliculate_, channelled, or with a deep longitudinal groove.
+
+_Cancellate_, latticed, resembling lattice-work.
+
+_Candidus_, Latin for pure white.
+
+_Canescent_, grayish-white; hoary, usually because the surface is
+covered with fine white hairs. _Incanous_ is whiter still.
+
+_Canous_, whitened with pubescence; see _incanous_.
+
+_Capillaceous_, _Capillary_, hair-like in shape; as fine as hair or
+slender bristles.
+
+_Capitate_, having a globular apex, like the head on a pin.
+
+_Capitellate_, diminutive of capitate.
+
+_Capitulum_, a close rounded dense cluster or _head_ of sessile flowers,
+74.
+
+_Capreolate_, bearing tendrils (from _capreolus_, a tendril).
+
+_Capsule_, a dry dehiscent seed-vessel of a compound pistil, 122.
+
+_Capsular_, relating to, or like a capsule.
+
+_Capture of insects_, 154.
+
+_Carina_, a keel; the two anterior petals of a papilionaceous flower,
+92.
+
+_Carinate_, keeled, furnished with a sharp ridge or projection on the
+lower side.
+
+_Cariopsis_, or _Caryopsis_, the one-seeded fruit or grain of Grasses,
+121.
+
+_Carneous_, flesh-colored; pale red. _Carnose_, fleshy in texture.
+
+_Carpel_, or _Carpidium_, a simple pistil or a pistil-leaf, 106.
+
+_Carpellary_, pertaining to a carpel.
+
+_Carpology_, that department of botany which relates to fruits.
+
+_Carpophore_, the stalk or support of a pistil extending between its
+carpels, 113.
+
+_Carpos_, Greek for fruit.
+
+_Cartilaginous_, or _Cartilagineous_, firm and tough in texture, like
+cartilage.
+
+_Caruncle_, an excrescence at the scar of some seeds, 126.
+
+_Carunculate_, furnished with a caruncle.
+
+_Caryophyllaceous_, pink-like: applied to a corolla of 5 long-clawed
+petals.
+
+_Cassideous_, helmet-shaped.
+
+_Cassus_, empty and sterile.
+
+_Catenate_, or _Catenulate_, end to end as in a chain.
+
+_Catkin_, see Ament, 75.
+
+_Caudate_, tailed, or tail-pointed.
+
+_Caudex_, a sort of trunk, such as that of Palms; an upright rootstock,
+39, 44.
+
+_Caudicle_, the stalk of a pollen-mass, &c.
+
+_Caulescent_, having an obvious stem, 36.
+
+_Caulicle_, a little stem, or rudimentary stem (of a seedling), 11,
+127.
+
+_Cauline_, of or belonging to a stem, 36. _Caulis_, Latin name of stem.
+
+_Caulocarpic_, equivalent to perennial.
+
+_Caulome_, the cauline parts of a plant.
+
+_Cell_ (diminutive, _Cellule_), the cavity of an anther, ovary, &c.; one
+of the anatomical elements, 131.
+
+_Cellular Cryptogams_, 162.
+
+_Cellular tissue_, 131.
+
+_Cellulose_, 131.
+
+_Cell-walls_, 130.
+
+_Centrifugal_ (inflorescence), produced or expanding in succession from
+the centre outwards, 77.
+
+_Centripetal_, the opposite of centrifugal, 74.
+
+_Cephala_, Greek for head. In compounds, _Monocephalous_, with one head,
+_Microcephalous_, small-headed, &c.
+
+_Cereal_, belonging to corn, or corn-plants.
+
+_Cernuous_, nodding; the summit more or less inclining.
+
+_Chaeta_, Greek for bristle.
+
+_Chaff_, small membranous scales or bracts on the receptacle of
+Compositae; the glumes, &c., of grasses.
+
+_Chaffy_, furnished with chaff, or of the texture of chaff.
+
+_Chalaza_, that part of the ovule where all the parts grow together,
+110, 126.
+
+_Channelled_, hollowed out like a gutter; same as _canaliculate_.
+
+_Character_, a phrase expressing the essential marks of a species,
+genus, &c., 181.
+
+_Chartaceous_, of the texture of paper or parchment.
+
+_Chloros_, Greek for green, whence _Chloranthous_, green-flowered;
+_Chlorocarpous_, green-fruited, &c.
+
+_Chlorophyll_, leaf green, 136.
+
+_Chlorosis_, a condition in which naturally colored parts turn green.
+
+_Choripetalous_, same as polypetalous.
+
+_Chorisis_, separation of the normally united parts, or where two or
+more parts take the place of one.
+
+_Chromule_, coloring matter in plants, especially when not green, or
+when liquid.
+
+_Chrysos_, Greek for golden yellow, whence _Chrysanthous_,
+yellow-flowered, &c.
+
+_Cicatrix_, the scar left by the fall of a leaf or other organ.
+
+_Ciliate_, beset on the margin with a fringe of _cilia_, i. e. of hairs
+or bristles, like the eyelashes fringing the eyelids, whence the name.
+
+_Cinereous_, or _Cineraceous_, ash-grayish; of the color of ashes.
+
+_Circinate_, rolled inwards from the top, 72.
+
+_Circumscissile_, or _Circumcissile_, divided by a circular line round
+the sides, as the pods of Purslane, Plantain, &c., 124.
+
+_Circumscription_, general outline.
+
+_Cirrhiferous_, or _Cirrhose_, furnished with a tendril (Latin,
+_Cirrhus_); as the Grape-vine. _Cirrhose_ also means resembling or
+coiling like tendrils, as the leaf-stalks of Virgin's-bower. More
+properly _Cirrus_ and _Cirrose_.
+
+_Citreous_, lemon-yellow.
+
+_Clados_, Greek for branch. _Cladophylla_, 64.
+
+_Class_, 178, 183.
+
+_Classification_, 175, 183.
+
+_Clathrate_, latticed; same as _cancellate_.
+
+_Clavate_, club-shaped; slender below and thickened upwards.
+
+_Clavellate_, diminutive of clavate.
+
+_Claviculate_, having _Claviculae_, or little tendrils or hooks.
+
+_Claw_, the narrow or stalk-like base of some petals, as of Pinks, 91.
+
+_Cleistogamous_ (_Cleistogamy_), fertilized in closed bud, 115.
+
+_Cleft_, cut into lobes, 55.
+
+_Close_ fertilization, 115.
+
+_Climbing_, rising by clinging to other objects, 39, 151.
+
+_Club shaped_, see _clavate_.
+
+_Clustered_, leaves, flowers, &c., aggregated or collected into a bunch.
+
+_Clypeate_, buckler-shaped.
+
+_Coadunate_, same as _connate_, i. e. united.
+
+_Coalescent_, growing together. _Coalescence_, 88.
+
+_Coarctate_, contracted or brought close together.
+
+_Coated_, having an integument, or covered in layers. Coated bulb, 46.
+
+_Cobwebby_, same as _arachnoid_; bearing hairs like cobwebs or gossamer.
+
+_Coccineous_, scarlet-red.
+
+_Coccus_ (plural _cocci_), anciently a berry; now mostly used to denote
+the separable carpels or nutlets of a dry fruit.
+
+_Cochleariform_, spoon-shaped.
+
+_Cochleate_, coiled or shaped like a snail-shell.
+
+_Coelospermous_, applied to those fruits of Umbelliferae which have the
+seed hollowed on the inner face, by incurving of top and bottom; as in
+Coriander.
+
+_Coherent_, usually the same as _connate_.
+
+_Cohort_, name sometimes used for groups between order and class, 178.
+
+_Coleorhiza_, a root-sheath.
+
+_Collateral_, side by side.
+
+_Collective fruits_, 118.
+
+_Collum_ or _Collar_, the neck or junction of stem and root.
+
+_Colored_, parts of a plant which are other-colored than green.
+
+_Columella_, the axis to which the carpels of a compound pistil are
+often attached, as in Geranium (112), or which is left when a pod opens,
+as in Azalea.
+
+_Column_, the united stamens, as in Mallow, or the stamens and pistils
+united into one body, as in the Orchis family.
+
+_Columnar_, shaped like a column or pillar.
+
+_Coma_, a tuft of any sort (literally, a head of hair), 125.
+
+_Comose_, tufted; bearing a tuft of hairs, as the seeds of Milkweed,
+126.
+
+_Commissure_, the line of junction of two carpels, as in the fruit of
+Umbelliferae.
+
+_Complanate_, flattened.
+
+_Compound leaf_, 54, 57. _Compound pistil_, 107. _Compound umbel_, 75,
+&c.
+
+_Complete_ (flower), 81.
+
+_Complicate_, folded upon itself.
+
+_Compressed_, flattened on opposite sides.
+
+_Conceptacle_, 168.
+
+_Concinnous_, neat.
+
+_Concolor_, all of one color.
+
+_Conchiform_, shell- or half-shell-shaped.
+
+_Conduplicate_, folded upon itself lengthwise, 71.
+
+_Cone_, the fruit of the Pine family, 124. _Coniferous_, cone-bearing.
+
+_Confertus_, much crowded.
+
+_Conferruminate_, stuck together, as the cotyledons in a horse-chestnut.
+
+_Confluent_, blended together; or the same as _coherent_.
+
+_Conformed_, similar to another thing it is associated with or compared
+to; or closely fitted to it, as the skin to the kernel of a seed.
+
+_Congested_, _Conglomerate_, crowded together.
+
+_Conglomerate_, crowded into a glomerule.
+
+_Conjugate_, coupled; in single pairs. _Conjugation_, 170.
+
+_Connate_, united or grown together from the first formation, 96.
+
+_Connate-perfoliate_, when a pair of leaves are connate round a stem,
+60.
+
+_Connective_, _Connectivum_, the part of the anther connecting its two
+cells, 101.
+
+_Connivent_, converging, or brought close together.
+
+_Consolidation_ (floral), 94.
+
+_Consolidated_ forms of vegetation, 47.
+
+_Contents_ of cells, 136.
+
+_Continuous_, the reverse of interrupted or articulated.
+
+_Contorted_, twisted together. _Contorted aestivation_, same as
+_convolute_, 97.
+
+_Contortuplicate_, twisted back upon itself.
+
+_Contracted_, either narrowed or shortened.
+
+_Contrary_, turned in opposite direction to the ordinary.
+
+_Convolute_, rolled up lengthwise, as the leaves of the Plum in
+vernation, 72. In aestivation, same as _contorted_, 97.
+
+_Cordate_, heart-shaped, 53.
+
+_Coriaceous_, resembling leather in texture.
+
+_Corky_, of the texture of cork. _Corky layer_ of bark, 141.
+
+_Corm_, a solid bulb, like that of Crocus, 45.
+
+_Corneous_, of the consistence or appearance of horn.
+
+_Corniculate_, furnished with a small horn or spur.
+
+_Cornute_, horned; bearing a horn-like projection or appendage.
+
+_Corolla_, the leaves of the flower within the calyx, 14, 79.
+
+_Corollaceous_, _Corolline_, like or belonging to a corolla.
+
+_Corona_, a coronet or crown; an appendage at the top of the claw of
+some petals, 91.
+
+_Coronate_, crowned; furnished with a crown.
+
+_Cortex_, bark. _Cortical_, belonging to the bark (_cortex_).
+
+_Corticate_, coated with bark or bark-like covering.
+
+_Corymb_, a flat or convex indeterminate flower-cluster, 74.
+
+_Corymbiferous_, bearing corymbs.
+
+_Corymbose_, in corymbs, approaching the form of a corymb, or branched
+in that way.
+
+_Costa_, a rib; the midrib of a leaf, &c. _Costate_, ribbed.
+
+_Cotyledons_, the proper leaves of the embryo, 11, 127.
+
+_Crateriform_, goblet-shaped or deep saucer-shaped.
+
+_Creeping_ (stems), growing flat on or beneath the ground and rooting,
+39.
+
+_Cremocarp_, a half-fruit, or one of the two carpels of Umbelliferae,
+121.
+
+_Crenate_, or _Crenelled_, the edge scalloped into rounded teeth, 55.
+
+_Crenulate_, minutely or slightly crenate.
+
+_Crested_, or _Cristate_, bearing any elevated appendage like a crest.
+
+_Cretaceous_, chalky or chalk-like.
+
+_Cribrose_, or _cribriform_, pierced like a sieve with small apertures.
+
+_Crinite_, bearing long hairs.
+
+_Crispate_, curled or crispy.
+
+_Croceous_, saffron-color, deep reddish-yellow.
+
+_Cross-breeds_, the progeny of interbred varieties, 176.
+
+_Cross fertilization_, 115.
+
+_Crown_, see _corona_. _Crowned_, see _coronate_.
+
+_Cruciate_, or _Cruciform_, cross-shaped. _Cruciform Corolla_, 86.
+
+_Crustaceous_, hard and brittle in texture; crust-like.
+
+_Cryptogamous Plants_, _Cryptogams_, 10, 156.
+
+_Cryptos_, concealed, as _Cryptopetalous_, with concealed petals, &c.
+
+_Crystals_ in plants, 137.
+
+_Cucullate_, hooded, or hood-shaped, rolled up like a cornet of paper,
+or a hood (_cucullus_), as the spathe of Indian Turnip, 75.
+
+_Culm_, a straw; the stem of Grasses and Sedges, 39.
+
+_Cultrate_, shaped like a trowel or broad knife.
+
+_Cuneate_, _Cuneiform_, wedge-shaped, 53.
+
+_Cup-shaped_, same as cyathiform or near it.
+
+_Cupule_, a little cup; the cup to the acorn of the Oak, 122.
+
+_Cupular_, or _Cupulate_, provided with a cupule.
+
+_Cupuliferous_, cupule-bearing.
+
+_Curviveined_, with curved ribs or veins.
+
+_Curviserial_, in oblique or spiral ranks.
+
+_Cushion_, the enlargement at the insertion or base of a petiole.
+
+_Cuspidate_, tipped with a sharp and stiff point or _cusp_, 54.
+
+_Cut_, same as incised, or applied generally to any sharp and deep
+division, 55.
+
+_Cuticle_, the skin of plants, or more strictly its external pellicle.
+
+_Cyaneous_, bright blue.
+
+_Cyathiform_, in the shape of a cup, or particularly of a wine-glass.
+
+_Cycle_, one complete turn of a spire, or a circle, 70.
+
+_Cyclical_, rolled up circularly, or coiled into a complete circle.
+
+_Cyclosis_, circulation in closed cells, 149.
+
+_Cylindraceous_, approaching to the _Cylindrical_ form, terete and not
+tapering.
+
+_Cymbaeform_, or _Cymbiform_, same as boat-shaped.
+
+_Cyme_, a cluster of centrifugal inflorescence, 77.
+
+_Cymose_, furnished with cymes, or like a cyme.
+
+_Cymule_, a partial or diminutive cyme, 77.
+
+
+_Deca-_ (in words of Greek derivation), ten; as
+
+_Decagynous_, with 10 pistils or styles, _Decamerous_, of 10 parts,
+_Decandrous_, with 10 stamens, &c.
+
+_Deciduous_, falling off, or subject to fall; said of leaves which fall
+in autumn, and of a calyx and corolla which fall before the fruit forms.
+
+_Declinate_, _declined_, turned to one side, or downwards.
+
+_Decompound_, several times compounded or divided, 59.
+
+_Decumbent_, reclined on the ground, the summit tending to rise, 39.
+
+_Decurrent_ (leaves), prolonged on the stem beneath the insertion, as in
+Thistles.
+
+_Decussate_, arranged in pairs which successively cross each other, 71.
+
+_Deduplication_, same as chorisis.
+
+_Definite_, when of a uniform number, and not above twelve or so.
+
+_Definite Inflorescence_, 72.
+
+_Deflexed_, bent downwards.
+
+_Deflorate_, past the flowering state, as an anther after it has
+discharged its pollen.
+
+_Dehiscence_, the regular splitting open of capsule or anther, 103, 119.
+
+_Dehiscent_, opening by regular dehiscence, 119, 123.
+
+_Deliquescent_, branching off so that the stem is lost in the branches,
+32.
+
+_Deltoid_, of a triangular shape, like the Greek capital Delta.
+
+_Demersed_, growing below the surface of water.
+
+_Dendroid_, _Dendritic_, tree-like in form or appearance.
+
+_Dendron_, Greek for tree.
+
+_Deni_, ten together.
+
+_Dens_, Latin for tooth.
+
+_Dentate_, toothed, 55. _Denticulate_, furnished with denticulations, or
+little teeth.
+
+_Depauperate_, impoverished or starved, and so below the natural size.
+
+_Depressed_, flattened or as if pressed down from above.
+
+_Derma_, Greek for skin.
+
+_Descending_, tending gradually downwards. _Descending axis_, the root.
+
+_Desmos_, Greek for things connected or bound together.
+
+_Determinate Inflorescence_, 72.
+
+_Dextrorse_, turned to the right hand.
+
+_Di- Dis_ (in Greek compounds) two, as
+
+_Diadelphous_ (stamens), united by their filaments in two sets, 99.
+
+_Diagnosis_, a short distinguishing character or descriptive phrase.
+
+_Dialypetalous_, same as polypetalous.
+
+_Diandrous_, having two stamens, &c.
+
+_Diaphanous_, transparent or translucent.
+
+_Dicarpellary_, of two carpels.
+
+_Dichlamydeous_ (flower), having both calyx and corolla.
+
+_Dichogamous_, _Dichogamy_, 116.
+
+_Dichotomous_, two-forked.
+
+_Diclinous_, having the stamens in one flower, the pistils in another,
+85.
+
+_Dicoccous_ (fruit), splitting into two _cocci_ or closed carpels.
+
+_Dicotyls_, 23.
+
+_Dicotyledonous_ (embryo), having a pair of cotyledons, 23.
+_Dicotyledonous Plants_, 23, 182.
+
+_Didymous_, twin.
+
+_Didynamous_ (stamens), having four stamens in two pairs, 100.
+
+_Diffuse_, spreading widely and irregularly.
+
+_Digitate_ (fingered), where the leaflets of a compound leaf are all
+borne on the apex of the petiole, 58.
+
+_Digynous_ (flower), having two pistils or styles, 105.
+
+_Dimerous_, made up of two parts, or its organs in twos.
+
+_Dimidiate_, halved; as where a leaf or leaflet has only one side
+developed.
+
+_Dimorphism_, 117. _Dimorphous_, _Dimorphic_, of two forms, 117.
+
+_Dioecious_, or _Dioicous_, with stamens and pistils on different
+plants, 85.
+
+_Dipetalous_, of two petals.
+
+_Diphyllous_, two-leaved.
+
+_Dipterous_, two-winged.
+
+_Diplo-_, Greek for double, as _Diplostemonous_, with two sets of
+stamens.
+
+_Disciform_ or _Disk-shaped_, flat and circular, like a disk or quoit.
+
+_Discoidal_, or _Discoid_, belonging to or like a disk.
+
+_Discolor_, of two different colors or hues.
+
+_Discrete_, separate, opposite of concrete.
+
+_Disepalous_, of two sepals.
+
+_Disk_, the face of any flat body; the central part of a head of
+flowers, like the Sunflower, or Coreopsis, as opposed to the ray or
+margin; a fleshy expansion of the receptacle of a flower, 113.
+
+_Disk-flowers_, those of the disk in Compositae.
+
+_Dissected_, cut deeply into many lobes or divisions.
+
+_Dissepiments_, the partitions of a compound ovary or a fruit, 108.
+
+_Dissilient_, bursting in pieces.
+
+_Distichous_, two-ranked.
+
+_Distinct_, uncombined with each other, 95.
+
+_Dithecous_, of two thecae or anther-cells.
+
+_Divaricate_, straddling; very widely divergent.
+
+_Divided_ (leaves, &c.), cut into divisions down to the base or midrib,
+55.
+
+_Dodeca_, Greek for twelve; as _Dodecagynous_, with twelve pistils or
+styles, _Dodecandrous_, with twelve stamens.
+
+_Dodrans_, span-long.
+
+_Dolabriform_, axe-shaped.
+
+_Dorsal_, pertaining to the back (_dorsum_) of an organ. _Dorsal
+Suture_, 106.
+
+_Dotted Ducts_, 148.
+
+_Double Flowers_, where the petals are multiplied unduly, 79.
+
+_Downy_, clothed with a coat of soft and short hairs.
+
+_Drupaceous_, like or pertaining to a drupe.
+
+_Drupe_, a stone-fruit, 120. _Drupelet_ or _Drupel_, a little drupe.
+
+_Ducts_, the so-called vessels of plants, 134.
+
+_Dumose_, bushy, or relating to bushes.
+
+_Duramen_, the heart-wood, 142.
+
+_Dwarf_, remarkably low in stature.
+
+
+_E-_, as a prefix of Latin compound words, means destitute of; as
+_ecostate_, without a rib or midrib; _exalbuminous_, without albumen,
+&c.
+
+_Eared_, see _auriculate_, 53.
+
+_Ebracteate_, destitute of bracts. _Ebracteolate_, destitute of
+bractlets.
+
+_Eburneous_, ivory-white.
+
+_Echinate_, armed with prickles (like a hedgehog). _Echinulate_, a
+diminutive of it.
+
+_Edentate_, toothless.
+
+_Effete_, past bearing, &c.; said of anthers which have discharged their
+pollen.
+
+_Effuse_, very loosely branched and spreading.
+
+_Eglandulose_, destitute of glands.
+
+_Elaters_, threads mixed with the spores of Liverworts, 165.
+
+_Ellipsoidal_, approaching an elliptical figure.
+
+_Elliptical_, oval or oblong, with the ends regularly rounded, 52.
+
+_Emarginate_, notched at the summit, 54.
+
+_Embryo_, the rudimentary plantlet in a seed, 11, 127.
+
+_Embryonal_, belonging or relating to the embryo.
+
+_Embryo-sac_, 117.
+
+_Emersed_, raised out of water.
+
+_Endecagynous_, with eleven pistils or styles.
+
+_Endecandrous_, with eleven stamens.
+
+_Endemic_, peculiar to the country geographically.
+
+_Endocarp_, the inner layer of a pericarp or fruit, 120.
+
+_Endochrome_, the coloring matter of Algae and the like.
+
+_Endogenous Stems_, 138. _Endogenous plants_, an old name for
+monocotyledons.
+
+_Endopleura_, inner seed-coat.
+
+_Endorhizal_, radicle or root sheathed in germination.
+
+_Endosperm_, the albumen of a seed, 21.
+
+_Endostome_, the orifice in the inner coat of an ovule.
+
+_Ennea-_, nine. _Enneagynous_, with nine petals or styles.
+_Enneandrous_, nine-stamened.
+
+_Ensate_, _Ensiform_, sword-shaped.
+
+_Entire_, the margins not at all toothed, notched, or divided, but even,
+55.
+
+_Entomophilous_, said of flowers frequented and fertilized by insects,
+113.
+
+_Ephemeral_, lasting for a day or less, as the corolla of Purslane, &c.
+
+_Epi-_, Greek for upon.
+
+_Epicalyx_, such an involucel as that of Malvaceae.
+
+_Epicarp_, the outermost layer of a fruit, 120.
+
+_Epidermal_, relating to the _Epidermis_, or skin of a plant, 50, 141,
+143.
+
+_Epigaeous_, growing on the earth, or close to the ground.
+
+_Epigynous_, upon the ovary, 95, 99.
+
+_Epipetalous_, borne on the petals or the corolla, 99.
+
+_Epiphyllous_, borne on a leaf.
+
+_Epiphyte_, a plant growing on another plant, but not nourished by it,
+36.
+
+_Epiphytic_ or _Epiphytal_, relating to _Epiphytes_.
+
+_Epipterous_, winged at top.
+
+_Episperm_, the skin or coat of a seed, especially the outer coat.
+
+_Equal_, alike in number or length.
+
+_Equally pinnate_, same as abruptly pinnate, 57.
+
+_Equitant_ (riding straddle), 60.
+
+_Erion_, Greek for wool. _Erianthous_, woolly-flowered. _Eriophorous_,
+wool-bearing, &c.
+
+_Erose_, eroded, as if gnawed.
+
+_Erostrate_, not beaked.
+
+_Erythros_, Greek for red. _Erythrocarpous_, red-fruited, &c.
+
+_Essential Organs_ of the flower, 80.
+
+_Estivation_, see _aestivation_.
+
+_Etiolated_, blanched by excluding the light, as the stalks of Celery.
+
+_Eu_, Greek prefix, meaning very, or much.
+
+_Evergreen_, holding the leaves over winter and until new ones appear,
+or longer.
+
+_Ex_, Latin prefix; privative in place of "e" when next letter is a
+vowel. So _Exalate_, wingless; _Exalbuminous_ (seed), without albumen,
+21.
+
+_Excurrent_, running out, as when a midrib projects beyond the apex of a
+leaf, or a trunk is continued to the very top of a tree, 32.
+
+_Exiguous_, puny.
+
+_Exilis_, lank or meagre.
+
+_Eximius_, distinguished for size or beauty.
+
+_Exo-_, in Greek compounds, outward, as in
+
+_Exocarp_, outer layer of a pericarp, 120.
+
+_Exogenous_, outward growing. _Exogenous stems_, 139.
+
+_Exorhizal_, radicle in germination not sheathed.
+
+_Exostome_, the orifice in the outer coat of the ovule.
+
+_Explanate_, spread or flattened out.
+
+_Exserted_, protruding out of, as the stamens out of the corolla.
+
+_Exstipulate_, destitute of stipules.
+
+_Extine_, outer coat of a pollen-grain.
+
+_Extra-axillary_, said of a branch or bud somewhat out of the axil, 31.
+
+_Extrorse_, turned outwards; the anther is extrorse when fastened to the
+filament on the side next the pistil, and opening on the outer side,
+101.
+
+
+_Falcate_, scythe-shaped; a flat body curved, its edges parallel.
+
+_False Racemes_, 78.
+
+_Family_, in botany same as Order, 177.
+
+_Farina_, meal or starchy matter, 136.
+
+_Farinaceous_, mealy in texture. _Farinose_, covered with a mealy
+powder.
+
+_Fasciate_, banded; also applied to monstrous stems which grow flat.
+
+_Fascicle_, a close cluster, 77.
+
+_Fascicled_, _Fasciculated_, growing in a bundle or tuft, as the leaves
+of Larch, 68, and roots of Peony, 35.
+
+_Fastigiate_, close, parallel, and upright, as the branches of Lombardy
+Poplar.
+
+_Faux_ (plural, _fauces_), the throat of a calyx, corolla, &c., 89.
+
+_Faveolate_, _Favose_, honeycombed; same as _alveolate_.
+
+_Feather-veined_, with veins of a leaf all springing from the sides of a
+midrib, 51.
+
+_Fecula_ or _Faecula_, starch, 136.
+
+_Female flower_ or _plant_, one bearing pistils only.
+
+_Fenestrate_, pierced with one or more large holes, like windows.
+
+_Ferrugineous_, or _Ferruginous_, resembling iron-rust; red-grayish.
+
+_Fertile_, fruit-bearing, or capable of it; also said of anthers
+producing good pollen.
+
+_Fertilization_, the process by which pollen causes the embryo to be
+formed, 114.
+
+_Fibre_ (woody), 133. _Fibrous_, containing much fibre, or composed of
+fibres.
+
+_Fibrillose_, formed of small fibres, or _Fibrillae_.
+
+_Fibro-vascular_ bundle or tissue, formed of fibres and vessels.
+
+_Fiddle-shaped_, obovate with a deep recess on each side.
+
+_Fidus_, Latin suffix for cleft, as _Bifid_, two-cleft.
+
+_Filament_, the stalk of a stamen, 14, 80, 101; also any slender
+thread-shaped body.
+
+_Filamentose_, or _Filamentous_, bearing or formed of slender threads.
+
+_Filiform_, thread-shaped; long, slender, and cylindrical.
+
+_Fimbriate_, fringed; furnished with fringes (_fimbriae_).
+
+_Fimbrillate_, _Fimbrilliferous_, bearing small _fimbriae_, i. e.
+_fimbrillae_.
+
+_Fissiparous_, multiplying by division of one body into two.
+
+_Fissus_, Latin for split or divided.
+
+_Fistular_, or _Fistulose_, hollow and cylindrical, as the leaves of the
+Onion.
+
+_Flabelliform_, or _Flabellate_, fan-shaped.
+
+_Flagellate_, or _Flagelliform_, long, narrow, and flexible, like the
+thong of a whip; or like the runners (_flagellae_) of the Strawberry.
+
+_Flavescent_, yellowish, or turning yellow.
+
+_Flavus_, Latin for yellow.
+
+_Fleshy_, composed of firm pulp or flesh.
+
+_Flexuose_, or _Flexuous_, bending in opposite directions, in a zigzag
+way.
+
+_Floating_, swimming on the surface of water.
+
+_Floccose_, composed of or bearing tufts of woolly or long and soft
+hairs.
+
+_Flora_ (the goddess of flowers), the plants of a country or district,
+taken together, or a work systematically describing them, 9.
+
+_Floral Envelopes_, or _Flower-leaves_, 79.
+
+_Floret_, a diminutive flower, one of a mass or cluster.
+
+_Floribund_, abundantly floriferous.
+
+_Florula_, the flora of a small district.
+
+_Flos_, _floris_, Latin for flower.
+
+_Flosculus_, diminutive, same as floret.
+
+_Flower_, the whole organs of reproduction of Phaenogamous plants, 14,
+72.
+
+_Flower-bud_, an unopened flower.
+
+_Flowering Plants_, 10, 156. _Flowerless Plants_, 10, 156.
+
+_Fly-trap leaves_, 65.
+
+_Fluitans_, Latin for floating. _Fluviatile_, belonging to a river or
+stream.
+
+_Foliaceous_, belonging to, or of the texture or nature of, a leaf
+(_folium_).
+
+_Foliate_, provided with leaves. Latin prefixes denote the number of
+leaves, as _bifoliate_, _trifoliate_, &c. _Foliose_, leafy; abounding in
+leaves.
+
+_Foliolate_, relating to or bearing leaflets (_foliola_);
+_trifoliolate_, with three leaflets, &c.
+
+_Folium_ (plural, _folia_), Latin for leaf.
+
+_Follicle_, a simple pod, opening down the inner suture, 122.
+
+_Follicular_, resembling or belonging to a follicle.
+
+_Food of Plants_, 144.
+
+_Foot-stalk_, either petiole or peduncle, 49.
+
+_Foramen_, a hole or orifice, as that of the ovule, 110.
+
+_Foraminose_, _Foraminulose_, pierced with holes.
+
+_Forked_, branched in two or three or more.
+
+_Fornicate_, bearing fornices.
+
+_Fornix_, little arched scales in the throat of some corollas, as of
+Comfrey.
+
+_Foveate_, deeply pitted. _Foveolate_, diminutive of _foveate_.
+
+_Free_, not united with any other parts of a different sort, 95.
+
+_Fringed_, the margin beset with slender appendages, bristles, &c.
+
+_Frond_, what answers to leaves in Ferns, &c., 157; or to the stem and
+leaves fused into one, as in Liverwort.
+
+_Frondescence_, the bursting into leaf.
+
+_Frondose_, frond-bearing; like a frond, or sometimes used for leafy.
+
+_Fructification_, the state or result of fruiting.
+
+_Fructus_, Latin for fruit.
+
+_Fruit_, the matured ovary and all it contains or is connected with,
+117.
+
+_Fruit-dots_ in Ferns; see _Sorus_.
+
+_Frustulose_, consisting of a chain of similar pieces, or _Frustules_.
+
+_Frutescent_, somewhat shrubby; becoming a shrub (_Frutex_), 39.
+
+_Fruticulose_, like a small shrub, or _Fruticulus_. _Fruticose_,
+shrubby, 39.
+
+_Fugacious_, soon falling off or perishing.
+
+_Fulcrate_, having accessory organs or _fulcra_, i. e. props.
+
+_Fulvous_, tawny; dull yellow with gray.
+
+_Fungus_, _Fungi_, 172.
+
+_Funicle_, _Funiculus_, the stalk of a seed or ovule, 110.
+
+_Funnelform_, or _funnel-shaped_, expanding gradually upwards into an
+open mouth, like a funnel or tunnel, 90.
+
+_Furcate_, forked.
+
+_Furfuraceous_, covered with bran-like fine scurf.
+
+_Furrowed_, marked by longitudinal channels or grooves.
+
+_Fuscous_, deep gray-brown.
+
+_Fusiform_, spindle-shaped, 36.
+
+
+_Galbalus_, the fleshy or at length woody cone of Juniper and Cypress.
+
+_Galea_, a helmet-shaped body, as the upper sepal of the Monkshood, 87.
+
+_Galeate_, shaped like a helmet.
+
+_Gamopetalous_, of united petals, 89.
+
+_Gamophyllous_, formed of united leaves.
+
+_Gamosepalous_, formed of united sepals, 89.
+
+_Geminate_, twin; in pairs.
+
+_Gemma_, Latin for a bud.
+
+_Gemmation_, the state of budding; budding growth.
+
+_Gemmule_, a small bud; the plumule, 13.
+
+_Genera_, plural of genus.
+
+_Geniculate_, bent abruptly, like a knee (_genu_), as many stems.
+
+_Generic Names_, 179.
+
+_Genus_, a kind of a rank above species, 177.
+
+_Germ_, a growing point; a young bud; sometimes the same as embryo, 127.
+
+_Germen_, the old name for ovary.
+
+_Germination_, the development of a plantlet from the seed, 12.
+
+_Gerontogaeous_, inhabiting the Old World.
+
+_Gibbous_, more tumid at one place or on one side than the other.
+
+_Gilvous_, dirty reddish-yellow.
+
+_Glabrate_, becoming glabrous with age, or almost glabrous.
+
+_Glabrous_, smooth, in the sense of having no hairs, bristles, or other
+pubescence.
+
+_Gladiate_, sword-shaped, as the leaves of Iris.
+
+_Glands_, small cellular organs which secrete oily or aromatic or other
+products; they are sometimes sunk in the leaves or rind, as in the
+Orange, Prickly Ash, &c.; sometimes on the surface as small projections;
+sometimes raised on hairs or bristles (_glandular hairs, &c._), as in
+the Sweetbrier and Sundew. The name is also given to any small
+swellings, &c., whether they secrete anything or not; so that the word
+is loosely used.
+
+_Glandular_, _Glandulose_, furnished with glands, or gland-like.
+
+_Glans_ (_Gland_), the acorn or mast of Oak and similar fruits.
+
+_Glareose_, growing in gravel.
+
+_Glaucescent_, slightly glaucous, or bluish-gray.
+
+_Glaucous_, covered with a _bloom_, viz. with a fine white powder of wax
+that rubs off, like that on a fresh plum, or a cabbage-leaf.
+
+_Globose_, spherical in form, or nearly so. _Globular_, nearly globose.
+
+_Glochidiate_, or _Glochideous_, (bristles) barbed; tipped with barbs,
+or with a double hooked point.
+
+_Glomerate_, closely aggregated into a dense cluster.
+
+_Glomerule_, a dense head-like cluster, 77.
+
+_Glossology_, the department of botany in which technical terms are
+explained.
+
+_Glumaceous_, glume-like, or glume-bearing.
+
+_Glume_; Glumes are the husks or floral coverings of Grasses, or,
+particularly, the outer husks or bracts of each spikelet.
+
+_Glumelles_, the inner husks of Grasses.
+
+_Gonophore_, a stipe below stamens, 113.
+
+_Gossypine_, cottony, flocculent.
+
+_Gracilis_, Latin for slender.
+
+_Grain_, see _Caryopsis_, 121.
+
+_Gramineous_, grass-like.
+
+_Granular_, composed of grains. _Granule_, a small grain.
+
+_Graveolent_, heavy-scented.
+
+_Griseous_, gray or bluish-gray.
+
+_Growth_, 129.
+
+_Grumous_, or _Grumose_, formed of coarse clustered grains.
+
+_Guttate_, spotted, as if by drops of something colored.
+
+_Gymnos_, Greek for naked, as
+
+_Gymnocarpous_, naked-fruited.
+
+_Gymnospermous_, naked-seeded, 109.
+
+_Gymnospermous gynoecium_, 109.
+
+_Gymnospermae_, or _Gymnospermous Plants_, 183.
+
+_Gynandrous_, with stamens borne on, i. e. united with, the pistil, 99.
+
+_Gynoecium_, a name for the pistils of a flower taken altogether, 105.
+
+_Gynobase_, a depressed receptacle or support of the pistil or carpels,
+114.
+
+_Gynophore_, a stalk raising a pistil above the stamens, 113.
+
+_Gynostegium_, a sheath around pistils, of whatever nature.
+
+_Gynostemium_, name of the column in Orchids, &c., consisting of style
+and stigma with stamens combined.
+
+_Gyrate_, coiled or moving circularly.
+
+_Gyrose_, strongly bent to and fro.
+
+
+_Habit_, the general aspect of a plant, or its mode of growth.
+
+_Habitat_, the situation or country in which a plant grows in a wild
+state.
+
+_Hairs_, hair-like growths on the surface of plants.
+
+_Hairy_, beset with hairs, especially longish ones.
+
+_Halberd-shaped_, see _hastate_, 53.
+
+_Halved_, when appearing as if one half of the body were cut away.
+
+_Hamate_, or _Hamose_, hooked; the end of a slender body bent round.
+
+_Hamulose_, bearing a small hook; a diminutive of the last.
+
+_Haplo-_, in Greek compounds, single; as _Haplostemonous_, having only
+one series of stamens.
+
+_Hastate_, or _Hastile_, shaped like a halberd; furnished with a
+spreading lobe on each side at the base, 53.
+
+_Head_, capitulum, a form of inflorescence, 74.
+
+_Heart-shaped_, of the shape of a heart as painted on cards, 53.
+
+_Heart-wood_, the older or matured wood of exogenous trees, 142.
+
+_Helicoid_, coiled like a _helix_ or snail-shell, 77.
+
+_Helmet_, the upper sepal of Monkshood is so called.
+
+_Helvolous_, grayish-yellow.
+
+_Hemi-_ in compounds from the Greek, half; e. g. _Hemispherical_, &c.
+
+_Hemicarp_, half-fruit, one carpel of an Umbelliferous plant, 121.
+
+_Hemitropous_ (ovule or seed), nearly same as _amphitropous_, 123.
+
+_Hepta-_ (in words of Greek origin), seven; as _Heptagynous_, with seven
+pistils or styles. _Heptamerous_, its parts in sevens. _Heptandrous_,
+having seven stamens.
+
+_Herb_, plant not woody, at least above ground.
+
+_Herbaceous_, of the texture of an herb; not woody, 39.
+
+_Herbarium_, the botanist's arranged collection of dried plants, 186.
+
+_Herborization_, 184.
+
+_Hermaphrodite_ (flower), having stamens and pistils in the same
+blossom, 81.
+
+_Hesperidium_, orange-fruit, a hard-rinded berry.
+
+_Hetero-_, in Greek compounds, means of two or more sorts, as
+
+_Heterocarpous_, bearing fruit of two kinds or shapes.
+
+_Heterogamous_, bearing two or more sorts of flowers in one cluster.
+
+_Heterogony_, _Heterogone_, or _Heterogonous_, with stamens and pistil
+reciprocally of two sorts, 116. _Heterostyled_ is same.
+
+_Heteromorphous_, of two or more shapes.
+
+_Heterophyllous_, with two sorts of leaves.
+
+_Heterotropous_ (ovule), the same as _amphitropous_, 123.
+
+_Hexa-_ (in Greek compounds), six; as _Hexagonal_, six-angled.
+_Hexagynous_, with six pistils or styles. _Hexamerous_, its parts in
+sixes. _Hexandrous_, with six stamens. _Hexapterous_, six-winged.
+
+_Hibernaculum_, a winter bud.
+
+_Hiemal_, relating to winter.
+
+_Hilar_, belonging to the hilum.
+
+_Hilum_, the scar of the seed; its place of attachment, 110, 126.
+
+_Hippocrepiform_, horseshoe-shaped.
+
+_Hirsute_, clothed with stiffish or beard-like hairs.
+
+_Hirtellous_, minutely hirsute.
+
+_Hispid_, bristly, beset with stiff hairs. _Hispidulous_, diminutive of
+hispid.
+
+_Histology_, 9.
+
+_Hoary_, grayish-white; see _canescent_, &c.
+
+_Holosericeous_, all over sericeous or silky.
+
+_Homo-_, in Greek compounds, all alike or of one sort.
+
+_Homodromous_, running in one direction.
+
+_Homogamous_, a head or cluster with flowers all of one kind.
+
+_Homogeneous_, uniform in nature; all of one kind.
+
+_Homogone_, or _Homogonous_, counterpart of _Heterogone_ or
+_Homostyled_.
+
+_Homologous_, of same type; thus petals and sepals are the homologues of
+leaves.
+
+_Homomallous_ (leaves, &c.), originating all round an axis, but all bent
+or curved to one side.
+
+_Homorphous_, all of one shape.
+
+_Homotropous_ (embryo), curved with the seed; curved only one way.
+
+_Hood_, same as _helmet_ or _galea_. _Hooded_, hood-shaped; see
+_cucullate_.
+
+_Hooked_, same as _hamate_.
+
+_Horn_, a spur or some similar appendage. _Horny_, of the texture of
+horn.
+
+_Hortensis_, pertaining to the garden.
+
+_Hortus Siccus_, an herbarium, or collection of dried plants, 186.
+
+_Humifuse_, _Humistrate_, spread over the surface of the ground.
+
+_Humilis_, low in stature.
+
+_Hyaline_, transparent, or partly so.
+
+_Hybrid_, a cross-breed between two allied species, 176.
+
+_Hydrophytes_, water-plants.
+
+_Hyemal_, see _hiemal_.
+
+_Hymenium_ of a Mushroom, 172.
+
+_Hypanthium_, a hollow flower-receptacle, such as that of Rose.
+
+_Hypo-_, Greek prefix for under, or underneath.
+
+_Hypocotyle_, or _Hypocotyl_, part of stem below the cotyledons, 11.
+
+_Hypocrateriform_, properly _Hypocraterimorphous_, salver-shaped.
+
+_Hypogaean_, or _Hypogaeous_, produced under ground, 19.
+
+_Hypogynous_, inserted under the pistil, 95, 99.
+
+_Hysteranthous_, with the blossoms developed earlier than the leaves.
+
+
+_Icosandrous_, having 20 (or 12 or more) stamens inserted on the calyx.
+
+_Imberbis_, Latin for beardless.
+
+_Imbricate_, _Imbricated_, _Imbricative_, overlapping one another, like
+tiles or shingles on a roof, as the bud-scales of Horse-chestnut and
+Hickory, 27. In aestivation, where some leaves of the calyx or corolla
+are overlapped on both sides by others, 98.
+
+_Immarginate_, destitute of a rim or border.
+
+_Immersed_, growing wholly under water.
+
+_Impari-pinnate_, pinnate with a single leaflet at the apex, 57.
+
+_Imperfect flowers_, wanting either stamens or pistils, 85.
+
+_Inaequilateral_, unequal-sided, as the leaf of a Begonia.
+
+_Inane_, empty, said of an anther which produces no pollen, &c.
+
+_Inappendiculate_, not appendaged.
+
+_Incanous_, _Incanescent_, hoary with soft white pubescence.
+
+_Incarnate_, flesh-colored.
+
+_Incised_, cut rather deeply and irregularly, 58.
+
+_Included_, enclosed; when the part in question does not project beyond
+another.
+
+_Incomplete Flower_, wanting calyx or corolla, 86.
+
+_Incrassated_, thickened.
+
+_Incubous_, with tip of one leaf lying flat over the base of the next
+above.
+
+_Incumbent_, leaning or resting upon; the cotyledons are incumbent when
+the back of one of them lies against the radicle, 128; the anthers are
+incumbent when turned or looking inwards.
+
+_Incurved_, gradually curving inwards.
+
+_Indefinite_, not uniform in number, or too numerous to mention (over
+12).
+
+_Indefinite_ or _Indeterminate Inflorescence_, 72.
+
+_Indehiscent_, not splitting open; i. e. not dehiscent, 119.
+
+_Indigenous_, native to the country.
+
+_Individuals_, 175.
+
+_Indumentum_, any hairy coating or pubescence.
+
+_Induplicate_, with the edges turned inwards, 97.
+
+_Induviate_, clothed with old and withered parts or _induviae_.
+
+_Indusium_, the shield or covering of a fruit-dot of a Fern, 159.
+
+_Inermis_, Latin for unarmed, not prickly.
+
+_Inferior_, growing below some other organ, 96.
+
+_Infertile_, not producing seed, or pollen, as the case may be.
+
+_Inflated_, turgid and bladdery.
+
+_Inflexed_, bent inwards.
+
+_Inflorescence_, the arrangement of flowers on the stem, 72.
+
+_Infra-axillary_, situated beneath the axil.
+
+_Infundibuliform_ or _Infundibular_, funnel-shaped, 90.
+
+_Innate_ (anther), attached by its base to the very apex of the
+filament, 101.
+
+_Innovation_, a young shoot, or new growth.
+
+_Insertion_, the place or the mode of attachment of an organ to its
+support, 95, 99.
+
+_Integer_, entire, not lobed. _Integerrimus_, quite entire, not serrate.
+
+_Intercellular Passages_ or _Spaces_, 131, 143.
+
+_Interfoliaceous_, between the leaves of a pair or whorl.
+
+_Internode_, the part of a stem between two nodes, 13.
+
+_Interpetiolar_, between petioles.
+
+_Interruptedly pinnate_, pinnate with small leaflets intermixed with
+larger.
+
+_Intine_, inner coat of a pollen grain.
+
+_Intrafoliaceous_ (stipules, &c.), placed between the leaf or petiole
+and the stem.
+
+_Introrse_, turned or facing inwards; i. e. towards the axis of the
+flower, 101.
+
+_Intruse_, as it were pushed inwards.
+
+_Inversed_ or _Inverted_, where the apex is in the direction opposite to
+that of the organ it is compared with.
+
+_Involucel_, a partial or small involucre, 76.
+
+_Involucellate_, furnished with an involucel. _Involucrate_, furnished
+with an involucre.
+
+_Involucre_, a whorl or set of bracts around a flower, umbel, or head,
+&c., 74, 75.
+
+_Involute_, in vernation, 72; rolled inwards from the edges, 97.
+
+_Irregular Flowers_, 86, 91.
+
+_Isos_, Greek for equal in number. _Isomerous_, the same number in the
+successive circles or sets. _Isostemonous_, the stamens equal in number
+to the sepals or petals.
+
+
+_Jointed_, separate or separable at one or more places into pieces, 64,
+&c.
+
+_Jugum_ (plural _Juga_), Latin for a pair, as of leaflets,--thus
+_Unijugate_, of a single pair; _Bijugate_, of two pairs, &c.
+
+_Julaceus_, like a catkin or _Julus_.
+
+
+_Keel_, a projecting ridge on a surface, like the keel of a boat; the
+two anterior petals of a papilionaceous corolla, 92.
+
+_Keeled_, furnished with a keel or sharp longitudinal ridge.
+
+_Kermesine_, Carmine-red.
+
+_Kernel_ of the ovule and seed, 110.
+
+_Key_, or _Key-fruit_, a Samara, 122.
+
+_Kidney-shaped_, resembling the outline of a kidney, 53.
+
+
+_Labellum_, the odd petal in the Orchis Family.
+
+_Labiate_, same as _bilabiate_ or two-lipped, 92.
+
+_Labiatiflorous_, having flowers with bilabiate corolla.
+
+_Labium_ (plural, _Labia_), Latin for lip.
+
+_Lacerate_, with margin appearing as if torn.
+
+_Laciniate_, slashed; cut into deep narrow lobes or _Laciniae_.
+
+_Lactescent_, producing milky juice, as does the Milkweed, &c.
+
+_Lacteus_, Latin for milk-white.
+
+_Lacunose_, full of holes or gaps.
+
+_Lacustrine_, belonging to lakes.
+
+_Laevigate_, smooth as if polished. Latin, _Laevis_, smooth, as opposed to
+rough.
+
+_Lageniform_, gourd-shaped.
+
+_Lagopous_, Latin, hare-footed; densely clothed with long soft hairs.
+
+_Lamellar_ or _Lamellate_, consisting of flat plates, _Lamellae_.
+
+_Lamina_, a plate or blade, the blade of a leaf, &c., 49.
+
+_Lanate_, _Lanose_, woolly; clothed with long and soft entangled hairs.
+
+_Lanceolate_, lance-shaped, 52.
+
+_Lanuginous_, cottony or woolly.
+
+_Latent buds_, concealed or undeveloped buds, 30.
+
+_Lateral_, belonging to the side.
+
+_Latex_, the milky juice, &c., of plants, 135.
+
+_Lax_ (_Laxus_), loose in texture, or sparse; the opposite of crowded.
+
+_Leaf_, 49. _Leaf-buds_, 31.
+
+_Leaflet_, one of the divisions or blades of a compound leaf, 57.
+
+_Leaf-like_, same as _foliaceous_.
+
+_Leathery_, of about the consistence of leather; coriaceous.
+
+_Legume_, a simple pod which dehisces in two pieces, like that of the
+Pea, 122.
+
+_Leguminous_, belonging to legumes, or to the Leguminous Family.
+
+_Lenticular_, lens-shaped; i. e. flattish and convex on both sides.
+
+_Lappaceous_, bur-like.
+
+_Lasio_, Greek for woolly or hairy, as _Lasianthus_, woolly-flowered.
+
+_Lateritious_, brick-colored.
+
+_Laticiferous_, containing latex, 135.
+
+_Latus_, Latin for broad, as _Latifolius_, broad-leaved.
+
+_Leaf-scar_, _Leaf-stalk_, petiole.
+
+_Lenticels_, lenticular dots on young bark.
+
+_Lentiginose_, as if freckled.
+
+_Lepal_, a made-up word for a staminode.
+
+_Lepis_, Greek for a scale, whence _Lepidote_, leprous; covered with
+scurfy scales.
+
+_Leptos_, Greek for slender; so _Leptophyllous_, slender-leaved.
+
+_Leukos_, Greek for white; whence _Leucanthous_, white-flowered, &c.
+
+_Liber_, the inner bark of Exogenous stems, 140.
+
+_Lid_, see _operculum_.
+
+_Ligneous_, or _Lignose_, woody in texture.
+
+_Ligulate_, furnished with a ligule, 93.
+
+_Ligule_, _Ligula_, the strap-shaped corolla in many Compositae, 93; the
+membranous appendage at the summit of the leaf-sheaths of most Grasses,
+67.
+
+_Limb_, the border of a corolla, &c., 89.
+
+_Limbate_, bordered (Latin, _Limbus_, a border).
+
+_Line_, the twelfth of an inch; or French lines, the tenth.
+
+_Linear_, narrow and flat, the margins parallel, 52.
+
+_Lineate_, marked with parallel lines. _Lineolate_, marked with minute
+lines.
+
+_Lingulate_, _Linguiform_, tongue-shaped.
+
+_Lip_, the principal lobes of a bilabiate corolla or calyx, 92.
+
+_Litoral_ or _Littoral_, belonging to the shore.
+
+_Livid_, pale lead-colored.
+
+_Lobe_, any projection or division (especially a rounded one) of a leaf,
+&c.
+
+_Lobed_ or _Lobate_, cut into lobes, 55, 56; _Lobulate_, into small
+lobes.
+
+_Locellate_, having _Locelli_, i. e. compartments in a cell: thus an
+anther-cell is often _bilocellate_.
+
+_Loculament_, same as _loculus_.
+
+_Locular_, relating to the cell or compartment (_Loculus_) of an ovary,
+&c.
+
+_Loculicidal_ (dehiscence), splitting down through the back of each
+cell, 123.
+
+_Locusta_, a name for the spikelet of Grasses.
+
+_Lodicule_, one of the scales answering to perianth-leaves in
+Grass-flowers.
+
+_Loment_, a pod which separates transversely into joints, 122.
+
+_Lomentaceous_, pertaining to or resembling a loment.
+
+_Lorate_, thong-shaped.
+
+_Lunate_, crescent-shaped. _Lunulate_, diminutive of _lunate_.
+
+_Lupuline_, like hops.
+
+_Lusus_, Latin for a sport or abnormal variation.
+
+_Luteolus_, yellowish; diminutive of
+
+_Luteus_, Latin for yellow. _Lutescent_, verging to yellow.
+
+_Lyrate_, lyre-shaped; a pinnatifid leaf of an obovate or spatulate
+outline, the end-lobe large and roundish, and the lower lobes small, as
+in fig. 149.
+
+
+_Macros_, Greek for long, sometimes also used for large: thus
+_Macrophyllous_, long or large-leaved, &c.
+
+_Macrospore_, the large kind of spore, when there are two kinds, 160,
+161.
+
+_Maculate_, spotted or blotched.
+
+_Male_ (flowers or plants), having stamens but no pistil.
+
+_Mammose_, breast-shaped.
+
+_Marcescent_, withering without falling off.
+
+_Marginal_, belonging to margin.
+
+_Marginate_, margined with an edge different from the rest.
+
+_Marginicidal dehiscence_, 123.
+
+_Maritime_, belonging to sea-coasts.
+
+_Marmorate_, marbled.
+
+_Mas._, _Masc._, _Masculine_, male.
+
+_Masked_, see _personate_.
+
+_Mealy_, see _farinaceous_.
+
+_Median_, _Medial_, belonging to the middle.
+
+_Medifixed_, attached by the middle.
+
+_Medullary_, belonging to, or of the nature of, pith (_Medulla_); pithy.
+
+_Medullary Rays_, the silver-grain of wood, 140, 141.
+
+_Medullary Sheath_, a set of ducts just around the pith, 140.
+
+_Meiostemonous_, having fewer stamens than petals.
+
+_Membranaceous_ or _Membranous_, of the texture of membrane; thin and
+soft.
+
+_Meniscoid_, crescent-shaped.
+
+_Mericarp_, one carpel of the fruit of an Umbelliferous plant, 121.
+
+_Merismatic_, separating into parts by the formation of partitions
+across.
+
+_Merous_, from the Greek for part; used with numeral prefix to denote
+the number of pieces in a set or circle: as _Monomerous_, of only one,
+_Dimerous_, with two, _Trimerous_, with three parts (sepals, petals,
+stamens, &c.) in each circle.
+
+_Mesocarp_, the middle part of a pericarp, when that is distinguishable
+into three layers, 120.
+
+_Mesophloeum_, the middle or green bark.
+
+_Micropyle_, the closed orifice of the seed, 110, 126.
+
+_Microspore_, the smaller kind of spore when there are two kinds, 161.
+
+_Midrib_, the middle or main rib of a leaf, 50.
+
+_Milk-vessels_, 135.
+
+_Miniate_, vermilion-colored.
+
+_Mitriform_, mitre-shaped: in the form of a peaked cap, or one cleft at
+the top.
+
+_Moniliform_, necklace-shaped; a cylindrical body contracted at
+intervals.
+
+_Monocarpic_ (duration), flowering and seeding but once, 38.
+
+_Monochlamydeous_, having only one floral envelope.
+
+_Monocotyledonous_ (embryo), with only one cotyledon, 24.
+
+_Monocotyledonous Plants_, 24. _Monocotyls_, 24.
+
+_Monoecious_, or _Monoicous_ (flower), having stamens or pistils only,
+85.
+
+_Monogynous_ (flower), having only one pistil, or one style, 105.
+
+_Monopetalous_ (flower), with the corolla of one piece, 89.
+
+_Monophyllous_, one-leaved, or of one piece.
+
+_Monos_, Greek for solitary or only one; thus _Monadelphous_, stamens
+united by their filaments into one set, 99; _Monandrous_ (flower),
+having only one stamen, 100.
+
+_Monosepalous_, a calyx of one piece; i. e. with the sepals united into
+one body.
+
+_Monospermous_, one-seeded.
+
+_Monstrosity_, an unnatural deviation from the usual structure or form.
+
+_Morphology_, _Morphological Botany_, 9; the department of botany which
+treats of the forms which an organ may assume.
+
+_Moschate_, Musk-like in odor.
+
+_Movements_, 149.
+
+_Mucronate_, tipped with an abrupt short point (_Mucro_), 54.
+
+_Mucronulate_, tipped with a minute abrupt point; a diminutive of the
+last.
+
+_Multi-_, in composition, many; as _Multangular_, many-angled;
+_Multicipital_, many-headed, &c.; _Multifarious_, in many rows or ranks;
+_Multifid_, many-cleft; _Multilocular_, many-celled; _Multiserial_, in
+many rows.
+
+_Multiple Fruits_, 118, 124.
+
+_Muricate_, beset with short and hard or prickly points.
+
+_Muriform_, wall-like; resembling courses of bricks in a wall.
+
+_Muticous_, pointless, blunt, unarmed.
+
+_Mycelium_, the spawn of Fungi; i. e. the filaments from which
+Mushrooms, &c., originate, 172.
+
+
+_Naked_, wanting some usual covering, as achlamydeous flowers, 86;
+gymnospermous seeds, 109, 125, &c.
+
+_Names_ in botany, 179.
+
+_Nanus_, Latin for dwarf.
+
+_Napiform_, turnip-shaped, 35.
+
+_Natural System_, 182.
+
+_Naturalized_, introduced from a foreign country, and flourishing wild.
+
+_Navicular_, boat-shaped, like the glumes of most Grasses.
+
+_Necklace-shaped_, looking like a string of beads; see _moniliform_.
+
+_Nectar_, the sweet secretion in flowers from which bees make honey, &c.
+
+_Nectariferous_, honey-bearing; or having a nectary.
+
+_Nectary_, the old name for petals and other parts of the flower when of
+unusual shape, especially when honey-bearing. So the hollow spur-shaped
+petals of Columbine were called nectaries; also the curious long-clawed
+petals of Monkshood, 87, &c.
+
+_Needle-shaped_, long, slender, and rigid, like the leaves of Pines.
+
+_Nemorose_ or _Nemoral_, inhabiting groves.
+
+_Nerve_, a name for the ribs or veins of leaves when simple and
+parallel, 50.
+
+_Nerved_, furnished with nerves, or simple and parallel ribs or veins,
+50.
+
+_Nervose_, conspicuously nerved. _Nervulose_, minutely nervose.
+
+_Netted-veined_, furnished with branching veins forming network, 50, 51.
+
+_Neuter_, _Neutral_, sexless. _Neutral flower_, 79.
+
+_Niger_, Latin for black. _Nigricans_, Latin for verging to black.
+
+_Nitid_, shining.
+
+_Nival_, living in or near snow. _Niveus_, snow-white.
+
+_Nodding_, bending so that the summit hangs downward.
+
+_Node_, a knot; the "joints" of a stem, or the part whence a leaf or a
+pair of leaves springs, 13.
+
+_Nodose_, knotty or knobby. _Nodulose_, furnished with little knobs or
+knots.
+
+_Nomenclature_, 175, 179.
+
+_Normal_, according to rule, natural.
+
+_Notate_, marked with spots or lines of a different color.
+
+_Nucamentaceous_, relating to or resembling a small nut.
+
+_Nuciform_, nut-shaped or nut-like.
+
+_Nucleus_, the kernel of an ovule (110) or seed (127) of a cell.
+
+_Nucule_, same as nutlet.
+
+_Nude_, (Latin, _Nudus_), naked. So _Nudicaulis_, naked-stemmed, &c.
+
+_Nut_, Latin _Nux_, a hard, mostly one-seeded indehiscent fruit; as a
+chestnut, butternut, acorn, 121.
+
+_Nutant_, nodding.
+
+_Nutlet_, a little nut; or the stone of a drupe.
+
+
+_Ob-_ (meaning over against), when prefixed to words signifies
+inversion; as, _Obcompressed_, flattened the opposite of the usual way;
+_Obcordate_, heart-shaped, with the broad and notched end at the apex
+instead of the base, 54; _Oblanceolate_, lance-shaped with the tapering
+point downwards, 52.
+
+_Oblique_, applied to leaves, &c., means unequal-sided.
+
+_Oblong_, from two to four times as long as broad, 52.
+
+_Obovate_, inversely ovate, the broad end upward, 53. _Obovoid_, solid
+obovate.
+
+_Obtuse_, blunt or round at the end, 54.
+
+_Obverse_, same as _inverse_.
+
+_Obvolute_ (in the bud), when the margins of one piece or leaf
+alternately overlap those of the opposite one.
+
+_Ocellate_, with a circular colored patch, like an eye.
+
+_Ochroleucous_, yellowish-white; dull cream-color.
+
+_Ocreate_, furnished with _Ocreae_ (boots), or stipules in the form of
+sheaths, 67.
+
+_Octo-_, Latin for eight, enters into the composition of _Octagynous_,
+with eight pistils or styles; _Octamerous_, its parts in eights;
+_Octandrous_, with eight stamens, &c.
+
+_Oculate_, with eye-shaped marking.
+
+_Officinal_, used in medicine, therefore kept in the shops.
+
+_Offset_, short branches next the ground which take root, 40.
+
+_Oides_, termination, from the Greek, to denote likeness; so
+_Dianthoides_, Pink-like.
+
+_Oleraceous_, esculent, as a pot-herb.
+
+_Oligos_, Greek for few; thus _Oliganthous_, few-flowered, &c.
+
+_Olivaceous_, olive-green.
+
+_Oophoridium_, a name for spore-case containing macrospores.
+
+_Opaque_, applied to a surface, means dull, not shining.
+
+_Operculate_, furnished with a lid (_Operculum_), as the spore-case of
+Mosses, 163.
+
+_Opposite_, said of leaves and branches when on opposite sides of the
+stem from each other (i. e. in pairs), 29, 68. Stamens are opposite the
+petals, &c., when they stand before them.
+
+_Oppositifolius_, situated opposite a leaf.
+
+_Orbicular_, _Orbiculate_, circular in outline, or nearly so, 52.
+
+_Order_, group below class, 178. _Ordinal names_, 180.
+
+_Organ_, any member of the plant, as a leaf, a stamen, &c.
+
+_Organography_, study of organs, 9. _Organogenesis_, that of the
+development of organs.
+
+_Orgyalis_, of the height of a man.
+
+_Orthos_, Greek for straight; thus, _Orthocarpous_, with straight fruit;
+_Orthostichous_, straight-ranked.
+
+_Orthotropous_ (ovule or seed), 111.
+
+_Osseous_, of a bony texture.
+
+_Outgrowths_, growths from the surface of a leaf, petal, &c.
+
+_Oval_, broadly elliptical, 52.
+
+_Ovary_, that part of the pistil containing the ovules or future seeds,
+14, 80, 105.
+
+_Ovate_, shaped like an egg, with the broader end downwards; or, in
+plain surfaces, such as leaves, like the section of an egg lengthwise,
+52.
+
+_Ovoid_, ovate or oval in a solid form.
+
+_Ovule_, the body which is destined to become a seed, 14, 80, 105, 110.
+
+_Ovuliferous_, ovule-bearing.
+
+
+_Palate_, a projection of the lower lip of a labiate corolla into the
+throat, as in Snapdragon, &c.
+
+_Palea_ (plural _paleae_), chaff; the inner husks of Grasses; the chaff
+or bracts on the receptacle of many Compositae, as Coreopsis, and
+Sunflower.
+
+_Paleaceous_, furnished with chaff, or chaffy in texture.
+
+_Paleolate_, having _Paleolae_ or paleae of a second order, or narrow
+paleae.
+
+_Palet_, English term for palea.
+
+_Palmate_, when leaflets or the divisions of a leaf all spread from the
+apex of the petiole, like the hand with the outspread fingers, 57, 58.
+
+_Palmately_ (veined, lobed, &c.), in a palmate manner, 51, 56.
+
+_Palmatifid_, _-lobed_, _-sect_, palmately cleft, or lobed, or divided.
+
+_Paludose_, inhabiting marshes. _Palustrine_, same.
+
+_Panduriform_, or _Pandurate_, fiddle-shaped (which see).
+
+_Panicle_, an open and branched cluster, 81.
+
+_Panicled_, _Paniculate_, arranged in panicles, or like a panicle.
+
+_Pannose_, covered with a felt of woolly hairs.
+
+_Papery_, of about the consistence of letter-paper.
+
+_Papilionaceous_, butterfly-shaped; applied to such a corolla as that of
+the Pea, 91.
+
+_Papilla_ (plural _papillae_), little nipple-shaped protuberances.
+
+_Papillate_, _Papillose_, covered with papillae.
+
+_Pappus_, thistle-down. The down crowning the achenium of the Thistle,
+Groundsel, &c., and whatever in Compositae answers to calyx, whether
+hairs, teeth, or scales, 121.
+
+_Papyraceous_, like parchment in texture.
+
+_Parallel-veined_ or _nerved_ (leaves), 50.
+
+_Paraphyses_, jointed filaments mixed with the antheridia of Mosses.
+
+_Parasitic_, living as a parasite, i. e. on another plant or animal, 37.
+
+_Parenchemytous_, composed of parenchyma.
+
+_Parenchyma_, soft cellular tissue of plants, like the green pulp of
+leaves, 132.
+
+_Parietal_ (placentae, &c.), attached to the walls (_parietes_) of the
+ovary.
+
+_Paripinnate_, pinnate with an even number of leaflets.
+
+_Parted_, separated or cleft into parts almost to the base, 55.
+
+_Parthenogenesis_, producing seed without fertilization.
+
+_Partial involucre_, same as an _involucel_; _partial petiole_, a
+division of a main leaf-stalk or the stalk of a leaflet; _partial
+peduncle_, a branch of a peduncle; _partial umbel_, an umbellet, 76.
+
+_Partition_, a segment of a _parted_ leaf; or an internal wall in an
+ovary, anther, &c.
+
+_Patelliform_, disk-shaped, like the _patella_ or kneepan.
+
+_Patent_, spreading, open. _Patulous_, moderately spreading.
+
+_Pauci-_, in composition, few; as _pauciflorous_, few-flowered, &c.
+
+_Pear-shaped_, solid obovate, the shape of a pear.
+
+_Pectinate_, pinnatifid or pinnately divided into narrow and close
+divisions, like the teeth of a comb.
+
+_Pedate_, like a bird's foot; palmate or palmately cleft, with the side
+divisions again cleft, as in Viola pedata, &c.
+
+_Pedicel_, the stalk of each particular flower of a cluster, 73.
+
+_Pedicellate_, _Pedicelled_, borne on a pedicel.
+
+_Pedalis_, Latin for a foot high or long.
+
+_Peduncle_, a flower-stalk, whether of a single flower or of a
+flower-cluster, 73.
+
+_Peduncled_, _Pedunculate_, furnished with a peduncle.
+
+_Peloria_, an abnormal return to regularity and symmetry in an irregular
+flower; commonest in Snapdragon.
+
+_Peltate_, shield-shaped; said of a leaf, whatever its shape, when the
+petiole is attached to the lower side, somewhere within the margin, 53.
+
+_Pelviform_, basin-shaped.
+
+_Pendent_, hanging. _Pendulous_, somewhat hanging or drooping.
+
+_Penicillate_, _Penicilliform_, tipped with a tuft of fine hairs, like a
+painter's pencil; as the stigmas of some Grasses.
+
+_Pennate_, same as pinnate. _Penninerved_ and _Penniveined_, pinnately
+veined, 51.
+
+_Penta-_ (in words of Greek composition), five; as _Pentadelphous_, 99;
+_Pentagynous_, with five pistils or styles; _Pentamerous_, with its
+parts in fives, or on the plan of five; _Pentandrous_, having five
+stamens, 112; _Pentastichous_, in five ranks, &c.
+
+_Pepo_, a fruit like the Melon and Cucumber, 119.
+
+_Perennial_, lasting from year to year, 38.
+
+_Perfect_ (flower), having both stamens and pistils, 81.
+
+_Perfoliate_, passing through the leaf, in appearance, 60.
+
+_Perforate_, pierced with holes, or with transparent dots resembling
+holes, as an Orange-leaf.
+
+_Peri-_, Greek for around; from which are such terms as
+
+_Perianth_, the leaves of the flower collectively, 79.
+
+_Pericarp_, the ripened ovary; the walls of the fruit, 117.
+
+_Pericarpic_, belonging to the pericarp.
+
+_Perigonium_, _Perigone_, same as _perianth_.
+
+_Perigynium_, bodies around the pistil; applied to the closed cup or
+bottle-shaped body (of bracts) which encloses the ovary of Sedges, and
+to the bristles, little scales, &c., of the flowers of some other
+Cyperaceae.
+
+_Perigynous_, the petals and stamens borne on the calyx, 95, 99.
+
+_Peripheric_, around the outside, or periphery, of any organ.
+
+_Perisperm_, a name for the albumen of a seed.
+
+_Peristome_, the fringe of teeth to the spore-case of Mosses, 163.
+
+_Persistent_, remaining beyond the period when such parts commonly fall,
+as the leaves of evergreens, and the calyx of such flowers as persist
+during the growth of the fruit.
+
+_Personate_, masked; a bilabiate corolla with a _palate_ in the throat,
+92.
+
+_Pertuse_, perforated with a hole or slit.
+
+_Perulate_, having scales (_Perulae_), such as bud-scales.
+
+_Pes_, _pedis_, Latin for the foot or support, whence _Longipes_,
+long-stalked, &c.
+
+_Petal_, a leaf of the corolla, 14, 79.
+
+_Petalody_, metamorphosis of stamens, &c., into petals.
+
+_Petaloid_, _Petaline_, petal-like; resembling or colored like petals.
+
+_Petiole_, a footstalk of a leaf; a leaf-stalk, 49.
+
+_Petioled_, _Petiolate_, furnished with a petiole.
+
+_Petiolulate_, said of a leaflet when raised on its own partial
+leaf-stalk.
+
+_Petraeus_, Latin for growing on rocks.
+
+_Phalanx_, _phalanges_, bundles of stamens.
+
+_Phaenogamous_, or _Phanerogamous_, plants bearing flowers and producing
+seeds; same as Flowering Plants. _Phaenogams_, _Phanerogams_, 10.
+
+_Phloeum_, Greek name for bark, whence _Endophloeum_, inner bark,
+&c.
+
+_Phoeniceous_, deep red verging to scarlet.
+
+_Phycology_, the botany of Algae.
+
+_Phyllocladia_, branches assuming the form and function of leaves.
+
+_Phyllodium_ (plural, _phyllodia_), a leaf where the seeming blade is a
+dilated petiole, as in New Holland Acacias, 61.
+
+_Phyllome_, foliar parts, those answering to leaves in their nature.
+
+_Phyllon_ (plural, _phylla_), Greek for leaf and leaves; used in many
+compound terms and names.
+
+_Phyllotaxis_, or _Phyllotaxy_, the arrangement of leaves on the stem,
+67.
+
+_Physiological Botany_, 9.
+
+_Phytography_, relates to characterizing and describing plants.
+
+_Phyton_, or _Phytomer_, a name used to designate the pieces which by
+their repetition make up a plant, theoretically, viz. a joint of stem
+with its leaf or pair of leaves.
+
+_Pileus_ of a mushroom, 172.
+
+_Piliferous_, bearing a slender bristle or hair (_pilum_), or beset with
+hairs.
+
+_Pilose_, hairy; clothed with soft slender hairs.
+
+_Pinna_, a primary division with its leaflets of a bipinnate or
+tripinnate leaf.
+
+_Pinnule_, a secondary division of a bipinnate or tripinnate leaf, 66.
+
+_Pinnate_ (leaf), when leaflets are arranged along the sides of a common
+petiole, 57.
+
+_Pinnately lobed_, _cleft_, _parted_, _divided_, _veined_, 56.
+
+_Pinnatifid_, _Pinnatisect_, same as pinnately cleft and pinnately
+parted, 56.
+
+_Pisiform_, pea-shaped.
+
+_Pistil_, the seed-bearing organ of the flower, 14, 80, 105.
+
+_Pistillate_, having a pistil, 85.
+
+_Pistillidium_, the body which in Mosses answers to the pistil, 159,
+164.
+
+_Pitchers_, 64.
+
+_Pith_, the cellular centre of an exogenous stem, 138.
+
+_Placenta_, the surface or part of the ovary to which the ovules are
+attached, 107.
+
+_Placentiform_, nearly same as quoit-shaped.
+
+_Plaited_ (in the bud), or _Plicate_, folded, 72, 98.
+
+_Platy-_, Greek for broad, in compounds, such as _Platyphyllous_,
+broad-leaved, &c.
+
+_Pleio-_, Greek for full or abounding, used in compounds, such as
+_Pleiopetalous_, of many petals, &c.
+
+_Plumbeus_, lead-colored.
+
+_Plumose_, feathery; when any slender body (such as a bristle of a
+pappus or a style) is beset with hairs along its sides, like the plume
+of a feather.
+
+_Plumule_, the bud or first shoot of a germinating plantlet above the
+cotyledons, 13.
+
+_Pluri-_, in composition, many or several; as _Plurifoliolate_, with
+several leaflets.
+
+_Pod_, specially a legume, 122; also may be applied to any sort of
+capsule.
+
+_Podium_, a footstalk or stipe, used only in Greek compounds, as
+(suffixed) _Leptopodus_, slender-stalked, or (prefixed) _Podocephalus_,
+with a stalked head, and in _Podosperm_, a seed stalk or funiculus.
+
+_Pogon_, Greek for beard, comes into various compounds.
+
+_Pointless_, destitute of any pointed tip, such as a _mucro_, _awn_,
+_acumination_, &c.
+
+_Pollen_, the fertilizing powder contained in the anther, 14, 80, 103.
+
+_Pollen-growth_, 117. _Polleniferous_, pollen-bearing.
+
+_Pollen-mass_, _Pollinium_, the united mass of pollen, 104, as in
+Milkweed and Orchis.
+
+_Pollicaris_, Latin for an inch long.
+
+_Pollination_, the application of pollen to the stigma, 114.
+
+_Poly-_, in compound words of Greek origin, same as _multi-_ in those of
+Latin origin viz. many, as
+
+_Polyadelphous_, stamens united by their filaments into several bundles,
+100.
+
+_Polyandrous_, with numerous stamens (inserted on the receptacle), 100.
+
+_Polycarpic_, term used by DeCandolle in the sense of perennial.
+
+_Polycotyledonous_, having many (more than two) cotyledons, as Pines,
+23.
+
+_Polygamous_, having some perfect and some unisexual flowers, 85.
+
+_Polygonal_, many-angled.
+
+_Polygynous_, with many pistils or styles, 105.
+
+_Polymerous_, formed of many parts of each set.
+
+_Polymorphous_, of several or varying forms.
+
+_Polypetalous_, when the petals are distinct or separate (whether few or
+many), 89.
+
+_Polyphyllous_, many-leaved; formed of several distinct pieces.
+
+_Polysepalous_, same as the last when applied to the calyx, 89.
+
+_Polyspermous_, many-seeded.
+
+_Pome_, the apple, pear, and similar fleshy fruits, 119.
+
+_Pomiferous_, pome-bearing.
+
+_Porrect_, outstretched.
+
+_Posterior_ side or portion of a flower (when axillary) is that toward
+the axis, 96.
+
+_Pouch_, the silicle or short pod, as of Shepherd's Purse, 123.
+
+_Praecocious_ (Latin, _praecox_), unusually early in development.
+
+_Praefloration_, same as _aestivation_, 97.
+
+_Praefoliation_, same as _vernation_, 71.
+
+_Praemorse_, ending abruptly, as if bitten off.
+
+_Pratensis_, Latin for growing in meadows.
+
+_Prickles_, sharp elevations of the bark, coming off with it, as of the
+Rose.
+
+_Prickly_, bearing prickles, or sharp projections like them.
+
+_Primine_, the outer coat of the covering of the ovule, 110.
+
+_Primordial_, earliest formed; primordial leaves are the first after the
+cotyledons.
+
+_Prismatic_, prism-shaped; having three or more angles bounding flat
+sides.
+
+_Procerous_, tall, or tall and slim.
+
+_Process_, any projection from the surface or edge of a body.
+
+_Procumbent_, trailing on the ground, 39.
+
+_Procurrent_, running through but not projecting.
+
+_Produced_, extended or projecting; the upper sepal of a Larkspur is
+_produced_ above into a spur, 87.
+
+_Proliferous_ (literally, bearing offspring), where a new branch rises
+from an older one, or one head or cluster of flowers out of another.
+
+_Propaculum_ or _Propagulum_, a shoot for propagation.
+
+_Prosenchyma_, a tissue of wood-cells.
+
+_Prostrate_, lying flat on the ground, 39.
+
+_Protandrous_ or _Proterandrous_, the anthers first maturing, 116.
+
+_Proteranthous_, flowering before leafing.
+
+_Proterogynous_ or _Protogynous_, the stigmas first to mature, 116.
+
+_Prothallium_ or _Prothallus_, 160.
+
+_Protoplasm_, the soft nitrogenous lining or contents, or living part,
+of cells, 129.
+
+_Protos_, Greek for first; in various compounds.
+
+_Pruinose_, _Pruinate_, frosted; covered with a powder like hoar-frost.
+
+_Pseudo-_, Greek for false. _Pseudo-bulb_, the aerial corms of epiphytic
+Orchids, &c.
+
+_Psilos_, Greek for bare or naked, used in many compounds.
+
+_Pteridophyta_, _Pteridophytes_, 156.
+
+_Pteris_, Greek for wing, and general name for Fern, enters into many
+compounds.
+
+_Puberulent_, covered with fine and short or almost imperceptible down.
+
+_Pubescent_, hairy or downy, especially with fine and soft hairs or
+_pubescence_.
+
+_Pulverulent_ or _Pulveraceous_, as if dusted with fine powder.
+
+_Pulvinate_, cushioned, or shaped like a cushion.
+
+_Pumilus_, low or little.
+
+_Punctate_, dotted, either with minute holes or what look as such.
+
+_Puncticulate_, minutely punctate.
+
+_Pungent_, prickly-tipped.
+
+_Puniceous_, carmine-red.
+
+_Purpureus_, originally red or crimson, more used for duller or
+bluish-red.
+
+_Pusillus_, weak and small, tiny.
+
+_Putamen_, the stone of a drupe, or the shell of a nut, 120.
+
+_Pygmaeus_, Latin for dwarf.
+
+_Pyramidal_, shaped like a pyramid.
+
+_Pyrene_, _Pyrena_, a seed-like nutlet or stone of a small drupe.
+
+_Pyriform_, pear-shaped.
+
+_Pyxidate_, furnished with a lid.
+
+_Pyxis_, _Pyxidium_, a pod opening round horizontally by a lid, 124.
+
+
+_Quadri-_, in words of Latin origin, four; as _Quadrangular_,
+four-angled; _Quadrifoliate_, four-leaved; _Quadrifid_, four-cleft.
+_Quaternate_ in fours.
+
+_Quinate_, in fives. _Quinque_, five.
+
+_Quincuncial_, in a quincunx; when the parts in aestivation are five, two
+of them outside, two inside, and one half out and half in.
+
+_Quintuple_, five-fold.
+
+
+_Race_, a marked variety which may be perpetuated from seed, 176.
+
+_Raceme_, a flower-cluster, with one-flowered pedicels arranged along
+the sides of a general peduncle, 73.
+
+_Racemose_, bearing racemes, or raceme-like.
+
+_Rachis_, see _rhachis_.
+
+_Radial_, belonging to the ray.
+
+_Radiate_, or _Radiant_, furnished with ray-flowers, 94.
+
+_Radiate-veined_, 52.
+
+_Radical_, belonging to the root, or apparently coming from the root.
+
+_Radicant_, rooting, taking root on or above the ground.
+
+_Radicels_, little roots or rootlets.
+
+_Radicle_, the stem part of the embryo, the lower end of which forms the
+root, 11, 127.
+
+_Rameal_, belonging to a branch. _Ramose_, full of branches (_rami_).
+
+_Ramentaceous_, beset with thin chaffy scales (_Ramenta_), as the stalks
+of many Ferns.
+
+_Ramification_, branching, 27.
+
+_Ramulose_, full of branchlets (_ramuli_).
+
+_Raphe_, see _rhaphe_.
+
+_Ray_, parts diverging from a centre, the marginal flowers of a head (as
+of Coreopsis, 94), or cluster, as of Hydrangea (78), when different from
+the rest, especially when ligulate and diverging (like rays or
+sunbeams); also the branches of an umbel, 74.
+
+_Ray-flowers_, 94.
+
+_Receptacle_, the axis or support of a flower, 81, 112; also the common
+axis or support of a head of flowers, 73.
+
+_Reclined_, turned or curved downwards; nearly recumbent.
+
+_Rectinerved_, with straight nerves or veins.
+
+_Recurved_, curved outwards or backwards.
+
+_Reduplicate_ (in aestivation), valvate with the margins turned outwards,
+97.
+
+_Reflexed_, bent outwards or backwards.
+
+_Refracted_, bent suddenly, so as to appear broken at the bend.
+
+_Regular_, all the parts similar in shape, 82.
+
+_Reniform_, kidney-shaped, 53.
+
+_Repand_, wavy-margined, 55.
+
+_Repent_, creeping, i. e. prostrate and rooting underneath.
+
+_Replum_, the frame of some pods (as of Prickly Poppy and Cress),
+persistent after the valves fall away.
+
+_Reptant_, same as repent.
+
+_Resupinate_, inverted, or appearing as if upside down, or reversed.
+
+_Reticulated_, the veins forming network, 50. _Retiform_, in network.
+
+_Retinerved_, reticulate-veined.
+
+_Retroflexed_, bent backwards; same as _reflexed_.
+
+_Retuse_, blunted; the apex not only obtuse but somewhat indented, 54.
+
+_Revolute_, rolled backwards, as the margins of many leaves, 72.
+
+_Rhachis_ (the backbone), the axis of a spike or other body, 73.
+
+_Rhaphe_, the continuation of the seed-stalk along the side of an
+anatropous ovule or seed, 112, 126.
+
+_Rhaphides_, crystals, especially needle-shaped ones, in the tissues of
+plants, 137.
+
+_Rhizanthous_, flowering from the root.
+
+_Rhizoma_, _Rhizome_, a rootstock, 42-44.
+
+_Rhombic_, in the shape of a rhomb. _Rhomboidal_, approaching that
+shape.
+
+_Rib_, the principal piece, or one of the principal pieces of the
+framework of a leaf, or any similar elevated line along a body, 49, 50.
+
+_Rimose_, having chinks or cracks.
+
+_Ring_, an elastic band on the spore-cases of Ferns, 159.
+
+_Ringent_, grinning; gaping open, 92.
+
+_Riparious_, on river-banks.
+
+_Rivalis_, Latin for growing along brooks; or _Rivularis_, in rivulets.
+
+_Root_, 33.
+
+_Root-hairs_, 35.
+
+_Rootlets_, small roots, or root-branches, 33.
+
+_Rootstock_, root-like trunks or portions of stems on or under ground,
+42.
+
+_Roridus_, dewy.
+
+_Rosaceous_, arranged like the petals of a rose.
+
+_Rostellate_, bearing a small beak (_Rostellum_).
+
+_Rostrate_, bearing a beak (_Rostrum_) or a prolonged appendage.
+
+_Rosulate_, in a rosette or cluster of spreading leaves.
+
+_Rotate_, wheel-shaped, 89.
+
+_Rotund_, rounded or roundish in outline.
+
+_Ruber_, Latin for red in general. _Rubescent_, _Rubicund_, reddish or
+blushing.
+
+_Rudimentary_, imperfectly developed, or in an early state of
+development.
+
+_Rufous_, _Rufescent_, brownish-red or reddish-brown.
+
+_Rugose_, wrinkled; roughened with wrinkles.
+
+_Ruminated_ (albumen), penetrated with irregular channels or portions,
+as a nutmeg, looking as if chewed.
+
+_Runcinate_, coarsely saw-toothed or cut, the pointed teeth turned
+towards the base of the leaf, as the leaf of a Dandelion.
+
+_Runner_, a slender and prostrate branch, rooting at the end, or at the
+joints, 40.
+
+
+_Sabulose_, growing in sand.
+
+_Sac_, any closed membrane, or a deep purse-shaped cavity.
+
+_Saccate_, sac-shaped.
+
+_Sagittate_, arrowhead-shaped, 53.
+
+_Salsuginous_, growing in brackish soil.
+
+_Salver-shaped_, or _Salver-form_, with a border spreading at right
+angles to a slender tube, 89.
+
+_Samara_, a wing-fruit, or key, 122.
+
+_Samaroid_, like a samara or key-fruit.
+
+_Sap_, the juices of plants generally, 136. _Sapwood_, 142.
+
+_Saprophytes_, 37.
+
+_Sarcocarp_, the fleshy part of a stone-fruit, 120.
+
+_Sarmentaceous_, _Sarmentose_, bearing long and flexible twigs
+(_Sarments_), either spreading or procumbent.
+
+_Saw-toothed_, see _serrate_, 55.
+
+_Scabrous_, rough or harsh to the touch.
+
+_Scalariform_, with cross-bands, resembling the steps of a ladder, 134.
+
+_Scales_, of buds, 28; of bulbs, &c., 46.
+
+_Scalloped_, same as _crenate_, 55.
+
+_Scaly_, furnished with scales, or scale-like in texture.
+
+_Scandent_, climbing, 39.
+
+_Scape_, a peduncle rising from the ground or near it, as in many
+Violets.
+
+_Scapiform_, scape-like.
+
+_Scapigerous_, scape-bearing.
+
+_Scar_ of the seed, 126. _Leaf-scars_, 27, 28.
+
+_Scarious_ or _Scariose_, thin, dry, and membranous.
+
+_Scion_, a shoot or slip used for grafting.
+
+_Scleros_, Greek for hard, hence _Sclerocarpous_, hard-fruited.
+
+_Scobiform_, resembling sawdust.
+
+_Scorpioid_ or _Scorpioidal_, curved or circinate at the end, 77.
+
+_Scrobiculate_, pitted; excavated into shallow pits.
+
+_Scurf_, _Scurfiness_, minute scales on the surface of many leaves, as
+of Goosefoot.
+
+_Scutate_, _Scutiform_, buckler-shaped.
+
+_Scutellate_, or _Scutelliform_, saucer-shaped or platter-shaped.
+
+_Secund_, one-sided; i. e. where flowers, leaves, &c., are all turned to
+one side.
+
+_Secundine_, the inner coat of the ovule, 110.
+
+_Seed_, 125. _Seed-leaves_, see _cotyledons_. _Seed-vessel_, 127.
+
+_Segment_, a subdivision or lobe of any cleft body.
+
+_Segregate_, separated from each other.
+
+_Semi-_, in compound words of Latin origin, half; as
+
+_Semi-adherent_, as the calyx or ovary of Purslane; _Semicordate_,
+half-heart-shaped; _Semilunar_, like a half-moon; _Semiovate_,
+half-ovate, &c.
+
+_Seminal_, relating to the seed (_Semen_). _Seminiferous_, seed-bearing.
+
+_Sempervirent_, evergreen.
+
+_Sensitiveness_ in plants, 149, 152.
+
+_Senary_, in sixes.
+
+_Sepal_, a leaf or division of the calyx, 14, 79.
+
+_Sepaloid_, sepal-like. _Sepaline_, relating to the sepals.
+
+_Separated Flowers_, those having stamens or pistils only, 85.
+
+_Septate_, divided by partitions.
+
+_Septenate_, with parts in sevens.
+
+_Septicidal_, where dehiscence is through the partitions, 123.
+
+_Septiferous_, bearing the partition.
+
+_Septifragal_, where the valves in dehiscence break away from the
+partitions, 123.
+
+_Septum_ (plural _septa_), a partition or dissepiment.
+
+_Serial_, or _Seriate_, in rows; as _biserial_, in two rows, &c.
+
+_Sericeous_, silky; clothed with satiny pubescence.
+
+_Serotinous_, late in the season.
+
+_Serrate_, the margin cut into teeth (_Serratures_) pointing forwards,
+55.
+
+_Serrulate_, same as the last, but with fine teeth.
+
+_Sessile_, sitting; without any stalk.
+
+_Sesqui-_, Latin for one and a half; so _Sesquipedalis_, a foot and a
+half long.
+
+_Seta_, a bristle, or a slender body or appendage resembling a bristle.
+
+_Setaceous_, bristle-like. _Setiform_, bristle-shaped.
+
+_Setigerous_, bearing bristles. _Setose_, beset with bristles or bristly
+hairs.
+
+_Setula_, a diminutive bristle. _Setulose_, provided with such.
+
+_Sex_, six. _Sexangular_, six-angled. _Sexfarious_, six-faced.
+
+_Sheath_, the base of such leaves as those of Grasses, which are
+
+_Sheathing_, wrapped round the stem.
+
+_Shield-shaped_, same as _scutate_, or as _peltate_, 53.
+
+_Shrub_, _Shrubby_, 39.
+
+_Sieve-cells_, 140.
+
+_Sigmoid_, curved in two directions, like the letter S, or the Greek
+_sigma_.
+
+_Silicle_, a pouch, or short pod of the Cress Family, 123.
+
+_Siliculose_, bearing a silicle, or a fruit resembling it.
+
+_Silique_, capsule of the Cress Family, 123.
+
+_Siliquose_, bearing siliques or pods which resemble siliques.
+
+_Silky_, glossy with a coat of fine and soft, close-pressed, straight
+hairs.
+
+_Silver-grain_, the medullary rays of wood, 139.
+
+_Silvery_, shining white or bluish-gray, usually from a silky
+pubescence.
+
+_Simple_, of one piece; opposed to _compound_.
+
+_Sinistrorse_, turned to the left.
+
+_Sinuate_, with margin alternately bowed inwards and outwards, 55.
+
+_Sinus_, a recess or bay; the re-entering angle between two lobes or
+projections.
+
+_Sleep of Plants_ (so called), 151.
+
+_Smooth_, properly speaking not rough, but often used for glabrous, i.
+e. not pubescent.
+
+_Soboliferous_, bearing shoots (_Soboles_) from near the ground.
+
+_Solitary_, single; not associated with others.
+
+_Sordid_, dull or dirty in hue.
+
+_Sorediate_, bearing patches on the surface.
+
+_Sorosis_, name of a multiple fruit, like a pine-apple.
+
+_Sorus_, a fruit-dot of Ferns, 159.
+
+_Spadiceous_, chestnut-colored. Also spadix-bearing.
+
+_Spadix_, a fleshy spike of flowers, 75.
+
+_Span_, the distance between the tip of the thumb and of little finger
+outstretched, six or seven inches.
+
+_Spathaceous_, resembling or furnished with a
+
+_Spathe_, a bract which inwraps an inflorescence, 75.
+
+_Spatulate_, or _Spathulate_, shaped like a spatula, 52.
+
+_Species_, 175.
+
+_Specific Names_, 179.
+
+_Specimens_, 184.
+
+_Spermaphore_, or _Spermophore_, one of the names of the placenta.
+
+_Spermum_, Latin form of Greek word for seed; much used in composition.
+
+_Spica_, Latin for spike; hence _Spicate_, in a spike, _Spiciform_, in
+shape resembling a spike.
+
+_Spike_, an inflorescence like a raceme, only the flowers are sessile,
+74.
+
+_Spikelet_, a small or a secondary spike; the inflorescence of Grasses.
+
+_Spine_, 41, 64.
+
+_Spindle-shaped_, tapering to each end, like a radish, 36.
+
+_Spinescent_, tipped by or degenerating into a thorn.
+
+_Spinose_, or _Spiniferous_, thorny.
+
+_Spiral Vessels_ or _ducts_, 135.
+
+_Spithameous_, span-high.
+
+_Spora_, Greek name for seed, used in compound words.
+
+_Sporadic_, widely dispersed.
+
+_Sporangium_, a spore-case in Ferns, &c., 158.
+
+_Spore_, a body resulting from the fructification of Cryptogamous
+plants, in them the analogue of a seed.
+
+_Spore-case_ (_Sporangium_), 158.
+
+_Sporocarp_, 162.
+
+_Sport_, a newly appeared variation, 176.
+
+_Sporule_, same as a spore, or a small spore.
+
+_Spumescent_, appearing like froth.
+
+_Spur_, any projecting appendage of the flower, looking like a spur but
+hollow, as that of Larkspur, fig. 239.
+
+_Squamate_, _Squamose_, or _Squamaceous_, furnished with scales
+(_squamae_).
+
+_Squamellate_, or _Squamulose_, furnished with little scales
+(_Squamellae_, or _Squamulae_).
+
+_Squamiform_, shaped like a scale.
+
+_Squarrose_, where scales, leaves, or any appendages spread widely from
+the axis on which they are thickly set.
+
+_Squarrulose_, diminutive of _squarrose_; slightly squarrose.
+
+_Stachys_, Greek for spike.
+
+_Stalk_, the stem, petiole, peduncle, &c., as the case may be.
+
+_Stamen_, 14, 80, 98.
+
+_Staminate_, furnished with stamens, 86. _Stamineal_, relating to the
+stamens.
+
+_Staminodium_, an abortive stamen, or other body in place of a stamem.
+
+_Standard_, the upper petal of a papilionaceous corolla, 92.
+
+_Starch_, 136, 163.
+
+_Station_, the particular kind of situation in which a plant naturally
+occurs.
+
+_Stellate_, _Stellular_, starry or star-like; where several similar
+parts spread out from a common centre, like a star.
+
+_Stem_, 39. _Stemlet_, diminutive stem.
+
+_Stemless_, destitute or apparently destitute of stem.
+
+_Stenos_, Greek for narrow; hence _Stenophyllous_, narrow-leaved, &c.
+
+_Sterile_, barren or imperfect.
+
+_Stigma_, the part of the pistil which receives the pollen, 14, 80, 105.
+
+_Stigmatic_, or _Stigmatose_, belonging to the stigma.
+
+_Stipe_ (Latin _Stipes_), the stalk of a pistil, &c., when it has any,
+112; also of a Fern, 158, and of a Mushroom, 172.
+
+_Stipel_, a stipule of a leaflet, as of the Bean, &c.
+
+_Stipellate_, furnished with stipels, as in the Bean tribe.
+
+_Stipitate_, furnished with a stipe.
+
+_Stipulaceous_, belonging to stipules. _Stipulate_, furnished with
+stipules.
+
+_Stipules_, the appendages on each side of the base of certain leaves,
+66.
+
+_Stirps_ (plural, _stirpes_), Latin for race.
+
+_Stock_, used for race or source. Also for any root-like base from which
+the herb grows up.
+
+_Stole_, or _Stolon_, a trailing or reclined and rooting shoot, 40.
+
+_Stoloniferous_, producing stolons.
+
+_Stomate_ (Latin _Stoma_, plural _Stomata_), the breathing-pores of
+leaves, 144.
+
+_Stone-fruit_, 119.
+
+_Storage-leaves_, 62.
+
+_Stramineous_, straw-like, or straw-colored.
+
+_Strap-shaped_, long, flat, and narrow.
+
+_Striate_, or _Striated_, marked with slender longitudinal grooves or
+stripes.
+
+_Strict_, close and narrow; straight and narrow.
+
+_Strigillose_, _Strigose_, beset with stout and appressed, stiff or
+rigid bristles.
+
+_Strobilaceous_, relating to or resembling a
+
+_Strobile_, a multiple fruit in the form of a cone or head, 124.
+
+_Strombuliform_, twisted, like a spiral shell.
+
+_Strophiole_, same as _caruncle_, 126. _Strophiolate_, furnished with a
+strophiole.
+
+_Struma_, a wen; a swelling or protuberance of any organ.
+
+_Strumose_, bearing a struma.
+
+_Stupose_, like tow.
+
+_Style_, a stalk between ovary and stigma, 14, 80, 105.
+
+_Styliferous_, _Stylose_, bearing styles or conspicuous ones.
+
+_Stylopodium_, an epigynous disk, or an enlargement at the base of the
+style.
+
+_Sub-_, as a prefix, about, nearly, somewhat; as _Subcordate_, slightly
+cordate; _Subserrate_, slightly serrate; _Subaxillary_, just beneath the
+axil, &c.
+
+_Subclass_, _Suborder_, _Subtribe_, 178.
+
+_Suberose_, corky or cork-like in texture.
+
+_Subulate_, awl-shaped; tapering from a broadish or thickish base to a
+sharp point.
+
+_Succise_, as if cut off at lower end.
+
+_Succubous_, when crowded leaves are each covered by base of next above.
+
+_Suckers_, shoots from subterranean branches, 39.
+
+_Suffrutescent_, slightly shrubby or woody at the base only, 39.
+
+_Suffruticose_, rather more than suffrutescent, 37, 39.
+
+_Sulcate_, grooved longitudinally with deep furrows.
+
+_Superior_, above, 96; sometimes equivalent to posterior, 96.
+
+_Supernumerary Buds_, 30, 31.
+
+_Supervolute_, plaited and convolute in bud, 97.
+
+_Supine_, lying flat, with face upward.
+
+_Supra-axillary_, borne above the axil, as some buds, 31.
+
+_Supra-decompound_, many times compounded or divided.
+
+_Surculose_, producing suckers (_Surculi_) or shoots resembling them.
+
+_Suspended_, hanging down. Suspended ovules or seeds hang from the very
+summit of the cell which contains them.
+
+_Sutural_, belonging or relating to a suture.
+
+_Suture_, the line of junction of contiguous parts grown together, 106.
+
+_Sword-shaped_, applied to narrow leaves, with acute parallel edges,
+tapering above.
+
+_Syconium_, the fig-fruit, 124.
+
+_Sylvestrine_, growing in woods.
+
+_Symmetrical Flower_, similar in the number of parts of each set, 82.
+
+_Sympetalous_, same as gamopetalous.
+
+_Sympode_, _Sympodium_, a stem composed of a series of superposed
+branches in such a way as to imitate a simple axis, as in Grape-vine.
+
+_Synantherous_ or _Syngenesious_, where stamens are united by their
+anthers, 100.
+
+_Syncarpous_ (fruit or pistil), composed of several carpels consolidated
+into one.
+
+_Synonym_, an equivalent superseded name.
+
+_Synsepalous_, same as gamosepalous.
+
+_System_ (artificial and natural), 182, 183.
+
+_Systematic Botany_, the study of plants after their kinds, 9.
+
+
+_Tabescent_, wasting or shrivelling.
+
+_Tail_, any long and slender prolongation of an organ.
+
+_Taper-pointed_, same as acuminate, 54.
+
+_Tap-root_, a root with a stout tapering body, 32-35.
+
+_Tawny_, dull yellowish, with a tinge of brown.
+
+_Taxonomy_, the part of botany which treats of classification.
+
+_Tegmen_, a name for the inner seed-coat.
+
+_Tendril_, a thread-shaped organ used for climbing, 40.
+
+_Terete_, long and round; same as _cylindrical_, only it may taper.
+
+_Terminal_, borne at, or belonging to, the extremity or summit.
+
+_Terminology_ treats of technical terms; same as _Glossology_, 181.
+
+_Ternate_, _Ternately_, in threes.
+
+_Tessellate_, in checker-work.
+
+_Testa_, the outer (and usually the harder) coat or shell of the seed,
+125.
+
+_Testaceous_, the color of unglazed pottery.
+
+_Tetra-_ (in words of Greek composition), four; as, _Tetracoccous_, of
+four cocci.
+
+_Tetradynamous_, where a flower has six stamens, two shorter than the
+four, 101.
+
+_Tetragonal_, four-angled. _Tetragynous_, with four pistils or styles.
+_Tetramerous_, with its parts or sets in fours. _Tetrandrous_, with four
+stamens, 100.
+
+_Tetraspore_, a quadruple spore, 169.
+
+_Thalamaflorous_, with petals and stamens inserted on the torus or
+_Thalamus_.
+
+_Thallophyta_, _Thallophytes_, 165.
+
+_Thallus_, a stratum, in place of stem and leaves, 165.
+
+_Theca_, a case; the cells or lobes of the anther.
+
+_Thecaphore_, the stipe of a carpel, 113.
+
+_Thorn_, an indurated pointed branch, 41, 42.
+
+_Thread-shaped_, slender and round or roundish, like a thread.
+
+_Throat_, the opening or gorge of a monopetalous corolla, &c., where the
+border and the tube join, and a little below, 89.
+
+_Thyrse_ or _Thyrsus_, a compact and pyramidal panicle of cymes or
+cymules, 79.
+
+_Tomentose_, clothed with matted woolly hairs (_tomentum_).
+
+_Tongue-shaped_, long and flat, but thickish and blunt.
+
+_Toothed_, furnished with teeth or short projections of any sort on the
+margin; used especially when these are sharp, like saw-teeth, and do not
+point forwards, 55.
+
+_Top-shaped_, shaped like a top, or a cone with apex downwards.
+
+_Torose_, _Torulose_, knobby; where a cylindrical body is swollen at
+intervals.
+
+_Torus_, the receptacle of the flower, 81, 112.
+
+_Trachea_, a spiral duct.
+
+_Trachys_, Greek for rough; used in compounds, as, _Trachyspermous_,
+rough-seeded.
+
+_Transverse_, across, standing right and left instead of fore and aft.
+
+_Tri-_ (in composition), three; as,
+
+_Triadelphous_, stamens united by their filaments into three bundles,
+99.
+
+_Triandrous_, where the flower has three stamens, 112.
+
+_Tribe_, 178.
+
+_Trichome_, of the nature of hair or pubescence.
+
+_Trichotomous_, three-forked.
+
+_Tricoccous_, of three cocci or roundish carpels.
+
+_Tricolor_, having three colors.
+
+_Tricostate_, having three ribs.
+
+_Tricuspidate_, three-pointed.
+
+_Tridentate_, three-toothed.
+
+_Triennial_, lasting for three years.
+
+_Trifarious_, in three vertical rows; looking three ways.
+
+_Trifid_, three-cleft, 56.
+
+_Trifoliate_, three-leaved. _Trifoliolate_, of three leaflets.
+
+_Trifurcate_, three-forked.
+
+_Trigonous_, three-angled, or triangular.
+
+_Trigynous_, with three pistils or styles, 116.
+
+_Trijugate_, in three pairs (_jugi_).
+
+_Trilobed_ or _Trilobate_, three-lobed, 55.
+
+_Trilocular_, three-celled, as the pistils or pods in fig. 328-330.
+
+_Trimerous_, with its parts in threes.
+
+_Trimorphism_, 117. _Trimorphic_ or _Trimorphous_, in three forms.
+
+_Trinervate_, three-nerved, or with three slender ribs.
+
+_Trioecious_, where there are three sorts of flowers on the same or
+different individuals, as in Red Maple. A form of Polygamous.
+
+_Tripartible_, separable into three pieces. _Tripartite_, three-parted,
+55.
+
+_Tripetalous_, having three petals.
+
+_Triphyllous_, three-leaved; composed of three pieces.
+
+_Tripinnate_, thrice pinnate, 59. _Tripinnatifid_, thrice pinnately
+cleft, 57.
+
+_Triple-ribbed_, _Triple-nerved_, &c., where a midrib branches into
+three, near the base of the leaf.
+
+_Triquetrous_, sharply three-angled; and especially with the sides
+concave, like a bayonet.
+
+_Triserial_, or _Triseriate_, in three rows, under each other.
+
+_Tristichous_, in three longitudinal or perpendicular ranks.
+
+_Tristigmatic_, or _Tristigmatose_, having three stigmas.
+
+_Trisulcate_, three-grooved.
+
+_Triternate_, three times ternate, 59.
+
+_Trivial Name_, the specific name.
+
+_Trochlear_, pulley-shaped.
+
+_Trumpet-shaped_, tubular; enlarged at or towards the summit.
+
+_Truncate_, as if cut off at the top.
+
+_Trunk_, the main stem or general body of a stem or tree.
+
+_Tube_ (of corolla, &c.), 89.
+
+_Tuber_, a thickened portion of a subterranean stem or branch, provided
+with eyes (buds) on the sides, 44.
+
+_Tubercle_, a small excrescence.
+
+_Tubercled_, or _Tuberculate_, bearing excrescences or pimples.
+
+_Tubaeform_, trumpet-shaped.
+
+_Tuberous_, resembling a tuber. _Tuberiferous_, bearing tubers.
+
+_Tubular_, hollow and of an elongated form; hollowed like a pipe, 91.
+
+_Tubuliflorous_, bearing only tubular flowers.
+
+_Tunicate_, coated; invested with layers, as an onion, 46.
+
+_Turbinate_, top-shaped.
+
+_Turio_ (plural _turiones_), strong young shoots or suckers springing
+out of the ground; as Asparagus-shoots.
+
+_Turnip-shaped_, broader than high, abruptly narrowed below, 35.
+
+_Twining_, ascending by coiling round a support, 39.
+
+_Type_, the ideal pattern, 10.
+
+_Typical_, well exemplifying the characteristics of a species, genus,
+&c.
+
+
+_Uliginose_, growing in swamps.
+
+_Umbel_, the umbrella-like form of inflorescence, 74.
+
+_Umbellate_, in umbels. _Umbelliferous_, bearing umbels.
+
+_Umbellet_ (_umbellula_), a secondary or partial umbel, 76.
+
+_Umbilicate_, depressed in the centre, like the ends of an apple; with a
+navel.
+
+_Umbonate_, bossed; furnished with a low, rounded projection like a boss
+(_umbo_).
+
+_Umbraculiform_, umbrella-shaped.
+
+_Unarmed_, destitute of spines, prickles, and the like.
+
+_Uncial_, an inch (_uncia_) in length.
+
+_Uncinate_, or _Uncate_, hook-shaped; hooked over at the end.
+
+_Under-shrub_, partially shrubby, or a very low shrub.
+
+_Undulate_ or _Undate_, wavy, or wavy-margined, 55.
+
+_Unequally pinnate_, pinnate with an odd number of leaflets, 65.
+
+_Unguiculate_, furnished with a claw (_unguis_), 91.
+
+_Uni-_, in compound words, one; as _Unicellular_, one-celled.
+
+_Uniflorous_, one-flowered.
+
+_Unifoliate_, one-leaved. _Unifoliolate_, of one leaflet, 59.
+
+_Unijugate_, of one pair.
+
+_Unilabiate_, one-lipped.
+
+_Unilateral_, one-sided.
+
+_Unilocular_, one-celled.
+
+_Uniovulate_, having only one ovule.
+
+_Uniserial_, in one horizontal row.
+
+_Unisexual_, having stamens or pistils only, 85.
+
+_Univalved_, a pod of only one piece after dehiscence.
+
+_Unsymmetrical Flowers_, 86.
+
+_Urceolate_, urn-shaped.
+
+_Utricle_, a small thin-walled, one-seeded fruit, as of Goosefoot, 121.
+
+_Utricular_, like a small bladder.
+
+
+_Vaginate_, sheathed, surrounded by a sheath (_vagina_).
+
+_Valve_, one of the pieces (or doors) into which a dehiscent pod, or any
+similar body, splits, 122, 123.
+
+_Valvate_, _Valvular_, opening by valves. _Valvate_, in aestivation, 97.
+
+_Variety_, 176.
+
+_Vascular_, containing vessels, or consisting of vessels or ducts, 134.
+
+_Vascular Cryptogams_, 156.
+
+_Vaulted_, arched; same as _fornicate_.
+
+_Vegetable Life_, &c., 128. _Vegetable anatomy_, 129.
+
+_Veins_, the small ribs or branches of the framework of leaves, &c., 49,
+50.
+
+_Veined_, _Veiny_, furnished with evident veins. _Veinless_, destitute
+of veins.
+
+_Veinlets_, the smaller ramifications of veins, 50.
+
+_Velate_, furnished with a veil.
+
+_Velutinous_, velvety to the touch.
+
+_Venation_, the veining of leaves, &c., 50.
+
+_Venenate_, poisonous.
+
+_Venose_, veiny; furnished with conspicuous veins.
+
+_Ventral_, belonging to that side of a simple pistil, or other organ,
+which looks towards the axis or centre of the flower; the opposite of
+dorsal; as the
+
+_Ventral Suture_, 106.
+
+_Ventricose_, inflated or swelled out on one side.
+
+_Venulose_, furnished with veinlets.
+
+_Vermicular_, worm-like, shaped like worms.
+
+_Vernal_, belonging to spring.
+
+_Vernation_, the arrangement of the leaves in the bud, 71.
+
+_Vernicose_, the surface appearing as if varnished.
+
+_Verrucose_, warty; beset with little projections like warts.
+
+_Versatile_, attached by one point, so that it may swing to and fro,
+101.
+
+_Vertex_, same as _apex_.
+
+_Vertical_, upright, perpendicular to the horizon, lengthwise.
+
+_Verticil_, a whorl, 68. _Verticillate_, whorled, 68.
+
+_Verticillaster_, a false whorl, formed of a pair of opposite cymes.
+
+_Vesicular_, bladdery.
+
+_Vespertine_, appearing or expanding at evening.
+
+_Vessels_, ducts, &c., 134.
+
+_Vexillary_, _Vexillar_, relating to the
+
+_Vexillum_, the standard of a papilionaceous flower, 92.
+
+_Villose_, shaggy with long and soft hairs (_Villosity_).
+
+_Vimineous_, producing slender twigs, such as those used for
+wicker-work.
+
+_Vine_, in the American use, any trailing or climbing stem; as a
+Grape-vine.
+
+_Virescent_, _Viridescent_, greenish; turning green.
+
+_Virgate_, wand-shape; as a long, straight, and slender twig.
+
+_Viscous_, _Viscid_, having a glutinous surface.
+
+_Vitta_ (plural _vittae_), the oil-tubes of the fruit of Umbelliferae.
+
+_Vitelline_, yellow, of the hue of yolk of egg.
+
+_Viviparous_, sprouting or germinating while attached to the parent
+plant.
+
+_Voluble_, twining; as the stem of Hops and Beans, 39.
+
+_Volute_, rolled up in any way.
+
+
+_Wavy_, the surface or margin alternately convex and concave, 55.
+
+_Waxy_, resembling beeswax in texture or appearance.
+
+_Wedge-shaped_, broad above, tapering by straight lines to a narrow
+base, 53.
+
+_Wheel-shaped_, 89.
+
+_Whorl_, an arrangement of leaves, &c., in circles around the stem.
+
+_Whorled_, arranged in whorls, 68.
+
+_Wing_, any membranous expansion. _Wings_ of papilionaceous flowers, 92.
+
+_Winged_, furnished with a wing; as the fruit of Ash and Elm, fig. 300,
+301.
+
+_Wood_, 133, 142. _Woody_, of the texture or consisting of wood.
+
+_Woody Fibre_, or _Wood-Cells_, 134.
+
+_Woolly_, clothed with long and entangled soft hairs.
+
+_Work in plants_, 149, 155.
+
+
+_Xanthos_, Greek for yellow, used in compounds; as _Xanthocarpus_,
+yellow-fruited.
+
+
+_Zygomorphous_, said of a flower which can be bisected only in one plane
+into similar halves.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes.
+
+In the Latin-1 text version, the oe-ligature was simply replaced by the
+two separate characters. Other non-Latin-1 symbols were replaced by
+"[Symbol ...]," where the ellipsis was replaced by an explanation of the
+symbol. The occurrence of the Greek delta character in the glossary for
+Deltoid was replaced by "Delta."
+
+Spelling variants where it wasn't possible to determine the author's
+intent were left as is. These include: "backbone" and "back-bone;"
+"Buttonwood" and "Button-wood;" "cross section" and "cross-section;"
+"footstalk" and "foot-stalk;" "network" and "net-work;" "Paeony" and
+"Peony;" "peapod" and "pea-pod," plus plurals; "penniveined" and
+"penni-veined," plus capitalized versions; "Sapwood" and "Sap-wood;"
+"Snowball" and "Snow-ball;" "Verticil" and "Verticel;" "Woodsorrel" and
+"Wood-sorrel."
+
+Changed "Venation" to "Vernation" on page vi: "Vernation or
+Praefoliation."
+
+Changed "Isoetes" to "Isoetes" on page viii: "Quillworts (Isoetes)."
+
+Changed "liquifies" to "liquefies" on page 21: "as it liquefies."
+
+Changed "frame-work" to "framework" on page 52: "the framework or
+skeleton."
+
+Changed "leafstalk" to "leaf-stalk" in three places: the caption to
+figure 74; on page 71: "bent upon the leaf-stalk;" in the index entry
+for "Petiolulate."
+
+Changed "Honey Locust" to "Honey-Locust" in the caption to figure 95:
+"branching thorn of Honey-Locust."
+
+Page 47 has a reference to Fig. 89, which does not seem to follow
+from the text. "Fig. 80" would make more sense, but the original was not
+changed.
+
+Removed extra comma before closing parenthesis on page 51: "the Maple
+(Fig. 20, 24)."
+
+Changed "Linnaeus" to "Linnaeus" on page 50: "Linnaeus called Nerves."
+
+Changed "Sugar-Maple" to "Sugar Maple" on page 58: "that of the Sugar
+Maple."
+
+Changed "quadrifoliate" to "quadrifoliolate" on page 59: "trifoliolate,
+quadrifoliolate, plurifoliolate."
+
+The reference to Fig. 167 on page 64 is probably intended to refer to
+Fig. 157, but was not changed.
+
+The caption to figure 186 says that this is a two-ranked arrangement.
+Although it's clear from the text and figure that this is actually a
+three-ranked arrangement, the original text was preserved.
+
+Changed colon to semi-colon in the caption to figure 219: "a, filament;
+b, anther."
+
+Changed comma to period after "Fig. 254" in its caption.
+
+Changed "Funnel-form" to "Funnelform" on page 90: "Funnel-shaped, or
+Funnelform."
+
+Inserted closing parenthesis in caption to figure 304: "Of a Sage
+(Salvia Texana)."
+
+Changed "Butter cup" to "Buttercup" on page 120: "fruit of the
+Buttercup."
+
+Changed "carpophorse" to "carpophore" on page 121: "a slender axis or
+carpophore."
+
+Changed "cocoanut" to "cocoa-nut" on page 122: "such as the cocoa-nut."
+
+Changed "Sepifragal" to "Septifragal" on page 123: "Septifragal
+dehiscence."
+
+Inserted missing text "(Fig." on page 128: "Rice (Fig. 430a)."
+
+Perhaps the reference to unit 408 on page 136 should be to unit 402;
+but it was not changed.
+
+Changed "White-Pine" to "White Pine" on page 148: "White Pine and
+Basswood."
+
+Changed "discovary" to "discovery" on page 160: "discovery of a wholly
+unsuspected kind."
+
+Changed "sporo-carps" to "sporocarps" in the caption to figure 520.
+
+Changed semi-colon to period after "microspores" in the caption to
+figure 522.
+
+Changed "Lepreiurei" to "Leprieurei" in the caption to figure 561.
+
+Changed "Sun-flowers" to "Sunflowers" on page 187: "Sunflowers and
+Thistles."
+
+Changed symbol for Earth to symbol for Male on page 189 in unit 581: "To
+indicate sexes, [Symbol for Male] means staminate."
+
+Preserved the order of the index entries, even though they aren't
+strictly alphabetical.
+
+Removed extra comma after "Amphitropous" in its index entry.
+
+The index references for "Anemophilous" and "Entomophilous" should
+probably be 115, rather than 113, but were not changed.
+
+The index reference for "Antheridium" should probably be 159, rather
+than 150, but was not changed.
+
+Changed "short-fluited" to "short-fruited" in the index entry for
+"Brachy-."
+
+The index references for "Caulescent" and "Cauline" should probably be
+38, rather than 36, but were not changed.
+
+The index reference for "Cladophylla" should probably be 61, rather
+than 64, but was not changed.
+
+The index reference for "Dotted Ducts" should probably be 134, rather
+than 148, but was not changed.
+
+Changed "trifoliate" to "trifoliolate" in the index entry for
+"Foliolate."
+
+Changed "6" to "13" in the index entry for "Gemmule."
+
+The index references for "Hemitropous" and "Heterotropous" should
+probably be 111, rather than 123, but were not changed.
+
+The index reference for "Hortus Siccus" was changed from 201 to 186.
+
+The index reference for "Incised" should probably be 55, rather
+than 58, but was not changed.
+
+The index reference for "Jointed" is 64, and was not changed even though
+it does not seem to make sense. Better candidates include 57 and 122.
+
+The index references for "Laticiferous" and "Milk-vessels" were changed
+from 138 to 135.
+
+Changed the last index reference for "Ligule" from 57 to 67; also the
+reference for "Ocreate."
+
+Changed comma to semi-colon after "86" in the index entry for "Naked."
+
+The index reference for "Panicle" should probably be 76, rather
+than 81, but was not changed.
+
+The index references for "Pentandrous" and "Triandrous" should probably
+be 100, rather than 112, but were not changed.
+
+Changed "leaf stalk" to "leaf-stalk" in its index entry, as well as the
+index entry for "Petiole."
+
+The index reference for "Pinnule" should probably be 59, rather
+than 66, but was not changed.
+
+The index reference for "Seed-vessel" should probably be 117, rather
+than 127, but was not changed.
+
+The second index reference for "Starch" is 163, and was not changed even
+though it does not seem to make sense.
+
+Changed "one" to "on" in the index entry for "Stipules": "appendages on
+each side."
+
+The index reference to page 37 for "Suffruticose" doesn't seem to make
+sense, but was left as is.
+
+The index reference for "Trigynous" should probably be 105, rather
+than 116, but was not changed.
+
+The index reference for "Unequally Pinnate" should probably be 58,
+rather than 65, but was not changed.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Elements of Botany, by Asa Gray
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