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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Elements of Botany, by Asa Gray
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Elements of Botany
+       For Beginners and For Schools
+
+Author: Asa Gray
+
+Release Date: September 18, 2010 [EBook #33757]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ELEMENTS OF BOTANY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Curtis Weyant, Stephen H. Sentoff and the
+Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<div class="likeheading2">GRAY'S LESSONS IN BOTANY<br />
+
+REVISED EDITION</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h1>THE<br />
+ELEMENTS OF BOTANY</h1>
+
+<div class="likeheading2">FOR BEGINNERS AND FOR SCHOOLS</div>
+
+
+<div class="likeheading3"><span class="smcap">By ASA GRAY</span></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="center">IVISON, BLAKEMAN, AND COMPANY<br />
+NEW YORK AND CHICAGO</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<p class="center"><i>Copyright</i>,<br />
+<span class="smcap">By Asa Gray</span>.<br />
+1887.
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>This volume takes the place of the author's <span class="smcap">Lessons in Botany and
+Vegetable Physiology</span>, published over a quarter of a century ago. It is
+constructed on the same lines, and is a kind of new and much revised
+edition of that successful work. While in some respects more extended,
+it is also more concise and terse than its predecessor. This should the
+better fit it for its purpose now that competent teachers are common.
+They may in many cases develop paragraphs into lectures, and fully
+illustrate points which are barely, but it is hoped clearly, stated.
+Indeed, even for those without a teacher, it may be that a condensed is
+better than a diffuse exposition.</p>
+
+<p>The book is adapted to the higher schools, "How Plants Grow and Behave"
+being the "Botany for Young People and Common Schools." It is intended
+to ground beginners in Structural Botany and the principles of vegetable
+life, mainly as concerns Flowering or Phanerogamous plants, with which
+botanical instruction should always begin; also to be a companion and
+interpreter to the Manuals and Floras by which the student threads his
+flowery way to a clear knowledge of the surrounding vegetable creation.
+Such a book, like a grammar, must needs abound in technical words, which
+thus arrayed may seem formidable; nevertheless, if rightly apprehended,
+this treatise should teach that the study of botany is not the learning
+of names and terms, but the acquisition of knowledge and ideas. No
+effort should be made to commit technical terms to memory. Any term used
+in describing a plant or explaining its structure can be looked up when
+it is wanted, and that should suffice. On the other hand, plans of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span>structure, types, adaptations, and modifications, once understood, are
+not readily forgotten; and they give meaning and interest to the
+technical terms used in explaining them.</p>
+
+<p>In these "Elements" naturally no mention has been made of certain terms
+and names which recent cryptogamically-minded botanists, with lack of
+proportion and just perspective, are endeavoring to introduce into
+phanerogamous botany, and which are not needed nor appropriate, even in
+more advanced works, for the adequate recognition of the ascertained
+analogies and homologies.</p>
+
+<p>As this volume will be the grammar and dictionary to more than one or
+two Manuals, Floras, etc., the particular directions for procedure which
+were given in the "First Lessons" are now relegated to those works
+themselves, which in their new editions will provide the requisite
+explanations. On the other hand, in view of such extended use, the
+Glossary at the end of this book has been considerably enlarged. It will
+be found to include not merely the common terms of botanical description
+but also many which are unusual or obsolete; yet any of them may now and
+then be encountered. Moreover, no small number of the Latin and Greek
+words which form the whole or part of the commoner specific names are
+added to this Glossary, some in an Anglicized, others in their Latin
+form. This may be helpful to students with small Latin and less Greek,
+in catching the meaning of a botanical name or term.</p>
+
+<p>The illustrations in this volume are largely increased in number. They
+are mostly from the hand of Isaac Sprague.</p>
+
+<p>It happens that the title chosen for this book is that of the author's
+earliest publication, in the year 1836, of which copies are rarely seen;
+so that no inconvenience is likely to arise from the present use of the
+name.</p>
+
+<p style="margin-left: 50%;">
+ASA GRAY.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Cambridge, Massachusetts</span>,<br />
+<i>March, 1887</i>.
+</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<div style="margin-right:15em;">
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li>&nbsp; <span class="tocnum">Page</span></li>
+<li><a href="#Section_I">SECTION I. INTRODUCTORY</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><a href="#Section_II">SECTION II. FLAX AS A PATTERN PLANT</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_8">Growth from the Seed</a>, <a href="#UNIT_12">Organs of Vegetation</a>    <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_15">Blossoming</a>, <a href="#UNIT_16">Flower</a>, &amp;c.     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+
+<li><a href="#Section_III">SECTION III. MORPHOLOGY OF SEEDLINGS</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_19">Germinating Maples</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_15">15</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_24">Cotyledons thickened</a>, <a href="#UNIT_26">hypog�ous in germination</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_31">Store of Food external to the Embryo</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_36">Cotyledons as to number</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_37">Dicotyledonous</a> and <a href="#UNIT_38">Polycotyledonous</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_40">Monocotyledonous</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_44">Simple-stemmed Plants</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Section_IV">SECTION IV. GROWTH FROM BUDS; BRANCHING</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_47">Buds, situation and kinds</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_53">Vigorous vegetation from strong Buds</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_54">Arrangement of Branches</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_56">Non-developed</a>, <a href="#UNIT_57">Latent</a>, and <a href="#UNIT_59">Accessory Buds</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_60">Enumeration of kinds of Buds</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_61">Definite</a> and <a href="#UNIT_62">Indefinite growth</a>; <a href="#UNIT_63">Deliquescent and Excurrent</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Section_V">SECTION V. ROOTS</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_33">33</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_66">Primary</a> and <a href="#UNIT_67">Secondary</a>. <a href="#UNIT_68">Contrast between Stem and Root</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_71">Fibrous</a> and <a href="#UNIT_74">Fleshy Roots</a>; names of kinds     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_34">34</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_78">Anomalous Roots</a>. <a href="#UNIT_79">Epiphytic</a> and <a href="#UNIT_80">Parasitic Plants</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_36">36</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_83">Duration</a>: <a href="#UNIT_84">Annuals</a>, <a href="#UNIT_85">Biennials</a>, <a href="#UNIT_86">Perennials</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_37">37</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Section_VI">SECTION VI. STEMS</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_38">38</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_89">Those above Ground: kinds and modifications</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_39">39</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_103">Subterranean Stems and Branches</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_104">Rootstock</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_110">Tuber</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_111">Corm</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_113">Bulb</a> and <a href="#UNIT_116">Bulblets</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_117">Consolidated Vegetation</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_47">47</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Section_VII">SECTION VII. LEAVES</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#Subsect_VII_1">� 1. <span class="smcap">Leaves as Foliage</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_122">Parts</a> and <a href="#UNIT_126">Venation</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_134">Forms as to general outline</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_137">As to apex and particular outline</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_53">53</a></span></li>
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span><a href="#UNIT_141">As to lobing or division</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_56">56</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_146">Compound</a>, <a href="#UNIT_158">Perfoliate</a>, and <a href="#UNIT_160">Equitant Leaves</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_161">With no distinction of Petiole and Blade</a>, <a href="#UNIT_162">Phyllodia</a>, &amp;c.     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_61">61</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#Subsect_VII_2">� 2. <span class="smcap">Leaves of Special Conformation and Use</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_165">Leaves for storage</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_62">62</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_166">Leaves as bud-scales</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_167">Spines</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></span></li>
+<li>and <a href="#UNIT_168">for Climbing</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_171">Pitchers</a> <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li>and <a href="#UNIT_173">Fly-traps</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_65">65</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#Subsect_VII_3">� 3. <span class="smcap">Stipules</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_66">66</a></span></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Subsect_VII_4">� 4. <span class="smcap">The Arrangement of Leaves</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_181">Phyllotaxy</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_185">Of Alternate Leaves</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_69">69</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_193">Of Opposite and Whorled Leaves</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_194">Vernation or Pr�foliation</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#Section_VIII">SECTION VIII. FLOWERS</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#Subsect_VIII_1">� 1. <span class="smcap">Position and Arrangement, Inflorescence</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_205">Raceme</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_206">Corymb</a>, <a href="#UNIT_207">Umbel</a>, <a href="#UNIT_210">Spike</a>, <a href="#UNIT_211">Head</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_212">Spadix</a>, <a href="#UNIT_213">Catkin, or Ament</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_217">Panicle</a>: <a href="#UNIT_218">Determinate Inflorescence</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_219">Cyme</a>, <a href="#UNIT_221">Fascicle</a>, <a href="#UNIT_222">Glomerule</a>, <a href="#UNIT_225">Scorpioid or Helicoid Cymes</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_227">Mixed Inflorescence</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#Subsect_VIII_2">� 2. <span class="smcap">Parts or Organs of the Flower</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_229">Floral Envelopes: Perianth</a>, <a href="#UNIT_230">Calyx</a>, <a href="#UNIT_231">Corolla</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_234">Essential Organs</a>: <a href="#UNIT_235">Stamen</a>, <a href="#UNIT_236">Pistil</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_237">Torus or Receptacle</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#Subsect_VIII_3">� 3. <span class="smcap">Plan of the Flower</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_239">When perfect, complete, regular, or symmetrical</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_81">81</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_241">Numerical Plan</a> and <a href="#UNIT_242">Alternation of Organs</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_82">82</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_243">Flowers are altered branches</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#Subsect_VIII_4">� 4. <span class="smcap">Modifications of the Type</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_249">Unisexual or diclinous</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_251">Incomplete</a>, <a href="#UNIT_253">Irregular, and Unsymmetrical</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_255">Flowers with Multiplication of Parts</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_256">Flowers with Union of Parts</a>: <a href="#UNIT_257">Coalescence</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_88">88</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_258">Regular Forms</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_263">Irregular Forms</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_264">Papilionaceous</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_265">Labiate</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></span></li>
+<li>and <a href="#UNIT_267">Ligulate Corollas</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_269">Adnation or Consolidation</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_94">94</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_273">Position of Flower or of its Parts</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#Subsect_VIII_5">� 5. <span class="smcap">Arrangement of Parts in the Bud</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_276">�stivation or Pr�floration, its kinds</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Section_IX">SECTION IX. STAMENS IN PARTICULAR</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_281">Andr&oelig;cium</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_98">98</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_283">Insertion, Relation, &amp;c.</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_287">Anther</a> and <a href="#UNIT_286">Filament</a>. <a href="#UNIT_296">Pollen</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Section_X">SECTION X. PISTILS IN PARTICULAR</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#Subsect_X_1">� 1. <span class="smcap">Angiospermous or Ordinary Gyn&oelig;cium</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_302">Parts of a complete Pistil</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_105">105</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_305">Carpels</a>, <a href="#UNIT_306">Simple Pistil</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></span></li>
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span><a href="#UNIT_309">Compound Pistil</a> <a href="#UNIT_310">with Cells and Axile Placent�</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_311">One-celled with Free Central Placenta</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_312">One-celled with Parietal Placent�</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_108">108</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#Subsect_X_2">� 2. <span class="smcap">Gymnospermous Gyn&oelig;cium</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Section_XI">SECTION XI. OVULES</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_317">Their Parts, Insertion</a>, and <a href="#UNIT_321">Kinds</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Section_XII">SECTION XII. MODIFICATIONS OF THE RECEPTACLE</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_112">112</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_323">Torus, Stipe</a>, <a href="#UNIT_324">Carpophore</a>, <a href="#UNIT_327">Disk</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_113">113</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Section_XIII">SECTION XIII. FERTILIZATION</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#Subsect_XIII_1">� 1. <span class="smcap">Adaptations for Pollination of the Stigma</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_332">Close</a> and <a href="#UNIT_333">Cross Fertilization</a>, <a href="#UNIT_334">Anemophilous</a> and <a href="#UNIT_335">Entomophilous</a>    <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_339">Dichogamy</a> and <a href="#UNIT_341">Heterogony</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#Subsect_XIII_2">� 2. <span class="smcap">Action of the Pollen and Formation of the Embryo</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Section_XIV">SECTION XIV. THE FRUIT</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_345">Nature</a> and <a href="#UNIT_347">kinds</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_352">Berry</a>, <a href="#UNIT_353">Pepo</a>, <a href="#UNIT_354">Pome</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_356">Drupe</a> and <a href="#UNIT_359">Akene</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_361">Cremocarp</a>, <a href="#UNIT_363">Caryopsis</a>, <a href="#UNIT_364">Nut</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_367">Follicle</a>, <a href="#UNIT_368">Legume</a>, <a href="#UNIT_370">Capsule</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_122">122</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_371">Capsular Dehiscence</a>, <a href="#UNIT_374">Silique</a> and <a href="#UNIT_375">Silicle</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_376">Pyxis</a>, <a href="#UNIT_379">Strobile or Cone</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_124">124</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Section_XV">SECTION XV. THE SEED</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_381">Seed-coats</a> and <a href="#UNIT_383">their appendages</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_386">The Kernel or Nucleus, Embryo and its parts, Albumen</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_127">127</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Section_XVI">SECTION XVI. VEGETABLE LIFE AND WORK</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_128">128</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#Subsect_XVI_1">� 1. <span class="smcap">Anatomical Structure and Growth</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_394">Nature of Growth</a>, <a href="#UNIT_396">Protoplasm</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_399">Cells and Cell-walls</a>. <a href="#UNIT_401">Cellular Structure or Tissue</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_407">Strengthening Cells</a>. <a href="#UNIT_408">Wood</a>, <a href="#UNIT_410">Wood-cells</a>, <a href="#UNIT_413">Vessels or Ducts</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_132">132</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#Subsect_XVI_2">� 2. <span class="smcap">Cell-contents</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_415">Sap</a>, <a href="#UNIT_417">Chlorophyll</a>, <a href="#UNIT_419">Starch</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_422">Crystals, Rhaphides</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_137">137</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#Subsect_XVI_3">� 3. <span class="smcap">Anatomy of Roots and Stems</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_427">Endogenous</a> and <a href="#UNIT_428">Exogenous Stems</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_431">Particular structure of the latter</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_434">Wood</a>, <a href="#UNIT_436">Sapwood</a> and <a href="#UNIT_437">Heart-wood</a>. <a href="#UNIT_438">The living parts of a Tree</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#Subsect_XVI_4">� 4. <span class="smcap">Anatomy of Leaves</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_442">Epidermis</a>, <a href="#UNIT_443">Stomata or Breathing pores</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_143">143</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#Subsect_XVI_5">� 5. <span class="smcap">Plant Food and Assimilation</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></span></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Subsect_XVI_6">� 6. <span class="smcap">Plant Work and Movement</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_461">Movements in Cells or Cyclosis</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_149">149</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_462">Transference from Cell to Cell</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></span></li>
+<li><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span><a href="#UNIT_465">Movements of Organs</a>, <a href="#UNIT_468">Twining Stems</a>, <a href="#UNIT_469">Leaf-movements</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_150">150</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_471">Movements of Tendrils</a>, <a href="#UNIT_472">Sensitiveness</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_152">152</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_475">Movements in Flowers</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_476">Movements for capture of Insects</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_480">Work costs, using up Material and Energy</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Section_XVII">SECTION XVII. CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_483">Vascular Cryptogams</a>, <a href="#UNIT_484">Pteridophytes</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_485">Horsetails (Equisetace�)</a>, <a href="#UNIT_486">Ferns</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_157">157</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_492">Club-Mosses (Lycopodium), &amp;c.</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_494">Quillworts (Isoetes)</a>, <a href="#UNIT_495">Pillworts (Marsilia)</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_496">Azolla</a>. <a href="#UNIT_497">Cellular Cryptogams</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_498">Bryophytes</a>. <a href="#UNIT_499">Mosses (Musci)</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_501">Liverworts (Hepatic�)</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_164">164</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_503">Thallophytes</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_506">Charace�</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_507">Alg�, Seaweeds, &amp;c.</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_515">Lichenes or Lichens</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_516">Fungi</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Section_XVIII">SECTION XVIII. CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#Subsect_XVIII_1">� 1. <span class="smcap">Kinds and Relationship</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_522">Species</a>, <a href="#UNIT_524">Varieties</a>, <a href="#UNIT_521">Individuals</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_528">Genera</a>, <a href="#UNIT_529">Orders</a>, <a href="#UNIT_531">Classes</a>, &amp;c.     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#Subsect_XVIII_2">� 2. <span class="smcap">Names, Terms and Characters</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_536">Nomenclature of Genera</a>, <a href="#UNIT_537">Species</a>, and <a href="#UNIT_538">Varieties</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_540">Nomenclature of Orders</a>, <a href="#UNIT_542">Classes</a>, &amp;c. <a href="#UNIT_545">Terminology</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_180">180</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+<li><a href="#Subsect_XVIII_3">� 3. <span class="smcap">System</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#UNIT_549">Artificial</a> and <a href="#UNIT_550">Natural</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></span></li>
+<li><a href="#UNIT_554">Synopsis of Series, Classes, &amp;c.</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Section_XIX">SECTION XIX. BOTANICAL WORK</a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></span>
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><a href="#Subsect_XIX_1">� 1. <span class="smcap">Collection or Herborization</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></span></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Subsect_XIX_2">� 2. <span class="smcap">Herbarium</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></span></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Subsect_XIX_3">� 3. <span class="smcap">Investigation and Determination of Plants</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></span></li>
+
+<li><a href="#Subsect_XIX_4">� 4. <span class="smcap">Signs and Abbreviations</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></span></li>
+</ul></li>
+
+<li><a href="#ABBREVIATIONS"><span class="smcap">Abbreviations of the Names of Botanists</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></span></li>
+
+
+<li><a href="#INDEX"><span class="smcap">Glossary combined with Index</span></a>     <span class="tocnum"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></span></li>
+</ul></div>
+
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span></p>
+<div class="likeheading1"><a name="ELEMENTS_OF_BOTANY" id="ELEMENTS_OF_BOTANY"></a>ELEMENTS OF BOTANY.</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2><a name="Section_I" id="Section_I"></a><span class="smcap">Section I.</span> INTRODUCTORY.</h2>
+
+
+<p>1. <span class="smcap">Botany</span> is the name of the science of the vegetable kingdom in
+general; that is, of plants.</p>
+
+<p>2. Plants may be studied as to their kinds and relationships. This study
+is <span class="smcap">Systematic Botany</span>. An enumeration of the kinds of vegetables, as far
+as known, classified according to their various degrees of resemblance
+or difference, constitutes a general <i>System of plants</i>. A similar
+account of the vegetables of any particular country or district is
+called a <i>Flora</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_3" id="UNIT_3">3.</a> Plants may be studied as to their structure and parts. This is
+<span class="smcap">Structural Botany</span>, or <span class="smcap">Organography</span>. The study of the organs or parts of
+plants in regard to the different forms and different uses which the
+same kind of organ may assume,&mdash;the comparison, for instance, of a
+flower-leaf or a bud-scale with a common leaf,&mdash;is <span class="smcap">Vegetable Morphology</span>,
+or <span class="smcap">Morphological Botany</span>. The study of the minute structure of the parts,
+to learn by the microscope what they themselves are formed of, is
+<span class="smcap">Vegetable Anatomy</span>, or <span class="smcap">Histology</span>; in other words, it is Microscopical
+Structural Botany. The study of the actions of plants or of their parts,
+of the ways in which a plant lives, grows, and acts, is the province of
+<span class="smcap">Physiological Botany</span>, or <span class="smcap">Vegetable Physiology</span>.</p>
+
+<p>4. This book is to teach the outlines of Structural Botany and of the
+simpler parts of the physiology of plants, that it may be known how
+plants are constructed and adapted to their surroundings, and how they
+live, move, propagate, and have their being in an existence no less
+real, although more simple, than that of the animal creation which they
+support. Particularly, this book is to teach the principles of the
+structure and relationships of plants, the nature and names of their
+parts and their modifications, and so to prepare for the study of
+Systematic Botany; in which the learner may ascertain the name and the
+place in the system of any or all of the ordinary plants within reach,
+whether wild or cultivated. And in ascertaining the name of any plant,
+the student, if rightly taught, will come to know all about its general
+or particular structure, rank, and relationship to other plants.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p><p>5. The vegetable kingdom is so vast and various, and the difference is
+so wide between ordinary trees, shrubs, and herbs on the one hand, and
+mosses, moulds, and such like on the other, that it is hardly possible
+to frame an intelligible account of plants as a whole without
+contradictions or misstatements, or endless and troublesome
+qualifications. If we say that plants come from seeds, bear flowers, and
+have roots, stems, and leaves, this is not true of the lower orders. It
+is best for the beginner, therefore, to treat of the higher orders of
+plants by themselves, without particular reference to the lower.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_6" id="UNIT_6">6.</a> Let it be understood, accordingly, that there is a higher and a lower
+series of plants; namely:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Phanerogamous Plants</span>, which come from seed and bear <i>flowers</i>,
+essentially stamens and pistils, through the co-operation of which seed
+is produced. For shortness, these are commonly called <span class="smcap">Phanerogams</span>, or
+<i>Ph�nogams</i>, or by the equivalent English name of <span class="smcap">Flowering Plants</span>.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cryptogamous Plants</span>, or <span class="smcap">Cryptogams</span>, come from minute bodies, which
+answer to seeds, but are of much simpler structure, and such plants have
+not stamens and pistils. Therefore they are called in English <span class="smcap">Flowerless
+Plants</span>. Such are Ferns, Mosses, Alg� or Seaweeds, Fungi, etc. These
+sorts have each to be studied separately, for each class or order has a
+plan of its own.</p>
+
+<p>7. But Phanerogamous, or Flowering, Plants are all constructed on one
+plan, or <i>type</i>. That is, taking almost any ordinary herb, shrub, or
+tree for a pattern, it will exemplify the whole series: the parts of one
+plant answer to the parts of any other, with only certain differences in
+particulars. And the occupation and the delight of the scientific
+botanist is in tracing out this common plan, in detecting the likenesses
+under all the diversities, and in noting the meaning of these manifold
+diversities. So the attentive study of any one plant, from its growth
+out of the seed to the flowering and fruiting state and the production
+of seed like to that from which the plant grew, would not only give a
+correct general idea of the structure, growth, and characteristics of
+Flowering Plants in general, but also serve as a pattern or standard of
+comparison. Some plants will serve this purpose of a pattern much better
+than others. A proper pattern will be one that is perfect in the sense
+of having all the principal parts of a phanerogamous plant, and simple
+and regular in having these parts free from complications or disguises.
+The common Flax-plant may very well serve this purpose. Being an annual,
+it has the advantage of being easily raised and carried in a short time
+through its circle of existence, from seedling to fruit and seed.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The name is sometimes <i>Phanerogamous</i>, sometimes
+<i>Ph�nogamous</i> (<i>Phanerogams</i>, or <i>Ph�nogams</i>), terms of the same meaning
+etymologically; the former of preferable form, but the latter shorter.
+The meaning of such terms is explained in the Glossary.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Section_II" id="Section_II"></a><span class="smcap">Section II.</span> FLAX AS A PATTERN PLANT.</h2>
+
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_8" id="UNIT_8">8.</a> <b>Growth from the Seed.</b> Phanerogamous plants grow from seed, and their
+flowers are destined to the production of seeds. A seed has a
+rudimentary plant ready formed in it,&mdash;sometimes with the two most
+essential parts, i. e. stem and leaf, plainly discernible; sometimes
+with no obvious distinction of organs until germination begins. This
+incipient plant is called an <span class="smcap">Embryo</span>.</p>
+
+<p>9. In this section the Flax-plant is taken as a specimen, or type, and
+the development and history of common plants in general is illustrated
+by it. In flax-seed the embryo nearly fills the coats, but not quite.
+There is a small deposit of nourishment between the seed-coat and the
+embryo: this may for the present be left out of the account. This embryo
+consists of a pair of leaves, pressed together face to face, and
+attached to an extremely short stem. (Fig. <a href="#Fig1">2-4</a>.) In this rudimentary
+condition the real nature of the parts is not at once apparent; but when
+the seed grows they promptly reveal their character,&mdash;as the
+accompanying figures (Fig. <a href="#Fig5">5-7</a>) show.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig1" id="Fig1"></a>
+<img src="images/fig001_004.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 1. Pod of Flax. 2. Section lengthwise, showing two
+of the seeds; one whole, the other cut half away, bringing contained
+embryo into view. 3. Similar section of a flax-seed more magnified and
+divided flatwise; turned round, so that the stem-end (caulicle) of the
+embryo is below: the whole broad upper part is the inner face of one of
+the cotyledons; the minute nick at its base is the plumule. 4. Similar
+section through a seed turned edgewise, showing the thickness of the
+cotyledons, and the minute plumule between them, i. e. the minute bud on
+the upper end of the caulicle.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_10" id="UNIT_10">10.</a> Before the nature of these parts in the seed was altogether
+understood, technical names were given to them, which are still in use.
+These initial leaves were named <span class="smcap">Cotyledons</span>. The initial stem on which
+they stand was called the <span class="smcap">Radicle</span>. That was because it gives rise to the
+first root; but, as it is really the beginning of the stem, and because
+it is the stem that produces the root and not the root that produces the
+stem, it is better to name it the <span class="smcap">Caulicle</span>. Recently it has been named
+<i>Hypocotyle</i>; which signifies something below the cotyledons, without
+pronouncing what its nature is.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig5" id="Fig5"></a>
+<img src="images/fig005_007.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 5. Early Flax seedling; stem (caulicle), root at
+lower end, expanded seed-leaves (cotyledons) at the other: minute bud
+(plumule) between these. 6. Same later; the bud developed into second
+pair of leaves, with hardly any stem-part below them; then into a third
+pair of leaves, raised on a short joint of stem; and a fifth leaf also
+showing. 7. Same still older, with more leaves developed, but these
+singly (one after another), and with joints of stem between them.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_11" id="UNIT_11">11.</a> On committing these seeds to moist and warm soil they soon sprout,
+i. e. <i>germinate</i>. The very short stem-part of the embryo is the first
+to grow. It lengthens, protrudes its root-end; this turns downward, if
+not already pointing in that direction, and while it is lengthening a
+root forms at its point and grows downward into the ground. This root
+continues to grow on from its lower end, and thus insinuates itself and
+penetrates into the soil. The stem meanwhile is adding to its length
+throughout; it erects itself, and, seeking the light, brings the seed up
+out of the ground. The materials for this growth have been supplied by
+the cotyledons or seed-leaves, still in the seed: it was the store of
+nourishing material they held which gave them their thickish shape, so
+unlike that of ordinary leaves. Now, relieved of a part of this store of
+food, which has formed the growth by which they have been raised into
+the air and light, they appropriate the remainder to their own growth.
+In enlarging they open and throw off the seed-husk; they expand, diverge
+into a horizontal position, turn green, and thus become a pair of
+evident leaves, the first foliage of a tiny plant. This seedling,
+although diminutive and most simple, possesses and puts into use, all
+the <span class="smcap">Organs</span> of <span class="smcap">Vegetation</span>, namely, root, stem, and leaves, each in its
+proper element,&mdash;the root in the soil, the stem rising out of it, the
+leaves in the light and open air. It now draws in moisture and some
+food-materials from the soil by its root, conveys this through the stem
+into the leaves, where these materials, along with other crude food
+which these imbibe from the air, are assimilated into vegetable matter,
+i. e. into the material for further growth.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_12" id="UNIT_12">12.</a> <b>Further Growth</b> soon proceeds to the formation of new
+parts,&mdash;downward in the production of more root, or of branches of the
+main root, upward in the development of more stem and leaves. That from
+which a stem with its leaves is continued, or a new stem (i. e. branch)
+originated, is a <span class="smcap">Bud</span>. The most conspicuous and familiar buds are those
+of most shrubs and trees, bearing buds formed in summer or autumn, to
+grow the following <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>spring. But every such point for new growth may
+equally bear the name. When there is such a bud between the cotyledons
+in the seed or seedling it is called the <span class="smcap">Plumule</span>. This is conspicuous
+enough in a bean (Fig. <a href="#Fig26">29</a>.), where the young leaf of the new growth
+looks like a little plume, whence the name, <i>plumule</i>. In flax-seed this
+is very minute indeed, but is discernible with a magnifier, and in the
+seedling it shows itself distinctly (Fig. <a href="#Fig5">5, 6, 7</a>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_13" id="UNIT_13">13.</a> As it grows it shapes itself into a second pair of leaves, which of
+course rests on a second joint of stem, although in this instance that
+remains too short to be well seen. Upon its summit appears the third
+pair of leaves, soon to be raised upon its proper joint of stem; the
+next leaf is single, and is carried up still further upon its supporting
+joint of stem; and so on. The root, meanwhile, continues to grow
+underground, not joint after joint, but continuously, from its lower
+end; and commonly it before long multiplies itself by branches, which
+lengthen by the same continuous growth. But stems are built up by a
+succession of leaf-bearing growths, such as are strongly marked in a
+reed or corn-stalk, and less so in such an herb as Flax. The word
+"joint" is ambiguous: it may mean either the portion between successive
+leaves, or their junction, where the leaves are attached. For precision,
+therefore, the place where the leaf or leaves are borne is called a
+<span class="smcap">Node</span>, and the naked interval between two nodes, an <span class="smcap">Internode</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig8" id="Fig8"></a>
+<img src="images/fig008.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 8. Upper part of Flax-plant in blossom.
+</div>
+
+<p>14. In this way a simple stem with its garniture of leaves is developed
+from the seed. But besides this direct continuation, buds may form and
+develop into lateral stems, that is, <i>into branches</i>, from any node. The
+proper origin of branches is from the <span class="smcap">Axil</span> of a leaf, i. e. the angle
+between leaf and stem on the upper side; and branches may again branch,
+so building up the herb, shrub, or tree. But sooner or later, and
+without long delay in an annual like Flax, instead of this continuance
+of mere vegetation, reproduction is prepared for by</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span></p><p><a name="UNIT_15" id="UNIT_15">15.</a> <b>Blossoming.</b> In Flax the flowers make their appearance at the end of
+the stem and branches. The growth, which otherwise might continue them
+farther or indefinitely, now takes the form of blossom, and is
+subservient to the production of seed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig9" id="Fig9"></a>
+<img src="images/fig009_010.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 9. Flax-flowers about natural size. 10. Section of a
+flower moderately enlarged, showing a part of the petals and stamens,
+all five styles, and a section of ovary with two ovules or rudimentary
+seeds.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_16" id="UNIT_16">16.</a> <b>The Flower</b> of Flax consists, first, of five small green leaves,
+crowded into a circle: this is the <span class="smcap">Calyx</span>, or flower-cup. When its
+separate leaves are referred to they are called <span class="smcap">Sepals</span>, a name which
+distinguishes them from foliage-leaves on the one hand, and from petals
+on the other. Then come five delicate and <i>colored</i> leaves (in the Flax,
+blue), which form the <span class="smcap">Corolla</span>, and its leaves are <span class="smcap">Petals</span>; then a circle
+of organs, in which all likeness to leaves is lost, consisting of
+slender stalks with a knob at summit, the <span class="smcap">Stamens</span>; and lastly, in the
+centre, the rounded body, which becomes a pod, surmounted by five
+slender or stalk-like bodies. This, all together, is the <span class="smcap">Pistil</span>. The
+lower part of it, which is to contain the seeds, is the <span class="smcap">Ovary</span>; the
+slender organs surmounting this are <span class="smcap">Styles</span>; the knob borne on the apex
+of each style is a <span class="smcap">Stigma</span>. Going back to the stamens, these are of two
+parts, viz. the stalk, called <span class="smcap">Filament</span>, and the body it bears, the
+<span class="smcap">Anther</span>. Anthers are filled with <span class="smcap">Pollen</span>, a powdery substance made up of
+minute grains.</p>
+
+<p>17. The pollen shed from the anthers when they open falls upon or is
+conveyed to the stigmas; then the pollen-grains set up a kind of growth
+(to be discerned only by aid of a good microscope), which penetrates the
+style: this growth takes the form of a thread more delicate than the
+finest spider's web, and reaches the bodies which are to become seeds
+(<span class="smcap">Ovules</span> they are called until this change occurs); these, touched by
+this influence, are incited to a new growth within, which becomes an
+embryo. So, as the ovary ripens into the seed-pod or capsule (Fig. <a href="#Fig1">1</a>,
+etc.) containing seeds, each seed enclosing a rudimentary new plantlet,
+the round of this vegetable existence is completed.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Section_III" id="Section_III"></a><span class="smcap">Section III.</span> MORPHOLOGY OF SEEDLINGS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>18. Having obtained a general idea of the growth and parts of a
+phanerogamous plant from the common Flax of the field, the seeds and
+seedlings of other familiar plants may be taken up, and their variations
+from the assumed pattern examined.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_19" id="UNIT_19">19.</a> <b>Germinating Maples</b> are excellent to begin with, the parts being so
+much larger than in Flax that a common magnifying glass, although
+convenient, is hardly necessary. The only disadvantage is that fresh
+seeds are not readily to be had at all seasons.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig11" id="Fig11"></a>
+<img src="images/fig011_013.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 11. Embryo of Sugar Maple, cut through lengthwise
+and taken out of the seed. 12, 13. Whole embryo of same just beginning
+to grow; <i>a</i>, the stemlet or caulicle, which in 13 has considerably
+lengthened.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>20. The seeds of Sugar Maple ripen at the end of summer, and germinate
+in early spring. The embryo fills the whole seed, in which it is nicely
+packed; and the nature of the parts is obvious even before growth
+begins. There is a stemlet (caulicle) and a pair of long and narrow
+seed-leaves (cotyledons), doubled up and coiled, green even in the seed,
+and in germination at once unfolding into the first pair of
+foliage-leaves, though of shape quite unlike those that follow.</p>
+
+<p>21. Red Maple seeds are ripe and ready to germinate at the beginning of
+summer, and are therefore more convenient for study. The cotyledons are
+crumpled in the seed, and not easy to straighten out until they unfold
+themselves in germination. The story of their development into the
+seedling is told by the accompanying Fig. <a href="#Fig14">14-20</a>; and that of Sugar Maple
+is closely similar. No plumule or bud appears in the embryo of these two
+Maples until the seed-leaves have nearly attained their full growth and
+are acting as foliage-leaves, and until a root is formed below. There is
+no great store of nourishment in these thin cotyledons; so further
+growth has to wait until the root and seed-leaves have collected and
+elaborated sufficient material for the formation of the second internode
+and its pair of leaves, which lending their help the third pair is more
+promptly produced, and so on.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_22" id="UNIT_22">22.</a> Some change in the plan comes with the Silver or Soft White Maple.
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig21">21-25</a>). This blossoms in earliest spring, and it drops its large
+and ripened keys only a few weeks later. Its cotyledons have not at all
+the appearance of leaves; they are short and broad, and (as there is no
+room to be saved by folding) they are straight, except a small fold at
+the top,&mdash;a vestige of the habit of Maples in general. Their unusual
+thickness is due <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>to the large store of nutritive matter they contain,
+and this prevents their developing into actual leaves. Correspondingly,
+their caulicle does not lengthen to elevate them above the surface of
+the soil; the growth below the cotyledons is nearly all of root. It is
+the little plumule or bud between them which makes the upward growth,
+and which, being well fed by the cotyledons, rapidly develops the next
+pair of leaves and raises them upon a long internode, and so on. The
+cotyledons all the while remain below, in the husk of the fruit and
+seed, and perish when they have yielded up the store of food which they
+contained.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig14" id="Fig14"></a>
+<img src="images/fig014_020.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 14. One of the pair of keys or winged fruits of Red
+Maple; the seed-bearing portion cut open to show the seed. 15. Seed
+enlarged, and divided to show the crumpled embryo which fills it. 16.
+Embryo taken out and partly opened. 17. Embryo which has unfolded in
+early stage of germination and begun to grow. 18. Seedling with next
+joint of stem and leaves apparent; and 19 with these parts full-grown,
+and bud at apex for further growth. 20. Seedling with another joint of
+stem and pair of leaves.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>23. So, even in plants so much alike as Maples, there is considerable
+difference in the amount of food stored up in the cotyledons by which
+the growth is to be made; and there are corresponding differences in the
+germination. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>The larger the supply to draw upon, the stronger the
+growth, and the quicker the formation of root below and of stem and
+leaves above. This deposit of food thickens the cotyledons, and renders
+them less and less leaf-like in proportion to its amount.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig21" id="Fig21"></a>
+<img src="images/fig021_025.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 21. Fruit (one key) of Silver Maple, Acer
+dasycarpum, of natural size, the seed-bearing portion divided to show
+the seed. 22. Embryo of the seed taken out. 23. Same opened out, to show
+the thick cotyledons and the little plumule or bud between them. 24.
+Germination of Silver Maple, natural size; merely the base of the fruit,
+containing the seed, is shown. 25. Embryo of same, taken out of the
+husk; upper part of growing stem cut off, for want of room.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_24" id="UNIT_24">24.</a> <b>Examples of Embryos with thickened Cotyledons.</b> In the Pumpkin and
+Squash (Fig. <a href="#Fig26">26, 27</a>), the cotyledons are well supplied with nourishing
+matter, as their sweet taste demonstrates. Still, they are flat and not
+very thick. In germination this store is promptly utilized in the
+development of the caulicle to twenty or thirty times its length in the
+seed, and to corresponding thickness, in the formation of a cluster of
+roots at its lower end, and the early production of the incipient
+plumule; also in their own growth into efficient green leaves. The case
+of our common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris, Fig. <a href="#Fig26">28-30</a>) is nearly the same,
+except that the cotyledons are much more gorged; so that, although
+carried up into the air and light upon the lengthening caulicle, and
+there acquiring a green color, they never expand into useful leaves.
+Instead of this, they nourish into rapid growth the plumule, which is
+plainly visible in the seed, as a pair of incipient leaves; and these
+form the first actual foliage.</p>
+
+<p>25. Very similar is the germination of the Beech (Fig. <a href="#Fig31">31-33</a>), except
+that the caulicle lengthens less, hardly raising the cotyledons out of
+the ground. Nothing would be gained by elevating them, as they never
+grow out into efficient leaves; but the joint of stem belonging to the
+plumule lengthens well, carrying up its pair of real foliage-leaves.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_26" id="UNIT_26">26.</a> It is nearly the same in the Bean of the Old World (Vicia Faba, here
+called Horse Bean and Windsor Bean): the caulicle lengthens very little,
+does not undertake to elevate the heavy seed, which is left below or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>upon the surface of the soil, the flat but thick cotyledons remaining
+in it, and supplying food for the growth of the root below and the
+plumule above. In its near relative, the Pea (Fig. <a href="#Fig31">34, 35</a>), this use of
+cotyledons for storage only is most completely carried out. For they are
+thickened to the utmost, even into hemispheres; the caulicle does not
+lengthen at all; merely sends out roots from the lower end, and develops
+its strong plumule from the upper, the seed remaining unmoved
+underground. That is, in technical language, the germination is
+<i>hypog�ous</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig26" id="Fig26"></a>
+<img src="images/fig026_030.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 26. Embryo of Pumpkin-seed, partly opened. 27. Young
+seedling of same.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 28. Embryo of Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris):
+caulicle bent down over edge of cotyledons. 29. Same germinating:
+caulicle well lengthened and root beginning; thick cotyledons partly
+spreading; and plumule (pair of leaves) growing between them. 30. Same,
+older, with plumule developed into internode and pair of leaves.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>27. There is sufficient nourishment in the cotyledons of a pea to make a
+very considerable growth before any actual foliage is required. So it is
+the stem-portion of the plumule which is at first conspicuous and
+strong-growing. Here, as seen in Fig. <a href="#Fig31">35</a>, its lower nodes bear each a
+useless leaf-scale instead of an efficient leaf, and only the later ones
+bear leaves fitted for foliage.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span></p><div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig31" id="Fig31"></a>
+<img src="images/fig031_035.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 31. A Beech-nut, cut across. 32. Beginning
+germination of the Beech, showing the plumule growing before the
+cotyledons have opened or the root has scarcely formed. 33. The same, a
+little later, with the plumule-leaves developing, and elevated on a long
+internode.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 34. Embryo of Pea, i. e. a pea with the coats
+removed; the short and thick caulicle presented to view. 35. Same in
+advanced germination: the plumule has developed four or five internodes,
+bearing single leaves; but the first and second leaves are mere scales,
+the third begins to serve as foliage; the next more so.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>28. This <i>hypog�ous</i> germination is exemplified on a larger scale by the
+Oak (Fig. <a href="#Fig36">36, 37</a>) and Horse-chestnut (Fig. <a href="#Fig36">38, 39</a>); but in these the
+downward growth is wholly a stout tap-root. It is not the caulicle; for
+this lengthens hardly any. Indeed, the earliest growth which carries the
+very short caulicle out of the shell comes from the formation of
+foot-stalks to the cotyledons; above these develops the strong plumule,
+below grows the stout root. The growth is at first entirely, for a long
+time <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>mainly, at the expense of the great store of food in the
+cotyledons. These, after serving their purpose, decay and fall away.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig36" id="Fig36"></a>
+<img src="images/fig036_039.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 36. Half of an acorn, cut lengthwise, filled by the
+very thick cotyledons, the base of which encloses the minute caulicle.
+37. Oak-seedling.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 38. Half of a horse-chestnut, similarly cut; the
+caulicle is curved down on the side of one of the thick cotyledons. 39.
+Horse-chestnut in germination; foot-stalks are formed to the cotyledons,
+pushing out in their lengthening the growing parts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>29. Such thick cotyledons never separate; indeed, they sometimes grow
+together by some part of their contiguous faces; so that the germination
+seems to proceed from a solid bulb-like mass. This is the case in a
+horse-chestnut.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_30" id="UNIT_30">30.</a> <b>Germinating Embryo supplied by its own Store of Nourishment</b>, i. e.
+the store in the cotyledons. This is so in all the illustrations thus
+far, essentially so even in the Flax. This nourishment was supplied by
+the mother plant to the ovule and seed, and thence taken into the embryo
+during its growth. Such embryos, filling the whole seed, are
+comparatively large and strong, and vigorous in germination in
+proportion to the amount of their growth while connected with the parent
+plant.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_31" id="UNIT_31">31.</a> <b>Germinating Embryo supplied from a Deposit outside of Itself.</b> This
+is as common as the other mode; and it occurs in all degrees. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>Some
+seeds have very little of this deposit, but a comparatively large
+embryo, with its parts more or less developed and recognizable. In
+others this deposit forms the main bulk of the seed, and the embryo is
+small or minute, and comparatively rudimentary. The following
+illustrations exemplify these various grades. When an embryo in a seed
+is thus surrounded by a white substance, it was natural to liken the
+latter to the white of an egg, and the embryo or germ to the yolk. So
+the matter around or by the side of the embryo was called the <i>Albumen</i>,
+i. e. the white of the seed. The analogy is not very good; and to avoid
+ambiguity some botanists call it the <span class="smcap">Endosperm</span>. As that means in English
+merely the inwards of a seed, the new name is little better than the old
+one; and, since we do not change names in botany except when it cannot
+be avoided, this name of <i>albumen</i> is generally kept up. A seed with
+such a deposit is <i>albuminous</i>, one with none is <i>exalbuminous</i>.</p>
+
+<p>32. The <span class="smcap">Albumen</span> forms the main bulk of the seed in wheat, maize, rice,
+buckwheat, and the like. It is the floury part of the seed. Also of the
+cocoa-nut, of coffee (where it is dense and hard), etc.; while in peas,
+beans, almonds, and in most edible nuts, the store of food, although
+essentially the same in nature and in use, is in the embryo itself, and
+therefore is not counted as anything to be separately named. In both
+forms this concentrated food for the germinating plant is food also for
+man and for animals.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig40" id="Fig40"></a>
+<img src="images/fig040_043.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 40. Seed of Morning Glory divided, moderately
+magnified; shows a longitudinal section through the centre of the embryo
+as it lies crumpled in the albumen. 41. Embryo taken out whole and
+unfolded; the broad and very thin cotyledons notched at summit; the
+caulicle below. 42. Early state of germination. 43. Same, more advanced;
+caulicle or primary stem, cotyledons or seed-leaves, and below, the
+root, well developed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>33. For an albuminous seed with a well-developed embryo, the common
+Morning Glory (Ipom&oelig;a purpurea, Fig. <a href="#Fig40">40-43</a>) is a convenient example,
+being easy and prompt to grow, and having all the parts well apparent.
+The seeds (duly soaked for examination) and the germination should be
+compared with those of Sugar and Red Maple (<a href="#UNIT_19">19-21</a>). The only essential
+difference is that here the embryo is surrounded by and crumpled up in
+the albumen. This substance, which is pulpy or mucilaginous in fresh and
+young seeds, hardens as the seed ripens, but becomes again pulpy in
+germination; and, as it liquefies, the thin cotyledons absorb it by
+their <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>whole surface. It supplements the nutritive matter contained in
+the embryo. Both together form no large store, but sufficient for
+establishing the seedling, with tiny root, stem, and pair of leaves for
+initiating its independent growth; which in due time proceeds as in Fig.
+<a href="#Fig44">44, 45</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig44" id="Fig44"></a>
+<img src="images/fig044_045.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 44. Seedling of Morning Glory more advanced (root
+cut away); cotyledons well developed into foliage-leaves: succeeding
+internode and leaf well developed, and the next forming. 45. Seedling
+more advanced; reduced to much below natural size.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>34. Smaller embryos, less developed in the seed, are more dependent upon
+the extraneous supply of food. The figures <a href="#Fig46">46-53</a> illustrate four grades
+in this respect. The smallest, that of the Peony, is still large enough
+to be seen with a hand magnifying glass, and even its cotyledons may be
+discerned by the aid of a simple stage microscope.</p>
+
+<p>35. The broad cotyledons of Mirabilis, or Four-o'clock (Fig. <a href="#Fig46">52, 53</a>),
+with the slender caulicle almost encircle and enclose the floury
+albumen, instead of being enclosed in it, as in the other illustrations.
+Evidently here the germinating embryo is principally fed by one of the
+leaf-like cotyledons, the other being out of contact with the supply. In
+the embryo of Abronia (Fig. <a href="#Fig46">54, 55</a>), a near relative of Mirabilis, there
+is a singular modification; one cotyledon is almost wanting, being
+reduced to a rudiment, leaving it for the other to do the work. This
+leads to the question of the</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_36" id="UNIT_36">36.</a> <b>Number of Cotyledons.</b> In all the preceding illustrations, the
+embryo, however different in shape and degree of development, is
+evidently <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>constructed upon one and the same plan, namely, that of two
+leaves on a caulicle or initial stem,&mdash;a plan which is obvious even when
+one cotyledon becomes very much smaller than the other, as in the rare
+instance of Abronia (Fig. <a href="#Fig46">54, 55</a>). In other words, the embryos so far
+examined are all</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_37" id="UNIT_37">37.</a> <b>Dicotyledonous</b>, that is, two-cotyledoned. Plants which are thus
+similar in the plan of the embryo agree likewise in the general
+structure of their stems, leaves, and blossoms; and thus form a class,
+named from their embryo <span class="smcap">Dicotyledones</span>, or in English, <span class="smcap">Dicotyledonous
+Plants</span>. So long a name being inconvenient, it may be shortened into
+<span class="smcap">Dicotyls</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig46" id="Fig46"></a>
+<img src="images/fig046_055.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 46. Section of a seed of a Peony, showing a very
+small embryo in the albumen, near one end. 47. This embryo detached, and
+more magnified.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 48. Section of a seed of Barberry, showing the
+straight embryo in the middle of the albumen. 49. Its embryo detached.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 50. Section of a Potato seed, showing the embryo
+coiled in the albumen. 51. Its embryo detached.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 52. Section of the seed of Mirabilis or Four-o'clock,
+showing the embryo coiled round the outside of the albumen. 53.
+Embryo detached; showing the very broad and leaf-like cotyledons,
+applied face to face, and the pair incurved.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 54. Embryo of Abronia umbellata; one of the
+cotyledons very small. 55. Same straightened out.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_38" id="UNIT_38">38.</a> <b>Polycotyledonous</b> is a name employed for the less usual case in which
+there are more than two cotyledons. The Pine is the most familiar case.
+This occurs in all Pines, the number of cotyledons varying from three to
+twelve; in Fig. <a href="#Fig56">56, 57</a> they are six. Note that they are all on the same
+level, that is, belong to the same node, so as to form a circle or
+<i>whorl</i> at the summit of the caulicle. When there are only three
+cotyledons, they divide the space equally, are one third of the circle
+apart. When only two they are 180� apart, that is, are <i>opposite</i>.</p>
+
+<p>39. The case of three or more cotyledons, which is constant in Pines and
+in some of their relatives (but not in all of them), is occasional among
+Dicotyls. And the polycotyledonous is only a variation of the
+dicotyledonous type,&mdash;a difference in the number of leaves in the whorl;
+for a pair is a whorl reduced to two members. Some suppose that there
+are really only <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>two cotyledons even in a Pine embryo, but these divided
+or split up congenitally so as to imitate a greater number. But as
+leaves are often in whorls on ordinary stems, they may be so at the very
+beginning.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig56" id="Fig56"></a>
+<img src="images/fig056_057.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 56. Section of a Pine-seed, showing its
+polycotyledonous embryo in the centre of the albumen, moderately
+magnified. 57. Seedling of same, showing the freshly expanded six
+cotyledons in a whorl, and the plumule just appearing.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_40" id="UNIT_40">40.</a> <b>Monocotyledonous</b> (meaning with single cotyledon) is the name of the
+one-cotyledoned sort of embryo. This goes along with peculiarities in
+stem, leaves, and flowers, which all together associate such plants into
+a great class, called <span class="smcap">Monocotyledonous Plants</span>, or, for shortness,
+<span class="smcap">Monocotyls</span>. It means merely that the leaves are alternate from the very
+first.</p>
+
+<p>41. In Iris (Fig. <a href="#Fig58">58, 59</a>) the embryo in the seed is a small cylinder at
+one end of the mass of the albumen, with no apparent distinction of
+parts. The end which almost touches the seed coat is caulicle, the other
+end belongs to the solitary cotyledon. In germination the whole
+lengthens (but mainly the cotyledon) only enough to push the proximate
+end fairly out of the seed; from this end the root is formed, and from a
+little higher the plumule later emerges. It would appear therefore that
+the cotyledon answers to a minute leaf rolled up, and that a chink
+through which the plumule grows out is a part of the inrolled edges. The
+embryo of Indian Corn shows these parts on a larger scale and in a more
+open state (Fig. <a href="#Fig62">66-68</a>). There, in the seed, the cotyledon remains,
+imbibing nourishment from the softened albumen, and transmitting it to
+the growing root below and new-forming leaves above.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig58" id="Fig58"></a>
+<img src="images/fig058_061.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 58. Section of a seed of the Iris, or
+Flower-de-Luce, enlarged, showing its small embryo in the albumen, near
+the bottom. 59. A germinating seedling of the same, its plumule
+developed into the first four leaves (alternate), the first one
+rudimentary, the cotyledon remains in the seed.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 60. Section of an Onion seed showing the slender and
+coiled embryo in the albumen, moderately magnified. 61. Seed of same in
+early germination.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig62" id="Fig62"></a>
+<img src="images/fig062_070.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 62. Germinating Onion, more advanced, the chink at
+base of cotyledon opening for the protrusion of the plumule, consisting
+of a thread-shaped leaf. 63. Section of base of Fig. 62, showing plumule
+enclosed. 64. Section of same later, plumule emerging. 65. Later stage
+of 62, upper part cut off. 66. A grain of Indian Corn, flatwise, cut
+away a little, so as to show the embryo, lying on the albumen which
+makes the principal bulk of the seed. 67. A grain cut through the middle
+in the opposite direction, dividing the embryo through its thick
+cotyledon and its plumule, the latter consisting of two leaves, one
+enclosing the other. 68. The embryo taken out whole; the thick mass is
+the cotyledon, the narrow body partly enclosed by it is the plumule, the
+little projection at its base is the very short radicle enclosed in the
+sheathing base of the first leaf of the plumule.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 69. Grain of Indian Corn in germination, the
+ascending sprout is the first leaf of the plumule, enclosing the younger
+leaves within, at its base the primary root has broken through. 70. The
+same, advanced; the second and third leaves developing, while the
+sheathing first leaf does not further develop.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>42. The general plan is the same in the Onion (Fig. <a href="#Fig58">60</a>-<a href="#Fig62">65</a>), but with a
+striking difference. The embryo is long, and coiled in the albumen of
+the seed. To ordinary examination it shows no distinction of parts. But
+germination plainly shows that all except the lower end of it is
+cotyledon. For after it has lengthened into a long thread, the chink
+from which the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>plumule in time emerges is seen at the base, or near it,
+so the caulicle is extremely short, and does not elongate, but sends out
+from its base a simple root, and afterwards others in a cluster. Not
+only does the cotyledon lengthen enormously in the seedling, but (unlike
+that of Iris, Indian Corn, and all <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>the cereal grains) it raises the
+comparatively light seed into the air, the tip still remaining in the
+seed and feeding upon the albumen. When this food is exhausted and the
+seedling is well established in the soil, the upper end decays and the
+emptied husk of the seed falls away.</p>
+
+<p>43. In Maize or Indian Corn (Fig. <a href="#Fig62">66-70</a>), the embryo is more developed
+in the seed, and its parts can be made out. It lies against the starchy
+albumen, but is not enclosed therein. The larger part of it is the
+cotyledon, thickish, its edges involute, and its back in contact with
+the albumen; partly enclosed by it is the well-developed plumule or bud
+which is to grow. For the cotyledon remains in the seed to fulfil its
+office of imbibing nourishment from the softened albumen, which it
+conveys to the growing sprout; the part of this sprout which is visible
+is the first leaf of the plumule rolled up into a sheath and enclosing
+the rudiments of the succeeding leaves, at the base enclosing even the
+minute caulicle. In germination the first leaf of the plumule develops
+only as a sort of sheath, protecting the tender parts within; the second
+and the third form the first foliage. The caulicle never lengthens: the
+first root, which is formed at its lower end, or from any part of it,
+has to break through the enclosing sheath; and succeeding roots soon
+spring from all or any of the nodes of the plumule.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_44" id="UNIT_44">44.</a> <b>Simple-stemmed Plants</b> are thus built up, by the continuous
+production of one leaf-bearing portion of stem from the summit of the
+preceding one, beginning with the initial stem (or caulicle) in the
+embryo. Some Dicotyls and many Monocotyls develop only in this single
+line of growth (as to parts above ground) until the flowering state is
+approached. For some examples, see Cycas (Fig. <a href="#Fig71">71</a>, front, at the left);
+a tall Yucca or Spanish Bayonet, and two Cocoa-nut Palms behind; at the
+right, a group of Sugar-canes, and a Banana behind.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig71" id="Fig71"></a>
+<img src="images/fig071.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 71. Simple-stemmed vegetation.
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Section_IV" id="Section_IV"></a><span class="smcap">Section IV.</span> GROWTH FROM BUDS: BRANCHING.</h2>
+
+
+<p>45. Most plants increase the amount of their vegetation by branching,
+that is, by producing lateral shoots.</p>
+
+<p>46. Roots branch from any part and usually without definite order. Stems
+normally give rise to branches only at definite points, namely, at the
+nodes, and there only from the axils of leaves.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_47" id="UNIT_47">47.</a> <b>Buds</b> (Fig. <a href="#Fig72">72, 73</a>). Every incipient shoot is a <i>Bud</i> (<a href="#UNIT_12">12</a>). A stem
+continues its growth by its <i>terminal bud</i>; it branches by the formation
+and development of <i>lateral buds</i>. As normal lateral buds occupy the
+axils of leaves, they are called <i>axillary buds</i>. As leaves are
+symmetrically arranged on the stem, the buds in their axils and the
+branches into which axillary buds grow partake of this symmetry. The
+most conspicuous buds are the scaly winter-buds of most shrubs and trees
+of temperate and cold climates; but the name belongs as well to the
+forming shoot or branch of any herb.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig72" id="Fig72"></a>
+<img src="images/fig072_073.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 72. Shoot of Horse-chestnut, of one year's growth,
+taken in autumn after the leaves have fallen; showing the large terminal
+bud and smaller axillary buds.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 73. Similar shoot of Shagbark Hickory, Carya alba.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_48" id="UNIT_48">48.</a> <b>The Terminal Bud</b>, in the most general sense, may be said to exist in
+the embryo,&mdash;as cotyledons, or the cotyledons and plumule,&mdash;and to crown
+each successive growth of the simple stem so long as the summit is
+capable of growth. The whole ascending growth of the Palm, Cycas, and
+the like (such as in Fig. <a href="#Fig71">71</a>) is from a terminal bud. Branches, being
+repetitions of the main stem and growing in the same way, are also
+lengthened by terminal buds. Those of Horse-chestnut, Hickory, Maples,
+and such trees, being the resting buds of winter, are conspicuous by
+their protective covering of scales. These bud-scales, as will hereafter
+be shown, are themselves a kind of leaves.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_49" id="UNIT_49">49.</a> <b>Axillary Buds</b> were formed on these annual shoots early in the
+summer. Occasionally they grow the same season into branches; at least,
+some of them are pretty sure to do so whenever the growing terminal bud
+at the end of the shoot is injured or destroyed. Otherwise they may lie
+dormant until the following spring. In many trees or shrubs these
+axillary buds do not show themselves until spring; but if searched for,
+they may be detected, though of small size, hidden under the bark.
+Sometimes, although early <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>formed, they are concealed all summer long
+under the base of the leaf-stalk, which is then hollowed out into a sort
+of inverted cup, like a candle-extinguisher, to cover them; as in the
+Locust, the Yellow-wood, or more strikingly in the Button-wood or
+Plane-tree (Fig. <a href="#Fig74">74</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig74" id="Fig74"></a>
+<img src="images/fig074.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 74. An axillary bud, concealed under the hollowed
+base of the leaf-stalk, in Buttonwood or Plane-tree.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>50. The <i>leaf-scars</i>, so conspicuous in Fig. <a href="#Fig72">72, 73</a>, under each axillary
+bud, mark the place where the stalk of the subtending leaf was attached
+until it fell in autumn.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_51" id="UNIT_51">51.</a> <b>Scaly Buds</b>, which are well represented in Fig. <a href="#Fig72">72, 73</a>, commonly
+belong to trees and shrubs of countries in which growth is suspended
+during winter. The scaly coverings protect the tender young parts
+beneath, not so much by keeping out the cold, which of course would
+penetrate the bud in time, as by shielding the interior from the effects
+of sudden changes. There are all gradations between these and</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_52" id="UNIT_52">52.</a> <b>Naked Buds</b>, in which these scales are inconspicuous or wanting, as
+in most herbs, at least above ground, and most tropical trees and
+shrubs. But nearly related plants of the same climate may differ widely
+in this respect. Rhododendrons have strong and scaly winter-buds; while
+in Kalmia they are naked. One species of Viburnum, the Hobble-bush, has
+completely naked buds, what would be a pair of scales developing into
+the first leaves in spring; while another (the Snowball) has conspicuous
+scaly buds.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_53" id="UNIT_53">53.</a> <b>Vigor of Vegetation from strong buds.</b> Large and strong buds, like
+those of the Horse-chestnut, Hickory, and the like, contain several
+leaves, or pairs of leaves, ready formed, folded and packed away in
+small compass, just as the seed-leaves of a strong embryo are packed
+away in the seed: they may even contain all the blossoms of the ensuing
+season, plainly visible as small buds. And the stems upon which these
+buds rest are filled with abundant nourishment, which was deposited the
+summer before in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>wood or in the bark. Under the surface of the
+soil, or on it covered with the fallen leaves of autumn, similar strong
+buds of our perennial herbs may be found; while beneath are thick roots,
+rootstocks, or tubers, charged with a great store of nourishment for
+their use. This explains how it is that vegetation from such buds shoots
+forth so vigorously in the spring of the year, and clothes the bare and
+lately frozen surface of the soil, as well as the naked boughs of trees,
+very promptly with a covering of fresh green, and often with brilliant
+blossoms. Everything was prepared, and even formed, beforehand: the
+short joints of stem in the bud have only to lengthen, and to separate
+the leaves from each other so that they may unfold and grow. Only a
+small part of the vegetation of the season comes directly from the seed,
+and none of the earliest vernal vegetation. This is all from buds which
+have lived through the winter.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_54" id="UNIT_54">54.</a> <b>The Arrangement of Branches</b>, being that of axillary buds, answers to
+that of the leaves. Now leaves principally are either <i>opposite</i> or
+<i>alternate</i>. Leaves are <i>opposite</i> when there are two from the same
+joint of stem, as in Maples (Fig. <a href="#Fig14">20</a>), the two being on opposite sides
+of the stem; and so the axillary buds and branches are opposite, as in
+Fig. <a href="#Fig75">75</a>. Leaves are <i>alternate</i> when there is only one from each joint
+of stem, as in the Oak, Lime-tree, Poplar, Button-wood (Fig. <a href="#Fig74">74</a>),
+Morning-Glory (Fig. <a href="#Fig44">45</a>,&mdash;not counting the seed-leaves, which of course
+are opposite, there being a pair of them); also in Indian Corn (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig62">70</a>), and Iris (Fig. <a href="#Fig58">59</a>). Consequently the axillary buds are also
+alternate, as in Hickory (Fig. <a href="#Fig72">73</a>); and the branches they form
+alternate,&mdash;making a different kind of spray from the other mode, one
+branch shooting on one side of the stem and the next on some other. For
+in the alternate arrangement no leaf is on the same side of the stem as
+the one next above or next below it.</p>
+
+<p>55. But the symmetry of branches (unlike that of the leaves) is rarely
+complete. This is due to several causes, and most commonly to the</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_56" id="UNIT_56">56.</a> <b>Non-development of buds.</b> It never happens that all the buds grow. If
+they did, there might be as many branches in any year as there were
+leaves the year before. And of those which do begin to grow, a large
+portion perish, sooner or later, for want of nourishment, or for want of
+light, or because those which first begin to grow have an advantage,
+which they are apt to keep, taking to themselves the nourishment of the
+stem, and starving the weaker buds. In the Horse-chestnut (Fig. <a href="#Fig72">72</a>),
+Hickory (Fig. <a href="#Fig72">73</a>), Magnolia, and most other trees with large scaly buds,
+the terminal bud is the strongest, and has the advantage in growth; and
+next in strength are the upper axillary buds: while the former continues
+the shoot of the last year, some of the latter give rise to branches,
+and the rest fail to grow. In the Lilac also (Fig. <a href="#Fig75">75</a>), the uppermost
+axillary buds are stronger than the lower; but the terminal bud rarely
+appears at all; in its place the uppermost pair of axillary buds grow,
+and so each stem branches every year into two,&mdash;making a repeatedly
+two-forked ramification, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig75">76</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p><div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig75" id="Fig75"></a>
+<img src="images/fig075_076.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 75. Shoot of Lilac, with winter buds; the two
+uppermost axillary ones strong; the terminal not developed. 76. Forking
+ramification of Lilac; reduced in size.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_57" id="UNIT_57">57.</a> <b>Latent Buds.</b> Axillary buds that do not grow at the proper season,
+and especially those which make no appearance externally, may long
+remain latent, and at length upon a favorable occasion start into
+growth, so forming branches apparently out of place as they are out of
+time. The new shoots seen springing directly out of large stems may
+sometimes originate from such latent buds, which have preserved their
+life for years. But commonly these arise from</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_58" id="UNIT_58">58.</a> <b>Adventitious Buds.</b> These are buds which certain shrubs and trees
+produce anywhere on the surface of the wood, especially where it has
+been injured. They give rise to the slender twigs which often feather
+the sides of great branches of our American Elms. They sometimes form on
+the root, which naturally is destitute of buds; they are even found upon
+some leaves; and they are sure to appear on the trunks and roots of
+Willows, Poplars, and Chestnuts, when these are wounded or mutilated.
+Indeed Osier-Willows are <i>pollarded</i>, or cut off, from time to time, by
+the cultivator, for the purpose of producing a crop of slender
+adventitious twigs, suitable for basket-work. Such branches, being
+altogether irregular, of course interfere with the natural symmetry of
+the tree. Another cause of irregularity, in certain trees and shrubs, is
+the formation of what are called</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig77" id="Fig77"></a>
+<img src="images/fig077.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 77. Tartarean Honeysuckle, with three accessory buds
+in each axil.
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_59" id="UNIT_59">59.</a> <b>Accessory or Supernumerary Buds.</b> There are cases where two, three,
+or more buds spring from the axil of a leaf, instead of the single one
+which is ordinarily found there. Sometimes they are placed one over the
+other, as in the Aristolochia or Pipe-Vine, and in the Tartarean
+Honeysuckle (Fig. <a href="#Fig77">77</a>); also in the Honey-Locust, and in the Walnut and
+Butternut (Fig. <a href="#Fig78">78</a>), where <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>the upper supernumerary bud is a good way
+out of the axil and above the others. And this is here stronger than the
+others, and grows into a branch which is considerably out of the axil,
+while the lower and smaller ones commonly do not grow at all. In other
+cases three buds stand side by side in the axil, as in the Hawthorn, and
+the Red Maple (Fig. <a href="#Fig78">79</a>.) If these were all to grow into branches, they
+would stifle each other. But some of them are commonly flower-buds: in
+the Red Maple, only the middle one is a leaf-bud, and it does not grow
+until after those on each side of it have expanded the blossoms they
+contain.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig78" id="Fig78"></a>
+<img src="images/fig078_079.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 78. Butternut branch, with accessory buds, the
+uppermost above the axil.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 79. Red-Maple branch, with accessory buds placed
+side by side. The annular lines toward the base in this and in Fig. <a href="#Fig72">72</a>
+are scars of the bud-scales, and indicate the place of the winter-bud of
+the preceding year.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_60" id="UNIT_60">60.</a> <b>Sorts of Buds.</b> It may be useful to enumerate the kinds of buds which
+have been described or mentioned. They are</p>
+
+<p><i>Terminal</i>, when they occupy the summit of (or terminate) a stem,</p>
+
+<p><i>Lateral</i>, when they are borne on the side of a stem; of which the
+regular kind is the</p>
+
+<p><i>Axillary</i>, situated in the axil of a leaf. These are</p>
+
+<p><i>Accessory</i> or <i>Supernumerary</i>, when they are in addition to the normal
+solitary bud; and these are <i>Collateral</i>, when side by side;
+<i>Superposed</i>, when one above another;</p>
+
+<p><i>Extra-axillary</i>, when they appear above the axil, as some do when
+superposed, and as occasionally is the case when single.</p>
+
+<p><i>Naked buds</i>; those which have no protecting scales.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scaly buds</i>; those which have protecting scales, which are altered
+leaves or bases of leaves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leaf-buds</i>, contain or give rise to leaves, and develop into a leafy
+shoot.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower-buds</i>, contain or consist of blossoms, and no leaves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mixed buds</i>, contain both leaves and blossoms.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_61" id="UNIT_61">61.</a> <b>Definite annual Growth</b> from winter buds is marked in most of the
+shoots from strong buds, such as those of the Horse-chestnut and Hickory
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig72">72, 73</a>). Such a bud generally contains, already formed in
+miniature, all or a great part of the leaves and joints of stem it is to
+produce, makes its whole growth in length in the course of a few weeks,
+or sometimes even in a few days, and then forms and ripens its buds for
+the next year's similar growth.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_62" id="UNIT_62">62.</a> <b>Indefinite annual Growth</b>, on the other hand, is well marked in such
+trees or shrubs as the Honey-Locust, Sumac, and in sterile shoots of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>the Rose, Blackberry, and Raspberry. That is, these shoots are apt to
+grow all summer long, until stopped by the frosts of autumn or some
+other cause. Consequently they form and ripen no terminal bud protected
+by scales, and the upper axillary buds are produced so late in the
+season that they have no time to mature, nor has their wood time to
+solidify and ripen. Such stems therefore commonly die back from the top
+in winter, or at least all their upper buds are small and feeble; so the
+growth of the succeeding year takes place mainly from the lower axillary
+buds, which are more mature.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_63" id="UNIT_63">63.</a> <b>Deliquescent and Excurrent Growth.</b> In the former case, and wherever
+axillary buds take the lead, there is, of course, no single main stem,
+continued year after year in a direct line, but the trunk is soon lost
+in the branches. Trees so formed commonly have rounded or spreading
+tops. Of such trees with <i>deliquescent</i> stems,&mdash;that is, with the trunk
+dissolved, as it were, into the successively divided branches,&mdash;the
+common American Elm (Fig. <a href="#Fig80">80</a>) is a good illustration.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig80" id="Fig80"></a>
+<img src="images/fig080.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 80. An American Elm, with Spruce-trees, and on the
+left Arbor Vit�.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>64. On the other hand, the main stem of Firs and Spruces, unless
+destroyed by some injury, is carried on in a direct line throughout the
+whole growth of the tree, by the development year after year of a
+terminal bud: this forms a single, uninterrupted shaft,&mdash;an <i>excurrent</i>
+trunk, which cannot be confounded with the branches that proceed from
+it. Of such <i>spiry</i> or <i>spire-shaped</i> trees, the Firs or Spruces are
+characteristic and familiar examples. There are all gradations between
+the two modes.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Section_V" id="Section_V"></a><span class="smcap">Section V.</span> ROOTS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>65. It is a property of stems to produce roots. Stems do not spring from
+roots in ordinary cases, as is generally thought, but roots from stems.
+When perennial herbs arise from the ground, as they do at spring-time,
+they rise from subterranean stems.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_66" id="UNIT_66">66.</a> <b>The Primary Root</b> is a downward growth from the root-end of the
+caulicle, that is, of the initial stem of the embryo (Fig. <a href="#Fig5">5-7</a>, <a href="#Fig81">81</a>). If
+it goes on to grow it makes a <i>main</i> or <i>tap-root</i>, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig36">37</a>, etc.
+Some plants keep this main root throughout their whole life, and send
+off only small side branches; as in the Carrot and Radish: and in
+various trees, like the Oak, it takes the lead of the side-branches for
+several years, unless accidentally injured, as a strong tap-root. But
+commonly the main root divides off very soon, and is lost in the
+branches. <i>Multiple primary roots</i> now and then occur, as in the
+seedling of Pumpkin (Fig. <a href="#Fig26">27</a>), where a cluster is formed even at the
+first, from the root-end of the caulicle.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig81" id="Fig81"></a>
+<img src="images/fig081_082.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 81. Seedling Maple, of the natural size; the root
+well supplied with root hairs, here large enough to be seen by the naked
+eye. 82. Lower end of this root, magnified, the root seen just as
+root-hairs are beginning to form a little behind the tip.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_67" id="UNIT_67">67.</a> <b>Secondary Roots</b> are those which arise from other parts of the stem.
+Any part of the stem may produce them, but they most readily come from
+the nodes. As a general rule they naturally spring, or may be made to
+spring, from almost any young stem, when placed in favorable
+circumstances,&mdash;that is, when placed in the soil, or otherwise supplied
+with moisture and screened from the light. For the special tendency of
+the root is to avoid the light, seek moisture, and therefore to bury
+itself in the soil. <i>Propagation by division</i>, which is so common and so
+very important in cultivation, depends upon the proclivity of stems to
+strike root. Stems or branches which remain under ground give out roots
+as freely as roots themselves give off branches. Stems which creep on
+the ground most commonly root at the joints; so will most branches when
+bent to the ground, as in propagation by <i>layering</i>; and propagation by
+<i>cuttings</i> equally depends upon the tendency of the cut end of a shoot
+to produce roots. Thus, a piece of a plant which has stem and leaves,
+either developed or in the bud, may be made to produce roots, and so
+become an independent plant.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span></p><p><a name="UNIT_68" id="UNIT_68">68.</a> <b>Contrast between Stem and Root.</b> Stems are ascending axes; roots are
+descending axes. Stems grow by the successive development of internodes
+(<a href="#UNIT_13">13</a>), one after another, each leaf-bearing at its summit (or node); so
+that it is of the essential nature of a stem to bear leaves. Roots bear
+no leaves, are not distinguishable into nodes and internodes, but grow
+on continuously from the lower end. They commonly branch freely, but not
+from any fixed points nor in definite order.</p>
+
+<p>69. Although roots generally do not give rise to stems, and therefore do
+not propagate the plant, exceptions are not uncommon. For as stems may
+produce adventitious buds, so also may roots. The roots of the Sweet
+Potato among herbs, and of the Osage Orange among trees freely produce
+adventitious buds, developing into leafy shoots; and so these plants are
+propagated by <i>root-cuttings</i>. But most growths of subterranean origin
+which pass for roots are forms of stems, the common Potato for example.</p>
+
+<p>70. Roots of ordinary kinds and uses may be roughly classed into
+<i>fibrous</i> and <i>fleshy</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_71" id="UNIT_71">71.</a> <b>Fibrous Roots</b>, such as those of Indian Corn (Fig. <a href="#Fig62">70</a>), of most
+annuals, and of many perennials, serve only for absorption: these are
+slender or thread-like. Fine roots of this kind, and the fine branches
+which most roots send out are called <span class="smcap">Rootlets</span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_72" id="UNIT_72">72.</a> The whole surface of a root absorbs moisture from the soil while
+fresh and new; and the newer roots and rootlets are, the more freely do
+they imbibe. Accordingly, as long as the plant grows above ground, and
+expands fresh foliage, from which moisture largely escapes into the air,
+so long it continues to extend and multiply its roots in the soil
+beneath, renewing and increasing the fresh surface for absorbing
+moisture, in proportion to the demand from above. And when growth ceases
+above ground, and the leaves die and fall, or no longer act, then the
+roots generally stop growing, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>and their soft and tender tips harden.
+From this period, therefore, until growth begins anew the next spring,
+is the best time for transplanting; especially for trees and shrubs.</p>
+
+<p>73. The absorbing surface of young roots is much increased by the
+formation, near their tips, of <span class="smcap">Root-hairs</span> (Fig. <a href="#Fig81">81, 82</a>), which are
+delicate tubular outgrowths from the surface, through the delicate walls
+of which moisture is promptly imbibed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig83" id="Fig83"></a>
+<img src="images/fig083_085.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 83-85. Forms of tap-root.
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_74" id="UNIT_74">74.</a> <b>Fleshy Roots</b> are those in which the root becomes a storehouse of
+nourishment. Typical roots of this kind are those of such biennials as
+the turnip and carrot; in which the food created in the first season's
+vegetation is accumulated, to be expended the next season in a vigorous
+growth and a rapid development of flowers, fruit, and seed. By the time
+the seed is matured the exhausted root dies, and with it the whole
+plant.</p>
+
+<p>75. Fleshy roots may be single or multiple. The single root of the
+commoner biennials is the primary root, or tap-root, which begins to
+thicken in the seedling. Names are given to its shapes, such as</p>
+
+<p><i>Conical</i>, when it thickens most at the crown, or where it joins the
+stem, and tapers regularly downwards to a point, as in the Parsnip and
+Carrot (Fig. <a href="#Fig83">84</a>);</p>
+
+<p><i>Turnip-shaped</i> or <i>napiform</i>, when greatly thickened above, but
+abruptly becoming slender below; as the Turnip (Fig. <a href="#Fig83">83</a>); and</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span></p><p><i>Spindle-shaped</i>, or <i>Fusiform</i>, when thickest in the middle and
+tapering to both ends; as the common Radish (Fig. <a href="#Fig83">85</a>).</p>
+
+<p>76. These examples are of primary roots. It will be seen that turnips,
+carrots, and the like, are not pure root throughout; for the caulicle,
+from the lower end of which the root grew, partakes of the thickening,
+perhaps also some joints of stem above: so the bud-bearing and growing
+top is stem.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig86" id="Fig86"></a>
+<img src="images/fig086_087.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 86. Sweet-Potato plant forming thickened roots. Some
+in the middle are just beginning to thicken; one at the left has grown
+more; one at the right is still larger.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 87. Fascicled fusiform roots of a Dahlia: <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>,
+buds on base of stem.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>77. A fine example of secondary roots (<a href="#UNIT_67">67</a>), some of which remain fibrous
+for absorption, while a few thicken and store up food for the next
+season's growth, is furnished by the Sweet Potato (Fig. <a href="#Fig86">86</a>). As stated
+above, these are used for propagation by cuttings; for any part will
+produce adventitious buds and shoots. The Dahlia produces <i>fascicled</i>
+(i. e. clustered) fusiform roots of the same kind, at the base of the
+stem (Fig. <a href="#Fig86">87</a>): but these, like most roots, do not produce adventitious
+buds. The buds by which Dahlias are propagated belong to the surviving
+base of the stem above.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_78" id="UNIT_78">78.</a> <b>Anomalous Roots</b>, as they may be called, are those which subserve
+other uses than absorption, food-storing, and fixing the plant to the
+soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aerial Roots</i>, i. e. those that strike from stems in the open air, are
+common in moist and warm climates, as in the Mangrove which reaches the
+coast of Florida, the Banyan, and, less strikingly, in some herbaceous
+plants, such as Sugar Cane, and even in Indian Corn. Such roots reach
+the ground at length, or tend to do so.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aerial Rootlets</i> are abundantly produced by many climbing plants, such
+as the Ivy, Poison Ivy, Trumpet Creeper, etc., springing from the side
+of stems, which they fasten to trunks of trees, walls, or other
+supports. These are used by the plant for climbing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig88" id="Fig88"></a>
+<img src="images/fig088.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 88. Epiphytes of Florida and Georgia, viz.,
+Epidendrum conopseum, a small Orchid, and Tillandsia usneoides, the
+so-called Long Moss or Black Moss, which is no moss, but a flowering
+plant, also <i>T. recurvata</i>; on a bough of Live Oak.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_79" id="UNIT_79">79.</a> <b>Epiphytes, or Air-Plants</b> (Fig. <a href="#Fig88">88</a>), are called by the former name
+because commonly growing <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>upon the trunks or limbs of other plants; by
+the latter because, having no connection with the soil, they must derive
+their sustenance from the air only. They have aerial roots, which do not
+reach the ground, but are used to fix the plant to the surface upon
+which the plant grows: they also take a part in absorbing moisture from
+the air.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_80" id="UNIT_80">80.</a> <b>Parasitic Plants</b>, of which there are various kinds, strike their
+roots, or what answer to roots, into the tissue of foster plants, or
+form attachments with their surface, so as to prey upon their juices. Of
+this sort is the Mistletoe, the seed of which germinates on the bough
+where it falls or is left by birds; and the forming root penetrates the
+bark and engrafts itself into the wood, to which it becomes united as
+firmly as a natural branch to its parent stem; and indeed the parasite
+lives just as if it were a branch of the tree it grows and feeds on. A
+most common parasitic herb is the Dodder; which abounds in low grounds
+in summer, and coils its long and slender, leafless, yellowish
+stems&mdash;resembling tangled threads of yarn&mdash;round and round the stalks of
+other plants; wherever they touch piercing the bark with minute and very
+short rootlets in the form of suckers, which draw out the nourishing
+juices of the plants laid hold of. Other parasitic plants, like the
+Beech-drops and Pine-sap, fasten their roots under ground upon the roots
+of neighboring plants, and rob them of their juices.</p>
+
+<p>81. Some plants are partly parasitic; while most of their roots act in
+the ordinary way, others make suckers at their tips which grow fast to
+the roots of other plants and rob them of nourishment. Some of our
+species of Gerardia do this (Fig. <a href="#Fig89">89</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig89" id="Fig89"></a>
+<img src="images/fig089.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 89. Roots of Yellow Gerardia, some attached to and
+feeding on the root of a Blueberry-bush.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>82. There are phanerogamous plants, like Monotropa or Indian Pipe, the
+roots of which feed mainly on decaying vegetable matter in the soil.
+These are <span class="smcap">Saprophytes</span>, and they imitate Mushrooms and other Fungi in
+their mode of life.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_83" id="UNIT_83">83.</a> <b>Duration of Roots, etc.</b> Roots are said to be either <i>annual</i>,
+<i>biennial</i>, or <i>perennial</i>. As respects the first and second, these
+terms may be applied either to the root or to the plant.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_84" id="UNIT_84">84.</a> <b>Annuals</b>, as the name denotes, live for only one year, generally for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>only a part of the year. They are of course herbs; they spring from the
+seed, blossom, mature their fruit and seed, and then die, root and all.
+Annuals of our temperate climates with severe winters start from the
+seed in spring, and perish at or before autumn. Where the winter is a
+moist and growing season and the summer is dry, <i>winter annuals</i>
+prevail; their seeds germinate under autumn or winter rains, grow more
+or less during winter, blossom, fructify, and perish in the following
+spring or summer. Annuals are fibrous-rooted.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_85" id="UNIT_85">85.</a> <b>Biennials</b>, of which the Turnip, Beet, and Carrot are familiar
+examples, grow the first season without blossoming, usually thicken
+their roots, laying up in them a stock of nourishment, are quiescent
+during the winter, but shoot vigorously, blossom, and seed the next
+spring or summer, mainly at the expense of the food stored up, and then
+die completely. Annuals and biennials flower only once; hence they have
+been called <i>Monocarpic</i> (that is, once-fruiting) plants.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_86" id="UNIT_86">86.</a> <b>Perennials</b> live and blossom year after year. A perennial herb, in a
+temperate or cooler climate, usually dies down to the ground at the end
+of the season's growth. But subterranean portions of stem, charged with
+buds, survive to renew the development. Shrubs and trees are of course
+perennial; even the stems and branches above ground live on and grow
+year after year.</p>
+
+<p>87. There are all gradations between annuals and biennials, and between
+these and perennials, as also between herbs and shrubs; and the
+distinction between shrubs and trees is quite arbitrary. There are
+perennial herbs and even shrubs of warm climates which are annuals when
+raised in a climate which has a winter,&mdash;being destroyed by frost. The
+Castor-oil plant is an example. There are perennial herbs of which only
+small portions survive, as off-shoots, or, in the Potato, as tubers,
+etc.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2><a name="Section_VI" id="Section_VI"></a><span class="smcap">Section VI.</span> STEMS.</h2>
+
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_88" id="UNIT_88">88.</a> <b>The Stem</b> is the axis of the plant, the part which bears all the
+other organs. Branches are secondary stems, that is, stems growing out
+of stems. The stem at the very beginning produces roots, in most plants
+a single root from the base of the embryo-stem, or caulicle. As this
+root becomes a <i>descending axis</i>, so the stem, which grows in the
+opposite direction is called the <i>ascending axis</i>. Rising out of the
+soil, the stem bears leaves; and leaf-bearing is the particular
+characteristic of the stem. But there are forms of stems that remain
+underground, or make a part of their growth there. These do not bear
+leaves, in the common sense; yet they bear rudiments of leaves, or what
+answers to leaves, although not in the form of foliage. The so-called
+stemless or <i>acaulescent</i> plants are those which bear no obvious stem
+(<i>caulis</i>) above ground, but only flower-stalks, and the like.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span></p><p><a name="UNIT_89" id="UNIT_89">89.</a> <b>Stems above ground</b>, through differences in duration, texture, and
+size, form herbs, shrubs, trees, etc., or in other terms are</p>
+
+<p><i>Herbaceous</i>, dying down to the ground every year, or after blossoming.</p>
+
+<p><i>Suffrutescent</i>, slightly woody below, there surviving from year to
+year.</p>
+
+<p><i>Suffruticose</i> or <i>Frutescent</i>, when low stems are decidedly woody
+below, but herbaceous above.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruticose</i> or <i>Shrubby</i>, woody, living from year to year, and of
+considerable size,&mdash;not, however, more than three or four times the
+height of a man.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arborescent</i>, when tree-like in appearance or mode of growth, or
+approaching a tree in size.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arboreous</i>, when forming a proper tree-trunk.</p>
+
+<p>90. As to direction taken in growing, stems may, instead of growing
+upright or erect, be</p>
+
+<p><i>Diffuse</i>, that is, loosely spreading in all directions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Declined</i>, when turned or bending over to one side.</p>
+
+<p><i>Decumbent</i>, reclining on the ground, as if too weak to stand.</p>
+
+<p><i>Assurgent</i> or <i>Ascending</i>, rising obliquely upwards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Procumbent</i> or <i>Prostrate</i>, lying flat on the ground from the first.</p>
+
+<p><i>Creeping</i> or <i>Repent</i>, prostrate on or just beneath the ground, and
+striking root, as does the White Clover, the Partridge-berry, etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climbing</i> or <i>Scandent</i>, ascending by clinging to other objects for
+support, whether by <i>tendrils</i>, as do the Pea, Grape-Vine, and
+Passion-flower and Virginia Creeper (Fig. <a href="#Fig92">92</a>, <a href="#Fig93">93</a>); by their twisting
+leaf-stalks, as the Virgin's Bower; or by rootlets, like the Ivy, Poison
+Ivy, and Trumpet Creeper.</p>
+
+<p><i>Twining</i> or <i>Voluble</i>, when coiling spirally around other stems or
+supports; like the Morning-Glory (Fig. <a href="#Fig90">90</a>) and the Hop.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig90" id="Fig90"></a>
+<img src="images/fig090.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 90. Twining or voluble stem of Morning-Glory.
+</div>
+
+<p>91. Certain kinds of stems or branches, appropriated to special uses,
+have received distinct substantive names; such as the following:</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_92" id="UNIT_92">92.</a> <b>A Culm</b>, or straw-stem, such as that of Grasses and Sedges.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_93" id="UNIT_93">93.</a> <b>A Caudex</b> is the old name for such a peculiar trunk as a Palm-stem;
+it is also used for an upright and thick rootstock.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_94" id="UNIT_94">94.</a> <b>A Sucker</b> is a branch rising from stems under ground. Such are
+produced abundantly by the Rose, Raspberry, and other plants said to
+multiply "by the root." If we uncover them, we see at once the great
+difference between these subterranean branches and real roots. They are
+only creeping branches under ground. Remarking how the upright shoots
+from these branches become separate <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>plants, simply by the dying off of
+the connecting under-ground stems, the gardener expedites the result by
+cutting them through with his spade. That is, he propagates the plant
+"by division."</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_95" id="UNIT_95">95.</a> <b>A Stolon</b> is a branch from above ground, which reclines or becomes
+prostrate and strikes root (usually from the nodes) wherever it rests on
+the soil. Thence it may send up a vigorous shoot, which has roots of its
+own, and becomes an independent plant when the connecting part dies, as
+it does after a while. The Currant and the Gooseberry naturally multiply
+in this way, as well as by suckers (which are the same thing, only the
+connecting part is concealed under ground). Stolons must have suggested
+the operation of <i>layering</i> by bending down and covering with soil
+branches which do not naturally make stolons; and after they have taken
+root, as they almost always will, the gardener cuts through the
+connecting stem, and so converts a rooting branch into a separate plant.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_96" id="UNIT_96">96.</a> <b>An Offset</b> is a short stolon, or sucker, with a crown of leaves at
+the end, as in the Houseleek (Fig. <a href="#Fig91">91</a>), which propagates abundantly in
+this way.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig91" id="Fig91"></a>
+<img src="images/fig091.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 91. Houseleek (Sempervivum), with offsets.
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_97" id="UNIT_97">97.</a> <b>A Runner</b>, of which the Strawberry presents the most familiar and
+characteristic example, is a long and slender, tendril-like stolon, or
+branch from next the ground, destitute of conspicuous leaves. Each
+runner of the Strawberry, after having grown to its full length, strikes
+root from the tip, which fixes it to the ground, then forms a bud there,
+which develops into a tuft of leaves, and so gives rise to a new plant,
+which sends out new runners to act in the same way. In this manner a
+single Strawberry plant will spread over a large space, or produce a
+great number of plants, in the course of the summer, all connected at
+first by the slender runners; but these die in the following winter, if
+not before, and leave the plants as so many separate individuals.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_98" id="UNIT_98">98.</a> <b>Tendrils</b> are branches of a very slender sort, like runners, not
+destined like them for propagation, and therefore always destitute of
+buds or leaves, being intended only for climbing. Simple tendrils are
+such as those of Passion-flowers (Fig. <a href="#Fig92">92</a>). Compound or branching
+tendrils are borne by the Cucumber and Pumpkin, by the Grape-Vine,
+Virginia Creeper, etc.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig92" id="Fig92"></a>
+<img src="images/fig092.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 92. A small Passion-flower (<i>Passiflora sicyoides</i>),
+showing the tendrils.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>99. A tendril commonly grows straight and outstretched until it reaches
+some neighboring support, such as a stem, when its apex hooks around it
+to secure a hold; then the whole tendril shortens itself by coiling up
+spirally, and so draws the shoot of the growing plant nearer to the
+supporting object. But the tendrils of the Virginia Creeper (Ampelopsis,
+Fig. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span><a href="#Fig93">93</a>), as also the shorter ones of the Japanese species, effect the
+object differently, namely, by expanding the tips of the tendrils into a
+flat disk, with an adhesive face. This is applied to the supporting
+object, and it adheres firmly; then a shortening of the tendril and its
+branches by coiling brings up the growing shoot close to the support.
+This is an adaptation for climbing mural rocks or walls, or the trunks
+of trees, to which ordinary tendrils are unable to cling. The Ivy and
+Poison Ivy attain the same result by means of aerial rootlets (<a href="#UNIT_78">78</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig93" id="Fig93"></a>
+<img src="images/fig093_094.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 93. Piece of the stem of Virginia Creeper, bearing a
+leaf and a tendril. 94. Tips of a tendril, about the natural size,
+showing the disks by which they hold fast to walls, etc.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>100. Some tendrils are leaves or parts of leaves, as those of the Pea
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig31">35</a>). The nature of the tendril is known by its position. A tendril
+from the axil of a leaf, like that of Passion-flowers (Fig. <a href="#Fig92">92</a>) is of
+course a stem, i. e. a branch. So is one which terminates a stem, as in
+the Grape-Vine.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_101" id="UNIT_101">101.</a> <b>Spines</b> or <b>Thorns</b> (Fig. <a href="#Fig95">95, 96</a>) are commonly stunted and hardened
+branches or tips of stems or branches, as are those of Hawthorn,
+Honey-Locust, etc. In the Pear and Sloe all gradations occur between
+spines and spine-like (spinescent) branches. Spines may be reduced and
+indurated leaves; as in the Barberry, where their nature is revealed by
+their situation, underneath an axillary bud. But <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>prickles, such as
+those of Blackberry and Roses, are only excrescences of the bark, and
+not branches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig95" id="Fig95"></a>
+<img src="images/fig095_096.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 95. A branching thorn of Honey-Locust, being an
+indurated leafless branch developed from an accessory bud far above the
+axil: at the cut portion below, three other buds (<i>a</i>) are concealed
+under the petiole.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 96. Spine of Cockspur Thorn, developed from an
+axillary bud, as the leaf-scar below witnesses: an accessory leaf-bud is
+seen at its base.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>102. Equally strange forms of stems are characteristic of the Cactus
+family (Fig. <a href="#Fig111">111</a>). These may be better understood by comparison with</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_103" id="UNIT_103">103.</a> <b>Subterranean Stems and Branches.</b> These are very numerous and
+various; but they are commonly overlooked, or else are confounded with
+roots. From their situation they are out of ordinary sight; but they
+will well repay examination. For the vegetation that is carried on under
+ground is hardly less varied or important than that above ground. All
+their forms may be referred to four principal kinds: namely, the
+<i>Rhizoma</i> (<i>Rhizome</i>) or <i>Rootstock</i>, the <i>Tuber</i>, the <i>Corm</i> or solid
+bulb, and the true <i>Bulb</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig97" id="Fig97"></a>
+<img src="images/fig097.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 97. Rootstocks, or creeping subterranean branches,
+of the Peppermint.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_104" id="UNIT_104">104.</a> <b>The Rootstock, or Rhizoma</b>, in its simplest form, is merely a
+creeping stem or branch growing beneath the surface of the soil, or
+partly covered by it. Of this kind are the so-called <i>creeping</i>,
+<i>running</i>, or <i>scaly roots</i>, such as those by which the Mint (Fig. <a href="#Fig97">97</a>),
+the Couch-grass, or Quick-grass, and many other plants, spread so
+rapidly and widely,&mdash;"by the root," as it is said. That these are really
+<i>stems</i>, and not roots, is evident from the way in which <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>they grow;
+from their consisting of a succession of joints; and from the leaves
+which they bear on each <i>node</i>, in the form of small scales, just like
+the lowest ones on the upright stem next the ground. They also produce
+buds in the axils of these scales, showing the scales to be leaves;
+whereas real roots bear neither leaves nor axillary buds. Placed as they
+are in the damp and dark soil, such stems naturally produce roots, just
+as the creeping stem does where it lies on the surface of the ground.</p>
+
+<p>105. It is easy to see why plants with these running rootstocks take
+such rapid and wide possession of the soil, and why they are so hard to
+get rid of. They are always perennials; the subterranean shoots live
+over the first winter, if not longer, and are provided with vigorous
+buds at every joint. Some of these buds grow in spring into upright
+stems, bearing foliage, to elaborate nourishment, and at length produce
+blossoms for reproduction by seed; while many others, fed by nourishment
+supplied from above, form a new generation of subterranean shoots; and
+this is repeated over and over in the course of the season or in
+succeeding years. Meanwhile, as the subterranean shoots increase in
+number, the older ones, connecting the successive growths, die off year
+by year, liberating the already rooted side-branches as so many separate
+plants; and so on indefinitely. Cutting these running rootstocks into
+pieces, therefore, by the hoe or the plough, far from destroying the
+plant, only accelerates the propagation; it converts one many-branched
+plant into a great number of separate individuals. Cutting into pieces
+only multiplies the pest; for each piece (Fig. <a href="#Fig98">98</a>) is already a
+plantlet, with its roots and with a bud in the axil of its scale-like
+leaf (either latent or apparent), and with prepared nourishment enough
+to develop this bud into a leafy stem; and so a single plant is all the
+more speedily converted into a multitude. Whereas, when the subterranean
+parts are only roots, cutting away the stem completely destroys the
+plant, except in the rather rare cases where the root freely produces
+adventitious buds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig98" id="Fig98"></a>
+<img src="images/fig098.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 98. A piece of the running rootstock of the
+Peppermint, with its node or joint, and an axillary bud ready to grow.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>106. Rootstocks are more commonly thickened by the storing up of
+considerable nourishing matter in their tissue. The common species of
+Iris (Fig. <a href="#Fig164">164</a>) in the gardens have stout rootstocks, which are only
+partly covered by the soil, and which bear foliage-leaves instead of
+mere scales, closely covering the upper part, while the lower produces
+roots. As the leaves die, year by year, and decay, a scar left in the
+form of a ring marks the place where each leaf was attached, that is,
+marks so many nodes, separated by very short internodes.</p>
+
+<p>107. Some rootstocks are marked with large round scars of a different
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>sort, like those of the Solomon's Seal (Fig. <a href="#Fig99">99</a>), which gave this name
+to the plant, from their looking somewhat like the impression of a seal
+upon wax. Here the rootstock sends up every spring an herbaceous stalk
+or stem, which bears the foliage and flowers, and dies in autumn. The
+<i>seal</i> is the circular scar left by the death and separation of the base
+of the stout stalk from the living rootstock. As but one of these is
+formed each year, they mark the limits of a year's growth. The bud at
+the end of the rootstock in the figure (which was taken in summer) will
+grow the next spring into the stalk of the season, which, dying in
+autumn, will leave a similar scar, while another bud will be formed
+farther on, crowning the ever-advancing summit or growing end of the
+stem.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig99" id="Fig99"></a>
+<img src="images/fig099.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 99. Rootstock of Solomon's Seal, with the bottom of
+the stalk of the season, and the bud for the next year's growth.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>108. As each year's growth of stem makes its own roots, it soon becomes
+independent of the older parts. And after a certain age, a portion
+annually dies off behind, about as fast as it increases at the growing
+end, death following life with equal and certain step, with only a
+narrow interval. In vigorous plants of Solomon's Seal or Iris, the
+living rootstock is several inches or a foot in length; while in the
+short rootstock of Trillium or Birthroot (Fig. <a href="#Fig100">100</a>) life is reduced to a
+narrower span.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig100" id="Fig100"></a>
+<img src="images/fig100.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 100. The very short rootstock and strong terminal
+bud of a Trillium or Birthroot.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>109. An upright or short rootstock, like this of Trillium, is commonly
+called a <span class="smcap">Caudex</span> (<a href="#UNIT_93">93</a>); or when more shortened and thickened it would
+become a corm.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_110" id="UNIT_110">110.</a> <b>A Tuber</b> may be understood to be a portion of a rootstock thickened,
+and with buds (eyes) on the sides. Of course, there are all gradations
+between a tuber and a rootstock. Helianthus tuberosus, the so-called
+Jerusalem Artichoke (Fig. <a href="#Fig101">101</a>), and the common Potato, are typical and
+familiar examples of the tuber. The stalks by which the tubers are
+attached to the parent stem are at once seen to be different from the
+roots, both in appearance and manner of growth. The scales on the tubers
+are the rudiments of leaves; the eyes are the buds in their axils. The
+Potato-plant <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>has three forms of branches: 1. Those that bear ordinary
+leaves expanded in the air, to digest what they gather from it and what
+the roots gather from the soil, and convert it into nourishment. 2.
+After a while a second set of branches at the summit of the plant bear
+flowers, which form fruit and seed out of a portion of the nourishment
+which the leaves have prepared. 3. But a larger part of this
+nourishment, while in a liquid state, is carried down the stem, into a
+third sort of branches under ground, and accumulated in the form of
+starch at their extremities, which become tubers, or depositories of
+prepared solid food,&mdash;just as in the Turnip, Carrot, and Dahlia (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig83">83</a>-<a href="#Fig86">87</a>), it is deposited in the root. The use of the store of food is
+obvious enough. In the autumn the whole plant dies, except the seeds (if
+it formed them) and the tubers; and the latter are left disconnected in
+the ground. Just as that small portion of nourishing matter which is
+deposited in the seed feeds the embryo when it germinates, so the much
+larger portion deposited in the tuber nourishes its buds, or eyes, when
+they likewise grow, the next spring, into new plants. And the great
+supply enables them to shoot with a greater vigor at the beginning, and
+to produce a greater amount of vegetation than the seedling plant could
+do in the same space of time; which vegetation in turn may prepare and
+store up, in the course of a few weeks or months, the largest quantity
+of solid nourishing material, in a form most available for food. Taking
+advantage of this, man has transported the Potato from the cool Andes of
+Chili to other cool climates, and makes it yield him a copious supply of
+food, especially important in countries where the season is too short,
+or the summer's heat too little, for profitably cultivating the
+principal grain-plants.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig101" id="Fig101"></a>
+<img src="images/fig101_102.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 101. Tubers of Helianthus tuberosus, called
+"artichokes."</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 102. Bulblet-like tubers, such as are occasionally
+formed on the stem of a Potato-plant above ground.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_111" id="UNIT_111">111.</a> <b>The Corm or Solid Bulb</b>, like that of Cyclamen (Fig. <a href="#Fig103">103</a>), and of
+Indian Turnip (Fig. <a href="#Fig103">104</a>), is a very short and thick fleshy subterranean
+stem, often broader than high. It sends off roots from its lower end, or
+rather face, leaves and stalks from its upper. The corm of Cyclamen goes
+on to enlarge and to produce a succession of flowers and leaves year
+after year. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>That of Indian Turnip is formed one year and is consumed
+the next. Fig. <a href="#Fig103">104</a> represents it in early summer, having below the corm
+of last year, from which the roots have fallen. It is partly consumed by
+the growth of the stem for the season, and the corm of the year is
+forming at base of the stem above the line of roots.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig103" id="Fig103"></a>
+<img src="images/fig103_104.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 103. Corm of Cyclamen, much reduced in size: roots
+from lower face, leaf-stalks and flower-stalks from the upper.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 104. Corm of Indian Turnip (Aris�ma).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>112. The corm of Crocus (Fig. <a href="#Fig105">105, 106</a>), like that of its relative
+Gladiolus, is also reproduced annually, the new ones forming upon the
+summit and sides of the old. Such a corm is like a tuber in budding from
+the sides, i. e. from the axils of leaves; but these leaves, instead of
+being small scales, are the sheathing bases of foliage-leaves which
+covered the surface. It resembles a true bulb in having these sheaths or
+broad scales; but in the corm or solid bulb, this solid part or stem
+makes up the principal bulk.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig105" id="Fig105"></a>
+<img src="images/fig105_106.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 105. Corm of a Crocus, the investing sheaths or dead
+leaf-bases stripped off. The faint cross-lines represent the scars,
+where the leaves were attached, i. e. the nodes: the spaces between are
+the internodes. The exhausted corm of the previous year is underneath;
+forming ones for next year on the summit and sides.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 106. Section of the same.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_113" id="UNIT_113">113.</a> <b>The Bulb</b>, strictly so-called, is a stem like a reduced corm as to
+its solid part (or plate); while the main body consists of thickened
+scales, which are leaves or leaf-bases. These are like bud-scales; so
+that in fact a bulb is a bud with fleshy scales on an exceedingly short
+stem. Compare a White Lily bulb (Fig. <a href="#Fig107">107</a>) with the strong scaly buds of
+the Hickory and Horse-chestnut (Fig. <a href="#Fig72">72 and 73</a>), and the resemblance
+will appear. In corms, as in tubers and rootstocks, the store of food
+for future growth is deposited in the stem; while in the bulb, the
+greater part is deposited in the bases of the leaves, changing them into
+thick scales, which closely overlap or enclose one another.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_114" id="UNIT_114">114.</a> <b>A Scaly Bulb</b> (like that of the Lily, Fig. <a href="#Fig107">107, 108</a>) is one in which
+the scales are thick but comparatively narrow.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig107" id="Fig107"></a>
+<img src="images/fig107_108.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 107. Bulb of a wild Lily. 108. The same divided
+lengthwise, showing two forming buds of the next generation.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig109" id="Fig109"></a>
+<img src="images/fig109.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 109. A ground leaf of White Lily, its base (cut
+across) thickened into a bulb-scale. This plainly shows that bulb-scales
+are leaves.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_115" id="UNIT_115">115.</a> <b>A Tunicated or Coated Bulb</b> is one in which the scales enwrap each
+other, forming concentric coats or layers, as in Hyacinth and Onion.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p><p><a name="UNIT_116" id="UNIT_116">116.</a> <b>Bulblets</b> are very small bulbs growing out of larger ones; or small
+bulbs produced above ground on some plants, as in the axils of the
+leaves of the bulbiferous Lilies of the gardens (Fig. <a href="#Fig110">110</a>), and often in
+the flower-clusters of the Leek and Onion. They are plainly buds with
+thickened scales. They never grow into branches, but detach themselves
+when full grown, fall to the ground, and take root there to form new
+plants.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig110" id="Fig110"></a>
+<img src="images/fig110.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 110. Bulblets in the axils of leaves of a Tiger
+Lily.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_117" id="UNIT_117">117.</a> <b>Consolidated Vegetation.</b> An ordinary herb, shrub, or tree is
+evidently constructed on the plan developing an extensive surface. In
+fleshy rootstocks, tubers, corms, and bulbs, the more enduring portion
+of the plant is concentrated, and reduced for the time of struggle (as
+against drought, heat, or cold) to a small amount of exposed surface,
+and this mostly sheltered in the soil. There are many similar
+consolidated forms which are not subterranean. Thus plants like the
+Houseleek (Fig. <a href="#Fig91">91</a>) imitate a bulb. Among Cactuses the columnar species
+of Cereus (Fig. <a href="#Fig111">111</a>, <i>b</i>), may be likened to rootstocks. A green rind
+serves the purpose of foliage; but the surface is as nothing compared
+with an ordinary leafy plant of the same bulk. Compare, for instance,
+the largest Cactus known, the Giant Cereus of the Gila River (Fig. <a href="#Fig111">111</a>,
+in the background), which rises to the height of fifty or sixty feet,
+with a common leafy tree of the same height, such as that in Fig. <a href="#Fig89">89</a>,
+and estimate how vastly greater, even without the foliage, the surface
+of the latter is than that of the former. Compare, in the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>same view, an
+Opuntia or Prickly-Pear Cactus, its stem and branches formed of a
+succession of thick and flattened joints (Fig. <a href="#Fig111">111</a>, <i>a</i>), which may be
+likened to tubers, or an Epiphyllum (<i>d</i>), having short and flat joints,
+with an ordinary leafy shrub or herb of equal size. And finally, in
+Melon-Cactuses, Echinocactus (<i>c</i>), or other globose forms (which may be
+likened to permanent corms), with their globular or bulb-like shapes, we
+have plants in the compactest shape; their spherical figure being such
+as to expose the least possible amount of substance to the air. These
+are adaptations to climates which are very dry, either throughout or for
+a part of the year. Similarly, bulbous and corm-bearing plants, and the
+like, are examples of a form of vegetation which in the growing season
+may expand a large surface to the air and light, while during the period
+of rest the living vegetable is reduced to a globe, or solid form of the
+least possible surface; and this protected by its outer coats of dead
+and dry scales, as well as by its situation under ground. Such are also
+adapted to a season of drought. They largely belong to countries which
+have a long hot season of little or no rain, when, their stalks and
+foliage above and their roots beneath early perishing, the plants rest
+securely in their compact bulbs, filled with nourishment and retaining
+their moisture with great tenacity, until the rainy season comes round.
+Then they shoot forth leaves and flowers with wonderful rapidity, and
+what was perhaps a desert of arid sand becomes green with foliage and
+gay with blossoms, almost in a day.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig111" id="Fig111"></a>
+<img src="images/fig111.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Section_VII" id="Section_VII"></a><span class="smcap">Section VII.</span> LEAVES.</h2>
+
+
+<p>118. <span class="smcap">Stems</span> bear leaves, at definite points (nodes, <a href="#UNIT_13">13</a>); and these are
+produced in a great variety of forms, and subserve various uses. The
+commonest kind of leaf, which therefore may be taken as the type or
+pattern, is an expanded green body, by means of which the plant exposes
+to the air and light the matters which it imbibes, exhales certain
+portions, and assimilates the residue into vegetable matter for its
+nourishment and growth.</p>
+
+<p>119. But the fact is already familiar (<a href="#UNIT_10">10-30</a>) that leaves occur under
+other forms and serve for other uses,&mdash;for the storage of food already
+assimilated, as in thickened seed-leaves and bulb-scales; for covering,
+as in bud-scales; and still other uses are to be pointed out. Indeed,
+sometimes they are of no service to the plant, being reduced to mere
+scales or rudiments, such as those on the rootstocks of Peppermint (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig97">97</a>) or the tubers of Jerusalem Artichoke (Fig. <a href="#Fig101">101</a>). These may be said
+to be of service only to the botanist, in explaining to him the plan
+upon which a plant is constructed.</p>
+
+<p>120. Accordingly, just as a rootstock, or a tuber, or a tendril is a
+kind of stem, so a bud-scale, or a bulb-scale, or a cotyledon, or a
+petal of a flower, is a kind of leaf. Even in respect to ordinary
+leaves, it is natural to use the word either in a wider or in a narrower
+sense; as when in one sense we say that a leaf consists of blade and
+petiole or leaf-stalk, and in another sense say that a leaf is petioled,
+or that the leaf of Hepatica is three-lobed. The connection should make
+it plain whether by leaf we mean leaf-blade only, or the blade with any
+other parts it may have. And the student will readily understand that by
+leaf in its largest or <i>morphological</i> sense, the botanist means the
+organ which occupies the place of a leaf, whatever be its form or its
+function.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_VII_1" id="Subsect_VII_1">� 1.</a> LEAVES AS FOLIAGE.</h3>
+
+<p>121. This is tautological; for foliage is simply leaves: but it is very
+convenient to speak of typical leaves, or those which serve the plant
+for assimilation, as foliage-leaves, or ordinary leaves. These may first
+be considered.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_122" id="UNIT_122">122.</a> <b>The Parts of a Leaf.</b> The ordinary leaf, complete in its parts,
+consists of <i>blade</i>, <i>foot-stalk</i>, or <i>petiole</i>, and a pair of
+<i>stipules</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_123" id="UNIT_123">123.</a> First the <span class="smcap">Blade</span> or <span class="smcap">Lamina</span>, which is the essential part of ordinary
+leaves, that is, of such as serve the purpose of foliage. In structure
+it consists of a softer part, the <i>green pulp</i>, called <i>parenchyma</i>,
+which is traversed and supported by a fibrous frame, the parts of which
+are called <i>ribs</i> or <i>veins</i>, on account of a certain likeness in
+arrangement to the veins of animals. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>The whole surface is covered by a
+transparent skin, the <i>Epidermis</i>, not unlike that which covers the
+surface of all fresh shoots.</p>
+
+<p>124. Note that the leaf-blade expands horizontally,&mdash;that is, normally
+presents its faces one to the sky, the other to the ground, or when the
+leaf is erect the upper face looks toward the stem that bears it, the
+lower face away from it. Whenever this is not the case there is
+something to be explained.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_125" id="UNIT_125">125.</a> The framework consists of <i>wood</i>,&mdash;a fibrous and tough material
+which runs from the stem through the leaf-stalk, when there is one, in
+the form of parallel threads or bundles of fibres; and in the blade
+these spread out in a horizontal direction, to form the <i>ribs</i> and
+<i>veins</i> of the leaf. The stout main branches of the framework are called
+the <i>Ribs</i>. When there is only one, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig112">112</a>, <a href="#Fig113">114</a>, or a middle one
+decidedly larger than the rest, it is called the <i>Midrib</i>. The smaller
+divisions are termed <i>Veins</i>; and their still smaller subdivisions,
+<i>Veinlets</i>. The latter subdivide again and again, until they become so
+fine that they are invisible to the naked eye. The fibres of which they
+are composed are hollow; forming tubes by which the sap is brought into
+the leaves and carried to every part.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig112" id="Fig112"></a>
+<img src="images/fig112.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 112. Leaf of the Quince: <i>b</i>, blade; <i>p</i>, petiole;
+<i>st</i>, stipules.
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_126" id="UNIT_126">126.</a> <b>Venation</b> is the name of the mode of veining, that is, of the way in
+which the veins are distributed in the blade. This is of two principal
+kinds; namely, the <i>parallel-veined</i>, and the <i>netted-veined</i>.</p>
+
+<p>127. In <i>Netted-veined</i> (also called <i>Reticulated</i>) leaves, the veins
+branch off from the main rib or ribs, divide into finer and finer
+veinlets, and the branches unite with each other to form meshes of
+network. That is, they <i>anastomose</i>, as anatomists say of the veins and
+arteries of the body. The Quince-leaf, in Fig. <a href="#Fig112">112</a>, shows this kind of
+veining in a leaf with a single rib. The Maple, Basswood, Plane or
+Buttonwood (Fig. <a href="#Fig74">74</a>) show it in leaves of several ribs.</p>
+
+<p>128. In <i>parallel-veined</i> leaves, the whole framework consists of
+slender ribs or veins, which run parallel with each other, or nearly so,
+from the base to the point of the leaf,&mdash;not dividing and subdividing,
+nor forming meshes, except by minute cross-veinlets. The leaf of any
+grass, or that of the Lily of the Valley (Fig. <a href="#Fig113">113</a>) will furnish a good
+illustration. Such parallel veins Linn�us called <i>Nerves</i>, and
+parallel-veined leaves are still commonly called <i>nerved</i> leaves, while
+those of the other kind are said to be <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span><i>veined</i>,&mdash;terms which it is
+convenient to use, although these "nerves" and "veins" are all the same
+thing, and have no likeness to the <i>nerves</i> and little to the veins of
+animals.</p>
+
+<p>129. <i>Netted-veined</i> leaves belong to plants which have a pair of
+seed-leaves or cotyledons, such as the Maple (Fig. <a href="#Fig14">20</a>, <a href="#Fig21">24</a>), Beech (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig31">33</a>), and the like; while <i>parallel-veined</i> or <i>nerved</i> leaves belong to
+plants with one cotyledon or true seed-leaf; such as the Iris (Fig. <a href="#Fig58">59</a>),
+and Indian Corn (Fig. <a href="#Fig62">70</a>). So that a mere glance at the leaves generally
+tells what the structure of the embryo is, and refers the plant to one
+or the other of these two grand classes,&mdash;which is a great convenience.
+For when plants differ from each other in some one important respect,
+they usually differ correspondingly in other respects also.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig113" id="Fig113"></a>
+<img src="images/fig113_114.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 113. A (parallel-veined) leaf of the Lily of the
+Valley. 114. One of the Calla Lily.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>130. Parallel-veined leaves are of two sorts,&mdash;one kind, and the
+commonest, having the ribs or nerves all running from the base to the
+point of the leaf, as in the examples already given; while in another
+kind they run from a midrib to the margin, as in the common
+Pickerel-weed of our ponds, in the Banana, in Calla (Fig. <a href="#Fig113">114</a>), and many
+similar plants of warm climates.</p>
+
+<p>131. Netted-veined leaves are also of two sorts, as in the examples
+already referred to. In one case the veins all rise from a single rib
+(the midrib), as in Fig. <a href="#Fig112">112</a>, <a href="#Fig115">116</a>-<a href="#Fig125">127</a>. Such leaves are called
+<i>Feather-veined</i> or <i>Penni-veined</i>, i. e. <i>Pinnately-veined</i>; both terms
+meaning the same thing, namely, that the veins are arranged on the sides
+of the rib like the plume of a feather on each side of the shaft.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p><p>132. In the other case (as in Fig. <a href="#Fig74">74</a>, <a href="#Fig128">129-132</a>), the veins branch off
+from three, five, seven, or nine ribs, which spread from the top of the
+leaf-stalk, and run through the blade like the toes of a web-footed
+bird. Hence these are said to be <i>Palmately</i> or <i>Digitately</i> veined, or
+(since the ribs diverge like rays from a centre) <i>Radiate-veined</i>.</p>
+
+<p>133. Since the general outline of leaves accords with the framework or
+skeleton, it is plain that <i>feather-veined</i> (or <i>penni-veined</i>) leaves
+will incline to elongated shapes, or at least to be longer than broad;
+while in <i>radiate-veined</i> leaves more rounded forms are to be expected.
+A glance at the following figures shows this.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig115" id="Fig115"></a>
+<img src="images/fig115_120.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 115-120. A series of shapes of feather-veined
+leaves.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_134" id="UNIT_134">134.</a> <b>Forms of Leaves as to General Outline.</b> It is necessary to give
+names to the principal shapes, and to define them rather precisely,
+since they afford easy marks for distinguishing species. The same terms
+are used for all other flattened parts as well, such as petals; so that
+they make up a great part of the descriptive language of Botany. It will
+be a good exercise for young students to look up leaves answering to
+these names and definitions. Beginning with the narrower and proceeding
+to the broadest forms, a leaf is said to be</p>
+
+<p><i>Linear</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig115">115</a>), when narrow, several times longer than wide, and of
+the same breadth throughout.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lanceolate</i>, or <i>Lance-shaped</i>, when conspicuously longer than wide,
+and tapering upwards (Fig. <a href="#Fig115">116</a>), or both upwards and downwards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oblong</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig115">117</a>), when nearly twice or thrice as long as broad.</p>
+
+<p><i>Elliptical</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig115">118</a>) is oblong with a flowing outline, the two ends
+alike in width.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oval</i> is the same as broadly elliptical, or elliptical with the breadth
+considerably more than half the length.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ovate</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig115">119</a>), when the outline is like a section of a hen's egg
+lengthwise, the broader end downward.</p>
+
+<p><i>Orbicular</i>, or <i>Rotund</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig128">132</a>), circular in outline, or nearly so.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig121" id="Fig121"></a>
+<img src="images/fig121_124.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 121, oblanceolate; 122, spatulate; 123, obovate; and
+124, wedge-shaped, feather-veined, leaves.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>135. A leaf which tapers toward the base instead of toward the apex may
+be</p>
+
+<p><i>Oblanceolate</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig121">121</a>) when of the lance-shaped form, only more
+tapering toward the base than in the opposite direction.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spatulate</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig121">122</a>) when more rounded above, but tapering thence to a
+narrow base, like an old-fashioned spatula.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span></p><p><i>Obovate</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig121">123</a>) or inversely ovate, that is, ovate with the
+narrower end down.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cuneate</i> or <i>Cuneiform</i>, that is, <i>Wedge-shaped</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig121">124</a>), broad
+above and tapering by nearly straight lines to an acute angle at the
+base.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig125" id="Fig125"></a>
+<img src="images/fig125_127.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 125, sagittate; 126, auriculate; and 127,
+halberd-shaped or hastate leaves.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_136" id="UNIT_136">136.</a> <b>As to the Base</b>, its shape characterizes several forms, such as</p>
+
+<p><i>Cordate</i> or <i>Heart-shaped</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig115">120</a>, <a href="#Fig128">129</a>), when a leaf of an ovate
+form, or something like it, has the outline of its rounded base turned
+in (forming a notch or <i>sinus</i>) where the stalk is attached.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reniform</i>, or <i>Kidney-shaped</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig128">131</a>), like the last, only rounder
+and broader than long.</p>
+
+<p><i>Auriculate</i>, or <i>Eared</i>, having a pair of small and blunt projections,
+or <i>ears</i>, at the base, as in one species of Magnolia (Fig. <a href="#Fig125">126</a>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Sagittate</i>, or <i>arrow-shaped</i>, where such ears are acute and turned
+downwards, while the main body of the blade tapers upwards to a point,
+as in the common Sagittaria or Arrow-head, and in the Arrow-leaved
+Polygonum (Fig. <a href="#Fig125">125</a>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Hastate</i>, or <i>Halberd-shaped</i>, when such lobes at the base point
+outwards, giving the shape of the halberd of the olden time, as in
+another Polygonum (Fig. <a href="#Fig125">127</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig128" id="Fig128"></a>
+<img src="images/fig128_132.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 128-132. Various forms of radiate-veined leaves.
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Peltate</i>, or <i>Shield-shaped</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig128">132</a>), is the name applied to a
+curious modification of the leaf, commonly of a rounded form, where the
+footstalk is attached to the lower surface, instead of the base, and
+therefore is naturally <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>likened to a shield borne by the outstretched
+arm. The common Watershield, the Nelumbium, and the White Water-lily,
+and also the Mandrake, exhibit this sort of leaf. On comparing the
+shield-shaped leaf of the common Marsh Pennywort (Fig. <a href="#Fig128">132</a>) with that of
+another common species (Fig. <a href="#Fig128">130</a>), it is at once seen that a
+shield-shaped leaf is like a kidney-shaped (Fig. <a href="#Fig128">130, 131</a>) or other
+rounded leaf, with the margins at the base brought together and united.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_137" id="UNIT_137">137.</a> <b>As to the Apex</b>, the following terms express the principal
+variations:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Acuminate</i>, <i>Pointed</i>, or <i>Taper-pointed</i>, when the summit is more or
+less prolonged into a narrowed or tapering point; as in Fig. <a href="#Fig133">133</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acute</i>, ending in an acute angle or not prolonged point; Fig. <a href="#Fig133">134</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Obtuse</i>, with a blunt or rounded apex; as in Fig. <a href="#Fig133">135</a>, etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>Truncate</i>, with the end as if cut off square; as in Fig. <a href="#Fig133">136</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Retuse</i>, with rounded summit slightly indented, forming a very shallow
+notch, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig133">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Emarginate</i>, or <i>Notched</i>, indented at the end more decidedly; as in
+Fig. <a href="#Fig133">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Obcordate</i>, that is, inversely heart-shaped, where an obovate leaf is
+more deeply notched at the end (Fig. <a href="#Fig133">139</a>), as in White Clover and
+Wood-sorrel; so as to resemble a cordate leaf inverted.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cuspidate</i>, tipped with a sharp and rigid point; as in Fig. <a href="#Fig133">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mucronate</i>, abruptly tipped with a small and short point, like a mere
+projection of the midrib; as in Fig. <a href="#Fig133">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aristate</i>, <i>Awn-pointed</i>, and <i>Bristle-pointed</i>, are terms used when
+this mucronate point is extended into a longer bristle-form or slender
+appendage.</p>
+
+<p>The first six of these terms can be applied to the lower as well as to
+the upper end of a leaf or other organ. The others belong to the apex
+only.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig133" id="Fig133"></a>
+<img src="images/fig133_141.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 133-141. Forms of the apex of leaves.
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_138" id="UNIT_138">138.</a> <b>As to degree and nature of Division</b>, there is first of all the
+difference between</p>
+
+<p><i>Simple Leaves</i>, those in which the blade is of one piece, however much
+it may be cut up, and</p>
+
+<p><i>Compound Leaves</i>, those in which the blade consists of two or more
+separate pieces, upon a common leaf-stalk or support. Yet between these
+two kinds every intermediate gradation is to be met with.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig142" id="Fig142"></a>
+<img src="images/fig142_147.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 142-147. Kinds of margin of leaves.
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_139" id="UNIT_139">139.</a> <b>As to Particular Outlines of Simple Leaves</b> (and the same applies to
+their separate parts), they are</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span></p><p><i>Entire</i>, when their general outline is completely filled out, so that
+the margin is an even line, without teeth or notches.</p>
+
+<p><i>Serrate</i>, or <i>Saw-toothed</i>, when the margin only is cut into sharp
+teeth, like those of a saw, and pointing forwards; as in Fig. <a href="#Fig142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dentate</i>, or <i>Toothed</i>, when such teeth point outwards, instead of
+forwards; as in Fig. <a href="#Fig142">143</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crenate</i>, or <i>Scalloped</i>, when the teeth are broad and rounded; as in
+Fig. <a href="#Fig142">144</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Repand</i>, <i>Undulate</i>, or <i>Wavy</i>, when the margin of the leaf forms a
+wavy line, bending slightly inwards and outwards in succession; as in
+Fig. <a href="#Fig142">145</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sinuate</i>, when the margin is more strongly sinuous or turned inwards
+and outwards; as in Fig. <a href="#Fig142">146</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Incised</i>, <i>Cut</i>, or <i>Jagged</i>, when the margin is cut into sharp, deep,
+and irregular teeth or incisions; as in Fig. <a href="#Fig142">147</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lobed</i>, when deeply cut. Then the pieces are in a general way called
+<span class="smcap">Lobes</span>. The number of the lobes is briefly expressed by the phrase
+<i>two-lobed</i>, <i>three-lobed</i>, <i>five-lobed</i>, <i>many-lobed</i>, etc., as the
+case may be.</p>
+
+<p>140. When the depth and character of the lobing needs to be more
+particularly specified, the following terms are employed, viz.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Lobed</i>, in a special sense, when the incisions do not extend deeper
+than about half-way between the margin and the centre of the blade, if
+so far, and are more or less rounded; as in the leaves of the Post-Oak,
+Fig. <a href="#Fig148">148</a>, and the Hepatica, Fig. <a href="#Fig148">152</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cleft</i>, when the incisions extend half way down or more, and especially
+when they are sharp; as in Fig. <a href="#Fig148">149, 153</a>. And the phrases <i>two-cleft</i>,
+or, in the Latin form, <i>bifid</i>, <i>three-cleft</i> or <i>trifid</i>, <i>four-cleft</i>
+or <i>quadrifid</i>, <i>five-cleft</i> or <i>quinquefid</i>, etc., or <i>many-cleft</i>, in
+the Latin form, <i>multifid</i>,&mdash;express the number of the <i>Segments</i>, or
+portions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Parted</i>, when the incisions are still deeper, but yet do not quite
+reach to the midrib or the base of the blade; as in Fig. <a href="#Fig148">150, 154</a>. And
+the terms <i>two-parted</i>, <i>three-parted</i>, etc., express the number of such
+divisions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Divided</i>, when the incisions extend quite to the midrib, as in the
+lower part of Fig. <a href="#Fig148">151</a>, or to the leaf-stalk, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig148">155</a>; which
+really makes the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>leaf compound. Here, using the Latin form, the leaf is
+said to be <i>bisected</i>, <i>trisected</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig148">155</a>), etc., according to the
+number of the divisions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig148" id="Fig148"></a>
+<img src="images/fig148_155.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 148, pinnately lobed; 149, pinnately cleft; 150,
+pinnately parted; 151, pinnately divided, leaves.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 152, palmately three-lobed; 153, palmately
+three-cleft; 154, palmately three-parted; 155, palmately three-divided
+or trisected, leaves.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_141" id="UNIT_141">141.</a> <b>The Mode of Lobing or Division</b> corresponds to that of the veining,
+whether <i>pinnately veined</i> or <i>palmately veined</i>. In the former the
+notches or incisions, or <i>sinuses</i>, coming between the principal veins
+or ribs are directed toward the midrib: in the latter they are directed
+toward the apex of the petiole; as the figures show.</p>
+
+<p>142. So degree and mode of division may be tersely expressed in brief
+phrases. Thus, in the four upper figures of pinnately veined leaves, the
+first is said to be <i>pinnately lobed</i> (in the special sense), the second
+<i>pinnately cleft</i> (or <i>pinnatifid</i> in Latin form), the third <i>pinnately
+parted</i>, the fourth <i>pinnately divided</i>, or <i>pinnatisected</i>.</p>
+
+<p>143. Correspondingly in the lower row, of palmately veined leaves, the
+first is <i>palmately lobed</i>, the second <i>palmately cleft</i>, the third
+<i>palmately parted</i>, the fourth <i>palmately divided</i>. Or, in other
+language of the same meaning (but now less commonly employed), they are
+said to be <i>digitately lobed</i>, <i>cleft</i>, <i>parted</i>, or <i>divided</i>.</p>
+
+<p>144. The number of the divisions or lobes may come into the phrase. Thus
+in the four last named figures the leaves are respectively <i>palmately
+three-lobed</i>, <i>three-cleft</i> (or <i>trifid</i>), <i>three-parted</i>,
+<i>three-divided</i>, or better (in Latin form), <i>trisected</i>. And so for
+higher numbers, as <i>five-lobed</i>, <i>five-cleft</i>, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>etc., up to
+<i>many-lobed</i>, <i>many-cleft</i> or <i>multifid</i>, etc. The same mode of
+expression may be used for pinnately lobed leaves, as <i>pinnately
+7-lobed</i>, <i>-cleft</i>, <i>-parted</i>, etc.</p>
+
+<p>145. The divisions, lobes, etc., may themselves be <i>entire</i> (without
+teeth or notches), or <i>serrate</i>, or otherwise toothed or incised; or
+lobed, cleft, parted, etc.: in the latter cases making <i>twice
+pinnatifid</i>, <i>twice palmately</i> or <i>pinnately lobed</i>, <i>parted</i>, or
+<i>divided</i> leaves, etc. From these illustrations one will perceive how
+the botanist, in two or three words, may describe any one of the almost
+endlessly diversified shapes of leaves, so as to give a clear and
+definite idea of it.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_146" id="UNIT_146">146.</a> <b>Compound Leaves.</b> A compound leaf is one which has its blade in
+entirely separate parts, each usually with a stalklet of its own; and
+the stalklet is often <i>jointed</i> (or <i>articulated</i>) with the main
+leaf-stalk, just as this is jointed with the stem. When this is the
+case, there is no doubt that the leaf is compound. But when the pieces
+have no stalklets, and are not jointed with the main leaf-stalk, it may
+be considered either as a divided simple leaf, or a compound leaf,
+according to the circumstances. This is a matter of names where all
+intermediate forms may be expected.</p>
+
+<p>147. While the pieces or projecting parts of a simple leaf-blade are
+called <i>Lobes</i>, or in deeply cut leaves, etc., <i>Segments</i>, or
+<i>Divisions</i>, the separate pieces or blades of a compound leaf are called
+<span class="smcap">Leaflets</span>.</p>
+
+<p>148. Compound leaves are of two principal kinds, namely, the <i>Pinnate</i>
+and the <i>Palmate</i>; answering to the two modes of veining in reticulated
+leaves, and to the two sorts of lobed or divided leaves (<a href="#UNIT_141">141</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig156" id="Fig156"></a>
+<img src="images/fig156_158.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 156-158. Pinnate leaves, the first with an odd
+leaflet (<i>odd-pinnate</i>); the second with a tendril in place of uppermost
+leaflets; the third <i>abruptly pinnate</i>, or of even pairs.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>149. <i>Pinnate</i> leaves are those in which the leaflets are arranged on
+the sides of a main leaf-stalk; as in Fig. <a href="#Fig156">156-158</a>. They answer to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span><i>feather-veined</i> (i. e. <i>pinnately-veined</i>) simple leaf; as will be
+seen at once on comparing the forms. The <i>leaflets</i> of the former answer
+to the <i>lobes</i> or <i>divisions</i> of the latter; and the continuation of the
+petiole, along which the leaflets are arranged, answers to the midrib of
+the simple leaf.</p>
+
+<p>150. Three sorts of pinnate leaves are here given. Fig. <a href="#Fig156">156</a> is <i>pinnate
+with an odd</i> or <i>end leaflet</i>, as in the Common Locust and the Ash. Fig.
+<a href="#Fig156">157</a> is <i>pinnate with a tendril at the end</i>, in place of the odd leaflet,
+as in the Vetches and the Pea. Fig. <a href="#Fig156">158</a> is evenly or <i>abruptly pinnate</i>,
+as in the Honey-Locust.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig159" id="Fig159"></a>
+<img src="images/fig159.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 159. Palmate (or digitate) leaf of five leaflets, of
+the Sweet Buckeye.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>151. <i>Palmate</i> (also named <i>Digitate</i>) leaves are those in which the
+leaflets are all borne on the tip of the leaf-stalk, as in the Lupine,
+the Common Clover, the Virginia Creeper (Fig. <a href="#Fig93">93</a>), and the
+Horse-chestnut and Buckeye (Fig. <a href="#Fig159">159</a>). They evidently answer to the
+<i>radiate-veined</i> or <i>palmately-veined</i> simple leaf. That is, the
+Clover-leaf of three leaflets is the same as a palmately three-ribbed
+leaf cut into three separate leaflets. And such a simple five-lobed leaf
+as that of the Sugar Maple, if more cut, so as to separate the parts,
+would produce a palmate leaf of five leaflets, like that of the
+Horse-chestnut or Buckeye.</p>
+
+<p>152. Either sort of compound leaf may have any number of leaflets; yet
+palmate leaves cannot well have a great many, since they are all crowded
+together on the end of the main leaf-stalk. Some Lupines have nine or
+eleven; the Horse-chestnut has seven, the Sweet Buckeye more commonly
+five, the Clover three. A pinnate leaf often has only seven or five
+leaflets, or only three, as in Beans of the genus Phaseolus, etc.; in
+some rarer cases only two; in the Orange and Lemon and also in the
+common Barberry there is only one! The joint at the place where the
+leaflet is united with the petiole distinguishes this last case from a
+simple leaf. In other species of these genera the lateral leaflets also
+are present.</p>
+
+<p>153. The leaflets of a compound leaf may be either <i>entire</i> (as in Fig.
+<a href="#Fig125">126</a>-<a href="#Fig128">128</a>), or <i>serrate</i>, or lobed, cleft, parted, etc.; in fact, may
+present all the variations of simple leaves, and the same terms equally
+apply to them.</p>
+
+<p>154. When the division is carried so far as to separate what would be
+one leaflet into two, three, or several, the leaf becomes <i>doubly</i> or
+<i>twice compound</i>, either <i>pinnately</i> or <i>palmately</i>, as the case may be.
+For example, while the clustered leaves of the Honey-Locust are <i>simply
+pinnate</i>, that is, <i>once pinnate</i>, those on new shoots are <i>bipinnate</i>,
+or <i>twice pinnate</i>, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig160">160</a>. When these leaflets are again
+divided in the same way, the leaf <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>becomes <i>thrice pinnate</i>, or
+<i>tripinnate</i>, as in many Acacias. The first divisions are called
+<i>Pinn�</i>; the others, <i>Pinnules</i>; and the last, or little blades
+themselves, <i>Leaflets</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig160" id="Fig160"></a>
+<img src="images/fig160.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 160. A twice-pinnate (abruptly) leaf of the
+Honey-Locust.
+</div>
+
+<p>155. So the palmate leaf, if again compounded in the same way, becomes
+<i>twice palmate</i>, or, as we say when the divisions are in threes, <i>twice
+ternate</i> (in Latin form <i>biternate</i>); if a third time compounded,
+<i>thrice ternate</i> or <i>triternate</i>. But if the division goes still
+further, or if the degree is variable, we simply say that the leaf is
+<i>decompound</i>; either palmately or pinnately decompound, as the case may
+be. Thus, Fig. <a href="#Fig161">161</a> represents a four times ternately compound (in other
+words a <i>ternately decompound</i>) leaf of a common Meadow Rue.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig161" id="Fig161"></a>
+<img src="images/fig161.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 161. Ternately decompound leaf of Meadow Rue.
+</div>
+
+<p>156. When the botanist, in describing leaves, wishes to express the
+number of the leaflets, he may use terms like these:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Unifoliolate</i>, for a compound leaf of a single leaflet; from the Latin
+<i>unum</i>, one, and <i>foliolum</i>, leaflet.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bifoliolate</i>, of two leaflets, from the Latin <i>bis</i>, twice, and
+<i>foliolum</i>, leaflet.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trifoliolate</i> (or <i>ternate</i>), of three leaflets, as the Clover; and so
+on.</p>
+
+<p><i>Palmately bifoliolate</i>, <i>trifoliolate</i>, <i>quadrifoliolate</i>,
+<i>plurifoliolate</i> (of several leaflets), etc.: or else</p>
+
+<p><i>Pinnately bi-</i>, <i>tri-</i>, <i>quadri-</i>, or <i>plurifoliolate</i> (that is, of
+two, three, four, five, or several leaflets), as the case may be: these
+are terse ways of denoting in single phrases both the number of leaflets
+and the kind of compounding.</p>
+
+<p>157. Of foliage-leaves having certain peculiarities in structure, the
+following may be noted:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span></p><p><a name="UNIT_158" id="UNIT_158">158.</a> <b>Perfoliate Leaves.</b> In these the stem that bears them seems to run
+through the blade of the leaf, more or less above its base. A common
+Bellwort (Uvularia perfoliata, Fig. <a href="#Fig162">162</a>) is a familiar illustration. The
+lower and earlier leaves show it distinctly. Later, the plant is apt to
+produce some leaves merely clasping the stem by the sessile and
+heart-shaped base, and the latest may be merely sessile. So the series
+explains the peculiarity: in the formation of the leaf the bases,
+meeting around the stem, grow together there.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig162" id="Fig162"></a>
+<img src="images/fig162_163.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 162. A summer branch of Uvularia perfoliata; lower
+leaves perfoliate, upper cordate-clasping, uppermost simply sessile.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 163. Branch of a Honeysuckle, with
+connate-perfoliate leaves.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_159" id="UNIT_159">159.</a> <b>Connate-perfoliate.</b> Such are the upper leaves of true Honeysuckles.
+Here (Fig. <a href="#Fig162">163</a>) of the opposite and sessile leaves, some pairs,
+especially the uppermost, in the course of their formation unite around
+the stem, which thus seems to run through the disk formed by their
+union.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig164" id="Fig164"></a>
+<img src="images/fig164_165.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 164. Rootstock and equitant leaves of Iris. 165. A
+section across the cluster of leaves at the bottom, showing the
+equitation.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_160" id="UNIT_160">160.</a> <b>Equitant Leaves.</b> While ordinary leaves spread horizontally, and
+present one face to the sky and the other to the earth, there are some
+that present their tip to the sky, and their faces right and left to the
+horizon. Among these are the <i>equitant</i> leaves of the Iris or
+Flower-de-Luce. Inspection shows that each leaf was formed as if <i>folded
+together lengthwise</i>, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>so that what would be the upper surface is
+within, and all grown together, except next the bottom, where each leaf
+covers the next younger one. It was from their straddling over each
+other, like a man on horseback (as is seen in the cross-section, Fig.
+<a href="#Fig164">165</a>), that Linn�us, with his lively fancy, called these <i>Equitant</i>
+leaves.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_161" id="UNIT_161">161.</a> <b>Leaves with no distinction of Petiole and Blade.</b> The leaves of Iris
+just mentioned show one form of this. The flat but narrow leaves of
+Jonquils, Daffodils, and the cylindrical leaf of Onions are other
+instances. <i>Needle-shaped</i> leaves, like those of the Pine, Larch, and
+Spruce, and the <i>awl-shaped</i> as well as the <i>scale-shaped</i> leaves of
+Junipers, Red Cedar, and Arbor-Vit� (Fig. <a href="#Fig166">166</a>), are examples.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig166" id="Fig166"></a>
+<img src="images/fig166.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 166. Branch of Arbor-Vit�, with awl-shaped and
+scale-shaped leaves.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_162" id="UNIT_162">162.</a> <b>Phyllodia.</b> Sometimes an expanded <i>petiole</i> takes the place of the
+blade; as in numerous New Holland Acacias, some of which are now common
+in greenhouses. Such counterfeit blades are called <i>phyllodia</i>,&mdash;meaning
+leaf-like bodies. They may be known from true blades by their standing
+edgewise, their margins being directed upwards and downwards; while in
+true blades the faces look upwards and downwards; excepting in equitant
+leaves, as already explained.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_163" id="UNIT_163">163.</a> <b>Falsely Vertical Leaves.</b> These are apparent exceptions to the rule,
+the blade standing edgewise instead of flatwise to the stem; but this
+position comes by a twist of the stalk or the base of the blade. Such
+leaves present the two faces about equally to the light. The
+Compass-plant (Silphium laciniatum) is an example. So also the leaves of
+Boltonia, of Wild Lettuce, and of a vast number of Australian Myrtaceous
+shrubs and trees, which much resemble the phyllodia of the Acacias of
+the same country. They are familiar in Callistemon, the Bottle-brush
+Flower, and in Eucalyptus. But in the latter the leaves of the young
+tree have the normal structure and position.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig167" id="Fig167"></a>
+<img src="images/fig167_168.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 167. The ambiguous leaf? (cladophyllum) of
+Myrsiphyllum.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 168. Same of Ruscus, or Butcher's Broom.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_164" id="UNIT_164">164.</a> <b>Cladophylla</b>, meaning <i>branch-leaves</i>. The foliage of Ruscus (the
+Butcher's Broom of Europe) and of Myrsiphyllum of South Africa
+(cultivated for decoration under the false <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>name of Smilax) is peculiar
+and puzzling. If these blades (Fig. <a href="#Fig167">167, 168</a>) are really leaves, they
+are most anomalous in occupying the axil of another leaf, reduced to a
+little scale. Yet they have an upper and lower face, as leaves should,
+although they soon twist, so as to stand more or less edgewise. If they
+are branches which have assumed exactly the form and office of leaves,
+they are equally extraordinary in not making any further development.
+But in Ruscus, flowers are borne on one face, in the axil of a little
+scale: and this would seem to settle that they are branches. In
+Asparagus just the same things as to position are thread-shaped and
+branch-like.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_VII_2" id="Subsect_VII_2">� 2.</a> LEAVES OF SPECIAL CONFORMATION AND USE.</h3>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig169" id="Fig169"></a>
+<img src="images/fig169.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 169. A young Agave Americana, or Century-plant;
+fleshy-leaved.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_165" id="UNIT_165">165.</a> <b>Leaves for Storage.</b> A leaf may at the same time serve both ordinary
+and special uses. Thus in those leaves of Lilies, such as the common
+White Lily, which spring from the bulb, the upper and green part serves
+for foliage and elaborates nourishment, while the thickened portion or
+bud-scale beneath serves for the storage of this nourishment. The
+thread-shaped leaf of the Onion fulfils the same office, and the
+nourishing matter it prepares is deposited in its sheathing base,
+forming one of the concentric layers of the onion. When these layers, so
+thick and succulent, have given up their store to the growing parts
+within, they are left as thin and dry husks. In a Houseleek, an Aloe or
+an Agave, the green color of the surface of the fleshy leaf indicates
+that it is doing the work of foliage; the deeper-seated white portion
+within is the storehouse of the nourishment which the green surface has
+elaborated. So, also, the seed-leaves or cotyledons are commonly used
+for storage. Some, as in one of the Maples, the Pea, Horse-chestnut,
+Oak, etc., are for nothing else. Others, as in Beech and in our common
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>Beans, give faint indications of service as foliage also, chiefly in
+vain. Still others, as in the Pumpkin and Flax, having served for
+storage, develop into the first efficient foliage. Compare <a href="#UNIT_11">11</a>, <a href="#UNIT_22">22-30</a>,
+and the accompanying figures.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig170" id="Fig170"></a>
+<img src="images/fig170.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 170. Series of bud-scales and foliage-leaves from a
+developing bud of the Low Sweet Buckeye (�sculus parviflora), showing
+nearly complete gradation, from a scale to a compound leaf of five
+leaflets; and that the scales answer to reduced petioles.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_166" id="UNIT_166">166.</a> <b>Leaves as Bud-Scales</b> serve to protect the forming parts within.
+Having fulfilled this purpose they commonly fall off when the shoot
+develops and foliage-leaves appear. Occasionally, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig170">170</a>, there
+is a transition of bud-scales to leaves, which reveals the nature of the
+former. The Lilac also shows a gradation from bud-scale to simple leaf.
+In Cornus florida (the Flowering Dogwood), the four bud-scales which
+through the winter protect the head of forming flowers remain until
+blossoming, and then the base of each grows out into <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>a large and very
+showy petal-like leaf; the original dry scale is apparent in the notch
+at the apex.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig171" id="Fig171"></a>
+<img src="images/fig171.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 171. Shoot of common Barberry, showing transition of
+foliage-leaves to spines.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_167" id="UNIT_167">167.</a> <b>Leaves as Spines</b> occur in several plants. A familiar instance is
+that of the common Barberry (Fig. <a href="#Fig171">171</a>). In almost any summer shoot, most
+of the gradations may be seen between the ordinary leaves, with sharp
+bristly teeth, and leaves which are reduced to a branching spine or
+thorn. The fact that the spines of the Barberry produce a leaf-bud in
+their axil also proves them to be leaves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig172" id="Fig172"></a>
+<img src="images/fig172_173.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 172. Leaves of Solanum jasminoides, the petiole
+adapted for climbing.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 173. Leaf of Lathyrus Aphaca, consisting of a pair
+of stipules and a tendril.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_168" id="UNIT_168">168.</a> <b>Leaves for Climbing</b> are various in adaptation. True foliage-leaves
+serve this purpose; as in Gloriosa, where the attenuated tip of a simple
+leaf (otherwise like that of a Lily) hooks around a supporting object;
+or in Solanum jasminoides of the gardens (Fig. <a href="#Fig172">172</a>), and in Maurandia,
+etc., where the leaf-stalk coils round and clings to a support; or in
+the compound leaves of Clematis and of Adlumia, in which both the
+leaflets and their stalks hook or coil around the support.</p>
+
+<p>169. Or in a compound leaf, as in the Pea and most Vetches, and in
+Cob�a, while the lower leaflets serve for foliage, some of the uppermost
+are developed as tendrils for climbing (Fig. <a href="#Fig167">167</a>). In the common Pea
+this is so with all but one or two pairs of leaflets.</p>
+
+<p>170. In one European Vetch, the leaflets are wanting and the whole
+petiole is a tendril, while the stipules become the only foliage (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig172">173</a>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_171" id="UNIT_171">171.</a> <b>Leaves as Pitchers</b>, or hollow tubes, are familiar in the common
+Pitcher-plant or Side-saddle Flower (Sarracenia, Fig. <a href="#Fig174">174</a>) of our bogs.
+These pitchers are generally half full of water, in which flies and
+other insects are drowned, often in such numbers as to make a rich
+manure for the plant. More curious are some of the southern species of
+Sarracenia, which seem to be specially adapted to the capture and
+destruction of flies and other insects.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig174" id="Fig174"></a>
+<img src="images/fig174_175.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 174. Leaf of Sarracenia purpurea, entire, and
+another with the upper part cut off.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 175. Leaf of Nepenthes; foliage, tendril, and
+pitcher combined.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span></p><p>172. The leaf of Nepenthes (Fig. <a href="#Fig174">175</a>) combines three structures and
+uses. The expanded part below is foliage: this tapers into a tendril for
+climbing; and this bears a pitcher with a lid. Insects are caught, and
+perhaps digested, in the pitcher.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig176" id="Fig176"></a>
+<img src="images/fig176.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 176. Leaves of Dion�a; the trap in one of them open,
+in the others closed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_173" id="UNIT_173">173.</a> <b>Leaves as Fly-traps.</b> Insects are caught in another way, and more
+expertly, by the most extraordinary of all the plants of this country,
+the Dion�a or Venus's Fly-trap, which grows in the sandy bogs around
+Wilmington, North Carolina. Here (Fig. <a href="#Fig176">176</a>) each leaf bears at its
+summit an appendage which opens and shuts, in shape something like a
+steel-trap, and operating much like one. For when open, no sooner does a
+fly alight on its surface, and brush against any one of the two or three
+bristles that grow there, than the trap suddenly closes, capturing the
+intruder. If the fly escapes, the trap soon slowly opens, and is ready
+for another capture. When retained, the insect is after a time moistened
+by a secretion from minute glands of the inner surface, and is digested.
+In the various species of Drosera or Sundew, insects are caught <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>by
+sticking fast to very viscid glands at the tip of strong bristles, aided
+by adjacent gland-tipped bristles which bend slowly toward the captive.
+The use of such adaptations and operations may be explained in another
+place.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_VII_3" id="Subsect_VII_3">� 3.</a> STIPULES.</h3>
+
+<p>174. A leaf complete in its parts consists of blade, leaf-stalk or
+petiole, and a pair of stipules. But most leaves have either fugacious
+or minute stipules or none at all; many have no petiole (the blade being
+<i>sessile</i> or stalkless); some have no clear distinction of blade and
+petiole; and many of these, such as those of the Onion and all phyllodia
+(<a href="#UNIT_166">166</a>), consist of petiole only.</p>
+
+<p>175. The base of the petiole is apt to be broadened and flattened,
+sometimes into thin margins, sometimes into a sheath which embraces the
+stem at the point of attachment.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig177" id="Fig177"></a>
+<img src="images/fig177_180.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 177. Leaf of Red Clover: <i>st</i>, stipules, adhering to
+the base of <i>p</i>, the petiole; <i>b</i>, blade of three leaflets.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 178. Part of stem and leaf of Prince's-Feather
+(Polygonum orientale) with the united sheathing stipules forming a
+sheath or <i>ocrea</i>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 179. Terminal winter bud of Magnolia Umbrella,
+natural size. 180. Outermost bud-scale (pair of stipules) detached.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_176" id="UNIT_176">176.</a> <b>Stipules</b> are such appendages, either wholly or partly separated
+from the petiole. When quite separate they are said to be <i>free</i>, as in
+Fig. <a href="#Fig112">112</a>. When attached to the base of the petiole, as in the Rose and
+in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>Clover (Fig. <a href="#Fig177">177</a>), they are <i>adnate</i>. When the two stipules unite
+and sheathe the stem above the insertion, as in Polygonum (Fig. <a href="#Fig177">178</a>),
+this sheath is called an <i>Ocrea</i> from its likeness to a greave or
+leggin.</p>
+
+<p>177. In Grasses, when the sheathing base of the leaf may answer to
+petiole, the summit of the sheath commonly projects as a thin and short
+membrane, like an ocrea: this is called a <span class="smcap">Ligula</span> or <span class="smcap">Ligule</span>.</p>
+
+<p>178. When stipules are green and leaf-like they act as so much foliage.
+In the Pea they make up no small part of the actual foliage. In a
+related plant (Lathyrus Aphaca, Fig. <a href="#Fig172">173</a>), they make the whole of it,
+the remainder of the leaf being tendril.</p>
+
+<p>179. In many trees the stipules are the bud-scales, as in the Beech, and
+very conspicuously in the Fig-tree, Tulip-tree, and Magnolia (Fig. <a href="#Fig177">179</a>).
+These fall off as the leaves unfold.</p>
+
+<p>180. The stipules are spines or prickles in Locust and several other
+Leguminous trees and shrubs; they are tendrils in Smilax or Greenbrier.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_VII_4" id="Subsect_VII_4">� 4.</a> THE ARRANGEMENT OF LEAVES.</h3>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_181" id="UNIT_181">181.</a> <b>Phyllotaxy</b>, meaning leaf-arrangement, is the study of the position
+of leaves, or parts answering to leaves, upon the stem.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig181" id="Fig181"></a>
+<img src="images/fig181_182.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 181. Alternate leaves, in Linden, Lime-tree, or
+Basswood.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 182. Opposite leaves, in Red Maple.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>182. The technical name for the attachment of leaves to the stem is the
+<i>insertion</i>. Leaves (as already noticed, <a href="#UNIT_54">54</a>) are <i>inserted</i> in three
+modes. They are</p>
+
+<p><i>Alternate</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig181">181</a>), that is, one after another, or in other words,
+with only a single leaf to each node;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span></p><p><i>Opposite</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig181">182</a>), when there is a pair to each node, the two
+leaves in this case being always on opposite sides of the stem;</p>
+
+<p><i>Whorled</i> or <i>Verticillate</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig183">183</a>) when there are more than two
+leaves on a node, in which case they divide the circle equally between
+them, forming a <i>Verticel</i> or whorl. When there are three leaves in the
+whorl, the leaves are one third of the circumference apart; when four,
+one quarter, and so on. So the plan of opposite leaves, which is very
+common, is merely that of whorled leaves, with the fewest leaves to the
+whorl, namely, two.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig183" id="Fig183"></a>
+<img src="images/fig183.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 183. Whorled leaves of Galium.
+</div>
+
+<p>183. In both modes and in all their modifications, the arrangement is
+such as to distribute the leaves systematically and in a way to give
+them a good exposure to the light.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig184" id="Fig184"></a>
+<img src="images/fig184_185.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 184. A piece of stem of Larch with two clusters
+(fascicles) of numerous leaves.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 185. Piece of a branch of Pitch Pine, with three
+leaves in a fascicle or bundle, in the axil of a thin scale which
+answers to a primary leaf. The bundle is surrounded at the base by a
+short sheath, formed of the delicate scales of the axillary bud.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>184. No two or more leaves ever grow from the same point. The so-called
+<i>Fascicled</i> or <i>Clustered</i> leaves are the leaves of a branch the nodes
+of which are very close, just as they are in the bud, so keeping the
+leaves in a cluster. This is evident in the Larch (Fig. <a href="#Fig184">184</a>), in which
+examination shows each cluster to be made up of numerous leaves crowded
+on a spur or short axis. In spring there are only such clusters; but in
+summer some of them lengthen into ordinary shoots with scattered
+alternate leaves. So, likewise, each cluster of two or three
+needle-shaped leaves in Pitch Pines (as in Fig. <a href="#Fig184">185</a>), or of five leaves
+in White Pine, answers to a similar extremely short branch, springing
+from the axil of a thin and slender scale, which represents a leaf of
+the main shoot. For Pines produce two kinds of leaves,&mdash;1. primary, the
+proper leaves of the shoots, not as foliage, but in the shape of
+delicate scales in spring, which soon fall away; and 2. secondary, the
+<i>fascicled</i> leaves, from buds in the axils of the former, and these form
+the actual foliage.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span></p><p><a name="UNIT_185" id="UNIT_185">185.</a> <b>Phyllotaxy of Alternate Leaves.</b> Alternate leaves are distributed
+along the stem in an order which is uniform for each species. The
+arrangement in all its modifications is said to be <i>spiral</i>, because, if
+we draw a line from the <i>insertion</i> (i. e. the point of attachment) of
+one leaf to that of the next, and so on, this line will wind spirally
+around the stem as it rises, and in the same species will always bear
+the same number of leaves for each turn round the stem. That is, any two
+successive leaves will always be separated from each other by an equal
+portion of the circumference of the stem. The distance in <i>height</i>
+between any two leaves may vary greatly, even on the same shoot, for
+that depends upon the length of the <i>internodes</i>, or spaces between the
+leaves; but the distance as measured around the circumference (in other
+words, the <i>Angular Divergence</i>, or angle formed by any two successive
+leaves) is uniformly the same.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_186" id="UNIT_186">186.</a> <b>Two-ranked.</b> The greatest possible divergence is, of course, where
+the second leaf stands on exactly the opposite side of the stem from the
+first, the third on the side opposite the second, and therefore over the
+first, and the fourth over the second. This brings all the leaves into
+two ranks, one on one side of the stem and one on the other, and is
+therefore called the <i>Two-ranked</i> arrangement. It occurs in all
+Grasses,&mdash;in Indian Corn, for instance; also, in the Basswood (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig181">181</a>). This is the simplest of all arrangements, and the one which most
+widely distributes successive leaves, but which therefore gives the
+fewest vertical ranks. Next is the</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_187" id="UNIT_187">187.</a> <b>Three-ranked</b> arrangement,&mdash;that of all Sedges, and of White
+Hellebore. Here the second leaf is placed one third of the way round the
+stem, the third leaf two thirds of the way round, the fourth leaf
+accordingly directly over the first, the fifth over the second, and so
+on. That is, three leaves occur in each turn round the stem, and they
+are separated from each other by one third of the circumference. (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig186">186, 187</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig186" id="Fig186"></a>
+<img src="images/fig186_187.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 186. Two-ranked arrangement, shown in a piece of the
+stalk of a Sedge, with the leaves cut off above their bases; the leaves
+are numbered in order, from 1 to 6. 187. Diagram or cross-section of the
+same, in one plane; the leaves similarly numbered; showing two cycles of
+three.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_188" id="UNIT_188">188.</a> <b>Five-ranked</b> is the next in the series, and the most common. It is
+seen in the Apple (Fig. <a href="#Fig188">188</a>), Cherry, Poplar, and the greater number of
+trees and shrubs. In this case the line traced from leaf to leaf will
+pass twice round the stem before it reaches a leaf <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>situated directly
+over any below (Fig. <a href="#Fig189">189</a>). Here the sixth leaf is over the first; the
+leaves stand in five perpendicular ranks, with equal angular distance
+from each other; and this distance between any two successive leaves is
+just two fifths of the circumference of the stem.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig188" id="Fig188"></a>
+<img src="images/fig188.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 188. Shoot with its leaves 5-ranked, the sixth leaf
+over the first; as in the Apple-tree.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig189" id="Fig189"></a>
+<img src="images/fig189_190.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 189. Diagram of this arrangement, with a spiral line
+drawn from the attachment of one leaf to the next, and so on; the parts
+on the side turned from the eye are fainter.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 190. A ground-plan of the same; the section of the
+leaves similarly numbered; a dotted line drawn from the edge of one leaf
+to that of the next marks out the spiral.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>189. The five-ranked arrangement is expressed by the fraction 2/5. This
+fraction denotes the divergence of the successive leaves, i. e. the
+angle they form with each other: the numerator also expresses the number
+of turns made round the stem by the spiral line in completing one cycle
+or set of leaves, namely, two; and the denominator gives the number of
+leaves in each cycle, or the number of perpendicular ranks, namely,
+five. In the same way the fraction 1/2 stands for the two-ranked mode,
+and 1/3 for the three-ranked: and so these different sorts are expressed
+by the series of fractions 1/2, 1/3, 2/5. Other cases follow in the same
+numerical progression, the next being the</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_190" id="UNIT_190">190.</a> <b>Eight-ranked</b> arrangement. In this the ninth leaf stands over the
+first, and three turns are made around the stem to reach it; so it is
+expressed by the fraction 3/8. This is seen in the Holly, and in the
+common Plantain. Then comes the</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_191" id="UNIT_191">191.</a> <b>Thirteen-ranked</b> arrangement, in which the fourteenth leaf is over
+the first, after five turns around the stem. The common Houseleek (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig191">191</a>) is a good example.</p>
+
+<p>192. The series so far, then, is 1/2, 1/3, 2/5, 3/8, 5/13; the numerator
+and the denominator of each fraction being those of the two next
+preceding ones added together. At this rate the next higher should be
+8/21, then 13/34, and so on; and in fact just such cases are met with,
+and (commonly) no others. These higher sorts are found in the Pine
+Family, both in the leaves and the cones and in many other plants with
+small and crowded leaves. But in those the number of the ranks, or of
+leaves in each cycle, can only rarely <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>be made out by direct inspection.
+They may be indirectly ascertained, however, by studying the <i>secondary</i>
+spirals, as they are called, which usually become conspicuous, at least
+two series of them, one turning to the right and one to the left, as
+shown in Fig. <a href="#Fig191">191</a>. For an account of the way in which the character of
+the phyllotaxy may be deduced from the secondary spirals, see Structural
+Botany, Chapter IV.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig191" id="Fig191"></a>
+<img src="images/fig191_192.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 191. A young plant of the Houseleek, with the leaves
+(not yet expanded) numbered, and exhibiting the 13-ranked arrangement;
+and showing secondary spirals.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 192. Opposite leaves of Euonymus, or Spindle-tree,
+showing the successive pairs crossing each other at right angles.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_193" id="UNIT_193">193.</a> <b>Phyllotaxy of Opposite and whorled Leaves.</b> This is simple and
+comparatively uniform. The leaves of each pair or whorl are placed over
+the intervals between those of the preceding, and therefore under the
+intervals of the pair or whorl next above. The whorls or pairs alternate
+or cross each other, usually at right angles, that is, they <i>decussate</i>.
+Opposite leaves, that is, whorls of two leaves only, are far commoner
+than whorls of three or four or more members. This arrangement in
+successive decussating pairs gives an advantageous distribution on the
+stem in four vertical ranks. Whorls of three give six vertical ranks,
+and so on. Note that in descriptive botany leaves in whorls of two are
+simply called <i>opposite</i> leaves; and that the term <i>verticillate</i> or
+<i>whorled</i>, is employed only for cases of more than two, unless the
+latter number is specified.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_194" id="UNIT_194">194.</a> <b>Vernation or Pr�foliation</b>, the disposition of the leaf-blades in
+the bud, comprises two things; 1st, the way in which each separate leaf
+is folded, coiled, or packed up in the bud; and 2d, the arrangement of
+the leaves in the bud with respect to one another. The latter of course
+depends very much upon the phyllotaxy, i. e. the position and order of
+the leaves upon the stem. The same terms are used for it as for the
+arrangement of the leaves of the flower in the flower-bud. See,
+therefore, <a href="#UNIT_276">"�stivation, or Pr�floration."</a></p>
+
+<p>195. As to each leaf separately, it is sometimes <i>straight</i> and open in
+vernation, but more commonly it is either <i>bent</i>, <i>folded</i>, or <i>rolled
+up</i>. When the upper part is bent down upon the lower, as the young blade
+in the Tulip-tree is bent upon the leaf-stalk, it is said to be
+<i>Inflexed</i> or <i>Reclined</i> in vernation. When folded by the midrib so that
+the two halves are placed face to face, it is <i>Conduplicate</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig193">193</a>),
+as in the Magnolia, the Cherry, and the Oak. When folded back and forth
+like the plaits of a fan, it is <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span><i>Plicate</i> or <i>Plaited</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig193">194</a>), as
+in the Maple and Currant. If rolled, it may be so either from the tip
+downwards, as in Ferns and the Sundew (Fig. <a href="#Fig193">197</a>), when in unrolling it
+resembles the head of a crosier, and is said to be <i>Circinate</i>; or it
+may be rolled up parallel with the axis, either from one edge into a
+coil, when it is <i>Convolute</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig193">195</a>), as in the Apricot and Plum; or
+rolled from both edges towards the midrib,&mdash;sometimes inwards, when it
+is <i>Involute</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig193">198</a>), as in the Violet and Water-Lily; sometimes
+outwards, when it is <i>Revolute</i> (Fig. <a href="#Fig193">196</a>), in the Rosemary and Azalea.
+The figures are diagrams, representing sections through the leaf, in the
+way they were represented by Linn�us.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig193" id="Fig193"></a>
+<img src="images/fig193_198.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2><a name="Section_VIII" id="Section_VIII"></a><span class="smcap">Section VIII.</span> FLOWERS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>196. Flowers are for the production of seed (<a href="#UNIT_16">16</a>). Stems and branches,
+which for a time put forth leaves for vegetation, may at length put
+forth flowers for reproduction.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_VIII_1" id="Subsect_VIII_1">� 1.</a> POSITION AND ARRANGEMENT OF FLOWERS, OR INFLORESCENCE.</h3>
+
+<p>197. Flower-buds appear just where leaf-buds appear; that is, they are
+either <i>terminal</i> or <i>axillary</i> (<a href="#UNIT_47">47-49</a>). Morphologically, flowers answer
+to shoots or branches, and their parts to leaves.</p>
+
+<p>198. In the same species the flowers are usually from axillary buds
+only, or from terminal buds only; but in some they are both axillary and
+terminal.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_199" id="UNIT_199">199.</a> <b>Inflorescence</b>, which is the name used by Linn�us to signify mode of
+flower-arrangement, is accordingly of three classes: namely,
+<i>Indeterminate</i>, when the flowers are in the axils of leaves, that is,
+are from axillary buds; <i>Determinate</i>, when they are from terminal buds,
+and so <i>terminate</i> a stem or branch; and <i>Mixed</i>, when these two are
+combined.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_200" id="UNIT_200">200.</a> <b>Indeterminate Inflorescence</b> (likewise, and for the same reason,
+called <i>indefinite inflorescence</i>) is so named because, as the flowers
+all come from axillary buds, the terminal bud may keep on growing and
+prolong the stem indefinitely. This is so in Moneywort (Fig. <a href="#Fig199">199</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig199" id="Fig199"></a>
+<img src="images/fig199.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 199. Piece of a flowering-stem of Moneywort
+(Lysimachia nummularia,) with single flowers successively produced in
+the axils of the leaves, from below upwards, as the stem grows on.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span></p><p>201. When flowers thus arise singly from the axils of ordinary leaves,
+they are <i>axillary</i> and <i>solitary</i>, not collected into flower-clusters.</p>
+
+<p>202. But when several or many flowers are produced near each other, the
+accompanying leaves are apt to be of smaller size, or of different shape
+or character: then they are called <span class="smcap">Bracts</span>, and the flowers thus brought
+together form a cluster. The kinds of flower-clusters of the
+indeterminate class have received distinct names, according to their
+form and disposition. They are principally <i>Raceme</i>, <i>Corymb</i>, <i>Umbel</i>,
+<i>Spike</i>, <i>Head</i>, <i>Spadix</i>, <i>Catkin</i>, and <i>Panicle</i>.</p>
+
+<p>203. In defining these it will be necessary to use some of the following
+terms of descriptive botany which relate to inflorescence. If a flower
+is stalkless, i. e. sits directly in the axil or other support, it is
+said to be <i>sessile</i>. If raised on a naked stalk of its own (as in Fig.
+<a href="#Fig199">199</a>) it is <i>pedunculate</i>, and the stalk is a <span class="smcap">Peduncle</span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_204" id="UNIT_204">204.</a> A peduncle on which a flower-cluster is raised is a <i>Common
+peduncle</i>. That which supports each separate flower of the cluster is a
+<i>Partial peduncle</i>, and is generally called a <span class="smcap">Pedicel</span>. The portion of
+the general stalk along which flowers are disposed is called the <i>Axis
+of inflorescence</i>, or, when covered with sessile flowers, the <i>Rhachis</i>
+(back-bone), and sometimes the <i>Receptacle</i>. The leaves of a
+flower-cluster generally are termed <span class="smcap">Bracts</span>. But when bracts of different
+orders are to be distinguished, those on the common peduncle or axis,
+and which have a flower in their axil, keep the name of <i>bracts</i>; and
+those on the pedicels or partial flower-stalks, if any, that of
+<span class="smcap">Bractlets</span> or <i>Bracteoles</i>. The former is the preferable English name.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig200" id="Fig200"></a>
+<img src="images/fig200.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 200. A raceme, with a general peduncle (<i>p</i>),
+pedicels (<i>p'</i>), bracts (<i>b</i>), and bractlets (<i>b'</i>). Plainly the bracts
+here answer to the leaves in Fig. <a href="#Fig199">199</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_205" id="UNIT_205">205.</a> <b>A Raceme</b> (Fig. <a href="#Fig200">200</a>) is that form of flower-cluster in which the
+flowers, each on their own foot-stalk or pedicel, are arranged along the
+sides of a common stalk or axis of inflorescence; as in the Lily of the
+Valley, Currant, Barberry, one section of Cherry, etc. Each flower comes
+from the axil of a small leaf, or bract, which, however, is often so
+small that it might escape notice, and even sometimes (as in the Mustard
+Family) disappears altogether. The lowest blossoms of a <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>raceme are of
+course the oldest, and therefore open first, and the order of blossoming
+is <i>ascending</i> from the bottom to the top. The summit, never being
+stopped by a terminal flower, may go on to grow, and often does so (as
+in the common Shepherd's Purse), producing lateral flowers one after
+another for many weeks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig201" id="Fig201"></a>
+<img src="images/fig201_203.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 201. A raceme. 202. A corymb. 203. An umbel.
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_206" id="UNIT_206">206.</a> <b>A Corymb</b> (Fig. <a href="#Fig201">202</a>) is the same as a raceme, except that it is flat
+and broad, either convex, or level-topped. That is, a raceme becomes a
+corymb by lengthening the lower pedicels while the uppermost remain
+shorter. The axis of a corymb is short in proportion to the lower
+pedicels. By extreme shortening of the axis the corymb may be converted
+into</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_207" id="UNIT_207">207.</a> <b>An Umbel</b> (Fig. <a href="#Fig201">203</a>) as in the Milkweed, a sort of flower-cluster
+where the pedicels all spring apparently from the same point, from the
+top of the peduncle, so as to resemble, when spreading, the rays of an
+umbrella; whence the name. Here the pedicels are sometimes called the
+<i>Rays</i> of the umbel. And the bracts, when brought in this way into a
+cluster or circle, form what is called an <span class="smcap">Involucre</span>.</p>
+
+<p>208. The corymb and the umbel being more or less level-topped, bringing
+the flowers into a horizontal plane or a convex form, the ascending
+order of development appears as <i>Centripetal</i>. That is, the flowering
+proceeds from the margin or circumference regularly towards the centre;
+the lower flowers of the former answering to the outer ones of the
+latter.</p>
+
+<p>209. In these three kinds of flower-clusters, the flowers are raised on
+conspicuous <i>pedicels</i> (<a href="#UNIT_204">204</a>) or stalks of their own. The shortening of
+these pedicels, so as to render the flowers <i>sessile</i> or nearly so,
+converts a raceme into a <i>Spike</i>, and a corymb or an umbel into a
+<i>Head</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_210" id="UNIT_210">210.</a> <b>A Spike</b> is a flower cluster with a more or less lengthened axis,
+along which the flowers are sessile or nearly so; as in the Plantain
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig204">204</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig204" id="Fig204"></a>
+<img src="images/fig204.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 204. Spike of the common Plantain or Ribwort.
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_211" id="UNIT_211">211.</a> <b>A Head</b> (<i>Capitulum</i>) is a round or roundish cluster of flowers,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>which are sessile on a very short axis or receptacle, as in the
+Button-ball, Button-bush (Fig. <a href="#Fig205">205</a>), and Red Clover. It is just what a
+spike would become if its axis were shortened; or an umbel, if its
+pedicels were all shortened until the flowers became sessile. The head
+of the Button-bush is naked; but that of the Thistle, of the Dandelion,
+and the like, is surrounded by empty bracts, which form an <i>Involucre</i>.
+Two particular forms of the spike and the head have received particular
+names, namely, the <i>Spadix</i> and the <i>Catkin</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig205" id="Fig205"></a>
+<img src="images/fig205_206.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 205. Head of the Button-bush (Cephalanthus).</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 206. Spadix and spathe of the Indian Turnip; the
+latter cut through below.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_212" id="UNIT_212">212.</a> <b>A Spadix</b> is a fleshy spike or head, with small and often imperfect
+flowers, as in the Calla, Indian Turnip, (Fig. <a href="#Fig205">206</a>), Sweet Flag, etc. It
+is commonly surrounded or embraced by a peculiar enveloping leaf, called
+a <span class="smcap">Spathe</span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_213" id="UNIT_213">213.</a> <b>A Catkin, or Ament</b>, is the name given to the scaly sort of spike of
+the Birch (Fig. <a href="#Fig207">207</a>) and Alder, the Willow and Poplar, and one sort of
+flower-clusters of the Oak, Hickory, and the like,&mdash;the so-called
+<i>Amentaceous</i> trees.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig207" id="Fig207"></a>
+<img src="images/fig207.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 207. Catkin, or Ament, of Birch.
+</div>
+
+<p>214. <i>Compound</i> flower-clusters of these kinds are not uncommon. When
+the stalks which in the simple umbel are the pedicels of single flowers
+themselves branch into an umbel, a <i>Compound Umbel</i> is formed. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>This is
+the inflorescence of Caraway (Fig. <a href="#Fig208">208</a>), Parsnip, and almost all of the
+great family of Umbelliferous (umbel-bearing) plants.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig208" id="Fig208"></a>
+<img src="images/fig208.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 208. Compound Umbel of Caraway.
+</div>
+
+<p>215. The secondary or partial umbels of a compound umbel are <span class="smcap">Umbellets</span>.
+When the umbellets are subtended by an involucre, this secondary
+involucre is called an <span class="smcap">Involucel</span>.</p>
+
+<p>216. A <i>Compound raceme</i> is a cluster of racemes racemosely arranged, as
+in Smilacina racemosa. A <i>compound corymb</i> is a corymb some branches of
+which branch again in the same way, as in Mountain Ash. A <i>compound
+spike</i> is a spicately disposed cluster of spikes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig209" id="Fig209"></a>
+<img src="images/fig209.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 209. Diagram of a simple panicle.
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_217" id="UNIT_217">217.</a> <b>A Panicle</b>, such as that of Oats and many Grasses, is a compound
+flower-cluster of a more or less open sort which branches with apparent
+irregularity, neither into corymbs nor racemes. Fig. <a href="#Fig209">209</a> represents the
+simplest panicle. It is, as it were, a raceme of which some of the
+pedicels have branched so as to bear a few flowers on pedicels of their
+own, while others remain simple. A <i>compound panicle</i> is one that
+branches in this way again and again.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig210" id="Fig210"></a>
+<img src="images/fig210_212.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 210. Diagram of an opposite-leaved plant, with a
+single terminal flower. 211. Same, with a cyme of three flowers; <i>a</i>,
+the first flower, of the main axis; <i>b b</i>, those of branches. 212. Same,
+with flowers also of the third order, <i>c c</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_218" id="UNIT_218">218.</a> <b>Determinate Inflorescence</b> is that in which the flowers are from
+terminal buds. The simplest case is that of a solitary terminal flower,
+as in Fig. <a href="#Fig210">210</a>. This stops the growth of the stem; for its terminal bud,
+becoming a blossom, can no more lengthen in the manner of a leaf-bud.
+Any <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>further growth must be from axillary buds developing into branches.
+If such branches are leafy shoots, at length terminated by single
+blossoms, the inflorescence still consists of solitary flowers at the
+summit of stem and branches. But if the flowering branches bear only
+bracts in place of ordinary leaves, the result is the kind of
+flower-cluster called</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_219" id="UNIT_219">219.</a> <b>A Cyme.</b> This is commonly a flat-topped or convex flower-cluster,
+like a corymb, only the blossoms are from terminal buds. Fig. <a href="#Fig210">211</a>
+illustrates the simplest cyme in a plant with opposite leaves, namely,
+with three flowers. The middle flower, <i>a</i>, terminates the stem; the two
+others, <i>b b</i>, terminate branches, one from the axil of each of the
+uppermost leaves; and being later than the middle one, the flowering
+proceeds from the centre outwards, or is <i>Centrifugal</i>. This is the
+opposite of the indeterminate mode, or that where all the flower-buds
+are axillary. If flowering branches appear from the axils below, the
+lower ones are the later, so that the order of blossoming continues
+<i>centrifugal</i> or, which is the same thing, <i>descending</i>, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig213">213</a>,
+making a sort of reversed raceme or <i>false raceme</i>,&mdash;a kind of cluster
+which is to the true raceme just what the flat cyme is to the corymb.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig213" id="Fig213"></a>
+<img src="images/fig213.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 213. Diagram of a simple cyme in which the axis
+lengthens, so as to take the form of a raceme.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>220. Wherever there are bracts or leaves, buds may be produced from
+their axils and appear as flowers. Fig. <a href="#Fig210">212</a> represents the case where
+the branches, <i>b b</i>, of Fig. <a href="#Fig210">211</a>, each with a pair of small leaves or
+bracts about their middle, have branched again, and produced the
+branchlets and flowers <i>c c</i>, on each side. It is the continued
+repetition of this which forms the full or compound cyme, such as that
+of the Laurestinus, Hobble-bush, Dogwood, and Hydrangea (Fig. <a href="#Fig214">214</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig214" id="Fig214"></a>
+<img src="images/fig214.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 214. Compound cyme of Hydrangea arborescens, with
+neutral enlarged flowers round the circumference.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_221" id="UNIT_221">221.</a> <b>A Fascicle</b> (meaning a bundle), like that of the Sweet William and
+Lychnis of the gardens, is only a cyme with the flowers much crowded.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_222" id="UNIT_222">222.</a> <b>A Glomerule</b> is a cyme still more compacted, so as to imitate a
+head. It may be known from a true head by the flowers not expanding
+centripetally, that is, not from the circumference towards the centre.</p>
+
+<p>223. The illustrations of determinate or <i>cymose</i> inflorescence have
+been taken from plants with opposite leaves, which give rise to the most
+regular cymes. But the Rose, Cinquefoil, Buttercup, etc., with alternate
+leaves, furnish also good examples of cymose inflorescence.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_224" id="UNIT_224">224.</a> <b>A Cymule</b> (or diminutive cyme) is either a reduced small cyme of few
+flowers, or a branch of a compound cyme, i. e. a partial cyme.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_225" id="UNIT_225">225.</a> <b>Scorpioid</b> or <b>Helicoid Cymes</b>, of various sorts, are forms of
+determinate inflorescence (often puzzling to the student) in which one
+half of the ramification fails to appear. So that they may be called
+<i>incomplete cymes</i>. The commoner forms may be understood by comparing a
+complete <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>cyme, like that of Fig. <a href="#Fig215">215</a> with Fig. <a href="#Fig216">216</a>, the diagram of a
+cyme of an opposite-leaved plant, having a series of terminal flowers
+and the axis continued by the development of a branch in the axil of
+only one of the leaves at each node. The dotted lines on the left
+indicate the place of the wanting branches, which if present would
+convert this <i>scorpioid cyme</i> into the complete one of Fig. <a href="#Fig215">215</a>. Fig.
+<a href="#Fig216">217</a> is a diagram of similar inflorescence with alternate leaves. Both
+are kinds of <i>false racemes</i> (<a href="#UNIT_219">219</a>). When the bracts are also wanting in
+such cases, as in many Borragineous plants, the true nature of the
+inflorescence is very much disguised.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig215" id="Fig215"></a>
+<img src="images/fig215.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 215. A complete forking cyme of an Arenaria, or
+Chickweed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig216" id="Fig216"></a>
+<img src="images/fig216_217.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 216. Diagram of a scorpioid cyme, with opposite
+leaves or bracts.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 217. Diagram of analogous scorpioid cyme, with
+alternate leaves or bracts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span></p><p>226. These distinctions between determinate and indeterminate
+inflorescence, between corymbs and cymes, and between the true and the
+false raceme and spike, were not recognized by botanists much more than
+half a century ago, and even now are not always attended to in
+descriptions. It is still usual and convenient to describe rounded or
+flat-topped and open ramification as <i>corymbose</i>, even when essentially
+cymose; also to call the reversed or false racemes or spikes by these
+(strictly incorrect) names.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_227" id="UNIT_227">227.</a> <b>Mixed Inflorescence</b> is that in which the two plans are mixed or
+combined in compound clusters. A <i>mixed panicle</i> is one in which, while
+the primary ramification is of the indeterminate order, the secondary or
+ultimate is wholly or partly of the determinate order. A contracted or
+elongated inflorescence of this sort is called a <span class="smcap">Thyrsus</span>. Lilac and
+Horse-chestnut afford common examples of mixed inflorescence of this
+sort. When loose and open such flower-clusters are called by the general
+name of <i>Panicles</i>. The heads of Composit� are centripetal; but the
+branches or peduncles which bear the heads are usually of centrifugal
+order.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_VIII_2" id="Subsect_VIII_2">� 2.</a> PARTS OR ORGANS OF THE FLOWER.</h3>
+
+<p>228. These were simply indicated in Section II. <a href="#UNIT_16">16</a>. Some parts are
+necessary to seed-bearing; these are <i>Essential Organs</i>, namely, the
+<i>Stamens</i> and <i>Pistils</i>. Others serve for protection or for attraction,
+often for both. Such are the leaves of the Flower, or the <i>Floral
+Envelopes</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_229" id="UNIT_229">229.</a> <b>The Floral Envelopes</b>, taken together, are sometimes called the
+<span class="smcap">Perianth</span>, also <i>Perigone</i>, in Latin form <i>Perigonium</i>. In a flower which
+possesses its full number of organs, the floral envelopes are of two
+kinds, namely, an outer circle, the <span class="smcap">Calyx</span>, and an inner, the <span class="smcap">Corolla</span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_230" id="UNIT_230">230.</a> <b>The Calyx</b> is commonly a circle of green or greenish leaves, but not
+always. It may be the most brightly colored part of the blossom. Each
+calyx-leaf or piece is called a <span class="smcap">Sepal</span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_231" id="UNIT_231">231.</a> <b>The Corolla</b> is the inner circle of floral envelopes or
+flower-leaves, usually of delicate texture and <i>colored</i>, that is, of
+some other color than green. Each corolla-leaf is called a <span class="smcap">Petal</span>.</p>
+
+<p>232. There are flowers in abundance which consist wholly of floral
+envelopes. Such are the so-called full <i>double flowers</i>, of which the
+choicer roses and camellias of the cultivator are familiar examples. In
+them, under the gardener's care and selection, petals have taken the
+place of both stamens and pistils. These are monstrous or unnatural
+flowers, incapable of producing seed, and subservient only to human
+gratification. Their common name of <i>double</i> flowers is not a sensible
+one: except that it is fixed by custom, it were better to translate
+their Latin name, <i>flores pleni</i>, and call them <i>full flowers</i>, meaning
+full of leaves.</p>
+
+<p>233. Moreover, certain plants regularly produce <i>neutral flowers</i>,
+consisting of floral envelopes only. In Fig. <a href="#Fig214">214</a>, some are seen around
+the margin <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>of the cyme in Hydrangea. They are likewise familiar in the
+Hobble-bush and in Wild-Cranberry tree, Viburnum Oxycoccus; where they
+form an attractive setting to the cluster of small and comparatively
+inconspicuous perfect flowers which they adorn. In the Guelder Rose, or
+Snow-ball of ornamental cultivation, all or most of the blossoms of this
+same shrub are transformed into neutral flowers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig218" id="Fig218"></a>
+<img src="images/fig218.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 218. A <i>flos plenus</i>, namely, a full double flower
+of Rose.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_234" id="UNIT_234">234.</a> <b>The Essential Organs</b> are likewise of two kinds, placed one above or
+within the other; namely, first, the <span class="smcap">Stamens</span> or fertilizing organs, and
+second, the <span class="smcap">Pistils</span>, which are to be fertilized and bear the seeds.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig219" id="Fig219"></a>
+<img src="images/fig219_220.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 219. A stamen: <i>a</i>, filament; <i>b</i>, anther,
+discharging pollen.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 220. A pistil; with ovary, <i>a</i>, half cut away, to
+show the contained ovules; <i>b</i>, style; <i>c</i>, stigma.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_235" id="UNIT_235">235.</a> <b>A Stamen</b> consists of two parts, namely, the <span class="smcap">Filament</span> or stalk (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig219">219</a> <i>a</i>), and the <span class="smcap">Anther</span> (<i>b</i>). The latter is the only essential part.
+It is a case, commonly with two lobes or cells, each opening lengthwise
+by a slit, at the proper time, and discharging a powder or dust-like
+substance, usually of a yellow color. This powder is the <span class="smcap">Pollen</span>, or
+fertilizing matter, to produce which is the office of the stamen.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_236" id="UNIT_236">236.</a> <b>A Pistil</b> (Fig. <a href="#Fig219">220</a>, <a href="#Fig221">221</a>) when complete, has three parts; <span class="smcap">Ovary</span>,
+<span class="smcap">Style</span>, and <span class="smcap">Stigma</span>. The <i>Ovary</i>, at base, is the hollow portion, which
+contains one or more <span class="smcap">Ovules</span> or rudimentary seeds. The <i>Style</i> is the
+tapering <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>portion above: the <i>Stigma</i> is a portion of the style, usually
+its tip, with moist naked surface, upon which grains of pollen may lodge
+and adhere, and thence make a growth which extends down to the ovules.
+When there is no style then the stigma occupies the tip of the ovary.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig221" id="Fig221"></a>
+<img src="images/fig221.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 221. Model of a simple pistil, with ovary cut across
+and slightly opened ventrally, to show the ovules and their attachment.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_237" id="UNIT_237">237.</a> <b>The Torus</b> or <b>Receptacle</b> is the end of the flower-stalk, or the
+portion of axis or stem out of which the several organs of the flower
+grow, upon which they are borne (Fig. <a href="#Fig222">223</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig222" id="Fig222"></a>
+<img src="images/fig222_223.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 222. Flower of Sedum ternatum, a Stonecrop.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 223. Parts of same, two of each kind, separated and
+displayed; the torus or receptacle in the centre; <i>a</i>, a sepal; <i>b</i>, a
+petal; <i>c</i>, a stamen; <i>d</i>, a pistil.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>238. The parts of the flower are thus disposed on the receptacle or axis
+essentially as are leaves upon a very short stem; first the sepals, or
+outer floral leaves; then the petals or inner floral leaves; then the
+stamens; lastly, at summit or centre, the pistils, when there are two or
+more of them, or the single pistil, when only one. Fig. <a href="#Fig222">223</a> shows the
+organs displayed, two of each kind, of such a simple and symmetrical
+flower as that of a Sedum or Stonecrop, Fig. <a href="#Fig222">222</a>.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_VIII_3" id="Subsect_VIII_3">� 3.</a> PLAN OF FLOWER.</h3>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_239" id="UNIT_239">239.</a> All flowers are formed upon one general plan, but with almost
+infinite variations, and many disguises. This common plan is best
+understood by taking for a type, or standard for comparison, some
+<i>perfect</i>, <i>complete</i>, <i>regular</i>, and <i>symmetrical</i> blossom, and one as
+simple as such a blossom could well be. Flowers are said to be</p>
+
+<p><i>Perfect</i> (<i>hermaphrodite</i>), when provided with both kinds of essential
+organs, i. e. with both stamens and pistils.</p>
+
+<p><i>Complete</i>, when, besides, they have the two sets of floral envelopes,
+namely, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>calyx and corolla. Such are completely furnished with all that
+belongs to a flower.</p>
+
+<p><i>Regular</i>, when all the parts of each set are alike in shape and size.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symmetrical</i>, when there is an equal number of parts in each set or
+circle of organs.</p>
+
+<p>240. Flax-flowers were taken for a pattern in Section II. <a href="#UNIT_16">16</a>. But in
+them the five pistils have their ovaries as it were consolidated into
+one body. Sedum, Fig. <a href="#Fig222">222</a>, has the pistils and all the other parts free
+from such combination. The flower is perfect, complete, regular, and
+symmetrical, but is not quite as simple as it might be; for there are
+twice as many stamens as there are of the other organs. Crassula, a
+relative of Sedum, cultivated in the conservatories for winter
+blossoming (Fig. <a href="#Fig224">224</a>) is simpler, being <i>isostemonous</i>, or with just as
+many stamens as petals or sepals, while Sedum is <i>diplostemonous</i>,
+having double that number: it has, indeed, two sets of stamens.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig224" id="Fig224"></a>
+<img src="images/fig224_225.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 224. Flower of a Crassula. 225. Diagram or
+ground-plan of same.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_241" id="UNIT_241">241.</a> <b>Numerical Plan.</b> A certain number either runs through the flower or
+is discernible in some of its parts. This number is most commonly either
+five or three, not very rarely four, occasionally two. Thus the
+<i>ground-plan</i> of the flowers thus far used for illustration is five.
+That of Trillium (Fig. <a href="#Fig226">226, 227</a>) is three, as it likewise is as really,
+if not as plainly, in Tulips and Lilies, Crocus, Iris, and all that
+class of blossoms. In some Sedums all the flowers are in fours. In
+others the first flowers are on the plan of five, the rest mostly on the
+plan of four, that is, with four sepals, four petals, eight stamens (i.
+e. twice four), and four pistils. Whatever the ground number may be, it
+runs through the whole in symmetrical blossoms.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig226" id="Fig226"></a>
+<img src="images/fig226_227.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 226. Flower of a Trillium; its parts in threes.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 227. Diagram of flower of Trillium. In this, as in
+all such diagrams of cross-section of blossoms, the parts of the outer
+circle represent the calyx; the next, corolla; within, stamens (here in
+two circles of three each, and the cross-section is through the
+anthers); in the centre, section of three ovaries joined into a compound
+one of three cells.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_242" id="UNIT_242">242.</a> <b>Alternation of the successive Circles.</b> In these flowers the parts
+of the successive circles <i>alternate</i>; and such is the rule. That is,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>the petals stand over the intervals between the sepals; the stamens,
+when of the same number, stand over the intervals between the petals; or
+when twice as many, as in the Trillium, the outer set alternates with
+the petals, and the inner set, alternating with the other, of course
+stands before the petals; and the pistils alternate with these. This is
+just as it should be on the theory that the circles of the blossom
+answer to whorls of leaves, which alternate in this way. While in such
+flowers the circles are to be regarded as whorls, in others they are
+rather to be regarded as condensed spirals of alternate leaves. But,
+however this may be, in the mind of a morphological botanist,</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_243" id="UNIT_243">243.</a> <b>Flowers are altered Branches</b>, and their parts, therefore, altered
+leaves. That is, certain buds, which might have grown and lengthened
+into a leafy branch, do, under other circumstances and to accomplish
+other purposes, develop into blossoms. In these the axis remains short,
+nearly as it is in the bud; the leaves therefore remain close together
+in sets or circles; the outer ones, those of the calyx, generally
+partake more or less of the character of foliage; the next set are more
+delicate, and form the corolla, while the rest, the stamens and pistils,
+appear under forms very different from those of ordinary leaves, and are
+concerned in the production of seed. This view gives to Botany an
+interest which one who merely notices the shape and counts the parts of
+blossoms, without understanding their plan, has no conception of.</p>
+
+<p>244. That flowers answer to branches may be shown, first, from their
+position. As explained in the section on Inflorescence, flowers arise
+from the same places as branches, and from no other; flower-buds, like
+leaf-buds, appear either on the summit of a stem, that is, as a terminal
+bud, or in the axil of a leaf, as an axillary bud. And, as the plan of a
+symmetrical flower shows, the arrangement of the parts on their axis or
+receptacle is that of leaves upon the stem.</p>
+
+<p>245. That the sepals and petals are of the nature of leaves is evident
+from their appearance; they are commonly called the leaves of the
+flower. The calyx is most generally green in color, and foliaceous
+(leaf-like) in texture. And though the corolla is rarely green, yet
+neither are proper leaves always green. In our wild Painted-cup, and in
+some scarlet Sages, common in gardens, the leaves just under the flowers
+are of the brightest red or scarlet, often much brighter-colored than
+the corolla itself. And sometimes (as in many Cactuses, and in Carolina
+Allspice) there is such a regular gradation from the last leaves of the
+plant (bracts or bractlets) into the leaves of the calyx, that it is
+impossible to say where the one ends and the other begins. If sepals are
+leaves, so also are petals; for there is no clearly fixed limit between
+them. Not only in the Carolina Allspice and Cactus (Fig. <a href="#Fig229">229</a>), but in
+the Water-Lily (Fig. <a href="#Fig228">228</a>) and in a variety of flowers with more than one
+row of petals, there is such a complete transition between calyx and
+corolla that no one can surely tell how many of the leaves belong to the
+one and how many to the other.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span></p><div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig228" id="Fig228"></a>
+<img src="images/fig228.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 228. Series of sepals, petals, and stamens of White
+Water-Lily, showing the transitions.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig229" id="Fig229"></a>
+<img src="images/fig229.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 229. A Cactus blossom.
+</div>
+
+<p>246. That stamens are of the same general nature as petals, and
+therefore a modification of leaves, is shown by the gradual transitions
+that occur between the one and the other in many blossoms; especially in
+cultivated flowers, such as Roses and Camellias, when they begin to
+<i>double</i>, that is, to change their stamens into petals. Some wild and
+natural flowers show the same interesting transitions. The Carolina
+Allspice and the White Water-Lily exhibit complete gradations not only
+between sepals and petals, but between petals and stamens. The sepals of
+our Water-Lily are green outside, but white and petal-like on the
+inside; the petals, in many rows, gradually grow narrower towards the
+centre of the flower; some of these are tipped with a trace of a yellow
+anther, but still are petals; the next are more contracted and
+stamen-like, but with a flat petal-like filament; and a further
+narrowing of this completes the genuine stamen.</p>
+
+<p>247. Pistils and stamens now and then change into each other in some
+Willows; pistils often turn into petals in cultivated flowers; and in
+the Double Cherry they are occasionally replaced by small green leaves.
+Sometimes a whole blossom changes into a cluster of green leaves, as in
+the "green roses" occasionally noticed in gardens, and sometimes it
+degenerates into a leafy branch. So the botanist regards pistils also as
+answering to leaves; that is, to single leaves when simple and separate,
+to a whorl of leaves when conjoined.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p><h3><a name="Subsect_VIII_4" id="Subsect_VIII_4">� 4.</a> MODIFICATIONS OF THE TYPE.</h3>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_248" id="UNIT_248">248.</a> <b>The Deviations</b>, as they may be called, from the assumed type or
+pattern of flower are most various and extensive. The differences
+between one species and another of the same genus are comparatively
+insignificant; those between different genera are more striking; those
+between different families and classes of plants more and more profound.
+They represent different adaptations to conditions or modes of life,
+some of which have obvious or probable utilities, although others are
+beyond particular explanation. The principal modifications may be
+conveniently classified. First those which in place of perfect
+(otherwise called <i>hermaphrodite</i> or bisexual) flowers, give origin to</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_249" id="UNIT_249">249.</a> <b>Unisexual, or Separated, or Diclinous Flowers</b>, <i>imperfect</i> flowers,
+as they have been called in contradistinction to perfect flowers; but
+that term is too ambiguous. In these some flowers want the stamens,
+while others want the pistils. Taking hermaphrodite flowers as the
+pattern, it is natural to say that the missing organs are <i>suppressed</i>.
+This expression is justified by the very numerous cases in which the
+missing parts are <i>abortive</i>, that is, are represented by rudiments or
+vestiges, which serve to exemplify the plan, although useless as to
+office. Unisexual flowers are</p>
+
+<p><i>Mon&oelig;cious</i> (or <i>Monoicous</i>, i. e. of one household), when flowers of
+both sorts or sexes are produced by the same individual plant, as in the
+Ricinus or Castor-oil Plant, Fig. <a href="#Fig230">230</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Di&oelig;cious</i> (or <i>Dioicous</i>, i. e. of separate households), when the
+two kinds are borne on different plants; as in Willows, Poplars, Hemp,
+and Moonseed, Fig. <a href="#Fig231">231, 232</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polygamous</i>, when the flowers are some of them perfect, and some
+staminate or pistillate only.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig230" id="Fig230"></a>
+<img src="images/fig230.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 230. Unisexual flowers of Castor-oil plant: <i>s</i>,
+staminate flower; <i>p</i>, pistillate flower.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig231" id="Fig231"></a>
+<img src="images/fig231_232.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 231, staminate, and 232, pistillate flower of
+Moonseed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span></p><p>250. A blossom having stamens and no pistil is a <i>Staminate</i> or <i>Male</i>
+flower. Sometimes it is called a <i>Sterile</i> flower, not appropriately,
+for other flowers may equally be sterile. One having pistil but no
+stamens is a <i>Pistillate</i> or <i>Female</i> flower.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig233" id="Fig233"></a>
+<img src="images/fig233.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 233. Flower of Anemone Pennsylvanica; apetalous,
+hermaphrodite.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig234" id="Fig234"></a>
+<img src="images/fig234.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 234. Flower of Saururus or Lizard's-tail; naked, but
+hermaphrodite.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_251" id="UNIT_251">251.</a> <b>Incomplete Flowers</b> are so named in contradistinction to complete:
+they want either one or both of the floral envelopes. Those of Fig. <a href="#Fig230">230</a>
+are incomplete, having calyx but no corolla. So is the flower of Anemone
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig233">233</a>), although its calyx is colored like a corolla. The flowers of
+Saururus or Lizard's-tail, although perfect, have neither calyx nor
+corolla (Fig. <a href="#Fig234">234</a>). Incomplete flowers, accordingly, are</p>
+
+<p><i>Naked</i> or <i>Achlamydeous</i>, destitute of both floral envelopes, as in
+Fig. <a href="#Fig234">234</a>, or</p>
+
+<p><i>Apetalous</i>, when wanting only the corolla. The case of corolla present
+and calyx wholly wanting is extremely rare, although there are seeming
+instances. In fact, a single or simple perianth is taken to be a calyx,
+unless the absence or abortion of a calyx can be made evident.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig235" id="Fig235"></a>
+<img src="images/fig235_238.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 235. Flower of Mustard. 236. Its stamens and pistil
+separate and enlarged.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 237. Flower of a Violet. 238. Its calyx and corolla
+displayed: the five smaller parts are the sepals; the five intervening
+larger ones are the petals.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>252. In contradistinction to regular and symmetrical, very many flowers
+are</p>
+
+<p><i>Irregular</i>, that is, with the members of some or all of the floral
+circles unequal or dissimilar, and</p>
+
+<p><i>Unsymmetrical</i>, that is, when the circles of the flower or some of them
+differ in the number of their members. (Symmetrical and unsymmetrical
+are used in a different sense in some recent books, but the older use
+should be adhered to). Want of numerical symmetry and irregularity
+commonly go together; and both are common. Indeed, few flowers are
+entirely <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>symmetrical beyond calyx, corolla, and perhaps stamens; and
+probably no irregular blossoms are quite symmetrical.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_253" id="UNIT_253">253.</a> <b>Irregular and Unsymmetrical Flowers</b> may therefore be illustrated
+together, beginning with cases which are comparatively free from other
+complications. The blossom of Mustard, and of all the very natural
+family which it represents (Fig. <a href="#Fig235">235, 236</a>), is regular but unsymmetrical
+in the stamens. There are four equal sepals, four equal petals; but six
+stamens, and only two members in the pistil, which for the present may
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>be left out of view. The want of symmetry is in the stamens. These are
+in two circles, an outer and an inner. The outer circle consists of two
+stamens only; the inner has its proper number of four. The flower of
+Violet, which is on the plan of five, is symmetrical in calyx, corolla,
+and stamens, inasmuch as each of these circles consists of five members;
+but it is conspicuously irregular in the corolla, one of the petals
+being very different from the rest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig239" id="Fig239"></a>
+<img src="images/fig239_244.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 239. Flower of a Larkspur. 240. Its calyx and
+corolla displayed; the five larger parts are the sepals; the four
+smaller, of two shapes, are the petals; the place of the fifth petal is
+vacant. 241. Diagram of the same; the place for the missing petal marked
+by a dotted line.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 242. Flower of a Monkshood. 243. Its parts
+displayed; five sepals, the upper forming the hood; the two lateral
+alike, broad and flat; the two lower small. The two pieces under the
+hood represent the corolla, reduced to two odd-shaped petals; in centre
+the numerous stamens and three pistils. 244. Diagram of the calyx and
+corolla; the three dotted lines in the place of missing petals.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>254. The flowers of Larkspur, and of Monkshood or Aconite, which are
+nearly related, are both strikingly irregular in calyx and corolla, and
+considerably unsymmetrical. In Larkspur (Fig. <a href="#Fig239">239-241</a>) the irregular
+calyx consists of five sepals, one of which, larger than the rest, is
+prolonged behind into a large sac or spur; but the corolla is of only
+four petals (of two shapes),&mdash;the fifth, needed to complete the
+symmetry, being left out. And the Monkshood (Fig. <a href="#Fig239">242-244</a>) has five very
+dissimilar sepals, and a corolla of only two very small and
+curiously-shaped petals,&mdash;the three needed to make up the symmetry being
+left out. The stamens in both are out of symmetry with the ground-plan,
+being numerous. So are the pistils, which are usually diminished to
+three, sometimes to two or to one.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_255" id="UNIT_255">255.</a> <b>Flowers with Multiplication of Parts</b> are very common. The stamens
+are indefinitely numerous in Larkspur and in Monkshood (Fig. <a href="#Fig239">242, 243</a>),
+while the pistils are fewer than the ground-plan suggests. Most
+Cactus-flowers have all the organs much increased in number (Fig. <a href="#Fig229">229</a>),
+and so of the Water-Lily. In Anemone (Fig. <a href="#Fig233">233</a>) the stamens and pistils
+are multiplied while the petals are left out. In Buttercups or Crowfoot,
+while the sepals and petals conform to the ground-plan of five, both
+stamens and pistils are indefinitely multiplied (Fig. <a href="#Fig245">245</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig245" id="Fig245"></a>
+<img src="images/fig245.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 245. Flower of Ranunculus bulbosus, or Buttercup, in
+section.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_256" id="UNIT_256">256.</a> <b>Flowers modified by Union of Parts</b>, so that these parts more or
+less lose the appearance of separate leaves or other organs growing out
+of the end of the stem or receptacle, are extremely common. There are
+two kinds of such union, namely:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Coalescence</i> of parts of the same circle by their contiguous margins;
+and</p>
+
+<p><i>Adnation</i>, or the union of adjacent circles or unlike parts.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_257" id="UNIT_257">257.</a> <b>Coalescence</b> is not rare in leaves, as in the upper pairs of
+Honeysuckles, Fig. <a href="#Fig162">163</a>. It may all the more be expected in the crowded
+circles or whorls of flower-leaves. Datura or Stramonium (Fig. <a href="#Fig246">246</a>)
+shows this coalescence both in calyx and corolla, the five sepals and
+the five petals being thus united to near their tips, each into a tube
+or long and narrow cup. These unions make needful the following terms:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p><p><i>Gamopetalous</i>, said of a corolla the petals of which are thus
+coalescent into one body, whether only at base or higher. The union may
+extend to the very summit, as in Morning Glory and the like (Fig. <a href="#Fig247">247</a>),
+so that the number of petals in it may not be apparent. The old name for
+this was <i>Monopetalous</i>, but that means "one-petalled;" while
+gamopetalous means "petals united," and therefore is the proper term.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig246" id="Fig246"></a>
+<img src="images/fig246.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 246. Flower of Datura Stramonium; gamosepalous and
+gamopetalous.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig247" id="Fig247"></a>
+<img src="images/fig247.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 247. Funnelform corolla of a common Morning Glory,
+detached from its polysepalous calyx.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Polypetalous</i> is the counterpart term, to denote a corolla of
+<i>distinct</i>, that is, separate petals. As it means "many petalled," it is
+not the best possible name, but it is the old one and in almost
+universal use.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gamosepalous</i> applies to the calyx when the sepals are in this way
+united.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polysepalous</i>, to the calyx when of separate sepals or calyx-leaves.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_258" id="UNIT_258">258.</a> Degree of union or of separation in descriptive botany is expressed
+in the same way as is the lobing of leaves (<a href="#UNIT_139">139</a>). See Fig. <a href="#Fig248">249</a>-<a href="#Fig252">253</a>, and
+the explanations.</p>
+
+<p>259. A corolla when gamopetalous commonly shows a distinction (well
+marked in Fig. <a href="#Fig248">249-251</a>) between a contracted tubular portion below, the
+<span class="smcap">Tube</span>, and the spreading part above, the <span class="smcap">Border</span> or <span class="smcap">Limb</span>. The junction
+between tube and limb, or a more or less enlarged upper portion of the
+tube between the two, is the <span class="smcap">Throat</span>. The same is true of the calyx.</p>
+
+<p>260. Some names are given to particular forms of the gamopetalous
+corolla, applicable also to a gamosepalous calyx, such as</p>
+
+<p><i>Wheel-shaped</i>, or <i>Rotate</i>; when spreading out at once, without a tube
+or with a very short one, something in the shape of a wheel or of its
+diverging spokes, Fig. <a href="#Fig252">252, 253</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Salver-shaped</i>, or <i>Salver-form</i>; when a flat-spreading border is
+raised on <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>a narrow tube, from which it diverges at right angles, like
+the salver represented in old pictures, with a slender handle beneath,
+Fig. <a href="#Fig248">249-251</a>, <a href="#Fig254">255</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig248" id="Fig248"></a>
+<img src="images/fig248_251.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 248. Polypetalous corolla of Soapwort, of five
+petals with long claws or stalk-like bases.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 249. Flower of Standing Cypress (Gilia
+coronopifolia); gamopetalous: the tube answering to the long claws in
+248, except that they are coalescent: the limb or border (the spreading
+part above) is <i>five-parted</i>, that is, the petals not there united
+except at very base.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 250. Flower of Cypress-vine (Ipom&oelig;a Quamoclit);
+like preceding, but limb <i>five-lobed</i>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 251. Flower of Ipom&oelig;a coccinea; limb almost
+<i>entire</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig252" id="Fig252"></a>
+<img src="images/fig252_253.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 252. Wheel-shaped or rotate and five-parted corolla
+of Bittersweet, Solanum Dulcamara. 253. Wheel-shaped and five-lobed
+corolla of Potato.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Bell-shaped</i>, or <i>Campanulate</i>; where a short and broad tube widens
+upward, in the shape of a bell, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig254">254</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig254" id="Fig254"></a>
+<img src="images/fig254_258.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 254. Flower of a Campanula or Harebell, with a
+campanulate or bell-shaped corolla; 255, of a Phlox, with salver-shaped
+corolla; 256, of Dead Nettle (Lamium), with labiate <i>ringent</i> (or
+gaping) corolla; 257, of Snapdragon, with labiate <i>personate</i> corolla;
+258, of Toad-Flax, with a similar corolla spurred at the base.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Funnel-shaped</i>, or <i>Funnelform</i>; gradually spreading at the summit of a
+tube which is narrow below, in the shape of a funnel or tunnel, as in
+the corolla of the common Morning Glory (Fig. <a href="#Fig247">247</a>) and of the Stramonium
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig246">246</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span></p><p><i>Tubular</i>; when prolonged into a tube, with little or no spreading at
+the border, as in the corolla of the Trumpet Honeysuckle, the calyx of
+Stramonium (Fig. <a href="#Fig246">246</a>), etc.</p>
+
+<p>261. Although sepals and petals are usually all blade or lamina (<a href="#UNIT_123">123</a>),
+like a sessile leaf, yet they may have a contracted and stalk-like base,
+answering to petiole. This is called its <span class="smcap">Claw</span>, in Latin <i>Unguis</i>.
+<i>Unguiculate</i> petals are universal and strongly marked in the Pink
+tribe, as in Soapwort (Fig. <a href="#Fig248">248</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig259" id="Fig259"></a>
+<img src="images/fig259.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 259. Unguiculate (clawed) petal of a Silene; with a
+two-parted crown.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig260" id="Fig260"></a>
+<img src="images/fig260.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 260. A small Passion-flower, with crown of slender
+threads.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>262. Such petals, and various others, may have an outgrowth of the inner
+face into an appendage or fringe, as in Soapwort, and in Silene (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig259">259</a>), where it is at the junction of claw and blade. This is called a
+<span class="smcap">Crown</span>, or <i>Corona</i>. In Passion-flowers (Fig. <a href="#Fig260">260</a>) the crown consists of
+numerous threads on the base of each petal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig261" id="Fig261"></a>
+<img src="images/fig261_262.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 261. Front view of a papilionaceous corolla. 262.
+The parts of the same, displayed: <i>s</i>, Standard, or Vexillum; <i>w</i>,
+Wings, or Al�; <i>k</i>, Keel, or Carina.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_263" id="UNIT_263">263.</a> <b>Irregular Flowers</b> may be polypetalous, or nearly so, as in the
+papilionaceous corolla; but most of them are irregular through
+coalescence, which often much disguises the numerical symmetry also. As
+affecting the corolla the following forms have received particular
+names:</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_264" id="UNIT_264">264.</a> <b>Papilionaceous Corolla</b>, Fig. <a href="#Fig261">261, 262</a>. This is polypetalous, except
+that two of the petals cohere, usually but slightly. It belongs only to
+the Leguminous or Pulse family. The name means butterfly-like; but the
+likeness is hardly obvious. The names of the five petals of the
+<i>papilionaceous</i> corolla are curiously incongruous. They are,</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p><p>The <span class="smcap">Standard</span> or <i>Banner</i> (<i>Vexillum</i>), the large upper petal which is
+external in the bud and wrapped around the others.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Wings</span> (<i>Al�</i>), the pair of side petals, of quite different shape
+from the standard.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Keel</span> (<i>Carina</i>), the two lower and usually smallest petals; these
+are lightly coalescent into a body which bears some likeness, not to the
+keel, but to the prow of a boat; and this encloses the stamens and
+pistil. A Pea-blossom is a typical example; the present illustration is
+from a species of Locust, Robinia hispida.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_265" id="UNIT_265">265.</a> <b>Labiate Corolla</b> (Fig. <a href="#Fig254">256-258</a>), which would more properly have been
+called <i>Bilabiate</i>, that is, two-lipped. This is a common form of
+gamopetalous corolla; and the calyx is often bilabiate also. These
+flowers are all on the plan of five; and the irregularity in the corolla
+is owing to unequal union of the petals as well as to diversity of form.
+The two petals of the upper or posterior side of the flower unite with
+each other higher up than with the lateral petals (in Fig. <a href="#Fig254">256</a>, quite to
+the top), forming the <i>Upper lip</i>: the lateral and the lower similarly
+unite to form the <i>Lower lip</i>. The single notch which is generally found
+at the summit of the upper lip, and the two notches of the lower lip, or
+in other words the two lobes of the upper and the three of the lower
+lip, reveal the real composition. So also does the alternation of these
+five parts with those of the calyx outside. When the calyx is also
+bilabiate, as in the Sage, this alternation gives three lobes or sepals
+to the upper and two to the lower lip. Two forms of the labiate corolla
+have been designated, viz.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Ringent</i> or <i>Gaping</i>, when the orifice is wide open, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig254">256</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Personate</i> or <i>Masked</i>, when a protuberance or intrusion of the base of
+the lower lip (called a <i>Palate</i>) projects over or closes the orifice,
+as in Snapdragon and Toad-Flax, Fig. <a href="#Fig254">257, 258</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig263" id="Fig263"></a>
+<img src="images/fig263_265.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 263. Corolla of a purple Gerardia laid open, showing
+the four stamens; the cross shows where the fifth stamen would be, if
+present.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 264. Corolla, laid open, and stamens of Pentstemon
+grandiflorus, with a sterile filament in the place of the fifth stamen,
+and representing it.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 265. Corolla of Catalpa laid open, displaying two
+good stamens and three abortive ones or vestiges.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span></p><p>266. There are all gradations between labiate and regular corollas. In
+those of Gerardia, of some species of Pentstemon, and of Catalpa (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig263">263-265</a>), the labiate character is slight, but is manifest on close
+inspection. In almost all such flowers the plan of five, which is
+obvious or ascertainable in the calyx and corolla, is obscured in the
+stamens by the abortion or suppression of one or three of their number.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig266" id="Fig266"></a>
+<img src="images/fig266.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 266. Two flower-heads of Chiccory.
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig267" id="Fig267"></a>
+<img src="images/fig267.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 267. One of them half cut away, better showing some
+of the flowers.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_267" id="UNIT_267">267.</a> <b>Ligulate Corolla.</b> The ligulate or <i>Strap-shaped</i> corolla mainly
+belongs to the family of Composit�, in which numerous small flowers are
+gathered into a head, within an involucre that imitates a calyx. It is
+best exemplified in the Dandelion and in Chiccory (Fig. <a href="#Fig266">266</a>). Each one
+of these straps or <i>Ligules</i>, looking like so many petals, is the
+corolla of a distinct flower: the base is a short tube, which opens out
+into the ligule: the five minute teeth at the end indicate the number of
+constituent petals. So this is a kind of gamopetalous corolla, which is
+open along one side nearly <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>to the base, and outspread. The nature of
+such a corolla (and of the stamens also, to be explained in the next
+section) is illustrated by the flower of a Lobelia, Fig. <a href="#Fig285">285</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig268" id="Fig268"></a>
+<img src="images/fig268.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 268. Head of flowers of a Coreopsis, divided
+lengthwise.
+</div>
+
+<p>268. In Asters, Daisies, Sunflower, Coreopsis (Fig. <a href="#Fig268">268</a>), and the like,
+only the marginal (or <i>Ray</i>) corollas are ligulate; the rest (those of
+the <i>Disk</i>) are regularly gamopetalous, tubular, and five-lobed at
+summit; but they are small and individually inconspicuous, only the
+<i>ray-flowers</i> making a show. In fact, those of Coreopsis and of
+Sunflower are simply for show, these ray-flowers being not only sterile,
+but <i>neutral</i>, that is, having neither stamens nor pistil. But in
+Asters, Daisies, Golden-rods, and the like, these ray-flowers are
+pistillate and fertile, serving therefore for seed-bearing as well as
+for show. Let it not be supposed that the show is useless. See Section
+<a href="#Section_XIII">XIII</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig269" id="Fig269"></a>
+<img src="images/fig269.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 269. A slice of the preceding more enlarged, with
+one tubular perfect flower (<i>a</i>) left standing on the receptacle, with
+its bractlet or chaff (<i>b</i>), one ligulate and neutral ray-flower (<i>cc</i>)
+and part of another; <i>dd</i>, section of bracts or leaves of the
+involucre.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_269" id="UNIT_269">269.</a> <b>Adnation, or Consolidation</b>, is the union of the members of parts
+belonging to different circles of the flower (<a href="#UNIT_256">256</a>). It is of course
+understood that in this (as likewise in coalescence) the parts are not
+formed and then conjoined, but are produced in union. They are born
+united, as the term <i>adnate</i> implies. To illustrate this kind of union,
+take the accompanying series of flowers (Fig. <a href="#Fig270">270</a>-<a href="#Fig273">274</a>), shown in
+vertical section. In the first, Fig. <a href="#Fig270">270</a>, Flax-flower, there is no
+adnation; sepals, petals, and stamens, are <i>free</i> as well as distinct,
+being separately borne on the receptacle, one circle within or above the
+next; only the five pistils have their ovaries coalescent. In Fig. <a href="#Fig270">271</a>,
+a Cherry-flower, the petals and stamens are borne on the throat of the
+calyx-tube; that is, the sepals are coalescent into a cup, and the
+petals and stamens are adnate to the inner face of this; in other
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>words, the sepals, petals, and stamens are all consolidated up to a
+certain height. In Fig. <a href="#Fig270">272</a>, a Purslane-flower, the same parts are
+adnate to or consolidated with the ovary up to its middle. In Fig. <a href="#Fig273">273</a>,
+a Hawthorn-flower, the consolidation has extended over the whole ovary;
+and petals and stamens are adnate to the calyx still further. In Fig.
+<a href="#Fig273">274</a>, a Cranberry-blossom, it is the same except that all the parts are
+free at the same height; all seem to arise from the top of the ovary.</p>
+
+<p>270. In botanical description, to express tersely such differences in
+the relation of these organs to the pistil, they are said to be</p>
+
+<p><i>Hypogynous</i> (i. e. under the pistil) when they are all <i>free</i>, that is,
+not adnate to pistil nor connate with each other, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig270">270</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig270" id="Fig270"></a>
+<img src="images/fig270_272.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 270. Flax-flower in section; the parts all
+free,&mdash;hypogynous.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 271. Cherry-flower in section; petals and stamens
+adnate to tube of calyx,&mdash;perigynous.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 272. Purslane-flower in section; calyx, petals,
+stamens, all adnate to lower half of ovary,&mdash;perigynous.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Perigynous</i> (around the pistil) when connate with each other, that is,
+when petals and stamens are <i>inserted</i> or borne on the calyx, whether as
+in Cherry-flowers (Fig. <a href="#Fig270">271</a>) they are free from the pistil, or as in
+Purslane and Hawthorn (Fig. <a href="#Fig270">272</a>, <a href="#Fig273">273</a>) they are also adnate below to the
+ovary.</p>
+
+<p><i>Epigynous</i> (on the ovary) when so adnate that all these parts appear to
+arise from the very summit of the ovary, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig273">274</a>. The last two
+terms are not very definitely distinguished.</p>
+
+<p>271. Another and a simpler form of expression is to describe parts of
+the flower as being</p>
+
+<p><i>Free</i>, when not united with or <i>inserted</i> upon other parts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Distinct</i>, when parts of the same kind are not united. This term is the
+counterpart of coalescent, as free is the counterpart of adnate. Many
+writers use the term "free" indiscriminately for both; but it is better
+to distinguish them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p><p><i>Connate</i> is a term common for either not free or not distinct, that
+is, for parts united congenitally, whether of same or of different
+kinds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Adnate</i>, as properly used, relates to the union of dissimilar parts.</p>
+
+<p>272. In still another form of expression, the terms superior and
+inferior have been much used in the sense of above and below.</p>
+
+<p><i>Superior</i> is said of the ovary of Flax-flower, Cherry, etc., because
+above the other parts; it is equivalent to "ovary free." Or it is said
+of the calyx, etc., when above the ovary, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig273">273</a>-<a href="#Fig275">275</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inferior</i>, when applied to the ovary, means the same as "calyx adnate;"
+when applied to the floral envelopes, it means that they are free.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig273" id="Fig273"></a>
+<img src="images/fig273_274.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 273. Hawthorn-blossom in section; parts adnate to
+whole face of ovary, and with each other beyond; another grade of
+perigynous.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 274. Cranberry-blossom in section; parts epigynous.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_273" id="UNIT_273">273.</a> <b>Position of Flower or of its Parts.</b> The terms superior and
+inferior, or upper and lower, are also used to indicate the relative
+position of the parts of a flower in reference to the axis of
+inflorescence. An axillary flower stands between the bract or leaf which
+subtends it and the axis or stem which bears this bract or leaf. This is
+represented in sectional diagrams (as in Fig. <a href="#Fig275">275, 276</a>) by a transverse
+line for the bract, and a small circle for the axis of inflorescence.
+Now the side of the blossom which faces the bract is the</p>
+
+<p><i>Anterior</i>, or <i>Inferior</i>, or <i>Lower</i> side; while the side next the axis
+is the</p>
+
+<p><i>Posterior</i>, or <i>Superior</i>, or <i>Upper</i> side of the flower.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig275" id="Fig275"></a>
+<img src="images/fig275_276.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 275. Diagram of papilionaceous flower (Robinia, Fig.
+<a href="#Fig261">261</a>), with bract below; axis of inflorescence above.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 276. Diagram of Violet-flower; showing the relation
+of parts to bract and axis.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>274. So, in the labiate corolla (Fig. <a href="#Fig254">256-258</a>), the lip which is
+composed of three of the five petals is the <i>anterior</i>, or <i>inferior</i>,
+or <i>lower</i> lip; the other is the <i>posterior</i>, or <i>superior</i>, or <i>upper</i>
+lip.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span></p><p>275. In Violets (Fig. <a href="#Fig235">238</a>, <a href="#Fig275">276</a>), the odd sepal is posterior (next the
+axis); the odd petal is therefore anterior, or next the subtending leaf.
+In the papilionaceous flower (Fig. <a href="#Fig261">261</a>, and diagram, Fig. <a href="#Fig275">275</a>), the odd
+sepal is anterior, and so two sepals are posterior; consequently, by the
+alternation, the odd petal (the standard) is posterior or upper, and the
+two petals forming the keel are anterior or lower.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_VIII_5" id="Subsect_VIII_5">� 5.</a> ARRANGEMENT OF PARTS IN THE BUD.</h3>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_276" id="UNIT_276">276.</a> <b>�stivation</b> was the fanciful name given by Linn�us to denote the
+disposition of the parts, especially the leaves of the flower, before
+<i>Anthesis</i>, i. e. before the blossom opens. <i>Pr�floration</i>, a better
+term, is sometimes used. This is of importance in distinguishing
+different families or genera of plants, being generally uniform in each.
+The �stivation is best seen by making a slice across the flower-bud; and
+it may be expressed in diagrams, as in the accompanying figures.</p>
+
+<p>277. The pieces of the calyx or the corolla either overlap each other in
+the bud, or they do not. When they do not overlap, the �stivation is</p>
+
+<p><i>Valvate</i>, when the pieces meet each other by their abrupt edges,
+without any infolding or overlapping; as the calyx of the Linden or
+Basswood (Fig. <a href="#Fig277">277</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig277" id="Fig277"></a>
+<img src="images/fig277.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 277. Diagram of a flower of Linden, showing the
+calyx valvate and corolla imbricate in the bud, etc.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Induplicate</i>, which is valvate with the margins of each piece
+projecting inwards, as in the calyx of a common Virgin's-bower, Fig.
+<a href="#Fig278">278</a>, or</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig278" id="Fig278"></a>
+<img src="images/fig278_279.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 278. Valvate-induplicate �stivation of calyx of
+common Virgin's-bower.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 279. Valvate-involute �stivation of same in
+Vine-bower, Clematis Vitialla.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Involute</i>, which is the same but the margins rolled inward, as in most
+of the large-flowered species of Clematis, Fig. <a href="#Fig278">279</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reduplicate</i>, a rarer modification of valvate, is similar but with
+margins projecting outward.</p>
+
+<p><i>Open</i>, the parts not touching in the bud, as the calyx of Mignonette.</p>
+
+<p>278. When the pieces overlap in the bud, it is in one of two ways;
+either every piece has one edge in and one edge out, or some pieces are
+wholly outside and others wholly inside. In the first case the
+�stivation is</p>
+
+<p><i>Convolute</i>, also named <i>Contorted</i> or <i>Twisted</i>, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig280">280</a>, a
+cross-section of a corolla very strongly thus convolute or rolled up
+together, and in the corolla of a Flax-flower (Fig. <a href="#Fig281">281</a>), where the
+petals only moderately overlap in this way. Here one edge of every petal
+covers the next before <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>it, while its other edge is covered by the next
+behind it. The other mode is the</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig280" id="Fig280"></a>
+<img src="images/fig280.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 280. Convolute �stivation, as in the corolla-lobes
+of Oleander.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig281" id="Fig281"></a>
+<img src="images/fig281.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 281. Diagram of a Flax-flower; calyx imbricated and
+corolla convolute in the bud.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Imbricate</i> or <i>Imbricated</i>, in which the outer parts cover or overlap
+the inner so as to "break joints," like tiles or shingles on a roof;
+whence the name. When the parts are three, the first or outermost is
+wholly external, the third wholly internal, the second has one margin
+covered by the first while the other overlaps the third or innermost
+piece: this is the arrangement of alternate three-ranked leaves (<a href="#UNIT_187">187</a>).
+When there are five pieces, as in the corolla of Fig. <a href="#Fig224">225</a>, and calyx of
+Fig. <a href="#Fig281">281</a>, as also of Fig. <a href="#Fig239">241</a>, <a href="#Fig275">276</a>, two are external, two are internal,
+and one (the third in the spiral) has one edge covered by the outermost,
+while its other edge covers the innermost; which is just the five-ranked
+arrangement of alternate leaves (<a href="#UNIT_188">188</a>). When the pieces are four, two are
+outer and two are inner; which answers to the arrangement of opposite
+leaves.</p>
+
+<p>279. The imbricate and the convolute modes sometimes vary one into the
+other, especially in the corolla.</p>
+
+<p>280. In a gamopetalous corolla or gamosepalous calyx, the shape of the
+tube in the bud may sometimes be noticeable. It may be</p>
+
+<p><i>Plicate</i> or <i>Plaited</i>, that is, folded lengthwise; and the plaits may
+either be turned outwards, forming projecting ridges, as in the corolla
+of Campanula; or turned inwards, as in that of Gentian Belladonna; or</p>
+
+<p><i>Supervolute</i>, when the plaits are convolutely wrapped round each other,
+as in the corolla of Morning Glory and of Stramonium, Fig. <a href="#Fig282">282</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig282" id="Fig282"></a>
+<img src="images/fig282.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 282. Upper part of corolla of Datura Stramonium in
+the bud; and below a section showing the convolution of the plaits.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2><a name="Section_IX" id="Section_IX"></a><span class="smcap">Section IX.</span> STAMENS IN PARTICULAR.</h2>
+
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_281" id="UNIT_281">281.</a> <b>Andr&oelig;cium</b> is a technical name for the staminate system of a
+flower (that is, for the stamens taken together), which it is sometimes
+convenient to use. The preceding section has dealt with modifications of
+the flower pertaining mainly to calyx and corolla. Those relating to the
+stamens are now to be indicated. First as to</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span></p><p>282. Insertion, or place of attachment. The stamens usually go with the
+petals. Not rarely they are at base</p>
+
+<p><i>Epipetalous</i>, that is, inserted on (or adnate to) the corolla, as in
+Fig. <a href="#Fig283">283</a>. When free from the corolla, they may be</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig283" id="Fig283"></a>
+<img src="images/fig283.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 283. Corolla of Morning Glory laid open, to show the
+five stamens inserted on it, near the base.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Hypogynous</i>, inserted on the receptacle under the pistil or
+gyn&oelig;cium.</p>
+
+<p><i>Perigynous</i>, inserted on the calyx, that is, with the lower part of
+filament adnate to the calyx-tube.</p>
+
+<p><i>Epigynous</i>, borne apparently on the top of the ovary; all which is
+explained in Fig. <a href="#Fig270">270</a>-<a href="#Fig273">274</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig284" id="Fig284"></a>
+<img src="images/fig284.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 284. Style of a Lady's Slipper (Cypripedium), and
+stamens united with it; <i>a</i>, <i>a</i>, the anthers of the two good stamens;
+<i>st</i>, an abortive stamen, what should be its anther changed into a
+petal-like body; <i>stig</i>, the stigma.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Gynandrous</i> is another term relating to insertion of rarer occurrence,
+that is, where the stamens are inserted on (in other words, adnate to)
+the style, as in Lady's Slipper (Fig. <a href="#Fig284">284</a>), and in the Orchis family
+generally.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_283" id="UNIT_283">283.</a> <b>In Relation to each Other</b>, stamens are more commonly</p>
+
+<p><i>Distinct</i>, that is, without any union with each other. But when united,
+the following technical terms of long use indicate their modes of mutual
+connection:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Monadelphous</i> (from two Greek words, meaning "in one brotherhood"),
+when united by their filaments into one set, usually into a ring or cup
+below, or into a tube, as in the Mallow Family (Fig. <a href="#Fig286">286</a>), the
+Passion-flower (Fig. <a href="#Fig260">260</a>), the Lupine (Fig. <a href="#Fig286">287</a>), and in Lobelia (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig285">285</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig285" id="Fig285"></a>
+<img src="images/fig285.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 285. Flower of Lobelia cardinalis, Cardinal flower;
+corolla making approach to the ligulate form; filaments (<i>st</i>)
+monadelphous, and anthers (<i>a</i>) syngenesious.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig286" id="Fig286"></a>
+<img src="images/fig286_288.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 286. Flower of a Mallow, with calyx and corolla cut
+away; showing monadelphous stamens.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 287. Monadelphous stamens of Lupine. 288.
+Diadelphous stamens (9 and 1) of a Pea-blossom.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Diadelphous</i> (meaning in two brotherhoods), when united by the
+filaments into two sets, as in the Pea and most of its near relatives
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig286">288</a>), usually nine in one set, and one in the other.</p>
+
+<p><i>Triadelphous</i> (three brotherhoods), when the filaments are united in
+three sets or clusters, as in most species of Hypericum.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p><p><i>Pentadelphous</i> (five brotherhoods), when in five sets, as in some
+species of Hypericum and in American Linden (Fig. <a href="#Fig277">277</a>, <a href="#Fig289">289</a>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Polyadelphous</i> (many or several brotherhoods) is the term generally
+employed when these sets are several, or even more than two, and the
+particular number is left unspecified. These terms all relate to the
+filaments.</p>
+
+<p><i>Syngenesious</i> is the term to denote that stamens have their anthers
+united, coalescent into a ring or tube; as in Lobelia (Fig. <a href="#Fig285">285</a>), in
+Violets, and in all of the great family of Composit�.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_284" id="UNIT_284">284.</a> <b>Their Number</b> in a flower is commonly expressed directly, but
+sometimes adjectively, by a series of terms which were the name of
+classes in the Linn�an artificial system, of which the following names,
+as also the preceding, are a survival:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Monandrous</i>, i. e. solitary-stamened, when the flower has only one
+stamen,</p>
+
+<p><i>Diandrous</i>, when it has two stamens only,</p>
+
+<p><i>Triandrous</i>, when it has three stamens,</p>
+
+<p><i>Tetrandrous</i>, when it has four stamens,</p>
+
+<p><i>Pentandrous</i>, when it has five stamens,</p>
+
+<p><i>Hexandrous</i>, when with six stamens, and so on to</p>
+
+<p><i>Polyandrous</i>, when it has many stamens, or more than a dozen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig289" id="Fig289"></a>
+<img src="images/fig289_291.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 289. One of the five stamen-clusters of the flower
+of American Linden, with accompanying scale. The five clusters are shown
+in section in the diagram of this flower, Fig. <a href="#Fig277">277</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 290. Five syngenesious stamens of a Coreopsis. 291.
+Same, with tube laid open and displayed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>285. For which terms, see the Glossary. They are all Greek numerals
+prefixed to <i>-andria</i> (from the Greek), which Linn�us used for
+<i>andr&oelig;cium</i>, and are made into an English adjective, <i>-androus</i>. Two
+other terms, of same origin, designate particular cases of number (four
+or six) in connection with unequal length. Namely, the stamens are</p>
+
+<p><i>Didynamous</i>, when, being only four, they form two pairs, one pair
+longer than the other, as in the Trumpet Creeper, in Gerardia (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig263">263</a>), etc.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span></p><p><i>Tetradynamous</i>, when, being only six, four of them surpass the other
+two, as in the Mustard-flower and all the Cruciferous family, Fig. <a href="#Fig235">235</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_286" id="UNIT_286">286.</a> <b>The Filament</b> is a kind of stalk to the anther, commonly slender or
+thread-like: it is to the anther nearly what the petiole is to the blade
+of a leaf. Therefore it is not an essential part. As a leaf may be
+without a stalk, so the anther may be <i>Sessile</i>, or without a filament.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig292" id="Fig292"></a>
+<img src="images/fig292_294.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 292. Stamen of Isopyrum, with innate anther. 293. Of
+Tulip-tree, with adnate (and extrorse) anther. 294. Of Evening Primrose,
+with versatile anther.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_287" id="UNIT_287">287.</a> <b>The Anther</b> is the essential part of the stamen. It is a sort of
+case, filled with a fine powder, <i>the Pollen</i>, which serves to fertilize
+the pistil, so that it may perfect seeds. The anther is said to be</p>
+
+<p><i>Innate</i> (as in Fig. <a href="#Fig292">292</a>), when it is attached by its base to the very
+apex of the filament, turning neither inward nor outward;</p>
+
+<p><i>Adnate</i> (as in Fig. <a href="#Fig292">293</a>), when attached as it were by one face, usually
+for its whole length, to the side of a continuation of the filament; and</p>
+
+<p><i>Versatile</i> (as in Fig. <a href="#Fig292">294</a>), when fixed by or near its middle only to
+the very point of the filament, so as to swing loosely, as in the Lily,
+in Grasses, etc. Versatile or adnate anthers are</p>
+
+<p><i>Introrse</i>, or <i>Incumbent</i>, when facing inward, that is, toward the
+centre of the flower, as in Magnolia, Water-Lily, etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extrorse</i>, when facing outwardly, as in the Tulip-tree.</p>
+
+<p>288. Rarely does a stamen bear any resemblance to a leaf, or even to a
+petal or flower-leaf. Nevertheless, the botanist's idea of a stamen is
+that it answers to a leaf developed in a peculiar form and for a special
+purpose. In the filament he sees the stalk of the leaf; in the anther,
+the blade. The blade of a leaf consists of two similar sides; so the
+anther consists of two <span class="smcap">Lobes</span> or <span class="smcap">Cells</span>, one answering to the left, the
+other to the right, side of the blade. The two lobes are often connected
+by a prolongation of the filament, which answers to the midrib of a
+leaf; this is called the <span class="smcap">Connective</span>. This is conspicuous in Fig. <a href="#Fig292">292</a>,
+where the connective is so broad that it separates the two cells of the
+anther to some distance.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig295" id="Fig295"></a>
+<img src="images/fig295.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 295. Diagram of the lower part of an anther, cut
+across above, and the upper part of a leaf, to show how the one answers
+to the other; the filament to petiole, the connective to midrib; the two
+cells to the right and left halves of the blade.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>289. A simple conception of the morphological relation of an anther to a
+leaf is given in Fig. <a href="#Fig295">295</a>, an ideal figure, the lower part representing
+a stamen with the top of its anther cut away; the upper, the
+corresponding upper part of a leaf.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span></p><p>290. So anthers are generally <i>two-celled</i>. But as the pollen begins to
+form in two parts of each cell (the anterior and the posterior),
+sometimes these two strata are not confluent, and the anther even at
+maturity may be <i>four-celled</i>, as in Moonseed (Fig. <a href="#Fig296">296</a>); or rather, in
+that case (the word <i>cell</i> being used for each lateral half of the
+organ), it is <i>two-celled</i>, but the cells <i>bilocellate</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig296" id="Fig296"></a>
+<img src="images/fig296_299.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 296. Stamen of Moonseed, with anther cut across;
+this 4-celled, or rather 4-locellate.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 297. Stamen of Pentstemon pubescens; the two
+anther-cells diverging, and almost confluent.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 298. Stamen of Mallow; the anther supposed to answer
+to that of Fig. 297, but the cells completely confluent into one.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 299. Stamen of Globe Amaranth; very short filament
+bearing a single anther-cell; it is open from top to bottom, showing the
+pollen within.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig300" id="Fig300"></a>
+<img src="images/fig300_305.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 300-305. Stamens of several plants of the Labiate or
+Mint Family. <span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 300. Of a Monarda: the two anther-cells with bases
+divergent so that they are transverse to the filament, and their
+contiguous tips confluent, so as to form one cell opening by a
+continuous line. <span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 301. Of a Calamintha: the broad connective
+separating the two cells. <span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 302. Of a Sage (Salvia Texana); with long
+and slender connective resembling forks of the filament, one bearing a
+good anther-cell; the other an abortive or poor one. <span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 303. Another
+Sage (S. coccinea), with connective longer and more thread-shaped, the
+lower fork having its anther-cell wholly wanting. <span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 304. Of a White
+Sage, Audibertia grandiflora; the lower fork of connective a mere
+vestige. <span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 305. Of another White Sage (A. stachyoides), the lower
+fork of connective suppressed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>291. But anthers may become <i>one-celled</i>, and that either by confluence
+or by suppression.</p>
+
+<p>292. By confluence, when the two cells run together into one, as they
+nearly do in most species of Pentstemon (Fig. <a href="#Fig296">297</a>), more so in Monarda
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig300">300</a>), and completely in the Mallow (Fig. <a href="#Fig296">298</a>) and all the Mallow
+family.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span></p><p>293. By suppression in certain cases the anther may be reduced to one
+cell or halved. In Globe Amaranth (Fig. <a href="#Fig296">299</a>) there is a single cell
+without vestige of any other. Different species of Sage and of the White
+Sages of California show various grades of abortion of one of the
+anther-cells, along with a singular lengthening of the connective (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig300">302-305</a>).</p>
+
+<p>294. The splitting open of an anther for the discharge of its pollen is
+termed its <i>Dehiscence</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig306" id="Fig306"></a>
+<img src="images/fig306_308.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 306. Stamen with the usual dehiscence of anther down
+the side of each cell.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 307. Stamen of Pyrola; cells opening by a terminal
+hole.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 308. Stamen of Barberry; cells of anther each
+opening by an uplifted valve.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>295. As the figures show, this is commonly by a line along the whole
+length of each cell, either lateral or, when the anthers are extrorse,
+often along the outer face, and when introrse, along the inner face of
+each cell. Sometimes the opening is only by a chink, hole, or pore at
+the top, as in the Azalea, Pyrola (Fig. <a href="#Fig306">307</a>), etc.; sometimes a part of
+the face separates as a sort of trap-door (or valve), hinged at the top,
+and opening to allow the escape of the pollen, as in the Sassafras,
+Spice-bush, and Barberry (Fig. <a href="#Fig306">308</a>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_296" id="UNIT_296">296.</a> <b>Pollen.</b> This is the powdery matter, commonly of a yellow color,
+which fills the cells of the anther, and is discharged during
+blossoming, after which the stamens generally fall or wither away. Under
+the microscope it is found to consist of grains, usually round or oval,
+and all alike in the same species, but very different in different
+plants. So that the plant may sometimes be recognized from the pollen
+alone. Several forms are shown in the accompanying figures.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig309" id="Fig309"></a>
+<img src="images/fig309_313.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 309. Magnified pollen of a Lily, smooth and oval;
+310, of Echinocystis, grooved lengthwise; 311, of Sicyos, with bristly
+points and smooth bands; 312, of Musk Plant (Mimulus), with spiral
+grooves; 313, of Succory, twelve-sided and dotted.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span></p><p>297. An ordinary pollen-grain has two coats; the outer coat thickish,
+but weak, and frequently adorned with lines or bands, or studded with
+points; the inner coat is extremely thin and delicate, but extensible,
+and its cavity when fresh contains a thickish protoplasmic fluid, often
+rendered turbid by an immense number of minute particles that float in
+it. As the pollen matures this fluid usually dries up, but the
+protoplasm does not lose its vitality. When the grain is wetted it
+absorbs water, swells up, and is apt to burst, discharging the contents.
+But when weak syrup is used it absorbs this slowly, and the tough inner
+coat will sometimes break through the outer and begin a kind of growth,
+like that which takes place when the pollen is placed upon the stigma.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig314" id="Fig314"></a>
+<img src="images/fig314_318.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 314. Magnified pollen of Hibiscus and other
+Mallow-plants, beset with prickly projections; 315, of Circ�a, with
+angles bearing little lobes; 316, of Evening Primrose, the three lobes
+as large as the central body; 317, of Kalmia, four grains united, as in
+most of the Heath family; 318, of Pine, as it were of three grains or
+cells united; the lateral empty and light.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>298. Some pollen-grains are, as it were, lobed (as in Fig. <a href="#Fig314">315, 316</a>), or
+formed of four grains united (as in the Heath family, Fig. <a href="#Fig314">317</a>): that of
+Pine (Fig. <a href="#Fig314">318</a>) has a large rounded and empty bladder-like expansion
+upon each side. This renders such pollen very buoyant, and capable of
+being transported to a great distance by the wind.</p>
+
+<p>299. In species of Acacia simple grains lightly cohere into globular
+pellets. In Milkweeds and in most Orchids all the pollen of an
+anther-cell is compacted or coherent into one mass, called a
+<i>Pollen-mass</i>, or <span class="smcap">Pollinium</span>, plural <span class="smcap">Pollinia</span>. (Fig. <a href="#Fig319">319</a>-<a href="#Fig322">322</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig319" id="Fig319"></a>
+<img src="images/fig319.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 319. Pollen, a pair of pollinia of a Milkweed,
+Asclepias, attached by stalks to a gland; moderately magnified.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig320" id="Fig320"></a>
+<img src="images/fig320_321.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 320. Pollinium of an Orchis (Habenaria), with its
+stalk attached to a sticky gland; magnified. 321. Some of the packets or
+partial pollinia, of which Fig. 320 is made up, more magnified.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig322" id="Fig322"></a>
+<img src="images/fig322.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 322. One of the partial pollinia, torn up at top to
+show the grains (which are each composed of four), and highly
+magnified.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Section_X" id="Section_X"></a><span class="smcap">Section X.</span> PISTILS IN PARTICULAR.</h2>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_X_1" id="Subsect_X_1">� 1.</a> ANGIOSPERMOUS OR ORDINARY GYN&OElig;CIUM.</h3>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_300" id="UNIT_300">300.</a> <b>Gyn&oelig;cium</b> is the technical name for the pistil or pistils of a
+flower taken collectively, or for whatever stands in place of these. The
+various modifications of the gyn&oelig;cium and the terms which relate to
+them require particular attention.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_301" id="UNIT_301">301.</a> The <span class="smcap">Pistil</span>, when only one, occupies the centre of the flower; when
+there are two pistils, they stand facing each other in the centre of the
+flower; when several, they commonly form a ring or circle; and when very
+numerous, they are generally crowded in rows or spirals on the surface
+of a more or less enlarged or elongated receptacle. Their number gives
+rise to certain terms, the counterpart of those used for stamens (<a href="#UNIT_284">284</a>),
+which are survivals of the names of orders in the Linn�an artificial
+system. The names were coined by prefixing Greek numerals to <i>-gynia</i>
+used for gyn&oelig;cium, and changed into adjectives in the form of
+<i>-gynous</i>. That is, a flower is</p>
+
+<p><i>Monogynous</i>, when it has a single pistil, whether that be simple or
+compound;</p>
+
+<p><i>Digynous</i>, when it has only two pistils; <i>Trigynous</i>, when with three;
+<i>Tetragynous</i>, with four; <i>Pentagynous</i>, with five; <i>Hexagynous</i>, with
+six; and so on to <i>Polygynous</i>, with many pistils.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_302" id="UNIT_302">302.</a> <b>The Parts of a Complete Pistil</b>, as already twice explained (<a href="#UNIT_16">16</a>,
+<a href="#UNIT_236">236</a>), are the <span class="smcap">Ovary</span>, the <span class="smcap">Style</span>, and the <span class="smcap">Stigma</span>. The ovary is one
+essential part: it contains the rudiments of seeds, called <span class="smcap">Ovules</span>. The
+stigma at the summit is also essential: it receives the pollen, which
+fertilizes the ovules in order that they may become seeds. But the
+style, commonly a tapering or slender column borne on the summit of the
+ovary, and bearing the stigma on its apex or its side, is no more
+necessary to a pistil than the filament is to the stamen. Accordingly,
+there is no style in many pistils: in these the stigma is <i>sessile</i>,
+that is, rests directly on the ovary (as in Fig. <a href="#Fig326">326</a>). The stigma is
+very various in shape and appearance, being sometimes a little knob (as
+in the Cherry, Fig. <a href="#Fig270">271</a>), sometimes a point or small surface of bare
+tissue (as in Fig. <a href="#Fig326">327-330</a>), and sometimes a longitudinal crest or line
+(as in Fig. <a href="#Fig323">324</a>, <a href="#Fig341">341-343</a>), or it may occupy the whole length of the
+style, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig331">331</a>.</p>
+
+<p>303. The word Pistil (Latin, <i>Pistillum</i>) means a pestle. It came into
+use in the first place for such flowers as those of Crown Imperial, or
+Lily, in which the pistil in the centre was likened to the pestle, and
+the perianth around it to the mortar, of the apothecary.</p>
+
+<p>304. A pistil is either <i>simple</i> or <i>compound</i>. It is simple when it
+answers to a single flower-leaf, compound when it answers to two or
+three, or a fuller circle of such leaves conjoined.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span></p><p><a name="UNIT_305" id="UNIT_305">305.</a> <b>Carpels.</b> It is convenient to have a name for each flower-leaf of
+the gyn&oelig;cium; so it is called a <i>Carpel</i>, in Latin <i>Carpellum</i> or
+<i>Carpidium</i>. A simple pistil is a carpel. Each component flower-leaf of
+a compound pistil is likewise a carpel. When a flower has two or more
+pistils, these of course are simple pistils, that is, separate carpels
+or pistil-leaves. There may be only a single simple pistil to the
+flower, as in a Pea or Cherry blossom (Fig. <a href="#Fig270">271</a>); there may be two such,
+as in many Saxifrages; or many, as in the Strawberry. More commonly the
+single pistil in the centre of a blossom is a compound one. Then there
+is seldom much difficulty in ascertaining the number of carpels or
+pistil-leaves that compose it.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_306" id="UNIT_306">306.</a> <b>The Simple Pistil</b>, viewed morphologically, answers to a leaf-blade
+with margins incurved and united where they meet, so forming a closed
+case or pod (the ovary), and bearing ovules at the suture or junction of
+these margins: a tapering upper portion with margins similarly inrolled,
+is supposed to form the style; and these same margins, exposed at the
+tip or for a portion of the length, become the stigma. Compare, under
+this view, the three accompanying figures.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig323" id="Fig323"></a>
+<img src="images/fig323_325.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 323. An inrolled small leaf, such as in
+double-flowered Cherry blossoms is often seen to occupy the place of a
+pistil.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 324. A simple pistil (of Isopyrum), with ovary cut
+across; the inner (ventral) face turned toward the eye: the ovules seem
+to be borne on the ventral suture, answering to leaf-margins: the stigma
+above seen also to answer to leaf-margins.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 325. Pod or simple pistil of Caltha or
+Marsh-Marigold, which has opened, and shed its seeds.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>307. So a simple pistil should have a one-celled ovary, only one line of
+attachment for the ovules, a single style, and a single stigma. Certain
+variations from this normal condition which sometimes occur do not
+invalidate this morphological conception. For instance, the stigma may
+become two-lobed or two-ridged, because it consists of two leaf-margins,
+as Fig. <a href="#Fig323">324</a> shows; it may become 2-locellate by the turning or growing
+inward of one of the sutures, so as to divide the cavity.</p>
+
+<p>308. There are two or three terms which primarily relate to the parts of
+a simple pistil or carpel, and are thence carried on to the compound
+pistil, viz.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Ventral Suture</span>, the line which answers to the united margins of the
+carpel-leaf, therefore naturally called a suture or seam, and the
+ventral or inner one, because in the circle of carpel-leaves it looks
+inward or to the centre of the flower.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Dorsal Suture</span> is the line down the back of the carpel, answering to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>the
+midrib of the leaf,&mdash;not a seam therefore; but at maturity many fruits,
+such as pea-pods, open by this dorsal as well as by the ventral line.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Placenta</span>, a name given to the surface, whatever it be, which bears the
+ovules and seeds. The name may be needless when the ovules grow directly
+on the ventral suture, or from its top or bottom; but when there are
+many ovules there is usually some expansion of an ovule-bearing or
+seed-bearing surface; as is seen in our Mandrake or Podophyllum, Fig.
+<a href="#Fig326">326</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig326" id="Fig326"></a>
+<img src="images/fig326_330.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 326. Simple pistil of Podophyllum, cut across,
+showing ovules borne on placenta.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 327. Pistil of a Saxifrage, of two simple carpels or
+pistil-leaves, united at the base only, cut across both above and
+below.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 328. Compound 3-carpellary pistil of common St.
+John's-wort, cut across: the three styles separate.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 329. The same of shrubby St. John's-wort; the three
+styles as well as ovaries here united into one.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 330. Compound 3-carpellary pistil of Tradescantia or
+Spiderwort; the three stigmas as well as styles and ovary completely
+coalescent into one.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_309" id="UNIT_309">309.</a> <b>A Compound Pistil</b> is a combination of two, three, or a greater
+number of pistil-leaves or carpels in a circle, united into one body, at
+least by their ovaries. The annexed figures should make it clear. A
+series of Saxifrages might be selected the gyn&oelig;cium of which would
+show every gradation between two simple pistils, or separate carpels,
+and their complete coalescence into one compound and two-celled ovary.
+Even when the constituent styles and stigmas are completely coalescent
+into one, the nature of the combination is usually revealed by some
+external lines or grooves, or (as in Fig. <a href="#Fig326">328-330</a>) by the internal
+partitions, or the number of the placent�. The simplest case of compound
+pistil is that</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_310" id="UNIT_310">310.</a> <b>With two or more Cells and Axile Placent�</b>, namely, with as many
+cells as there are carpels, that have united to compose the organ. <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>Such
+a pistil is just what would be formed if the simple pistils (two, three,
+or five in a circle, as the case may be), like those of a P�ony or
+Stonecrop (Fig. <a href="#Fig224">224, 225</a>), pressed together in the centre of the flower,
+were to cohere by their contiguous parts. In such a case the placent�
+are naturally <i>axile</i>, or all brought together in the axis or centre;
+and the ovary has as many <span class="smcap">Dissepiments</span>, or internal <i>Partitions</i>, as
+there are carpels in its composition. For these are the contiguous and
+coalescent walls or sides of the component carpels. When such pistils
+ripen into pods, they often separate along these lines into their
+elementary carpels.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig331" id="Fig331"></a>
+<img src="images/fig331_332.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 331, 332. Pistil of a Sandwort, with vertical and
+transverse section of the ovary: free central placenta.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_311" id="UNIT_311">311.</a> <b>One-celled, with free Central Placenta.</b> The commoner case is that
+of Purslane (Fig. <a href="#Fig270">272</a>) and of the Pink and Chickweed families (Fig. <a href="#Fig331">331,
+332</a>). This is explained by supposing that the partitions (such as those
+of Fig. <a href="#Fig326">329</a>) have early vanished or have been suppressed. Indeed, traces
+of them may often be detected in Pinks. On the other hand, it is equally
+supposable that in the Primula family the free central is derived from
+parietal placentation by the carpels bearing ovules only at base, and
+forming a consolidated common placenta in the axis. Mitella and Dion�a
+help out this conception.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig333" id="Fig333"></a>
+<img src="images/fig333.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 333. Plan of a one-celled ovary of three
+carpel-leaves, with parietal placent�, cut across below, where it is
+complete; the upper part showing the top of the three leaves it is
+composed of, approaching, but not united.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig334" id="Fig334"></a>
+<img src="images/fig334_336.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 334. Cross section of the ovary of Frost weed
+(Helianthemum), with three parietal placent�, bearing ovules.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 335. Cross section of an ovary of Hypericum
+graveolens, the three large placent� meeting in the centre, so as to
+form a three-celled ovary. 336. Same in fruit, the placent� now separate
+and rounded.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_312" id="UNIT_312">312.</a> <b>One-celled, with Parietal Placent�.</b> In this not uncommon case it is
+conceived that the two or three or more carpel-leaves of such a compound
+pistil coalesce by their adjacent edges, just as sepal-leaves do to form
+a gamosepalous calyx, or petals to form a gamopetalous corolla, and as
+is shown in the diagram, Fig. <a href="#Fig333">333</a>, and in an actual cross-section, Fig.
+<a href="#Fig334">334</a>. Here each carpel is an open leaf, or with some introflexion,
+bearing ovules along its margins; and each placenta consists of the
+contiguous <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>margins of two pistil-leaves grown together. There is every
+gradation between this and the three-celled ovary with the placent� in
+the axis, even in the same genus, sometimes even in different stages in
+the same pistil (Fig. <a href="#Fig334">335, 336</a>).</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_X_2" id="Subsect_X_2">� 2.</a> GYMNOSPERMOUS GYN&OElig;CIUM.</h3>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_313" id="UNIT_313">313.</a> The ordinary pistil has a closed ovary, and accordingly the pollen
+can act upon the contained ovules only indirectly, through the stigma.
+This is expressed in a term of Greek derivation, viz.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Angiospermous</i>, meaning that the seeds are borne in a sac or closed
+vessel. The counterpart term is</p>
+
+<p><i>Gymnospermous</i>, meaning naked-seeded. This kind of pistil, or
+gyn&oelig;cium, the simplest of all, yet the most peculiar, characterizes
+the Pine family and its relatives.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig337" id="Fig337"></a>
+<img src="images/fig337.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 337. A pistil, that is, a scale of the cone, of a
+Larch, at the time of flowering; inside view, showing its pair of naked
+ovules.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig338" id="Fig338"></a>
+<img src="images/fig338_339.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 338. Branchlet of the American Arbor-Vit�,
+considerably larger than in nature, terminated by its pistillate
+flowers, each consisting of a single scale (an open pistil), together
+forming a small cone.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 339. One of the scales or carpels of the last,
+removed and more enlarged, the inside exposed to view, showing a pair of
+ovules on its base.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>314. While the ordinary simple pistil is conceived by the botanist to be
+a leaf rolled together into a closed pod (<a href="#UNIT_306">306</a>), those of the Pine, Larch
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig337">337</a>), Cedar, and Arbor-Vit� (Fig. <a href="#Fig338">338, 339</a>) are open leaves, in
+the form of scales, each bearing two or more ovules on the inner face,
+next the base. At the time of blossoming, these pistil-leaves of the
+young cone diverge, and the pollen, so abundantly shed from the
+staminate blossoms, falls directly upon the exposed ovules. Afterward
+the scales close over each other until the seeds are ripe. Then they
+separate that the seeds may be shed. As the pollen acts directly on the
+ovules, such pistil (or organ acting as pistil) has no stigma.</p>
+
+<p>315. In the Yew, and in Torreya and Gingko, the gyn&oelig;cium is reduced
+to extremest simplicity, that is, to a naked ovule, without any visible
+carpel.</p>
+
+<p>316. In Cycas the large naked ovules are borne on the margins or lobes
+of an obvious open leaf. All <span class="smcap">Gymnospermous</span> plants have other
+peculiarities, also distinguishing them, as a class, from <span class="smcap">Angiospermous</span>
+plants.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Section_XI" id="Section_XI"></a><span class="smcap">Section XI.</span> OVULES.</h2>
+
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_317" id="UNIT_317">317.</a> <b>Ovule</b> (from the Latin, meaning a little egg) is the technical name
+of that which in the flower answers to and becomes the seed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig340" id="Fig340"></a>
+<img src="images/fig340.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 340. A cluster of ovules, pendulous on their
+funicles.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>318. Ovules are <i>naked</i> in gymnospermous plants (as just described), in
+all others they are enclosed in the ovary. They may be produced along
+the whole length of the cell or cells of the ovary, and then they are
+apt to be numerous, or only from some part of it, generally the top or
+the bottom. In this case they are usually few or single (<i>solitary</i>, as
+in Fig. <a href="#Fig341">341-343</a>). They may be <i>sessile</i>, i. e. without stalk, or they
+may be attached by a distinct stalk, the <span class="smcap">Funicle</span> or <span class="smcap">Funiculus</span> (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig340">340</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig341" id="Fig341"></a>
+<img src="images/fig341_343.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 341. Section of the ovary of a Buttercup,
+lengthwise, showing its ascending ovule.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 342. Section of the ovary of Buckwheat, showing the
+erect ovule.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 343. Section of the ovary of Anemone, showing its
+suspended ovule.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>319. Considered as to then position and direction in the ovary, they are</p>
+
+<p><i>Horizontal</i>, when they are neither turned upward nor downward, as in
+Podophyllum (Fig. <a href="#Fig326">326</a>),</p>
+
+<p><i>Ascending</i>, when rising obliquely upwards, usually from the side of the
+cell, not from its very base, as in the Buttercup (Fig. <a href="#Fig341">341</a>), and the
+Purslane (Fig. <a href="#Fig270">272</a>),</p>
+
+<p><i>Erect</i>, when rising upright from the very base of the cell, as in the
+Buckwheat (Fig. <a href="#Fig341">342</a>),</p>
+
+<p><i>Pendulous</i>, when hanging from the side or from near the top, as in the
+Flax (Fig. <a href="#Fig270">270</a>), and</p>
+
+<p><i>Suspended</i>, when hanging perpendicularly from the very summit of the
+cell, as in the Anemone (Fig. <a href="#Fig341">343</a>). All these terms equally apply to
+seeds.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_320" id="UNIT_320">320.</a> In structure an ovule is a pulpy mass of tissue, usually with one
+or two coats or coverings. The following parts are to be noted, viz.&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Kernel</span> or <span class="smcap">Nucleus</span>, the body of the ovule. In the Mistletoe and some
+related plants, there is only this nucleus, the coats being wanting.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Teguments</span>, or coats, sometimes only one, more commonly two. When two,
+one has been called <span class="smcap">Primine</span>, the other <span class="smcap">Secundine</span>. It will serve all
+purposes to call them simply outer and inner ovule coats.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Orifice</span>, or <span class="smcap">Foramen</span>, an opening through the coats at the organic apex of
+the ovule. In the seed it is <i>Micropyle</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chalaza</span>, the place where the coats and the kernel of the ovule blend.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hilum</span>, the place of junction of the funiculus with the body of the
+ovule.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span></p><div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig344" id="Fig344"></a>
+<img src="images/fig344_347.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 344. Orthotropous ovule of Buckwheat: <i>c</i>, hilum
+and chalaza; <i>f</i>, orifice.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 345. Campylotropous ovule of a Chickweed: <i>c</i>, hilum
+and chalaza; <i>f</i>, orifice.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 346. Amphitropous ovule of Mallow: <i>f</i>, orifice;
+<i>h</i>, hilum; <i>r</i>, rhaphe; <i>c</i>, chalaza.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 347. Anatropous ovule of a Violet, the parts
+lettered as in the last.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_321" id="UNIT_321">321.</a> <b>The Kinds of Ovules.</b> The ovules in their growth develop in three or
+four different ways and thereby are distinguished into</p>
+
+<p><i>Orthotropous</i> or <i>Straight</i>, those which develop without curving or
+turning, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig344">344</a>. The chalaza is at the insertion or base, the
+foramen or orifice is at the apex. This is the simplest, but the least
+common kind of ovule.</p>
+
+<p><i>Campylotropous</i> or <i>Incurved</i>, in which, by the greater growth of one
+side, the ovule curves into a kidney-shaped outline, so bringing the
+orifice down close to the base or chalaza; as in Fig. <a href="#Fig344">345</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Amphitropous</i> or <i>Half Inverted</i>, Fig. <a href="#Fig344">346</a>. Here the forming ovule,
+instead of curving perceptibly, keeps its axis nearly straight, and, as
+it grows, turns round upon its base so far as to become transverse to
+its funiculus, and adnate to its upper part for some distance. Therefore
+in this case the attachment of the funiculus or stalk is about the
+middle, the chalaza is at one end, the orifice at the other.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig348" id="Fig348"></a>
+<img src="images/fig348_354.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 348-350. Three early stages in the growth of ovule
+of a Magnolia, showing the forming outer and inner coats which even in
+the later figure have not yet completely enclosed the nucleus; 351,
+further advanced, and 352, completely anatropous ovule.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 353. Longitudinal section, and 354, transverse
+section of 352.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig355" id="Fig355"></a>
+<img src="images/fig355.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 355. Same as 353, enlarged showing the parts in
+section: <i>a</i>, outer coat; <i>b</i>, inner coat; <i>c</i>, nucleus; <i>d</i>, rhaphe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Anatropous</i> or <i>Inverted</i>, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig344">347</a>, the commonest kind, so
+called because in its growth it has as it were turned over upon its
+stalk, to which it has continued adnate. The organic base, or chalaza,
+thus becomes the apparent summit, and the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>orifice is at the base, by
+the side of the hilum or place of attachment. The adnate portion of the
+funiculus, which appears as a ridge or cord extending from the hilum to
+the chalaza, and which distinguishes this kind of ovule, is called the
+<span class="smcap">Rhaphe</span>. The amphitropous ovule (Fig. <a href="#Fig344">346</a>) has a short or incomplete
+rhaphe.</p>
+
+<p>322. Fig. <a href="#Fig348">348-352</a> show the stages through which an ovule becomes
+anatropous in the course of its growth. The annexed two figures are
+sections of such an ovule at maturity; and Fig. <a href="#Fig355">355</a> is Fig. <a href="#Fig348">353</a>
+enlarged, with the parts lettered.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2><a name="Section_XII" id="Section_XII"></a><span class="smcap">Section XII.</span> MODIFICATIONS OF THE RECEPTACLE.</h2>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig356" id="Fig356"></a>
+<img src="images/fig356_359.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 356. Longitudinal section of flower of Silene
+Pennsylvanica, showing stipe between calyx and corolla.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 357. Flower of a Cleome of the section Gynandropsis,
+showing broadened receptacle to bear petals, lengthened stipe below the
+stamens, and another between these and pistil.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 358. Pistil of Geranium or Cranesbill.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 359. The same, ripe, with the five carpels splitting
+away from the long beak (carpophore), and hanging from its top by their
+recurving styles.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_323" id="UNIT_323">323.</a> <b>The Torus</b> or Receptacle of the flower (<a href="#UNIT_237">237</a>, Fig. <a href="#Fig222">223</a>) is the
+portion which belongs to the stem or axis. In all preceding
+illustrations it is small and short. But it sometimes lengthens,
+sometimes thickens or variously enlarges, and takes on various forms.
+Some of these have received special names, very few of which are in
+common use. A lengthened portion of the receptacle is called</p>
+
+<p>A <span class="smcap">Stipe</span>. This name, which means simply a trunk or stalk, is used in
+botany for various stalks, even for the leaf-stalk in Ferns. It is also
+applied to the stalk or petiole of a carpel, in the rare cases when
+there is any, as in <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>Goldthread. Then it is technically distinguished as
+a <span class="smcap">Thecaphore</span>. When there is a stalk, or lengthened internode of
+receptacle, directly under a compound pistil, as in Stanleya and some
+other Crucifer�, it is called a <span class="smcap">Gynophore</span>. When the stalk is developed
+below the stamens, as in most species of Silene (Fig. <a href="#Fig356">356</a>), it has been
+called an <span class="smcap">Anthophore</span> or <span class="smcap">Gonophore</span>. In Fig. <a href="#Fig356">357</a> the torus is dilated
+above the calyx where it bears the petals, then there is a long
+internode (gonophore) between it and the stamens; then a shorter one
+(gynophore) between these and the pistil.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_324" id="UNIT_324">324.</a> <b>A Carpophore</b> is a prolongation of receptacle or axis between the
+carpels and bearing them. Umbelliferous plants and Geranium (Fig. <a href="#Fig356">358,
+359</a>) afford characteristic examples.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig360" id="Fig360"></a>
+<img src="images/fig360_362.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 360. Longitudinal section of a young strawberry,
+enlarged.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 361. Similar section of a young Rose-hip.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 362. Enlarged and top-shaped receptacle of
+Nelumbium, at maturity.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>325. Flowers with very numerous simple pistils generally have the
+receptacle enlarged so as to give them room; sometimes becoming broad
+and flat, as in the Flowering Raspberry, sometimes elongated, as in the
+Blackberry, the Magnolia, etc. It is the receptacle in the Strawberry
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig360">360</a>), much enlarged and pulpy when ripe, which forms the eatable
+part of the fruit, and bears the small seed-like pistils on its surface.
+In the Rose (Fig. <a href="#Fig360">361</a>), instead of being convex or conical, the
+receptacle is deeply concave, or urn-shaped. Indeed, a Rose-hip may be
+likened to a strawberry turned inside out, like the finger of a glove
+reversed, and the whole covered by the adherent tube of the calyx. The
+calyx remains beneath in the strawberry.</p>
+
+<p>326. In Nelumbium, of the Water-Lily family, the singular and greatly
+enlarged receptacle is shaped like a top, and bears the small pistils
+immersed in separate cavities of its flat upper surface (Fig. <a href="#Fig360">362</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig363" id="Fig363"></a>
+<img src="images/fig363.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 363. Hypogynous disk in Orange.
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_327" id="UNIT_327">327.</a> <b>A Disk</b> is an enlarged low receptacle or an outgrowth from it,
+<i>hypogynous</i> when underneath the pistil, as in Rue and the Orange (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig363">363</a>), and <i>perigynous</i> when adnate to calyx-tube (as in Buckthorn, Fig.
+<a href="#Fig364">364, 365</a>), and Cherry (Fig. <a href="#Fig270">271</a>), or <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>to both calyx-tube and ovary, as
+in Hawthorn (Fig. <a href="#Fig273">273</a>). A flattened hypogynous disk, underlying the
+ovary or ovaries, and from which they fall away at maturity, is
+sometimes called a <span class="smcap">Gynobase</span>, as in the Rue family. In some Borragineous
+flowers, such as Houndstongue, the gynobase runs up in the centre
+between the carpels into a carpophore. The so-called <i>epigynous</i> disk
+(or <span class="smcap">Stylopodium</span>) crowning the summit of the ovary in flowers of
+Umbellifer�, etc., cannot be said to belong to the receptacle.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig364" id="Fig364"></a>
+<img src="images/fig364_365.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 364. Flower of a Buckthorn showing a conspicuous
+perigynous disk.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 365. Vertical section of same flower.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2><a name="Section_XIII" id="Section_XIII"></a><span class="smcap">Section XIII.</span> FERTILIZATION.</h2>
+
+
+<p>328. The end of the flower is attained when the ovules become seeds. A
+flower remains for a certain time (longer or shorter according to the
+species) in <i>anthesis</i>, that is, in the proper state for the fulfilment
+of this end. During anthesis, the ovules have to be fertilized by the
+pollen; or at least some pollen has to reach the stigma, or in
+gymnospermy the ovule itself, and to set up the peculiar growth upon its
+moist and permeable tissue, which has for result the production of an
+embryo in the ovules. By this the ovules are said to be <i>fertilized</i>.
+The first step is <i>pollination</i>, or, so to say, the sowing of the proper
+pollen upon the stigma, where it is to germinate.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_XIII_1" id="Subsect_XIII_1">� 1.</a> ADAPTATIONS FOR POLLINATION OF THE STIGMA.</h3>
+
+<p>329. These various and ever-interesting adaptations and processes are
+illustrated in the "Botanical Text Book, Structural Botany," chap. VI.
+sect. iv., also in a brief and simple way in "Botany for Young People,
+How Plants Behave." So mere outlines only are given here.</p>
+
+<p>330. Sometimes the application of pollen to the stigma is left to
+chance, as in di&oelig;cious wind-fertilized flowers; sometimes it is
+rendered very sure, as in flowers that are fertilized in the bud;
+sometimes the pollen is prevented from reaching the stigma of the same
+flower, although placed very near to it, but then there are always
+arrangements for its transference to the stigma of some other blossom of
+the kind. It is among these last that the most exquisite adaptations are
+met with.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_331" id="UNIT_331">331.</a> Accordingly, some flowers are particularly adapted to close or
+self-fertilization; others to cross fertilization; some for either,
+according to circumstances.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span></p><p><i>Close Fertilization</i> occurs when the pollen reaches and acts upon a
+stigma of the very same flower (this is also called self-fertilization),
+or, less closely, upon other blossoms of the same cluster or the same
+individual plant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cross Fertilization</i> occurs when ovules are fertilized by pollen of
+other individuals of the same species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hybridization</i> occurs when ovules are fertilized by pollen of some
+other (necessarily some nearly related) species.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_332" id="UNIT_332">332.</a> <b>Close Fertilization</b> would seem to be the natural result in ordinary
+hermaphrodite flowers; but it is by no means so in all of them. More
+commonly the arrangements are such that it takes place only after some
+opportunity for cross fertilization has been afforded. But close
+fertilization is inevitable in what are called</p>
+
+<p><i>Cleistogamous Flowers</i>, that is, in those which are fertilized in the
+flower-bud, while still unopened. Most flowers of this kind, indeed,
+never open at all; but the closed floral coverings are forced off by the
+growth of the precociously fertilized pistil. Common examples of this
+are found in the earlier blossoms of Specularia perfoliata, in the later
+ones of most Violets, especially the stemless species, in our wild Jewel
+weeds or Impatiens, in the subterranean shoots of Amphicarp�a. Every
+plant which produces these cleistogamous or bud-fertilized flowers bears
+also more conspicuous and open flowers, usually of bright colors. The
+latter very commonly fail to set seed, but the former are prolific.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_333" id="UNIT_333">333.</a> <b>Cross Fertilization</b> is naturally provided for in di&oelig;cious plants
+(<a href="#UNIT_249">249</a>), is much favored in mon&oelig;cious plants (<a href="#UNIT_249">249</a>), and hardly less so
+in dichogamous and in heterogonous flowers (<a href="#UNIT_338">338</a>). Cross fertilization
+depends upon the transportation of pollen; and the two principal agents
+of conveyance are winds and insects. Most flowers are in their whole
+structure adapted either to the one or to the other.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_334" id="UNIT_334">334.</a> <b>Wind-fertilizable or Anemophilous</b> flowers are more commonly
+di&oelig;cious or mon&oelig;cious, as in Pines and all coniferous trees, Oaks,
+and Birches, and Sedges; yet sometimes hermaphrodite, as in Plantains
+and most Grasses; they produce a superabundance of very light pollen,
+adapted to be wind-borne; and they offer neither nectar to feed winged
+insects, nor fragrance nor bright colors to attract them.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_335" id="UNIT_335">335.</a> <b>Insect-fertilizable or Entomophilous</b> flowers are those which are
+sought by insects, for pollen or for nectar, or for both. Through their
+visits pollen is conveyed from one flower and from one plant to another.
+Insects are attracted to such blossoms by their bright colors, or their
+fragrance, or by the nectar (the material of honey) there provided for
+them. While supplying their own needs, they carry pollen from anthers to
+stigmas and from plant to plant, thus bringing about a certain amount of
+cross fertilization. Willows and some other di&oelig;cious flowers are so
+fertilized, chiefly by bees. But most insect-visited flowers have the
+stamens and pistils associated either in the same or in contiguous
+blossoms. Even when in the same blossom, anthers and stigmas are very
+commonly so situated <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>that under insect-visitation, some pollen is more
+likely to be deposited upon other than upon own stigmas, so giving a
+chance for cross as well as for close fertilization. On the other hand,
+numerous flowers, of very various kinds, have their parts so arranged
+that they must almost necessarily be cross-fertilized or be barren, and
+are therefore dependent upon the aid of insects. This aid is secured by
+different exquisite adaptations and contrivances, which would need a
+volume for full illustration. Indeed, there is a good number of volumes
+devoted to this subject.<a name="FNanchor_1_2" id="FNanchor_1_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_2" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<p>336. Some of the adaptations which favor or ensure cross fertilization
+are peculiar to the particular kind of blossom. Orchids, Milkweeds,
+Kalmia, Iris, and papilionaceous flowers each have their own special
+contrivances, quite different for each.</p>
+
+<p>337. Irregular flowers (<a href="#UNIT_253">253</a>) and especially irregular corollas are
+usually adaptations to insect-visitation. So are all <i>Nectaries</i>,
+whether hollow spurs, sacs, or other concavities in which nectar is
+secreted, and all <i>nectariferous glands</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_338" id="UNIT_338">338.</a> Moreover, there are two arrangements for cross fertilization common
+to hermaphrodite flowers in various different families of plants, which
+have received special names, <i>Dichogamy</i> and <i>Heterogony</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_339" id="UNIT_339">339.</a> <b>Dichogamy</b> is the commoner case. Flowers are <i>dichogamous</i> when the
+anthers discharge their pollen either before or after the stigmas of
+that flower are in a condition to receive it. Such flowers are</p>
+
+<p><i>Proterandrous</i>, when the anthers are earlier than the stigmas, as in
+Gentians, Campanula, Epilobium, etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>Proterogynous</i>, when the stigmas are mature and moistened for the
+reception of pollen, before the anthers of that blossom are ready to
+supply it, and are withered before that pollen can be supplied.
+Plantains or Ribworts (mostly wind-fertilized) are strikingly
+proterogynous: so is Amorpha, our Papaws, Scrophularia, and in a less
+degree the blossom of Pears, Hawthorns, and Horse-chestnut.</p>
+
+<p>340. In Sabbatia, the large-flowered species of Epilobium, and
+strikingly in Clerodendron, the dichogamy is supplemented and perfected
+by movements of the stamens and style, one or both, adjusted to make
+sure of cross fertilization.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_341" id="UNIT_341">341.</a> <b>Heterogony.</b> This is the case in which hermaphrodite and fertile
+flowers of two sorts are produced on different individuals of the same
+species; one sort having higher anthers and lower stigmas, the other
+having higher stigmas and lower anthers. Thus reciprocally disposed, a
+visiting insect carries pollen from the high anthers of the one to the
+high stigma of the other, and from the low anthers of the one to the low
+stigma of the other. These plants are practically as if di&oelig;cious,
+with the advantage that <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>both kinds are fruitful. Houstonia and
+Mitchella, or Partridge-berry, are excellent and familiar examples.
+These are cases of</p>
+
+<p><i>Heterogone Dimorphism</i>, the relative lengths being only short and long
+reciprocally.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heterogone Trimorphism</i>, in which there is a mid-length as well as a
+long and a short set of stamens and style; occurs in Lythrum Salicaria
+and some species of Oxalis.</p>
+
+<p>342. There must be some essential advantage in cross fertilization or
+cross breeding. Otherwise all these various, elaborate, and exquisitely
+adjusted adaptations would be aimless. Doubtless the advantage is the
+same as that which is realized in all the higher animals by the
+distinction of sexes.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_XIII_2" id="Subsect_XIII_2">� 2.</a> ACTION OF POLLEN, AND FORMATION OF THE EMBRYO.</h3>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_343" id="UNIT_343">343.</a> <b>Pollen-growth.</b> A grain of pollen may be justly likened to one of
+the simple bodies (<i>spores</i>) which answer for seeds in Cryptogamous
+plants. Like one of these, it is capable of germination. When deposited
+upon the moist surface of the stigma (or in some cases even when at a
+certain distance) it grows from some point, its living inner coat
+breaking through the inert outer coat, and protruding in the form of a
+delicate tube. This as it lengthens penetrates the loose tissue of the
+stigma and of a loose conducting tissue in the style, feeds upon the
+nourishing liquid matter there provided, reaches the cavity of the
+ovary, enters the orifice of an ovule, and attaches its extremity to a
+sac, or the lining of a definite cavity, in the ovule, called the
+<i>Embryo-Sac</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_344" id="UNIT_344">344.</a> <b>Origination of the Embryo.</b> A globule of living matter in the
+embryo-sac is formed, and is in some way placed in close proximity to
+the apex of the pollen tube; it probably absorbs the contents of the
+latter; it then sets up a special growth, and the <i>Embryo</i> (<a href="#UNIT_8">8-10</a>) or
+rudimentary plantlet in the seed is the result.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_2" id="Footnote_1_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_2"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Beginning with one by C. C. Sprengel in 1793, and again in
+our day with Darwin, "On the Various Contrivances by which Orchids are
+fertilized by Insects," and in succeeding works.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2><a name="Section_XIV" id="Section_XIV"></a><span class="smcap">Section XIV.</span> THE FRUIT.</h2>
+
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_345" id="UNIT_345">345.</a> <b>Its Nature.</b> The ovary matures into the Fruit. In the strictest
+sense the fruit is the seed-vessel, technically named the <span class="smcap">Pericarp</span>. But
+practically it may include other parts organically connected with the
+pericarp. Especially the calyx, or a part of it, is often incorporated
+with the ovary, so as to be undistinguishably a portion of the pericarp,
+and it even forms along with the receptacle the whole bulk of such
+edible fruits as apples and pears. The receptacle is an obvious part in
+blackberries, and is the whole edible portion in the strawberry.</p>
+
+<p>346. Also a cluster of distinct carpels may, in ripening, be
+consolidated or compacted, so as practically to be taken for one fruit.
+Such are raspberries, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>blackberries, the Magnolia fruit, etc. Moreover,
+the ripened product of many flowers may be compacted or grown together
+so as to form a single compound fruit.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_347" id="UNIT_347">347.</a> <b>Its kinds</b> have therefore to be distinguished. Also various names of
+common use in descriptive botany have to be mentioned and defined.</p>
+
+<p>348. In respect to composition, accordingly, fruits may be classified
+into</p>
+
+<p><i>Simple</i>, those which result from the ripening of a single pistil, and
+consist only of the matured ovary, either by itself, as in a cherry, or
+with calyx-tube completely incorporated with it, as in a gooseberry or
+cranberry.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aggregate</i>, when a cluster of carpels of the same flower are crowded
+into a mass; as in raspberries and blackberries.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig366" id="Fig366"></a>
+<img src="images/fig366_367.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 366. Forming fruit (capsule) of Gaultheria, with
+calyx thickening around its base. 367. Section of same mature, the
+berry-like calyx nearly enclosing the capsule.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig368" id="Fig368"></a>
+<img src="images/fig368_370.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 368. Section of a part of a strawberry. Compare with
+Fig. <a href="#Fig360">360</a>.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 369. Similar section of part of a blackberry. 370.
+One of its component simple fruits (drupe) in section, showing the pulp,
+stone, and contained seed; more enlarged. Compare with Fig. <a href="#Fig375">375</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Accessory</i> or <i>Anthocarpous</i>, when the surroundings or supports of the
+pistil make up a part of the mass; as does the loose calyx changed into
+a fleshy and berry-like envelope of our Wintergreen (Gaultheria, Fig.
+<a href="#Fig366">366, 367</a>) and Buffalo-berry, which are otherwise simple fruits. In an
+aggregate fruit such as the strawberry the great mass is receptacle
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig360">360</a>, <a href="#Fig368">368</a>); and in the blackberry (Fig. <a href="#Fig368">369</a>) the juicy receptacle
+forms the central part of the savory mass.</p>
+
+<p><i>Multiple</i> or <i>Collective</i>, when formed from several flowers
+consolidated into one mass, of which the common receptacle or axis of
+inflorescence, the floral envelopes, and even the bracts, etc., make a
+part. A mulberry (Fig. <a href="#Fig405">408</a>, which superficially much resembles a
+blackberry) is of this multiple sort. A pine-apple is another example.</p>
+
+<p>349. In respect to texture or consistence, fruits may be distinguished
+into three kinds, viz.&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Fleshy Fruits</i>, those which are more or less soft and juicy throughout;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span></p><p><i>Stone Fruits</i>, or <i>Drupaceous</i>, the outer part fleshy like a berry,
+the inner hard or stony, like a nut; and</p>
+
+<p><i>Dry Fruits</i>, those which have no flesh or pulp.</p>
+
+<p>350. In reference to the way of disseminating the contained seed, fruits
+are said to be</p>
+
+<p><i>Indehiscent</i> when they do not open at maturity. Fleshy fruits and stone
+fruits are of course indehiscent. The seed becomes free only through
+decay or by being fed upon by animals. Those which escape digestion are
+thus disseminated by the latter. Of dry fruits many are indehiscent; and
+these are variously arranged to be transported by animals. Some burst
+irregularly; many are</p>
+
+<p><i>Dehiscent</i>, that is, they split open regularly along certain lines, and
+discharge the seeds. A dehiscent fruit almost always contains many or
+several seeds, or at least more than one seed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig371" id="Fig371"></a>
+<img src="images/fig371_374.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 371. Leafy shoot and berry (cut across) of the
+larger Cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 372, 373. Pepo of Gourd, in section. 373. One carpel
+of same in diagram.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 374. Longitudinal and transverse sections of a pear
+(pome).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>351. The principal kinds of fruit which have received substantive names
+and are of common use in descriptive botany are the following. Of fleshy
+fruits the leading kind is</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_352" id="UNIT_352">352.</a> <b>The Berry</b>, such as the gooseberry and currant, the blueberry and
+cranberry (Fig. <a href="#Fig371">371</a>), the tomato, and the grape. Here the whole flesh is
+soft throughout. The orange is a berry with a leathery rind.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_353" id="UNIT_353">353.</a> <b>The Pepo</b>, or <i>Gourd-fruit</i>, is a hard-rinded berry, belonging to
+the Gourd family, such as the pumpkin, squash, cucumber, and melon, Fig.
+<a href="#Fig371">372, 373</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_354" id="UNIT_354">354.</a> <b>The Pome</b> is a name applied to the apple, pear (Fig. <a href="#Fig371">374</a>), and
+quince; fleshy fruits, like a berry, but the principal thickness is
+calyx, only <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>the papery pods arranged like a star in the core really
+belonging to the carpels. The fruit of the Hawthorn is a drupaceous
+pome, something between pome and drupe.</p>
+
+<p>355. Of fruits which are externally fleshy and internally hard the
+leading kind is</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_356" id="UNIT_356">356.</a> <b>The Drupe</b>, or <i>Stone-fruit</i>; of which the cherry, plum, and peach
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig375">375</a>) are familiar examples. In this the outer part of the
+thickness of the pericarp becomes fleshy, or softens like a berry, while
+the inner hardens, like a nut. From the way in which the pistil is
+constructed, it is evident that the fleshy part here answers to the
+lower, and the stone to the upper face of the component leaf. The layers
+or concentric portions of a drupe, or of any pericarp which is thus
+separable, are named, when thus distinguishable into three portions,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Epicarp</i>, the external layer, often the mere skin of the fruit,</p>
+
+<p><i>Mesocarp</i>, the middle layer, which is commonly the fleshy part, and</p>
+
+<p><i>Endocarp</i>, the innermost layer, the stone. But more commonly only two
+portions of a drupe are distinguished, and are named, the outer one</p>
+
+<p><i>Sarcocarp</i> or <i>Exocarp</i>, for the flesh, the first name referring to the
+fleshy character, the second to its being an external layer; and</p>
+
+<p><i>Putamen</i> or <i>Endocarp</i>, the <i>Stone</i>, within.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig375" id="Fig375"></a>
+<img src="images/fig375.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 375. Longitudinal section of a peach, showing flesh,
+stone, and seed.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>357. The typical or true drupe is of a single carpel. But, not to
+multiply technical names, this name is extended to all such fruits when
+fleshy without and stony within, although of compound pistil,&mdash;even to
+those having several or separable stones, such as the fruit of Holly.
+These stones in such drupes, or drupaceous fruits, are called <i>Pyren�</i>,
+or <i>Nucules</i>, or simply <i>Nutlets</i> of the drupe.</p>
+
+<p>358. Of Dry fruits, there is a greater diversity of kinds having
+distinct names. The indehiscent sorts are commonly one-seeded.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig376" id="Fig376"></a>
+<img src="images/fig376_378.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 376. Akene of a Buttercup. 377. The same, divided
+lengthwise, to show the contained seed.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 378. Akene of Virgin's-bower, retaining the
+feathered style, which aids in dissemination.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_359" id="UNIT_359">359.</a> <b>The Akene or Achenium</b> is a small, dry and indehiscent one-seeded
+fruit, often so seed-like in appearance that it is popularly taken for a
+naked seed. The fruit of the Buttercup or Crowfoot is a good example,
+Fig. <a href="#Fig376">376, 377</a>. Its nature, as a ripened pistil (in this <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>case a simple
+carpel), is apparent by its bearing the remains of a style or stigma, or
+a scar from which this has fallen. It may retain the style and use it in
+various ways for dissemination (Fig. <a href="#Fig376">378</a>).</p>
+
+<p>360. The fruit of Composit� (though not of a single carpel) is also an
+akene. In this case the pericarp is invested by an adherent calyx-tube;
+the limb of which, when it has any, is called the <span class="smcap">Pappus</span>. This name was
+first given to the down like that of the Thistle, but is applied to all
+forms under which the limb of the calyx of the "compound flower"
+appears. In Lettuce, Dandelion (Fig. <a href="#Fig379">384</a>), and the like, the achenium as
+it matures tapers upwards into a slender beak, like a stalk to the
+pappus.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig379" id="Fig379"></a>
+<img src="images/fig379_384.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 379. Akene of Mayweed (no pappus). 380. That of
+Succory (its pappus a shallow cup). 381. Of Sunflower (pappus of two
+deciduous scales). 382. Of Sneezeweed (Helenium), with its pappus of
+five scales. 383. Of Sow-Thistle, with its pappus of delicate downy
+hairs. 384. Of the Dandelion, its pappus raised on a long beak.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_361" id="UNIT_361">361.</a> <b>A Cremocarp</b> (Fig. <a href="#Fig385">385</a>), a name given to the fruit of Umbellifer�,
+consists as it were of a pair of akenes united completely in the
+blossom, but splitting apart when ripe into the two closed carpels. Each
+of these is a <i>Mericarp</i> or <i>Hemicarp</i>, names seldom used.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_362" id="UNIT_362">362.</a> <b>A Utricle</b> is the same as an akene, but with a thin and bladdery
+loose pericarp; like that of the Goosefoot or Pigweed (Fig. <a href="#Fig386">386</a>). When
+ripe it may burst open irregularly to discharge the seed; or it may open
+by a circular line all round, the upper part falling off like a lid; as
+in the Amaranth (Fig. <a href="#Fig386">387</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig385" id="Fig385"></a>
+<img src="images/fig385.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 385. Fruit (cremocarp) of Osmorrhiza; the two
+akene-like ripe carpels separating at maturity from a slender axis or
+carpophore.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig386" id="Fig386"></a>
+<img src="images/fig386_387.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 386. Utricle of the common Pigweed (Chenopodium
+album).</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 387. Utricle (pyxis) of Amaranth, opening all round
+(circumscissile).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_363" id="UNIT_363">363.</a> <b>A Caryopsis, or Grain</b>, is like an akene with the seed adhering to
+the thin pericarp throughout, so that fruit and seed are incorporated
+into one body; as in wheat, Indian corn, and other kinds of grain.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_364" id="UNIT_364">364.</a> <b>A Nut</b> is a dry and indehiscent fruit, commonly one-celled and
+one-seeded, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>with a hard, crustaceous, or bony wall, such as the
+cocoa-nut, hazelnut, chestnut, and the acorn (Fig. <a href="#Fig36">37</a>, <a href="#Fig388">388</a>.) Here the
+involucre, in the form of a cup at the base, is called the <span class="smcap">Cupule</span>. In
+the Chestnut the cupule forms the bur; in the Hazel, a leafy husk.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig388" id="Fig388"></a>
+<img src="images/fig388.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 388. Nut (acorn) of the Oak, with its cup or
+cupule.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_365" id="UNIT_365">365.</a> <b>A Samara, or Key-fruit</b>, is either a nut or an akene, or any other
+indehiscent fruit, furnished with a wing, like that of Ash (Fig. <a href="#Fig389">389</a>),
+and Elm (Fig. <a href="#Fig389">390</a>). The Maple-fruit is a pair of keys (Fig. <a href="#Fig389">391</a>).</p>
+
+<p>366. Dehiscent Fruits, or Pods, are of two classes, viz., those of a
+simple pistil or carpel, and those of a compound pistil. Two common
+sorts of the first are named as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_367" id="UNIT_367">367.</a> <b>The Follicle</b> is a fruit of a simple carpel, which dehisces down one
+side only, i. e. by the inner or ventral suture. The fruits of Marsh
+Marigold (Fig. <a href="#Fig389">392</a>), P�ony, Larkspur, and Milkweed are of this kind.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig389" id="Fig389"></a>
+<img src="images/fig389_394.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 389. Samara or key of the White Ash, winged at end.
+390. Samara of the American Elm, winged all round.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 391. Pair of samaras of Sugar Maple.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 392. Follicle of Marsh Marigold (Caltha palustris).</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 393. Legume of a Sweet Pea, opened.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 394. Loment or jointed legume of a Tick-Trefoil
+(Desmodium).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_368" id="UNIT_368">368.</a> <b>The Legume</b> or true Pod, such as the peapod (Fig. <a href="#Fig389">393</a>), and the
+fruit of the Leguminous or Pulse family generally, is one which opens
+along the dorsal as well as the ventral suture. The two pieces into
+which it splits are called <span class="smcap">Valves</span>. A <span class="smcap">Loment</span> is a legume which is
+constricted between the seeds, and at length breaks up crosswise into
+distinct joints, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig389">394</a>.</p>
+
+<p>369. The pods or dehiscent fruits belonging to a compound ovary have
+several technical names: but they all may be regarded as kinds of</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_370" id="UNIT_370">370.</a> <b>The Capsule</b>, the dry and dehiscent fruit of any compound pistil.
+The capsule may discharge its seeds through chinks or pores, as in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>Poppy, or burst irregularly in some part, as in Lobelia and the
+Snapdragon; but commonly it splits open (or is <i>dehiscent</i>) lengthwise
+into regular pieces, called <span class="smcap">Valves</span>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig395" id="Fig395"></a>
+<img src="images/fig395_396.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 395. Capsule of Iris, with loculicidal dehiscence;
+below, cut across.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 396. Pod of a Marsh St. John's-wort, with septicidal
+dehiscence.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_371" id="UNIT_371">371.</a> Regular <i>Dehiscence</i> in a capsule takes place in two ways, which
+are best illustrated in pods of two or three cells. It is either</p>
+
+<p><i>Loculicidal</i>, or, splitting directly into the <i>loculi</i> or cells, that
+is, down the back (or the dorsal suture) of each cell or carpel, as in
+Iris (Fig. <a href="#Fig395">395</a>); or</p>
+
+<p><i>Septicidal</i>, that is, splitting through the partitions or <i>septa</i>, as
+in St. John's-wort (Fig. <a href="#Fig395">396</a>), Rhododendron, etc. This divides the
+capsule into its component carpels, which then open by their ventral
+suture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig397" id="Fig397"></a>
+<img src="images/fig397_400.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 397, 398. Diagrams of the two modes.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 399. Diagram of septifragal dehiscence of the
+loculicidal type. 400. Same of the septicidal or <i>marginicidal</i> type.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>372. In loculicidal dehiscence the valves naturally bear the partitions
+on their middle; in the septicidal, half the thickness of a partition is
+borne on the margin of each valve. See the annexed diagrams. A variation
+of either mode occurs when the valves break away from the partitions,
+these remaining attached in the axis of the fruit. This is called
+<i>Septifragal</i> dehiscence. One form is seen in the Morning-Glory (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig397">400</a>).</p>
+
+<p>373. The capsules of Rue, Spurge, and some others, are both loculicidal
+and septicidal, and so split into half-carpellary valves or pieces.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_374" id="UNIT_374">374.</a> <b>The Silique</b> (Fig. <a href="#Fig401">401</a>) is the technical name of the peculiar pod of
+the Mustard family; which is two-celled by a false partition stretched
+across between two parietal placent�. It generally opens by two valves
+from below upward, and the placent� with the partition are left behind
+when the valves fall off.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_375" id="UNIT_375">375.</a> <b>A Silicle or Pouch</b> is only a short and broad silique, like that of
+the Shepherd's Purse, Fig. <a href="#Fig401">402, 403</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span></p><div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig401" id="Fig401"></a>
+<img src="images/fig401_404.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 401. Silique of a Cadamine or Spring Cress.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 402. Silicle of Shepherd's Purse.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 403. Same, with one valve removed.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 404. Pyxis of Purslane, the lid detaching.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_376" id="UNIT_376">376.</a> <b>The Pyxis</b> is a pod which opens by a circular horizontal line, the
+upper part forming a lid, as in Purslane (Fig. <a href="#Fig401">404</a>), the Plantain,
+Henbane, etc. In these the dehiscence extends all round, or is
+<i>circumscissile</i>. So it does in Amaranth (Fig. <a href="#Fig386">387</a>), forming a
+one-seeded utricular pyxis. In Jeffersonia, the line does not separate
+quite round, but leaves a portion for a hinge to the lid.</p>
+
+<p>377. Of Multiple or Collective Fruits, which are properly masses of
+fruits aggregated into one body (as is seen in the Mulberry (Fig. <a href="#Fig405">408</a>),
+Pine-apple, etc.), there are two kinds with special names and of
+peculiar structure.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig405" id="Fig405"></a>
+<img src="images/fig405_410.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 405. A fig-fruit when young. 406. Same in section.
+407. Magnified portion, a slice, showing some of the flowers.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 408. A mulberry. 409. One of the grains younger,
+enlarged; seen to be a pistillate flower with calyx becoming fleshy.
+410. Same, with fleshy calyx cut across.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_378" id="UNIT_378">378.</a> <b>The Syconium or Fig-fruit</b> (Fig. <a href="#Fig405">405, 406</a>) is a fleshy axis or
+summit of stem, hollowed out, and lined within by a multitude of minute
+flowers, the whole becoming pulpy, and in the common fig, luscious.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_379" id="UNIT_379">379.</a> <b>The Strobile or Cone</b> (Fig. <a href="#Fig411">411</a>), is the peculiar multiple fruit of
+Pines, Cypresses, and the like; hence named <i>Conifer�</i>, viz.
+cone-bearing <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>plants. As already shown (<a href="#UNIT_313">313</a>), these cones are <i>open
+pistils</i>, mostly in the form of flat scales, regularly overlying each
+other, and pressed together in a spike or head. Each scale bears one or
+two naked seeds on its inner face. When ripe and dry, the scales turn
+back or diverge, and in the Pine the seed peels off and falls, generally
+carrying with it a wing, a part of the lining of the scale, which
+facilitates the dispersion of the seeds by the wind (Fig. <a href="#Fig411">412, 413</a>). In
+Arbor-Vit�, the scales of the small cone are few, and not very unlike
+the leaves. In Cypress they are very thick at the top and narrow at the
+base, so as to make a peculiar sort of closed cone. In Juniper and Red
+Cedar, the few scales of the very small cone become fleshy, and ripen
+into a fruit which closely resembles a berry.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig411" id="Fig411"></a>
+<img src="images/fig411_413.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 411. Cone of a common Pitch Pine. 412. Inside view
+of a separated scale or open carpel; one seed in place: 413, the other
+seed.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2><a name="Section_XV" id="Section_XV"></a><span class="smcap">Section XV.</span> THE SEED.</h2>
+
+
+<p>380. Seeds are the final product of the flower, to which all its parts
+and offices are subservient. Like the ovule from which it originates, a
+seed consists of coats and kernel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig414" id="Fig414"></a>
+<img src="images/fig414.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 414. Seed of a Linden or Basswood cut through
+lengthwise, and magnified, the parts lettered: <i>a</i>, the hilum or scar;
+<i>b</i>, the outer coat; <i>c</i>, the inner; <i>d</i>, the albumen; <i>e</i>, the embryo.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_381" id="UNIT_381">381.</a> <b>The Seed-coats</b> are commonly two (<a href="#UNIT_320">320</a>), the outer and the inner.
+Fig. <a href="#Fig414">414</a> shows the two, in a seed cut through lengthwise. The outer coat
+is often hard or crustaceous, whence it is called the <i>Testa</i>, or shell
+of the seed; the inner is almost always thin and delicate.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig415" id="Fig415"></a>
+<img src="images/fig415_416.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 415. A winged seed of the Trumpet-Creeper.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 416. One of Catalpa, the kernel cut to show the
+embryo.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig417" id="Fig417"></a>
+<img src="images/fig417.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 417. Seed of Milkweed, with a <i>Coma</i> or tuft of long
+silky hairs at one end.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>382. The shape and the markings, so various in different seeds, depend
+mostly on the outer coat. Sometimes this fits the kernel closely;
+sometimes it is expanded into a <i>wing</i>, as in the Trumpet-Creeper (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig415">415</a>), and occasionally this wing is cut up into shreds or tufts, as in
+the Catalpa (Fig. <a href="#Fig415">416</a>); or instead of a wing it may bear a <i>Coma</i>, or
+tuft of long and soft hairs, as in the Milkweed or Silkweed (Fig. <a href="#Fig417">417</a>).
+The use of wings, or downy tufts is to render the seeds buoyant <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>for
+dispersion by the winds. This is clear, not only from their evident
+adaptation to this purpose, but also from the fact that winged and
+tufted seeds are found only in fruits that split open at maturity, never
+in those that remain closed. The coat of some seeds is beset with long
+hairs or wool. <i>Cotton</i>, one of the most important vegetable products,
+since it forms the principal clothing of the larger part of the human
+race, consists of the long and woolly hairs which thickly cover the
+whole surface of the seed. There are also crests or other appendages of
+various sorts on certain seeds. A few seeds have an additional, but more
+or less incomplete covering, outside of the real seed-coats called an</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_383" id="UNIT_383">383.</a> <b>Aril, or Arillus.</b> The loose and transparent bag which encloses the
+seed of the White Water-Lily (Fig. <a href="#Fig418">418</a>) is of this kind. So is the
+<i>mace</i> of the nutmeg; and also the scarlet pulp around the seeds of the
+Waxwork (Celastrus) and Strawberry-bush (Euonymus). The aril is a growth
+from the extremity of the seed-stalk, or from the placenta when there is
+no seed-stalk.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig418" id="Fig418"></a>
+<img src="images/fig418.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 418. Seed of White Water Lily, enclosed in its
+aril.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>384. A short and thickish appendage at or close to the hilum in certain
+seeds is called a <span class="smcap">Caruncle</span> or <span class="smcap">Strophiole</span> (Fig. <a href="#Fig419">419</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig419" id="Fig419"></a>
+<img src="images/fig419.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 419. Seed of Ricinus or Castor oil plant, with
+caruncle.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>385. The various terms which define the position or direction of the
+ovule (erect, ascending, etc.) apply equally to the seed: so also the
+terms anatropous, orthotropous, campylotropous, etc., as already defined
+(<a href="#UNIT_320">320</a>, <a href="#UNIT_321">321</a>), and such terms as</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hilum</span>, or <i>Scar</i> left where the seed-stalk or funiculus falls away, or
+where the seed was attached directly to the placenta when there is no
+seed-stalk.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Rhaphe</span>, the line or ridge which runs from the hilum to the chalaza in
+anatropous and amphitropous seeds.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Chalaza</span>, the place where the seed-coats and the kernel or nucleus are
+organically connected,&mdash;at the hilum in orthotropous and campylotropous
+seeds, at the extremity of the rhaphe or tip of the seed in other kinds.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Micropyle</span>, answering to the <i>Foramen</i> or orifice of the ovule. Compare
+the accompanying figures and those of the ovules, Fig. <a href="#Fig341">341</a>-<a href="#Fig355">355</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span></p><div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig420" id="Fig420"></a>
+<img src="images/fig420_423.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 420. Seed of a Violet (anatropous): <i>a</i>, hilum;
+<i>b</i>, rhaphe; <i>c</i>, chalaza.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 421. Seed of a Larkspur (also anatropous); the parts
+lettered as in the last.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 422. The same, cut through lengthwise: <i>a</i>, the
+hilum; <i>c</i>, chalaza; <i>d</i>, outer seed coat; <i>e</i>, inner seed-coat; <i>f</i>,
+the albumen; <i>g</i>, the minute embryo.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 423. Seed of a St. John's-wort, divided lengthwise;
+here the whole kernel is embryo.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_386" id="UNIT_386">386.</a> <b>The Kernel, or Nucleus</b>, is the whole body of the seed within the
+coats. In many seeds the kernel is all <i>Embryo</i>; in others a large part
+of it is the <i>Albumen</i>. For example, in Fig. <a href="#Fig420">423</a>, it is wholly embryo;
+in Fig. <a href="#Fig420">422</a>, all but the small speck (<i>g</i>) is albumen.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_387" id="UNIT_387">387.</a> <b>The Albumen or Endosperm</b> of the seed is sufficiently characterized
+and its office explained in Sect. III., <a href="#UNIT_31">31-35</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_388" id="UNIT_388">388.</a> <b>The Embryo</b> or <i>Germ</i>, which is the rudimentary plantlet and the
+final result of blossoming, and its development in germination have been
+extensively illustrated in Sections <a href="#Section_II">II.</a> and <a href="#Section_III">III.</a> Its essential parts are
+the <i>Radicle</i> and the <i>Cotyledons</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_389" id="UNIT_389">389.</a> <b>Its Radicle or Caulicle</b> (the former is the term long and generally
+used in botanical descriptions, but the latter is the more correct one,
+for it is the initial stem, which merely gives origin to the root), as
+to its position in the seed, always points to and lies near the
+micropyle. In relation to the pericarp it is</p>
+
+<p><i>Superior</i>, when it points to the apex of the fruit or cell, and</p>
+
+<p><i>Inferior</i>, when it points to its base, or downward.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig424" id="Fig424"></a>
+<img src="images/fig424.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 424. Embryo of Calycanthus; upper part cut away, to
+show the convolute cotyledons.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_390" id="UNIT_390">390.</a> <b>The Cotyledons</b> have already been illustrated as respects their
+number,&mdash;giving the important distinction of <i>Dicotyledonous</i>,
+<i>Polycotyledonous</i> and <i>Monocotyledonous</i> embryos (<a href="#UNIT_36">36-43</a>),&mdash;also as
+regards their thickness, whether <i>foliaceous</i> or <i>fleshy</i>; and some of
+the very various shapes and adaptations to the seed have been figured.
+They may be straight, or folded, or rolled up. In the latter case the
+cotyledons may be rolled up as it were from one margin, as in
+Calycanthus (Fig. <a href="#Fig424">424</a>), or from apex to base in a flat spiral, or they
+may be both folded (<i>plicate</i>) and rolled up (<i>convolute</i>), as in Sugar
+Maple (Fig. <a href="#Fig11">11</a>.) In one very natural family, the Crucifer�, two
+different modes prevail in the way the two cotyledons are brought round
+against the radicle. In one series they are</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span></p><p><i>Accumbent</i>, that is, the edges of the flat cotyledons lie against the
+radicle, as in Fig. <a href="#Fig425">425, 426</a>. In another they are</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig425" id="Fig425"></a>
+<img src="images/fig425_426.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 425. Seed of Bitter Cress, Barbarea, cut across to
+show the accumbent cotyledons. 426. Embryo of same, whole.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Incumbent</i>, or with the plane of the cotyledons brought up in the
+opposite direction, so that the back of one of them lies against the
+radicle, as shown in Fig. <a href="#Fig427">427, 428</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig427" id="Fig427"></a>
+<img src="images/fig427_428.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 427. Seed of a Sisymbrium, cut across to show the
+incumbent cotyledons. 428. Embryo of the same, detached whole.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>391. As to the situation of the embryo with respect to the albumen of
+the seed, when this is present in any quantity, the embryo may be
+<i>Axile</i>, that is occupying the axis or centre, either for most of its
+length, as in Violet (Fig. <a href="#Fig429">429</a>), Barberry (Fig. <a href="#Fig46">48</a>), and Pine (Fig. <a href="#Fig56">56</a>);
+and in these it is straight. But it may be variously curved or coiled in
+the albumen, as in Helianthemum (Fig. <a href="#Fig429">430</a>), in a Potato-seed (Fig. <a href="#Fig46">50</a>),
+or Onion-seed (Fig. <a href="#Fig58">60</a>), and Linden (Fig. <a href="#Fig414">414</a>); or it may be coiled
+around the outside of the albumen, partly or into a circle, as in
+Chickweed (Fig. <a href="#Fig431">431, 432</a>) and in Mirabilis (Fig. <a href="#Fig46">52</a>). The latter mode
+prevails in Campylotropous seeds. In the cereal grains, such as Indian
+Corn (Fig. <a href="#Fig62">67</a>) and Rice (Fig. <a href="#Fig429">430<sup><i>a</i></sup></a>), and in all other Grasses, the
+embryo is straight and applied to the outside of the abundant albumen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig429" id="Fig429"></a>
+<img src="images/fig429_430.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 429. Section of seed of Violet; anatropous with
+straight axile embryo in the albumen. 430. Section of seed of Rock Rose,
+Helianthemum Canadense; orthotropous, with curved embryo in the albumen.
+430<sup><i>a</i></sup>. Section of a grain of Rice, lengthwise, showing the embryo
+outside the albumen, which forms the principal bulk.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig431" id="Fig431"></a>
+<img src="images/fig431_432.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 431. Seed of a Chickweed, campylotropous. 432.
+Section of same, showing slender embryo coiled around the outside of the
+albumen of the kernel.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>392. The matured seed, with embryo ready to germinate and reproduce the
+kind, completes the cycle of the vegetable life in a phanerogamous
+plant, the account of which began with the seed and seedling.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2><a name="Section_XVI" id="Section_XVI"></a><span class="smcap">Section XVI.</span> VEGETABLE LIFE AND WORK.</h2>
+
+
+<p>393. The following simple outlines of the anatomy and physiology of
+plants (<a href="#UNIT_3">3</a>) are added to the preceding structural part for the better
+preparation of students in descriptive and systematic botany; also to
+give to all learners some general idea of the life, growth, intimate
+structure, and action of the beings which compose so large a part of
+organic nature. Those who would extend and verify the facts and
+principles here outlined will use the Physiological Botany of the
+"Botanical Text Book," by Professor Goodale, or some similar book.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p><h3><a name="Subsect_XVI_1" id="Subsect_XVI_1">� 1.</a> ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE AND GROWTH.</h3>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_394" id="UNIT_394">394.</a> <b>Growth</b> <i>is the increase of a living thing in size and substance</i>.
+It appears so natural that plants and animals should grow, that one
+rarely thinks of it as requiring explanation. It seems enough to say
+that a thing is so because it grew so. Growth from the seed, the
+germination and development of an embryo into a plantlet, and at length
+into a mature plant (as illustrated in Sections <a href="#Section_II">II.</a> and <a href="#Section_III">III.</a>), can be
+followed by ordinary observation. But the embryo is already a miniature
+plantlet, sometimes with hardly any visible distinction of parts, but
+often one which has already made very considerable growth in the seed.
+To investigate the formation and growth of the embryo itself requires
+well-trained eyes and hands, and the expert use of a good compound
+microscope. So this is beyond the reach of a beginner.</p>
+
+<p>395. Moreover, although observation may show that a seedling, weighing
+only two or three grains, may double its bulk and weight every week of
+its early growth, and may in time produce a huge amount of vegetable
+matter, it is still to be asked what this vegetable matter is, where it
+came from, and by what means plants are able to increase and accumulate
+it, and build it up into the fabric of herbs and shrubs and lofty trees.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_396" id="UNIT_396">396.</a> <b>Protoplasm.</b> All this fabric was built up under life, but only a
+small portion of it is at any one time alive. As growth proceeds, life
+is passed on from the old to the new parts, much as it has passed on
+from parent to offspring, from generation to generation in unbroken
+continuity. <i>Protoplasm</i> is the common name of that plant-stuff in which
+life essentially resides. All growth depends upon it; for it has the
+peculiar power of growing and multiplying and building up a living
+structure,&mdash;the animal no less than the vegetable structure, for it is
+essentially the same in both. Indeed, all the animal protoplasm comes
+primarily from the vegetable, which has the prerogative of producing it;
+and the protoplasm of plants furnishes all that portion of the food of
+animals which forms their flesh and living fabric.</p>
+
+<p>397. The very simplest plants (if such may specifically be called plants
+rather than animals, or one may say, the simplest living things) are
+mere particles, or pellets, or threads, or even indefinite masses of
+protoplasm of vague form, which possess powers of motion or of changing
+their shape, of imbibing water, air, and even other matters, and of
+assimilating these into plant-stuff for their own growth and
+multiplication. Their growth is increase in substance by incorporation
+of that which they take in and assimilate. Their multiplication is by
+spontaneous division of their substance or body into two or more, each
+capable of continuing the process.</p>
+
+<p>398. The embryo of a phanerogamous plant at its beginning (<a href="#UNIT_344">344</a>) is
+essentially such a globule of protoplasm, which soon constricts itself
+into two and more such globules, which hold together inseparably in a
+row; then the last of the row divides without separation in the two
+other planes, to <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>form a compound mass, each grain or globule of which
+goes on to double itself as it grows; and the definite shaping of this
+still increasing mass builds up the embryo into its form.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig433" id="Fig433"></a>
+<img src="images/fig433_436.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 433-436. Figures to illustrate the earlier stages in
+the formation of an embryo; a single mass of protoplasm (Fig. 433)
+dividing into two, three, and then into more incipient cells, which by
+continued multiplication build up an embryo.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_399" id="UNIT_399">399.</a> <b>Cell-walls.</b> While this growth was going on, each grain of the
+forming structure formed and clothed itself with a coat, thin and
+transparent, of something different from protoplasm,&mdash;something which
+hardly and only transiently, if at all, partakes of the life and action.
+The protoplasm forms the living organism; the coat is a kind of
+protective covering or shell. The protoplasm, like the flesh of animals
+which it gives rise to, is composed of four chemical elements: Carbon,
+Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen. The coating is of the nature of wood
+(is, indeed, that which makes wood), and has only the three elements,
+Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, in its composition.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig437" id="Fig437"></a>
+<img src="images/fig437.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 437. Magnified view of some of a simple fresh water
+Alga, the Tetraspora lubrica, each sphere of which may answer to an
+individual plant.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>400. Although the forming structure of an embryo in the fertilized ovule
+is very minute and difficult to see, there are many simple plants of
+lowest grade, abounding in pools of water, which more readily show the
+earlier stages or simplest states of plant-growth. One of these, which
+is common in early spring, requires only moderate magnifying power to
+bring to view what is shown in Fig. <a href="#Fig437">437</a>. In a slimy mass which holds all
+loosely together, little spheres of green vegetable matter are seen,
+assembled in fours, and these fours themselves in clusters of fours. A
+transient inspection shows, what prolonged watching would confirm, that
+each sphere divides first in one plane, then in the other, to make four,
+soon acquiring the size of the original, and so on, producing successive
+groups of fours. These pellets each form on their surface a transparent
+wall, like that just described. The delicate wall is for some time
+capable of expansive growth, but is from the first much firmer than the
+protoplasm within; through it the latter imbibes surrounding moisture,
+which becomes a watery sap, occupying vacuities in the protoplasmic mass
+which enlarge or run together as the periphery increases and distends.
+When full grown the protoplasm may become a mere lining to the wall, or
+some of it central, as a nucleus, this usually connected with the
+wall-lining by delicate threads of the same substance. So, when full
+grown, the wall with its lining&mdash;a vesicle, containing liquid or some
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>solid matters and in age mostly air&mdash;naturally came to be named a Cell.
+But the name was suggested by, and first used only for, cells in
+combination or built up into a fabric, much as a wall is built of
+bricks, that is, into a</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_401" id="UNIT_401">401.</a> <b>Cellular Structure or Tissue.</b> Suppose numerous cells like those of
+Fig. <a href="#Fig437">437</a> to be heaped up like a pile of cannon-balls, and as they grew,
+to be compacted together while soft and yielding; they would flatten
+where they touched, and each sphere, being touched by twelve surrounding
+ones would become twelve-sided. Fig. <a href="#Fig438">438</a> would represent one of them.
+Suppose the contiguous faces to be united into one wall or partition
+between adjacent cavities, and a <i>cellular structure</i> would be formed,
+like that shown in Fig. <a href="#Fig438">439</a>. Roots, stems, leaves, and the whole of
+phanerogamous plants are a fabric of countless numbers of such cells. No
+such exact regularity in size and shape is ever actually found; but a
+nearly truthful magnified view of a small portion of a slice of the
+flower-stalk of a Calla Lily (Fig. <a href="#Fig440">440</a>) shows a fairly corresponding
+structure; except that, owing to the great air-spaces of the interior,
+the fabric may be likened rather to a stack of chimneys than to a solid
+fabric. In young and partly transparent parts one may discern the
+cellular structure by looking down directly on the surface, as of a
+forming root. (Fig. <a href="#Fig81">82</a>, <a href="#Fig441">441, 442</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig438" id="Fig438"></a>
+<img src="images/fig438_439.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 438. Diagram of a vegetable cell, such as it would
+be if when spherical it were equally pressed by similar surrounding
+cells in a heap.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 439. Ideal construction of cellular tissue so
+formed, in section.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig440" id="Fig440"></a>
+<img src="images/fig440.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 440. Magnified view of a portion of a transverse
+slice of stem of Calla Lily. The great spaces are tubular air-channels
+built up by the cells.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_402" id="UNIT_402">402.</a> The substance of which cell-walls are mainly composed is called
+<span class="smcap">Cellulose</span>. It is essentially the same in the stem of a delicate leaf or
+petal and in the wood of an Oak, except that in the latter the walls are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>much thickened and the calibre small. The protoplasm of each living
+cell appears to be completely shut up and isolated in its shell of
+cellulose; but microscopic investigation has brought to view, in many
+cases, minute threads of protoplasm which here and there traverse the
+cell-wall through minute pores, thus connecting the living portion of
+one cell with that of adjacent cells. (See Fig. <a href="#Fig444">447</a>, &amp;c.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig441" id="Fig441"></a>
+<img src="images/fig441_442.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 441. Much magnified small portion of young root of a
+seedling Maple (such as of Fig. <a href="#Fig81">82</a>); and 442, a few cells of same more
+magnified. The prolongations from the back of some of the cells are root
+hairs.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>403. The hairs of plants are cells formed on the surface; either
+elongated single cells (like the root-hairs of Fig. <a href="#Fig441">441, 442</a>), or a row
+of shorter cells. Cotton fibres are long and simple cells growing from
+the surface of the seed.</p>
+
+<p>404. The size of the cells of which common plants are made up varies
+from about the thirtieth to the thousandth of an inch in diameter. An
+ordinary size of short or roundish cells is from 1/300 to 1/500 of an
+inch; so that there may generally be from 27 to 125 millions of cells in
+the compass of a cubic inch!</p>
+
+<p>405. Some parts are built up as a compact structure; in others cells are
+arranged so as to build up regular air-channels, as in the stems of
+aquatic and other water-loving plants (Fig. <a href="#Fig440">440</a>), or to leave irregular
+spaces, as in the lower part of most leaves, where the cells only here
+and there come into close contact (Fig. <a href="#Fig443">443</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig443" id="Fig443"></a>
+<img src="images/fig443.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 443. Magnified section through the thickness of a
+leaf of Florida Star-Anise.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>406. All such soft cellular tissue, like this of leaves, that of pith,
+and of the green bark, is called <span class="smcap">Parenchyma</span>, while fibrous and woody
+parts are composed of <span class="smcap">Prosenchyma</span>, that is, of peculiarly transformed</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_407" id="UNIT_407">407.</a> <b>Strengthening Cells.</b> Common cellular tissue, which makes up the
+whole structure of all very young plants, and the whole of Mosses and
+other vegetables of the lowest grade, even when full grown, is too
+tender or too brittle to give needful strength and toughness for plants
+which are to rise to any considerable height and support themselves. In
+these needful strength is imparted, and the conveyance of sap through
+the plant is facilitated, by the change, as they are formed, of some
+cells into thicker-walled and tougher tubes, and by the running together
+of some of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>these, or the prolongation of others, into hollow fibres or
+tubes of various size. Two sorts of such transformed cells go together,
+and essentially form the</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_408" id="UNIT_408">408.</a> <b>Wood.</b> This is found in all common herbs, as well as in shrubs and
+trees, but the former have much less of it in proportion to the softer
+cellular tissue. It is formed very early in the growth of the root,
+stem, and leaves,&mdash;traces of it appearing in large embryos even while
+yet in the seed. Those cells that lengthen, and at the same time thicken
+their walls form the proper <span class="smcap">Woody Fibre</span> or <span class="smcap">Wood-cells</span>; those of larger
+size and thinner walls, which are thickened only in certain parts so as
+to have peculiar markings, and which often are seen to be made up of a
+row of cylindrical cells, with the partitions between absorbed or broken
+away, are called <span class="smcap">Ducts</span>, or sometimes <span class="smcap">Vessels</span>. There are all gradations
+between wood-cells and ducts, and between both these and common cells.
+But in most plants the three kinds are fairly distinct.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig444" id="Fig444"></a>
+<img src="images/fig444_447.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 444. Magnified wood-cells of the bark (bast-cells)
+of Basswood, one and part of another. 445. Some wood cells from the wood
+(and below part of a duct); and 446, a detached wood-cell of the same;
+equally magnified.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 447. Some wood cells from Buttonwood, Platanus,
+highly magnified, a whole cell and lower end of another on the left; a
+cell cut half away lengthwise, and half of another on the right; some
+pores or pits (<i>a</i>) seen on the left; while <i>b b</i> mark sections through
+these on the cut surface. When living and young the protoplasm extends
+into these and by minuter perforations connects across them. In age the
+pits become open passages, facilitating the passage of sap and air.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>409. The proper cellular tissue, or <i>parenchyma</i>, is the ground-work of
+root, stem, and leaves; this is traversed, chiefly lengthwise, by the
+strengthening and conducting tissue, wood-cells and duct-cells, in the
+form of bundles or threads, which, in the stems and stalks of herbs are
+fewer and comparatively scattered, but in shrubs and trees so numerous
+and crowded that in the stems and all permanent parts they make a solid
+mass of wood. They extend into and ramify in the leaves, spreading out
+in a horizontal plane, as the framework of ribs and veins, which
+supports the softer cellular portion or parenchyma.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_410" id="UNIT_410">410.</a> <b>Wood-Cells, or Woody Fibres</b>, consist of tubes, commonly between one
+and two thousandths, but in Pine-wood sometimes two or three hundredths,
+of an inch in diameter. Those from the tough bark of the Basswood,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>shown in Fig. <a href="#Fig444">444</a>, are only the fifteen-hundredth of an inch wide.
+Those of Buttonwood (Fig. <a href="#Fig444">447</a>) are larger, and are here highly magnified
+besides. The figures show the way wood-cells are commonly put together,
+namely, with their tapering ends overlapping each other,&mdash;spliced
+together, as it were,&mdash;thus giving more strength and toughness. In hard
+woods, such as Hickory and Oak, the walls of these tubes are very thick,
+as well as dense; while in soft woods, such as White Pine and Basswood,
+they are thinner.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_411" id="UNIT_411">411.</a> Wood-cells in the bark are generally longer, finer, and tougher
+than those of the proper wood, and appear more like fibres. For example,
+Fig. <a href="#Fig444">446</a> represents a cell of the wood of Basswood of average length,
+and Fig. <a href="#Fig444">444</a> one (and part of another) of the fibrous bark, both drawn
+to the same scale. As these long cells form the principal part of
+fibrous bark, or <i>bast</i>, they are named <i>Bast-cells</i> or <i>Bast-fibres</i>.
+These give the great toughness and flexibility to the inner bark of
+Basswood (i. e. Bast-wood) and of Leatherwood; and they furnish the
+invaluable fibres of flax and hemp; the proper wood of their stems being
+tender, brittle, and destroyed by the processes which separate for use
+the tough and slender bast-cells. In Leatherwood (Dirca) the bast-cells
+are remarkably slender. A view of one, if magnified on the scale of Fig.
+<a href="#Fig444">444</a>, would be a foot and a half long.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig448" id="Fig448"></a>
+<img src="images/fig448_450.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 448. Magnified bit of a pine shaving, taken parallel
+with the silver grain. 449. Separate whole wood-cell, more magnified.
+450. Same, still more magnified; both sections represented: <i>a</i>, disks
+in section, <i>b</i>, in face.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>412. The wood-cells of Pines, and more or less of all other Coniferous
+trees, have on two of their sides very peculiar disk-shaped markings
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig448">448-450</a>) by which that kind of wood is recognizable.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig451" id="Fig451"></a>
+<img src="images/fig451_452.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 451, 452. A large and a smaller dotted duct from
+Grape-Vine.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_413" id="UNIT_413">413.</a> <b>Ducts</b>, also called <span class="smcap">Vessels</span>, are mostly larger than wood-cells:
+indeed, some of them, as in Red Oak, have calibre large enough to be
+discerned on a cross section by the naked eye. They make the visible
+porosity of such kinds of wood. This is particularly the case with</p>
+
+<p><i>Dotted</i> ducts (Fig. <a href="#Fig451">451, 452</a>), the surface of which appears as if
+riddled with round or oval pores. Such ducts are commonly made up of a
+row of large cells more or less confluent into a tube.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scalariform</i> ducts (Fig. <a href="#Fig453">458, 459</a>), common in Ferns, and generally
+angled by mutual pressure in the bundles, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>have transversely elongated
+thin places, parallel with each other, giving a ladder-like appearance,
+whence the name.</p>
+
+<p><i>Annular</i> ducts (Fig. <a href="#Fig453">457</a>) are marked with cross lines or rings, which
+are thickened portions of the cell-wall.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig453" id="Fig453"></a>
+<img src="images/fig453_459.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 453, 454. Spiral ducts which uncoil into a single
+thread. 455. Spiral duct which tears up as a band. 456. An annular duct,
+with variations above. 457. Loose spiral duct passing into annular. 458.
+Scalariform ducts of a Fern; part of a bundle, prismatic by pressure.
+459. One torn into a band.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Spiral</i> ducts or vessels (Fig. <a href="#Fig453">453-455</a>) have thin walls, strengthened
+by a spiral fibre adherent within. This is as delicate and as strong as
+spider-web: when uncoiled by pulling apart, it tears up and annihilates
+the cell-wall. The uncoiled threads are seen by gently pulling apart
+many leaves, such as those of Amaryllis, or the stalk of a Strawberry
+leaflet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig460" id="Fig460"></a>
+<img src="images/fig460_461.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 460. Milk Vessels of Dandelion, with cells of the
+common cellular tissue. 461. Others from the same older and gorged with
+milky juice. All highly magnified.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Laticiferous ducts</i>, <i>Vessels of the Latex</i>, or <i>Milk-vessels</i> are
+peculiar branching tubes which hold <i>latex</i> or milky juice in certain
+plants. It is very difficult to see them, and more so to make out their
+nature. They are peculiar in branching and inosculating, so as to make a
+net-work of tubes, running in among the cellular tissue; and they are
+very small, except when gorged and old (Fig. <a href="#Fig460">460, 461</a>).</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span></p><h3><a name="Subsect_XVI_2" id="Subsect_XVI_2">� 2.</a> CELL-CONTENTS.</h3>
+
+<p>414. The living contents of young and active cells are mainly protoplasm
+with water or watery sap which this has imbibed. Old and effete cells
+are often empty of solid matter, containing only water with whatever may
+be dissolved in it, or air, according to the time and circumstances. All
+the various products which plants in general elaborate, or which
+particular plants specially elaborate, out of the common food which they
+derive from the soil and the air, are contained in the cells, and in the
+cells they are produced.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_415" id="UNIT_415">415.</a> <b>Sap</b> is a general name for the principal liquid contents,&mdash;<i>Crude
+sap</i>, for that which the plant takes in, <i>Elaborated sap</i> for what it
+has digested or assimilated. They must be undistinguishably mixed in the
+cells.</p>
+
+<p>416. Among the solid matters into which cells convert some of their
+elaborated sap two are general and most important. These are
+<i>Chlorophyll</i> and <i>Starch</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_417" id="UNIT_417">417.</a> <b>Chlorophyll</b> (meaning <i>leaf-green</i>) is what gives the green color to
+herbage. It consists of soft grains of rather complex nature, partly
+wax-like, partly protoplasmic. These abound in the cells of all common
+leaves and the green rind of plants, wherever exposed to the light. The
+green color is seen through the transparent skin of the leaf and the
+walls of the containing cells. Chlorophyll is essential to ordinary
+assimilation in plants: by its means, under the influence of sunlight,
+the plant converts crude sap into vegetable matter.</p>
+
+<p>418. Far the largest part of all vegetable matter produced is that which
+goes to build up the plant's fabric or cellular structure, either
+directly or indirectly. There is no one good name for this most
+important product of vegetation. In its final state of cell-walls, the
+permanent fabric of herb and shrub and tree, it is called <i>Cellulose</i>
+(<a href="#UNIT_408">408</a>): in its most soluble form it is <i>Sugar</i> of one or another kind; in
+a less soluble form it is <i>Dextrine</i>, a kind of liquefied starch: in the
+form of solid grains stored up in the cells it is <i>Starch</i>. By a series
+of slight chemical changes (mainly a variation in the water entering
+into the composition), one of these forms is converted into another.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_419" id="UNIT_419">419.</a> <b>Starch</b> (<i>Farina</i> or <i>Fecula</i>) is the form in which this common
+plant material is, as it were, laid by for future use. It consists of
+solid grains, somewhat different in form in different plants, in size
+varying from 1/300 to 1/4000 of an inch, partly translucent when wet,
+and of a pearly lustre. From the concentric lines, which commonly appear
+under the microscope, the grains seem to be made up of layer over layer.
+When loose they are commonly oval, as in potato-starch (Fig. <a href="#Fig462">462</a>): when
+much compacted the grains may become angular (Fig. <a href="#Fig462">463</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig462" id="Fig462"></a>
+<img src="images/fig462_463.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 462. Some magnified starch-grains, in two cells of a
+potato. 463. Some cells of the albumen or floury part of Indian Corn,
+filled with starch-grains.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>420. The starch in a potato was produced in the foliage. In the soluble
+form of dextrine, or that of sugar, it was conveyed through the cells of
+the herbage and stalks to a subterranean shoot, and there stored up in
+the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>tuber. When the potato sprouts, the starch in the vicinity of
+developing buds or eyes is changed back again, first into mucilaginous
+dextrine, then into sugar, dissolved in the sap, and in this form it is
+made to flow to the growing parts, where it is laid down into cellulose
+or cell-wall.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig464" id="Fig464"></a>
+<img src="images/fig464_470.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 464. Four cells from dried Onion-peel, each holding
+a crystal of different shape, one of them twinned. 465. Some cells from
+stalk of Rhubarb-plant, three containing chlorophyll; two (one torn
+across) with rhaphides. 466. Rhaphides in a cell, from Aris�ma, with
+small cells surrounding. 467. Prismatic crystals from the bark of
+Hickory. 468. Glomerate crystal in a cell, from Beet-root. 469. A few
+cells of Locust-bark, a crystal in each. 470. A detached cell, with
+rhaphides being forced out, as happens when put in water.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>421. Besides these cell-contents which are in obvious and essential
+relation to nutrition, there are others the use of which is
+problematical. Of such the commonest are</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_422" id="UNIT_422">422.</a> <b>Crystals.</b> These when slender or needle-shaped are called <span class="smcap">Rhaphides</span>.
+They are of inorganic matter, usually of oxalate or phosphate or
+sulphate of lime. Some, at least of the latter, may be direct
+crystallizations of what is taken in dissolved in the water absorbed,
+but others must be the result of some elaboration in the plant. Some
+plants have hardly any; others abound in them, especially in the foliage
+and bark. In Locust-bark almost every cell holds a crystal; so that in a
+square inch not thicker than writing-paper there may be over a million
+and a half of them. When <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>needle-shaped (rhaphides), as in stalks of
+Calla-Lily, Rhubarb, or Four-o'clock, they are usually packed in
+sheaf-like bundles. (Fig. <a href="#Fig464">465, 466</a>.)</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_XVI_3" id="Subsect_XVI_3">� 3.</a> ANATOMY OF ROOTS AND STEMS.</h3>
+
+<p>423. This is so nearly the same that an account of the internal
+structure of stems may serve for the root also.</p>
+
+<p>424. At the beginning, either in the embryo or in an incipient shoot
+from a bud, the whole stem is of tender cellular tissue or parenchyma.
+But wood (consisting of wood-cells and ducts or vessels) begins to be
+formed in the earliest growth; and is from the first arranged in two
+ways, making two general kinds of wood. The difference is obvious even
+in herbs, but is more conspicuous in the enduring stems of shrubs and
+trees.</p>
+
+<p>425. On one or the other of these two types the stems of all
+phanerogamous plants are constructed. In one, the wood is made up of
+separate threads, scattered here and there throughout the whole diameter
+of the stem. In the other, the wood is all collected to form a layer (in
+a slice across the stem appearing as a ring) between a central cellular
+part which has none in it, the <i>Pith</i>, and an outer cellular part, the
+<i>Bark</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig471" id="Fig471"></a>
+<img src="images/fig471_473.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 471. Diagram of structure of Palm or Yucca. 472.
+Structure of a Corn stalk, in transverse and longitudinal section. 473.
+Same of a small Palm stem. The dots on the cross sections represent cut
+ends of the woody bundles or threads.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>426. An Asparagus-shoot and a Corn-stalk for herbs, and a rattan for a
+woody kind, represent the first kind. To it belong all plants with
+monocotyledonous embryo (<a href="#UNIT_40">40</a>). A Bean-stalk and the stem of any common
+shrub or tree represent the second; and to it belong all plants with
+dicotyledonous or polycotyledonous embryo. The first has been called,
+not very properly, <i>Endogenous</i>, which means inside-growing; the second,
+properly enough, <i>Exogenous</i>, or outside-growing.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_427" id="UNIT_427">427.</a> <b>Endogenous Stems</b>, those of Monocotyls (<a href="#UNIT_40">40</a>), attain their greatest
+size and most characteristic development in Palms and Dragon-trees,
+therefore chiefly in warm climates, although the Palmetto and some
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>Yuccas become trees along the southern borders of the United States. In
+such stems the woody bundles are more numerous and crowded toward the
+circumference, and so the harder wood is outside; while in an exogenous
+stem the oldest and hardest wood is toward the centre. An endogenous
+stem has no clear distinction of pith, bark, and wood, concentrically
+arranged, no silver grain, no annual layers, no bark that peels off
+clean from the wood. Yet old stems of Yuccas and the like, that continue
+to increase in diameter, do form a sort of layers and a kind of scaly
+bark when old. Yuccas show well the curving of the woody bundles (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig471">471</a>) which below taper out and are lost at the rind.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig474" id="Fig474"></a>
+<img src="images/fig474.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 474. Short piece of stem of Flax, magnified, showing
+the bark, wood, and pith in a cross section.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_428" id="UNIT_428">428.</a> <b>Exogenous Stems</b>, those of Dicotyls (<a href="#UNIT_37">37</a>), or of plants coming from
+dicotyledonous and also polycotyledonous embryos, have a structure which
+is familiar in the wood of our ordinary trees and shrubs. It is the same
+in an herbaceous shoot (such as a Flax-stem, Fig. <a href="#Fig474">474</a>) as in a
+Maple-stem of the first year's growth, except that the woody layer is
+commonly thinner or perhaps reduced to a circle of bundles. It was so in
+the tree-stem at the beginning. The wood all forms in a cylinder,&mdash;in
+cross section a ring&mdash;around a central cellular part, dividing the
+cellular core within, the pith, from a cellular bark without. As the
+wood-bundles increase in number and in size, they press upon each other
+and become wedge-shaped in the cross section; and they continue to grow
+from the outside, next the bark, so that they become very thin wedges or
+plates. Between the plates or wedges are very thin plates (in cross
+section lines) of much compressed cellular tissue, which connect the
+pith with the bark. The plan of a one-year-old woody stem of this kind
+is exhibited in the figures, which are essentially diagrams.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig475" id="Fig475"></a>
+<img src="images/fig475_477.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 475. Diagram of a cross section of a very young
+exogenous stem, showing six woody bundles or wedges. 476. Same later,
+with wedges increased to twelve. 477. Still later, the wedges filling
+the space, separated only by the thin lines, or medullary rays, running
+from pith to bark.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>429. When such a stem grows on from year to year, it adds annually a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>layer of wood outside the preceding one, between that and the bark.
+This is exogenous growth, or outside-growing, as the name denotes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig478" id="Fig478"></a>
+<img src="images/fig478_480.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 478. Piece of a stem of Soft Maple, of a year old,
+cut crosswise and lengthwise.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 479. A portion of the same, magnified.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 480. A small piece of the same, taken from one side,
+reaching from the bark to the pith, and highly magnified: <i>a</i>, a small
+bit of the pith; <i>b</i>, spiral ducts of what is called the <i>medullary
+sheath</i>; <i>c</i>, the wood; <i>d</i>, <i>d</i>, dotted ducts in the wood; <i>e</i>, <i>e</i>,
+annular ducts; <i>f</i>, the liber or inner bark; <i>g</i>, the green bark; <i>h</i>,
+the corky layer; <i>i</i>, the skin, or epidermis; <i>j</i>, one of the medullary
+rays, or plates of silver grain, seen on the cross-section.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>430. Some new bark is formed every year, as well as new wood, the former
+inside, as the latter is outside of that of the year preceding. The ring
+or zone of tender forming tissue between the bark and the wood has been
+called the <i>Cambium Layer</i>. <i>Cambium</i> is an old name of the
+physiologists for nutritive juice. And this thin layer is so gorged with
+rich nutritive sap when spring growth is renewed, that the bark then
+seems to be loose from the wood and a layer of viscid sap (or <i>cambium</i>)
+to be poured out between the two. But there is all the while a
+connection of the bark and the wood by delicate cells, rapidly
+multiplying and growing.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_431" id="UNIT_431">431.</a> <b>The Bark</b> of a year-old stem consists of three parts, more or less
+distinct, namely,&mdash;beginning next the wood,&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The <span class="smcap">Liber</span> or <span class="smcap">Fibrous Bark</span>, the <i>Inner Bark</i>. This contains some
+wood-cells, or their equivalent, commonly in the form of bast or
+bast-cells (<a href="#UNIT_411">411</a>, Fig. <a href="#Fig444">444</a>), such as those of Basswood or Linden, and
+among herbs those of flax and hemp, which are spun and woven or made
+into cordage. It also contains cells which are named <i>sieve</i>-cells, on
+account of numerous slits and pores in their walls, by which the
+protoplasm of contiguous cells communicates. In woody stems, whenever a
+new layer of wood is formed, some new liber or inner bark is also formed
+outside of it.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span></p><p>2. The <span class="smcap">Green Bark</span> or <i>Middle Bark</i>. This consists of cellular tissue
+only, and contains the same green matter (<i>chlorophyll</i>, <a href="#UNIT_417">417</a>) as the
+leaves. In woody stems, before the season's growth is completed, it
+becomes covered by</p>
+
+<p>3. The <span class="smcap">Corky Layer</span> or <i>Outer Bark</i>, the cells of which contain no
+chlorophyll, and are of the nature of <i>cork</i>. Common cork is the thick
+corky layer of the bark of the Cork-Oak of Spain. It is this which gives
+to the stems or twigs of shrubs and trees the aspect and the color
+peculiar to each,&mdash;light gray in the Ash, purple in the Red Maple, red
+in several Dogwoods, etc.</p>
+
+<p>4. The <span class="smcap">Epidermis</span>, or skin of the plant, consisting of a layer of
+thick-sided empty cells, which may be considered to be the outermost
+layer, or in most herbaceous stems the only layer, of cork-cells.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig481" id="Fig481"></a>
+<img src="images/fig481_482.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 481. Magnified view of surface of a bit of young
+Maple wood from which the bark has been torn away, showing the
+wood-cells and the bark-ends of medullary rays.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 482. Section in the opposite direction, from bark
+(on the left) to beginning of pith (on the right), and a medullary ray
+extending from one to the other.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>432. The green layer of bark seldom grows much after the first season.
+Sometimes the corky layer grows and forms new layers, inside of the old,
+for years, as in the Cork-Oak, the Sweet Gum-tree, and the White and the
+Paper Birch. But it all dies after a while; and the continual
+enlargement of the wood within finally stretches it more than it can
+bear, and sooner or later cracks and rends it, while the weather acts
+powerfully upon its surface; so the older bark perishes and falls away
+piecemeal year by year.</p>
+
+<p>433. So on old trunks only the inner bark remains. This is renewed every
+year from within and so kept alive, while the older and outer layers
+die, are fissured and rent by the distending trunk, weathered and worn,
+and thrown off in fragments,&mdash;in some trees slowly, so that the bark of
+old trunks may acquire great thickness; in others, more rapidly. In
+Honeysuckles and Grape-Vines, the layers of liber loosen and die when
+only a year or two old. The annual layers of liber are sometimes as
+distinct as those of the wood, but often not so.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span></p><p><a name="UNIT_434" id="UNIT_434">434.</a> <b>The Wood</b> of an exogenous trunk, having the old growths covered by
+the new, remains nearly unchanged in age, except from decay. Wherever
+there is an annual suspension and renewal of growth, as in temperate
+climates, the annual growths are more or less distinctly marked, in the
+form of concentric rings on the cross section, so that the age of the
+tree may be known by counting them. Over twelve hundred layers have been
+counted on the stumps of Sequoias in California, and it is probable that
+some trees now living antedate the Christian era.</p>
+
+<p>435. The reason why the annual growths are distinguishable is, that the
+wood formed at the beginning of the season is more or less different in
+the size or character of the cells from that of the close. In Oak,
+Chestnut, etc., the first wood of the season abounds in dotted ducts,
+the calibre of which is many times greater than that of the proper
+wood-cells.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_436" id="UNIT_436">436.</a> <b>Sap-wood, or Alburnum.</b> This is the newer wood, living or recently
+alive, and taking part in the conveyance of sap. Sooner or later, each
+layer, as it becomes more and more deeply covered by the newer ones and
+farther from the region of growth, is converted into</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_437" id="UNIT_437">437.</a> <b>Heart-wood, or Duramen.</b> This is drier, harder, more solid, and much
+more durable as timber, than sap-wood. It is generally of a different
+color, and it exhibits in different species the hue peculiar to each,
+such as reddish in Red-Cedar, brown in Black-Walnut, black in Ebony,
+etc. The change of sap-wood into heart-wood results from the thickening
+of the walls of the wood-cells by the deposition of hard matter, lining
+the tubes and diminishing their calibre; and by the deposition of a
+vegetable coloring-matter peculiar to each species. The heart-wood,
+being no longer a living part, may decay, and often does so, without the
+least injury to the tree, except by diminishing the strength of the
+trunk, and so rendering it more liable to be overthrown.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_438" id="UNIT_438">438.</a> <b>The Living Parts of a Tree</b>, of the exogenous kind, are only these:
+first, the rootlets at one extremity; second, the buds and leaves of the
+season at the other; and third, a zone consisting of the newest wood and
+the newest bark, connecting the rootlets with the buds or leaves,
+however widely separated these may be,&mdash;in the tallest trees from two to
+four hundred feet apart. And these parts of the tree are all renewed
+every year. No wonder, therefore, that trees may live so long, since
+they annually reproduce everything that is essential to their life and
+growth, and since only a very small part of their bulk is alive at once.
+The tree survives, but nothing now living has been so long. In it, as
+elsewhere, life is a transitory thing, ever abandoning the <i>old</i>, and
+renewed in the <i>young</i>.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_XVI_4" id="Subsect_XVI_4">� 4.</a> ANATOMY OF LEAVES.</h3>
+
+<p>439. The wood in leaves is the framework of ribs, veins, and veinlets
+(<a href="#UNIT_125">125</a>), serving not only to strengthen them, but also to bring in the
+sap, and to distribute it throughout every part. The cellular portion is
+the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>green pulp, and is nearly the same as the green layer of the bark.
+So that the leaf may properly enough be regarded as a sort of expansion
+of the fibrous and green layers of the bark. It has no proper corky
+layer; but the whole is covered by a transparent skin or <i>epidermis</i>,
+resembling that of the stem.</p>
+
+<p>440. The cells of the leaf are of various forms, rarely so compact as to
+form a close cellular tissue, usually loosely arranged, at least in the
+lower part, so as to give copious intervening spaces or air passages,
+communicating throughout the whole interior (Fig. <a href="#Fig443">443</a>, <a href="#Fig483">483</a>). The green
+color is given by the chlorophyll (<a href="#UNIT_417">417</a>), seen through the very
+transparent walls of the cells and through the translucent epidermis of
+the leaf.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig483" id="Fig483"></a>
+<img src="images/fig483.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 483. Magnified section of a leaf of White Lily, to
+exhibit the cellular structure, both of upper and lower stratum, the
+air-passages of the lower, and the epidermis or skin, in section, also a
+little of that of the lower face, with some of its stomates.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>441. In ordinary leaves, having an upper and under surface, the green
+cells form two distinct strata, of different arrangement. Those of the
+upper stratum are oblong or cylindrical, and stand endwise to the
+surface of the leaf, usually close together, leaving hardly any vacant
+spaces; those of the lower are commonly irregular in shape, most of them
+with their longer diameter parallel to the face of the leaf, and are
+very loosely arranged, leaving many and wide air-chambers. The green
+color of the lower is therefore diluted, and paler than that of the
+upper face of the leaf. The upper part of the leaf is so constructed as
+to bear the direct action of the sunshine; the lower so as to afford
+freer circulation of air, and to facilitate transpiration. It
+communicates more directly than the upper with the external air by means
+of <i>Stomates</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_442" id="UNIT_442">442.</a> <b>The Epidermis</b> or skin of leaves and all young shoots is best seen
+in the foliage. It may readily be stripped off from the surface of a
+Lily-leaf, and still more so from more fleshy and soft leaves, such as
+those <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>of Houseleek. The epidermis is usually composed of a single
+layer, occasionally of two or three layers, of empty cells, mostly of
+irregular outline. The sinuous lines which traverse it, and may be
+discerned under low powers of the microscope (Fig. <a href="#Fig484">487</a>), are the
+boundaries of the epidermal cells.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig484" id="Fig484"></a>
+<img src="images/fig484_487.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 484. Small portion of epidermis of the lower face of
+a White-Lily leaf, with stomata.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 485. One of these, more magnified, in the closed
+state. 486. Another stoma, open.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 487. Small portion of epidermis of the Garden
+Balsam, highly magnified, showing very sinuous-walled cells, and three
+stomata.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_443" id="UNIT_443">443.</a> <b>Breathing-pores, or Stomates, Stomata</b> (singular, a
+<i>Stoma</i>,&mdash;literally, a mouth) are openings through the epidermis into
+the air-chambers or intercellular passages, always between and guarded
+by a pair of thin-walled guardian cells. Although most abundant in
+leaves, especially on their lower face (that which is screened from
+direct sunlight), they are found on most other green parts. They
+establish a direct communication between the external air and that in
+the loose interior of the leaf. Their guardian cells or lips, which are
+soft and delicate, like those of the green pulp within, by their greater
+or less turgidity open or close the orifice as the moisture or dryness
+varies.</p>
+
+<p>444. In the White Lily the stomata are so remarkably large that they may
+be seen by a simple microscope of moderate power, and may be discerned
+even by a good hand lens. There are about 60,000 of them to the square
+inch of the epidermis of the lower face of this Lily-leaf, and only
+about 3000 to the same space on the upper face. It is computed that an
+average leaf of an Apple-tree has on its lower face about 100,000 of
+these mouths.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_XVI_5" id="Subsect_XVI_5">� 5.</a> PLANT FOOD AND ASSIMILATION.</h3>
+
+<p>445. Only plants are capable of originating organizable matter, or the
+materials which compose the structure of vegetables and animals. The
+essential and peculiar work of plants is to take up portions of earth
+and air (water belonging to both) upon which animals cannot live at all,
+and to convert them into something organizable; that is, into something
+that, under life, may be built up into vegetable and animal structures.
+All the food of animals is produced by plants. Animals live upon
+vegetables, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>directly or at second hand, the carnivorous upon the
+herbivorous; and vegetables live upon earth and air, immediately or at
+second hand.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_446" id="UNIT_446">446.</a> <b>The Food of plants</b>, then, primarily, is earth and air. This is
+evident enough from the way in which they live. Many plants will
+flourish in pure sand or powdered chalk, or on the bare face of a rock
+or wall, watered merely with rain. And almost any plant may be made to
+grow from the seed in moist sand, and increase its weight many times,
+even if it will not come to perfection. Many naturally live suspended
+from the branches of trees high in the air, and nourished by it alone,
+never having any connection with the soil; and some which naturally grow
+on the ground, like the Live-forever of the gardens, when pulled up by
+the roots and hung in the air will often flourish the whole summer long.</p>
+
+<p>447. It is true that fast-growing plants, or those which produce much
+vegetable matter in one season (especially in such concentrated form as
+to be useful as food for man or the higher animals) will come to
+maturity only in an enriched soil. But what is a rich soil? One which
+contains decomposing vegetable matter, or some decomposing animal
+matter; that is, in either case, some decomposing organic matter
+formerly produced by plants. Aided by this, grain-bearing and other
+important vegetables will grow more rapidly and vigorously, and make a
+greater amount of nourishing matter, than they could if left to do the
+whole work at once from the beginning. So that in these cases also all
+the organic or organizable matter was made by plants, and made out of
+earth and air. Far the larger and most essential part was air and water.</p>
+
+<p>448. Two kinds of material are taken in and used by plants; of which the
+first, although more or less essential to perfect plant-growth, are in a
+certain sense subsidiary, if not accidental, viz.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>Earthy constituents</i>, those which are left in the form of ashes when a
+leaf or a stick of wood is burned in the open air. These consist of some
+<i>potash</i> (or <i>soda</i> in a marine plant), some <i>silex</i> (the same as
+flint), and a little <i>lime</i>, <i>alumine</i>, or <i>magnesia</i>, <i>iron</i> or
+<i>manganese</i>, <i>sulphur</i>, <i>phosphorus</i>, etc.,&mdash;some or all of these in
+variable and usually minute proportions. They are such materials as
+happen to be dissolved, in small quantity, in the water taken up by the
+roots; and when that is consumed by the plant, or flies off pure (as it
+largely does) by exhalation, the earthy matter is left behind in the
+cells,&mdash;just as it is left incrusting the sides of a teakettle in which
+much hard water has been boiled. Naturally, therefore, there is more
+earthy matter (i. e. more ashes) in the leaves than in any other part
+(sometimes as much as seven per cent, when the wood contains only two
+per cent); because it is through the leaves that most of the water
+escapes from the plant. Some of this earthy matter incrusts the
+cell-walls, some goes to form crystals or rhaphides, which abound in
+many plants (<a href="#UNIT_422">422</a>), some enters into certain special vegetable products,
+and some appears to be necessary to the well-being of the higher orders
+of plants, although forming no necessary part of the proper vegetable
+structure.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span></p><p><i>The essential constituents</i> of the organic fabric are those which are
+dissipated into air and vapor in complete burning. They make up from 88
+to 99 per cent of the leaf or stem, and essentially the whole both of
+the cellulose of the walls and the protoplasm of the contents. Burning
+gives these materials of the plant's structure back to the air, mainly
+in the same condition in which the plant took them, the same condition
+which is reached more slowly in natural decay. The chemical elements of
+the cell-walls (or cellulose, <a href="#UNIT_402">402</a>), as also of starch, sugar, and all
+that class of organizable cell-material, are carbon, hydrogen, and
+oxygen (<a href="#UNIT_399">399</a>). The same, with nitrogen, are the constituents of
+protoplasm, or the truly vital part of vegetation.</p>
+
+<p>449. These chemical elements out of which organic matters are composed
+are supplied to the plant by water, carbonic acid, and some combinations
+of nitrogen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Water</i>, far more largely than anything else, is imbibed by the roots;
+also more or less by the foliage in the form of vapor. Water consists of
+oxygen and hydrogen; and cellulose or plant-wall, starch, sugar, etc.,
+however different in their qualities, agree in containing these two
+elements in the same relative proportions as in water.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carbonic acid</i> gas (Carbon dioxide) is one of the components of the
+atmosphere,&mdash;a small one, ordinarily only about 1/2500 of its
+bulk,&mdash;sufficient for the supply of vegetation, but not enough to be
+injurious to animals, as it would be if accumulated. Every current or
+breeze of air brings to the leaves expanded in it a succession of fresh
+atoms of carbonic acid, which it absorbs through its multitudinous
+breathing-pores. This gas is also taken up by water. So it is brought to
+the ground by rain, and is absorbed by the roots of plants, either as
+dissolved in the water they imbibe, or in the form of gas in the
+interstices of the soil. Manured ground, that is, soil containing
+decomposing vegetable or animal matters, is constantly giving out this
+gas into the interstices of the soil, whence the roots of the growing
+crop absorb it. Carbonic acid thus supplied, primarily from the air, is
+the source of the carbon which forms much the largest part of the
+substance of every plant. The proportion of carbon may be roughly
+estimated by charring some wood or foliage; that is, by heating it out
+of contact with the air, so as to decompose and drive off all the other
+constituents of the fabric, leaving the large bulk of charcoal or carbon
+behind.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nitrogen</i>, the remaining plant-element, is a gas which makes up more
+than two thirds of the atmosphere, is brought into the foliage and also
+to the roots (being moderately soluble in water) in the same ways as is
+carbonic acid. The nitrogen which, mixed with oxygen, a little carbonic
+acid, and vapor of water, constitutes the air we breathe, is the source
+of this fourth plant-element. But it is very doubtful if ordinary plants
+can use any nitrogen gas directly as food; that is, if they can directly
+cause it to combine with the other elements so as to form protoplasm.
+But when combined with hydrogen (forming ammonia), or when combined with
+oxygen <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>(nitric acid and nitrates) plants appropriate it with avidity.
+And several natural processes are going on in which nitrogen of the air
+is so combined and supplied to the soil in forms directly available to
+the plant. The most efficient is <i>nitrification</i>, the formation of nitre
+(nitrate of potash) in the soil, especially in all fertile soils,
+through the action of a bacterial ferment.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_450" id="UNIT_450">450.</a> <b>Assimilation</b> in plants is the conversion of these inorganic
+substances&mdash;essentially, water, carbonic acid, and some form of combined
+or combinable nitrogen&mdash;into vegetable matter. This most dilute food the
+living plant concentrates and assimilates to itself. Only plants are
+capable of converting these mineral into organizable matters; and this
+all-important work is done by them (so far as all ordinary vegetation is
+concerned) only</p>
+
+<p>451. <i>Under the light of the sun, acting upon green parts or foliage</i>,
+that is, upon the chlorophyll, or upon what answers to chlorophyll,
+which these parts contain. The sun in some way supplies a power which
+enables the living plant to originate these peculiar chemical
+combinations,&mdash;to organize matter into forms which are alone capable of
+being endowed with life. The proof of this proposition is simple; and it
+shows at the same time, in the simplest way, what a plant does with the
+water and carbonic acid it consumes. Namely, 1st, it is only in sunshine
+or bright daylight that the green parts of plants give out oxygen
+gas,&mdash;then they regularly do so; and 2d, the giving out of this oxygen
+gas is required to render the chemical composition of water and carbonic
+acid the same as that of <i>cellulose</i>, that is, of the plant's permanent
+fabric. This shows why plants spread out so large a surface of foliage.
+Leaves are so many workshops, full of machinery worked by sun-power. The
+emission of oxygen gas from any sun-lit foliage is seen by placing some
+of this under water, or by using an aquatic plant, by collecting the air
+bubbles which rise, and by noting that a taper burns brighter in this
+air. Or a leafy plant in a glass globe may be supplied with a certain
+small percentage of carbonic acid gas, and after proper exposure to
+sunshine, the air on being tested will be found to contain less carbonic
+acid and just so much the more oxygen gas.</p>
+
+<p>452. Now if the plant is making cellulose or any equivalent
+substance,&mdash;that is, is making the very materials of its fabric and
+growth, as must generally be the case,&mdash;all this oxygen gas given off by
+the leaves comes from the decomposition of carbonic acid taken in by the
+plant. For cellulose, and also starch, dextrine, sugar, and the like are
+composed of carbon along with oxygen and hydrogen in just the
+proportions to form water. And the carbonic acid and water taken in,
+less the oxygen which the carbon brought with it as carbonic acid, and
+which is given off from the foliage in sunshine, just represents the
+manufactured article, cellulose.</p>
+
+<p>453. It comes to the same if the first product of assimilation is sugar,
+or dextrine which is a sort of soluble starch, or starch itself. And in
+the plant all these forms are readily changed into one another. In the
+tiny seedling, as fast as this assimilated matter is formed it is used
+in growth, that is, in the formation of cell-walls. After a time some or
+much of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>the product may be accumulated in store for future growth, as
+in the root of the turnip, or the tuber of the potato, or the seed of
+corn or pulse. This store is mainly in the form of starch. When growth
+begins anew, this starch is turned into dextrine or into sugar, in
+liquid form, and used to nourish and build up the germinating embryo or
+the new shoot, where it is at length converted into cellulose and used
+to build up plant-structure.</p>
+
+<p>454. But that which builds plant-fabric is not the cellular structure
+itself; the work is done by the living protoplasm which dwells within
+the walls. This also has to take and to assimilate its proper food, for
+its own maintenance and growth. Protoplasm assimilates, along with the
+other three elements, the nitrogen of the plant's food. This comes
+primarily from the vast stock in the atmosphere, but mainly through the
+earth, where it is accumulated through various processes in a fertile
+soil,&mdash;mainly, so far as concerns crops, from the decomposition of
+former vegetables and animals. This protoplasm, which is formed at the
+same time as the simpler cellulose, is essentially the same as the flesh
+of animals, and the source of it. It is the common basis of vegetable
+and of animal life.</p>
+
+<p>455. <i>So plant-assimilation produces all the food and fabric of
+animals.</i> Starch, sugar, the oils (which are, as it were, these
+farinaceous matters more deoxidated), chlorophyll, and the like, and
+even cellulose itself, form the food of herbivorous animals and much of
+the food of man. When digested they enter into the blood, undergo
+various transformations, and are at length decomposed into carbonic acid
+and water, and exhaled from the lungs in respiration,&mdash;in other words,
+are given back to the air by the animal as the very same materials which
+the plant took from the air as its food,&mdash;are given back to the air in
+the same form that they would have taken if the vegetable matter had
+been left to decay where it grew, or if it had been set on fire and
+burned; and with the same result, too, as to the heat,&mdash;the heat in this
+case producing and maintaining the proper temperature of the animal.</p>
+
+<p>456. The protoplasm and other products containing nitrogen (gluten,
+legumine, etc.), and which are most accumulated in grains and seeds (for
+the nourishment of their embryos when they germinate), compose the most
+nutritious vegetable food consumed by animals; they form their proper
+flesh and sinews, while the earthy constituents of the plant form the
+earthy matter of the bones, etc. At length decomposed, in the secretions
+and excretions, these nitrogenous constituents are through successive
+changes finally resolved into mineral matter, into carbonic acid, water,
+and ammonia or some nitrates,&mdash;into exactly or essentially the same
+materials which the plants took up and assimilated. Animals depend upon
+vegetables absolutely and directly for their subsistence; also
+indirectly, because</p>
+
+<p>457. <i>Plants purify the air for animals.</i> In the very process by which
+they create food they take from the air carbonic acid gas, injurious to
+animal respiration, which is continually poured into it by the breathing
+of all animals, by all decay, by the burning of fuel and all other
+ordinary combustion; and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>they restore an equal bulk of life-sustaining
+oxygen needful for the respiration of animals,&mdash;needful, also, in a
+certain measure, for plants in any work they do. For in plants, as well
+as in animals, work is done at a certain cost.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_XVI_6" id="Subsect_XVI_6">� 6.</a> PLANT WORK AND MOVEMENT.</h3>
+
+<p>458. As the organic basis and truly living material of plants is
+identical with that of animals, so is the life at bottom essentially the
+same; but in animals something is added at every rise from the lowest to
+highest organisms. Action and work in living beings require movement.</p>
+
+<p>459. Living things move; those not living are only moved. Plants move as
+truly as do animals. The latter, nourished as they are upon organized
+food, which has been prepared for them by plants, and is found only here
+and there, must needs have the power of going after it, of collecting
+it, or at least of taking it in; which requires them to make spontaneous
+movements. But ordinary plants, with their wide-spread surface, always
+in contact with the earth and air on which they feed,&mdash;the latter
+everywhere the same, and the former very much so,&mdash;might be thought to
+have no need of movement. Ordinary plants, indeed, have no locomotion;
+some float, but most are rooted to the spot where they grew. Yet
+probably all of them execute various movements which must be as truly
+self-caused as are those of the lower grades of animals,&mdash;movements
+which are overlooked only because too slow to be directly observed.
+Nevertheless, the motion of the hour-hand and of the minute-hand of a
+watch is not less real than that of the second-hand.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig488" id="Fig488"></a>
+<img src="images/fig488.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 488. Two individuals of an Oscillaria, magnified.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_460" id="UNIT_460">460.</a> <b>Locomotion.</b> Moreover, many microscopic plants living in water are
+seen to move freely, if not briskly, under the microscope; and so
+likewise do more conspicuous aquatic plants in their embryo-like or
+seedling state. Even at maturity, species of Oscillaria (such as in Fig.
+<a href="#Fig488">488</a>, minute worm-shaped plants of fresh waters, taking this name from
+their oscillating motions) freely execute three different kinds of
+movement, the very delicate investing coat of cellulose not impeding the
+action of the living protoplasm within. Even when this coat is firmer
+and hardened with a siliceous deposit, such crescent-shaped or
+boat-shaped one-celled plants as <i>Closterium</i> or <i>Naricula</i> are able in
+some way to move along from place to place in the water.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig489" id="Fig489"></a>
+<img src="images/fig489.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 489. A few cells of a leaf of Naias flexilis, highly
+magnified: the arrows indicate the courses of the circulating currents.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_461" id="UNIT_461">461.</a> <b>Movements in Cells</b>, <b>or Cell-circulation</b>, sometimes called
+<i>Cyclosis</i>, has been detected in so many plants, especially in
+comparatively <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span>transparent aquatic plants and in hairs on the surface of
+land plants (where it is easiest to observe), that it may be inferred to
+take place in all cells during the most active part of their life. This
+motion is commonly a streaming movement of threads of protoplasm,
+carrying along solid granules by which the action may be observed and
+the rate measured, or in some cases it is a rotation of the whole
+protoplasmic contents of the cell. A comparatively low magnifying power
+will show it in the cells of Nitella and Chara (which are cryptogamous
+plants); and under a moderate power it is well seen in the Tape Grass of
+fresh water, Vallisneria, and in Naias flexilis (Fig. <a href="#Fig489">489</a>). Minute
+particles and larger greenish globules are seen to be carried along, as
+if in a current, around the cell, passing up one side, across the end,
+down the other and across the bottom, completing the circuit sometimes
+within a minute or less when well warmed. To see it well in the cell,
+which like a string of beads form the hairs on the stamens of
+Spiderwort, a high magnifying power is needed.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_462" id="UNIT_462">462.</a> <b>Transference of Liquid from Cell to Cell</b>, and so from place to
+place in the plant, the absorption of water by the rootlets, and the
+exhalation of the greater part of it from the foliage,&mdash;these and
+similar operations are governed by the physical laws which regulate the
+diffusion of fluids, but are controlled by the action of living
+protoplasm. Equally under vital control are the various chemical
+transformations which attend assimilation and growth, and which involve
+not only molecular movements but conveyance. Growth itself, which is the
+formation and shaping of new parts, implies the direction of internal
+activities to definite ends.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_463" id="UNIT_463">463.</a> <b>Movements of Organs.</b> The living protoplasm, in all but the lowest
+grade of plants, is enclosed and to common appearance isolated in
+separate cells, the walls of which can only in their earliest state be
+said to be alive. Still plants are able to cause the protoplasm of
+adjacent cells to act in concert, and by their combined action to effect
+movements in roots, stems, or leaves, some of them very slow and
+gradual, some manifest and striking. Such movements are brought about
+through individually minute changes in the form or tension in the
+protoplasm of the innumerable cells which make up the structure of the
+organ. Some of the slower movements are effected during growth, and may
+be explained by inequality of growth on the two sides of the bending
+organ. But the more rapid changes of position, and some of the slow
+ones, cannot be so explained.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p><p><a name="UNIT_464" id="UNIT_464">464.</a> <b>Root-movements.</b> In its growth a root turns or bends away from the
+light and toward the centre of the earth, so that in lengthening it
+buries itself in the soil where it is to live and act. Every one must
+have observed this in the germination of seeds. Careful observations
+have shown that the tip of a growing root also makes little sweeps or
+short movements from side to side. By this means it more readily
+insinuates itself into yielding portions of the soil. The root-tips will
+also turn toward moisture, and so secure the most favorable positions in
+the soil.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_465" id="UNIT_465">465.</a> <b>Stem-movements.</b> The root end of the caulicle or first joint of stem
+(that below the cotyledons) acts like the root, in turning downward in
+germination (making a complete bend to do so if it happens to point
+upward as the seed lies in the ground), while the other end turns or
+points skyward. These opposite positions are taken in complete darkness
+as readily as in the light, in dryness as much as in moisture:
+therefore, so far as these movements are physical, the two portions of
+the same internode appear to be oppositely affected by gravitation or
+other influences.</p>
+
+<p>466. Rising into the air, the stem and green shoots generally, while
+young and pliable, bend or direct themselves toward the light, or toward
+the stronger light when unequally illuminated; while roots turn toward
+the darkness.</p>
+
+<p>467. Many growing stems have also a movement of <i>Nutation</i>, that is, of
+nodding successively in different directions. This is brought about by a
+temporary increase of turgidity of the cells along one side, thus bowing
+the stem over to the opposite side; and this line of turgescence travels
+round the shoot continually, from right to left or from left to right
+according to the species: thus the shoot bends to all points of the
+compass in succession. Commonly this nutation is slight or hardly
+observable. It is most marked in</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_468" id="UNIT_468">468.</a> <b>Twining Stems</b> (Fig. <a href="#Fig90">90</a>). The growing upper end of such stems, as is
+familiar in the Hop, Pole Beans, and Morning-Glory, turns over in an
+inclined or horizontal direction, thus stretching out to reach a
+neighboring support, and by the continual change in the direction of the
+nodding, sweeps the whole circle, the sweeps being the longer as the
+stem lengthens. When it strikes against a support, such as a stem or
+branch of a neighboring plant, the motion is arrested at the contact,
+but continues at the growing apex beyond, and this apex is thus made to
+wind spirally around the supporting body.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_469" id="UNIT_469">469.</a> <b>Leaf-movements</b> are all but universal. The presentation by most
+leaves of their upper surface to the light, from whatever direction that
+may come, is an instance; for when turned upside down they twist or bend
+round on the stalk to recover this normal position. Leaves, and the
+leaflets of compound leaves, change this position at nightfall, or when
+the light is withdrawn; they then take what is called their sleeping
+posture, resuming the diurnal position when daylight returns. This is
+very striking <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>in Locust-trees, in the Sensitive Plant (Fig. <a href="#Fig490">490</a>), and
+in Woodsorrel. Young seedlings droop or close their leaves at night in
+plants which are not thus affected in the adult foliage. All this is
+thought to be a protection against the cold by nocturnal radiation.</p>
+
+<p>470. Various plants climb by a coiling movement of their leaves or their
+leaf-stalks. Familiar examples are seen in Clematis, Maurandia,
+Trop�olum, and in a Solanum which is much cultivated in greenhouses
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig172">172</a>). In the latter, and in other woody plants which climb in this
+way, the petioles thicken and harden after they have grasped their
+support, thus securing a very firm hold.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_471" id="UNIT_471">471.</a> <b>Tendril movements.</b> Tendrils are either leaves or stems (<a href="#UNIT_98">98</a>, <a href="#UNIT_168">168</a>),
+specially developed for climbing purposes. Cob�a is a good example of
+partial transformation; some of the leaflets are normal, some of the
+same leaf are little tendrils, and some intermediate in character. The
+Passion-flowers give good examples of simple stem-tendrils (Fig. <a href="#Fig92">92</a>);
+Grape-Vines, of branched ones. Most tendrils make revolving sweeps, like
+those of twining stems. Those of some Passion-flowers, in sultry
+weather, are apt to move fast enough for the movement actually to be
+seen for a part of the circuit, as plainly as that of the second-hand of
+a watch. Two herbaceous species, Passiflora gracilis and P. sicyoides
+(the first an annual, the second a strong-rooted perennial of the
+easiest cultivation), are admirable for illustration both of revolving
+movements and of sensitive coiling.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig490" id="Fig490"></a>
+<img src="images/fig490.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 490. Piece of stem of Sensitive Plant (Mimosa
+pudica), with two leaves, the lower open, the upper in the closed
+state.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_472" id="UNIT_472">472.</a> <b>Movements under Irritation.</b> The most familiar case is that of the
+Sensitive Plant (Fig. <a href="#Fig490">490</a>). The leaves suddenly take their nocturnal
+position when roughly touched or when shocked by a jar. The leaflets
+close in pairs, the four outspread partial petioles come closer
+together, and the common petiole is depressed. The seat of the movements
+is at the base of the leaf-stalk and stalklets. Schrankia, a near
+relative of the Sensitive Plant, acts in the same way, but is slower.
+These are not anomalous actions, but only extreme manifestations of a
+faculty more or less common in foliage. In Locust and Honey-Locusts for
+example, repeated jars will slowly produce similar effects.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p><p>473. Leaf-stalks and tendrils are adapted to their uses in climbing by
+a similar sensitiveness. The coiling of the leaf-stalk is in response to
+a kind of irritation produced by contact with the supporting body. This
+may be shown by gentle rubbing or prolonged pressure upon the upper face
+of the leaf-stalk, which is soon followed by a curvature. Tendrils are
+still more sensitive to contact or light friction. This causes the free
+end of the tendril to coil round the support, and the sensitiveness,
+propagated downward along the tendril, causes that side of it to become
+less turgescent or the opposite side more so, thus throwing the tendril
+into coils. This shortening draws the plant up to the support. Tendrils
+which have not laid hold will at length commonly coil spontaneously, in
+a simple coil, from the free apex downward. In Sicyos, Echinocystis, and
+the above mentioned Passion-flowers (<a href="#UNIT_471">471</a>), the tendril is so sensitive,
+under a high summer temperature, that it will curve and coil promptly
+after one or two light strokes by the hand.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig491" id="Fig491"></a>
+<img src="images/fig491.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 491. Portion of stem and leaves of Telegraph-plant
+(Desmodium gyrans), almost of natural size.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>474. Among spontaneous movements the most singular are those of
+Desmodium gyrans of India, sometimes called Telegraph-plant, which is
+cultivated on account of this action. Of its three leaflets, the larger
+(terminal) one moves only by drooping at nightfall and rising with the
+dawn. But its two small lateral leaflets, when in a congenial high
+temperature, by day and by night move upward and downward in a
+succession of jerks, stopping occasionally, as if to recover from
+exhaustion. In most plant-movements some obviously useful purpose is
+subserved: this of Desmodium gyrans is a riddle.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_475" id="UNIT_475">475.</a> <b>Movements in Flowers</b> are very various. The most remarkable are in
+some way connected with fertilization (Sect. <a href="#Section_XIII">XIII.</a>). Some occur under
+irritation: the stamens of Barberry start forward when touched at the
+base inside: those of many polyandrous flowers (of Sparmannia very
+strikingly) spread outwardly when lightly brushed: the two lips or lobes
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>of the stigma in Mimulus close after a touch. Some are automatic and
+are connected with dichogamy (<a href="#UNIT_339">339</a>): the style of Sabbatia and of
+large-flowered species of Epilobium bends over strongly to one side or
+turns downward when the blossom opens, but slowly erects itself a day or
+two later.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_476" id="UNIT_476">476.</a> <b>Extraordinary Movements connected with Capture of Insects.</b> The most
+striking cases are those of Drosera and Dion�a; for an account of which
+see "How Plants Behave," and Goodale's "Physiological Botany."</p>
+
+<p>477. The upper face of the leaves of the common species of Drosera, or
+Sundew, is beset with stout bristles, having a glandular tip. This tip
+secretes a drop of a clear but very viscid liquid, which glistens like a
+dew-drop in the sun; whence the popular name. When a fly or other small
+insect, attracted by the liquid, alights upon the leaf, the viscid drops
+are so tenacious that they hold it fast. In struggling it only becomes
+more completely entangled. Now the neighboring bristles, which have not
+been touched, slowly bend inward from all sides toward the captured
+insect, and bring their sticky apex against its body, thus increasing
+the number of bonds. Moreover, the blade of the leaf commonly aids in
+the capture by becoming concave, its sides or edges turning inward,
+which brings still more of the gland-tipped bristles into contact with
+the captive's body. The insect perishes; the clear liquid disappears,
+apparently by absorption into the tissue of the leaf. It is thought that
+the absorbed secretion takes with it some of the juices of the insect or
+the products of its decomposition.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig492" id="Fig492"></a>
+<img src="images/fig492.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 492. Plant of Dion�a muscipula, or Venus's Fly-trap,
+reduced in size.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>478. Dion�a muscipula, the most remarkable vegetable fly-trap (Fig. <a href="#Fig176">176</a>,
+<a href="#Fig492">492</a>), is related to the Sundews, and has a more special and active
+apparatus for fly-catching, formed of the summit of the leaf. The two
+halves of this rounded body move as if they were hinged upon the midrib;
+their edges are fringed with spiny but not glandular bristles, which
+interlock when the organ closes. Upon the face are two or three short
+and delicate bristles, which are sensitive. They do not themselves move
+when touched, but they propagate the sensitiveness to the organ itself,
+causing it to close with a quick movement. In a fresh <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>and vigorous
+leaf, under a high summer temperature, and when the trap lies widely
+open, a touch of any one of the minute bristles on the face, by the
+finger or any extraneous body, springs the trap (so to say), and it
+closes suddenly; but after an hour or so it opens again. When a fly or
+other small insect alights on the trap, it closes in the same manner,
+and so quickly that the intercrossing marginal bristles obstruct the
+egress of the insect, unless it be a small one and not worth taking.
+Afterwards and more slowly it completely closes, and presses down upon
+the prey; then some hidden glands pour out a glairy liquid, which
+dissolves out the juices of the insect's body; next all is re-absorbed
+into the plant, and the trap opens to repeat the operation. But the same
+leaf perhaps never captures more than two or three insects. It ages
+instead, becomes more rigid and motionless, or decays away.</p>
+
+<p>479. That some few plants should thus take animal food will appear less
+surprising when it is considered that hosts of plants of the lower
+grade, known as Fungi, moulds, rusts, ferments, Bacteria, etc., live
+upon animal or other organized matter, either decaying or living. That
+plants should execute movements in order to accomplish the ends of their
+existence is less surprising now when it is known that the living
+substance of plants and animals is essentially the same; that the beings
+of both kingdoms partake of a common life, to which, as they rise in the
+scale, other and higher endowments are successively superadded.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_480" id="UNIT_480">480.</a> <b>Work uses up material and energy</b> in plants as well as in animals.
+The latter live and work by the consumption and decomposition of that
+which plants have assimilated into organizable matter through an energy
+derived from the sun, and which is, so to say, stored up in the
+assimilated products. In every internal action, as well as in every
+movement and exertion, some portion of this assimilated matter is
+transformed and of its stored energy expended. The steam-engine is an
+organism for converting the sun's radiant energy, stored up by plants in
+the fuel, into mechanical work. An animal is an engine fed by vegetable
+fuel in the same or other forms, from the same source, by the
+decomposition of which it also does mechanical work. The plant is the
+producer of food and accumulator of solar energy or force. But the
+plant, like the animal, is a consumer whenever and by so much as it does
+any work except its great work of assimilation. Every internal change
+and movement, every transformation, such as that of starch into sugar
+and of sugar into cell-walls, as well as every movement of parts which
+becomes externally visible, is done at the expense of a certain amount
+of its assimilated matter and of its stored energy; that is, by the
+decomposition or combustion of sugar or some such product into carbonic
+acid and water, which is given back to the air, just as in the animal it
+is given back to the air in respiration. So the respiration of plants is
+as real and as essential as that of animals. But what plants consume or
+decompose in their life and action is of insignificant amount in
+comparison with what they compose.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Section_XVII" id="Section_XVII"></a><span class="smcap">Section XVII.</span> CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS.</h2>
+
+
+<p>481. Even the beginner in botany should have some general idea of what
+cryptogamous plants are, and what are the obvious distinctions of the
+principal families. Although the lower grades are difficult, and need
+special books and good microscopes for their study, the higher orders,
+such as Ferns, may be determined almost as readily as phanerogamous
+plants.</p>
+
+<p>482. Linn�us gave to this lower grade of plants the name of
+<i>Cryptogamia</i>, thereby indicating that their organs answering to stamens
+and pistils, if they had any, were recondite and unknown. There is no
+valid reason why this long-familiar name should not be kept up, along
+with the counterpart one of <i>Phanerogamia</i> (<a href="#UNIT_6">6</a>), although organs
+analogous to stamens and pistil, or rather to pollen and ovule, have
+been discovered in all the higher and most of the lower grades of this
+series of plants. So also the English synonymous name of <i>Flowerless
+Plants</i> is both good and convenient: for they have not flowers in the
+proper sense. The essentials of flowers are stamens and pistils, giving
+rise to seeds, and the essential of a seed is an embryo (<a href="#UNIT_8">8</a>).
+Cryptogamous or Flowerless plants are propagated by <span class="smcap">Spores</span>; and a spore
+is not an embryo-plantlet, but mostly a single plant-cell (<a href="#UNIT_399">399</a>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_483" id="UNIT_483">483.</a> <b>Vascular Cryptogams</b>, which compose the higher orders of this series
+of plants, have stems and (usually) leaves, constructed upon the general
+plan of ordinary plants; that is, they have wood (wood-cells and
+vessels, <a href="#UNIT_408">408</a>) in the stem and leaves, in the latter as a frame work of
+veins. But the lower grades, having only the more elementary cellular
+structure, are called <i>Cellular Cryptogams</i>. Far the larger number of
+the former are Ferns: wherefore that class has been called</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_484" id="UNIT_484">484.</a> <b>Pteridophyta, Pteridophytes</b> in English form, meaning
+<i>Fern-plants</i>,&mdash;that is, Ferns and their relatives. They are mainly
+Horsetails, Ferns, Club-Mosses, and various aquatics which have been
+called <i>Hydropterides</i>, i. e. Water-Ferns.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_485" id="UNIT_485">485.</a> <b>Horsetails</b>, <i>Equisetace�</i>, is the name of a family which consists
+only (among now-living plants) of <i>Equisetum</i>, the botanical name of
+Horsetail and Scouring Rush. They have hollow stems, with partitions at
+the nodes; the leaves consist only of a whorl of scales at each node,
+these coalescent into a sheath: from the axils of these leaf-scales, in
+many species, branches grow out, which are similar to the stem but on a
+much smaller scale, close-jointed, and with the tips of the leaves more
+apparent. At the apex of the stem appears the <i>fructification</i>, as it is
+called for lack of a better term, in the form of a short spike or head.
+This consists of a good number of stalked shields, bearing on their
+inner or under face several wedge-shaped spore-cases. The spore-cases
+when they ripen open down the inner <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>side and discharge a great number
+of green spores of a size large enough to be well seen by a hand-glass.
+The spores are aided in their discharge and dissemination by four
+club-shaped threads attached to one part of them. These are hygrometric:
+when moist they are rolled up over the spore; when dry they straighten,
+and exhibit lively movements, closing over the spore when breathed upon,
+and unrolling promptly a moment after as they dry. (See Fig. <a href="#Fig493">493-498</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig493" id="Fig493"></a>
+<img src="images/fig493_498.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 493. Upper part of a stem of a Horsetail, Equisetum
+sylvaticum. 494. Part of the head or spike of spore-cases, with some of
+the latter taken off. 495. View (more enlarged) of under side of the
+shield-shaped body, bearing a circle of spore-cases. 496. One of the
+latter detached and more magnified. 497. A spore with the attached arms
+moistened. 498. Same when dry, the arms extended.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig499" id="Fig499"></a>
+<img src="images/fig499.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 499. A Tree-Fern, Dicksonia arborescens, with a
+young one near its base. In front a common herbaceous Fern (Polypodium
+vulgare) with its creeping stem or rootstock.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig500" id="Fig500"></a>
+<img src="images/fig500.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 500. A section of the trunk of a Tree-Fern.
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_486" id="UNIT_486">486.</a> <b>Ferns, or Filices</b>, a most attractive family of plants, are very
+numerous and varied. In warm and equable climates some rise into
+forest-trees, with habit of Palms; but most of them are perennial herbs.
+The wood of a Fern-trunk is very different, however, from that of a
+palm, or of any exogenous stem either. A section is represented in Fig.
+<a href="#Fig500">500</a>. The curved plates of wood each terminate <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>upward in a leaf-stalk.
+The subterranean trunk or stem of any strong-growing herbaceous Fern
+shows a similar structure. Most Ferns are circinate in the bud; that is,
+are rolled up in the manner shown in Fig. <a href="#Fig193">197</a>. Uncoiling as they grow,
+they have some likeness to a crosier.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig501" id="Fig501"></a>
+<img src="images/fig501_508.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 501. The Walking-Fern, Camptosorus, reduced in size,
+showing its fruit-dots on the veins approximated in pairs. 502. A small
+piece (pinnule) of a Shield-Fern: a row of fruit-dots on each side of
+the midrib, each covered by its kidney-shaped indusium. 503. A
+spore-case from the latter, just bursting by the partial straightening
+of the incomplete ring; well magnified. 504. Three of the spores of <a href="#Fig509">509</a>,
+more magnified. 505. Schiz�a pusilla, a very small and simple-leaved
+Fern, drawn nearly of natural size. 506. One of the lobes of its
+fruit-bearing portion, magnified, bearing two rows of spore-cases. 507.
+Spore-case of the latter, detached, opening lengthwise. 508.
+Adder-tongue, Ophioglossum; spore-cases in a kind of spike: <i>a</i>, a
+portion of the fruiting part, about natural size; showing two rows of
+the firm spore-cases, which open transversely into two valves.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>487. The fructification of Ferns is borne on the back or under side of
+the leaves. The early botanists thought this such a peculiarity that
+they always called a Fern-leaf a <span class="smcap">Frond</span>, and its petiole a <span class="smcap">Stipe</span>. Usage
+continues these terms, although they are superfluous. The fruit of Ferns
+consists of <span class="smcap">Spore-cases</span>, technically <span class="smcap">Sporangia</span>, which grow out of the
+veins of the leaf. Sometimes these are distributed over the whole lower
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>surface of the leaf or frond, or over the whole surface when there are
+no proper leaf-blades to the frond, but all is reduced to stalks.
+Commonly the spore-cases occupy only detached spots or lines, each of
+which is called a <span class="smcap">Sorus</span>, or in English merely a Fruit-dot. In many Ferns
+these fruit-dots are naked; in others they are produced under a
+scale-like bit of membrane, called an <span class="smcap">Indusium</span>. In Maidenhair-Ferns a
+little lobe of the leaf is folded back over each fruit-dot, to serve as
+its shield or indusium. In the true Brake or Bracken (Pteris) the whole
+edge of the fruit-bearing part of the leaf is folded back over it like a
+hem.</p>
+
+<p>488. The form and structure of the spore-cases can be made out with a
+common hand magnifying glass. The commonest kind (shown in Fig. <a href="#Fig501">503</a>) has
+a stalk formed of a row of jointed cells, and is itself composed of a
+layer of thin-walled cells, but is incompletely surrounded by a border
+of thicker-walled cells, forming the <span class="smcap">Ring</span>. This extends from the stalk
+up one side of the spore-case, round its summit, descends on the other
+side, but there gradually vanishes. In ripening and drying the shrinking
+of the cells of the ring on the outer side causes it to straighten; in
+doing so it tears the spore-case open on the weaker side and discharges
+the minute spores that fill it, commonly with a jerk which scatters them
+to the wind. Another kind of spore-case (Fig. <a href="#Fig501">507</a>) is stalkless, and has
+its ring-cells forming a kind of cap at the top: at maturity it splits
+from top to bottom by a regular dehiscence. A third kind is of firm
+texture and opens across into two valves, like a clam-shell (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig501">508<sup><i>a</i></sup></a>): this kind makes an approach to the next family.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig509" id="Fig509"></a>
+<img src="images/fig509_510.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 509. A young prothallus of a Maiden-hair, moderately
+enlarged, and an older one with the first fern-leaf developed from near
+the notch. 510. Middle portion of the young one, much magnified, showing
+below, partly among the rootlets, the <i>antheridia</i> or fertilizing
+organs, and above, near the notch, three <i>pistillidia</i> to be
+fertilized.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>489. The spores germinate on moistened ground. In a conservatory they
+may be found germinating on a damp wall or on the edges of a
+well-watered flower-pot. Instead of directly forming a fern-plantlet,
+the spore grows first into a body which <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>closely resembles a small
+Liverwort. This is named a <span class="smcap">Prothallus</span> (Fig. <a href="#Fig509">509</a>): from some point of
+this a bud appears to originate, which produces the first fern-leaf,
+soon followed by a second and third, and so the stem and leaves of the
+plant are set up.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig511" id="Fig511"></a>
+<img src="images/fig511_519.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 511. Lycopodium Carolinianum, of nearly natural
+size. 512. Inside view of one of the bracts and spore-case, magnified.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 513. Open 4-valved spore-case of a Selaginella, and
+its four large spores (macrospores), magnified. 514. Macrospores of
+another Selaginella. 515. Same separated.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 516. Plant of Isoetes. 517. Base of a leaf and
+contained sporocarp filled with microspores cut across, magnified. 518.
+Same divided lengthwise, equally magnified; some microspores seen at the
+left. 519. Section of a spore-case containing macrospores, equally
+magnified; at the right three macrospores more magnified.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>490. Investigation of this prothallus under the microscope resulted in
+the discovery of a wholly unsuspected kind of fertilization, taking
+place at this germinating stage of the plant. On the under side of the
+prothallus two kinds of organs appear (Fig. <a href="#Fig509">510</a>). One may be likened to
+an open and depressed ovule, with a single cell at bottom answering to
+nucleus; the other, to an anther; but instead of pollen, it discharges
+corkscrew-shaped microscopic filaments, which bear some cilia of extreme
+tenuity, by the rapid vibration of which the filaments move freely over
+a wet surface. These filaments travel over the surface of the
+prothallus, and even to other prothalli (for there are natural hybrid
+Ferns), reach and enter the ovule-like <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>cavities, and fertilize the
+cell. This thereupon sets up a growth, forms a vegetable bud, and so
+develops the new plant.</p>
+
+<p>491. An essentially similar process of fertilization has been discovered
+in the preceding and the following families of Pteridophytes; but it is
+mostly subterranean and very difficult to observe.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_492" id="UNIT_492">492.</a> <b>Club-Mosses or Lycopodiums.</b> Some of the common kinds, called Ground
+Pine, are familiar, being largely used for Christmas wreaths and other
+decoration. They are low evergreens, some creeping, all with
+considerable wood in their stems: this thickly beset with small leaves.
+In the axils of some of these leaves, or more commonly, in the axils of
+peculiar leaves changed into bracts (as in Fig. <a href="#Fig511">511, 512</a>) spore-cases
+appear, as roundish or kidney-shaped bodies, of firm texture, opening
+round the top into two valves, and discharging a great quantity of a
+very fine yellow powder, the spores.</p>
+
+<p>493. The Selaginellas have been separated from Lycopodium, which they
+much resemble, because they produce two kinds of spores, in separate
+spore-cases. One kind (<span class="smcap">Microspores</span>) is just that of Lycopodium; the
+other consists of only four large spores (<span class="smcap">Macrospores</span>), in a spore-case
+which usually breaks in pieces at maturity (Fig. <a href="#Fig511">513-515</a>).</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_494" id="UNIT_494">494.</a> <b>The Quillworts, Isoetes</b> (Fig. <a href="#Fig511">516-519</a>), are very unlike Club Mosses
+in aspect, but have been associated with them. They look more like
+Rushes, and live in water, or partly out of it. A very short stem, like
+a corm, bears a cluster of roots underneath; above it is covered by the
+broad bases of a cluster of awl-shaped or thread-shaped leaves. The
+spore-cases are immersed in the bases of the leaves. The outer
+leaf-bases contain numerous macrospores; the inner are filled with
+innumerable microspores.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig520" id="Fig520"></a>
+<img src="images/fig520.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 520. Plant of Marsilia quadrifoliata, reduced in
+size; at the right a pair of sporocarps of about natural size.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_495" id="UNIT_495">495.</a> <b>The Pillworts</b> (<i>Marsilia</i> and <i>Pilularia</i>) are low aquatics, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>bear globular or pill-shaped fruit (<span class="smcap">Sporocarps</span>) on the lower part of
+their leaf-stalks or on their slender creeping stems. The leaves of the
+commoner species of Marsilia might be taken for four-leaved Clover. (See
+Fig. <a href="#Fig520">520</a>.) The sporocarps are usually raised on a short stalk. Within
+they are divided lengthwise by a partition, and then crosswise by
+several partitions. These partitions bear numerous delicate sacs or
+spore-cases of two kinds, intermixed. The larger ones contain each a
+large spore, or macrospore; the smaller contain numerous microspores,
+immersed in mucilage. At maturity the fruit bursts or splits open at
+top, and the two kinds of spores are discharged. The large ones in
+germination produce a small prothallus; upon which the contents of the
+microspores act in the same way as in Ferns, and with a similar result.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_496" id="UNIT_496">496.</a> <b>Azolla</b> is a little floating plant, looking like a small Liverwort
+or Moss. Its branches are covered with minute and scale-shaped leaves.
+On the under side of the branches are found egg-shaped thin-walled
+sporocarps of two kinds. The small ones open across and discharge
+microspores; the larger burst irregularly, and bring to view globose
+spore-cases, attached to the bottom of the sporocarp by a slender stalk.
+These delicate spore-cases burst and set free about four macrospores,
+which are fertilized at germination, in the manner of the Pillworts and
+Quillworts. (See Fig. <a href="#Fig521">521-526</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig521" id="Fig521"></a>
+<img src="images/fig521_526.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 521. Small plant of Azolla Caroliniana. 522. Portion
+magnified, showing the two kinds of sporocarp; the small ones contain
+microspores. 523 represents one more magnified. 524. The larger
+sporocarp more magnified. 525. Same more magnified and burst open,
+showing stalked spore-cases. 526. Two of the latter highly magnified;
+one of them bursting shows four contained macrospores; between the two,
+three of these spores highly magnified.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_497" id="UNIT_497">497.</a> <b>Cellular Cryptogams</b> (<a href="#UNIT_483">483</a>) are so called because composed, even in
+their higher forms, of cellular tissue only, without proper wood-cells
+or vessels. Many of the lower kinds are mere plates, or ribbons, or
+simple rows of cells, or even single cells. But their highest orders
+follow the plan of Ferns and phanerogamous plants in having stem and
+leaves for their upward growth, and commonly roots, or at least
+rootlets, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span>to attach them to the soil, or to trunks, or to other bodies
+on which they grow. Plants of this grade are chiefly Mosses. So as a
+whole they take the name of</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_498" id="UNIT_498">498.</a> <b>Bryophyta, Bryophytes</b> in English form, Bryum being the Greek name
+of a Moss. These plants are of two principal kinds: true Mosses
+(<i>Musci</i>, which is their Latin name in the plural); and Hepatic Mosses,
+or Liverworts (<i>Hepatic�</i>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig527" id="Fig527"></a>
+<img src="images/fig527_528.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 527. Single plant of Physcomitrium pyriforme,
+magnified. 528. Top of a leaf, cut across; it consists of a single layer
+of cells.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_499" id="UNIT_499">499.</a> <b>Mosses or Musci.</b> The pale Peat-mosses (species of Sphagnum, the
+principal component of sphagnous bogs) and the strong-growing Hair-cap
+Moss (Polytrichum) are among the larger and commoner representatives of
+this numerous family; while Fountain Moss (Fontinalis) in running water
+sometimes attains the length of a yard or more. On the other hand, some
+are barely individually distinguishable to the naked eye. Fig. <a href="#Fig527">527</a>
+represents a common little Moss, enlarged to about twelve times its
+natural size; and by its side is part of a leaf, much magnified, showing
+that it is composed of cellular tissue (parenchyma-cells) only. The
+leaves of Mosses are always simple, distinct, and sessile on the stem.
+The fructification is an urn-shaped spore-case, in this as in most cases
+raised on a slender stalk. The spore-case loosely bears on its summit a
+thin and pointed cap, like a candle-extinguisher, called a <i>Calyptra</i>.
+Detaching this, it is found that the spore-case is like a pyxis (<a href="#UNIT_376">376</a>),
+that is, the top at maturity comes off as a lid (<i>Operculum</i>); and that
+the interior is filled with a green powder, the spores, which are
+discharged through the open mouth. In most Mosses there is a fringe of
+one or two rows of teeth or membrane around this mouth or orifice, the
+<i>Peristome</i>. When moist the peristome closes hygrometrically over the
+orifice more or less; when drier the teeth or processes commonly bend
+outward or recurve; and then the spores more readily escape. In Hair-cap
+Moss a membrane is stretched quite across the mouth, like a drum-head,
+retaining the spores until this wears away. See Figures <a href="#Fig527">527</a>-<a href="#Fig529">541</a> for
+details.</p>
+
+<p>500. Fertilization in Mosses is by the analogues of stamens and pistils,
+which are hidden in the axils of leaves, or in the cluster of leaves at the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>end of the stem. The analogue of the anther (<i>Antheridium</i>) is a
+cellular sac, which in bursting discharges innumerable delicate cells
+floating in a mucilaginous liquid; each of these bursts and sets free a
+vibratile self-moving thread. These threads, one or more, reach the
+orifice of the pistil-shaped body, the <i>Pistillidium</i>, and act upon a
+particular cell at its base within. This cell in its growth develops
+into the spore-case and its stalk (when there is any), carrying on its
+summit the wall of the pistillidium, which becomes the calyptra.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig529" id="Fig529"></a>
+<img src="images/fig529_541.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 529. Mnium cuspidatum, smaller than nature. 530. Its
+calyptra, detached, enlarged. 531. Its spore-case, with top of stalk,
+magnified, the lid (532) being detached, the outer peristome appears.
+533. Part of a cellular ring (<i>annulus</i>) which was under the lid,
+outside of the peristome, more magnified. 534. Some of the outer and of
+the inner peristome (consisting of jointed teeth) much magnified. 535.
+Antheridia and a pistillidium (the so-called flower) at end of a stem of
+same plant, the leaves torn away (&#9794;, antheridia,
+&#9792;, pistillidium), magnified. 536. A bursting antheridium, and
+some of the accompanying jointed threads, highly magnified. 537. Summit
+of an open spore-case of a Moss, which has a peristome of 16 pairs of
+teeth. 538. The double peristome of a Hypnum. 539-541. Spore-case,
+detached calyptra, and top of more enlarged spore-case and detached lid,
+of Physcomitrium pyriforme (Fig. <a href="#Fig527">527</a>): orifice shows that there is no
+peristome.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_501" id="UNIT_501">501.</a> <b>Liverworts or Hepatic Mosses</b> (<i>Hepatic�</i>) in some kinds resemble
+true Mosses, having distinct stem and leaves, although their leaves
+occasionally run together; while in others there is no distinction of
+stem and leaf, but the whole plant is a leaf-like body, which produces
+rootlets on the lower face and its fructification on the upper. Those of
+the moss-like kind (sometimes called Scale-Mosses) have their tender
+spore-cases splitting into four valves; and with their spores are
+intermixed some slender spiral <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>and very hygrometric threads (called
+<i>Elaters</i>) which are thought to aid in the dispersion of the spores.
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig542">542-544</a>.)</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig542" id="Fig542"></a>
+<img src="images/fig542_544.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 542. Fructification of a Jungermannia, magnified;
+its cellular spore-stalk, surrounded at base by some of the leaves, at
+summit the 4-valved spore-case opening, discharging spores and elaters.
+543. Two elaters and some spores from the same, highly magnified.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 544. One of the frondose Liverworts, Steetzia,
+otherwise like a Jungermannia; the spore-case not yet protruded from its
+sheath.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>502. Marchantia, the commonest and largest of the true Liverworts, forms
+large green plates or fronds on damp and shady ground, and sends up from
+some part of the upper face a stout stalk, ending in a several-lobed
+umbrella-shaped body, under the lobes of which hang several thin-walled
+spore-cases, which burst open and discharge spores and elaters. Riccia
+natans (Fig. <a href="#Fig545">545</a>) consists of wedge-shaped or heart-shaped fronds, which
+float free in pools of still water. The under face bears copious
+rootlets; in the substance of the upper face are the spore-cases, their
+pointed tips merely projecting: there they burst open, and discharge
+their spores. These are comparatively few and large, and are in fours;
+so they are very like the macrospores of Pillworts or Quillworts.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_503" id="UNIT_503">503.</a> <b>Thallophyta, or Thallophytes</b> in English form. This is the name for
+the lower class of Cellular Cryptogams,&mdash;plants in which there is no
+marked distinction into root, stem, and leaves. Roots in any proper
+sense they never have, as organs for absorbing, although some of the
+larger Seaweeds (such as the Sea Colander, Fig. <a href="#Fig553">553</a>) have them as
+holdfasts. Instead of axis and foliage, there is a stratum of frond, in
+such plants commonly called a <span class="smcap">Thallus</span> (by a strained use of a Greek and
+Latin word which means a green shoot or bough), which may have any kind
+of form, leaf-like, stem-like, branchy, extended to a flat plate, or
+gathered into a sphere, or drawn out into threads, or reduced to a
+single row of cells, or even reduced to single cells. Indeed,
+Thallophytes are so multifarious, so numerous in kinds, so protean in
+their stages and transformations, so recondite in their fructification,
+and many so microscopic in size, either of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>the plant itself or its
+essential organs, that they have to be elaborately described in separate
+books and made subjects of special study.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig545" id="Fig545"></a>
+<img src="images/fig545_549.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 545, 546. Two plants of Riccia natans, about natural
+size. 547. Magnified section of a part of the frond, showing two
+immersed spore-cases, and one emptied space. 548. Magnified section of a
+spore-case with some spores. 549. Magnified spore-case torn out, and
+spores; one figure of the spores united; the other of the four
+separated.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>504. Nevertheless, it may be well to try to give some general idea of
+what Alg� and Lichens and Fungi are. Linn�us had them all under the
+orders of Alg� and Fungi. Afterwards the Lichens were separated; but of
+late it has been made most probable that a Lichen consists of an Alga
+and a Fungus conjoined. At least it must be so in some of the ambiguous
+forms. Botanists are in the way of bringing out new classifications of
+the Thallophytes, as they come to understand their structure and
+relations better. Here, it need only be said that</p>
+
+<p>505. Lichens live in the air, that is, on the ground, or on rocks,
+trunks, walls, and the like, and grow when moistened by rains. They
+assimilate air, water, and some earthy matter, just as do ordinary
+plants. Alg�, or Seaweeds, live in water, and live the same kind of life
+as do ordinary plants. Fungi, whatever medium they inhabit, live as
+animals do, upon organic matter,&mdash;upon what other plants have
+assimilated, or upon the products of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span>their decay. True as these general
+distinctions are, it is no less true that these orders run together in
+their lowest forms; and that Alg� and Fungi may be traced down into
+forms so low and simple that no clear line can be drawn between them;
+and even into forms of which it is uncertain whether they should be
+called plants or animals. It is as well to say that they are not high
+enough in rank to be distinctively either the one or the other. On the
+other hand there is a peculiar group of plants, which in simplicity of
+composition resemble the simpler Alg�, while in fructification and in
+the arrangements of their simple cells into stem and branches they seem
+to be of a higher order, viz.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig550" id="Fig550"></a>
+<img src="images/fig550_552.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 550. Branch of a Chara, about natural size. 551. A
+fruiting portion, magnified, showing the structure; a sporocarp, and an
+antheridium. 552. Outlines of a portion of the stem in section, showing
+the central cell and the outer or cortical cells.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_506" id="UNIT_506">506.</a> <b>Charace�.</b> These are aquatic herbs, of considerable size, abounding
+in ponds. The simpler kinds (Nitella) have the stem formed of a single
+row of tubular cells, and at the nodes, or junction of the cells, a
+whorl of similar branches. Chara (Fig. <a href="#Fig550">550-552</a>) is the same, except that
+the cells which make up the stem and the principal branches are
+strengthened by a coating of many smaller tubular cells, applied to the
+surface of the main or central cell. The fructification consists of a
+globular sporocarp of considerable size, which is spirally enwrapped by
+tubular cells twisted around it: by the side of this is a smaller and
+globular antheridium. The latter breaks up into eight shield-shaped
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>pieces, with an internal stalk, and bearing long and ribbon shaped
+filaments, which consist of a row of delicate cells, each of which
+discharges a free-moving microscopic thread (the analogue of the pollen
+or pollen-tube), nearly in the manner of Ferns and Mosses. One of these
+threads reaches and fertilizes a cell at the apex of the nucleus or
+solid body of the sporocarp. This subsequently germinates and forms a
+new individual.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_507" id="UNIT_507">507.</a> <b>Alg� or Seaweeds.</b> The proper Seaweeds may be studied by the aid of
+Professor Farlow's "Marine Alg� of New England;" the fresh-water
+species, by Prof. H. C. Woods's "Fresh-water Alg� of North America," a
+larger and less accessible volume. A few common forms are here very
+briefly mentioned and illustrated, to give an idea of the family. But
+they are of almost endless diversity.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig553" id="Fig553"></a>
+<img src="images/fig553_554.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 553. Agarum Turneri, Sea Colander (so called from
+the perforations with which the frond, as it grows, becomes riddled);
+very much reduced in size.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 554. Upper end of a Rockweed, Fucus vesiculosus,
+reduced half or more, <i>b</i>, the fructification.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>508. The common Rockweed (Fucus vesiculosus, Fig. <a href="#Fig553">554</a>, abounding between
+high and low water mark on the coast), the rarer Sea Colander (Agarum
+Turneri, Fig. <a href="#Fig553">553</a>), and Laminaria, of which the larger forms are called
+Devil's Aprons, are good representatives of the olive green or brownish
+Seaweeds. They are attached either by a disk-like base or by root-like
+holdfasts to the rocks or stones on which they grow.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig555" id="Fig555"></a>
+<img src="images/fig555_556.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 555. Magnified section through a fertile conceptacle
+of Rockweed, showing the large spores in the midst of threads of cells.
+556. Similar section of a sterile conceptacle, containing slender
+antheridia. From Farlow's "Marine Alg� of New England."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>509. The hollow and inflated places in the Fucus vesiculosus or Rockweed
+(Fig. <a href="#Fig553">554</a>) are air-bladders for buoyancy. The fructification forms in
+the substance of the tips of the frond: the rough dots mark the places
+where the conceptacles open. The spores and the fertilizing cells are in
+different plants. Sections of the two kinds of conceptacles are given in
+Fig. <a href="#Fig555">555 and 556</a>. The contents of the conceptacles are discharged
+through <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>a small orifice which in each figure is at the margin of the
+page. The large spores are formed eight together in a mother-cell. The
+minute motile filaments of the antheridia fertilize the large spores
+after injection into the water: and then the latter promptly acquire a
+cell-wall and germinate.</p>
+
+<p>510. The Floride� or Rose-red series of marine Alg� (which, however, are
+sometimes green or brownish) are the most attractive to amateurs. The
+delicate Porphyra or Laver is in some countries eaten as a delicacy, and
+the cartilaginous Chondrus crispus has been largely used for jelly.
+Besides their conceptacles, which contain true spores (Fig. <a href="#Fig557">560</a>), they
+mostly have a fructification in <i>Tetraspores</i>, that is, of spores
+originating in fours (Fig. <a href="#Fig557">559</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig557" id="Fig557"></a>
+<img src="images/fig557_560.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 557. Small plant of Chondrus crispus, or Carrageen
+Moss, reduced in size, in fruit; the spots represent the fructification,
+consisting of numerous tetraspores in bunches in the substance of the
+plant. 558. Section through the thickness of one of the lobes,
+magnified, passing through two of the imbedded fruit-clusters. 559. Two
+of its tetraspores (spores in fours), highly magnified.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 560. Section through a conceptacle of Delesseria
+Leprieurei, much magnified, showing the spores, which are single
+specialized cells, two or three in a row.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig561" id="Fig561"></a>
+<img src="images/fig561_563.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 561. A piece of the rose-red Delesseria Leprieurei,
+double natural size. 562. A piece cut out and much magnified, showing
+that it is composed of a layer of cells. 563. A few of the cells more
+highly magnified: the cells are gelatinous and thick-walled.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>511. The Grass-green Alg� sometimes form broad membranous fronds, such
+as those of the common Ulva of the sea-shore, but most of them form mere
+threads, either simple or branched. To this division belong almost <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span>all
+the Fresh-water Alg�, such as those which constitute the silky threads
+or green slime of running streams or standing pools, and which were all
+called Confervas before their immense diversity was known. Some are
+formed of a single row of cells, developed each from the end of another.
+Others branch, the top of one cell producing more than one new one (Fig.
+<a href="#Fig564">564</a>). Others, of a kind which is very common in fresh water, simple
+threads made of a line of cells, have the chlorophyll and protoplasm of
+each cell arranged in spiral lines or bands. They form spores in a
+peculiar way, which gives to this family the designation of conjugating
+Alg�.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig564" id="Fig564"></a>
+<img src="images/fig564_565.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 564. The growing end of a branching Conferva
+(Cladophora glomerata), much magnified; showing how, by a kind of
+budding growth, a new cell is formed by a cross partition separating the
+newer tip from the older part below; also, how the branches arise.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 565. Two magnified individuals of a Spirogyra,
+forming spores by conjugation; a completed spore at base: above,
+successive stages of the conjugation are represented.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>512. At a certain time two parallel threads approach each other more
+closely; contiguous parts of a cell of each thread bulge or grow out,
+and unite when they meet; the cell-wall partitions between them are
+absorbed so as to open a free communication; the spiral band of green
+matter in both cells breaks up; the whole of that of one cell passes
+over into the other; and of the united contents a large green spore is
+formed. Soon the old cells decay, and the spore <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span>set free is ready to
+germinate. Fig. <a href="#Fig564">565</a> represents several stages of the conjugating
+process, which, however, would never be found all together like this in
+one pair of threads.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig566" id="Fig566"></a>
+<img src="images/fig566_567.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 566. Closterium acutum, a common Desmid, moderately
+magnified. It is a single firm-walled cell, filled with green
+protoplasmic matter.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 567. More magnified view of three stages of the
+conjugation of a pair of the same.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>513. Desmids and Diatomes, which are microscopic one-celled plants of
+the same class, conjugate in the same way, as is shown in a Closterium
+by Fig. <a href="#Fig566">566, 567</a>. Here the whole living contents of two individuals are
+incorporated into one spore, for a fresh start. A reproduction which
+costs the life of two individuals to make a single new one would be
+fatal to the species if there were not a provision for multiplication by
+the prompt division of the new-formed individual into two, and these
+again into two, and so on in geometrical ratio. And the costly process
+would be meaningless if there were not some real advantage in such a
+fresh start, that is, in sexes.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig568" id="Fig568"></a>
+<img src="images/fig568_574.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 568. Early stage of a species of Botrydium, a
+globose cell. 569, 570. Stages of growth. 571. Full-grown plant,
+extended and ramified below in a root-like way. 572. A Vaucheria; single
+cell grown on into a much-branched thread; the end of some branches
+enlarging, and the green contents in one (<i>a</i>) there condensed into a
+spore. 573. More magnified view of <i>a</i>, and the mature spore escaping.
+574. Bryopsis plumosa; apex of a stem with its branchlets; all the
+extension of one cell. Variously magnified.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>514. There are other Alg� of the grass-green series which consist of
+single cells, but which by continued growth form plants of considerable
+size. Three kinds of these are represented in Fig. <a href="#Fig568">568-574</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_515" id="UNIT_515">515.</a> <b>Lichens</b>, Latin <i>Lichenes</i>, are to be studied in the works of the
+late Professor Tuckerman, but a popular exposition is greatly needed.
+The subjoined illustrations (Fig. <a href="#Fig575">575-580</a>) may simply indicate what some
+of the commoner forms are like. The cup, or shield-shaped spot, or knob,
+which bears the fructification is named the <i>Apothecium</i>. This is mainly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>composed of slender sacs (<i>Asci</i>), having thread-shaped cells
+intermixed; and each ascus contains few or several spores, which are
+commonly double or treble. Most Lichens are flat expansions of grayish
+hue; some of them foliaceous in texture, but never of bright green
+color; more are crustaceous; some are wholly pulverulent and nearly
+formless. But in several the vegetation lengthens into an axis (as in
+Fig. <a href="#Fig575">580</a>), or imitates stem and branches or threads, as in the
+Reindeer-Moss on the ground in our northern woods, and the Usnea hanging
+from the boughs of old trees overhead.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig575" id="Fig575"></a>
+<img src="images/fig575_580.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 575. A stone on which various Lichens are growing,
+such as (passing from left to right) a Parmelia, a Sticta, and on the
+right, Lecidia geographica, so called from its patches resembling the
+outline of islands or continents as depicted upon maps. 576. Piece of
+thallus of Parmelia conspersa, with section through an apothecium. 577.
+Section of a smaller apothecium, enlarged. 578. Two asci of same, and
+contained spores, and accompanying filaments; more magnified. 579. Piece
+of thallus of a Sticta, with section, showing the immersed apothecia;
+the small openings of these dot the surface. 580. Cladonia coccinea; the
+fructification is in the scarlet knobs, which surround the cups.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_516" id="UNIT_516">516.</a> <b>Fungi.</b> For this immense and greatly diversified class, it must here
+suffice to indicate the parts of a Mushroom, a Sph�ria, and of one or
+two common Moulds. The true vegetation of common Fungi consists of
+slender cells which form what is called a <i>Mycelium</i>. These filamentous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>cells lengthen and branch, growing by the absorption through their
+whole surface of the decaying, or organizable, or living matter which
+they feed upon. In a Mushroom (Agaricus), a knobby mass is at length
+formed, which develops into a stout stalk (<i>Stipe</i>), bearing the cap
+(<i>Pileus</i>): the under side of the cap is covered by the <i>Hymenium</i>, in
+this genus consisting of radiating plates, the gills or <i>Lamell�</i>; and
+these bear the powdery spores in immense numbers. Under the microscope,
+the gills are found to be studded with projecting cells, each of which,
+at the top, produces four stalked spores. These form the powder which
+collects on a sheet of paper upon which a mature Mushroom is allowed to
+rest for a day or two. (Fig. <a href="#Fig581">581-586</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>517. The esculent Morel, also Sph�ria (Fig. <a href="#Fig581">585, 586</a>), and many other
+Fungi bear their spores in sacs (asci) exactly in the manner of Lichens
+(<a href="#UNIT_515">515</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig581" id="Fig581"></a>
+<img src="images/fig581_586.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 581. Agaricus campestris, the common edible
+Mushroom. 582. Section of cap and stalk. 583. Minute portion of a
+section of a gill, showing some spore-bearing cells, much magnified.
+584. One of these, with its four spores, more magnified.</p>
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 585. Sph�ria rosella. 586. Two of the asci and
+contained double spores, quite like those of a Lichen; much magnified.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>518. Of the Moulds, one of the commoner is the Bread-Mould (Fig. <a href="#Fig587">587</a>).
+In fruiting it sends up a slender stalk, which bears a globular sac;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>this bursts at maturity and discharges innumerable spores. The blue
+Cheese-Mould (Fig. <a href="#Fig587">588</a>) bears a cluster of branches at top, each of
+which is a row of naked spores, like a string of beads, all breaking
+apart at maturity. Botrytis (Fig. <a href="#Fig587">589</a>), the fruiting stalk of which
+branches, and each branch is tipped with a spore, is one of the many
+moulds which live and feed upon the juices of other plants or of
+animals, and are often very destructive. The extremely numerous kinds of
+smut, rust, mildew, the ferments, bacteria, and the like, many of them
+very destructive to other vegetable and to animal life, are also low
+forms of the class of Fungi.<a name="FNanchor_1_3" id="FNanchor_1_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_3" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a name="Fig587" id="Fig587"></a>
+<img src="images/fig587_589.jpg" alt="" /><br />
+<p><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 587. Ascophora, the Bread-Mould. 588. Aspergillus
+glaucus, the mould of cheese, but common on mouldy vegetables. 589. A
+species of Botrytis. All magnified.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_3" id="Footnote_1_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_3"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> The "Introduction to Cryptogamous Botany," or third volume
+of "The Botanical Text Book," now in preparation by the author's
+colleague, Professor Farlow, will be the proper guide in the study of
+the Flowerless Plants, especially of the Alg� and Fungi.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Section_XVIII" id="Section_XVIII"></a>SECTION XVIII. CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE.</h2>
+
+
+<p>519. Classification, in botany, is the consideration of plants in
+respect to their kinds and relationships. Some system of Nomenclature,
+or naming, is necessary for fixing and expressing botanical knowledge so
+as to make it available. The vast multiplicity of plants and the various
+degrees of their relationship imperatively require order and system, not
+only as to <i>names</i> for designating the kinds of plants, but also as to
+<i>terms</i> for defining their differences. Nomenclature is concerned with
+the names of plants. Terminology supplies names of organs or parts, and
+terms to designate their differences.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_XVIII_1" id="Subsect_XVIII_1">� 1.</a> KINDS AND RELATIONSHIP.</h3>
+
+<p>520. Plants and animals have two great peculiarities: 1st, they form
+themselves; and 2d, they multiply themselves. They reproduce their kind
+in a continued succession of</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_521" id="UNIT_521">521.</a> <b>Individuals.</b> Mineral things occur as <i>masses</i>, which are divisible
+into smaller and still smaller ones without alteration of properties.
+But organic things (vegetables and animals) exist as <i>individual
+beings</i>. Each owes its existence to a parent, and produces similar
+individuals in its turn. So each individual is a link of a chain; and to
+this chain the natural-historian applies the name of</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_522" id="UNIT_522">522.</a> <b>Species.</b> All the descendants from the same stock therefore compose
+one species. And it was from our observing that the several sorts of
+plants or animals steadily reproduce themselves, or, in other words,
+keep up a succession of similar individuals, that the idea of species
+originated. There are few species, however, in which man has actually
+observed the succession for many generations. It could seldom be proved
+that all the White Pine trees or White Oaks of any forest came from the
+same stock. But observation having familiarized us with the general fact
+that individuals proceeding from the same stock are essentially alike,
+we infer from their close resemblance that these similar individuals
+belong to the same species. That is, we infer it when the individuals
+are as much like each other as those are which we know, or confidently
+suppose, to have sprung from the same stock.</p>
+
+<p>523. Identity in species is inferred from close similarity in all
+essential respects, or whenever the differences, however considerable,
+are not known or reasonably supposed to have been originated in the
+course of time under changed conditions. No two individuals are exactly
+alike; a tendency to variation pervades all living things. In
+cultivation, where variations are looked after and cared for, very
+striking differences come to light; and if in wild nature they are less
+common or less conspicuous, it is partly because they are uncared for.
+When such variant forms are pretty well marked they are called</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span></p><p><a name="UNIT_524" id="UNIT_524">524.</a> <b>Varieties.</b> The White Oak, for example, presents two or three
+varieties in the shape of the leaves, although they may be all alike
+upon each particular tree. The question often arises, and it is often
+hard to answer, whether the difference in a particular case is that of a
+variety, or is specific. If the former, it may commonly be proved by
+finding such intermediate degrees of difference in various individuals
+as to show that no clear distinction can be drawn between them; or else
+by observing the variety to vary back again in some of its offspring.
+The sorts of Apples, Pears, Potatoes, and the like, show that
+differences which are permanent in the individual, and continue
+unchanged through a long series of generations when propagated by
+division (as by offsets, cuttings, grafts, bulbs, tubers, etc.), are not
+likely to be reproduced by seed. Still they sometimes are so, and
+perhaps always tend in that direction. For the fundamental law in
+organic nature is that offspring shall be like parent.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Races</span> are such strongly marked varieties, capable of coming true to
+seed. The different sorts of Wheat, Maize, Peas, Radishes, etc., are
+familiar examples. By selecting those individuals of a species which
+have developed or inherited any desirable peculiarity, keeping them from
+mingling with their less promising brethren, and selecting again the
+most promising plants raised from their seeds, the cultivator may in a
+few generations render almost any variety transmissible by seed, so long
+as it is cared for and kept apart. In fact, this is the way the
+cultivated domesticated races, so useful to man, have been fixed and
+preserved. Races, in fact, can hardly, if at all, be said to exist
+independently of man. But man does not really produce them. Such
+peculiarities&mdash;often surprising enough&mdash;now and then originate, we know
+not how (the plant <i>sports</i>, as the gardeners say); they are only
+preserved, propagated, and generally further developed, by the
+cultivator's skilful care. If left alone, they are likely to dwindle and
+perish, or else revert to the original form of the species. Vegetable
+races are commonly annuals, which can be kept up only by seed, or herbs
+of which a succession of generations can be had every year or two, and
+so the education by selection be completed without great lapse of time.
+But all fruit-trees could probably be fixed into races in an equal
+number of generations.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Bud-varieties</span> are those which spring from buds instead of seed. They are
+uncommon to any marked extent. They are sometimes called <i>Sports</i>, but
+this name is equally applied to variations among seedlings.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cross-breeds</span>, strictly so-called, are the variations which come from
+cross-fertilizing one variety of a species with another.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Hybrids</span> are the varieties, if they may be so called,&mdash;which come from
+the crossing of species (<a href="#UNIT_331">331</a>). Only nearly related species can be
+hybridized; and the resulting progeny is usually self-sterile, but not
+always. Hybrid plants, however, may often be fertilized and made
+prolific by the pollen of one or the other parent. This produces another
+kind of cross-breeds.</p>
+
+<p>525. Species are the units in classification. Varieties, although of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>utmost importance in cultivation and of considerable consequence in the
+flora of any country, are of less botanical significance. For they are
+apt to be indefinite and to shade off one form into another. But
+species, the botanist <i>expects</i> to be distinct. Indeed, the practical
+difference to the botanist between species and varieties is the definite
+limitation of the one and the indefiniteness of the other. The
+botanist's determination is partly a matter of observation, partly of
+judgment.</p>
+
+<p>526. In an enlarged view, varieties may be incipient species; and nearly
+related species probably came from a common stock in earlier times. For
+there is every reason to believe that existing vegetation came from the
+more or less changed vegetation of a preceding geological era. However
+that may be, species are regarded as permanent and essentially unchanged
+in their succession of individuals through the actual ages.</p>
+
+<p>527. There are, at nearly the lowest computation, as many as one hundred
+thousand species of phanerogamous plants, and the cryptogamous species
+are thought to be still more numerous. They are all connected by
+resemblances or relationships, near and remote, which show that they are
+all parts of one system, realizations in nature, as we may affirm, of
+the conception of One Mind. As we survey them, they do not form a single
+and connected chain, stretching from the lowest to the highest organized
+species, although there obviously are lower and higher grades. But the
+species throughout group themselves, as it were, into clusters or
+constellations, and these into still more comprehensive clusters, and so
+on, with gaps between. It is this clustering which is the ground of the
+recognition of <i>kinds</i> of species, that is, of groups of species of
+successive grades or degree of generality; such as that of similar
+species into <i>Genera</i>, of genera into <i>Families</i> or <i>Orders</i>, of orders
+into <i>Classes</i>. In classification the sequence, proceeding from higher
+or more general to lower or special, is always <span class="smcap">Class</span>, <span class="smcap">Order</span>, <span class="smcap">Genus</span>,
+<span class="smcap">Species</span>, <span class="smcap">Variety</span> (if need be).</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_528" id="UNIT_528">528.</a> <b>Genera</b> (in the singular, <i>Genus</i>) are assemblages of closely
+related species, in which the essential parts are all constructed on the
+same particular type or plan. White Oak, Red Oak, Scarlet Oak, Live Oak,
+etc., are so many species of the Oak genus (Latin, <i>Quercus</i>). The
+Chestnuts compose another genus; the Beeches another. The Apple, Pear,
+and Crab are species of one genus, the Quince represents another, the
+various species of Hawthorn a third. In the animal kingdom the common
+cat, the wild-cat, the panther, the tiger, the leopard, and the lion are
+species of the cat kind or genus; while the dog, the jackal, the
+different species of wolf, and the foxes, compose another genus. Some
+genera are represented by a vast number of species, others by few, very
+many by only one known species. For the genus may be as perfectly
+represented in one species as in several, although, if this were the
+case throughout, genera and species would of course be identical. The
+Beech genus and the Chestnut genus would be just as distinct from the
+Oak genus even if but one Beech and Chestnut were known; as indeed was
+once the case.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span></p><p><a name="UNIT_529" id="UNIT_529">529.</a> <b>Orders</b> are groups of genera that resemble each other; that is,
+they are to genera what genera are to species. As familiar
+illustrations, the Oak, Chestnut, and Beech genera, along with the Hazel
+genus and the Hornbeams, all belong to one order. The Birches and the
+Alders make another; the Poplars and Willows, another; the Walnuts (with
+the Butternut) and the Hickories, still another. The Apple genus, the
+Quince and the Hawthorns, along with the Plums and Cherries and the
+Peach, the Raspberry with the Blackberry, the Strawberry, the Rose,
+belong to a large order, which takes its name from the Rose. Most
+botanists use the names "Order" and "Family" synonymously; the latter
+more popularly, as "the Rose Family," the former more technically, as
+"Order <i>Rosace�</i>."</p>
+
+<p>530. But when the two are distinguished, as is common in zo�logy, Family
+is of lower grade than Order.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_531" id="UNIT_531">531.</a> <b>Classes</b> are still more comprehensive assemblages, or great groups.
+Thus, in modern botany, the Dicotyledonous plants compose one class, the
+Monocotyledonous plants another (<a href="#UNIT_36">36-40</a>).</p>
+
+<p>532. These four grades, Class, Order, Genus, Species, are of universal
+use. Variety comes in upon occasion. For, although a species may have no
+recognized varieties, a genus implies at least one species belonging to
+it; every genus is of some order, and every order of some class.</p>
+
+<p>533. But these grades by no means exhaust the resources of
+classification, nor suffice for the elucidation of all the distinctions
+which botanists recognize. In the first place, a higher grade than that
+of class is needful for the most comprehensive of divisions, that of all
+plants into the two <i>Series</i> of Phanerogamous and Cryptogamous (<a href="#UNIT_6">6</a>); and
+in natural history there are the two <i>Kingdoms</i> or <i>Realms</i>, the
+Vegetable and the Animal.</p>
+
+<p>534. Moreover, the stages of the scaffolding have been variously
+extended, as required, by the recognition of assemblages lower than
+class but higher than order, viz. <i>Subclass</i> and <i>Cohort</i>; or lower than
+order, a <i>Suborder</i>; or between this and genus, a <i>Tribe</i>; or between
+this and tribe, a <i>Subtribe</i>; or between genus and species, a
+<i>Subgenus</i>; and by some a species has been divided into <i>Subspecies</i>,
+and a variety into <i>Subvarieties</i>. Last of all are <i>Individuals</i>.
+Suffice it to remember that the following are the principal grades in
+classification, with the proper sequence; also that only those here
+printed in small capitals are fundamental and universal in botany:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>
+<span class="smcap">Series</span>,
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>
+<span class="smcap">Class</span>, Subclass, Cohort,
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>
+<span class="smcap">Order</span>, or <span class="smcap">Family</span>, Suborder, Tribe, Subtribe,
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>
+<span class="smcap">Genus</span>, Subgenus or Section,
+<ul class="lsoff"><li>
+<span class="smcap">Species</span>, Variety.
+</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p><h3><a name="Subsect_XVIII_2" id="Subsect_XVIII_2">� 2.</a> NAMES, TERMS, AND CHARACTERS.</h3>
+
+<p>535. The name of a plant is the name of its genus followed by that of
+the species. The name of the genus answers to the surname (or family
+name); that of the species to the baptismal name of a person. Thus
+<i>Quercus</i> is the name of the Oak genus; <i>Quercus alba</i>, that of the
+White Oak, <i>Q. rubra</i>, that of Red Oak, <i>Q. nigra</i>, that of the
+Black-Jack, etc. Botanical names being Latin or Latinized, the adjective
+name of the species comes after that of the genus.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_536" id="UNIT_536">536.</a> <b>Names of Genera</b> are of one word, a substantive. The older ones are
+mostly classical Latin, or Greek adopted into Latin; such as <i>Quercus</i>
+for the Oak genus, <i>Fagus</i> for the Beech, <i>Corylus</i>, the Hazel, and the
+like. But as more genera became known, botanists had new names to make
+or borrow. Many are named from some appearance or property of the
+flowers, leaves, or other parts of the plant. To take a few examples
+from the early pages of the "Manual of the Botany of the Northern United
+States,"&mdash;the genus <i>Hepatica</i> comes from the shape of the leaf,
+resembling that of the liver. <i>Myosurus</i> means mouse-tail. <i>Delphinium</i>
+is from delphin, a dolphin, and alludes to the shape of the flower,
+which was thought to resemble the classical figures of the dolphin.
+<i>Xanthorrhiza</i> is from two Greek words meaning yellow-root, the common
+name of the plant. <i>Cimicifuga</i> is formed of two Latin words meaning to
+drive away bugs, i. e. Bugbane, the Siberian species being used to keep
+away such vermin. <i>Sanguinaria</i>, the Bloodroot, is named from the
+blood-like color of its juice. Other genera are dedicated to
+distinguished botanists or promoters of science, and bear their names:
+such are <i>Magnolia</i>, which commemorates the early French botanist,
+Magnol; and <i>Jeffersonia</i>, named after President Jefferson, who sent the
+first exploring expedition over the Rocky Mountains. Others bear the
+name of the discoverer of the plant; as, <i>Sarracenia</i>, dedicated to Dr.
+Sarrazin, of Quebec, who was one of the first to send the common
+Pitcher-plant to the botanists of Europe; and <i>Claytonia</i>, first made
+known by the early Virginian botanist Clayton.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_537" id="UNIT_537">537.</a> <b>Names of Species.</b> The name of a species is also a single word,
+appended to that of the genus. It is commonly an adjective, and
+therefore agrees with the generic name in case, gender, etc. Sometimes
+it relates to the country the species inhabits; as, Claytonia
+<i>Virginica</i>, first made known from Virginia; Sanguinaria <i>Canadensis</i>,
+from Canada, etc. More commonly it denotes some obvious or
+characteristic trait of the species; as, for example, in Sarracenia, our
+northern species is named <i>purpurea</i>, from the purple blossoms, while a
+more southern one is named <i>flava</i>, because its petals are yellow; the
+species of Jeffersonia is called <i>diphylla</i>, meaning two-leaved, because
+its leaf is divided into two leaflets. Some species are named after the
+discoverer, or in compliment to a botanist who has made them known; as,
+Magnolia <i>Fraseri</i>, named after the botanist Fraser, one <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>of the first
+to find this species; and Sarracenia <i>Drummondii</i>, for a Pitcher-plant
+found by Mr. Drummond in Florida. Such personal specific names are of
+course written with a capital initial letter. Occasionally some old
+substantive name is used for the species; as Magnolia <i>Umbrella</i>, the
+Umbrella tree, and Ranunculus <i>Flammula</i>. These are also written with a
+capital initial, and need not accord with the generic name in gender.
+Geographical specific names, such as <i>Canadensis</i>, <i>Caroliniana</i>,
+<i>Americana</i>, in the later usage are by some written without a capital
+initial, but the older usage is better, or at least more accordant with
+English orthography.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_538" id="UNIT_538">538.</a> <b>Varietal Names</b>, when any are required, are made on the plan of
+specific names, and follow these, with the prefix <i>var</i>. Ranunculus
+Flammula, var. <i>reptans</i>, the creeping variety: R. abortivus, var.
+<i>micranthus</i>, the small-flowered variety of the species.</p>
+
+<p>539. In recording the name of a plant it is usual to append the name, or
+an abbreviation of the name, of the botanist who first published it; and
+in a flora or other systematic work, this reference to the source of the
+name is completed by a further citation of the name of the book, the
+volume and page where it was first published. So "<i>Ranunculus acris</i>,
+L.," means that this Buttercup was first so named and described by
+Linn�us; "<i>R. multifidus</i>, Pursh," that this species was so named and
+published by Pursh. The suffix is no part of the name, but is an
+abbreviated reference, to be added or omitted as convenience or
+definiteness may require. The authority for a generic name is similarly
+recorded. Thus, "<i>Ranunculus</i>, L.," means that the genus was so named by
+Linn�us; "<i>Myosurus</i>, Dill.," that the Mouse-tail was established as a
+genus under this name by Dillenius; <i>Caulophyllum</i>, Michx., that the
+Blue Cohosh was published under this name by Michaux. The full reference
+in the last-named instance would be, "in Flora Boreali-Americana, first
+volume, 205th page,"&mdash;in the customary abbreviation, "Michx. Fl. i.
+205."</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_540" id="UNIT_540">540.</a> <b>Names of Orders</b> are given in the plural number, and are commonly
+formed by prolonging the name of a genus of the group taken as a
+representative of it. For example, the order of which the Buttercup or
+Crowfoot genus, <i>Ranunculus</i>, is the representative, takes from it the
+name of <i>Ranunculace�</i>; meaning <i>Plant� Ranunculace�</i> when written out
+in full, that is, Ranunculaceous Plants. Some old descriptive names of
+orders are kept up, such as <i>Crucifer�</i> for the order to which Cress and
+Mustard belong, from the cruciform appearance of their expanded corolla,
+and <i>Umbellifer�</i>, from the flowers being in umbels.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_541" id="UNIT_541">541.</a> <b>Names of Tribes</b>, also of suborders, subtribes, and the like, are
+plurals of the name of the typical genus, less prolonged, usually in
+<i>e�</i>, <i>ine�</i>, <i>ide�</i>, etc. Thus the proper Buttercup tribe is
+<i>Ranuncule�</i>, of the Clematis tribe, <i>Clematide�</i>. While the Rose family
+is <i>Rosace�</i>, the special Rose tribe is <i>Rose�</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_542" id="UNIT_542">542.</a> <b>Names of Classes, etc.</b> For these see the following synopsis of the
+actual classification adopted, p. <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p><p>543. So a plant is named in two words, the generic and the specific
+names, to which may be added a third, that of the variety, upon
+occasion. The generic name is peculiar: obviously it must not be used
+twice over in botany. The specific name must not be used twice over in
+the same genus, but is free for any other genus. A <i>Quercus alba</i>, or
+White Oak, is no hindrance to <i>Betula alba</i>, or White Birch; and so of
+other names.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_544" id="UNIT_544">544.</a> <b>Characters and Descriptions.</b> Plants are <i>characterized</i> by a terse
+statement, in botanical terms, of their peculiarities or distinguishing
+marks. The character of the order should include nothing which is common
+to the whole class it belongs to; that of the genus, nothing which is
+common to the order; that of the species nothing which is shared with
+all other species of the genus; and so of other divisions.
+<i>Descriptions</i> may enter into complete details of the whole structure.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_545" id="UNIT_545">545.</a> <b>Terminology</b>, also called <i>Glossology</i>, is nomenclature applied to
+organs or parts, and their forms or modifications. Each organ or special
+part has a substantive name of its own: shapes and other modifications
+of an organ or part are designated by adjective terms, or, when the
+forms are peculiar, substantive names are given to them. By the correct
+use of such botanical terms, and by proper subordination of the
+characters under the order, genus, species, etc., plants may be
+described and determined with much precision. The classical language of
+botany is Latin. While modern languages have their own names and terms,
+these usually lack the precision of the Latin or Latinized botanical
+terminology. Fortunately, this Latinized terminology has been largely
+adopted and incorporated into the English technical language of botany,
+thus securing precision. And these terms are largely the basis of
+specific names of plants.</p>
+
+<p>546. A glossary or vocabulary of the principal botanical terms used in
+phanerogamous and vascular cryptogamous botany is appended to this
+volume, to which the student may refer, as occasion arises.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_XVIII_3" id="Subsect_XVIII_3">� 3.</a> SYSTEM.</h3>
+
+<p>547. Two systems of classification used to be recognized in botany,&mdash;the
+artificial and the natural; but only the latter is now thought to
+deserve the name of a system.</p>
+
+<p>548. Artificial classifications have for object merely the ascertaining
+of the name and place of a plant. They do not attempt to express
+relationships, but serve as a kind of dictionary. They distribute the
+genera and species according to some one peculiarity or set of
+peculiarities (just as a dictionary distributes words according to their
+first letters), disregarding all other considerations. At present an
+artificial classification in botany is needed only as a key to the
+natural orders,&mdash;as an aid in referring an unknown plant to its proper
+family; and such keys are still very needful, at least for the beginner.
+Formerly, when the orders themselves were not clearly made out, an
+artificial classification was required to lead the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>student down to the
+genus. Two such classifications were long in vogue: First, that of
+Tournefort, founded mainly on the leaves of the flower, the calyx and
+corolla: this was the prevalent system throughout the first half of the
+eighteenth century; but it has long since gone by. It was succeeded by
+the well-known</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_549" id="UNIT_549">549.</a> <b>Artificial System of Linn�us</b>, which was founded on the stamens and
+pistils. It consists of twenty-four classes, and of a variable number of
+orders; the classes founded mainly on the number and disposition of the
+stamens; the orders partly upon the number of styles or stigmas, partly
+upon other considerations. Useful and popular as this system was down to
+a time within the memory of still surviving botanists, it is now
+completely obsolete. But the tradition of it survives in the names of
+its classes, Monandria, Diandria, Triandria, etc., which are familiar in
+terminology in the adjective terms monandrous, diandrous, triandrous,
+etc. (<a href="#UNIT_284">284</a>); also of the orders, Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, etc.,
+preserved in the form of monogynous, digynous, trigynous, etc. (<a href="#UNIT_301">301</a>);
+and in the name Cryptogamia, that of the 24th class, which is continued
+for the lower series in the natural classification.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_550" id="UNIT_550">550.</a> <b>Natural System.</b> A genuine system of botany consists of the orders
+or families, duly arranged under their classes, and having the tribes,
+the genera, and the species arranged in them according to their
+relationships. This, when properly carried out, is the <i>Natural System</i>;
+because it is intended to express, as well as possible, the various
+degrees of relationship among plants, as presented in nature; that is,
+to rank those species and those genera, etc., next to each other in the
+classification which are really most alike in all respects, or, in other
+words, which are constructed most nearly on the same particular plan.</p>
+
+<p>551. There can be only <i>one</i> natural system of botany, if by this term
+is meant the plan according to which the vegetable creation was called
+into being, with all its grades and diversities among the species, as
+well of past as of the present time. But there may be many natural
+systems, if we mean the attempts of men to interpret and express that
+plan,&mdash;systems which will vary with advancing knowledge, and with the
+judgment and skill of different botanists. These must all be very
+imperfect, bear the impress of individual minds, and be shaped by the
+current philosophy of the age. But the endeavor always is to make the
+classification answer to Nature, as far as any system can which has to
+be expressed in a definite and serial arrangement.</p>
+
+<p>552. So, although the classes, orders, genera, etc., are natural, or as
+natural as the systematist can make them, their grouping or order of
+arrangement in a book, must necessarily be in great measure artificial.
+Indeed, it is quite impossible to arrange the orders, or even the few
+classes, in a single series, and yet have each group stand next to its
+nearest relatives on both sides.</p>
+
+<p>553. Especially it should be understood that, although phanerogamous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>plants are of higher grade than cryptogamous, and angiospermous or
+ordinary phanerogamous higher than the gymnospermous, yet there is no
+culmination in the vegetable kingdom, nor any highest or lowest order of
+phanerogamous plants.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_554" id="UNIT_554">554.</a> The particular system most largely used at present in the
+classification of the orders is essentially the following:&mdash;</p>
+<ul class="lsoff" style="margin-left:1em;text-indent:-1em;">
+<li><span class="smcap">Series</span> I. PHANEROGAMIA: <span class="smcap">Phanerogamous or Flowering Plants</span>.
+
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><span class="smcap">Class</span> I. DICOTYLEDONES ANGIOSPERME�, called for shortness in
+English, <span class="smcap">Dicotyledons</span> or <span class="smcap">Dicotyls</span>. Ovules in a closed ovary.
+Embryo dicotyledonous. Stem with exogenous plan of growth. Leaves
+reticulate-veined,
+
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><i>Artificial Division I.</i> <span class="smcap">Polypetal�</span>, with petals mostly present
+and distinct. Orders about 80 in number, <i>Ranunculace�</i> to
+<i>Cornace�</i>.
+</li>
+
+<li><i>Artificial Division II.</i> <span class="smcap">Gamopetal�</span>, with gamopetalous corolla.
+Orders about 45, <i>Caprifoliace�</i> to <i>Plantaginace�</i>.
+</li>
+
+<li><i>Artificial Division III.</i> <span class="smcap">Apetal�</span> or <span class="smcap">Incomplet�</span>, with perianth,
+when present, of calyx only. Orders about 35 in number, from
+<i>Nyctaginace�</i> to <i>Salicace�</i>.
+</li></ul></li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Class</span> II. DICOTYLEDONES GYMNOSPERME�, in English <span class="smcap">Gymnosperms</span>. No
+ovary or pericarp, but ovules and seeds naked, and no proper calyx
+nor corolla. Embryo dicotyledonous or polycotyledonous. Stem with
+exogenous plan of growth. Leaves mostly parallel-veined. Consists
+of order <i>Gnetace�</i>, which strictly connects with Angiospermous
+Dicotyls, of <i>Conifer�</i>, and of <i>Cycadace�</i>.
+</li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Class</span> III. MONOCOTYLEDONES, in English <span class="smcap">Monocotyledons</span> or
+<span class="smcap">Monocotyls</span>. Angiospermous. Embryo monocotyledonous. Stem with
+endogenous plan of growth. Leaves mostly parallel-veined.
+
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li><i>Division I.</i> <span class="smcap">Petaloide�</span>. Perianth complete, having the
+equivalent of both calyx and corolla, and all the inner series
+corolline. About 18 orders.
+</li>
+
+<li><i>Division II.</i> <span class="smcap">Calycin�</span>. Perianth complete (in two series) but
+not corolline, mostly thickish or glumaceous. Chiefly two
+orders, <i>Juncace�</i>, the true Rushes, and <i>Palm�</i>, Palms.
+</li>
+
+<li><i>Division III.</i> <span class="smcap">Spadiciflor�</span> or <span class="smcap">Nudiflor�</span>. Perianth none, or
+rudimentary and incomplete: inflorescence spadiceous. Of five
+orders, <i>Typhace�</i> and <i>Aroide�</i> the principal.
+</li>
+
+<li><i>Division IV.</i> <span class="smcap">Glumace�</span>. Perianth none, or very rudimentary:
+glumaceous bracts to the flowers. Orders mainly <i>Cyperace�</i> and
+<i>Gramine�</i>.
+</li></ul></li></ul></li>
+
+<li><span class="smcap">Series</span> II. CRYPTOGAMIA: <span class="smcap">Cryptogamous or Flowerless Plants</span>.
+
+<ul class="lsoff">
+<li>CLASS I. PTERIDOPHYTA, <span class="smcap">Pteridophytes</span> (<a href="#UNIT_484">484</a>).
+</li>
+
+<li>CLASS II. BRYOPHYTA, <span class="smcap">Bryophytes</span> (<a href="#UNIT_498">498</a>).
+</li>
+
+<li>CLASS III. THALLOPHYTA, <span class="smcap">Thallophytes</span> (<a href="#UNIT_503">503</a>).
+</li></ul></li></ul>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="Section_XIX" id="Section_XIX"></a>SECTION XIX. BOTANICAL WORK.</h2>
+
+
+<p>555. Some hints and brief instructions for the collection, examination,
+and preservation of specimens are added. They are especially intended
+for the assistance of those who have not the advantage of a teacher.
+They apply to phanerogamous plants and Ferns only, and to systematic
+botany.<a name="FNanchor_1_4" id="FNanchor_1_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_4" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_XIX_1" id="Subsect_XIX_1">� 1.</a> COLLECTION, OR HERBORIZATION.</h3>
+
+<p>556. As much as possible, plants should be examined in the living state,
+or when freshly gathered. But dried specimens should be prepared for
+more leisurely examination and for comparison. To the working botanist
+good dried specimens are indispensable.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_557" id="UNIT_557">557.</a> <b>Botanical Specimens</b>, to be complete, should have root or rootstock,
+stem, leaves, flowers, both open and in bud, and fruit. Sometimes these
+may all be obtained at one gathering; more commonly two or three
+gatherings at different times are requisite, especially for trees and
+shrubs.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_558" id="UNIT_558">558.</a> <b>In Herborizing</b>, a good knife and a narrow and strong trowel are
+needed; but a very strong knife will serve instead of a trowel or small
+pick for digging out bulbs, tubers, and the like. To carry the
+specimens, either the tin box (<i>vasculum</i>) or a portfolio, or both are
+required. The tin box is best for the collection of specimens to be used
+fresh, as in the class-room; also for very thick or fleshy plants. The
+portfolio is indispensable for long expeditions, and is best for
+specimens which are to be preserved in the herbarium.</p>
+
+<p>559. The <i>Vasculum</i>, or <i>Botanical Collecting-box</i>, is made of tin, in
+shape like a candle-box, only flatter, or the smaller sizes like an
+English sandwich-case; the lid opening for nearly the whole length of
+one side of the box. Any portable tin box of convenient size, and
+capable of holding specimens a foot or fifteen inches long, will answer
+the purpose. The box should shut close, so that the specimens may not
+wilt: then it will keep leafy branches and most flowers perfectly fresh
+for a day or two, especially if slightly moistened. They should not be
+wet.</p>
+
+<p>560. <i>The Portfolio</i> is best made of two pieces of solid binder's-board,
+covered with enamel cloth, which also forms the back, and fastened by
+straps and buckles. It may be from a foot to twenty inches long, from
+nine to eleven or twelve inches wide. It should contain a needful
+quantity of smooth but strong and pliable paper (thin so-called Manilla
+paper is best), either fastened at the back as in a book, or loose in
+folded sheets when not very many specimens are required. As soon as
+gathered, the specimens should be separately laid between the leaves or
+in the folded sheets, and kept under moderate pressure in the closed
+portfolio.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></p><p>561. Of small herbs, especially annuals, the whole plant, root and all,
+should be taken for a specimen. Of larger ones branches will suffice,
+with some leaves from near the root. Enough of the root or subterranean
+part of the plant should be collected to show whether it is an annual, a
+biennial, or a perennial. Thick roots, bulbs, tubers, or branches of
+specimens intended to be pressed should be thinned with a knife, or cut
+into slices. Keep the specimens within the length of fifteen or sixteen
+inches, by folding, or when that cannot be done, by cutting into
+lengths.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_562" id="UNIT_562">562.</a> <b>For Drying Specimens</b> a good supply of soft and unsized paper is
+wanted; and some convenient means of applying considerable pressure. To
+make good dried botanical specimens, dry them as rapidly as possible
+between many thicknesses of sun-dried paper to absorb their moisture,
+under as much pressure as can be given without crushing the more
+delicate parts. This pressure may be had by a botanical press, of which
+various forms have been contrived; or by weights placed upon a
+board,&mdash;from forty to eighty or a hundred pounds, according to the
+quantity of specimens drying at the time. For use while travelling, a
+good portable press may be made of thick binders' boards for the sides,
+and the pressure may be applied by strong straps with buckles. Still
+better, on some accounts, are portable presses made of wire network,
+which allow the dampness to escape by evaporation between the meshes.
+For herborization in a small way, a light wire-press may be taken into
+the field and made to serve also as a portfolio.</p>
+
+<p>563. It is well to have two kinds of paper, namely, <i>driers</i> of bibulous
+paper, stitched into pads (or the pads may be of thick carpet-paper, cut
+to size) and thin smooth paper, folded once; the specimens to be laid
+into the fold, either when gathered or on returning from the excursion.
+These sheets are to hold the specimens until they are quite dry. Every
+day, or at first even twice a day, the specimens, left undisturbed in
+their sheets, are to be shifted into fire-dried or sun-dried fresh
+driers, and the pressure renewed, while the moist sheets are spread out
+to dry, so as to take their turn again at the next shifting. This course
+must be continued until the specimens are no longer moist to the touch.
+Good and comely specimens are either made or spoiled within the first
+twenty-four or thirty-six hours. After that, when plenty of driers are
+used, it may not be necessary to change them so frequently.</p>
+
+<p>564. Succulent plants, which long refuse to part with life and moisture,
+and Spruces and some other evergreens which are apt to cast off their
+leaves, may be plunged for a moment into boiling water, all but the
+flowers. Delicate flowers may be encased in thin tissue paper when put
+into the press. Thick parts, like the heads of Sunflowers and Thistles,
+may be cut in two or into slices.</p>
+
+<p>565. Dried specimens may be packed in bundles, either in folded paper or
+upon single half-sheets. It is better that such paper should not be
+bibulous. The packages should be well wrapped or kept in close cases.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p><p><a name="UNIT_566" id="UNIT_566">566.</a> <b>Poisoning</b> is necessary if specimens are to be permanently
+preserved from the depredation of insects. The usual application is an
+almost saturated solution of corrosive sublimate in 95 per cent alcohol,
+freely applied with a large and soft brush, or the specimens dipped into
+some of the solution poured into a large and flat dish; the wetted
+specimens to be transferred for a short time to driers.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_XIX_2" id="Subsect_XIX_2">� 2.</a> HERBARIUM.</h3>
+
+<p>567. The botanist's collection of dried specimens, ticketed with their
+names, place, and time of collection, and systematically arranged under
+their genera, orders, etc., forms a <i>Hortus Siccus</i> or <i>Herbarium</i>. It
+comprises not only the specimens which the proprietor has himself
+collected, but those which he acquires through friendly exchanges, or in
+other ways. The specimens of an herbarium may be kept in folded sheets
+of paper; or they may be fastened on half-sheets of thick and white
+paper, either by gummed slips, or by glue applied to the specimens
+themselves. The former is best for private and small herbaria; the
+latter for large ones which are much turned over. Each sheet should be
+appropriated to one species; two or more different plants should never
+be attached to the same sheet. The generic and specific name of the
+plant should be added to the lower right-hand corner, either written on
+the sheet, or on a ticket pasted down; and the time of collection, the
+locality, the color of the flowers, and any other information which the
+specimens themselves do not afford, should be duly recorded upon the
+sheet or the ticket. The sheets of the herbarium should all be of
+exactly the same dimensions. The herbarium of Linn�us is on paper of the
+common foolscap size, about eleven inches long and seven wide. This is
+too small. Sixteen and three eighths inches by eleven and a half inches
+is an approved size.</p>
+
+<p>568. The sheets containing the species of each genus are to be placed in
+<i>genus-covers</i>, made of a full sheet of thick paper (such as the
+strongest Manilla-hemp paper), to be when folded of the same dimensions
+as the species-sheet but slightly wider: the name of the genus is to be
+written on one of the lower corners. These are to be arranged under the
+orders to which they belong, and the whole kept in closed cases or
+cabinets, either laid flat in compartments, like "pigeon-holes," or else
+placed in thick portfolios, arranged like folio volumes. All should be
+kept, as much as practicable, in dust-proof and insect-proof cases or
+boxes.</p>
+
+<p>569. Fruits, tubers, and other hard parts, too thick for the herbarium,
+may be kept in pasteboard or light wooden boxes, in a collection apart.
+Small loose fruits, seeds, detached flowers, and the like may be
+conveniently preserved in paper capsules or envelopes, attached to the
+herbarium-sheets.</p>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span></p><h3><a name="Subsect_XIX_3" id="Subsect_XIX_3">� 3.</a> INVESTIGATION AND DETERMINATION OF PLANTS.</h3>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_570" id="UNIT_570">570.</a> <b>The Implements</b> required are a hand magnifying glass, a pocket lens
+of an inch or two focus, or a glass of two lenses, one of the lower and
+the other of the higher power; and a sharp penknife for dissection. With
+these and reasonable perseverance the structure of the flowers and
+fructification of most phanerogamous plants and Ferns can be made out.
+But for ease and comfort, as well as for certainty and right training,
+the student should have some kind of simple stage microscope, and under
+this make all dissections of small parts. Without it the student will be
+apt to fall into the bad habit of guessing where he ought to ascertain.</p>
+
+<p>571. The simple microscope may be reduced to a good lens or doublet, of
+an inch focus, mounted over a glass stage, so that it can be moved up
+and down and also sidewise, and with (or without) a little mirror
+underneath. A better one would have one or two additional lenses (say of
+half and of a quarter inch focus), a pretty large stage, on the glass of
+which several small objects can be placed and conveniently brought under
+the lens; and its height or that of the lens should be adjustable by a
+rack-work; also a swivel-mounted little mirror beneath, which is needed
+for minute objects to be viewed by transmitted light.</p>
+
+<p>572. For dissecting and displaying small parts on the stage of the
+microscope, besides a thin-bladed knife, the only tools needed are a
+good stock of common needles of various sizes, mounted in handles, and
+one or more saddler's-needles, which, being triangular, may be ground to
+sharp edges convenient for dissection. Also a pair of delicate-pointed
+forceps; those with curved points used by the dentist are most
+convenient. A cup of clean water is indispensable, with which to moisten
+or wet, or in which occasionally to float delicate parts. Small flowers,
+buds, fruits, and seeds of dried specimens can be dissected quite as
+well as fresh ones. They have only to be soaked in warm or boiling
+water.</p>
+
+<p>573. The compound microscope is rarely necessary except in cryptogamic
+botany and vegetable anatomy; but it is very useful and convenient,
+especially for the examination of pollen. To the advanced botanist it is
+a necessity, to all students of botany an aid and delight.</p>
+
+<p><a name="UNIT_574" id="UNIT_574">574.</a> <b>Analysis.</b> A few directions and hints may be given. The most
+important is this: In studying an unknown plant, make a complete
+examination of all its parts, and form a clear idea of its floral
+structure and that of its fruit, from pericarp down to the embryo, or as
+far as the materials in hand allow, before taking a step toward finding
+out its name and relationship by means of the keys or other helps which
+the Manuals and Floras provide. If it is the name merely that is wanted,
+the shorter way is to ask some one who already knows it. To verify the
+points of structure one by one as they happen to occur in an artificial
+key, without any preparatory investigation, is a usual but is not the
+best nor the surest <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>way. It is well to make drawings or outline
+sketches of the smaller parts, and especially diagrams of the plan of
+the flower, such as those of Fig. <a href="#Fig224">225</a>, <a href="#Fig226">227</a>, <a href="#Fig239">241, 244</a>, <a href="#Fig275">275</a>-<a href="#Fig277">277</a>. For
+these, cross sections of the flower-bud or flower are to be made: and
+longitudinal sections, such as Fig. <a href="#Fig270">270</a>-<a href="#Fig273">274</a>, are equally important. The
+dissection even of small seeds is not difficult after some practice.
+Commonly they need to be soaked or boiled.</p>
+
+<p>575. The right appreciation of characters and terms used in description
+needs practice and calls for judgment. Plants do not grow exactly by
+rule and plummet, and measurements must be taken loosely. Difference of
+soil and situation are responded to by considerable variations, and
+other divergences occur which cannot be accounted for by the
+surroundings, nor be anticipated in general descriptions. Annuals may be
+very depauperate in dry soils or seasons, or very large when
+particularly well nourished. Warm and arid situations promote, and wet
+ones are apt to diminish pubescence. Salt water causes increased
+succulence. The color of flowers is apt to be lighter in shade, and
+brighter in open and elevated situations. A color or hue not normal to
+the species now and then occurs, which nothing in the conditions will
+account for. <i>A white-flowered variation of any other colored blossom
+may always be expected</i>; this, though it may be notable, no more
+indicates a distinct variety of the species than an albino would a
+variety of the human species. The numerical plan is subject to variation
+in some flowers; those on the plan of five may now and then vary to four
+or to six. Variations of the outline or lobing of leaves are so familiar
+that they do not much mislead. Only wider and longer observation
+suffices to prevent or correct mistakes in botanical study. But the
+weighing of evidence and the balancing of probabilities, no less than
+the use of the well-ordered and logical system of classification, give
+as excellent training to the judgment as the search for the facts
+themselves does to the observing powers.</p>
+
+
+<h3><a name="Subsect_XIX_4" id="Subsect_XIX_4">� 4.</a> SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS.</h3>
+
+<p>576. For a full account of these, whether of former or actual use, see
+"Structural Botany" of the "Botanical Text Book," pp. 367, 392, as also
+for the principles which govern the accentuation of names. It is needful
+here to explain only those used in the Manuals and Floras of this
+country, for which the present volume is an introduction and companion.
+They are not numerous.</p>
+
+<p>577. In arranging the species, at least those of a large genus, the
+divisions are denoted and graduated as follows: The sign � is prefixed
+to sections of the highest rank: these sections when they have names
+affixed to them (as <span class="smcap">Prunus</span> � <span class="smcap">Cerasus</span>) may be called subgenera. When the
+divisions of a genus are not of such importance, or when divisions are
+made under the subgenus itself, the most comprehensive ones are marked
+by asterisks, * for the first, * * for the second, and so on.
+Subdivisions are <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>marked with a prefixed +; those under this head with
+++; and those under this with =, if there be so many grades. A similar
+notation is followed in the synopsis of the genera of an order.</p>
+
+<p>578. The interrogation point is used in botany to indicate doubt. Thus
+<i>Clematis crispa</i>, L.? expresses a doubt whether the plant in question
+is really the <i>Clematis crispa</i> of Linn�us. <i>Clematis? polypetala</i>
+expresses a doubt whether the plant so named is really a Clematis. On
+the other hand the exclamation point (!) is used to denote certainty
+whenever there is special need to affirm this.</p>
+
+<p>579. For size or height, the common signs of degrees, minutes, and
+seconds, have been used, thus, 1�, 2', 3", stand respectively for a
+foot, two inches, and three lines or twelfths of an inch. A better way,
+when such brevity is needed, is to write 1<sup>ft</sup>. 2<sup>in</sup>. 3<sup>l</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>580. Signs for duration used by Linn�us were &#9737; for an annual,
+&#9794; for a biennial, &#9795; for a perennial herb,
+<a href="images/figsymbols.jpg">[Symbol like numeral 5 without top bar]</a> for a shrub or tree. DeCandolle brought in &#9737; for a
+plant that died after once flowering, &#9312; if annual, &#9313; if biennial.</p>
+
+<p>581. To indicate sexes, &#9794; means staminate or male plant or
+blossom; &#9792;, pistillate or female; <a href="images/figsymbols.jpg">[Symbol like &#9791; with two inverted breves]</a>, perfect or
+hermaphrodite.</p>
+
+<p>582. To save room it is not uncommon to use &#8734; in place of
+"many;" thus, "Stamens &#8734;," for stamens indefinitely numerous:
+"&#8734; flora" for pluriflora or many-flowered. Still more common
+is the form "Stamens 5-20," or "Calyx 4-5-parted," for stamens from five
+to twenty, calyx four-parted or five-parted, and the like. Such
+abbreviations hardly need explanation.</p>
+
+<p>583. The same may be said of such abbreviations as <i>Cal.</i> for calyx,
+<i>Cor.</i> for corolla, <i>Pet.</i> for petals, <i>St.</i> for stamens, <i>Pist.</i> for
+pistil, <i>Hab.</i> for habitat, meaning place of growth, <i>Herb.</i> for
+herbarium, <i>Hort.</i> for garden. Also <i>l. c.</i>, loco citato, which avoids
+repetition of volume and page.</p>
+
+<p>584. "Structural Botany" has six pages of abbreviations of the names of
+botanists, mostly of botanical authors. As they are not of much
+consequence to the beginner, while the more advanced botanist will know
+the names in full, or know where to find them, only a selection is here
+appended.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_4" id="Footnote_1_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_4"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> For fuller directions in many particulars, see "Structural
+Botany," pp. 370-374.</p></div>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="ABBREVIATIONS" id="ABBREVIATIONS"></a>ABBREVIATIONS OF THE NAMES OF BOTANISTS.</h2>
+
+
+
+
+<div class="center">
+<table border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" summary="">
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Adans.</i></td><td align="center" style="width:2em;">=</td><td align="left">Adanson.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Ait.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Aiton.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>All.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Allioni.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Andr.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Andrews.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Arn.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Arnott.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Aub.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Aublet.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Bartr.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Bartram.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Beauv.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Palisot de Beauvois.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Benth.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Bentham.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Bernh.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Bernhardi.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Bigel.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Jacob Bigelow.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Bong.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Bongard.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Bonpl.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Bonpland.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Br.</i> or <i>R. Br.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Robert Brown.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Cass.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Cassini.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Cav.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Cavanilles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Cham.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Chamisso.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Chapm.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Chapman.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Chois.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Choisy.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Clayt.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Clayton.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Curt.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Curtis.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Curt. (M. A.)</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">M. A. Curtis.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Darl.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Darlington.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>DC.</i></td><td align="center" rowspan="2" valign="middle"><span style="font-size:200%;">}</span></td><td align="left" rowspan="2" valign="middle">DeCandolle.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>DeCand.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>A. DC.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Alphonse DeCandolle.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Desc.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Descourtilz.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Desf.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Desfontaines.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Desv.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Desvaux.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Dill.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Dillenius.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Dougl.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Douglas.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Duham.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Duhamel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Dun.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Dunal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Eat.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Eaton (Amos) or D. C.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Ehrh.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Ehrhart.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Ell.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Elliott.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Endl.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Endlicher.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Engelm.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Engelmann.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Engl.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Engler.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Fisch.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Fischer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Fr&oelig;l.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Fr&oelig;lich.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>G�rtn.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">G�rtner.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Gaud.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Gaudin.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Gaudich.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Gaudichaud.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Ging.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Gingins.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Gmel.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Gmelin.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Good.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Goodenough.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Grev.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Greville.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Griseb.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Grisebach.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Gron.</i></td><td align="center" rowspan="2" valign="middle"><span style="font-size:200%;">}</span></td><td align="left" rowspan="2" valign="middle">Gronovius.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Gronov.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Hall.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Haller.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Hartm.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Hartmann.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Hartw.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Hartweg.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Harv.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Harvey.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Haw.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Haworth.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Hegelm.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Hegelmaier.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Hemsl.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Hemsley.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Herb.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Herbert.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Hoffm.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Hoffmann.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Hoffmans.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Hoffmansegg.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Hook.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Hooker.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Hook. f.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">J. D. Hooker.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Hornem.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Hornemann.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Huds.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Hudson.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Humb.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Humboldt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>HBK.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Humboldt, Bonpland, and Kunth.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Jacq.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Jacquin.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Jacq. f.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">J. F. Jacquin.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Juss.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Jussieu.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>A. Juss.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Adrien de Jussieu.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Kit.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Kitaibel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>L.</i> or <i>Linn.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Linn�us.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Labill.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Labillardiere.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Lag.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Lagasca.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Lam.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Lamarck.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Ledeb.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Ledebour.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Lehm.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Lehmann.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Lesq.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Lesquereux.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Less.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Lessing.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Lestib.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Lestibudois.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>L'Her.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">L'Heritier.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Lindb.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Lindberg.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Lindh.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Lindheimer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Lindl.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Lindley.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Lodd.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Loddiges.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Loud.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Loudon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>M. Bieb.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Marschall von Bieberstein.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Marsh.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Marshall (Humphrey).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Mart.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Martius.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span><i>Mast.</i></td><td align="center">=</td><td align="left">Masters.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Maxim.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Maximowicz.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Meisn.</i></td><td align="center" rowspan="2" valign="middle"><span style="font-size:200%;">}</span></td><td align="left">Meisner or</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Meissn.</i></td><td align="left">Meissner.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Michx.</i> or <i>Mx.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Michaux.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Michx. f.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">F. A. Michaux.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Mill.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Miller.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Miq.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Miquel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Mitch.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Mitchell.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Mo�.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Mo�ino.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Moq.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Moquin-Tandon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Moric.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Moricand.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Moris.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Morison.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Muell. Arg.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">J. Mueller.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Muell. (F.)</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Ferdinand Mueller.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Muhl.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Muhlenberg.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Murr.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Murray.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Naud.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Naudin.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Neck.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Necker.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Nees</i></td><td align="center" rowspan="2" valign="middle"><span style="font-size:200%;">}</span></td><td align="left" rowspan="2" valign="middle">Nees von Esenbeck.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>N. ab E.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Nutt.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Nuttall.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>&OElig;d.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">&OElig;der.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Ort.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Ortega.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>P. de Beauv.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Palisot de Beauvois.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Pall.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Pallas.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Parl.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Parlatore.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Pav.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Pavon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Pers.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Persoon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Planch.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Planchon.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Pluk.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Plukenet.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Plum.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Plumier.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Poir.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Poiret.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Radlk.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Radlkofer.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Raf.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Rafinesque.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Red.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Redout�.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Reichenb.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Reichenbach.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Rich.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">L. C. Richard.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Rich. f.</i> or <i>A.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Achille Richard.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Richards.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Richardson.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Ridd.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Riddell.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>R&oelig;m. &amp; Schult.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">R&oelig;mer &amp; Schultes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Rottb.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Rottb&oelig;ll.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Rupr.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Ruprecht.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>St. Hil.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Saint-Hilaire.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Salisb.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Salisbury.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Schk.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Schkuhr.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Schlecht.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Schlechtendal.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Schrad.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Schrader.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Schreb.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Schreber.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Schwein.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Schweinitz.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Scop.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Scopoli.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Spreng.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Sprengel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Sternb.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Sternberg.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Steud.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Steudel.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Sull.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Sullivant.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Thunb.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Thunberg.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Torr.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Torrey.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Tourn.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Tournefort.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Trautv.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Trautvetter.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Trin.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Trinius.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Tuck.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Tuckerman.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Vaill.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Vaillant.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Vent.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Ventenat.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Vill.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Villars.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Wahl.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Wahlenberg.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Walds.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Waldstein.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Wall.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Wallich.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Wallr.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Wallroth.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Walp.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Walpers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Walt.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Walter.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Wang.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Wangenheim.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Wats.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Sereno Watson, unless other initials are given.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Wedd.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Weddell.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Wendl.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Wendland.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Wiks.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Wikstrom.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Willd.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Willdenow.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Wulf.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Wulfen.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Zucc.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Zuccarini.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="left"><i>Zuccag.</i></td><td align="center"> </td><td align="left">Zuccagini.</td></tr>
+</table></div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chap" /><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>GLOSSARY AND INDEX,</h2>
+
+<div class="likeheading3">OR<br />
+
+DICTIONARY OF THE PRINCIPAL TERMS IN DESCRIPTIVE BOTANY, COMBINED WITH
+AN INDEX.</div>
+
+
+<blockquote><p>For the convenience of unclassical students, the commoner Latin
+and Greek words (or their equivalents in English form) which
+enter into the composition of botanical names, as well as of
+technical terms, are added to this Glossary. The numbers refer
+to pages. </p></blockquote>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>A</i>, at the beginning of words of Greek derivation, commonly signifies a
+negative, or the absence of something; as <i>a</i>petalous, without petals;
+<i>a</i>phyllous, leafless, &amp;c. In words beginning with a vowel, the prefix
+is <i>an</i>; as <i>an</i>antherous, destitute of anther.</p>
+
+<p><i>Abnormal</i>, contrary to the usual or the natural structure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aboriginal</i>, original in the strictest sense; same as indigenous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Abortive</i>, imperfectly formed, or rudimentary.</p>
+
+<p><i>Abortion</i>, the imperfect formation or the non-formation of some part.</p>
+
+<p><i>Abrupt</i>, suddenly terminating; as, for instance,</p>
+
+<p><i>Abruptly pinnate</i>, pinnate without an odd leaflet at the end, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acantho-</i>, spiny.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acaulescent</i> (<i>acaulis</i>), apparently stemless; the proper stem, bearing
+the leaves and flowers, being very short or subterranean.</p>
+
+<p><i>Accessory</i>, something additional; as <i>Accessory buds</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>;
+<i>Accessory fruits</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Accrescent</i>, growing larger after flowering.</p>
+
+<p><i>Accrete</i>, grown to.</p>
+
+<p><i>Accumbent</i>, lying against a thing. The cotyledons are accumbent when
+they lie with their edges against the radicle, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acephalous</i>, headless.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acerose</i>, needle-shaped, as the leaves of Pines.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acetabuliform</i>, saucer-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ach�nium</i>, or <i>Achenium</i> (plural <i>achenia</i>), a one-seeded, seed-like
+fruit, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Achlamydeous</i> (flower), without floral envelopes, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acicular</i>, needle-shaped; more slender than acerose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acinaciform</i>, scimitar-shaped, like some bean-pods.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acines</i>, the separate grains of a fruit, such as the raspberry.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acorn</i>, the nut of the Oak, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acotyledonous</i>, destitute of cotyledons or seed-leaves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acrogenous</i>, growing from the apex, as the stems of Ferns and Mosses.
+<i>Acrogens</i>, or <i>Acrogenous Plants</i>, a name for the vascular cryptogamous
+plants, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aculeate</i>, armed with prickles, i. e. <i>aculei</i>; as the Rose and Brier.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aculeolate</i>, armed with small prickles, or slightly prickly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acuminate</i>, taper-pointed, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Acute</i>, merely sharp-pointed, or ending in a point less than a right
+angle, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span><p><i>Adelphous</i> (stamens), joined in a fraternity (<i>adelphia</i>); see
+<a href="#Monadelphous"><i>monadelphous</i></a>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aden</i>, Greek for gland. So <i>Adenophorous</i>, gland-bearing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Adherent</i>, sticking to, or more commonly, growing fast to another body.</p>
+
+<p><i>Adnate</i>, literally, growing fast to, born adherent, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>. The anther is
+adnate when fixed by its whole length to the filament or its
+prolongation, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Adnation</i>, the state of being adnate, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Adpressed</i> or <i>appressed</i>, brought into contact with, but not united.</p>
+
+<p><i>Adscendent</i>, <i>ascendent</i>, or <i>ascending</i>, rising gradually upwards, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Adsurgent</i>, or <i>assurgent</i>, same as ascending, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Adventitious</i>, out of the proper or usual place; e. g. <i>Adventitious
+buds</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Adventive</i>, applied to foreign plants accidentally or sparingly
+introduced into a country, but hardly to be called naturalized.</p>
+
+<p><i>�quilateral</i>, equal-sided; opposed to oblique.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aerial roots</i>, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>�ruginous</i>, verdigris-colored.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aestival</i>, produced in summer.</p>
+
+<p><a name="aestivation" id="aestivation"></a><i>Aestivation</i>, the arrangement of parts in a flower-bud, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agamous</i>, sexless.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aggregate fruits</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Agrestis</i>, growing in fields.</p>
+
+<p><i>Air-cells</i> or <i>Air-passages</i>, spaces in the tissue of leaves and some
+stems, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Air-Plants</i>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Akene</i> or <i>Akenium</i>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ala</i> (plural, <i>al�</i>), a wing; the side-petals of a papilionaceous
+corolla, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alabastrum</i>, a flower-bud.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alar</i>, situated in the forks of a stem.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alate</i>, winged.</p>
+
+<p><i>Albescent</i>, whitish, or turning white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Albus</i>, Latin for white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Albumen</i> of the seed, nourishing matter stored up with the embryo, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>,
+<a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Albumen</i>, a vegetable product, of four elements.</p>
+
+<p><i>Albuminous</i> (seeds), furnished with albumen, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alburnum</i>, young wood, sap-wood, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alliaceous</i>, with odor of garlic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Allogamous</i>, close fertilization.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alpestrine</i>, subalpine.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alpine</i>, belonging to high mountains above the limit of forests.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alternate</i> (leaves), one after another, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>. Petals are <i>alternate</i>
+with the sepals, or stamens with the petals, when they stand over the
+intervals between them, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alveolate</i>, honeycomb-like.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Ament" id="Ament"></a><i>Ament</i>, the scaly spike of trees like the Birch and Willow, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Amentaceous</i>, catkin-like, or catkin-bearing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Amorphous</i>, shapeless, without any definite form.</p>
+
+<p><i>Amphicarpous</i>, producing two kinds of fruit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Amphigastrium</i> (plural, <i>amphigastria</i>), a peculiar stipule-like leaf
+of Liverworts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Amphitropous</i> ovules or seeds, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Amphora</i>, a pitcher-shaped organ.</p>
+
+<p><i>Amplectant</i>, embracing. <i>Amplexicaul</i> (leaves), clasping the stem by
+the base.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ampullaceous</i>, swelling out like a bottle or bladder (<i>ampulla</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Amylaceous</i>, <i>Amyloid</i>, composed of starch (<i>amylum</i>), or starch-like.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anandrous</i>, without stamens.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anantherous</i>, without anthers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ananthous</i>, destitute of flowers; flowerless.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anastomosing</i>, forming a net-work (<i>anastomosis</i>), as the veins of
+leaves, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anatropous</i> ovules or seeds, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ancipital</i> (<i>anceps</i>), two-edged.</p>
+
+<p><i>Andr&oelig;cium</i>, a name for the stamens taken together, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span><p><i>Andro-di&oelig;cious</i>, flowers staminate on one plant, perfect on
+another.</p>
+
+<p><i>Androgynous</i>, having both staminate and pistillate flowers in the same
+cluster.</p>
+
+<p><i>Androphore</i>, a column of united stamens, as in a Mallow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Androus</i>, or <i>Ander</i>, <i>andra</i>, <i>andrum</i>, Greek in compounds for male,
+or stamens.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anemophilous</i>, wind-loving, said of wind-fertilizable flowers, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anfractuose</i>, bent hither and thither as the anthers of the Squash, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Angiosperm�</i>, <i>Angiospermous</i>, with seeds formed in an ovary or
+pericarp, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Angular divergence</i> of leaves, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anisos</i>, unequal. <i>Anisomerous</i>, parts unequal in number.
+<i>Anisopetalous</i>, with unequal petals. <i>Anisophyllous</i>, the leaves
+unequal in the pairs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Annual</i> (plant), flowering and fruiting the year it is raised from the
+seed, and then dying, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Annular</i>, in the form of a ring, or forming a circle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Annulate</i>, marked by rings; or furnished with an</p>
+
+<p><i>Annulus</i>, or ring, like that of the spore-case of most Ferns. In Mosses
+it is a ring of cells placed between the mouth of the spore-case and the
+lid in many species.</p>
+
+<p><i>Annotinous</i>, yearly, or in yearly growths.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anterior</i>, in the blossom, is the part next the bract, i. e. external;
+while the posterior side is that next the axis of inflorescence. Thus,
+in the Pea, &amp;c., the keel is <i>anterior</i>, and the standard <i>posterior</i>,
+<a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anthela</i>, an open paniculate cyme.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anther</i>, the essential part of the stamen, which contains the pollen,
+<a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antheridium</i> (plural <i>antheridia</i>), the organ in Cryptogams which
+answers to the anther of Flowering Plants, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antheriferous</i>, anther-bearing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anthesis</i>, the period or the act of the expansion of a flower.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anthocarpus</i> (fruits), <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anthophore</i>, a stipe between calyx and corolla, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anthos</i>, Greek for flower; in composition, <i>Monanthous</i>, one-flowered,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Anticous</i>, same as anterior.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antrorse</i>, directed upwards or forwards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Apetalous</i>, destitute of petals, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aphyllous</i>, leafless.</p>
+
+<p><i>Apical</i>, belonging to the apex or point.</p>
+
+<p><i>Apiculate</i>, pointleted; tipped with a small point.</p>
+
+<p><i>Apocarpous</i> (pistils), when the several pistils of the same flower are
+separate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Apophysis</i>, any irregular swelling; the enlargement at the base of the
+spore-case of the Umbrella-Moss.</p>
+
+<p><i>Apothecium</i>, the fructification of Lichens, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Appendage</i>, any superadded part. <i>Appendiculate</i>, provided with
+appendages.</p>
+
+<p><i>Appressed</i>, close pressed to the stem, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Apricus</i>, growing in dry and sunny places.</p>
+
+<p><i>Apterous</i>, wingless.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aquatic</i> (<i>Aquatilis</i>), living or growing in water; applied to plants
+whether growing under water, or with all but the base raised out of it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arachnoid</i>, <i>Araneose</i>, cobwebby; clothed with, or consisting of, soft
+downy fibres.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arboreous</i>, <i>Arborescent</i>, tree-like, in size or form, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arboretum</i>, a collection of trees.</p>
+
+<p><i>Archegonium</i> (plural <i>archegonia</i>), the organ in Mosses, &amp;c., which is
+analogous to the pistil of Flowering Plants.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arcuate</i>, bent or curved like a bow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arenose</i> (<i>Arenarius</i>), growing in sand.</p>
+
+<p><i>Areolate</i>, marked out into little spaces or <i>areol�</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Argenteous</i>, or <i>Argentate</i>, silvery-like.</p>
+
+<p><i>Argillose</i>, growing in clay.</p>
+
+<p><i>Argos</i>, Greek for pure white; <i>Argophyllous</i> or <i>Argyrophyllous</i>,
+white-leaved, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Argutus</i>, acutely dentate.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span><p><i>Arillate</i> (seeds) furnished with an aril.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arilliform</i>, aril-like.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arillus</i>, or <i>Aril</i>, a fleshy growth from base of a seed, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aristate</i>, awned, i. e. furnished with an <i>arista</i>, like the beard of
+Barley, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aristulate</i>, diminutive of the last; short-awned.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arrect</i>, brought into upright position.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arrow-shaped</i> or <i>Arrow-headed</i>, same as <i>sagittate</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Articulated</i>, jointed; furnished with joints or <i>articulations</i>, where
+it separates or inclines to do so. <i>Articulated leaves</i>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Artificial Classification</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ascending</i> (stems, &amp;c.), <a href="#Page_39">39</a>; (seeds or ovules), <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ascidium</i>, a pitcher-shaped body, like leaves of Sarracenia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ascus</i> (<i>asci</i>), a sac, the spore-case of Lichens and some Fungi.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Aspergilliform" id="Aspergilliform"></a><i>Aspergilliform</i>, shaped like the brush used to sprinkle holy water; as
+the stigmas of many Grasses.</p>
+
+<p><i>Asperous</i>, rough to touch.</p>
+
+<p><i>Assimilation</i>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Assurgent</i>, same as ascending, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Atropous</i> or <i>Atropal</i> (ovules), same as orthotropous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aurantiacous</i>, orange-colored.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aureous</i>, golden.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Auriculate" id="Auriculate"></a><i>Auriculate</i>, furnished with <i>auricles</i> or ear-like appendages, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Autogamy</i>, self-fertilization, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Awl-shaped</i>, sharp-pointed from a broader base, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Awn</i>, the bristle or beard of Barley, Oats, &amp;c.; or any similar
+appendage.</p>
+
+<p><i>Awned</i> or <i>Awn-pointed</i>, furnished with an awn or long bristle-shaped
+tip, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Axil</i>, the angle on the upper side between a leaf and the stem, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Axile</i>, belonging to the axis, or occupying the axis.</p>
+
+<p><i>Axillary</i> (buds, &amp;c.), occurring in an axil, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Axis</i>, the central line of any body; the organ round which others are
+attached; the root and stem. <i>Ascending</i> and <i>Descending Axis</i>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Baccate</i>, berried, berry-like, of a pulpy nature like a berry
+(<i>bacca</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Badius</i>, chestnut-colored.</p>
+
+<p><i>Banner</i>, see <a href="#Standard">Standard</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Barbate" id="Barbate"></a><i>Barbate</i>, bearded; bearing tufts, spots, or lines of hairs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Barbed</i>, furnished with a <i>barb</i> or double hook; as the apex of the
+bristle on the fruit of Echinospermum (Stickseed), &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Barbellate</i>, said of the bristles of the pappus of some Composit� when
+beset with short, stiff hairs, longer than when denticulate, but shorter
+than when plumose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Barbellulate</i>, diminutive of barbellate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bark</i>, the covering of a stem outside of the wood, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Basal</i>, belonging or attached to the</p>
+
+<p><i>Base</i>, that extremity of any organ by which it is attached to its
+support.</p>
+
+<p><i>Basifixed</i>, attached by its base.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bast</i>, <i>Bast-fibres</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Beaked</i>, ending in a prolonged narrow tip.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bearded</i>, see <a href="#Barbate"><i>barbate</i></a>. <i>Beard</i> is sometimes used for awn, more
+commonly for long or stiff hairs of any sort.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bell-shaped</i>, of the shape of a bell, as the corolla of Harebell, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Berry</i>, a fruit pulpy or juicy throughout, as a grape, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bi-</i> (or <i>Bis</i>), in compound words, twice; as</p>
+
+<p><i>Biarticulate</i>, twice-jointed, or two-jointed; separating into two
+pieces.</p>
+
+<p><i>Biauriculate</i>, having two ears, as the leaf in fig. <a href="#Fig125">126</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bicallose</i>, having two callosities or harder spots.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bicarinate</i>, two-keeled.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bicipital</i> (<i>Biceps</i>), two-headed; dividing into two parts.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span><p><i>Biconjugate</i>, twice paired, as when a petiole forks twice.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bidentate</i>, having two teeth (not twice or doubly dentate).</p>
+
+<p><i>Biennial</i>, of two years' continuance; springing from the seed one
+season, flowering and dying the next, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bifarious</i>, two-ranked; arranged in two rows.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bifid</i>, two-cleft to about the middle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bifoliolate</i>, a compound leaf of two leaflets, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bifurcate</i>, twice forked; or more commonly, forked into two branches.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bijugate</i>, bearing two pairs (of leaflets, &amp;c.).</p>
+
+<p><i>Bilabiate</i>, two-lipped, as the corolla of Labiat�.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bilamellate</i>, of two plates (<i>lamell�</i>), as the stigma of Mimulus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bilobed</i>, the same as two-lobed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bilocellate</i>, when a cell is divided into two <i>locelli</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bilocular</i>, two-celled; as most anthers, the pod of Foxglove, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Binary</i>, in twos.</p>
+
+<p><i>Binate</i>, in couples, two together. <i>Bipartite</i>, the Latin form of
+two-parted.</p>
+
+<p><i>Binodal</i>, of two nodes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Binomial</i>, of two words, as the name of genus and species taken
+together, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bipalmate</i>, twice palmately divided.</p>
+
+<p><i>Biparous</i>, bearing two.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bipinnate</i> (leaf), twice pinnate, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>. <i>Bipinnatifid</i>, twice pinnatifid,
+<a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bipinnatisect</i>, twice pinnately divided.</p>
+
+<p><i>Biplicate</i>, twice folded together.</p>
+
+<p><i>Biserial</i>, or <i>Biseriate</i>, occupying two rows, one within the other.</p>
+
+<p><i>Biserrate</i>, doubly serrate, as when the teeth of a leaf are themselves
+serrate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bisexual</i>, having both stamens and pistil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Biternate</i>, twice ternate; i. e. principal divisions three, each
+bearing three leaflets, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bladdery</i>, thin and inflated.</p>
+
+<p><i>Blade</i> of a leaf, its expanded portion, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bloom</i>, the whitish powder on some fruits, leaves, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Boat-shaped</i>, concave within and keeled without, in shape like a small
+boat.</p>
+
+<p><i>Border</i> of corolla, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brachiate</i>, with opposite branches at right angles to each other.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brachy-</i>, short, as <i>Brachycarpous</i>, short-fruited, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bract</i> (<i>Bractea</i>), the leaf of an inflorescence. Specially, the bract
+is the small leaf or scale from the axil of which a flower or its
+pedicel proceeds, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bracteate</i>, furnished with bracts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bracteolate</i>, furnished with bractlets.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bracteose</i>, with numerous or conspicuous bracts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bractlet</i> (<i>Bracteola</i>), or <i>Bracteole</i>, is a bract seated <i>on</i> the
+pedicel or flower-stalk, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Branch</i>, <i>Branching</i>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Breathing-pores</i>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bristles</i>, stiff, sharp hairs, or any very slender bodies of similar
+appearance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bristly</i>, beset with bristles. <i>Bristle-pointed</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brunneous</i>, brown.</p>
+
+<p><i>Brush-shaped</i>, see <a href="#Aspergilliform"><i>aspergilliform</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bryology</i>, that part of botany which relates to Mosses.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bryophyta</i>, <i>Bryophytes</i>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bud</i>, a branch in its earliest or undeveloped state, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>. <i>Bud-scales</i>,
+<a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bulb</i>, a leaf-bud with fleshy scales, usually subterranean, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bulbils</i>, diminutive bulbs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bulbiferous</i>, bearing or producing bulbs. <i>Bulbose</i> or <i>bulbous</i>,
+bulb-like in shape, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bulblets</i>, small bulbs, borne above ground, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bulb-scales</i>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Bullate</i>, appearing as if blistered or bladdery (from <i>bulla</i>, a
+bubble).</p>
+
+<p><i>Byssaceous</i>, composed of fine flax-like threads.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span><p><i>Caducous</i>, dropping off very early, compared with other parts; as the
+calyx in the Poppy, falling when the flower opens.</p>
+
+<p><i>C�ruleous</i>, blue. <i>C�rulescent</i>, becoming bluish.</p>
+
+<p><i>C�spitose</i>, or <i>Cespitose</i>, growing in turf-like patches or tufts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calathiform</i>, cup-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calcarate</i>, furnished with a spur (<i>calcar</i>), <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calceolate</i> or <i>Calceiform</i>, slipper-shaped, like one petal of the
+Lady's Slipper.</p>
+
+<p><i>Callose</i>, hardened; or furnished with callosities or thickened spots.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calvous</i>, bald or naked of hairs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calyciflorus</i>, when petals and stamens are adnate to calyx.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calycine</i>, belonging to the calyx.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calyculate</i>, furnished with an outer accessory calyx (<i>calyculus</i>) or
+set of bracts looking like a calyx, as in true Pinks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calyptra</i>, the hood or veil of the capsule of a Moss, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calyptrate</i>, having a calyptra.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calyptriform</i>, shaped like a calyptra or candle-extinguisher.</p>
+
+<p><i>Calyx</i>, the outer set of the floral envelopes or leaves of the flower,
+<a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cambium</i>, <i>Cambium-layer</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Campanulate</i>, bell-shaped, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Campylotropous</i>, or <i>Campylotropal</i>, curved ovules and seeds, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.
+<i>Campylospermous</i>, applied to fruits of Umbellifer� when the seed is
+curved in at the edges, forming a groove down the inner face; as in
+Sweet Cicely.</p>
+
+<p><i>Canaliculate</i>, channelled, or with a deep longitudinal groove.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cancellate</i>, latticed, resembling lattice-work.</p>
+
+<p><i>Candidus</i>, Latin for pure white.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Canescent" id="Canescent"></a><i>Canescent</i>, grayish-white; hoary, usually because the surface is
+covered with fine white hairs. <i>Incanous</i> is whiter still.</p>
+
+<p><i>Canous</i>, whitened with pubescence; see <a href="#Incanous"><i>incanous</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Capillaceous</i>, <i>Capillary</i>, hair-like in shape; as fine as hair or
+slender bristles.</p>
+
+<p><i>Capitate</i>, having a globular apex, like the head on a pin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Capitellate</i>, diminutive of capitate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Capitulum</i>, a close rounded dense cluster or <i>head</i> of sessile flowers,
+<a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Capreolate</i>, bearing tendrils (from <i>capreolus</i>, a tendril).</p>
+
+<p><i>Capsule</i>, a dry dehiscent seed-vessel of a compound pistil, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Capsular</i>, relating to, or like a capsule.</p>
+
+<p><i>Capture of insects</i>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carina</i>, a keel; the two anterior petals of a papilionaceous flower,
+<a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carinate</i>, keeled, furnished with a sharp ridge or projection on the
+lower side.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Caryopsis" id="Caryopsis"></a><i>Cariopsis</i>, or <i>Caryopsis</i>, the one-seeded fruit or grain of Grasses,
+<a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carneous</i>, flesh-colored; pale red. <i>Carnose</i>, fleshy in texture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carpel</i>, or <i>Carpidium</i>, a simple pistil or a pistil-leaf, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carpellary</i>, pertaining to a carpel.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carpology</i>, that department of botany which relates to fruits.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carpophore</i>, the stalk or support of a pistil extending between its
+carpels, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carpos</i>, Greek for fruit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cartilaginous</i>, or <i>Cartilagineous</i>, firm and tough in texture, like
+cartilage.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caruncle</i>, an excrescence at the scar of some seeds, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Carunculate</i>, furnished with a caruncle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caryophyllaceous</i>, pink-like: applied to a corolla of 5 long-clawed
+petals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cassideous</i>, helmet-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cassus</i>, empty and sterile.</p>
+
+<p><i>Catenate</i>, or <i>Catenulate</i>, end to end as in a chain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Catkin</i>, see <a href="#Ament">Ament</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caudate</i>, tailed, or tail-pointed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caudex</i>, a sort of trunk, such as that of Palms; an upright rootstock,
+<a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caudicle</i>, the stalk of a pollen-mass, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caulescent</i>, having an obvious stem, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span><p><i>Caulicle</i>, a little stem, or rudimentary stem (of a seedling), <a href="#Page_11">11</a>,
+<a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cauline</i>, of or belonging to a stem, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>. <i>Caulis</i>, Latin name of stem.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caulocarpic</i>, equivalent to perennial.</p>
+
+<p><i>Caulome</i>, the cauline parts of a plant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cell</i> (diminutive, <i>Cellule</i>), the cavity of an anther, ovary, &amp;c.; one
+of the anatomical elements, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cellular Cryptogams</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cellular tissue</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cellulose</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cell-walls</i>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Centrifugal</i> (inflorescence), produced or expanding in succession from
+the centre outwards, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Centripetal</i>, the opposite of centrifugal, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cephala</i>, Greek for head. In compounds, <i>Monocephalous</i>, with one head,
+<i>Microcephalous</i>, small-headed, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cereal</i>, belonging to corn, or corn-plants.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cernuous</i>, nodding; the summit more or less inclining.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ch�ta</i>, Greek for bristle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chaff</i>, small membranous scales or bracts on the receptacle of
+Composit�; the glumes, &amp;c., of grasses.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chaffy</i>, furnished with chaff, or of the texture of chaff.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chalaza</i>, that part of the ovule where all the parts grow together,
+<a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Channelled</i>, hollowed out like a gutter; same as <i>canaliculate</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Character</i>, a phrase expressing the essential marks of a species,
+genus, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chartaceous</i>, of the texture of paper or parchment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chloros</i>, Greek for green, whence <i>Chloranthous</i>, green-flowered;
+<i>Chlorocarpous</i>, green-fruited, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chlorophyll</i>, leaf green, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chlorosis</i>, a condition in which naturally colored parts turn green.</p>
+
+<p><i>Choripetalous</i>, same as polypetalous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chorisis</i>, separation of the normally united parts, or where two or
+more parts take the place of one.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chromule</i>, coloring matter in plants, especially when not green, or
+when liquid.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chrysos</i>, Greek for golden yellow, whence <i>Chrysanthous</i>,
+yellow-flowered, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cicatrix</i>, the scar left by the fall of a leaf or other organ.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ciliate</i>, beset on the margin with a fringe of <i>cilia</i>, i. e. of hairs
+or bristles, like the eyelashes fringing the eyelids, whence the name.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cinereous</i>, or <i>Cineraceous</i>, ash-grayish; of the color of ashes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Circinate</i>, rolled inwards from the top, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Circumscissile</i>, or <i>Circumcissile</i>, divided by a circular line round
+the sides, as the pods of Purslane, Plantain, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Circumscription</i>, general outline.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cirrhiferous</i>, or <i>Cirrhose</i>, furnished with a tendril (Latin,
+<i>Cirrhus</i>); as the Grape-vine. <i>Cirrhose</i> also means resembling or
+coiling like tendrils, as the leaf-stalks of Virgin's-bower. More
+properly <i>Cirrus</i> and <i>Cirrose</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Citreous</i>, lemon-yellow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Clados</i>, Greek for branch. <i>Cladophylla</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Class</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Classification</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Clathrate</i>, latticed; same as <i>cancellate</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Clavate" id="Clavate"></a><i>Clavate</i>, club-shaped; slender below and thickened upwards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Clavellate</i>, diminutive of clavate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Claviculate</i>, having <i>Clavicul�</i>, or little tendrils or hooks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Claw</i>, the narrow or stalk-like base of some petals, as of Pinks, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cleistogamous</i> (<i>Cleistogamy</i>), fertilized in closed bud, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cleft</i>, cut into lobes, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Close</i> fertilization, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climbing</i>, rising by clinging to other objects, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Club shaped</i>, see <a href="#Clavate"><i>clavate</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Clustered</i>, leaves, flowers, &amp;c., aggregated or collected into a bunch.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span><p><i>Clypeate</i>, buckler-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coadunate</i>, same as <i>connate</i>, i. e. united.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coalescent</i>, growing together. <i>Coalescence</i>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coarctate</i>, contracted or brought close together.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coated</i>, having an integument, or covered in layers. Coated bulb, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cobwebby</i>, same as <i>arachnoid</i>; bearing hairs like cobwebs or gossamer.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coccineous</i>, scarlet-red.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coccus</i> (plural <i>cocci</i>), anciently a berry; now mostly used to denote
+the separable carpels or nutlets of a dry fruit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cochleariform</i>, spoon-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cochleate</i>, coiled or shaped like a snail-shell.</p>
+
+<p><i>C&oelig;lospermous</i>, applied to those fruits of Umbellifer� which have the
+seed hollowed on the inner face, by incurving of top and bottom; as in
+Coriander.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coherent</i>, usually the same as <i>connate</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cohort</i>, name sometimes used for groups between order and class, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coleorhiza</i>, a root-sheath.</p>
+
+<p><i>Collateral</i>, side by side.</p>
+
+<p><i>Collective fruits</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Collum</i> or <i>Collar</i>, the neck or junction of stem and root.</p>
+
+<p><i>Colored</i>, parts of a plant which are other-colored than green.</p>
+
+<p><i>Columella</i>, the axis to which the carpels of a compound pistil are
+often attached, as in Geranium (<a href="#Page_112">112</a>), or which is left when a pod opens,
+as in Azalea.</p>
+
+<p><i>Column</i>, the united stamens, as in Mallow, or the stamens and pistils
+united into one body, as in the Orchis family.</p>
+
+<p><i>Columnar</i>, shaped like a column or pillar.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coma</i>, a tuft of any sort (literally, a head of hair), <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Comose</i>, tufted; bearing a tuft of hairs, as the seeds of Milkweed,
+<a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commissure</i>, the line of junction of two carpels, as in the fruit of
+Umbellifer�.</p>
+
+<p><i>Complanate</i>, flattened.</p>
+
+<p><i>Compound leaf</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>. <i>Compound pistil</i>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>. <i>Compound umbel</i>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Complete</i> (flower), <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Complicate</i>, folded upon itself.</p>
+
+<p><i>Compressed</i>, flattened on opposite sides.</p>
+
+<p><i>Conceptacle</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Concinnous</i>, neat.</p>
+
+<p><i>Concolor</i>, all of one color.</p>
+
+<p><i>Conchiform</i>, shell- or half-shell-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Conduplicate</i>, folded upon itself lengthwise, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cone</i>, the fruit of the Pine family, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>. <i>Coniferous</i>, cone-bearing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Confertus</i>, much crowded.</p>
+
+<p><i>Conferruminate</i>, stuck together, as the cotyledons in a horse-chestnut.</p>
+
+<p><i>Confluent</i>, blended together; or the same as <i>coherent</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Conformed</i>, similar to another thing it is associated with or compared
+to; or closely fitted to it, as the skin to the kernel of a seed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Congested</i>, <i>Conglomerate</i>, crowded together.</p>
+
+<p><i>Conglomerate</i>, crowded into a glomerule.</p>
+
+<p><i>Conjugate</i>, coupled; in single pairs. <i>Conjugation</i>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Connate</i>, united or grown together from the first formation, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Connate-perfoliate</i>, when a pair of leaves are connate round a stem,
+<a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Connective</i>, <i>Connectivum</i>, the part of the anther connecting its two
+cells, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Connivent</i>, converging, or brought close together.</p>
+
+<p><i>Consolidation</i> (floral), <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Consolidated</i> forms of vegetation, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Contents</i> of cells, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Continuous</i>, the reverse of interrupted or articulated.</p>
+
+<p><i>Contorted</i>, twisted together. <i>Contorted �stivation</i>, same as
+<i>convolute</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Contortuplicate</i>, twisted back upon itself.</p>
+
+<p><i>Contracted</i>, either narrowed or shortened.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span><p><i>Contrary</i>, turned in opposite direction to the ordinary.</p>
+
+<p><i>Convolute</i>, rolled up lengthwise, as the leaves of the Plum in
+vernation, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>. In �stivation, same as <i>contorted</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cordate</i>, heart-shaped, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Coriaceous</i>, resembling leather in texture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Corky</i>, of the texture of cork. <i>Corky layer</i> of bark, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Corm</i>, a solid bulb, like that of Crocus, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Corneous</i>, of the consistence or appearance of horn.</p>
+
+<p><i>Corniculate</i>, furnished with a small horn or spur.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cornute</i>, horned; bearing a horn-like projection or appendage.</p>
+
+<p><i>Corolla</i>, the leaves of the flower within the calyx, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Corollaceous</i>, <i>Corolline</i>, like or belonging to a corolla.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Corona" id="Corona"></a><i>Corona</i>, a coronet or crown; an appendage at the top of the claw of
+some petals, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Coronate" id="Coronate"></a><i>Coronate</i>, crowned; furnished with a crown.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cortex</i>, bark. <i>Cortical</i>, belonging to the bark (<i>cortex</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Corticate</i>, coated with bark or bark-like covering.</p>
+
+<p><i>Corymb</i>, a flat or convex indeterminate flower-cluster, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Corymbiferous</i>, bearing corymbs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Corymbose</i>, in corymbs, approaching the form of a corymb, or branched
+in that way.</p>
+
+<p><i>Costa</i>, a rib; the midrib of a leaf, &amp;c. <i>Costate</i>, ribbed.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Cotyledons" id="Cotyledons"></a><i>Cotyledons</i>, the proper leaves of the embryo, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crateriform</i>, goblet-shaped or deep saucer-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Creeping</i> (stems), growing flat on or beneath the ground and rooting,
+<a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cremocarp</i>, a half-fruit, or one of the two carpels of Umbellifer�,
+<a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crenate</i>, or <i>Crenelled</i>, the edge scalloped into rounded teeth, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crenulate</i>, minutely or slightly crenate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crested</i>, or <i>Cristate</i>, bearing any elevated appendage like a crest.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cretaceous</i>, chalky or chalk-like.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cribrose</i>, or <i>cribriform</i>, pierced like a sieve with small apertures.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crinite</i>, bearing long hairs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crispate</i>, curled or crispy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Croceous</i>, saffron-color, deep reddish-yellow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cross-breeds</i>, the progeny of interbred varieties, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cross fertilization</i>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crown</i>, see <a href="#Corona"><i>corona</i></a>. <i>Crowned</i>, see <a href="#Coronate"><i>coronate</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cruciate</i>, or <i>Cruciform</i>, cross-shaped. <i>Cruciform Corolla</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crustaceous</i>, hard and brittle in texture; crust-like.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cryptogamous Plants</i>, <i>Cryptogams</i>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cryptos</i>, concealed, as <i>Cryptopetalous</i>, with concealed petals, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crystals</i> in plants, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Cucullate" id="Cucullate"></a><i>Cucullate</i>, hooded, or hood-shaped, rolled up like a cornet of paper,
+or a hood (<i>cucullus</i>), as the spathe of Indian Turnip, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Culm</i>, a straw; the stem of Grasses and Sedges, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cultrate</i>, shaped like a trowel or broad knife.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cuneate</i>, <i>Cuneiform</i>, wedge-shaped, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cup-shaped</i>, same as cyathiform or near it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cupule</i>, a little cup; the cup to the acorn of the Oak, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cupular</i>, or <i>Cupulate</i>, provided with a cupule.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cupuliferous</i>, cupule-bearing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Curviveined</i>, with curved ribs or veins.</p>
+
+<p><i>Curviserial</i>, in oblique or spiral ranks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cushion</i>, the enlargement at the insertion or base of a petiole.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cuspidate</i>, tipped with a sharp and stiff point or <i>cusp</i>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cut</i>, same as incised, or applied generally to any sharp and deep
+division, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cuticle</i>, the skin of plants, or more strictly its external pellicle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cyaneous</i>, bright blue.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cyathiform</i>, in the shape of a cup, or particularly of a wine-glass.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cycle</i>, one complete turn of a spire, or a circle, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span><p><i>Cyclical</i>, rolled up circularly, or coiled into a complete circle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cyclosis</i>, circulation in closed cells, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cylindraceous</i>, approaching to the <i>Cylindrical</i> form, terete and not
+tapering.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cymb�form</i>, or <i>Cymbiform</i>, same as boat-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cyme</i>, a cluster of centrifugal inflorescence, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cymose</i>, furnished with cymes, or like a cyme.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cymule</i>, a partial or diminutive cyme, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Deca-</i> (in words of Greek derivation), ten; as</p>
+
+<p><i>Decagynous</i>, with 10 pistils or styles, <i>Decamerous</i>, of 10 parts,
+<i>Decandrous</i>, with 10 stamens, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Deciduous</i>, falling off, or subject to fall; said of leaves which fall
+in autumn, and of a calyx and corolla which fall before the fruit forms.</p>
+
+<p><i>Declinate</i>, <i>declined</i>, turned to one side, or downwards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Decompound</i>, several times compounded or divided, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Decumbent</i>, reclined on the ground, the summit tending to rise, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Decurrent</i> (leaves), prolonged on the stem beneath the insertion, as in
+Thistles.</p>
+
+<p><i>Decussate</i>, arranged in pairs which successively cross each other, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Deduplication</i>, same as chorisis.</p>
+
+<p><i>Definite</i>, when of a uniform number, and not above twelve or so.</p>
+
+<p><i>Definite Inflorescence</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Deflexed</i>, bent downwards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Deflorate</i>, past the flowering state, as an anther after it has
+discharged its pollen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dehiscence</i>, the regular splitting open of capsule or anther, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dehiscent</i>, opening by regular dehiscence, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Deliquescent</i>, branching off so that the stem is lost in the branches,
+<a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Deltoid</i>, of a triangular shape, like the Greek capital &Delta;.</p>
+
+<p><i>Demersed</i>, growing below the surface of water.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dendroid</i>, <i>Dendritic</i>, tree-like in form or appearance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dendron</i>, Greek for tree.</p>
+
+<p><i>Deni</i>, ten together.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dens</i>, Latin for tooth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dentate</i>, toothed, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>. <i>Denticulate</i>, furnished with denticulations, or
+little teeth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Depauperate</i>, impoverished or starved, and so below the natural size.</p>
+
+<p><i>Depressed</i>, flattened or as if pressed down from above.</p>
+
+<p><i>Derma</i>, Greek for skin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Descending</i>, tending gradually downwards. <i>Descending axis</i>, the root.</p>
+
+<p><i>Desmos</i>, Greek for things connected or bound together.</p>
+
+<p><i>Determinate Inflorescence</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dextrorse</i>, turned to the right hand.</p>
+
+<p><i>Di- Dis</i> (in Greek compounds) two, as</p>
+
+<p><i>Diadelphous</i> (stamens), united by their filaments in two sets, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diagnosis</i>, a short distinguishing character or descriptive phrase.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dialypetalous</i>, same as polypetalous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diandrous</i>, having two stamens, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diaphanous</i>, transparent or translucent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dicarpellary</i>, of two carpels.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dichlamydeous</i> (flower), having both calyx and corolla.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dichogamous</i>, <i>Dichogamy</i>, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dichotomous</i>, two-forked.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diclinous</i>, having the stamens in one flower, the pistils in another,
+<a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dicoccous</i> (fruit), splitting into two <i>cocci</i> or closed carpels.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dicotyls</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dicotyledonous</i> (embryo), having a pair of cotyledons, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>.
+<i>Dicotyledonous Plants</i>, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Didymous</i>, twin.</p>
+
+<p><i>Didynamous</i> (stamens), having four stamens in two pairs, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diffuse</i>, spreading widely and irregularly.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span><p><i>Digitate</i> (fingered), where the leaflets of a compound leaf are all
+borne on the apex of the petiole, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Digynous</i> (flower), having two pistils or styles, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dimerous</i>, made up of two parts, or its organs in twos.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dimidiate</i>, halved; as where a leaf or leaflet has only one side
+developed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dimorphism</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>. <i>Dimorphous</i>, <i>Dimorphic</i>, of two forms, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Di&oelig;cious</i>, or <i>Dioicous</i>, with stamens and pistils on different
+plants, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dipetalous</i>, of two petals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diphyllous</i>, two-leaved.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dipterous</i>, two-winged.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diplo-</i>, Greek for double, as <i>Diplostemonous</i>, with two sets of
+stamens.</p>
+
+<p><i>Disciform</i> or <i>Disk-shaped</i>, flat and circular, like a disk or quoit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Discoidal</i>, or <i>Discoid</i>, belonging to or like a disk.</p>
+
+<p><i>Discolor</i>, of two different colors or hues.</p>
+
+<p><i>Discrete</i>, separate, opposite of concrete.</p>
+
+<p><i>Disepalous</i>, of two sepals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Disk</i>, the face of any flat body; the central part of a head of
+flowers, like the Sunflower, or Coreopsis, as opposed to the ray or
+margin; a fleshy expansion of the receptacle of a flower, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Disk-flowers</i>, those of the disk in Composit�.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dissected</i>, cut deeply into many lobes or divisions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dissepiments</i>, the partitions of a compound ovary or a fruit, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dissilient</i>, bursting in pieces.</p>
+
+<p><i>Distichous</i>, two-ranked.</p>
+
+<p><i>Distinct</i>, uncombined with each other, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dithecous</i>, of two thec� or anther-cells.</p>
+
+<p><i>Divaricate</i>, straddling; very widely divergent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Divided</i> (leaves, &amp;c.), cut into divisions down to the base or midrib,
+<a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dodeca</i>, Greek for twelve; as <i>Dodecagynous</i>, with twelve pistils or
+styles, <i>Dodecandrous</i>, with twelve stamens.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dodrans</i>, span-long.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dolabriform</i>, axe-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dorsal</i>, pertaining to the back (<i>dorsum</i>) of an organ. <i>Dorsal
+Suture</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dotted Ducts</i>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Double Flowers</i>, where the petals are multiplied unduly, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Downy</i>, clothed with a coat of soft and short hairs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Drupaceous</i>, like or pertaining to a drupe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Drupe</i>, a stone-fruit, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>. <i>Drupelet</i> or <i>Drupel</i>, a little drupe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ducts</i>, the so-called vessels of plants, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dumose</i>, bushy, or relating to bushes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Duramen</i>, the heart-wood, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Dwarf</i>, remarkably low in stature.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>E-</i>, as a prefix of Latin compound words, means destitute of; as
+<i>ecostate</i>, without a rib or midrib; <i>exalbuminous</i>, without albumen,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eared</i>, see <a href="#Auriculate"><i>auriculate</i></a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ebracteate</i>, destitute of bracts. <i>Ebracteolate</i>, destitute of
+bractlets.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eburneous</i>, ivory-white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Echinate</i>, armed with prickles (like a hedgehog). <i>Echinulate</i>, a
+diminutive of it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Edentate</i>, toothless.</p>
+
+<p><i>Effete</i>, past bearing, &amp;c.; said of anthers which have discharged their
+pollen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Effuse</i>, very loosely branched and spreading.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eglandulose</i>, destitute of glands.</p>
+
+<p><i>Elaters</i>, threads mixed with the spores of Liverworts, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ellipsoidal</i>, approaching an elliptical figure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Elliptical</i>, oval or oblong, with the ends regularly rounded, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Emarginate</i>, notched at the summit, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Embryo</i>, the rudimentary plantlet in a seed, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Embryonal</i>, belonging or relating to the embryo.</p>
+
+<p><i>Embryo-sac</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span><p><i>Emersed</i>, raised out of water.</p>
+
+<p><i>Endecagynous</i>, with eleven pistils or styles.</p>
+
+<p><i>Endecandrous</i>, with eleven stamens.</p>
+
+<p><i>Endemic</i>, peculiar to the country geographically.</p>
+
+<p><i>Endocarp</i>, the inner layer of a pericarp or fruit, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Endochrome</i>, the coloring matter of Alg� and the like.</p>
+
+<p><i>Endogenous Stems</i>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>. <i>Endogenous plants</i>, an old name for
+monocotyledons.</p>
+
+<p><i>Endopleura</i>, inner seed-coat.</p>
+
+<p><i>Endorhizal</i>, radicle or root sheathed in germination.</p>
+
+<p><i>Endosperm</i>, the albumen of a seed, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Endostome</i>, the orifice in the inner coat of an ovule.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ennea-</i>, nine. <i>Enneagynous</i>, with nine petals or styles.
+<i>Enneandrous</i>, nine-stamened.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ensate</i>, <i>Ensiform</i>, sword-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Entire</i>, the margins not at all toothed, notched, or divided, but even,
+<a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Entomophilous</i>, said of flowers frequented and fertilized by insects,
+<a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ephemeral</i>, lasting for a day or less, as the corolla of Purslane, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Epi-</i>, Greek for upon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Epicalyx</i>, such an involucel as that of Malvace�.</p>
+
+<p><i>Epicarp</i>, the outermost layer of a fruit, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Epidermal</i>, relating to the <i>Epidermis</i>, or skin of a plant, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>,
+<a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Epig�ous</i>, growing on the earth, or close to the ground.</p>
+
+<p><i>Epigynous</i>, upon the ovary, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Epipetalous</i>, borne on the petals or the corolla, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Epiphyllous</i>, borne on a leaf.</p>
+
+<p><i>Epiphyte</i>, a plant growing on another plant, but not nourished by it,
+<a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Epiphytic</i> or <i>Epiphytal</i>, relating to <i>Epiphytes</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Epipterous</i>, winged at top.</p>
+
+<p><i>Episperm</i>, the skin or coat of a seed, especially the outer coat.</p>
+
+<p><i>Equal</i>, alike in number or length.</p>
+
+<p><i>Equally pinnate</i>, same as abruptly pinnate, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Equitant</i> (riding straddle), <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Erion</i>, Greek for wool. <i>Erianthous</i>, woolly-flowered. <i>Eriophorous</i>,
+wool-bearing, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Erose</i>, eroded, as if gnawed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Erostrate</i>, not beaked.</p>
+
+<p><i>Erythros</i>, Greek for red. <i>Erythrocarpous</i>, red-fruited, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Essential Organs</i> of the flower, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Estivation</i>, see <a href="#aestivation"><i>�stivation</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Etiolated</i>, blanched by excluding the light, as the stalks of Celery.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eu</i>, Greek prefix, meaning very, or much.</p>
+
+<p><i>Evergreen</i>, holding the leaves over winter and until new ones appear,
+or longer.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ex</i>, Latin prefix; privative in place of "e" when next letter is a
+vowel. So <i>Exalate</i>, wingless; <i>Exalbuminous</i> (seed), without albumen,
+<a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Excurrent</i>, running out, as when a midrib projects beyond the apex of a
+leaf, or a trunk is continued to the very top of a tree, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exiguous</i>, puny.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exilis</i>, lank or meagre.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eximius</i>, distinguished for size or beauty.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exo-</i>, in Greek compounds, outward, as in</p>
+
+<p><i>Exocarp</i>, outer layer of a pericarp, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exogenous</i>, outward growing. <i>Exogenous stems</i>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exorhizal</i>, radicle in germination not sheathed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exostome</i>, the orifice in the outer coat of the ovule.</p>
+
+<p><i>Explanate</i>, spread or flattened out.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exserted</i>, protruding out of, as the stamens out of the corolla.</p>
+
+<p><i>Exstipulate</i>, destitute of stipules.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extine</i>, outer coat of a pollen-grain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extra-axillary</i>, said of a branch or bud somewhat out of the axil, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extrorse</i>, turned outwards; the anther is extrorse when fastened to the
+filament on the side next the pistil, and opening on the outer side,
+<a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span><p><i>Falcate</i>, scythe-shaped; a flat body curved, its edges parallel.</p>
+
+<p><i>False Racemes</i>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Family</i>, in botany same as Order, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Farina</i>, meal or starchy matter, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Farinaceous" id="Farinaceous"></a><i>Farinaceous</i>, mealy in texture. <i>Farinose</i>, covered with a mealy
+powder.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fasciate</i>, banded; also applied to monstrous stems which grow flat.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fascicle</i>, a close cluster, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fascicled</i>, <i>Fasciculated</i>, growing in a bundle or tuft, as the leaves
+of Larch, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, and roots of Peony, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fastigiate</i>, close, parallel, and upright, as the branches of Lombardy
+Poplar.</p>
+
+<p><i>Faux</i> (plural, <i>fauces</i>), the throat of a calyx, corolla, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Faveolate</i>, <i>Favose</i>, honeycombed; same as <i>alveolate</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Feather-veined</i>, with veins of a leaf all springing from the sides of a
+midrib, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fecula</i> or <i>F�cula</i>, starch, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Female flower</i> or <i>plant</i>, one bearing pistils only.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fenestrate</i>, pierced with one or more large holes, like windows.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ferrugineous</i>, or <i>Ferruginous</i>, resembling iron-rust; red-grayish.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fertile</i>, fruit-bearing, or capable of it; also said of anthers
+producing good pollen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fertilization</i>, the process by which pollen causes the embryo to be
+formed, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fibre</i> (woody), <a href="#Page_133">133</a>. <i>Fibrous</i>, containing much fibre, or composed of
+fibres.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fibrillose</i>, formed of small fibres, or <i>Fibrill�</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fibro-vascular</i> bundle or tissue, formed of fibres and vessels.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Fiddleshaped" id="Fiddleshaped"></a><i>Fiddle-shaped</i>, obovate with a deep recess on each side.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fidus</i>, Latin suffix for cleft, as <i>Bifid</i>, two-cleft.</p>
+
+<p><i>Filament</i>, the stalk of a stamen, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>; also any slender
+thread-shaped body.</p>
+
+<p><i>Filamentose</i>, or <i>Filamentous</i>, bearing or formed of slender threads.</p>
+
+<p><i>Filiform</i>, thread-shaped; long, slender, and cylindrical.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fimbriate</i>, fringed; furnished with fringes (<i>fimbri�</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Fimbrillate</i>, <i>Fimbrilliferous</i>, bearing small <i>fimbri�</i>, i. e.
+<i>fimbrill�</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fissiparous</i>, multiplying by division of one body into two.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fissus</i>, Latin for split or divided.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fistular</i>, or <i>Fistulose</i>, hollow and cylindrical, as the leaves of the
+Onion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flabelliform</i>, or <i>Flabellate</i>, fan-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flagellate</i>, or <i>Flagelliform</i>, long, narrow, and flexible, like the
+thong of a whip; or like the runners (<i>flagell�</i>) of the Strawberry.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flavescent</i>, yellowish, or turning yellow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flavus</i>, Latin for yellow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fleshy</i>, composed of firm pulp or flesh.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flexuose</i>, or <i>Flexuous</i>, bending in opposite directions, in a zigzag
+way.</p>
+
+<p><i>Floating</i>, swimming on the surface of water.</p>
+
+<p><i>Floccose</i>, composed of or bearing tufts of woolly or long and soft
+hairs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flora</i> (the goddess of flowers), the plants of a country or district,
+taken together, or a work systematically describing them, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Floral Envelopes</i>, or <i>Flower-leaves</i>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Floret</i>, a diminutive flower, one of a mass or cluster.</p>
+
+<p><i>Floribund</i>, abundantly floriferous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Florula</i>, the flora of a small district.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flos</i>, <i>floris</i>, Latin for flower.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flosculus</i>, diminutive, same as floret.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower</i>, the whole organs of reproduction of Ph�nogamous plants, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>,
+<a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flower-bud</i>, an unopened flower.</p>
+
+<p><i>Flowering Plants</i>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>. <i>Flowerless Plants</i>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fly-trap leaves</i>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fluitans</i>, Latin for floating. <i>Fluviatile</i>, belonging to a river or
+stream.</p>
+
+<p><i>Foliaceous</i>, belonging to, or of the texture or nature of, a leaf
+(<i>folium</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Foliate</i>, provided with leaves. Latin prefixes denote the number of
+leaves, as <i>bifoliate</i>, <i>trifoliate</i>, &amp;c. <i>Foliose</i>, leafy; abounding in
+leaves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Foliolate</i>, relating to or bearing leaflets (<i>foliola</i>);
+<i>trifoliolate</i>, with three leaflets, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span><p><i>Folium</i> (plural, <i>folia</i>), Latin for leaf.</p>
+
+<p><i>Follicle</i>, a simple pod, opening down the inner suture, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Follicular</i>, resembling or belonging to a follicle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Food of Plants</i>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Foot-stalk</i>, either petiole or peduncle, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Foramen</i>, a hole or orifice, as that of the ovule, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Foraminose</i>, <i>Foraminulose</i>, pierced with holes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Forked</i>, branched in two or three or more.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fornicate</i>, bearing fornices.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fornix</i>, little arched scales in the throat of some corollas, as of
+Comfrey.</p>
+
+<p><i>Foveate</i>, deeply pitted. <i>Foveolate</i>, diminutive of <i>foveate</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Free</i>, not united with any other parts of a different sort, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fringed</i>, the margin beset with slender appendages, bristles, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Frond</i>, what answers to leaves in Ferns, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_157">157</a>; or to the stem and
+leaves fused into one, as in Liverwort.</p>
+
+<p><i>Frondescence</i>, the bursting into leaf.</p>
+
+<p><i>Frondose</i>, frond-bearing; like a frond, or sometimes used for leafy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fructification</i>, the state or result of fruiting.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fructus</i>, Latin for fruit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit</i>, the matured ovary and all it contains or is connected with,
+<a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruit-dots</i> in Ferns; see <a href="#Sorus"><i>Sorus</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Frustulose</i>, consisting of a chain of similar pieces, or <i>Frustules</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Frutescent</i>, somewhat shrubby; becoming a shrub (<i>Frutex</i>), <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fruticulose</i>, like a small shrub, or <i>Fruticulus</i>. <i>Fruticose</i>,
+shrubby, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fugacious</i>, soon falling off or perishing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fulcrate</i>, having accessory organs or <i>fulcra</i>, i. e. props.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fulvous</i>, tawny; dull yellow with gray.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fungus</i>, <i>Fungi</i>, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Funicle</i>, <i>Funiculus</i>, the stalk of a seed or ovule, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Funnelform</i>, or <i>funnel-shaped</i>, expanding gradually upwards into an
+open mouth, like a funnel or tunnel, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Furcate</i>, forked.</p>
+
+<p><i>Furfuraceous</i>, covered with bran-like fine scurf.</p>
+
+<p><i>Furrowed</i>, marked by longitudinal channels or grooves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fuscous</i>, deep gray-brown.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fusiform</i>, spindle-shaped, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Galbalus</i>, the fleshy or at length woody cone of Juniper and Cypress.</p>
+
+<p><i>Galea</i>, a helmet-shaped body, as the upper sepal of the Monkshood, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Galeate</i>, shaped like a helmet.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gamopetalous</i>, of united petals, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gamophyllous</i>, formed of united leaves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gamosepalous</i>, formed of united sepals, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geminate</i>, twin; in pairs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gemma</i>, Latin for a bud.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gemmation</i>, the state of budding; budding growth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gemmule</i>, a small bud; the plumule, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Genera</i>, plural of genus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Geniculate</i>, bent abruptly, like a knee (<i>genu</i>), as many stems.</p>
+
+<p><i>Generic Names</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Genus</i>, a kind of a rank above species, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Germ</i>, a growing point; a young bud; sometimes the same as embryo, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Germen</i>, the old name for ovary.</p>
+
+<p><i>Germination</i>, the development of a plantlet from the seed, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gerontog�ous</i>, inhabiting the Old World.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gibbous</i>, more tumid at one place or on one side than the other.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gilvous</i>, dirty reddish-yellow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glabrate</i>, becoming glabrous with age, or almost glabrous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glabrous</i>, smooth, in the sense of having no hairs, bristles, or other
+pubescence.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span><p><i>Gladiate</i>, sword-shaped, as the leaves of Iris.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glands</i>, small cellular organs which secrete oily or aromatic or other
+products; they are sometimes sunk in the leaves or rind, as in the
+Orange, Prickly Ash, &amp;c.; sometimes on the surface as small projections;
+sometimes raised on hairs or bristles (<i>glandular hairs, &amp;c.</i>), as in
+the Sweetbrier and Sundew. The name is also given to any small
+swellings, &amp;c., whether they secrete anything or not; so that the word
+is loosely used.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glandular</i>, <i>Glandulose</i>, furnished with glands, or gland-like.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glans</i> (<i>Gland</i>), the acorn or mast of Oak and similar fruits.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glareose</i>, growing in gravel.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glaucescent</i>, slightly glaucous, or bluish-gray.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glaucous</i>, covered with a <i>bloom</i>, viz. with a fine white powder of wax
+that rubs off, like that on a fresh plum, or a cabbage-leaf.</p>
+
+<p><i>Globose</i>, spherical in form, or nearly so. <i>Globular</i>, nearly globose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glochidiate</i>, or <i>Glochideous</i>, (bristles) barbed; tipped with barbs,
+or with a double hooked point.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glomerate</i>, closely aggregated into a dense cluster.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glomerule</i>, a dense head-like cluster, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glossology</i>, the department of botany in which technical terms are
+explained.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glumaceous</i>, glume-like, or glume-bearing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glume</i>; Glumes are the husks or floral coverings of Grasses, or,
+particularly, the outer husks or bracts of each spikelet.</p>
+
+<p><i>Glumelles</i>, the inner husks of Grasses.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gonophore</i>, a stipe below stamens, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gossypine</i>, cottony, flocculent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gracilis</i>, Latin for slender.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grain</i>, see <a href="#Caryopsis"><i>Caryopsis</i></a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gramineous</i>, grass-like.</p>
+
+<p><i>Granular</i>, composed of grains. <i>Granule</i>, a small grain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Graveolent</i>, heavy-scented.</p>
+
+<p><i>Griseous</i>, gray or bluish-gray.</p>
+
+<p><i>Growth</i>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Grumous</i>, or <i>Grumose</i>, formed of coarse clustered grains.</p>
+
+<p><i>Guttate</i>, spotted, as if by drops of something colored.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gymnos</i>, Greek for naked, as</p>
+
+<p><i>Gymnocarpous</i>, naked-fruited.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gymnospermous</i>, naked-seeded, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gymnospermous gyn&oelig;cium</i>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gymnosperm�</i>, or <i>Gymnospermous Plants</i>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gynandrous</i>, with stamens borne on, i. e. united with, the pistil, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gyn&oelig;cium</i>, a name for the pistils of a flower taken altogether, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gynobase</i>, a depressed receptacle or support of the pistil or carpels,
+<a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gynophore</i>, a stalk raising a pistil above the stamens, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gynostegium</i>, a sheath around pistils, of whatever nature.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gynostemium</i>, name of the column in Orchids, &amp;c., consisting of style
+and stigma with stamens combined.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gyrate</i>, coiled or moving circularly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gyrose</i>, strongly bent to and fro.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Habit</i>, the general aspect of a plant, or its mode of growth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Habitat</i>, the situation or country in which a plant grows in a wild
+state.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hairs</i>, hair-like growths on the surface of plants.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hairy</i>, beset with hairs, especially longish ones.</p>
+
+<p><i>Halberd-shaped</i>, see <a href="#Hastate"><i>hastate</i></a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Halved</i>, when appearing as if one half of the body were cut away.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hamate</i>, or <i>Hamose</i>, hooked; the end of a slender body bent round.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hamulose</i>, bearing a small hook; a diminutive of the last.</p>
+
+<p><i>Haplo-</i>, in Greek compounds, single; as <i>Haplostemonous</i>, having only
+one series of stamens.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span><p><a name="Hastate" id="Hastate"></a><i>Hastate</i>, or <i>Hastile</i>, shaped like a halberd; furnished with a
+spreading lobe on each side at the base, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Head</i>, capitulum, a form of inflorescence, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heart-shaped</i>, of the shape of a heart as painted on cards, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heart-wood</i>, the older or matured wood of exogenous trees, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Helicoid</i>, coiled like a <i>helix</i> or snail-shell, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Helmet</i>, the upper sepal of Monkshood is so called.</p>
+
+<p><i>Helvolous</i>, grayish-yellow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hemi-</i> in compounds from the Greek, half; e. g. <i>Hemispherical</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hemicarp</i>, half-fruit, one carpel of an Umbelliferous plant, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hemitropous</i> (ovule or seed), nearly same as <i>amphitropous</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hepta-</i> (in words of Greek origin), seven; as <i>Heptagynous</i>, with seven
+pistils or styles. <i>Heptamerous</i>, its parts in sevens. <i>Heptandrous</i>,
+having seven stamens.</p>
+
+<p><i>Herb</i>, plant not woody, at least above ground.</p>
+
+<p><i>Herbaceous</i>, of the texture of an herb; not woody, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Herbarium</i>, the botanist's arranged collection of dried plants, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Herborization</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hermaphrodite</i> (flower), having stamens and pistils in the same
+blossom, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hesperidium</i>, orange-fruit, a hard-rinded berry.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hetero-</i>, in Greek compounds, means of two or more sorts, as</p>
+
+<p><i>Heterocarpous</i>, bearing fruit of two kinds or shapes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heterogamous</i>, bearing two or more sorts of flowers in one cluster.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heterogony</i>, <i>Heterogone</i>, or <i>Heterogonous</i>, with stamens and pistil
+reciprocally of two sorts, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>. <i>Heterostyled</i> is same.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heteromorphous</i>, of two or more shapes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heterophyllous</i>, with two sorts of leaves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Heterotropous</i> (ovule), the same as <i>amphitropous</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hexa-</i> (in Greek compounds), six; as <i>Hexagonal</i>, six-angled.
+<i>Hexagynous</i>, with six pistils or styles. <i>Hexamerous</i>, its parts in
+sixes. <i>Hexandrous</i>, with six stamens. <i>Hexapterous</i>, six-winged.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hibernaculum</i>, a winter bud.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Hiemal" id="Hiemal"></a><i>Hiemal</i>, relating to winter.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hilar</i>, belonging to the hilum.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hilum</i>, the scar of the seed; its place of attachment, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hippocrepiform</i>, horseshoe-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hirsute</i>, clothed with stiffish or beard-like hairs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hirtellous</i>, minutely hirsute.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hispid</i>, bristly, beset with stiff hairs. <i>Hispidulous</i>, diminutive of
+hispid.</p>
+
+<p><i>Histology</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hoary</i>, grayish-white; see <a href="#Canescent"><i>canescent</i></a>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Holosericeous</i>, all over sericeous or silky.</p>
+
+<p><i>Homo-</i>, in Greek compounds, all alike or of one sort.</p>
+
+<p><i>Homodromous</i>, running in one direction.</p>
+
+<p><i>Homogamous</i>, a head or cluster with flowers all of one kind.</p>
+
+<p><i>Homogeneous</i>, uniform in nature; all of one kind.</p>
+
+<p><i>Homogone</i>, or <i>Homogonous</i>, counterpart of <i>Heterogone</i> or
+<i>Homostyled</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Homologous</i>, of same type; thus petals and sepals are the homologues of
+leaves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Homomallous</i> (leaves, &amp;c.), originating all round an axis, but all bent
+or curved to one side.</p>
+
+<p><i>Homorphous</i>, all of one shape.</p>
+
+<p><i>Homotropous</i> (embryo), curved with the seed; curved only one way.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hood</i>, same as <i>helmet</i> or <i>galea</i>. <i>Hooded</i>, hood-shaped; see
+<a href="#Cucullate"><i>cucullate</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hooked</i>, same as <i>hamate</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Horn</i>, a spur or some similar appendage. <i>Horny</i>, of the texture of
+horn.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hortensis</i>, pertaining to the garden.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hortus Siccus</i>, an herbarium, or collection of dried plants, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Humifuse</i>, <i>Humistrate</i>, spread over the surface of the ground.</p>
+
+<p><i>Humilis</i>, low in stature.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span><p><i>Hyaline</i>, transparent, or partly so.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hybrid</i>, a cross-breed between two allied species, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hydrophytes</i>, water-plants.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hyemal</i>, see <a href="#Hiemal"><i>hiemal</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hymenium</i> of a Mushroom, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hypanthium</i>, a hollow flower-receptacle, such as that of Rose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hypo-</i>, Greek prefix for under, or underneath.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hypocotyle</i>, or <i>Hypocotyl</i>, part of stem below the cotyledons, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hypocrateriform</i>, properly <i>Hypocraterimorphous</i>, salver-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hypog�an</i>, or <i>Hypog�ous</i>, produced under ground, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hypogynous</i>, inserted under the pistil, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hysteranthous</i>, with the blossoms developed earlier than the leaves.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Icosandrous</i>, having 20 (or 12 or more) stamens inserted on the calyx.</p>
+
+<p><i>Imberbis</i>, Latin for beardless.</p>
+
+<p><i>Imbricate</i>, <i>Imbricated</i>, <i>Imbricative</i>, overlapping one another, like
+tiles or shingles on a roof, as the bud-scales of Horse-chestnut and
+Hickory, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>. In �stivation, where some leaves of the calyx or corolla
+are overlapped on both sides by others, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Immarginate</i>, destitute of a rim or border.</p>
+
+<p><i>Immersed</i>, growing wholly under water.</p>
+
+<p><i>Impari-pinnate</i>, pinnate with a single leaflet at the apex, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Imperfect flowers</i>, wanting either stamens or pistils, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>In�quilateral</i>, unequal-sided, as the leaf of a Begonia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inane</i>, empty, said of an anther which produces no pollen, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inappendiculate</i>, not appendaged.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Incanous" id="Incanous"></a><i>Incanous</i>, <i>Incanescent</i>, hoary with soft white pubescence.</p>
+
+<p><i>Incarnate</i>, flesh-colored.</p>
+
+<p><i>Incised</i>, cut rather deeply and irregularly, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Included</i>, enclosed; when the part in question does not project beyond
+another.</p>
+
+<p><i>Incomplete Flower</i>, wanting calyx or corolla, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Incrassated</i>, thickened.</p>
+
+<p><i>Incubous</i>, with tip of one leaf lying flat over the base of the next
+above.</p>
+
+<p><i>Incumbent</i>, leaning or resting upon; the cotyledons are incumbent when
+the back of one of them lies against the radicle, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>; the anthers are
+incumbent when turned or looking inwards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Incurved</i>, gradually curving inwards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Indefinite</i>, not uniform in number, or too numerous to mention (over
+12).</p>
+
+<p><i>Indefinite</i> or <i>Indeterminate Inflorescence</i>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Indehiscent</i>, not splitting open; i. e. not dehiscent, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Indigenous</i>, native to the country.</p>
+
+<p><i>Individuals</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Indumentum</i>, any hairy coating or pubescence.</p>
+
+<p><i>Induplicate</i>, with the edges turned inwards, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Induviate</i>, clothed with old and withered parts or <i>induvi�</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Indusium</i>, the shield or covering of a fruit-dot of a Fern, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inermis</i>, Latin for unarmed, not prickly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inferior</i>, growing below some other organ, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Infertile</i>, not producing seed, or pollen, as the case may be.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inflated</i>, turgid and bladdery.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inflexed</i>, bent inwards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inflorescence</i>, the arrangement of flowers on the stem, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Infra-axillary</i>, situated beneath the axil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Infundibuliform</i> or <i>Infundibular</i>, funnel-shaped, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Innate</i> (anther), attached by its base to the very apex of the
+filament, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Innovation</i>, a young shoot, or new growth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Insertion</i>, the place or the mode of attachment of an organ to its
+support, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Integer</i>, entire, not lobed. <i>Integerrimus</i>, quite entire, not serrate.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span><p><i>Intercellular Passages</i> or <i>Spaces</i>, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Interfoliaceous</i>, between the leaves of a pair or whorl.</p>
+
+<p><i>Internode</i>, the part of a stem between two nodes, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Interpetiolar</i>, between petioles.</p>
+
+<p><i>Interruptedly pinnate</i>, pinnate with small leaflets intermixed with
+larger.</p>
+
+<p><i>Intine</i>, inner coat of a pollen grain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Intrafoliaceous</i> (stipules, &amp;c.), placed between the leaf or petiole
+and the stem.</p>
+
+<p><i>Introrse</i>, turned or facing inwards; i. e. towards the axis of the
+flower, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Intruse</i>, as it were pushed inwards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Inversed</i> or <i>Inverted</i>, where the apex is in the direction opposite to
+that of the organ it is compared with.</p>
+
+<p><i>Involucel</i>, a partial or small involucre, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Involucellate</i>, furnished with an involucel. <i>Involucrate</i>, furnished
+with an involucre.</p>
+
+<p><i>Involucre</i>, a whorl or set of bracts around a flower, umbel, or head,
+&amp;c., <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Involute</i>, in vernation, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>; rolled inwards from the edges, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Irregular Flowers</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Isos</i>, Greek for equal in number. <i>Isomerous</i>, the same number in the
+successive circles or sets. <i>Isostemonous</i>, the stamens equal in number
+to the sepals or petals.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Jointed</i>, separate or separable at one or more places into pieces, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Jugum</i> (plural <i>Juga</i>), Latin for a pair, as of leaflets,&mdash;thus
+<i>Unijugate</i>, of a single pair; <i>Bijugate</i>, of two pairs, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Julaceus</i>, like a catkin or <i>Julus</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Keel</i>, a projecting ridge on a surface, like the keel of a boat; the
+two anterior petals of a papilionaceous corolla, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Keeled</i>, furnished with a keel or sharp longitudinal ridge.</p>
+
+<p><i>Kermesine</i>, Carmine-red.</p>
+
+<p><i>Kernel</i> of the ovule and seed, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Key</i>, or <i>Key-fruit</i>, a Samara, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Kidney-shaped</i>, resembling the outline of a kidney, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Labellum</i>, the odd petal in the Orchis Family.</p>
+
+<p><i>Labiate</i>, same as <i>bilabiate</i> or two-lipped, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Labiatiflorous</i>, having flowers with bilabiate corolla.</p>
+
+<p><i>Labium</i> (plural, <i>Labia</i>), Latin for lip.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lacerate</i>, with margin appearing as if torn.</p>
+
+<p><i>Laciniate</i>, slashed; cut into deep narrow lobes or <i>Lacini�</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lactescent</i>, producing milky juice, as does the Milkweed, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lacteus</i>, Latin for milk-white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lacunose</i>, full of holes or gaps.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lacustrine</i>, belonging to lakes.</p>
+
+<p><i>L�vigate</i>, smooth as if polished. Latin, <i>L�vis</i>, smooth, as opposed to
+rough.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lageniform</i>, gourd-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lagopous</i>, Latin, hare-footed; densely clothed with long soft hairs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lamellar</i> or <i>Lamellate</i>, consisting of flat plates, <i>Lamell�</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lamina</i>, a plate or blade, the blade of a leaf, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lanate</i>, <i>Lanose</i>, woolly; clothed with long and soft entangled hairs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lanceolate</i>, lance-shaped, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lanuginous</i>, cottony or woolly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Latent buds</i>, concealed or undeveloped buds, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lateral</i>, belonging to the side.</p>
+
+<p><i>Latex</i>, the milky juice, &amp;c., of plants, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lax</i> (<i>Laxus</i>), loose in texture, or sparse; the opposite of crowded.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leaf</i>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>. <i>Leaf-buds</i>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leaflet</i>, one of the divisions or blades of a compound leaf, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leaf-like</i>, same as <i>foliaceous</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leathery</i>, of about the consistence of leather; coriaceous.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span><p><i>Legume</i>, a simple pod which dehisces in two pieces, like that of the
+Pea, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leguminous</i>, belonging to legumes, or to the Leguminous Family.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lenticular</i>, lens-shaped; i. e. flattish and convex on both sides.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lappaceous</i>, bur-like.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lasio</i>, Greek for woolly or hairy, as <i>Lasianthus</i>, woolly-flowered.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lateritious</i>, brick-colored.</p>
+
+<p><i>Laticiferous</i>, containing latex, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Latus</i>, Latin for broad, as <i>Latifolius</i>, broad-leaved.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leaf-scar</i>, <i>Leaf-stalk</i>, petiole.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lenticels</i>, lenticular dots on young bark.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lentiginose</i>, as if freckled.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lepal</i>, a made-up word for a staminode.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lepis</i>, Greek for a scale, whence <i>Lepidote</i>, leprous; covered with
+scurfy scales.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leptos</i>, Greek for slender; so <i>Leptophyllous</i>, slender-leaved.</p>
+
+<p><i>Leukos</i>, Greek for white; whence <i>Leucanthous</i>, white-flowered, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Liber</i>, the inner bark of Exogenous stems, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lid</i>, see <a href="#Operculum"><i>operculum</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ligneous</i>, or <i>Lignose</i>, woody in texture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ligulate</i>, furnished with a ligule, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ligule</i>, <i>Ligula</i>, the strap-shaped corolla in many Composit�, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>; the
+membranous appendage at the summit of the leaf-sheaths of most Grasses,
+<a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Limb</i>, the border of a corolla, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Limbate</i>, bordered (Latin, <i>Limbus</i>, a border).</p>
+
+<p><i>Line</i>, the twelfth of an inch; or French lines, the tenth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Linear</i>, narrow and flat, the margins parallel, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lineate</i>, marked with parallel lines. <i>Lineolate</i>, marked with minute
+lines.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lingulate</i>, <i>Linguiform</i>, tongue-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lip</i>, the principal lobes of a bilabiate corolla or calyx, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Litoral</i> or <i>Littoral</i>, belonging to the shore.</p>
+
+<p><i>Livid</i>, pale lead-colored.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lobe</i>, any projection or division (especially a rounded one) of a leaf,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lobed</i> or <i>Lobate</i>, cut into lobes, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>; <i>Lobulate</i>, into small
+lobes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Locellate</i>, having <i>Locelli</i>, i. e. compartments in a cell: thus an
+anther-cell is often <i>bilocellate</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Loculament</i>, same as <i>loculus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Locular</i>, relating to the cell or compartment (<i>Loculus</i>) of an ovary,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Loculicidal</i> (dehiscence), splitting down through the back of each
+cell, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Locusta</i>, a name for the spikelet of Grasses.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lodicule</i>, one of the scales answering to perianth-leaves in
+Grass-flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Loment</i>, a pod which separates transversely into joints, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lomentaceous</i>, pertaining to or resembling a loment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lorate</i>, thong-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lunate</i>, crescent-shaped. <i>Lunulate</i>, diminutive of <i>lunate</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lupuline</i>, like hops.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lusus</i>, Latin for a sport or abnormal variation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Luteolus</i>, yellowish; diminutive of</p>
+
+<p><i>Luteus</i>, Latin for yellow. <i>Lutescent</i>, verging to yellow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lyrate</i>, lyre-shaped; a pinnatifid leaf of an obovate or spatulate
+outline, the end-lobe large and roundish, and the lower lobes small, as
+in fig. <a href="#Fig148">149</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Macros</i>, Greek for long, sometimes also used for large: thus
+<i>Macrophyllous</i>, long or large-leaved, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Macrospore</i>, the large kind of spore, when there are two kinds, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>,
+<a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Maculate</i>, spotted or blotched.</p>
+
+<p><i>Male</i> (flowers or plants), having stamens but no pistil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mammose</i>, breast-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Marcescent</i>, withering without falling off.</p>
+
+<p><i>Marginal</i>, belonging to margin.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span><p><i>Marginate</i>, margined with an edge different from the rest.</p>
+
+<p><i>Marginicidal dehiscence</i>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Maritime</i>, belonging to sea-coasts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Marmorate</i>, marbled.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mas.</i>, <i>Masc.</i>, <i>Masculine</i>, male.</p>
+
+<p><i>Masked</i>, see <a href="#Personate"><i>personate</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mealy</i>, see <a href="#Farinaceous"><i>farinaceous</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Median</i>, <i>Medial</i>, belonging to the middle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Medifixed</i>, attached by the middle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Medullary</i>, belonging to, or of the nature of, pith (<i>Medulla</i>); pithy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Medullary Rays</i>, the silver-grain of wood, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Medullary Sheath</i>, a set of ducts just around the pith, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Meiostemonous</i>, having fewer stamens than petals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Membranaceous</i> or <i>Membranous</i>, of the texture of membrane; thin and
+soft.</p>
+
+<p><i>Meniscoid</i>, crescent-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mericarp</i>, one carpel of the fruit of an Umbelliferous plant, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Merismatic</i>, separating into parts by the formation of partitions
+across.</p>
+
+<p><i>Merous</i>, from the Greek for part; used with numeral prefix to denote
+the number of pieces in a set or circle: as <i>Monomerous</i>, of only one,
+<i>Dimerous</i>, with two, <i>Trimerous</i>, with three parts (sepals, petals,
+stamens, &amp;c.) in each circle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mesocarp</i>, the middle part of a pericarp, when that is distinguishable
+into three layers, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mesophl&oelig;um</i>, the middle or green bark.</p>
+
+<p><i>Micropyle</i>, the closed orifice of the seed, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Microspore</i>, the smaller kind of spore when there are two kinds, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Midrib</i>, the middle or main rib of a leaf, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Milk-vessels</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Miniate</i>, vermilion-colored.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mitriform</i>, mitre-shaped: in the form of a peaked cap, or one cleft at
+the top.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Moniliform" id="Moniliform"></a><i>Moniliform</i>, necklace-shaped; a cylindrical body contracted at
+intervals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Monocarpic</i> (duration), flowering and seeding but once, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Monochlamydeous</i>, having only one floral envelope.</p>
+
+<p><i>Monocotyledonous</i> (embryo), with only one cotyledon, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Monocotyledonous Plants</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>. <i>Monocotyls</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mon&oelig;cious</i>, or <i>Monoicous</i> (flower), having stamens or pistils only,
+<a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Monogynous</i> (flower), having only one pistil, or one style, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Monopetalous</i> (flower), with the corolla of one piece, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Monophyllous</i>, one-leaved, or of one piece.</p>
+
+<p><i>Monos</i>, Greek for solitary or only one; thus <a name="Monadelphous" id="Monadelphous"></a><i>Monadelphous</i>, stamens
+united by their filaments into one set, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>; <i>Monandrous</i> (flower),
+having only one stamen, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Monosepalous</i>, a calyx of one piece; i. e. with the sepals united into
+one body.</p>
+
+<p><i>Monospermous</i>, one-seeded.</p>
+
+<p><i>Monstrosity</i>, an unnatural deviation from the usual structure or form.</p>
+
+<p><i>Morphology</i>, <i>Morphological Botany</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>; the department of botany which
+treats of the forms which an organ may assume.</p>
+
+<p><i>Moschate</i>, Musk-like in odor.</p>
+
+<p><i>Movements</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mucronate</i>, tipped with an abrupt short point (<i>Mucro</i>), <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mucronulate</i>, tipped with a minute abrupt point; a diminutive of the
+last.</p>
+
+<p><i>Multi-</i>, in composition, many; as <i>Multangular</i>, many-angled;
+<i>Multicipital</i>, many-headed, &amp;c.; <i>Multifarious</i>, in many rows or ranks;
+<i>Multifid</i>, many-cleft; <i>Multilocular</i>, many-celled; <i>Multiserial</i>, in
+many rows.</p>
+
+<p><i>Multiple Fruits</i>, <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Muricate</i>, beset with short and hard or prickly points.</p>
+
+<p><i>Muriform</i>, wall-like; resembling courses of bricks in a wall.</p>
+
+<p><i>Muticous</i>, pointless, blunt, unarmed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mycelium</i>, the spawn of Fungi; i. e. the filaments from which
+Mushrooms, &amp;c., originate, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span><p><i>Naked</i>, wanting some usual covering, as achlamydeous flowers, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>;
+gymnospermous seeds, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Names</i> in botany, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nanus</i>, Latin for dwarf.</p>
+
+<p><i>Napiform</i>, turnip-shaped, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Natural System</i>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Naturalized</i>, introduced from a foreign country, and flourishing wild.</p>
+
+<p><i>Navicular</i>, boat-shaped, like the glumes of most Grasses.</p>
+
+<p><i>Necklace-shaped</i>, looking like a string of beads; see <a href="#Moniliform"><i>moniliform</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nectar</i>, the sweet secretion in flowers from which bees make honey, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nectariferous</i>, honey-bearing; or having a nectary.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nectary</i>, the old name for petals and other parts of the flower when of
+unusual shape, especially when honey-bearing. So the hollow spur-shaped
+petals of Columbine were called nectaries; also the curious long-clawed
+petals of Monkshood, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Needle-shaped</i>, long, slender, and rigid, like the leaves of Pines.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nemorose</i> or <i>Nemoral</i>, inhabiting groves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nerve</i>, a name for the ribs or veins of leaves when simple and
+parallel, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nerved</i>, furnished with nerves, or simple and parallel ribs or veins,
+<a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nervose</i>, conspicuously nerved. <i>Nervulose</i>, minutely nervose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Netted-veined</i>, furnished with branching veins forming network, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Neuter</i>, <i>Neutral</i>, sexless. <i>Neutral flower</i>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Niger</i>, Latin for black. <i>Nigricans</i>, Latin for verging to black.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nitid</i>, shining.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nival</i>, living in or near snow. <i>Niveus</i>, snow-white.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nodding</i>, bending so that the summit hangs downward.</p>
+
+<p><i>Node</i>, a knot; the "joints" of a stem, or the part whence a leaf or a
+pair of leaves springs, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nodose</i>, knotty or knobby. <i>Nodulose</i>, furnished with little knobs or
+knots.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nomenclature</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Normal</i>, according to rule, natural.</p>
+
+<p><i>Notate</i>, marked with spots or lines of a different color.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nucamentaceous</i>, relating to or resembling a small nut.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nuciform</i>, nut-shaped or nut-like.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nucleus</i>, the kernel of an ovule (<a href="#Page_110">110</a>) or seed (<a href="#Page_127">127</a>) of a cell.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nucule</i>, same as nutlet.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nude</i>, (Latin, <i>Nudus</i>), naked. So <i>Nudicaulis</i>, naked-stemmed, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nut</i>, Latin <i>Nux</i>, a hard, mostly one-seeded indehiscent fruit; as a
+chestnut, butternut, acorn, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nutant</i>, nodding.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nutlet</i>, a little nut; or the stone of a drupe.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Ob-</i> (meaning over against), when prefixed to words signifies
+inversion; as, <i>Obcompressed</i>, flattened the opposite of the usual way;
+<i>Obcordate</i>, heart-shaped, with the broad and notched end at the apex
+instead of the base, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>; <i>Oblanceolate</i>, lance-shaped with the tapering
+point downwards, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oblique</i>, applied to leaves, &amp;c., means unequal-sided.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oblong</i>, from two to four times as long as broad, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Obovate</i>, inversely ovate, the broad end upward, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>. <i>Obovoid</i>, solid
+obovate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Obtuse</i>, blunt or round at the end, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Obverse</i>, same as <i>inverse</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Obvolute</i> (in the bud), when the margins of one piece or leaf
+alternately overlap those of the opposite one.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ocellate</i>, with a circular colored patch, like an eye.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ochroleucous</i>, yellowish-white; dull cream-color.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ocreate</i>, furnished with <i>Ocre�</i> (boots), or stipules in the form of
+sheaths, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Octo-</i>, Latin for eight, enters into the composition of <i>Octagynous</i>,
+with eight pistils or styles; <i>Octamerous</i>, its parts in eights;
+<i>Octandrous</i>, with eight stamens, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span><p><i>Oculate</i>, with eye-shaped marking.</p>
+
+<p><i>Officinal</i>, used in medicine, therefore kept in the shops.</p>
+
+<p><i>Offset</i>, short branches next the ground which take root, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oides</i>, termination, from the Greek, to denote likeness; so
+<i>Dianthoides</i>, Pink-like.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oleraceous</i>, esculent, as a pot-herb.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oligos</i>, Greek for few; thus <i>Oliganthous</i>, few-flowered, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Olivaceous</i>, olive-green.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oophoridium</i>, a name for spore-case containing macrospores.</p>
+
+<p><i>Opaque</i>, applied to a surface, means dull, not shining.</p>
+
+<p><i>Operculate</i>, furnished with a lid (<a name="Operculum" id="Operculum"></a><i>Operculum</i>), as the spore-case of
+Mosses, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Opposite</i>, said of leaves and branches when on opposite sides of the
+stem from each other (i. e. in pairs), <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>. Stamens are opposite the
+petals, &amp;c., when they stand before them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oppositifolius</i>, situated opposite a leaf.</p>
+
+<p><i>Orbicular</i>, <i>Orbiculate</i>, circular in outline, or nearly so, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Order</i>, group below class, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>. <i>Ordinal names</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Organ</i>, any member of the plant, as a leaf, a stamen, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Organography</i>, study of organs, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>. <i>Organogenesis</i>, that of the
+development of organs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Orgyalis</i>, of the height of a man.</p>
+
+<p><i>Orthos</i>, Greek for straight; thus, <i>Orthocarpous</i>, with straight fruit;
+<i>Orthostichous</i>, straight-ranked.</p>
+
+<p><i>Orthotropous</i> (ovule or seed), <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Osseous</i>, of a bony texture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Outgrowths</i>, growths from the surface of a leaf, petal, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Oval</i>, broadly elliptical, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ovary</i>, that part of the pistil containing the ovules or future seeds,
+<a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ovate</i>, shaped like an egg, with the broader end downwards; or, in
+plain surfaces, such as leaves, like the section of an egg lengthwise,
+<a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ovoid</i>, ovate or oval in a solid form.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ovule</i>, the body which is destined to become a seed, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ovuliferous</i>, ovule-bearing.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Palate</i>, a projection of the lower lip of a labiate corolla into the
+throat, as in Snapdragon, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Palea</i> (plural <i>pale�</i>), chaff; the inner husks of Grasses; the chaff
+or bracts on the receptacle of many Composit�, as Coreopsis, and
+Sunflower.</p>
+
+<p><i>Paleaceous</i>, furnished with chaff, or chaffy in texture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Paleolate</i>, having <i>Paleol�</i> or pale� of a second order, or narrow
+pale�.</p>
+
+<p><i>Palet</i>, English term for palea.</p>
+
+<p><i>Palmate</i>, when leaflets or the divisions of a leaf all spread from the
+apex of the petiole, like the hand with the outspread fingers, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Palmately</i> (veined, lobed, &amp;c.), in a palmate manner, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Palmatifid</i>, <i>-lobed</i>, <i>-sect</i>, palmately cleft, or lobed, or divided.</p>
+
+<p><i>Paludose</i>, inhabiting marshes. <i>Palustrine</i>, same.</p>
+
+<p><i>Panduriform</i>, or <i>Pandurate</i>, <a href="#Fiddleshaped">fiddle-shaped</a> (which see).</p>
+
+<p><i>Panicle</i>, an open and branched cluster, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Panicled</i>, <i>Paniculate</i>, arranged in panicles, or like a panicle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pannose</i>, covered with a felt of woolly hairs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Papery</i>, of about the consistence of letter-paper.</p>
+
+<p><i>Papilionaceous</i>, butterfly-shaped; applied to such a corolla as that of
+the Pea, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Papilla</i> (plural <i>papill�</i>), little nipple-shaped protuberances.</p>
+
+<p><i>Papillate</i>, <i>Papillose</i>, covered with papill�.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pappus</i>, thistle-down. The down crowning the achenium of the Thistle,
+Groundsel, &amp;c., and whatever in Composit� answers to calyx, whether
+hairs, teeth, or scales, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Papyraceous</i>, like parchment in texture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Parallel-veined</i> or <i>nerved</i> (leaves), <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span><p><i>Paraphyses</i>, jointed filaments mixed with the antheridia of Mosses.</p>
+
+<p><i>Parasitic</i>, living as a parasite, i. e. on another plant or animal, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Parenchemytous</i>, composed of parenchyma.</p>
+
+<p><i>Parenchyma</i>, soft cellular tissue of plants, like the green pulp of
+leaves, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Parietal</i> (placent�, &amp;c.), attached to the walls (<i>parietes</i>) of the
+ovary.</p>
+
+<p><i>Paripinnate</i>, pinnate with an even number of leaflets.</p>
+
+<p><i>Parted</i>, separated or cleft into parts almost to the base, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Parthenogenesis</i>, producing seed without fertilization.</p>
+
+<p><i>Partial involucre</i>, same as an <i>involucel</i>; <i>partial petiole</i>, a
+division of a main leaf-stalk or the stalk of a leaflet; <i>partial
+peduncle</i>, a branch of a peduncle; <i>partial umbel</i>, an umbellet, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Partition</i>, a segment of a <i>parted</i> leaf; or an internal wall in an
+ovary, anther, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Patelliform</i>, disk-shaped, like the <i>patella</i> or kneepan.</p>
+
+<p><i>Patent</i>, spreading, open. <i>Patulous</i>, moderately spreading.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pauci-</i>, in composition, few; as <i>pauciflorous</i>, few-flowered, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pear-shaped</i>, solid obovate, the shape of a pear.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pectinate</i>, pinnatifid or pinnately divided into narrow and close
+divisions, like the teeth of a comb.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pedate</i>, like a bird's foot; palmate or palmately cleft, with the side
+divisions again cleft, as in Viola pedata, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pedicel</i>, the stalk of each particular flower of a cluster, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pedicellate</i>, <i>Pedicelled</i>, borne on a pedicel.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pedalis</i>, Latin for a foot high or long.</p>
+
+<p><i>Peduncle</i>, a flower-stalk, whether of a single flower or of a
+flower-cluster, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Peduncled</i>, <i>Pedunculate</i>, furnished with a peduncle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Peloria</i>, an abnormal return to regularity and symmetry in an irregular
+flower; commonest in Snapdragon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Peltate</i>, shield-shaped; said of a leaf, whatever its shape, when the
+petiole is attached to the lower side, somewhere within the margin, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pelviform</i>, basin-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pendent</i>, hanging. <i>Pendulous</i>, somewhat hanging or drooping.</p>
+
+<p><i>Penicillate</i>, <i>Penicilliform</i>, tipped with a tuft of fine hairs, like a
+painter's pencil; as the stigmas of some Grasses.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pennate</i>, same as pinnate. <i>Penninerved</i> and <i>Penniveined</i>, pinnately
+veined, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Penta-</i> (in words of Greek composition), five; as <i>Pentadelphous</i>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>;
+<i>Pentagynous</i>, with five pistils or styles; <i>Pentamerous</i>, with its
+parts in fives, or on the plan of five; <i>Pentandrous</i>, having five
+stamens, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>; <i>Pentastichous</i>, in five ranks, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pepo</i>, a fruit like the Melon and Cucumber, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Perennial</i>, lasting from year to year, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Perfect</i> (flower), having both stamens and pistils, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Perfoliate</i>, passing through the leaf, in appearance, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Perforate</i>, pierced with holes, or with transparent dots resembling
+holes, as an Orange-leaf.</p>
+
+<p><i>Peri-</i>, Greek for around; from which are such terms as</p>
+
+<p><i>Perianth</i>, the leaves of the flower collectively, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pericarp</i>, the ripened ovary; the walls of the fruit, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pericarpic</i>, belonging to the pericarp.</p>
+
+<p><i>Perigonium</i>, <i>Perigone</i>, same as <i>perianth</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Perigynium</i>, bodies around the pistil; applied to the closed cup or
+bottle-shaped body (of bracts) which encloses the ovary of Sedges, and
+to the bristles, little scales, &amp;c., of the flowers of some other
+Cyperace�.</p>
+
+<p><i>Perigynous</i>, the petals and stamens borne on the calyx, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Peripheric</i>, around the outside, or periphery, of any organ.</p>
+
+<p><i>Perisperm</i>, a name for the albumen of a seed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Peristome</i>, the fringe of teeth to the spore-case of Mosses, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Persistent</i>, remaining beyond the period when such parts commonly fall,
+as the leaves of evergreens, and the calyx of such flowers as persist
+during the growth of the fruit.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span><p><a name="Personate" id="Personate"></a><i>Personate</i>, masked; a bilabiate corolla with a <i>palate</i> in the throat,
+<a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pertuse</i>, perforated with a hole or slit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Perulate</i>, having scales (<i>Perul�</i>), such as bud-scales.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pes</i>, <i>pedis</i>, Latin for the foot or support, whence <i>Longipes</i>,
+long-stalked, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Petal</i>, a leaf of the corolla, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Petalody</i>, metamorphosis of stamens, &amp;c., into petals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Petaloid</i>, <i>Petaline</i>, petal-like; resembling or colored like petals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Petiole</i>, a footstalk of a leaf; a leaf-stalk, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Petioled</i>, <i>Petiolate</i>, furnished with a petiole.</p>
+
+<p><i>Petiolulate</i>, said of a leaflet when raised on its own partial
+leaf-stalk.</p>
+
+<p><i>Petr�us</i>, Latin for growing on rocks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phalanx</i>, <i>phalanges</i>, bundles of stamens.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ph�nogamous</i>, or <i>Phanerogamous</i>, plants bearing flowers and producing
+seeds; same as Flowering Plants. <i>Ph�nogams</i>, <i>Phanerogams</i>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phl&oelig;um</i>, Greek name for bark, whence <i>Endophl&oelig;um</i>, inner bark,
+&amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ph&oelig;niceous</i>, deep red verging to scarlet.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phycology</i>, the botany of Alg�.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phyllocladia</i>, branches assuming the form and function of leaves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phyllodium</i> (plural, <i>phyllodia</i>), a leaf where the seeming blade is a
+dilated petiole, as in New Holland Acacias, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phyllome</i>, foliar parts, those answering to leaves in their nature.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phyllon</i> (plural, <i>phylla</i>), Greek for leaf and leaves; used in many
+compound terms and names.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phyllotaxis</i>, or <i>Phyllotaxy</i>, the arrangement of leaves on the stem,
+<a href="#Page_67">67</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physiological Botany</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phytography</i>, relates to characterizing and describing plants.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phyton</i>, or <i>Phytomer</i>, a name used to designate the pieces which by
+their repetition make up a plant, theoretically, viz. a joint of stem
+with its leaf or pair of leaves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pileus</i> of a mushroom, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Piliferous</i>, bearing a slender bristle or hair (<i>pilum</i>), or beset with
+hairs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pilose</i>, hairy; clothed with soft slender hairs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pinna</i>, a primary division with its leaflets of a bipinnate or
+tripinnate leaf.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pinnule</i>, a secondary division of a bipinnate or tripinnate leaf, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pinnate</i> (leaf), when leaflets are arranged along the sides of a common
+petiole, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pinnately lobed</i>, <i>cleft</i>, <i>parted</i>, <i>divided</i>, <i>veined</i>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pinnatifid</i>, <i>Pinnatisect</i>, same as pinnately cleft and pinnately
+parted, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pisiform</i>, pea-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pistil</i>, the seed-bearing organ of the flower, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pistillate</i>, having a pistil, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pistillidium</i>, the body which in Mosses answers to the pistil, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>,
+<a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pitchers</i>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pith</i>, the cellular centre of an exogenous stem, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Placenta</i>, the surface or part of the ovary to which the ovules are
+attached, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Placentiform</i>, nearly same as quoit-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plaited</i> (in the bud), or <i>Plicate</i>, folded, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Platy-</i>, Greek for broad, in compounds, such as <i>Platyphyllous</i>,
+broad-leaved, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pleio-</i>, Greek for full or abounding, used in compounds, such as
+<i>Pleiopetalous</i>, of many petals, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plumbeus</i>, lead-colored.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plumose</i>, feathery; when any slender body (such as a bristle of a
+pappus or a style) is beset with hairs along its sides, like the plume
+of a feather.</p>
+
+<p><i>Plumule</i>, the bud or first shoot of a germinating plantlet above the
+cotyledons, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pluri-</i>, in composition, many or several; as <i>Plurifoliolate</i>, with
+several leaflets.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pod</i>, specially a legume, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>; also may be applied to any sort of
+capsule.</p>
+
+<p><i>Podium</i>, a footstalk or stipe, used only in Greek compounds, as
+(suffixed) <i>Leptopodus</i>, slender-stalked, or (prefixed) <i>Podocephalus</i>,
+with a stalked head, and in <i>Podosperm</i>, a seed stalk or funiculus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pogon</i>, Greek for beard, comes into various compounds.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span><p><i>Pointless</i>, destitute of any pointed tip, such as a <i>mucro</i>, <i>awn</i>,
+<i>acumination</i>, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pollen</i>, the fertilizing powder contained in the anther, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pollen-growth</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>. <i>Polleniferous</i>, pollen-bearing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pollen-mass</i>, <i>Pollinium</i>, the united mass of pollen, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, as in
+Milkweed and Orchis.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pollicaris</i>, Latin for an inch long.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pollination</i>, the application of pollen to the stigma, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Poly-</i>, in compound words of Greek origin, same as <i>multi-</i> in those of
+Latin origin viz. many, as</p>
+
+<p><i>Polyadelphous</i>, stamens united by their filaments into several bundles,
+<a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polyandrous</i>, with numerous stamens (inserted on the receptacle), <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polycarpic</i>, term used by DeCandolle in the sense of perennial.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polycotyledonous</i>, having many (more than two) cotyledons, as Pines,
+<a href="#Page_23">23</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polygamous</i>, having some perfect and some unisexual flowers, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polygonal</i>, many-angled.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polygynous</i>, with many pistils or styles, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polymerous</i>, formed of many parts of each set.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polymorphous</i>, of several or varying forms.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polypetalous</i>, when the petals are distinct or separate (whether few or
+many), <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polyphyllous</i>, many-leaved; formed of several distinct pieces.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polysepalous</i>, same as the last when applied to the calyx, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Polyspermous</i>, many-seeded.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pome</i>, the apple, pear, and similar fleshy fruits, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pomiferous</i>, pome-bearing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Porrect</i>, outstretched.</p>
+
+<p><i>Posterior</i> side or portion of a flower (when axillary) is that toward
+the axis, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pouch</i>, the silicle or short pod, as of Shepherd's Purse, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pr�cocious</i> (Latin, <i>pr�cox</i>), unusually early in development.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pr�floration</i>, same as <i>�stivation</i>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pr�foliation</i>, same as <i>vernation</i>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pr�morse</i>, ending abruptly, as if bitten off.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pratensis</i>, Latin for growing in meadows.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prickles</i>, sharp elevations of the bark, coming off with it, as of the
+Rose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prickly</i>, bearing prickles, or sharp projections like them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Primine</i>, the outer coat of the covering of the ovule, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Primordial</i>, earliest formed; primordial leaves are the first after the
+cotyledons.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prismatic</i>, prism-shaped; having three or more angles bounding flat
+sides.</p>
+
+<p><i>Procerous</i>, tall, or tall and slim.</p>
+
+<p><i>Process</i>, any projection from the surface or edge of a body.</p>
+
+<p><i>Procumbent</i>, trailing on the ground, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Procurrent</i>, running through but not projecting.</p>
+
+<p><i>Produced</i>, extended or projecting; the upper sepal of a Larkspur is
+<i>produced</i> above into a spur, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Proliferous</i> (literally, bearing offspring), where a new branch rises
+from an older one, or one head or cluster of flowers out of another.</p>
+
+<p><i>Propaculum</i> or <i>Propagulum</i>, a shoot for propagation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prosenchyma</i>, a tissue of wood-cells.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prostrate</i>, lying flat on the ground, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Protandrous</i> or <i>Proterandrous</i>, the anthers first maturing, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Proteranthous</i>, flowering before leafing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Proterogynous</i> or <i>Protogynous</i>, the stigmas first to mature, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prothallium</i> or <i>Prothallus</i>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Protoplasm</i>, the soft nitrogenous lining or contents, or living part,
+of cells, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Protos</i>, Greek for first; in various compounds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pruinose</i>, <i>Pruinate</i>, frosted; covered with a powder like hoar-frost.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pseudo-</i>, Greek for false. <i>Pseudo-bulb</i>, the aerial corms of epiphytic
+Orchids, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Psilos</i>, Greek for bare or naked, used in many compounds.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pteridophyta</i>, <i>Pteridophytes</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pteris</i>, Greek for wing, and general name for Fern, enters into many
+compounds.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span><p><i>Puberulent</i>, covered with fine and short or almost imperceptible down.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pubescent</i>, hairy or downy, especially with fine and soft hairs or
+<i>pubescence</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pulverulent</i> or <i>Pulveraceous</i>, as if dusted with fine powder.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pulvinate</i>, cushioned, or shaped like a cushion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pumilus</i>, low or little.</p>
+
+<p><i>Punctate</i>, dotted, either with minute holes or what look as such.</p>
+
+<p><i>Puncticulate</i>, minutely punctate.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pungent</i>, prickly-tipped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Puniceous</i>, carmine-red.</p>
+
+<p><i>Purpureus</i>, originally red or crimson, more used for duller or
+bluish-red.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pusillus</i>, weak and small, tiny.</p>
+
+<p><i>Putamen</i>, the stone of a drupe, or the shell of a nut, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pygm�us</i>, Latin for dwarf.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pyramidal</i>, shaped like a pyramid.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pyrene</i>, <i>Pyrena</i>, a seed-like nutlet or stone of a small drupe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pyriform</i>, pear-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pyxidate</i>, furnished with a lid.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pyxis</i>, <i>Pyxidium</i>, a pod opening round horizontally by a lid, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Quadri-</i>, in words of Latin origin, four; as <i>Quadrangular</i>,
+four-angled; <i>Quadrifoliate</i>, four-leaved; <i>Quadrifid</i>, four-cleft.
+<i>Quaternate</i> in fours.</p>
+
+<p><i>Quinate</i>, in fives. <i>Quinque</i>, five.</p>
+
+<p><i>Quincuncial</i>, in a quincunx; when the parts in �stivation are five, two
+of them outside, two inside, and one half out and half in.</p>
+
+<p><i>Quintuple</i>, five-fold.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Race</i>, a marked variety which may be perpetuated from seed, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Raceme</i>, a flower-cluster, with one-flowered pedicels arranged along
+the sides of a general peduncle, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Racemose</i>, bearing racemes, or raceme-like.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rachis</i>, see <a href="#Rhachis"><i>rhachis</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Radial</i>, belonging to the ray.</p>
+
+<p><i>Radiate</i>, or <i>Radiant</i>, furnished with ray-flowers, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Radiate-veined</i>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Radical</i>, belonging to the root, or apparently coming from the root.</p>
+
+<p><i>Radicant</i>, rooting, taking root on or above the ground.</p>
+
+<p><i>Radicels</i>, little roots or rootlets.</p>
+
+<p><i>Radicle</i>, the stem part of the embryo, the lower end of which forms the
+root, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rameal</i>, belonging to a branch. <i>Ramose</i>, full of branches (<i>rami</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Ramentaceous</i>, beset with thin chaffy scales (<i>Ramenta</i>), as the stalks
+of many Ferns.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ramification</i>, branching, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ramulose</i>, full of branchlets (<i>ramuli</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Raphe</i>, see <a href="#Rhaphe"><i>rhaphe</i></a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ray</i>, parts diverging from a centre, the marginal flowers of a head (as
+of Coreopsis, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>), or cluster, as of Hydrangea (<a href="#Page_78">78</a>), when different from
+the rest, especially when ligulate and diverging (like rays or
+sunbeams); also the branches of an umbel, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ray-flowers</i>, <a href="#Page_94">94</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Receptacle</i>, the axis or support of a flower, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>; also the common
+axis or support of a head of flowers, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reclined</i>, turned or curved downwards; nearly recumbent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rectinerved</i>, with straight nerves or veins.</p>
+
+<p><i>Recurved</i>, curved outwards or backwards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reduplicate</i> (in �stivation), valvate with the margins turned outwards,
+<a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reflexed</i>, bent outwards or backwards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Refracted</i>, bent suddenly, so as to appear broken at the bend.</p>
+
+<p><i>Regular</i>, all the parts similar in shape, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reniform</i>, kidney-shaped, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span><p><i>Repand</i>, wavy-margined, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Repent</i>, creeping, i. e. prostrate and rooting underneath.</p>
+
+<p><i>Replum</i>, the frame of some pods (as of Prickly Poppy and Cress),
+persistent after the valves fall away.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reptant</i>, same as repent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Resupinate</i>, inverted, or appearing as if upside down, or reversed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Reticulated</i>, the veins forming network, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>. <i>Retiform</i>, in network.</p>
+
+<p><i>Retinerved</i>, reticulate-veined.</p>
+
+<p><i>Retroflexed</i>, bent backwards; same as <i>reflexed</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Retuse</i>, blunted; the apex not only obtuse but somewhat indented, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Revolute</i>, rolled backwards, as the margins of many leaves, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Rhachis" id="Rhachis"></a><i>Rhachis</i> (the backbone), the axis of a spike or other body, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Rhaphe" id="Rhaphe"></a><i>Rhaphe</i>, the continuation of the seed-stalk along the side of an
+anatropous ovule or seed, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rhaphides</i>, crystals, especially needle-shaped ones, in the tissues of
+plants, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rhizanthous</i>, flowering from the root.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rhizoma</i>, <i>Rhizome</i>, a rootstock, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>-<a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rhombic</i>, in the shape of a rhomb. <i>Rhomboidal</i>, approaching that
+shape.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rib</i>, the principal piece, or one of the principal pieces of the
+framework of a leaf, or any similar elevated line along a body, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rimose</i>, having chinks or cracks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ring</i>, an elastic band on the spore-cases of Ferns, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ringent</i>, grinning; gaping open, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Riparious</i>, on river-banks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rivalis</i>, Latin for growing along brooks; or <i>Rivularis</i>, in rivulets.</p>
+
+<p><i>Root</i>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Root-hairs</i>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rootlets</i>, small roots, or root-branches, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rootstock</i>, root-like trunks or portions of stems on or under ground,
+<a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Roridus</i>, dewy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rosaceous</i>, arranged like the petals of a rose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rostellate</i>, bearing a small beak (<i>Rostellum</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Rostrate</i>, bearing a beak (<i>Rostrum</i>) or a prolonged appendage.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rosulate</i>, in a rosette or cluster of spreading leaves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rotate</i>, wheel-shaped, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rotund</i>, rounded or roundish in outline.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ruber</i>, Latin for red in general. <i>Rubescent</i>, <i>Rubicund</i>, reddish or
+blushing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rudimentary</i>, imperfectly developed, or in an early state of
+development.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rufous</i>, <i>Rufescent</i>, brownish-red or reddish-brown.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rugose</i>, wrinkled; roughened with wrinkles.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ruminated</i> (albumen), penetrated with irregular channels or portions,
+as a nutmeg, looking as if chewed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Runcinate</i>, coarsely saw-toothed or cut, the pointed teeth turned
+towards the base of the leaf, as the leaf of a Dandelion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Runner</i>, a slender and prostrate branch, rooting at the end, or at the
+joints, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Sabulose</i>, growing in sand.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sac</i>, any closed membrane, or a deep purse-shaped cavity.</p>
+
+<p><i>Saccate</i>, sac-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sagittate</i>, arrowhead-shaped, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Salsuginous</i>, growing in brackish soil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Salver-shaped</i>, or <i>Salver-form</i>, with a border spreading at right
+angles to a slender tube, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Samara</i>, a wing-fruit, or key, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Samaroid</i>, like a samara or key-fruit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sap</i>, the juices of plants generally, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>. <i>Sapwood</i>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Saprophytes</i>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sarcocarp</i>, the fleshy part of a stone-fruit, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span><p><i>Sarmentaceous</i>, <i>Sarmentose</i>, bearing long and flexible twigs
+(<i>Sarments</i>), either spreading or procumbent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Saw-toothed</i>, see <a href="#Serrate"><i>serrate</i></a>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scabrous</i>, rough or harsh to the touch.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scalariform</i>, with cross-bands, resembling the steps of a ladder, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scales</i>, of buds, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>; of bulbs, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scalloped</i>, same as <i>crenate</i>, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scaly</i>, furnished with scales, or scale-like in texture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scandent</i>, climbing, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scape</i>, a peduncle rising from the ground or near it, as in many
+Violets.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scapiform</i>, scape-like.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scapigerous</i>, scape-bearing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scar</i> of the seed, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>. <i>Leaf-scars</i>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scarious</i> or <i>Scariose</i>, thin, dry, and membranous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scion</i>, a shoot or slip used for grafting.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scleros</i>, Greek for hard, hence <i>Sclerocarpous</i>, hard-fruited.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scobiform</i>, resembling sawdust.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scorpioid</i> or <i>Scorpioidal</i>, curved or circinate at the end, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scrobiculate</i>, pitted; excavated into shallow pits.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scurf</i>, <i>Scurfiness</i>, minute scales on the surface of many leaves, as
+of Goosefoot.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scutate</i>, <i>Scutiform</i>, buckler-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scutellate</i>, or <i>Scutelliform</i>, saucer-shaped or platter-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Secund</i>, one-sided; i. e. where flowers, leaves, &amp;c., are all turned to
+one side.</p>
+
+<p><i>Secundine</i>, the inner coat of the ovule, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Seed</i>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>. <i>Seed-leaves</i>, see <a href="#Cotyledons"><i>cotyledons</i></a>. <i>Seed-vessel</i>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Segment</i>, a subdivision or lobe of any cleft body.</p>
+
+<p><i>Segregate</i>, separated from each other.</p>
+
+<p><i>Semi-</i>, in compound words of Latin origin, half; as</p>
+
+<p><i>Semi-adherent</i>, as the calyx or ovary of Purslane; <i>Semicordate</i>,
+half-heart-shaped; <i>Semilunar</i>, like a half-moon; <i>Semiovate</i>,
+half-ovate, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Seminal</i>, relating to the seed (<i>Semen</i>). <i>Seminiferous</i>, seed-bearing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sempervirent</i>, evergreen.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sensitiveness</i> in plants, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Senary</i>, in sixes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sepal</i>, a leaf or division of the calyx, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sepaloid</i>, sepal-like. <i>Sepaline</i>, relating to the sepals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Separated Flowers</i>, those having stamens or pistils only, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Septate</i>, divided by partitions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Septenate</i>, with parts in sevens.</p>
+
+<p><i>Septicidal</i>, where dehiscence is through the partitions, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Septiferous</i>, bearing the partition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Septifragal</i>, where the valves in dehiscence break away from the
+partitions, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Septum</i> (plural <i>septa</i>), a partition or dissepiment.</p>
+
+<p><i>Serial</i>, or <i>Seriate</i>, in rows; as <i>biserial</i>, in two rows, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sericeous</i>, silky; clothed with satiny pubescence.</p>
+
+<p><i>Serotinous</i>, late in the season.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Serrate" id="Serrate"></a><i>Serrate</i>, the margin cut into teeth (<i>Serratures</i>) pointing forwards,
+<a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Serrulate</i>, same as the last, but with fine teeth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sessile</i>, sitting; without any stalk.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sesqui-</i>, Latin for one and a half; so <i>Sesquipedalis</i>, a foot and a
+half long.</p>
+
+<p><i>Seta</i>, a bristle, or a slender body or appendage resembling a bristle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Setaceous</i>, bristle-like. <i>Setiform</i>, bristle-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Setigerous</i>, bearing bristles. <i>Setose</i>, beset with bristles or bristly
+hairs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Setula</i>, a diminutive bristle. <i>Setulose</i>, provided with such.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sex</i>, six. <i>Sexangular</i>, six-angled. <i>Sexfarious</i>, six-faced.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sheath</i>, the base of such leaves as those of Grasses, which are</p>
+
+<p><i>Sheathing</i>, wrapped round the stem.</p>
+
+<p><i>Shield-shaped</i>, same as <i>scutate</i>, or as <i>peltate</i>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span><p><i>Shrub</i>, <i>Shrubby</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sieve-cells</i>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sigmoid</i>, curved in two directions, like the letter S, or the Greek
+<i>sigma</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Silicle</i>, a pouch, or short pod of the Cress Family, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Siliculose</i>, bearing a silicle, or a fruit resembling it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Silique</i>, capsule of the Cress Family, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Siliquose</i>, bearing siliques or pods which resemble siliques.</p>
+
+<p><i>Silky</i>, glossy with a coat of fine and soft, close-pressed, straight
+hairs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Silver-grain</i>, the medullary rays of wood, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Silvery</i>, shining white or bluish-gray, usually from a silky
+pubescence.</p>
+
+<p><i>Simple</i>, of one piece; opposed to <i>compound</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sinistrorse</i>, turned to the left.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sinuate</i>, with margin alternately bowed inwards and outwards, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sinus</i>, a recess or bay; the re-entering angle between two lobes or
+projections.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sleep of Plants</i> (so called), <a href="#Page_151">151</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Smooth</i>, properly speaking not rough, but often used for glabrous, i.
+e. not pubescent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Soboliferous</i>, bearing shoots (<i>Soboles</i>) from near the ground.</p>
+
+<p><i>Solitary</i>, single; not associated with others.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sordid</i>, dull or dirty in hue.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sorediate</i>, bearing patches on the surface.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sorosis</i>, name of a multiple fruit, like a pine-apple.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Sorus" id="Sorus"></a><i>Sorus</i>, a fruit-dot of Ferns, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spadiceous</i>, chestnut-colored. Also spadix-bearing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spadix</i>, a fleshy spike of flowers, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Span</i>, the distance between the tip of the thumb and of little finger
+outstretched, six or seven inches.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spathaceous</i>, resembling or furnished with a</p>
+
+<p><i>Spathe</i>, a bract which inwraps an inflorescence, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spatulate</i>, or <i>Spathulate</i>, shaped like a spatula, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Species</i>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Specific Names</i>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Specimens</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spermaphore</i>, or <i>Spermophore</i>, one of the names of the placenta.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spermum</i>, Latin form of Greek word for seed; much used in composition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spica</i>, Latin for spike; hence <i>Spicate</i>, in a spike, <i>Spiciform</i>, in
+shape resembling a spike.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spike</i>, an inflorescence like a raceme, only the flowers are sessile,
+<a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spikelet</i>, a small or a secondary spike; the inflorescence of Grasses.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spine</i>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spindle-shaped</i>, tapering to each end, like a radish, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spinescent</i>, tipped by or degenerating into a thorn.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spinose</i>, or <i>Spiniferous</i>, thorny.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spiral Vessels</i> or <i>ducts</i>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spithameous</i>, span-high.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spora</i>, Greek name for seed, used in compound words.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sporadic</i>, widely dispersed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sporangium</i>, a spore-case in Ferns, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spore</i>, a body resulting from the fructification of Cryptogamous
+plants, in them the analogue of a seed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spore-case</i> (<i>Sporangium</i>), <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sporocarp</i>, <a href="#Page_162">162</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sport</i>, a newly appeared variation, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sporule</i>, same as a spore, or a small spore.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spumescent</i>, appearing like froth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spur</i>, any projecting appendage of the flower, looking like a spur but
+hollow, as that of Larkspur, fig. <a href="#Fig239">239</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Squamate</i>, <i>Squamose</i>, or <i>Squamaceous</i>, furnished with scales
+(<i>squam�</i>).</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span><p><i>Squamellate</i>, or <i>Squamulose</i>, furnished with little scales
+(<i>Squamell�</i>, or <i>Squamul�</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Squamiform</i>, shaped like a scale.</p>
+
+<p><i>Squarrose</i>, where scales, leaves, or any appendages spread widely from
+the axis on which they are thickly set.</p>
+
+<p><i>Squarrulose</i>, diminutive of <i>squarrose</i>; slightly squarrose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stachys</i>, Greek for spike.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stalk</i>, the stem, petiole, peduncle, &amp;c., as the case may be.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stamen</i>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Staminate</i>, furnished with stamens, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>. <i>Stamineal</i>, relating to the
+stamens.</p>
+
+<p><i>Staminodium</i>, an abortive stamen, or other body in place of a stamem.</p>
+
+<p><a name="Standard" id="Standard"></a><i>Standard</i>, the upper petal of a papilionaceous corolla, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Starch</i>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Station</i>, the particular kind of situation in which a plant naturally
+occurs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stellate</i>, <i>Stellular</i>, starry or star-like; where several similar
+parts spread out from a common centre, like a star.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stem</i>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>. <i>Stemlet</i>, diminutive stem.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stemless</i>, destitute or apparently destitute of stem.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stenos</i>, Greek for narrow; hence <i>Stenophyllous</i>, narrow-leaved, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sterile</i>, barren or imperfect.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stigma</i>, the part of the pistil which receives the pollen, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stigmatic</i>, or <i>Stigmatose</i>, belonging to the stigma.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stipe</i> (Latin <i>Stipes</i>), the stalk of a pistil, &amp;c., when it has any,
+<a href="#Page_112">112</a>; also of a Fern, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, and of a Mushroom, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stipel</i>, a stipule of a leaflet, as of the Bean, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stipellate</i>, furnished with stipels, as in the Bean tribe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stipitate</i>, furnished with a stipe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stipulaceous</i>, belonging to stipules. <i>Stipulate</i>, furnished with
+stipules.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stipules</i>, the appendages on each side of the base of certain leaves,
+<a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stirps</i> (plural, <i>stirpes</i>), Latin for race.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stock</i>, used for race or source. Also for any root-like base from which
+the herb grows up.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stole</i>, or <i>Stolon</i>, a trailing or reclined and rooting shoot, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stoloniferous</i>, producing stolons.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stomate</i> (Latin <i>Stoma</i>, plural <i>Stomata</i>), the breathing-pores of
+leaves, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stone-fruit</i>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Storage-leaves</i>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stramineous</i>, straw-like, or straw-colored.</p>
+
+<p><i>Strap-shaped</i>, long, flat, and narrow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Striate</i>, or <i>Striated</i>, marked with slender longitudinal grooves or
+stripes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Strict</i>, close and narrow; straight and narrow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Strigillose</i>, <i>Strigose</i>, beset with stout and appressed, stiff or
+rigid bristles.</p>
+
+<p><i>Strobilaceous</i>, relating to or resembling a</p>
+
+<p><i>Strobile</i>, a multiple fruit in the form of a cone or head, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Strombuliform</i>, twisted, like a spiral shell.</p>
+
+<p><i>Strophiole</i>, same as <i>caruncle</i>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>. <i>Strophiolate</i>, furnished with a
+strophiole.</p>
+
+<p><i>Struma</i>, a wen; a swelling or protuberance of any organ.</p>
+
+<p><i>Strumose</i>, bearing a struma.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stupose</i>, like tow.</p>
+
+<p><i>Style</i>, a stalk between ovary and stigma, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Styliferous</i>, <i>Stylose</i>, bearing styles or conspicuous ones.</p>
+
+<p><i>Stylopodium</i>, an epigynous disk, or an enlargement at the base of the
+style.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sub-</i>, as a prefix, about, nearly, somewhat; as <i>Subcordate</i>, slightly
+cordate; <i>Subserrate</i>, slightly serrate; <i>Subaxillary</i>, just beneath the
+axil, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Subclass</i>, <i>Suborder</i>, <i>Subtribe</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Suberose</i>, corky or cork-like in texture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Subulate</i>, awl-shaped; tapering from a broadish or thickish base to a
+sharp point.</p>
+
+<p><i>Succise</i>, as if cut off at lower end.</p>
+
+<p><i>Succubous</i>, when crowded leaves are each covered by base of next above.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span><p><i>Suckers</i>, shoots from subterranean branches, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Suffrutescent</i>, slightly shrubby or woody at the base only, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Suffruticose</i>, rather more than suffrutescent, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sulcate</i>, grooved longitudinally with deep furrows.</p>
+
+<p><i>Superior</i>, above, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>; sometimes equivalent to posterior, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Supernumerary Buds</i>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Supervolute</i>, plaited and convolute in bud, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Supine</i>, lying flat, with face upward.</p>
+
+<p><i>Supra-axillary</i>, borne above the axil, as some buds, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Supra-decompound</i>, many times compounded or divided.</p>
+
+<p><i>Surculose</i>, producing suckers (<i>Surculi</i>) or shoots resembling them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Suspended</i>, hanging down. Suspended ovules or seeds hang from the very
+summit of the cell which contains them.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sutural</i>, belonging or relating to a suture.</p>
+
+<p><i>Suture</i>, the line of junction of contiguous parts grown together, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sword-shaped</i>, applied to narrow leaves, with acute parallel edges,
+tapering above.</p>
+
+<p><i>Syconium</i>, the fig-fruit, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sylvestrine</i>, growing in woods.</p>
+
+<p><i>Symmetrical Flower</i>, similar in the number of parts of each set, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sympetalous</i>, same as gamopetalous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sympode</i>, <i>Sympodium</i>, a stem composed of a series of superposed
+branches in such a way as to imitate a simple axis, as in Grape-vine.</p>
+
+<p><i>Synantherous</i> or <i>Syngenesious</i>, where stamens are united by their
+anthers, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Syncarpous</i> (fruit or pistil), composed of several carpels consolidated
+into one.</p>
+
+<p><i>Synonym</i>, an equivalent superseded name.</p>
+
+<p><i>Synsepalous</i>, same as gamosepalous.</p>
+
+<p><i>System</i> (artificial and natural), <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Systematic Botany</i>, the study of plants after their kinds, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Tabescent</i>, wasting or shrivelling.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tail</i>, any long and slender prolongation of an organ.</p>
+
+<p><i>Taper-pointed</i>, same as acuminate, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tap-root</i>, a root with a stout tapering body, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>-<a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tawny</i>, dull yellowish, with a tinge of brown.</p>
+
+<p><i>Taxonomy</i>, the part of botany which treats of classification.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tegmen</i>, a name for the inner seed-coat.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tendril</i>, a thread-shaped organ used for climbing, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Terete</i>, long and round; same as <i>cylindrical</i>, only it may taper.</p>
+
+<p><i>Terminal</i>, borne at, or belonging to, the extremity or summit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Terminology</i> treats of technical terms; same as <i>Glossology</i>, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ternate</i>, <i>Ternately</i>, in threes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tessellate</i>, in checker-work.</p>
+
+<p><i>Testa</i>, the outer (and usually the harder) coat or shell of the seed,
+<a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Testaceous</i>, the color of unglazed pottery.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tetra-</i> (in words of Greek composition), four; as, <i>Tetracoccous</i>, of
+four cocci.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tetradynamous</i>, where a flower has six stamens, two shorter than the
+four, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tetragonal</i>, four-angled. <i>Tetragynous</i>, with four pistils or styles.
+<i>Tetramerous</i>, with its parts or sets in fours. <i>Tetrandrous</i>, with four
+stamens, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tetraspore</i>, a quadruple spore, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thalamaflorous</i>, with petals and stamens inserted on the torus or
+<i>Thalamus</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thallophyta</i>, <i>Thallophytes</i>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thallus</i>, a stratum, in place of stem and leaves, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Theca</i>, a case; the cells or lobes of the anther.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thecaphore</i>, the stipe of a carpel, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thorn</i>, an indurated pointed branch, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Thread-shaped</i>, slender and round or roundish, like a thread.</p>
+
+<p><i>Throat</i>, the opening or gorge of a monopetalous corolla, &amp;c., where the
+border and the tube join, and a little below, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span><p><i>Thyrse</i> or <i>Thyrsus</i>, a compact and pyramidal panicle of cymes or
+cymules, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tomentose</i>, clothed with matted woolly hairs (<i>tomentum</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Tongue-shaped</i>, long and flat, but thickish and blunt.</p>
+
+<p><i>Toothed</i>, furnished with teeth or short projections of any sort on the
+margin; used especially when these are sharp, like saw-teeth, and do not
+point forwards, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Top-shaped</i>, shaped like a top, or a cone with apex downwards.</p>
+
+<p><i>Torose</i>, <i>Torulose</i>, knobby; where a cylindrical body is swollen at
+intervals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Torus</i>, the receptacle of the flower, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trachea</i>, a spiral duct.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trachys</i>, Greek for rough; used in compounds, as, <i>Trachyspermous</i>,
+rough-seeded.</p>
+
+<p><i>Transverse</i>, across, standing right and left instead of fore and aft.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tri-</i> (in composition), three; as,</p>
+
+<p><i>Triadelphous</i>, stamens united by their filaments into three bundles,
+<a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Triandrous</i>, where the flower has three stamens, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tribe</i>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trichome</i>, of the nature of hair or pubescence.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trichotomous</i>, three-forked.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tricoccous</i>, of three cocci or roundish carpels.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tricolor</i>, having three colors.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tricostate</i>, having three ribs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tricuspidate</i>, three-pointed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tridentate</i>, three-toothed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Triennial</i>, lasting for three years.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trifarious</i>, in three vertical rows; looking three ways.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trifid</i>, three-cleft, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trifoliate</i>, three-leaved. <i>Trifoliolate</i>, of three leaflets.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trifurcate</i>, three-forked.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trigonous</i>, three-angled, or triangular.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trigynous</i>, with three pistils or styles, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trijugate</i>, in three pairs (<i>jugi</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Trilobed</i> or <i>Trilobate</i>, three-lobed, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trilocular</i>, three-celled, as the pistils or pods in fig. <a href="#Fig326">328-330</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trimerous</i>, with its parts in threes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trimorphism</i>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>. <i>Trimorphic</i> or <i>Trimorphous</i>, in three forms.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trinervate</i>, three-nerved, or with three slender ribs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tri&oelig;cious</i>, where there are three sorts of flowers on the same or
+different individuals, as in Red Maple. A form of Polygamous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tripartible</i>, separable into three pieces. <i>Tripartite</i>, three-parted,
+<a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tripetalous</i>, having three petals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Triphyllous</i>, three-leaved; composed of three pieces.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tripinnate</i>, thrice pinnate, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>. <i>Tripinnatifid</i>, thrice pinnately
+cleft, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Triple-ribbed</i>, <i>Triple-nerved</i>, &amp;c., where a midrib branches into
+three, near the base of the leaf.</p>
+
+<p><i>Triquetrous</i>, sharply three-angled; and especially with the sides
+concave, like a bayonet.</p>
+
+<p><i>Triserial</i>, or <i>Triseriate</i>, in three rows, under each other.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tristichous</i>, in three longitudinal or perpendicular ranks.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tristigmatic</i>, or <i>Tristigmatose</i>, having three stigmas.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trisulcate</i>, three-grooved.</p>
+
+<p><i>Triternate</i>, three times ternate, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trivial Name</i>, the specific name.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trochlear</i>, pulley-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trumpet-shaped</i>, tubular; enlarged at or towards the summit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Truncate</i>, as if cut off at the top.</p>
+
+<p><i>Trunk</i>, the main stem or general body of a stem or tree.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tube</i> (of corolla, &amp;c.), <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tuber</i>, a thickened portion of a subterranean stem or branch, provided
+with eyes (buds) on the sides, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tubercle</i>, a small excrescence.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tubercled</i>, or <i>Tuberculate</i>, bearing excrescences or pimples.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tub�form</i>, trumpet-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tuberous</i>, resembling a tuber. <i>Tuberiferous</i>, bearing tubers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tubular</i>, hollow and of an elongated form; hollowed like a pipe, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span><p><i>Tubuliflorous</i>, bearing only tubular flowers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tunicate</i>, coated; invested with layers, as an onion, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Turbinate</i>, top-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Turio</i> (plural <i>turiones</i>), strong young shoots or suckers springing
+out of the ground; as Asparagus-shoots.</p>
+
+<p><i>Turnip-shaped</i>, broader than high, abruptly narrowed below, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Twining</i>, ascending by coiling round a support, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Type</i>, the ideal pattern, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Typical</i>, well exemplifying the characteristics of a species, genus,
+&amp;c.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Uliginose</i>, growing in swamps.</p>
+
+<p><i>Umbel</i>, the umbrella-like form of inflorescence, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Umbellate</i>, in umbels. <i>Umbelliferous</i>, bearing umbels.</p>
+
+<p><i>Umbellet</i> (<i>umbellula</i>), a secondary or partial umbel, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Umbilicate</i>, depressed in the centre, like the ends of an apple; with a
+navel.</p>
+
+<p><i>Umbonate</i>, bossed; furnished with a low, rounded projection like a boss
+(<i>umbo</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Umbraculiform</i>, umbrella-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Unarmed</i>, destitute of spines, prickles, and the like.</p>
+
+<p><i>Uncial</i>, an inch (<i>uncia</i>) in length.</p>
+
+<p><i>Uncinate</i>, or <i>Uncate</i>, hook-shaped; hooked over at the end.</p>
+
+<p><i>Under-shrub</i>, partially shrubby, or a very low shrub.</p>
+
+<p><i>Undulate</i> or <i>Undate</i>, wavy, or wavy-margined, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Unequally pinnate</i>, pinnate with an odd number of leaflets, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Unguiculate</i>, furnished with a claw (<i>unguis</i>), <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Uni-</i>, in compound words, one; as <i>Unicellular</i>, one-celled.</p>
+
+<p><i>Uniflorous</i>, one-flowered.</p>
+
+<p><i>Unifoliate</i>, one-leaved. <i>Unifoliolate</i>, of one leaflet, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Unijugate</i>, of one pair.</p>
+
+<p><i>Unilabiate</i>, one-lipped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Unilateral</i>, one-sided.</p>
+
+<p><i>Unilocular</i>, one-celled.</p>
+
+<p><i>Uniovulate</i>, having only one ovule.</p>
+
+<p><i>Uniserial</i>, in one horizontal row.</p>
+
+<p><i>Unisexual</i>, having stamens or pistils only, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Univalved</i>, a pod of only one piece after dehiscence.</p>
+
+<p><i>Unsymmetrical Flowers</i>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Urceolate</i>, urn-shaped.</p>
+
+<p><i>Utricle</i>, a small thin-walled, one-seeded fruit, as of Goosefoot, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Utricular</i>, like a small bladder.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Vaginate</i>, sheathed, surrounded by a sheath (<i>vagina</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Valve</i>, one of the pieces (or doors) into which a dehiscent pod, or any
+similar body, splits, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Valvate</i>, <i>Valvular</i>, opening by valves. <i>Valvate</i>, in �stivation, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Variety</i>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vascular</i>, containing vessels, or consisting of vessels or ducts, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vascular Cryptogams</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vaulted</i>, arched; same as <i>fornicate</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vegetable Life</i>, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_128">128</a>. <i>Vegetable anatomy</i>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Veins</i>, the small ribs or branches of the framework of leaves, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_49">49</a>,
+<a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Veined</i>, <i>Veiny</i>, furnished with evident veins. <i>Veinless</i>, destitute
+of veins.</p>
+
+<p><i>Veinlets</i>, the smaller ramifications of veins, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Velate</i>, furnished with a veil.</p>
+
+<p><i>Velutinous</i>, velvety to the touch.</p>
+
+<p><i>Venation</i>, the veining of leaves, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Venenate</i>, poisonous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Venose</i>, veiny; furnished with conspicuous veins.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ventral</i>, belonging to that side of a simple pistil, or other organ,
+which looks towards the axis or centre of the flower; the opposite of
+dorsal; as the</p>
+
+<p><i>Ventral Suture</i>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ventricose</i>, inflated or swelled out on one side.</p>
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span><p><i>Venulose</i>, furnished with veinlets.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vermicular</i>, worm-like, shaped like worms.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vernal</i>, belonging to spring.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vernation</i>, the arrangement of the leaves in the bud, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vernicose</i>, the surface appearing as if varnished.</p>
+
+<p><i>Verrucose</i>, warty; beset with little projections like warts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Versatile</i>, attached by one point, so that it may swing to and fro,
+<a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vertex</i>, same as <i>apex</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vertical</i>, upright, perpendicular to the horizon, lengthwise.</p>
+
+<p><i>Verticil</i>, a whorl, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>. <i>Verticillate</i>, whorled, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Verticillaster</i>, a false whorl, formed of a pair of opposite cymes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vesicular</i>, bladdery.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vespertine</i>, appearing or expanding at evening.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vessels</i>, ducts, &amp;c., <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vexillary</i>, <i>Vexillar</i>, relating to the</p>
+
+<p><i>Vexillum</i>, the standard of a papilionaceous flower, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Villose</i>, shaggy with long and soft hairs (<i>Villosity</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Vimineous</i>, producing slender twigs, such as those used for
+wicker-work.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vine</i>, in the American use, any trailing or climbing stem; as a
+Grape-vine.</p>
+
+<p><i>Virescent</i>, <i>Viridescent</i>, greenish; turning green.</p>
+
+<p><i>Virgate</i>, wand-shape; as a long, straight, and slender twig.</p>
+
+<p><i>Viscous</i>, <i>Viscid</i>, having a glutinous surface.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vitta</i> (plural <i>vitt�</i>), the oil-tubes of the fruit of Umbellifer�.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vitelline</i>, yellow, of the hue of yolk of egg.</p>
+
+<p><i>Viviparous</i>, sprouting or germinating while attached to the parent
+plant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Voluble</i>, twining; as the stem of Hops and Beans, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Volute</i>, rolled up in any way.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Wavy</i>, the surface or margin alternately convex and concave, <a href="#Page_55">55</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Waxy</i>, resembling beeswax in texture or appearance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wedge-shaped</i>, broad above, tapering by straight lines to a narrow
+base, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wheel-shaped</i>, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Whorl</i>, an arrangement of leaves, &amp;c., in circles around the stem.</p>
+
+<p><i>Whorled</i>, arranged in whorls, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wing</i>, any membranous expansion. <i>Wings</i> of papilionaceous flowers, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Winged</i>, furnished with a wing; as the fruit of Ash and Elm, fig. <a href="#Fig300">300,
+301</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wood</i>, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>. <i>Woody</i>, of the texture or consisting of wood.</p>
+
+<p><i>Woody Fibre</i>, or <i>Wood-Cells</i>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Woolly</i>, clothed with long and entangled soft hairs.</p>
+
+<p><i>Work in plants</i>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Xanthos</i>, Greek for yellow, used in compounds; as <i>Xanthocarpus</i>,
+yellow-fruited.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="index">
+<p><i>Zygomorphous</i>, said of a flower which can be bisected only in one plane
+into similar halves.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chap" />
+<h2>Transcriber's Notes.</h2>
+
+<p>Spelling variants where it wasn't possible to determine the author's
+intent were left as is. These include: "backbone" and "back-bone;"
+"Buttonwood" and "Button-wood;" "cross section" and "cross-section;"
+"footstalk" and "foot-stalk;" "network" and "net-work;" "P�ony" and
+"Peony;" "peapod" and "pea-pod," plus plurals; "penniveined" and
+"penni-veined," plus capitalized versions; "Sapwood" and "Sap-wood;"
+"Snowball" and "Snow-ball;" "Verticil" and "Verticel;" "Woodsorrel" and
+"Wood-sorrel."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Venation" to "Vernation" on page vi: "Vernation or
+Pr�foliation."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Iso�tes" to "Isoetes" on page viii: "Quillworts (Isoetes)."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "liquifies" to "liquefies" on page 21: "as it liquefies."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "frame-work" to "framework" on page 52: "the framework or
+skeleton."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "leafstalk" to "leaf-stalk" in three places: the caption to
+figure 74; on page 71: "bent upon the leaf-stalk;" in the index entry
+for "Petiolulate."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Honey Locust" to "Honey-Locust" in the caption to figure 95:
+"branching thorn of Honey-Locust."</p>
+
+<p>Page 47 has a reference to Fig. 89, which does not seem to follow
+from the text.  "Fig. 80" would make more sense, but the original was not
+changed.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Linnaeus" to "Linn�us" on page 50: "Linn�us called Nerves."</p>
+
+<p>Removed extra comma before closing parenthesis on page 51:
+"the Maple (Fig. 20, 24)."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Sugar-Maple" to "Sugar Maple" on page 58: "that of the Sugar
+Maple."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "quadrifoliate" to "quadrifoliolate" on page 59: "trifoliolate,
+quadrifoliolate, plurifoliolate."</p>
+
+<p>The reference to Fig. 167 on page 64 is probably intended to refer to
+Fig. 157, but was not changed.</p>
+
+<p>The caption to figure 186 says that this is a two-ranked arrangement.
+Although it's clear from the text and figure that this is actually a
+three-ranked arrangement, the original text was preserved.</p>
+
+<p>Changed colon to semi-colon in the caption to figure 219: "a, filament;
+b, anther."</p>
+
+<p>Changed comma to period after "Fig. 254" in its caption.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Funnel-form" to "Funnelform" on page 90: "Funnel-shaped, or
+Funnelform."</p>
+
+<p>Inserted closing parenthesis in caption to figure 304: "Of a Sage
+(Salvia Texana)."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Butter cup" to "Buttercup" on page 120: "fruit of the
+Buttercup."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "carpophorse" to "carpophore" on page 121: "a slender axis or
+carpophore."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "cocoanut" to "cocoa-nut" on page 122: "such as the cocoa-nut."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Sepifragal" to "Septifragal" on page 123: "Septifragal
+dehiscence."</p>
+
+<p>Inserted missing text "(Fig." on page 128: "Rice (Fig. 430a)."</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the reference to unit 408 on page 136 should be to unit 402;
+but it was not changed.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "White-Pine" to "White Pine" on page 148: "White Pine and
+Basswood."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "discovary" to "discovery" on page 160: "discovery of a wholly
+unsuspected kind."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "sporo-carps" to "sporocarps" in the caption to figure 520.</p>
+
+<p>Changed semi-colon to period after "microspores" in the caption to
+figure 522.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Lepreiurei" to "Leprieurei" in the caption to figure 561.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "Sun-flowers" to "Sunflowers" on page 187: "Sunflowers and
+Thistles."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "&#9793;" to "&#9794;" on page 189: "To indicate sexes, &#9794;
+means staminate."</p>
+
+<p>Preserved the order of the index entries, even though they aren't
+strictly alphabetical.</p>
+
+<p>Removed extra comma after "Amphitropous" in its index entry.</p>
+
+<p>The index references for "Anemophilous" and "Entomophilous" should
+probably be 115, rather than 113, but were not changed.</p>
+
+<p>The index reference for "Antheridium" should probably be 159, rather
+than 150, but was not changed.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "short-fluited" to "short-fruited" in the index entry for
+"Brachy-."</p>
+
+<p>The index references for "Caulescent" and "Cauline" should probably be
+38, rather than 36, but were not changed.</p>
+
+<p>The index reference for "Cladophylla" should probably be 61, rather
+than 64, but was not changed.</p>
+
+<p>The index reference for "Dotted Ducts" should probably be 134, rather
+than 148, but was not changed.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "trifoliate" to "trifoliolate" in the index entry for
+"Foliolate."</p>
+
+<p>Changed "6" to "13" in the index entry for "Gemmule."</p>
+
+<p>The index references for "Hemitropous" and "Heterotropous" should
+probably be 111, rather than 123, but were not changed.</p>
+
+<p>The index reference for "Hortus Siccus" was changed from 201 to 186.</p>
+
+<p>The index reference for "Incised" should probably be 55, rather
+than 58, but was not changed.</p>
+
+<p>The index reference for "Jointed" is 64, and was not changed even though
+it does not seem to make sense. Better candidates include 57 and 122.</p>
+
+<p>Changed the last index reference for "Ligule" from 57 to 67;
+also the reference for "Ocreate."</p>
+
+<p>The index references for "Laticiferous" and "Milk-vessels" were changed
+from 138 to 135.</p>
+
+<p>Changed comma to semi-colon after "86" in the index entry for "Naked."</p>
+
+<p>The index reference for "Panicle" should probably be 76, rather
+than 81, but was not changed.</p>
+
+<p>The index references for "Pentandrous" and "Triandrous" should probably
+be 100, rather than 112, but were not changed.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "leaf stalk" to "leaf-stalk" in its index entry, as well as the
+index entry for "Petiole."</p>
+
+<p>The index reference for "Pinnule" should probably be 59, rather
+than 66, but was not changed.</p>
+
+<p>The index reference for "Seed-vessel" should probably be 117, rather
+than 127, but was not changed.</p>
+
+<p>The second index reference for "Starch" is 163, and was not changed even
+though it does not seem to make sense.</p>
+
+<p>Changed "one" to "on" in the index entry for "Stipules": "appendages on
+each side."</p>
+
+<p>The index reference to page 37 for "Suffruticose" doesn't seem to make
+sense, but was left as is.</p>
+
+<p>The index reference for "Trigynous" should probably be 105, rather
+than 116, but was not changed.</p>
+
+<p>The index reference for "Unequally Pinnate" should probably be 58,
+rather than 65, but was not changed.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</pre>
+
+</body>
+</html>
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